Inclusion in Action [6 ed.] 0170376176, 9780170376174

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Inclusion in Action 6th Edition Iva Strnadová Michael Arthur-Kelly Phil Foreman

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Brief contents PART A: INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

1

1

Introducing inclusion in education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2

Legislation and policies supporting inclusive practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3

Practising inclusion in diverse school communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

PART B: INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES 134 4

Curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

5

Planning effective teaching strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

6

Encouraging positive interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

7

Transitions, self-determination and twenty-first-century skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

PART C: STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT INCLUSIVE TEACHING 317 8

Developing communication skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

9

Understanding and supporting literacy competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

10 Understanding and supporting numeracy competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

PART D: INCLUSION ACROSS THE SCHOOL YEARS

443

11 Inclusion in early childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 12 Inclusion in primary schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 13 Secondary school inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

v

Contents Guide to the text................................................x Guide to the online resources.......................xiv Preface.............................................................xvi About the authors........................................xviii Acknowledgements......................................xxiii Standards mapping grid..............................xxiv

PART A: INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

1

1

2

Introducing inclusion in education

Iva Strnadová and Phil Foreman Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 2 1.1  Principles underlying inclusion................................................................................................ 5 1.2  What is a disability?..................................................................................................................13 1.3  Other forms of diversity..........................................................................................................17 1.4  Terminology and concepts related to inclusion...................................................................18 1.5  Language about diversity........................................................................................................23 1.6  Inclusion in schools: models of schooling for students with a disability..........................29 1.7  Overview of approaches to teaching students with additional needs in       regular classes..........................................................................................................................36 1.8  Diversity across the life-span..................................................................................................39 1.9  Myths and facts about disability and diversity.....................................................................41 1.10 The future of inclusion............................................................................................................43

2

Legislation and policies supporting inclusive practice

52

Michael Arthur-Kelly and Phil Foreman Introduction.......................................................................................................................................52 2.1 Principles, policies and practice...............................................................................................53 2.2 Legislation in Australia and New Zealand...............................................................................54 2.3 Policy in Australia and New Zealand.......................................................................................60 2.4 International legislation and policy.........................................................................................68 2.5 The practice of inclusion...........................................................................................................72

3

Practising inclusion in diverse school communities

88

Michael Arthur-Kelly, Iva Strnadová and Martin Howes Introduction.......................................................................................................................................88 3.1 Embracing inclusion..................................................................................................................91 3.2 Negotiating inclusion.................................................................................................................93 3.3 Programming for inclusion.....................................................................................................101 3.4 Resourcing inclusion................................................................................................................108 3.5 Building capacity for inclusion...............................................................................................119

vi

CONTENTS

PART B: INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES

134

4

135

Curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment adjustments

Carl Leonard and Robert Conway Introduction.....................................................................................................................................135 4.1 Concepts of teaching and the Australian curriculum..........................................................136 4.2 Learning, teaching and curriculum in inclusive education.................................................140 4.3 Needs, expectations and resistance......................................................................................150 4.4 Students with low additional education support needs in the classroom.......................159 4.5 Extensive adjustment for students with profound and/or multiple disabilities     in the classroom......................................................................................................................171 4.6 Assessment...............................................................................................................................177 4.7 Using technology in learning and teaching..........................................................................183 4.8 Staff working cooperatively on adjustments and implementation...................................185 A final reminder...............................................................................................................................189

5

Planning effective teaching strategies

196

Therese M. Cumming and Michael Arthur-Kelly Introduction.....................................................................................................................................196 5.1 Curriculum issues....................................................................................................................197 5.2 Instructional issues..................................................................................................................199 5.3 Aspects of the learning context..............................................................................................200 5.4 Designing effective teaching interventions..........................................................................205 Final thoughts..................................................................................................................................224

6

Encouraging positive interactions

237

Robert Conway and Judith Foggett Introduction.....................................................................................................................................237 6.1 Social behaviour in schools....................................................................................................238 6.2 What is social inclusion?..........................................................................................................247 6.3 Integrating behaviour and academic skills...........................................................................249 6.4 Approaches to managing behaviours in regular classes....................................................253 6.5 Developing specific behaviour plans.....................................................................................255 6.6 Student and teacher developed behaviour improvement plans.......................................259 6.7 Social skills and enhancing peer acceptance through classroom activities.....................262 6.8 Preparing teachers and students to support social inclusion............................................273 6.9 Maintaining positive interactions in the wider school context..........................................276

7

Transitions, self-determination and twenty-first-century skills

285

Iva Strnadová and Michael Wehmeyer Introduction.....................................................................................................................................285 7.1 The context for twenty-first-century transitions..................................................................286 7.2 Diversity of transitions............................................................................................................288 7.3 Promoting self-determination across the life span.............................................................291 7.4 Meaningful participation in individual learning plans/individual transition plans..........298 7.5 Self-advocacy............................................................................................................................306

vii

CONTENTS

PART C: STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT INCLUSIVE TEACHING

317

8

318

Developing communication skills

Dean Sutherland Introduction.....................................................................................................................................318 8.1 Communication and inclusion...............................................................................................320 8.2 Communication development...............................................................................................323 8.3 Teaching strategies to support communication..................................................................331 8.4 Indigenous Australian and Māori students..........................................................................334 8.5 Supporting communication learning for students with diverse needs............................337

9

Understanding and supporting literacy competence

358

Kerry Dally and Michelle Ralston Introduction.....................................................................................................................................358 9.1 Underlying processes and influences...................................................................................360 9.2 Components of successful literacy and specific teaching strategies................................364 9.3 Integrating literacy across key learning areas......................................................................391

10 Understanding and supporting numeracy competence

401

Sally Howell and Sarah Hopkins Introduction.....................................................................................................................................401 10.1 Understanding students’ learning needs...........................................................................402 10.2 Numeracy...............................................................................................................................403 10.3 Big ideas for number sense..................................................................................................407 10.4 Counting and early number.................................................................................................411 10.5 Basic facts...............................................................................................................................417 10.6 Problem-solving.....................................................................................................................421 10.7 Multi-digit arithmetic.............................................................................................................428 10.8 Supporting students with significant numeracy needs....................................................433 10.9 Extending students with advanced mathematical skills...................................................433

PART D: INCLUSION ACROSS THE SCHOOL YEARS

443

11 Inclusion in early childhood

444

Coral Kemp Introduction.....................................................................................................................................444 11.1 Supporting early childhood intervention in the home and in inclusive      community-based settings...................................................................................................445 11.2 Supporting families and carers to provide intervention within naturally      occurring home and community settings..........................................................................456 11.3 Supporting interventions in inclusive early education settings.......................................462 11.4 Early childhood transitions...................................................................................................469 11.5 Inclusive practices in the early years of school..................................................................474

viii

CONTENTS

12 Inclusion in primary schools

489

Umesh Sharma and Martin Howes Introduction.....................................................................................................................................489 Barawun Primary School................................................................................................................491 12.1   Barawun PS: Day 1, term 1, about three years ago …....................................................491 12.2   End of week 1, the first year...............................................................................................495 12.3   End of term 1, the first year...............................................................................................497 12.4   End of term 2, the first year...............................................................................................501 12.5   End of the first year.............................................................................................................504 12.6   Day 1, the second year........................................................................................................508 12.7   End of term 2, the second year..........................................................................................512 12.8   End of the second year.......................................................................................................515 12.9   Day 1, the third year............................................................................................................518 12.10 End of term 2, the third year..............................................................................................520 12.11 End of the third year...........................................................................................................523

13 Secondary school inclusion

533

Michael Davies Introduction.....................................................................................................................................533 13.1 Issues on inclusion in secondary schools...........................................................................533 13.2 Strategies for inclusion in secondary schools....................................................................540 13.3 Ten strategies for teaching for diversity.............................................................................544 13.4 Inclusion across the secondary curriculum........................................................................554 13.5 Collaborative teaching and teaming in secondary schools..............................................556 13.6 Making secondary education meaningful..........................................................................560 13.7 Transition planning................................................................................................................561 13.8 Work experience and transition from school....................................................................572 Appendix 1: Common abbreviations and shortened forms..............585 Appendix 2: Fact sheets.........................................................................587 Index.........................................................................................................588

ix

Guide to the text As you read this text you will find a number of features in every chapter to enhance your study of Inclusive education and help you understand how the theory is applied in the real world.

Standards mapping grid

BOOK FEATURES This book is designed to assist readers to achieve the Australian Professional Standards for Graduate Teachers. The following grid shows how the content of particular chapters contributes to the Standards. Professional Knowledge Standards 1.

Know students and how they learn

1.1

Physical, social and intellectual development and characteristics of students Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of physical, social and intellectual development and characteristics of students and how these may affect learning.

1.2

Understand how students learn Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of research into how students learn and the implications for teaching .

1.3

Students with diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds Demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies that are responsive to the learning strengths and needs of students from diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds.

1.4

Strategies for teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students

Chapters 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12

A Mapping grid shows how the content of the chapters relates to the Australian Professional Standards for Graduate Teachers.

1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13 8, 9, 12

Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of the impact of culture, cultural identity and linguistic background on the education of students from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander backgrounds. 1.5

Differentiate teaching to meet the specific learning needs of students across the full range of abilities Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of strategies for differentiating teaching to meet the specific learning needs of students across the full range of abilities.

1.6

Strategies to support full participation of students with disability Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of legislative requirements and teaching strategies that support participation and learning of students with disability.

2.

Know the content and how to teach it

2.1

Content and teaching strategies of the teaching area Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the concepts, substance and structure of the content and teaching strategies of the teaching area .

2.2

Content selection and organisation Organise content into an effective learning and teaching sequence.

2.3

Curriculum, assessment and reporting Use curriculum, assessment and reporting knowledge to design learning sequences and lesson plans.

2.4

Understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to promote reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians

1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11,12, 13 4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 13 4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 13 1, 8, 12

Demonstrate broad knowledge of, understanding of and respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories, cultures and languages . 2.5

Literacy and numeracy strategies

4, 8, 9, 10

Know and understand literacy and numeracy teaching strategies and their application in teaching areas . 2.6

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

CHAPTER OPENING Implement teaching strategies for usingFEATURES ICT to expand curriculum learning opportunities

3, 4, 5, 8, 12

for students.

CHAPTER

xxiv

2

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Legislation and policies supporting inclusive practice

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Michael Arthur-Kelly and Phil Foreman This chapter aims to: 2.1

Describe the development of principles and policies related to inclusive education for students with disability

2.2

Describe the important features of legislation for students with disability in the states and territories of Australia and in New Zealand

2.3

Describe the important aspects of policy in Australia and New Zealand for students with disability

2.4

Describe the important features of international legislation and policies for students with disability

2.5

Discuss the practice of inclusion, and the effect groups can have on educational policy.

Introduction

Including diverse students with disability in the regular classroom requires some specific practices on the part of teachers and their colleagues. Later chapters in this book provide examples of ways in which teachers can support a diversity of students in the regular classroom. For example, to meaningfully include students with additional needs, teachers must develop an understanding of the strengths and support needs of the students, and must make relevant adjustments or changes to the learning environment to assist these students.

x

At both the private and the professional level, teachers’ day-to-day practice is a reflection of their beliefs, their obligation to follow the law, and the requirements associated with organisations such as the workplace and educational institutions. In a school environment, the behaviour and practice of teachers is influenced by their training and their personal beliefs, by legislation, and by organisational policy. An awareness of the relationships between principles, laws, policies and practices is important in the context of this book. One of the aims of the book is to provide practical advice about how to support students with a diversity of additional needs in the regular classroom. Consequently, the way these students are supported (the practice) will be influenced by attitudes and beliefs (the principles) and by laws and organisational guidelines (the legislation and policies). In turn, how well we do at the practice will

Identify the key concepts you will engage with through the Learning objectives at the start of each chapter.

Refer to the Introduction for a contextualised summary of the chapter.

GUIDE TO THE TEXT

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS CHAPTER 9 Understanding and sUpporting literacy competence

Narratives from parents, students, teachers and other professionals link the theory to real-life situations.

NARRATIVE 9.3 Response to intervention: Tier 3, spelling ‘Matthew’ is currently in Year Three and has moderate bilateral sensorineural hearing loss. Through observation in classroom activities, in addition to the Oral and Written Language Scales assessment, it was noted that Matthew was below same-age peers in recognition and understanding of suffixes. Matthew tends to mishear the ends of words and finds understanding and applying verb tense challenging. Tier 3 intervention involved Matthew being engaged in oneon-one follow-up activities to extend and consolidate skills in understanding basic suffixes. A past and present verb tense focus incorporated simple errors from Matthew’s writing such as walk, walked, walking and help, helped, helping. Matthew worked with the teacher to visually and aurally identify the -ed and -ing suffixes. Matthew and the teacher worked together using a basic, custom-designed graphic organiser (see Figure 9.24) to focus explicitly on the two base word and suffix combinations. This supported Matthew to hear the base words and morphemes used in context and also see them visually within written text, leading to further discussion of related word families to enable Matthew to recognise common patterns. Amanda Boelen Given that writing is a less preferred area of study for Matthew, the session included online interactive games from Vocabulary Spelling City (Learning City, n.d.) and self-constructed word lists and associated games were used, targeting the suffixes in focus. Following this, flip books (Cecil et al., 2017) were createdCHAPTER for further 6 EncouragIng PosItIvE IntEractIons

(see Buckskin, 2009; Edwards-GrovesSuffixes: & Murray, 2008). Many Present and Past Tensestudents have been shown to have growing resentment towards schooling (Schwab, 2012) and some disengage from the education Walking I like walking to school. system entirely.

Walk of productive and engaged behaviour is, as for gifted students, A key to the development ensuring that the curriculum is engagingWalked and at the level appropriate to the individual’s I walked home from school. current learning capabilities. In some cases, this requires a rethinking of curriculum content to incorporate Indigenous values and culture. This can be accomplished through ongoing professional development on Indigenous teaching which develops stronger teacher ‘confidence PART C STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT INCLUSIVE TEACHING about classroom management of Indigenous students’ (Craven & Han, 2014). It also means that schools need to be aware that removal of students from mainstream schools to specialist settings Evidence-based practice reflects the ‘persistent failure of Australian9.1 education systems to engage, support and understand EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE Indigenous students’ (Graham, 2012, p. 173).

NEW boxes contain practical examples, teaching tips, and other materials that illustrate practical approaches to teaching and that assist in good inclusive practice.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students

Developing vocabulary through shared book reading FIGURE 9.24 Suffixes: present and past tense

1 Drawfrom attention to wordsdiverse which children may not know and provide child-friendly Students culturally backgrounds source: amanda Boelen

definitions for these words as the story is being read:sets e.g.of ‘a challenges snore is a loud sound Students from diverse cultural backgrounds have differing in mainstream thatsettings. some people animals make when when they are sleeping’. Point to illustrations CHAPTER 4students CurriCulum, leArninG, teAChinG And Assessment Adjustments classroom This or is most common EAL/D are taught in a monolingual 389 representing the words if they are available or model actions like snoring and ask classroom where mainstream teachers have not yet incorporated the learning needs of these children to join in. professional learning community in thepractices school is (Dobinson seen by Deppeler (2012) as a In way staff students into their classroom learning & Buchori, 2016). thefor case ofto 2 Have with have children about newteachers words and askinquestions relating the collaborate asconversations an inclusive school rather have work isolation. Like so to many refugees, data show that many hadthan seriously disrupted educational experiences and BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp09.indd 389 20/08/21 5:02 PM new word, e.g. Have you heard someone snoring? strategies that for increased involvement of students with disability in the classroom, hence may notexist be aware of expectations of schools and classrooms in Australian educational 3 Re-read books several times to provide multiple exposures to the new words and teachers support from the school executive, skillslack to make strategies the in a settings need (Strauss & Smedley, 2009). Hence, they may basicthe skills such as work, how toand behave gradually buildthey children’s understanding ofthis the being new words andon the story. ability to choose who work with than imposed them. structured mainstream classroom. Anrather additional challenge is working with the students’ homes 4 Engage children in retelling the story and discussing how the new words and concepts where English may not be used. relate to their own experiences.

For some students there may be a clash between the cultures and values of the home and the 5 Integrate new words from book readings into other activities during the day. cultures and values of the school. This can add to student frustration and hence disengagement source: adapted from snell et al. (2015) with learning and the use of unproductive behaviours in the absence of other appropriate ways to assistance. Aseek good way to summarise what has been presented in this chapter is to recognise that among the The evidence-based practices in can Evidence-based practice in 9.2an are for olderclass readers and are many ways students with disability be active participants inclusive is through ON THIS adaptedREFLECT from the explicit vocabulary instruction steps described by Beach et al. (2015), Swanson teachers: (2017) and Coyne and Koriakin (2017). Readers are also referred to Elleman et al.’s (2019) •et al. modifying expectations Using AITSL Graduate Standard 4.1 (Support student participation: Identify strategies to recommendations of evidence-based practices for vocabulary instruction and Hougen’s (2014) • providing supports and adjustments support inclusive student participation and engagement in classroom activities), reflect suggestions for teaching vocabulary at the three RTI levels. • embedding basic skills and individual planning (IEP) goals into classroom routines on what activities in a classroom may education increase engagement of the diversity of students in

A final reminder

Reflect on this reminders prompt you to critically analyse important concepts and reflect on your own experiences and beliefs about the processes of learning and teaching. Meet real teachers in the A teacher reflects feature, and gain insights into how inclusive practices inform their day-today teaching.

• • •

Students for whom English is an additional language or dialect

the classroom and those activities that in may have the opposite Comelearning back to your ensuring that all students are engaged meaningful academiceffect. and social EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 9.2 reflections at the end of the chapter and see whether these have changed. experiences

Vocabulary instruction forand older readers embracing evidence-based practices approaches to teaching and learning

using the principles of Universal Learning (UDL) consider to synthesise the above 1 Select words to teach directly:Design beforefor teaching a lesson, the purpose of processes. the

lesson and select target words. Target words should have high academic utility: that is, Home factors A TEACHER REFLECTS

they are words that students are not likely to encounter essential Students come to school with a set of values and attitudes thatindirectly, cannot bebut leftare at the schooltogate. topic and study orplay will an be important useful across Familyunderstand perceptionsthe of school andconcepts the valueunder of schooling rolecontent both in areas, a student’s Cloe, first year secondary social sciences teacher, rural South Australia e.g. clarify, investigate. attitude to school and its management practices, and in the degree of support that teachers Introduce words definitions: Definitions should bebehaviour short teaching in aand rural schoolstudent-friendly that was fairly isolated, which was While a shock for an urban canI2started expect from the home inprovide promoting school management practices. school andcannot easyme! toberemember and accompanied synonyms. provide acan gistexacerbate of the dweller like I found that I had a number ofby students withSynonyms disability in my classes and problems directly attributed to family factors, a number of home issues meaning and help with recall, e.g. expand: getatbigger. wasword having difficulty all their needs once. The learning and marital support school problems. These meeting include the typeadditional of additional need, single-parent families, teacher the schoolopportunities offered to and assist me in planning preparing lessons. She didn’t 3 Provide multiple todisturbed interact with theand word: If the target word is in a discord, lowatsocioeconomic status child–parent relationships. offer to prepare for me, the butword to work alongside adviceintroducing and some a current text, them then explain in the contextme of to theprovide topic. When

Particularly in the case of students with mental health needs, there is a clear link between examples. even offered to come itinto room, ifand I was comfortable with that, to share generalShe academic word, present in athe sentence explain what it means in that their mental health needs and the home situation. The National Health and Wellbeing Survey a lesson or two where additional we would team-teach partstudents of a topic. She also suggested sentence. Provide sentences, and discuss how the wordsome is used and (see Sawyer, 2009) conducted across Australia found that approximately 14 per cent of all changes assessment and reporting for one student who had high support needs. I learnt what in it means in different contexts. more from being supported would have done she hadstudents simply taken over the 4 Engage students in wordthan play:I Ask questions thatifrequire to make decisions planning sent a learning assistant into the I maintained responsibility and aboutor the target word’s support meaning, e.g. If I blow intoroom. a balloon will it expand or contract? the support sentence teacher did just that – supported me.with sentence frames where students 5 Provide writing opportunities: Start

substitute a target word for a synonym or complete cloze sentences by choosing appropriate target words. Progress to sentence generation and composing longer texts using a range of target words in authentic contexts.

BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp06.indd 243

source: adapted from Beach et al. (2015), swanson et al. (2017); coyne and Koriakin (2017)

243

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xi

GUIDE TO THE TEXT

Contemporary education environments place an emphasis on collaboration between students to support their learning. The mechanism which supports this collaboration is talking. Therefore, communication via oral language is critical for cognitive development and learning (Gillies, 2014). Children also learn about themselves through the ways in which others communicate with them. This places considerable responsibility on parents/caregivers and teachers to consider how they communicate with – and about – children. For teachers, particularly, it is important to reflect on the language used when talking about children. It is also important to reflect on the words and style of communication used when speaking with children. The manner in which adults communicate with each other and children in preschools and classrooms is critical to inclusive education. Consider the following versions of an exchange between two teachers discussing a student’s behaviour.

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS Example 1

Teacher A: ‘Scott had another one of his meltdowns this morning. Then the whole session went pear-shaped’. Teacher B: ‘Oh no, you poor thing – that is so frustrating. He has got some real behaviour issues going on.’

Guided example boxes help you contextualise theory by providing immediate examples alongside learning concepts.

Teacher A: ‘It seems every time I try to get him involved in a group activity, he just loses it. I’m sure some of it is just to get under my skin!’ Teacher B:  Yeah, he’s got to learn how to get on with others.’ Teacher A:  I know, and I am going to make sure that he does!’

320

PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES

negative reinforcement This occurs when a behaviour allows the person BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp08.indd 320to escape from something that they would otherwise find aversive and to avoid an unwanted consequence.

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From a social skills perspective, students who display these behaviours are considered to have interfering problem behaviours (Gresham, 2017). Gresham sees these as being in three categories: •

social skills acquisition deficits – they do not have appropriate skills in their repertoire

•

social skills fluency deficits – they use the behaviour in the setting in which it is reinforced but fail to use it in other situations.

•

ICONS

Important Key terms are marked in bold in the text and defined in the margin when they are used for the first time.

In behavioural terms, both are negatively reinforced by the teacher reactions. By the student displaying the behaviour and the subsequent teacher actions, the teacher is negatively reinforced by having peace in the room and the student out of the room. The student is negatively reinforced by getting out of the work and the room. Importantly, the student has communicated that the work is beyond her ability, and this should be noted by the teacher, particularly if the student does not have the skill to communicate frustrations in other ways.

social skills performance deficits – they have the behaviour and either choose not to use the behaviour, or do not realise that they need to use the skill

The issues of social skills will be discussed further later in the chapter as they are critical in ensuring the social inclusion of all students, particularly those with disabilities.

Types of behaviours causing concern Fact sheet icons in the margins indicate where additional background information is Teachers want to spend most of their time focusing on student learning rather than student behaviour. In order for this to happen, teachers want students to: available on common forms of diversity. When you see this icon, ask your instructor for • start on time • prepare for thefact lesson sheet that relates to that topic. access to the •

attend to what the teacher says

• comply with teacher directions ACARA (AC) icons indicate material from the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and • strive to finish assigned tasks to the highest possible standard Reporting Authority, ACARA. • collaborate constructively with other students when required, and

• work PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND without LEARNINGdisturbing PRACTICES others when required (Angus et al., 2009, p. 5).

Angus et al. (2009) were studying teachers in Western Australia and their concerns about PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES student behaviour and classroom learning at Years 2, 4, 6 and 8 (first year of secondary in

WA), and particularly in lower socioeconomic areas. They found that the behaviour of most Summary concern to teachers was inattention, with over 20 per cent of students identified as inattentive. This chapter has focused on the role of the regular national and jurisdictional curricula that Summary END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES STUDY Unmotivated behaviour was more commonly reported in secondary than primary classes. heavily influence mainstream classroom teaching. The approach has been to examine ways in This chapter has the focused on the rolestudents of the regular and jurisdictional curricula that Importantly, unmotivated werenational not aggressive in their behaviour; they simply STUDY which the curriculum can be adjusted to meet the requirements of students with disability, rather TOOLS heavily influence mainstream classroom teaching. The approach has to examine ways inproductive diddeveloping not engage in learning. Aggressive was farexacerbate lessbeen common than either than discrete curricula or teachingbehaviour models that may differences rather than which the curriculum can be adjusted to meet the requirements of students with disability, rather TOOLS or unmotivated behaviour at in allthe levels. et al.that used thebeen terms ‘productive’, enhance inclusion for all students class.Angus Strategies have examined include‘disengaged’, the

developing discrete curricula or teaching models that may exacerbate differences rather than At the end ofthan each chapter you will find tools to help ‘uncooperative’, and teaching ‘low-level disruptive’. Interestingly, only 40 per cent ofthrough students seen you to review, practise and extend adjustment of individual materials through adjustingseveral their readability and thewere enhance inclusion for all students in the class. Strategies that have been examined include the asofconsistently 20 perthat centare consistently unproductive the remainder inclusion language andproductive, reading activities appropriate to the students’and instructional levels.fluctuated adjustment of individual teaching materials through adjusting their readability and through the your knowledge ofusingyear the key learning objectives. The difficulties of text-based materials and the challenges of suitable alternatives havecontent of from school to school year. This attributed tofinding thestudents’ setting and the typeslevels. and inclusion of language and reading activities thatwas are appropriate to the instructional PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES

been acknowledged, considering the heavy reliance placed on them, particularly by secondary teachers. instruction. The difficulties of using text-based materials and the challenges of finding suitable alternatives have The rapid expansion of alternative materials through technological sources, such as the internet, is been acknowledged, considering the heavy reliance placed on them, particularly by secondary teachers. expanding options, but these still need adjustments in many cases for students with disability. The rapid expansion of alternative materials through technological sources, such as the internet, is The development ofbut units of work to provide a more selective amount content, coupled with focused expanding options, these still need adjustments in many cases forof students with disability. Inchapter ahas study ofsuggested student behaviours Australian schools, Sullivan et al. (2012, 2014) also This has focused on role of in theSouth regular national and jurisdictional curricula that vocabulary been asthe an appropriate approach for mainstreamed classes. While such an The development of unproductive units of work tobehaviours provide a more selective amount of content, with focused heavily influence mainstream Theinvolvement approach has been tocoupled examine ways found that of concern to teachers were largely low-level disengaged approach is time-consuming for theclassroom individualteaching. teacher, the of groups of teachers andin whole vocabulary has been suggested as an appropriate approach for mainstreamed classes. While suchrather an which curriculum can be adjusted to requirements ofschoolwork students disability, behaviours, including being formeet class, avoiding and disengaging faculties canthe reduce the burden on eachlate teacher andthe increase thedoing array of adjustedwith materials for later from approach isdeveloping time-consuming for the individual teacher, the involvement of groups of teachers and whole than discrete curricula or teaching models that may exacerbate differences than classroom activities. Other unproductive behaviours included low-level disruptive behaviours use. Adjusted curriculum presentation has the potential to increase student involvement andrather reduce faculties can reduce the for burden on eachin teacher andStrategies increase the array of adjusted materials for later enhance inclusion all students thelesson, class. that have include the noises. disruptive behaviour through teaching the student instructional such as disrupting the flow ofatthe talking out oflevel. turnbeen and examined making distracting use. Adjusted curriculum presentation the potential toadjusting increase student involvement reduce adjustment of individual teachinghas materials through their readability and and through the Aggressive/antisocial behaviours such as verbally abusing other students, spreading rumours The more specific adjustmentsteaching and modifications required for students with high support needs disruptive behaviour at thethat student instructional level. inclusion of languagethrough and reading activities are appropriate to the students’ instructional levels. andaexcluding peers were very uncommon for allThis teachers. Hence, all years of schooling necessitate greater level of support for classroom teachers. is perhaps bestacross undertaken through The more specific and materials modifications required for students with high support needs have difficulties of adjustments using text-based and the challenges of finding suitable alternatives collaborative planning with specialist teachers to ensure maximum participation in classroom learning necessitate a greater considering level of support for classroom is perhaps best by undertaken through been acknowledged, the heavy relianceteachers. placed onThis them, particularly secondary teachers. and assessment and the possible use of teacher’s assistants to supervise learning activities in the class. collaborative planning specialist teachers to ensure maximum sources, participation in classroom learning 240 The rapid expansion ofwith alternative materials through technological such as the internet, is Finally, it isoptions, important for the still executive and staff assistants to support acases coordinated approach to learning and and assessment andbut the possible use ofadjustments teacher’s supervise learning activities in the class. expanding these need in manyto for students with disability. teaching adjustments. The following chapter will explore further the interrelated areas of social Finally, it is important for the executive and staff to support coordinated approach to learning and The development of units of work to provide a more selectivea amount of content, coupled with focused integration and management of the inclusive classroom. teaching adjustments. The following will approach explore further the interrelated areasWhile of social vocabulary has been suggested as an chapter appropriate for mainstreamed classes. such an BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp06.indd integration and managementfor of the individual inclusive classroom. approach is 240 time-consuming teacher, the involvement of groups of teachers and whole

STUDY TOOLS

Review your understanding of the key chapter topics with the Summary.

Unproductive behaviours Summary

Discussion questions Discussion questions

faculties can reduce the burden on each teacher and increase the array of adjusted materials for later use. Adjusted curriculum presentation the potential to increasesession studenton involvement and reduce 1 What topics would you include in a has half-day staff development adjusting curriculum, disruptive behaviour teachingfor at the student instructional learning, teachingthrough and assessment students with disability inlevel. your mainstream school? 1 What topics would you include in a half-day staff development session on adjusting curriculum, The more specific adjustments and modifications required for students with high support needs 2 learning, How can you makeand assessment tasks all students class? teaching assessment forrelevant studentsfor with disabilityininthe your mainstream school? necessitate greater level of support for classroom teachers.supports This is perhaps best undertaken through 3 areayou the types of curriculum, learning andfor teaching required 2 What How can make assessment tasks relevant all students in the class? for students with high collaborative planning with specialist teachers to ensure maximum participation in classroom learning support needs and how can they be provided? 3 What are theand types curriculum, learning and teaching to supports required for activities students with high and assessment theofpossible use of teacher’s assistants supervise learning in the class. support needs and how can they be provided? Finally, it is important for the executive and staff to support a coordinated approach to learning and teaching adjustments. The following chapter will explore further the interrelated areas of social 1 Take a topic your teaching areainclusive and identify the ‘must know’ content and the vocabulary that integration and in management of the classroom. should be placed in each of the three categories. Compare your results with those of a colleague. 1 Take a topic in your teaching area and identify the ‘must know’ content and the vocabulary that 2 should Take anbe existing and adjust it for use byyour students with anthose instructional level at placed teaching in each ofmaterial the three categories. Compare results with of a colleague. least three grades above or below the grade level for which the teaching material was originally 2 Take an existing teaching material and adjust it for use by students with an instructional level at 1 designed. What topics would you include in a half-day staff development session on adjusting curriculum, least three grades above or below the grade level for which the teaching material was originally learning, teaching assessment for students mainstream school? 3 designed. Draw a map of yourand classroom, including seatingwith plan,disability position in ofyour resources – especially technology CHAPTER 4 studY tOOls 2 that How supports can you make assessment tasks relevant for all students in the class?of students with the learning of students with additional needs, and location 3 Draw a map of your classroom, including seating plan, position of resources – especially technology andtypes their specific learning needs. and Track where you moverequired within the of most lessons. 3 disability What are the of curriculum, learning teaching supports forcourse students with high that supports the learning of students with additional needs, and location of students with How does yourand utilisation space to meet diverse student needs? Does your classroom space support needs how canofthey behelp provided? disability and their specific learning needs. Track where you move within the course of most lessons. encourage diverse students to learn together, allow for targeted grouping of students within lesson How does your utilisation of space help to meet diverse student needs? Does your classroom space structures, etc.? diverse to learn for targeted grouping of students 1 As aencourage small group, take students a curriculum topictogether, and workallow through the process of identifying thewithin criticallesson etc.? curriculum content, adjusting thearea vocabulary and then developing series of sample teaching materials 1 structures, Take a topic in your teaching and identify the ‘must know’acontent and the vocabulary that

Individual activities Individual activities

Discussion questions

Group activities Individual activities 190 190

for the topicbethat demonstrate of adjusting curriculum, reduced vocabulary and should placed in each ofthe theimportance three categories. Compare your results with those of a colleague. appropriate presentation styles. Also prepare an adapted assessment task foran the same topic. Share 2 Take an existing teaching material and adjust it for use by students with instructional level atthe outcomes withgrades other groups in below the same different areas. least three above or theor grade level curriculum for which the teaching material was originally

2 Have each member of the group examine a different technological approach to supporting students designed. classroom (e.g. digital books, iPad applications, and Write Gold). Discuss your 3 Draw a map ofthe your classroom, including seating plan, position ofRead resources – especially technology findings with the group and how they could be used in the needs, classroom. the learning of students with additional and location of students with

BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd 190in with disability

BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd 190 that supports

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3 Discuss and identify adjustments required for students withyou special needs, those areofgifted disability and their specific learning needs. Track where move within the who course most lessons. andHow talented those with an background. Share the outcomes andDoes consider how these space doesand your utilisation ofEAL/D space help to meet diverse student needs? your classroom differing needsdiverse can be students met in anto inclusive classroom. ACARA’s Illustrations of of Practice (https://www. encourage learn together, allow for targeted grouping students within lesson australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/illustrations-of-practice/) include documents structures, etc.? (e.g. unit overviews) showing the teaching adjustments made within the video samples. Use these as a comparison to your own approach. Consider how your future planning might best meet individual learning needs within a positive, inclusive climate. 4 Examine and critique ACARA’s CASE Content – Abilities – Standards – Evaluation Planning Pathway (https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/planning-for-student-diversity/ steps-to-personalise-learning-case/)

BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd 190

Test your knowledge and consolidate your learning through the Discussion questions, Individual activities, and Group activities.

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appropriate presentation styles. Also prepare an adapted assessment task for the same topic. Share the outcomes with other groups in the same or different curriculum areas.

2 Have each member of the group examine a different technological approach to supporting students with disability in the classroom (e.g. digital books, iPad applications, Read and Write Gold). Discuss your findings with the group and how they could be used in the classroom.

GUIDE TO THE TEXT

3 Discuss and identify adjustments required for students with special needs, those who are gifted and talented and those with an EAL/D background. Share the outcomes and consider how these differing needs can be met in an inclusive classroom. ACARA’s Illustrations of Practice (https://www. australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/illustrations-of-practice/) include documents (e.g. unit overviews) showing the teaching adjustments made within the video samples. Use these as a comparison to your own approach. Consider how your future planning might best meet individual learning needs within a positive, inclusive climate.

END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES

4 Examine and critique ACARA’s CASE Content – Abilities – Standards – Evaluation Planning Pathway

(https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/planning-for-student-diversity/ PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES steps-to-personalise-learning-case/)

Discover high-quality online educational resources to support your study in education with the Weblinks lists.

Weblinks

Paula Kluth - toward inclusive classrooms and communities blog. Rewriting History, and Nine Other Ways to Adapt Textbooks: https://www.paulakluth.com/readings/differentiating-instruction/rewriting-history-andACARA (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority website – Student Diversity section nine-other-ways-to-adapt-textbooks (includes illustrations of practice) https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/

Positive Partnerships on Autism Spectrum Disorder for and school leaders http://www.positivepartnerships. AFIRM (Autism Focused Intervention Resources andteachers Modules) https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/afirm-modules com.au/ AITSL (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership) https://www.aitsl.edu.au/research/ Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority. IEP: Annotated Sample https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/ spotlight/inclusive-education-teaching-students-with-disability downloads/p_10/qklg_pd_iep_annoted_samp.pdf ASDAN Education for alternative UK curriculum programs http://www.asdan.org.uk/ Spectronics – for students with learning difficulties who struggle with reading and writing but are interested Center for Applied Special Technology http://www.cast.org in technology; it includes an activity exchange for Clicker 4 and Clicker 5, Boardmaker, etc. http://www. English as an Additional Language or Dialect Teacher Resource. https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/EALD_ spectronics.com.au/ Resource_-_EALD_Learning_Progression.pdf TIC Talks is an audio podcast that can be listened to on a variety of devices. It focuses on human rights issues, IES – What Works Clearing House: https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/ inclusion, and sport https://itunes.apple.com/au/podcast/tic-talks-all-about-sport/id738247927?mt=2 Microsoft alternative pointers add a range of cursor styles, larger icons, the use of inverted colour and leftVCAA: The Victorian Curriculum http://victoriancurriculum.vcaa.vic.edu.au/ handed mouses, to the Windows system http://www.microsoft.com

Extend your understanding with the suggested Recommended reading and extensive References relevant to each chapter.

National Assessment Program: Disability Adjustment Scenarios https://www.nap.edu.au/naplan/school-

Recommended reading support/adjustments-for-students-with-disability/disability-adjustments-scenarios

Boyle, & Topping,Consistent K. (2012). What worksof in Data inclusion? Kuhl, S.,with Pagliano, P., & Boon, H. (2015). ‘In the too hard NCCDC., (Nationally Collection on School Students Disability) https://www.nccd.edu.au/ Berkshire: Open University Press. basket’: issues faced by 20 rural Australian teachers NESA, Collaborative curriculum planning https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/ when students with disabilities are included in their Carson, K., & Walker, P. (2015). The Australian Curriculum: diversity-in-learning/special-education/collaborative-curriculum-planning secondary classes. International Journal of Inclusive Assessment practices for diverse learners. In H. AskellEducation, 19, 697–709. NESA, Life Skills https://edvucationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/diversity-in-learning/ Williams. Transforming the future of learning with

special-education educational research (pp. 167–187). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

References

Abell, M. M., Bauder, D. K., & Simmons, T. J. (2005). Access to the general curriculum: a curriculum and instructional perspective for educators. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41, 82–86.

BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd ACARA (n.d.) CASE191 Planning Pathway. Retrieved from

https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/ student-diversity/planning-for-student-diversity/stepsto-personalise-learning-case/

ACARA (n.d.). Students with disability – illustrations of personalised learning. Retrieved from https://www. australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/studentdiversity/

ACARA (n.d.). Teaching resources for students from EAL/D backgrounds https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/EALD_ Learning_Progression_revised_February_2014.pdf ACARA (2012). The shape of the Australian Curriculum: health and physical education. Sydney: Author.

END-OF-BOOK FEATURES

Loreman, T., Deppeler, J., & Harvey, D. (2nd edn). (2010).

Inclusive education: supporting diversity in the classroom. NESA,T.,Special Education – Year 11 – Year 12 https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/11Hehir, & Katzman, L. I. (2012). Effective inclusive schools: Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin. designing successful schoolwide programs. Indianapolis, 12/Diversity-in-learning/stage-6-special-education IN: Jossey-Bass.

ACARA (2013). Student diversity and the Australian curriculum: advice for principals, schools and teachers. Melbourne: Author.

ACT Department of Education and Training (2013). Every chance to learn: curriculum framework for ACT schools preschool to year 10. Canberra: Author. https:// portfolio.canberra.edu.au/artefact/file/download. php?file=176673&view=46411 Alchin, G. (2014). Is reasonable adjustment a deficit ideology? Special Education Perspectives, 23, 3–6.

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Armstrong, F. (2007). Disability, education, and space. In K. N. Gulson & D. C. Symes (Eds), Spatial theories in education: policy and geography matters (pp. 96–100). New York, NY: Routledge. Arthur-Kelly, M. (2017). Calibrating Professional Learning Approaches for Teachers in Inclusive Classrooms in the Context of Implementation. Science Oxford Research Encyclopaedia of Education. https://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/ acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore9780190264093-e-150

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At the back of the book you will find appendices of common abbreviations and shortened forms, and one comprising a full list of fact sheets. BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd 192

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Guide to the online resources FOR THE INSTRUCTOR Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources that will help you to prepare your lectures and assessments, when you choose this textbook for your course. Log in or request an account to access instructor resources at au.cengage.com/instructor/account for Australia or nz.cengage.com/instructor/account for New Zealand. MINDTAP Premium online teaching and learning tools are available on the MindTap platform – the personalised eLearning solution. MindTap is a flexible and easy-to-use platform that helps build student confidence and gives you a clear picture of their progress. We partner with you to ease the transition to digital – we’re with you every step of the way. The Cengage Mobile App puts your course directly into students’ hands with course materials available on their smartphone or tablet. Students can read on the go, complete practice quizzes or participate in interactive real-time activities. MindTap for Strnadová’s Inclusion in Action is full of innovative resources to support critical thinking, and help your students move from memorisation to mastery! Includes: • Inclusion in Action 6th edition eBook • Classroom videos • Revision quizzes • And more

MindTap is a premium purchasable eLearning tool. Contact your Cengage learning consultant to find out how MindTap can transform your course.

INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE The Instructor’s guide includes: • • • • •

Learning objectives Key points Suggested responses to Narrative discussion questions and Reflect on this activities Solutions to end-of-chapter activities Chapter video with questions and activities

COGNERO® TEST BANK A bank of questions has been developed in conjunction with the text for creating quizzes, tests and exams for your students. Create multiple test versions in an instant and deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want using Cognero. Cognero test generator is a flexible online system that allows you to import, edit, and manipulate content from the text’s test bank or elsewhere, including your own favourite test questions.

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GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES

POWERPOINT™ PRESENTATIONS Use the chapter-by-chapter PowerPoint slides to enhance your lecture presentations and handouts by reinforcing the key principles of your subject.

ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT Add the digital files of graphs, tables, pictures and flow charts into your learning management system, use them in student handouts, or copy them into your lecture presentations.

FOR THE STUDENT MINDTAP MindTap is the next-level online learning tool that helps you get better grades! MindTap gives you the resources you need to study – all in one place and available when you need them. In the MindTap Reader, you can make notes, highlight text and even find a definition directly from the page. If your instructor has chosen MindTap for your subject this semester, log in to MindTap to: • Get better grades • Save time and get organised • Connect with your instructor and peers • Study when and where you want, online and mobile • Complete assessment tasks as set by your instructor When your instructor creates a course using MindTap, they will let you know your course link so you can access the content. Please purchase MindTap only when directed by your instructor. Course length is set by your instructor.

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Preface The focus of this book is on how schools can become inclusive communities, providing optimal learning environments for a wide diversity of students. The editors and chapter authors have a strong view that the basis for inclusive education is good teaching. For this reason, much of this book is about teaching rather than about differences or disability. If all teachers focus on the needs of the individual students in their classes, inclusive educational processes will follow. The concepts presented are about processes such as adapting curriculum to meet individual needs, planning teaching strategies, using evidence-based practices, applying whole-school approaches, encouraging positive interactions, ensuring smooth transitions and working collaboratively. These concepts are as applicable in regular education as they are in ‘special’ education, and they apply to students with a wide range of abilities (or disabilities). The book therefore focuses on the diversity of students attending regular schools, and the strategies that can be used to optimise the educational experiences of all students. As a result, the various chapters in this book include reference to Indigenous students, students for whom English is an additional language or dialect (EAL/D students), gifted and talented students, and students with a range of additional education support needs.

The approach in this book does not generally attempt to link particular teaching strategies to particular forms of disability or diversity. It is wrong to assume that identification of a disability or additional need will indicate the type of teaching approach to be taken. For example, knowing that a student has Down syndrome or cerebral palsy or spina bifida or is gifted and talented does not tell us much about the teaching approach we need to take for that student. In some situations, particular approaches have proven useful. For example, there are some specific suggestions in this book about teaching students who are on the autism spectrum, but even these should not be seen as a general recipe. As with any other student, we would want to assess an individual student’s current attainments, skills and strengths, and set some educational goals based on a broad-based assessment. It is also recognised that there are specialised teaching approaches for students with significant sensory disabilities (vision or hearing loss), and these are not covered specifically in this text. Teachers can access information about specific disabilities when they have a student with that disability in their class, and there are fact sheets on disability and diversity on the website. Parents are usually experts on their child’s disability or additional needs. The internet is also a source of the most up-to-date information about particular aspects of diversity, and website references are provided at the end of each chapter. However, for most students, the classroom teaching approach is determined by careful assessment of their individual educational needs. The book is divided into four parts. The first part sets the scene by providing an overview of concepts, principles, legislation and policy related to inclusion, with a focus on inclusive practices in the school. The second part examines effective teaching and learning practices, including curriculum adaptation, planning for teaching and supporting positive behaviour. The third part deals with specific difficulties in communication, literacy and numeracy, which occur in many students with a disability. The final section examines inclusive practice in three common school divisions: early childhood education, primary schooling and secondary schools transitioning into post-school options.

The book can be used as the basis for a semester-long course for undergraduate and postgraduate students. An online instructors’ manual is available which assists lecturers and tutors with end-of-chapter activities and within-chapter discussion questions. There are also chapter videos and other instructor resources, and an online course website for students, provided by the publishers.

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PREFACE

We wish all readers, whether they be teachers, administrators or prospective teachers, successful experiences in their contribution to the development of inclusive classrooms and schools.

Iva Strnadová, Michael Arthur-Kelly, and Phil Foreman, 2021

Note on terminology We respectfully acknowledge that there are differences in the ways people talk about disability. Some people with disability prefer person-first language, which emphasises the principle of people first, disability second (e.g., a student with intellectual disability). Others prefer identityfirst language (e.g., autistic student). In this book we use person-first language, which reflects the predominant usage in the Australian and international context, and aligns with the editors’ philosophy. However, respectful of the voices of many autistic people who believe that autism makes them who they are, and is therefore a critical part of their identity, we use the term ‘student on the autism spectrum’, which has been recognised in the latest research (Bury et al., 2020) as one of the more acceptable terms for this community. Reference:

Bury, S. M., Jellett, R., Spoor, J. R., & Hedley, D. (2020). ‘It Defines Who I Am’ or ‘It’s Something I Have’: What Language Do [Autistic] Australian Adults [on the Autism Spectrum] Prefer? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04425-3

New to this edition This new edition brings exciting changes. First of all, there is a stronger emphasis on Universal Design for Learning (UDL), Response to Intervention (RTI), and evidence-based practices (EBPs) as themes woven throughout the book. Furthermore, we have introduced a new chapter, authored by Professor Iva Strnadová and Professor Michael Wehmeyer: Chapter 7, ‘Transitions, selfdetermination and twenty-first-century skills’. This chapter details critical transitions between early childhood education, primary and secondary schooling and developing self-determination and self-advocacy in children.

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About the authors Dedication ROBERT CONWAY died in early 2020 after a short period of illness. The Editors and Contributors of this edition wish to pay tribute to his huge contribution to the field of special and inclusive education, and extend their condolences to his family. Bob, as he was affectionately known, was an Emeritus Professor at Flinders University where he served as Dean of Education from 2007 to 2012. Prior to this role he was a leader in special education at The University of Newcastle, playing several roles including Director of the Special Education Centre, with a background as a teacher in both mainstream and special education. His main research centred on the area of students with behaviour problems in both mainstream and specialist settings. He worked with education systems to improve the management of students with behaviour problems, particularly in the ways in which student management, learning and teaching could be addressed concurrently. He also had a strong interest in the inclusion of students with a range of learning needs in mainstream education and the ways in which schools and education systems can become more inclusive by meeting the needs of all students. He was a member of the Australian Government’s former Schools and Disability Advisory Council. Bob is greatly missed by all those who knew him, and his legacy in the field is substantial.

Editors IVA STRNADOVÁ is Professor in Special Education and Disability Studies at the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. Her research aims to contribute to better understanding and the improvement of the life experiences of people with disabilities. Combining research with advocacy is essential in her research program, which builds on supporting the self-determination (including self-advocacy) of people with intellectual disabilities, and is grounded in an innovative inclusive research approach, in which people with intellectual disabilities are included in the role of researcher. She has a particular research interest in the wellbeing of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities and their families over the life span, diverse transitions in lives of people with disabilities (particularly intellectual disabilities and autism); girls and women with intellectual disabilities; parents with intellectual disabilities; inclusive research; issues relevant to people with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities; and approaches giving voice to people with intellectual disabilities (e.g., Photovoice, body mapping).

MICHAEL ARTHUR-KELLY moved into teacher education following a range of teaching experiences in special and regular schools, working first at Charles Sturt University and then at The University of Newcastle. He is currently a Conjoint Professor in the School of Education at The University of Newcastle, and enjoys a balance of teaching and professional contributions to his field and projects centred on the translation of research to leading practice. Specific areas he has worked in include instructional design, professional development for teachers in behaviour and communication support, and the identification of curricular and instructional approaches to maximise engagement in students with multiple and complex additional needs.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

PHIL FOREMAN is Emeritus Professor of Education at The University of Newcastle. He was Chair of the NSW Institute of Teachers from 2007–2013, and was Professor and Dean of Education at The University of Newcastle from 2002–2008. Prior to that he was Director of the University’s Special Education Centre. He was Editor of the Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability from 1992–2002, and remains an Associate Editor. He is also an Associate Editor of the Australasian Journal of Special and Inclusive Education. He was foundation president of Newcastle & Hunter Community Access and Disability Advocacy Service Hunter. He is a Member of the Guardianship and Administrative Divisions of the NSW Civil and Administrative Tribunal. In 2013 he was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) for services to special education and to people with a disability.

Contributors THERESE M. CUMMING is a Professor of Special Education in the School of Education and Academic Lead Education at the UNSW Disability Innovation Institute. Therese is a Scientia Education Academy Fellow and has had extensive leadership experiences in learning and teaching. Her teaching and research focus on promoting the use of evidence-based practices to support the learning and behaviour of students with disabilities and the use of technology to create inclusive, accessible, and engaging learning environments. KERRY DALLY is a senior lecturer in the School of Education at the University of Newcastle. She teaches in the postgraduate program in the areas of early childhood intervention, learning difficulties, and social-emotional learning and positive behaviour support. She is a past recipient of the Australian Resource Educators Association award for excellence in research in the field of learning difficulties and the Australian Early Childhood Doctoral Thesis award. Her current research interests encompass inclusive education, student self-efficacy and wellbeing, and whole-school approaches to creating supportive learning environments. MICHAEL DAVIES (B Econ, Grad Dip Psych, M App Psych, PhD) is Associate Professor and the Program Leader in Counselling at the Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors and an Adjunct Associate Professor at Griffith University in Brisbane, where he was an academic for 30 years. Prior to academia he worked for 5 years as a Counselling Psychologist with long-term unemployed adults, those undertaking rehabilitation, and students regarding their vocational choice. Seven years working with family members of people with disabilities, and training residential staff supporting people with severe intellectual disabilities followed before becoming a lecturer. Over 30 years at Griffith University he taught counselling and interpersonal psychology among many other subject areas, especially to special education teachers in training. He was also Program Leader in Special Education at Griffith University. Since February 2017 he has led the team of academics at AIPC and teaches counselling skills and ethics in undergraduate and postgraduate courses. His research includes over 70 publications across the interconnecting themes of social skills, stress and coping, and transitions from school to post-school life and this work has been presented to many academic and practitioner communities nationally and internationally. JUDITH FOGGETT is a lecturer in the School of Education at the University of Newcastle. She program coordinates and teaches the undergraduate special education programs and is the Program Convenor for the Master of Special and Inclusive Education for both primary and secondary special education. Judith’s area of expertise is in the inclusion of students with learning and behaviour problems in regular and special school settings, emotional disturbance,

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

mental health and whole-school approaches. Judith has had extensive experience teaching in mainstream and support classes in infants, primary and secondary schools in isolated, Indigenous, rural and suburban communities. Her area of research explores links and engagement in learning through behaviour support, the professional learning of teachers and staff collaboration. SARAH HOPKINS is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education at Monash University and has many years of experience in primary and secondary teacher education. Her current research is focused on understanding and addressing students’ difficulties learning mathematics and preparing teachers for inclusive classrooms. Sarah leads a collaborative project between Monash University and Wallara (a community-based organisation) called the Keep on Learning (KoL) program. The KoL program involves pre-service mainstream teachers working with young adults with intellectual disability (students) in a literacy and numeracy tutoring program. Along with her colleagues, she has investigated the benefits of the KoL program for pre-service teachers in terms of preparing them to teach in inclusive classrooms and the benefits for students in terms of their learning outcomes and wellbeing. SALLY HOWELL has been involved in the education of students with special needs both as a teacher and special education consultant for many years. This has involved working in public, independent and Catholic schools. Sally has worked as a special education lecturer at Macquarie University Special Education Centre (MUSEC) in the areas of numeracy instruction, research methods and behaviour management. Sally is currently the Principal of MUSEC School. Sally has provided advice to the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) and the NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) regarding curriculum and assessment for students with a disability. She has expertise in assessment and programming for students with difficulties in learning, particularly in the areas of numeracy and reading. Sally has extensive experience working collaboratively with parents and schools to support students with special needs in both inclusive and specialist settings. Sally’s research focus has been on number sense as a predictor of early mathematics achievement and on schema-based instruction applied to mathematics’ problem solving. MARTIN HOWES has been teaching in both primary and high schools over the past eleven years. After graduating with honours from the University of Newcastle with a Bachelor of Teaching (Special Education)/Bachelor of Arts degree, he started his teaching career as a learning support teacher. His varied teaching experiences have included a period of relieving as an assistant principal of a support unit, a mainstream class teacher and a wellbeing teacher in primary schools, as well as a special education teacher in a high school support unit setting. He is currently an assistant principal and learning support coordinator in a primary school. His interests are in learning support for students with additional educational needs and technology in education. CORAL KEMP is an experienced practitioner, consultant, program director, teacher educator, and researcher in the field of early childhood intervention. Coral’s practical experience has included: special educator on a transdisciplinary home-based early intervention team, preschool special education consultant for the NSW Department of Education, and Academic Team Leader of the Early Years programs at Macquarie University. During her time at Macquarie, Coral won a federal grant to establish an inclusion support program for children with disabilities in childcare centres in predominantly disadvantaged areas of Sydney. Coral is a member of the coordinating committee for the International Society on Early Intervention, Honorary Senior Lecturer

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

at Macquarie University and member of the Board of the STaR Association, which supports children with disabilities in regular childcare. Coral has published her research on early childhood inclusion in Australian and international peer-reviewed journals. CARL LEONARD is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education and Co-Coordinator of the Master of Special and Inclusive Education Program at The University of Newcastle, Australia. He has research interests in holistic, innovative, communication-rich leadership structures aligning a core focus on wellbeing; teaching and learning structures embedded in implementation science; and universal design for learning as the springboard for success. Carl worked in schools for 28 years in various teaching, leadership and consultancy positions as an advocate for public education, inclusivity and diversity Simultaneous to this, Carl also lectured in the postgraduate programs at The University of Newcastle, aiming to foster the growth and development of the current and next generation of teaching professionals. In addition to working full-time in schools up until mid-2019, Carl has achieved significant scholarly output including one sole-authored book, a range of journal articles and presentations at national and international conferences.

MICHELLE RALSTON has extensive experience in mainstream and special education, teaching children from 3 years of age through to 18-year-olds. She has led whole school change in literacy and inclusion in her roles as learning-support team coordinator, assistant principal, itinerant communication/language disorders and learning support teacher within mainstream schools. She lectures at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels in early childhood, primary and secondary inclusive and special education, collaboration, learning difficulties, communication disorders, positive behaviour support, social emotional learning, learning difficulties, disability discrimination legislation and education policy. Her current research interests include the Disability Standards for Education and related policies, learning and development experiences for school staff, and the role of school leaders in promoting inclusive practice. UMESH SHARMA is Professor in the Faculty of Education at Monash University, Australia where he is the Academic Head of the Educational Psychology and Inclusive Education Community. Umesh’s research programs in the area of disability and inclusive education span India, Pakistan, China, Bangladesh, Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Samoa as well as Australia, Canada, USA and New Zealand. He is the chief co-editor of the Australasian Journal of Special Education and the Oxford Encyclopedia of Inclusive and Special Education. He has authored over 150 academic articles, book chapters and edited books that focus on various aspects of inclusive education. His co-authored book A Guide to Promoting a Positive Classroom Environment was the recipient of the International Book Prize Award from the Exceptionality Education International. He was recently (2019) named the top Special Education Researcher (Field Leader) in Australia based on the impact of his work locally and internationally by the Australian Chief Scientist https:// specialreports.theaustralian.com.au/1540291/. His main areas of research are: positive behaviour support, inclusive education for disadvantaged children and policy and practice in special and inclusive education. DEAN SUTHERLAND is an Associate Professor in the School of Psychology, Speech and Hearing at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. His research focuses on communication, education and parent/teacher-child interactions, in particular supporting children and young people (and their families) who experience difficulty developing or retaining communication skills. This work involves working with diverse populations, including children with autism spectrum disorder and other developmental and neurological conditions such as cerebral palsy.

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MICHAEL L. WEHMEYER, PhD is the Ross and Mariana Beach Distinguished Professor of Special Education; Chair of the Department of Special Education; and Director and Senior Scientist, Beach Center on Disability; all at the University of Kansas. His research and scholarly work has focused on issues pertaining to self-determination, positive psychology and disability, transition to adulthood, the education and inclusion of students with severe disabilities, conceptualising intellectual disability, and technology use by people with cognitive disabilities.

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Acknowledgements The editors, Iva Strnadová, Michael Arthur-Kelly and Phil Foreman, would like to thank the many parents, students, teachers, principals and other professionals who so generously provided narratives and case studies to develop and illustrate the concepts presented in each chapter. They would also like to thank staff at Cengage, together with their fellow contributors, for their expertise and commitment to this publication.

The authors, editors and publisher would like to thank all those who have contributed photographs and other material for inclusion in this edition, as well as to those who have contributed to past editions of Inclusion in Action. The editors and the authors of Chapters 2, 3 and 12 would like to acknowledge the work and contribution of the authors of earlier editions of these chapters: Dr Ian Dempsey and Dr Gordon Lyons. The editors and authors of Chapter 9 would also like to extend their thanks and acknowledge the contribution of Amanda Boelen, Visiting Teacher Service, and Ms Mirna Farah, Learning and Support Teacher. Cengage, the editors, and the author team would also like to thank the following reviewers for their incisive and helpful feedback: • • • • • • • • • • •

Nadine Ballam – University of Waikato Jeanette Berman – University of New England Corey Bloomfield – Central Queensland University Dr Melissa Cain – Australian Catholic University (QLD) Karen Glasby – University of Southern Queensland Edwina El Hachem – Deakin University Rosemary Horn – University of the Sunshine Coast Dr Sofia Mavropoulou – Queensland University of Technology Sue O’Neill – University of New South Wales Bea Staley – Charles Darwin University Marion Sturges – Western Sydney University

We would also like to extend our thanks to the reviewers who provided their feedback on all previous editions of Inclusion in Action.

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Standards mapping grid This book is designed to assist readers to achieve the Australian Professional Standards for Graduate Teachers. The following grid shows how the content of particular chapters contributes to the Standards. Professional Knowledge Standards 1.

Know students and how they learn

1.1

Physical, social and intellectual development and characteristics of students Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of physical, social and intellectual development and characteristics of students and how these may affect learning.

1.2

Understand how students learn Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of research into how students learn and the implications for teaching.

1.3

Students with diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds Demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies that are responsive to the learning strengths and needs of students from diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds.

1.4

Strategies for teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students

Chapters 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13 8, 9, 12

Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of the impact of culture, cultural identity and linguistic background on the education of students from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander backgrounds. 1.5

Differentiate teaching to meet the specific learning needs of students across the full range of abilities Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of strategies for differentiating teaching to meet the specific learning needs of students across the full range of abilities.

1.6

Strategies to support full participation of students with disability Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of legislative requirements and teaching strategies that support participation and learning of students with disability.

2.

Know the content and how to teach it

2.1

Content and teaching strategies of the teaching area Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the concepts, substance and structure of the content and teaching strategies of the teaching area.

2.2

Content selection and organisation Organise content into an effective learning and teaching sequence.

2.3

Curriculum, assessment and reporting Use curriculum, assessment and reporting knowledge to design learning sequences and lesson plans.

2.4

Understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to promote reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians

1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11,12, 13 4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 13 4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 13 1, 8, 12

Demonstrate broad knowledge of, understanding of and respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories, cultures and languages. 2.5

Literacy and numeracy strategies

4, 8, 9, 10

Know and understand literacy and numeracy teaching strategies and their application in teaching areas. 2.6

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Implement teaching strategies for using ICT to expand curriculum learning opportunities for students.

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3, 4, 5, 8, 12

STANDARDS MAPPING GRID

Professional Knowledge Standards 3.

Plan for and implement effective teaching and learning

3.1

Establish challenging learning goals Set learning goals that provide achievable challenges for students of varying abilities and characteristics.

3.2

Plan, structure and sequence learning programs Plan lesson sequences using knowledge of student learning, content and effective teaching strategies.

3.3

Use teaching strategies Include a range of teaching strategies.

3.4

Select and use resources Demonstrate knowledge of a range of resources, including ICT, that engage students in their learning.

3.5

Use effective classroom communication Demonstrate a range of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies to support student engagement.

3.6

Evaluate and improve teaching programs Demonstrate broad knowledge of strategies that can be used to evaluate teaching programs to improve student learning.

3.7

Engage parents/carers in the educative process Describe a broad range of strategies for involving parents/carers in the educative process.

4.

Create and maintain supportive and safe learning environments

4.1

Support student participation Identify strategies to support inclusive student participation and engagement in classroom activities.

4.2 4.3

Manage classroom activities

Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, 13 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12,13

Demonstrate the capacity to organise classroom activities and provide clear directions.

3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, 13

Manage challenging behaviour

6, 8, 11

Demonstrate knowledge of practical approaches to manage challenging behaviour. 4.4

Maintain student safety

6, 8

Describe strategies that support students’ wellbeing and safety working within school and/or system, curriculum and legislative requirements. 4.5

Use ICT safely, responsibly and ethically

4, 8

Demonstrate an understanding of the relevant issues and the strategies available to support the safe, responsible and ethical use of ICT in learning and teaching. 5.

Assess, provide feedback and report on student learning

5.1

Assess student learning Demonstrate understanding of assessment strategies, including informal and formal, diagnostic, formative and summative approaches to assess student learning.

5.2

Provide feedback to students on their learning Demonstrate an understanding of the purpose of providing timely and appropriate feedback to students about their learning.

5.3

Make consistent and comparable judgements

3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10,12, 13 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13 4, 5, 10

Demonstrate understanding of assessment moderation and its application to support consistent and comparable judgements of student learning.

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STANDARDS MAPPING GRID

Professional Knowledge Standards

Chapters

5.4

4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13

Interpret student data Demonstrate the capacity to interpret student assessment data to evaluate student learning and modify teaching practice.

5.5

Report on student achievement Demonstrate understanding of a range of strategies for reporting to students and parents/ carers and the purpose of keeping accurate and reliable records of student achievement.

6.

Engage in professional learning

6.1

Identify and plan professional learning needs

4, 5, 6, 11, 12

4, 6, 12

Demonstrate an understanding of the role of the National Professional Standards for Teachers in identifying professional learning needs. 6.2

Engage in professional learning and improve practice

3, 4, 6, 8, 12

Understand the relevant and appropriate sources of professional learning for teachers. 6.3

Engage with colleagues and improve practice

3, 4, 6, 12

Seek and apply constructive feedback from supervisors and teachers to improve teaching practices. 6.4

Apply professional learning and improve student learning Demonstrate an understanding of the rationale for continued professional learning and the implications for improved student learning.

7.

Engage professionally with colleagues, parents/carers and the community

7.1

Meet professional ethics and responsibilities

3, 4, 5, 6, 8,12

1, 2, 4, 6

Understand and apply the key principles described in codes of ethics and conduct for the teaching profession. 7.2

Comply with legislative, administrative and organisational requirements

2, 3, 4, 6, 13

Understand the relevant legislative, administrative and organisational policies and processes required for teachers according to school stage. 7.3

Engage with the parents/carers Understand strategies for working effectively, sensitively and confidentially with parents/carers.

7.4

Engage with professional teaching networks and broader communities Understand the role of external professionals and community representatives in broadening teachers’ professional knowledge and practice.

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3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13

PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS 1 Introducing inclusion in education 2 Legislation and policies supporting inclusive practice 3 Practising inclusion in diverse school communities

1

CHAPTER

1

Introducing inclusion in education Iva Strnadová and Phil Foreman This chapter aims to: 1.1 Provide an overview of principles that underlie inclusive practices 1.2 Explain the concept of disability 1.3 Identify other forms of diversity 1.4 Explain terminology and concepts related to inclusive practice 1.5 Explain the impact of the use of language about disability and diversity 1.6 Locate inclusion as part of a range of educational responses 1.7 Provide an overview of approaches to teaching students with a disability in regular classes 1.8 Explore diversity across the lifespan 1.9 Myths and facts about disability and diversity 1.10 Explore the future of inclusion

diversity Reflects the wide variation in educational needs of students in contemporary classrooms and the need to be aware of factors related to their ethnic, cultural and social backgrounds, their special abilities and, if relevant, their disabilities. disability The functional consequence of an impairment. For example, because of the impairment of spina bifida, the disability may be that a person is unable to walk without the assistance of crutches.

2

Introduction

Teachers in the twenty-first century expect to have a diversity of students in their classes. The term ‘diversity’ may refer to students’ cultural backgrounds, their social and family backgrounds, their ethnic origins, their ability level or their functional level. For classrooms to be optimal learning environments, teachers need to understand the diversity of their students, and to provide appropriate programs and learning conditions. In the past, many classes in Australia and New Zealand were not very diverse, often containing students from similar backgrounds and only rarely having a student with a significant disability. However, teachers are now likely to have students from many different countries, from varying religious and ethnic backgrounds, and from a variety of family arrangements including nuclear families, single parent families, shared parenting families, and same-sex parent families. They are also likely to, at some stage, teach students with a diagnosed disability. It is the successful inclusion of a diversity of students, including in particular those who have a disability, that is the primary focus of this book. Most contemporary classrooms will include one or more students with a diagnosed intellectual, physical, sensory or learning disability. The recent Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD, 2020) in Australia has also highlighted areas of focus such as cognitive, sensory and social/emotional domains, and the fact that students may not have a diagnosis and yet have real and important learning needs (NCCD uses the term ‘imputed disability’). This inclusion of students with a range of

CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

needs that happens in regular classrooms reflects the widespread agreement that people with a disability have a right to participate fully in the community. Consequently, many parents of students with a disability choose to send their child to their local school rather than to a special school or unit. The prospect of having students with a disability in their classes may cause concern for some teachers, but these concerns are often misplaced. Good teaching provides for the individual needs of all students (see Figure 1.1), and challenges can come from many students, including those with or without a disability.

sensory disability Impairment of vision or hearing, including deafness and blindness. learning disability (or difficulty) An impairment in one or more of the processes involved in using spoken or written language. This may particularly show itself in problems with reading, writing, spelling, speaking, listening and mathematical calculations. (In the UK, intellectual disability is referred to as ‘learning disability’, which is a different concept.)

FIGURE 1.1 Good teaching provides for individual needs

Some teachers will find that a child with a diagnosed disability is less challenging than other students in the class. The example of Mia, in Narrative 1.1, illustrates this.

NARRATIVE 1.1 Mia’s considerations Mia is a 12-year-old girl who is paralysed from the waist down as a result of a car accident when she was 7 years old. She is about to commence at her local high school in a large country town. She uses an electric wheelchair. Her academic work is above average. She would like to work on web design when she leaves school. Some planning is needed before Mia arrives. Perhaps a learning support team will be established, with Mia, her family, the year teacher and a learning support consultant from the school or region. Among the questions the team will consider are: • How will Mia deal with the problem of stairs? • Are there any obstructions to her wheelchair?

Students with physical disability

3

PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

• Is there a wheelchair-accessible toilet? • Does Mia need assistance in using the toilet or accessing other school facilities? • Are there special transport needs? These considerations will be done with Mia (her active input) and not just about Mia.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are some other questions that Mia and her learning support team will need to give consideration to before Mia begins high school?

Most education systems will provide support for the issues raised in Narrative 1.1, and will have a procedure for assessing each student’s support needs. However, once these questions have been answered and appropriate supports have been put into place, it is likely that Mia will cause her teachers fewer problems than many other students in the class, such as those who resist teacher authority. Yet there was a time when Mia would have spent all of her school career mixing only with other students with a physical disability, simply because the problems she has were regarded as insurmountable in a regular school. No-one would suggest that it would be reasonable for students to be grouped educationally according to their weight, ethnicity or skin colour, so why would it be reasonable for Mia to be grouped according to one specific aspect of her humanity (her physical disability)? The same comments apply to Christopher, whose parents’ voice is heard in Narrative 1.2, later in this chapter.

In the last 35–40 years, attitudes to disability have changed considerably. Since the International Year of Disabled Persons (IYDP) in 1981, it has become more likely that people with a disability will have the same choices as people without a disability. Until the later part of the twentieth century, many students with a disability either did not attend school or attended a separate ‘special’ school. This was part of a general policy of keeping people with a disability separate from the so-called ‘normal’ community. As a result, most teachers, other than those who had chosen to be ‘special education’ teachers, were unlikely to have much contact with students with a disability. In earlier times, segregation was even more pervasive. It affected all aspects of living. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a range of institutions was developed, some of them very large. This was done with good intent, to protect vulnerable people from possible harm or abuse in the wider community. This separation was also believed to benefit their families and society generally by allowing them to ‘get on with their lives’ without having to worry about the child with a disability. It was common for the institutions to be physically isolated from the rest of the community, and the treatment of residents was not always kind. Even people who remained at home with their families were sometimes hidden away, or expected to mix only with other people with a similar disability.

Although some institutions still operate, despite the de-institutionalisation movement that focused on closing down all institutions, we now recognise the right of people with a disability to make choices in the way they live their lives. It is accepted that most people wish to choose where they live, who they mix with, where they work, and how they spend their leisure time. In the past, many adults with a disability were separated from the general community in environments that gave them little opportunity to make any choices in their lives, even in such routine matters as who they would talk to, what they were going to eat or when they would go to bed.

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CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

Changes that have occurred over the last 35–40 years have meant that children and young people with a disability generally live at home with their parents, or elsewhere in the community, rather than in a large institution. They may also attend the local school. As a result, classroom teachers are now likely to have some students with a disability enrolled in their schools and classes.

1.1 Principles underlying inclusion A number of principles have formed the basis of policy and practice for the inclusion of students with a disability and other forms of diversity. School systems have used these principles to develop system-wide policies; school leaders have used them as a basis for school policy and practice, and classroom teachers have used them in the preparation and implementation of programs. Five underlying principles are outlined below.

Principles of social justice and human rights

It is now much less likely than it was in the past that people will have their lives restricted or determined by their gender, religion, race, ethnicity, sexuality or disability. The changing attitudes to disability that have produced changes in education have been part of a broader social justice movement, which has led to changes for several minority or disadvantaged groups, including women and indigenous peoples. It is now recognised that people with a disability want to be regarded as people first; they want to make decisions about their own lives, and they do not want these decisions to be solely or primarily based on their disability. Inclusion in education is often as much a rights issue as it is an issue of what works best in all circumstances.

social justice A belief system that is based on equity, human rights and fairness for all.

These changes in social attitudes have been supported, and sometimes instigated, by legislation such as the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 and its related education standards in Australia; and the Education Act 1989 and the Human Rights Act 1994 in New Zealand. In Australia there are five federal anti-discrimination Acts as well as statebased legislation. Current legislation is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. Parents, students and policy makers have all supported the view that attendance at the neighbourhood school is a valued option that, while not necessarily mandated, should be available to all. This means that all teachers can expect their classes to contain students with diverse abilities, backgrounds and experiences (see Figure 1.2). As a result, teachers need to be able to adapt their classroom organisation, teaching methods and approaches to provide for a wide range of individual, social and cultural differences in students.

FIGURE 1.2 All classes contain students with diverse abilities, backgrounds and experiences

All children can learn

Until about 30 or 40 years ago, it was thought that some children were incapable of learning. As a result, public school systems in Australia and New Zealand, as elsewhere in the world, provided programs only for students who were deemed to be ‘able to learn’.

5

PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

Intellectual disability

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students

Students with an intellectual disability were classified, using deterministic labelling, as ‘educable’, ‘trainable’ or ‘custodial’, depending on their IQ scores (Foreman, 2009). The public systems provided programs for those who were ‘educable’ and possibly for those who were judged to be ‘trainable’. Other students were regarded as medical ‘cases’ and were not usually accepted in the public education system. Until 1972, principals in some Australian states could refuse to enrol Indigenous students if there was ‘community objection’ to their enrolment. However, since the 1970s there has been widespread acceptance that all children have capacity to learn, and that all children are entitled to an appropriate publicly funded education program. For students with a disability, these programs were initially provided in separate schools, especially for students with more severe disabilities. More recently, much education has occurred in more inclusive settings, including in regular classes, although separate special schools remain an option in some areas.

This is not to say that the learning that takes place is the same for all students. For some students with a severe disability, learning to indicate when they are hungry, thirsty or tired, or to show a preference for one activity over another will have a significant positive effect on the quality of their lives. It is not typical school learning, but it is still learning, and it can be nurtured and developed by teachers and other staff in school settings.

Normalisation normalisation The concept that all people, regardless of disability, should be able to live a life that is as normal as possible for their culture. In education, the principle of normalisation suggests that all children should have the opportunity to attend the local school.

social role valorisation A reconceptualisation of normalisation by Wolf Wolfensberger that is based on the social role assumed by individuals, and the value placed on that role by society.

6

Normalisation has formed the basis of the special education policies of most school systems. It is a social justice concept based largely on the writings of Bank-Mikkelsen (1969), Wolfensberger (1972, 1980) and Nirje (1970, 1985) and has impacted primarily on the lives of people with a disability. The concept of normalisation embraces the belief that people are entitled to live as ‘normal’ as possible a lifestyle in their community. Normal is taken to mean what most other people in that culture would prefer to do. It can easily be shown that it is not ‘normal’ for most people in Western cultures to live in a dormitory and eat in a communal dining room. It is not ‘normal’ for adults to have little choice about their daily activities or to be prevented from intimate sexual contact. Thus, a residential institution that was influenced by the concept of normalisation might change its dormitories into one- or two-person bedrooms, provide opportunities for residents to choose and perhaps cook their own food, select their own clothes and activities, and interact freely with people of both sexes. In relation to education, the principle of normalisation suggests that all students should be able to attend the neighbourhood school, or perhaps attend an independent school, as preferred by students and their families. Wolfensberger later stated that he considered normalisation theory to have been ‘subsumed by the broader theory of social role valorisation’ (1995, p. 164), which looks at the various ‘social roles’ that people perform; for example, husband, wife, partner, friend, teacher, colleague, leader. Some social roles are obviously much more highly valued than others. The way others respond to our social roles affects the way we perceive ourselves. Wolfensberger pointed out that the social roles of people with a disability tend to be poorly valued. If people with a disability are to be genuinely included in the community, it is important that their social roles are ‘valorised’. This means they need to be given roles and opportunities that are valued by the rest of the community. For example, street begging is a very poorly regarded activity in almost every culture, with very low status. As such, it would be contrary to social role valorisation to have people with a disability raising money for charity by holding donation boxes in the street.

CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

The least restrictive environment

Another principle underlying the movement into regular schools is that of the least restrictive environment. This is based on the principle that some environments are intrinsically more restrictive than others, and that people’s lives should be restricted to the minimum extent possible. Probably the most restrictive environment that we can imagine is a jail, yet for many years, large residential institutions for people with a disability have been even more restrictive than some jails. Because of the social changes referred to earlier in this chapter, many people with a disability in Western countries who previously lived in an institution now either live with their families, in group homes, other alternative residential situations or independently in the community. The institutions that continue to operate have generally made a large effort to provide more choice for their residents, a more normalised lifestyle, and fewer restrictions. Most people prefer to live in non-restrictive environments.

least restrictive environment The opportunity for people with a disability to live in environments that give them the greatest range of choices; that is, the fewest restrictions.

School systems usually provide a range of classes and schools to cater for students with additional needs resulting from a disability; and in the past some of these have provided very restrictive environments. School systems have moved towards improved levels of personal participation and control for students, and fewer restrictions. Whereas 30 years ago students with a disability were likely to have been placed in one of the first three settings listed below, they are now more likely to be in one of the other four settings (Dempsey, 2011). Residential special schools are now rare, and fewer new separate day schools are being built. The main growth area for separate special schools is for students with emotional or behavioural disorders (Dempsey, 2007). The range of educational settings provided by school systems, from most restrictive (1) to least restrictive (7) is as follows: 1 residential school for students with a disability 2 separate special day school

3 separate special school on regular campus 4 special unit located in regular school 5 single special class in regular school

6 single special class in regular school, with part-time regular placement 7 regular class.

There are many variations in the way students use these settings. Some students attend a regular class with minimal adjustments by the school, while others need to be provided with extensive support including building alterations, equipment, full-time or part-time teacher assistants, or specialist advisory services. Other students enrol part-time in a special class and part-time in a regular class. The process of deciding the best educational placement for a student is often complex. Most schools and school systems see this is ultimately as a parental decision, based on advice from educational and health-care professionals. Some parents prefer their child to be in a specialised unit which focuses on their special abilities or disability. They believe that the child will receive more individual attention in a specialised unit, and that the child’s social acceptance will be easier in a separate setting. This is a perfectly legitimate view and, as will be shown later in this chapter, there is mixed evidence on what is ‘best’ for the student. However, many parents have a very clear view that they want their child to be in the neighbourhood school with siblings and other children from the community. Many factors impact on parental choice (Byrne, 2013) (see Narrative 1.2, below).

residential school A school that includes living or boarding facilities. special unit A group of two or more special classes within a regular school.

teacher assistant Person employed to assist a teacher in the classroom. This position is also known as a teacher’s aide, school learning support assistant/ officer, or education assistant, but in this book the position is generally referred to as ‘teacher assistant’.

A regular class may not always be less restrictive than a special class. For example, if Mia (see Narrative 1.1, above) was in a school that had very limited wheelchair access, she would

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be in a more restrictive environment than if she attended a school designed to accommodate wheelchairs. However, this does not mean that the ideal solution is for Mia to attend a school for students with physical disabilities, which would be fully wheelchair-accessible. This solution would impose other restrictions. A better solution is that all schools, like other parts of the community, should be wheelchair-accessible.

Making a school accessible can be an expensive process. Most school systems design new buildings to be as accessible as possible, and older school buildings are then adapted for access according to a timetable, or as the need arises. Often, minor adjustments are all that is needed. A change in room timetable can mean that a class need not go upstairs or across the playground after each lesson period. Most students who use wheelchairs are willing to accept some inconvenience while they wait for ramps to be built or for equipment to be purchased. What matters most is that there is a welcoming and inclusive atmosphere, and an effort to make things work for them. They realise that it takes time for ramps to be installed, or for a piece of chairlifting equipment to be ordered or transferred from another school. Narrative 1.2 gives a clear picture of the joys and difficulties of educating a child with disability, even when all are wellmeaning and cooperative.

NARRATIVE 1.2 Christopher’s educational journey Our son Christopher was born in 1987, the youngest of three boys. He has Down syndrome, his main difficulty being very poor speech. He has a lot to say though, and talks confidently to a large range of people, including on the phone to friends and family. He loves to speak at public events like weddings or birthdays. Chris moves in a lot of social and work spheres and even with limited language skills he knows people by name, has friendly conversations with them, and is a popular member of any group. It is not that hard to keep up with the many topics of his conversation, using a mix of guesswork, context and knowledge of his life. We have also seen a society-wide shift in people’s willingness and openness to engage with communicators like Chris. Communication at all levels in his life has been a keystone to good outcomes. We knew when he was born that we would try to give him a life and an education as much like his brothers’ FIGURE 1.3 Christopher at high school as possible. Now that he is 29, we can look back on the milestones and bumps along the road. Chris was well catered for by school and post-school training and education programs because segregated and isolationist practices were being phased out, and he had mostly happy and socially inclusive experiences during his education. We were, however, motivated to join advocacy groups and political campaigns in the ‘90s because change in educational practices and funding was slow. It was immensely satisfying to see Australia introduce the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) in 2012. Chris is now part of this, with his own planner and the means for us and him to negotiate his future.

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Chris’ education and pathway through life can be seen in the context of his family, school, and societal context, because it is the people around him who worked together effectively, who helped him achieve what he has. We can highlight many excellent strategies, initiatives and programs that have led to his present good adjustment and happy life. There are clear guidelines here for good educational practice, but some cautionary tales as well.

Long day care The staff here modelled good play, cooperation and age-appropriate expectations for Chris – attitudes that we reminded ourselves and others about, as it would have been easy to ‘do too much’ for him and delay his learning. At this stage, the staff made adjustments for him as needed, and were able to use his desire to join in and belong as a motivator. They also actively helped other children to understand and accommodate Chris’ unusual speech and behaviours. We found early FIGURE 1.4 Christopher as an adult childhood educators, in general, to be open to an inclusive approach, and we appreciated the staff’s perseverance in working to achieve a cohesive atmosphere. They always took time to tell us something about his day that had gone well, so we could talk to him on the way home. We needed to share all we knew about his learning for our mutual benefit. Chris was very happy at long day care.

Regular preschool Before he started school, Chris attended a local preschool two days a week, with funding assistance provided for some of those hours. The staff focused on ready-for-school skills, particularly writing and drawing and small group work. They used sequenced learning and task analysis to work with Chris. Belonging to a group of peers without a disability was great modelling for him, and he looked forward to going each day. Staff here also believed in the benefits of inclusion. We talked with staff about his progress, and believed he had the basis for fitting into an inclusive school setting.

Starting school Based on the psychometric tests that were part of the enrolment procedure in 1992, we were offered a special school for Chris, but asked for, and were allocated, a special class in a regular school in another suburb. We were disappointed all the same, because we hoped for – and Chris and our middle son expected – that he could attend our local school. Communication between preschool, school and placement personnel was nil. Transition-to-school guidelines were not formalised until 1997 in New South Wales, and they are still in development. A NSW Government Standing Committee on Transition in 2012 recognised the importance of good planning and practices for all times of change in the lives of people with a disability. Yet, there is still no legislation in Australia which would clarify transitionsrelated responsibilities of all relevant stakeholders, including development of individual transition plans (ITPs). We can vouch for the very different journey that parents embark on when they have a child with a disability. Starting school is one of the early major hurdles to get through, and the experience can be traumatic. Having older children may only serve to highlight what a different world you have entered. Funding and practice at the time Chris started school was not to the liking of many parents, and in 1996 we campaigned for change in an election year under the banner ‘Kids Belong Together’.

psychometric tests Assessments that measure mental states and processes. Examples are intelligence and personality tests.

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Special class, regular primary school This was a happy experience for Chris, as the four special classes in the primary school enjoyed across-the-board acceptance within the school community, and inclusive values were modelled from the top down. We were invited to school concerts and presentations and saw Chris in many active roles with children from across the school. Interestingly, when given a choice, Chris wanted more of the part-time integration at his local school than we managed to have funding for in Years 1–3. He could not articulate it, but it must have felt right to be at his brother’s school. His first day in a school uniform had ended in tears when he did not go to the same school as his brother.

Part-time integration, local primary school For two mornings a week Chris was able to go to his brother’s school with a funded integration assistant. He knew enough about maths and calendars to be really excited on those days, and to ask us hopefully: ‘Three days? Four?’ Teachers at the school had mixed feelings about inclusion, and certainly the funding and support was in its early days. Chris loved the class format that ran in Years 1 and 2: largeand small-group instruction, diversity of materials and presentation, and the opportunity to practise at different levels. He raised his personal goals and persevered to do things such as copy from the board and read from books like the other children. The mainstream teachers who taught Chris did so willingly, but made it clear they were trying their best to do something they weren’t sure about. They talked to us about our expectations, and shared their concerns as they arose. We appreciated their openness and their breaking of new ground personally and professionally. After a couple of years, Chris moved to a very traditional room based on chalk and talk, with seats to the side for Chris and his teacher assistant. The teacher left the choice of activities to the assistant, as the gap between Chris’ ability and his peers was widening. There was no sense that Chris was joining in with the class and he quickly lost his enthusiasm. We realised there were few opportunities for Chris to feel good about himself, and that he wasn’t part of a cohort who actively welcomed him and modelled good learning strategies. In the end, he didn’t want to go any more. Integration at that time was very teacher-dependent, and not seen as a whole-school approach. Our communication with teachers during these years varied greatly, and was a barometer to Chris’ successful inclusion.

Out of school hours care (OOSH) Chris was able to go with his brother to the OOSH, until picked up by either parent. This was a casual and relaxed way for him to play and do directed activities and games with neighbourhood children. The staff actively taught all children to get along with each other, and taught Chris social skills without preferential treatment. He went there happily into early high school years, but it came to a natural conclusion as size and age-appropriateness came into play. Staff attitudes played a significant part in making this a success. They always let us know of any highlights to make us smile, or incidents to show that more social learning was necessary. Chris would try denial as a first defence, but our three-way conversations were productive and timely, and issues were resolved on the same day.

Special class, regular high school Chris’ high school was made up of staff who had voted to accept special education classes into the school. This process is telling, as the implementation of integration has been very dependent on teacher goodwill more often than practical support.

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Staff learned from each other about catering for learning needs that were different to their usual classes, and they sought advice from special education teachers. Some regular teachers, and a few kind but gullible canteen helpers, were shown more appropriate ways to work with students who liked to gain special treatment. Chris was not the only one who scammed food at the canteen when he had no money, or who was allowed cute but cheeky behaviour. Students had access to regular classes according to individual education plans, as well as to TAFE, and were totally integrated in the playground and for sports activities. Mainstream students also received a great benefit in mixing with students with disabilities and they very quickly accepted Chris and his peers as part of the school community. The coffee shop run by the special education classes was a big hit in the school community. Regular students who were disparaging or thought little of the students with disabilities were counselled, and spent time in the classes as helpers. Chris’ program was a mix of individual and group work, with input from us as parents to focus on things we felt were important for him. He took away many practical skills that he still uses today, and he can read timetables, calendars, television guides and community signs to a level that suits him. Chris’ years in high school were very happy, as acceptance and belonging were part of a whole-school inclusive philosophy. Staff and student morale was high, and achievements were celebrated at all levels.

After school We talked regularly with Chris’ teachers about his transition from school, helped just a little by his father being on the staff! Chris built up a useful repertoire of social, work and life skills that have stood him in good stead since. He was ready to leave in Year 12, had a great time at his formal, and hasn’t looked back. Chris had a successful transition from school to a program that continued his education and training. The focus of post-school programs is progress to independence and self-reliance and Chris embraces that. Using funding from the NDIS he has learned to catch a bus to the program and back independently, which was a great step. He also progressed from work experience to paid work in a supported environment – three days per week – so he is a taxpayer in Hi-Vis gear. It has been very important to Chris and us as his parents to see progress through the milestones of life, and to become adult and responsible to the best of his ability. Many people have contributed to that, making Chris a real beneficiary of all the best things about family, our school system and Australian social programs. Because of NDIS funding, we were able to find just the accommodation provider we were looking for and transition Chris out of home to full-time living with three well-suited mates who are house-sharing just like other young men their age. As parents we are extremely proud of Chris and thrilled to watch him live life as an adult. SOURCE: Judy and Alex Neilands, parents

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are Chris’ parents’ hopes for their son at various points in his education? Consider the extent to which their hopes for their son reflect socially valued roles and experiences. What examples do they give to suggest that Christopher’s inclusion has been successful? 2. Christopher’s experiences in the ‘traditional room’ in primary school were not very positive. What went wrong? What could have been done to improve the situation?

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Age-appropriate behaviour

age-appropriate behaviour A behaviour or activity that is consistent with the behaviours and activities normally undertaken by same aged peers. For example, a young woman playing with a toy doll would not be displaying age-appropriate behaviour.

It is important that all school students have roles that are valued by the school community. All students need to be able to participate in the school’s day-to-day activities and, wherever possible, perform roles that are seen by their peers and themselves to be positive and valuable. The principles of normalisation and social role valorisation suggest that students’ activities should be appropriate for their age. For example, age-appropriate behaviour means that teenage girls with an intellectual disability should not be given dolls to play with, and teenage boys should not be doing preschool puzzles or playing with childish toys. These activities are seen as low status by others, and probably by the students themselves. It is usually possible to substitute an age-appropriate activity or teaching material for an age-inappropriate activity. As an example, it is preferable for older students to be given counting practice using age-appropriate objects such as coins rather than using childish objects such as blocks or counters. The issue of age-appropriateness is relevant to the debate about the optimal way of providing for the needs of gifted and talented students. Some argue for acceleration; that is, moving students to a grade where the curriculum is appropriate to their developmental level (e.g. Willis, 2012), while others argue that, for example, to send a 10-year-old student to high school is not age-appropriate and places the student’s social development at risk. They might argue that it is better to provide enrichment for students within their regular grade level. Such placement decisions are complex and depend on many factors related to the students, their families and their schools.

REFLECT ON THIS Age-appropriateness says that teenage girls with a disability should not be given dolls to play with. There is also a contrary argument that people with disabilities should be able to choose preferred activities, regardless of what others think of them. Which do you think is the stronger argument?

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Framework that highlights three key education principles: (i) engagement and interaction; (ii) representation; and (iii) action and expression. Its aim is to provide a barrierfree educational environment, accessible to all students.

It is important that the education of all students is grounded in the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework, which was developed based on neuroscience and effective teaching practice (Woodcock et al., 2013). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) aims to provide a barrierfree educational environment, and thus access to learning for all students. Developed by the Centre for Applied Special Technology (CAST), UDL highlights three key education principles: (i) engagement and interaction; (ii) representation; and (iii) action and expression.

Multiple means of engagement

Multiple means of engagement represents the ‘why’ of learning. UDL acknowledges that students vary greatly when it comes to the ways in which they can be motivated to learn. Thus, three guidelines highlighted under this principle include (i) providing options to support students’ selfregulation; (ii) providing options for sustained attention and effort; and (iii) understanding and stimulating students’ interests (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020).

Multiple means of representation

Multiple means of representation is the ‘what’ of learning. This principle is an acknowledgement of diversity among students in terms of how they understand the information provided to them. Some students might prefer or need (e.g., students with visual impairments) auditory means of learning. Therefore, it is important, that educators provide information in multiple diverse

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formats. For example, information can be provided in a format of a textbook chapter, a video, or a podcast about the topic. This principle also includes providing students with options for comprehension. This may include activating students’ previous knowledge or demonstrating how two pieces of information belong together (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020). Last but not the least, it is essential to provide students with options for perception. Students with intellectual disabilities or with a visual impairment might need enlarged text. Students who are blind might need voiced descriptions of visuals (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020).

Multiple means of action and expression

Multiple means of action and expression represents the ‘how’ of learning. According to this principle, students differ greatly in ways which they express what they know. This might be a question of preference, or a necessity. It is thus essential that teachers provide students with choice when it comes to the expression of their knowledge and communication. For example, students can express what they learnt by writing an essay, by making a short YouTube clip, or a podcast about the topic. It is also important that teachers support the development of executive functions of their students by, for example, supporting their students in setting goals and self-monitoring their progress. Allowing students to use technology (assistive technology, mobile technology, etc.) should be a good practice in twenty-first century classrooms (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020). Throughout this book, you will learn how you can incorporate the UDL principles into your teaching.

1.2 What is a disability? This text is about well-planned teaching that caters to the individual needs of all students, rather than about specific disabilities. However, it is useful for teachers to have some knowledge of the range and level of disabilities they are likely to see in their students. For those who wish to know more about particular disabilities, more detailed fact sheets on diversity can be found on the companion website that accompanies this book. The usual way in which disabilities are classified is as intellectual, physical, or sensory disabilities, behavioural problems and learning difficulties.

Intellectual disability

The term intellectual disability refers to significant difficulties with reasoning, thinking and problem-solving. The diagnostic term according to the DSM-V (2013) is intellectual developmental disorder. Former terms for intellectual disability, no longer used in Australia and New Zealand that have also become obsolete elsewhere, are mental retardation, mental deficiency, and subnormality. For example, after much debate, the American Association on Mental Retardation changed its name in 2006 to the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. It is also important to note that there are international differences in terminology. While Australia, Canada, USA, and many European countries use the term intellectual disability (or intellectual disabilities), in the UK the term ‘learning disabilities’ is used. Identification of intellectual disability is usually based on scores on an individual test of cognitive ability together with a measure of ‘adaptive behaviour’. Adaptive behaviour is the child’s everyday functioning compared with other children of the same age (e.g. Can they dress themselves? Can they use a mobile phone?). Adaptive functioning is assessed in the following areas: (i) conceptual (e.g., literacy, reasoning, memory), (ii) social (e.g. social relationships, interpersonal communication), and (iii) practical (money management, self-management) (DSM-V, 2013). For school-aged children, the individual intelligence tests used most frequently

Students with intellectual disability intellectual disability Limitation in intelligence, usually associated with an intelligence quotient (IQ) below 70 and significant problems in adaptive behaviour, noticeable before the age of 18 years.

cognitive ability Thinking and reasoning ability: intelligence.

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are the Stanford Binet Intelligence Test (5th edition, 2003) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (5th edition; WISC-V, 2014). Adaptive behaviour is usually assessed by tests such as the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales or the Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale.

The average intelligence quotient or IQ score is 100, with a score below 70 indicating a degree of intellectual disability if it is associated with similar limitations in adaptive behaviour. The level of intellectual disability is often classified in the following way: • 55 to 70 IQ: mild intellectual disability

• 30 to 54 IQ: moderate intellectual disability • below 30 IQ: severe intellectual disability.

For scores below 30 IQ, some people use the term ‘profound’ intellectual disability. However, this term has become less used in recent years because of the difficulty of assessing IQ levels below a score of 30, and because of the negative implications of the term. Therefore, the terms ‘multiple severe disabilities’, ‘profound and multiple learning disabilities’, ‘profound intellectual and multiple disabilities’, or ‘high support needs’ are sometimes used to refer to people who have a combination of severe physical, intellectual and/or sensory disabilities.

Unfortunately, referring to levels of intellectual disability often translates to language used in practice, where teachers refer to their students in terms of categories, rather than individual students. For example, in New South Wales, numerous mainstream schools have special units (classrooms), which are named after the type and level of disability, such as IM classes (i.e. classes for students with mild intellectual disability), or for example IO classes (i.e., classes for students with moderate intellectual disability). School personnel often refer to students attending these classes as ‘IM student’ or ‘IO students’, which makes the students become part of ‘a category’ rather than a human being (Graham et al., 2020). The term ‘developmental disabilities’ refers to significant problems in development occurring during childhood, which may or may not include an intellectual disability. The term ‘developmental delay’ is sometimes used with young children when aspects of their development are seen to be slow, compared with the development of other children their age. The term is relatively non-specific, so may be used to include young children who are delayed in physical development, cognitive development, communication development, social or emotional development, or adaptive development. The term is useful as it describes the current situation without making predictions about the future. However, use of the term ‘developmental delay’ is potentially misleading, as it gives the impression that the child’s disability is temporary, which is not usually the case. The term is best used only with very young children, usually below the age of six, before they have been fully diagnosed.

IQ tests

It is important to note that the use of IQ measures to establish ‘abilities’ of people with intellectual disability has been long contested. As highlighted by Colmar et al. (published in 2006 – yet still true!), ‘despite contrary thinking and evidence, intellectual disability continues to be measured largely in terms of an IQ-based classification system, as is evident in most administrative systems’ (p. 180). Some of the issues regarding IQ measures include a variation between IQ tests (resulting in a situation where 70 on one test would not equate to 70 on another test), and the fact that most IQ tests were designed for a population of people without disabilities (Colmar et al., 2006). Colmar et al. conclude that ‘the use of IQ tests as the main means of assessing intellectual disability is a flawed process, with little in the way of positive outcomes for the child and family, or for the assessing psychologist’ (p. 185). In other words, it needs to be remembered that IQ tests (or adaptive skills tests) are simply a measure of performance on a particular test at a particular time. For example, it would obviously be silly to define someone’s

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‘artistic ability’ for life on the basis of their performance in a drawing aptitude test when they were six or eight years old, but this sort of determinism sometimes happens with intellectual ability. The results of IQ and adaptive skills tests should never limit teachers’ expectations of students with intellectual disability.

Physical disability

The term physical disability usually refers to a difficulty in mobility or movement, walking in particular, but may also refer to a difficulty in the use of the hands or arms. Most physical disabilities are congenital (present at birth). These may include disabilities such as spina bifida, which is usually obvious at the time of birth and can be detected prenatally, and cerebral palsy, which is often detected when the young child’s physical skill development starts to appear to be slow or different. Physical disability can also have a later onset, such as from a car accident or other injury either directly to the limbs or indirectly to the brain. There are also some physical disabilities, such as muscular dystrophy which, while present in the genetic structure, are not apparent in the early years of life.

physical disability Disability in movement, usually of the lower or upper limbs.

Physical disability

Some people wrongly assume that a severe physical disability is always associated with a severe intellectual disability. This happens particularly when the physical disability affects the person’s speech. We typically judge a person’s intelligence from their speech and language, and some very intelligent people with cerebral palsy are treated as if they have an intellectual disability because their speech is slow or indistinct. They may be ignored, or spoken to like a child. The best policy on meeting a person with a physical disability is to assume that the person can be spoken to like any other person, until there is good reason to believe otherwise.

Although students with physical disabilities have typically been educated in separate special schools, they are often the easiest to include in regular classes, from the perspective of teaching and curriculum. For example, if the student does not have an intellectual disability, the teaching program may be exactly the same as that for every other child in the class, once their physical needs have been catered for (see the earlier example of Mia in Narrative 1.1).

Sensory disability

‘Sensory disability’ is an impairment in vision or hearing. In its most severe form this is blindness or deafness. Students with mild vision problems have almost always been catered for in regular classes, sometimes with minor adjustments by teachers, sometimes without any adjustments. Nowadays, students who have very low vision, and even those who are blind, usually attend regular classes. Students with very low vision may need specialised lighting and equipment, and the help of a teacher assistant or a specialist itinerant teacher. Most school systems have procedures for providing materials in large print or Braille, and computers have hugely increased the access to a range of resources of students who are blind. Some people who meet the legal definition of blindness may still have perception of light and colour, and may even have quite good vision within a very restricted field (e.g. ‘tunnel’ vision).

Hearing impairments cover the range from a mild impairment that is not noticed by others to profound deafness that affects the quality of speech, or may stop the person from learning to speak at all. There has been debate about whether students who are deaf should be taught through oral methods, or through the use of sign language, or through a combination of methods. Sometimes students who are taught using sign language will be in a special class because of the need to have teachers who are expert in sign. Students who speak are more likely to be in regular classes, particularly as they move into the higher grades. However, in country areas there is often little choice other than mainstreaming, as sending students to a residential special school is no

curriculum A general term used to describe a course of study that has been planned with expected learning outcomes and which has a structure of learning activities and evaluation procedures (e.g., the K–6 English curriculum).

Vision impairment

Hearing impairment

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PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS cochlear implant Electronic device which allows for receiving sounds from a microphone typically attached to a student’s ear and delivering the sounds electronically directly to the student’s cochlea.

longer an option. Some regular classes will enrol students who have had a cochlear implant (bionic ear). There will almost certainly be expert advice available to help the teacher provide the best possible learning environment for a student with a cochlear implant.

Profound deafness is rare, so the chance of having a student who uses sign language in a regular class is small. If a student who signs is enrolled, the system will usually provide an interpreter, often in the form of a teacher assistant. Some regular teachers have been very innovative and have learned to sign and have taught signing to the rest of the class as a second language. This greatly enhances communication between students who are deaf and their classmates, and could provide hearing students with a skill that would be useful if they met other people who sign. This would be a very good example of inclusion in action!

Behavioural and emotional problems Emotional/ behavioural disorders

Autism

There is debate about the point at which children’s behaviour and responses to others can be described as a ‘behavioural problem’ or an ‘emotional problem’, and about whether defiant or disruptive behaviour is a ‘disability’ or ‘disorder’. All children misbehave at some time. Often this is situation-specific. That is, the child behaves well in some situations and poorly in others. Students who are non-compliant or defiant at school often stand out, because schools require a large amount of conformity and compliance, and there have always been students in classes whose behaviour is difficult for teachers. The provision of separate classes or schools for students with behavioural or emotional difficulties has become an area of growth in some school systems (Graham, 2009). Ideally, students should learn to interact appropriately and productively in regular classes, although some students require specialised approaches to behavioural or emotional disorders. These may arise from conditions such as autism or attention deficit disorder, for unknown reasons, or from abuse and neglect. Chapter 6 provides information on how to promote positive interactions in the classroom.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Learning difficulties

Learning difficulty

Some children find it very difficult to learn the basic skills of literacy and numeracy. They may have a general intellectual disability, which affects all areas of their learning; however, some students who function well in most areas of learning will have difficulties in one area, often reading. Even students who are identified as gifted and talented can have a learning difficulty. This is sometimes referred to as a specific learning difficulty.

The term learning difficulty is seen by many as preferable to learning disability, as it is usually assumed that a difficulty can be overcome with assistance, whereas a disability appears to be less amenable to change. For example, if a person had some problems with learning to drive, he would probably prefer to be told that he had a ‘driving difficulty’ rather than a ‘driving disability’. Chapters 9 and 10 contain information about developing literacy and numeracy skills, which are the main areas of learning difficulty.

REFLECT ON THIS What conclusions would we come to about the intelligence of persons such as Professor Stephen Hawking if they had not been provided with a communication system? Imagine what it would be like to be an intelligent person with a physical disability that prevented speech.

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1.3 Other forms of diversity Apart from students with a disability, most classrooms will have a diversity of students who require some additional planning or assistance.

Gifted and talented students

Gifted and talented students are not a homogeneous group. Some students are fortunate enough to be gifted in most areas, including academic, social and sporting. Others have talents in particular areas and difficulties in other areas, as mentioned above. Some may even have a diagnosed disability, with such students referred to as ‘twice exceptional’. Depending on their individual needs, gifted and talented students are likely to benefit from curriculum differentiation and enrichment programs and/or accelerated learning programs. Some may need counselling or social support to assist them to participate fully in school programs. The special class/regular class debate that has taken place about gifted and talented students is somewhat different from the special/regular debate about students with a disability. In the case of students with a disability, separate special schools and classes have, for many, been the only available option. In the case of gifted and talented students, special ‘opportunity’ classes have been, for some, a desirable and much sought-after alternative. Every year, students actively seek entry into special classes for students who are gifted, and these classes are perceived as high-status and prestigious. Gifted and talented students who do not wish to be in a special class, or do not have the opportunity to attend one, have never been under threat of exclusion from regular schools because of their giftedness.

An inclusive approach argues that the needs of all students should be catered for, regardless of their level of ability or disability, or other difference. For that reason, concepts related to Universal Design for Learning (UDL), curriculum differentiation, individualisation of instruction, and catering for student needs apply across the range of students, including those who are gifted and talented. The statement that all students should feel welcomed, valued and included applies to gifted and talented students, students with a disability, and all other students. Some students are teased, bullied or isolated because of their giftedness, and some gifted and talented students are bored in school and uninterested in the standard curriculum. In those cases, teachers should be trying to make their classrooms more inclusive, both socially and academically, for all students.

Indigenous students

In both Australia and New Zealand, numerous studies have shown that Indigenous students achieve below the level of non-Indigenous students in academic areas, particularly literacy and numeracy and school completion. It has also been shown that, given the right educational opportunities, learning outcomes for Indigenous students can be the same as for all other students. Education systems now have well-developed policies and processes for supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and Māori students, and teachers who have such students in their classes should ensure they seek any specialist support that is available. They should also use the processes suggested in later chapters of this book to optimise the learning environments of all students.

Students whose first language is not English

Every class will have in it some students for whom English is an additional language or dialect (EAL/D students). Their experiences will range from students who were born overseas and

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students

Students for whom English is an additional language or dialect

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PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

heard no English until they enrolled in an English-speaking school, to students who were born in Australia, whose parents are bilingual but have a first language other than English. Some Indigenous students also have English as an additional language.

In some cases, students will be highly proficient in two or more languages and their EAL/D background will be an advantage in their education. Other students will require considerable support. For example, students arriving in Australia or New Zealand from overseas are usually placed in an age-appropriate grade. This can mean, for example, that a newly-arrived 13-yearold student is likely to be placed in a secondary school setting even though she may have very limited English skills and, perhaps, limited prior schooling. Most systems provide intensive English classes before placing the student in a regular class, but at some stage that student will become the responsibility of a regular class teacher.

Even those EAL/D students who were born in Australia or New Zealand can have educational difficulties if English is not the first language in their home. Apart from obvious difficulties in language, there may be subtler differences related to the way in which their life and cultural experiences have differed from those of other students in their class.

Students from diverse cultural and social backgrounds Students with diverse cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds

Teachers need to be aware of the diverse cultural and social backgrounds represented in most twenty-first century classrooms. While some classrooms will be relatively homogeneous, many will contain students with a huge diversity of life experiences. For example, some students will start school having been read to since they were a baby; others will come from homes that have no books. Some will be computer-literate in preschool, while others will not have touched a computer. Some will come from conventional nuclear families while others will have been raised by a single mother, a single father, two mothers, two fathers, grandparents, or foster parents. All such variations have potential to impact on classroom learning, and teachers need to be aware that they are not teaching a ‘class’, but rather a group of individuals with varying needs, abilities, resources and life experiences. The various chapters in this book are designed to assist teachers to ensure that learning outcomes are optimal for all students.

1.4 Terminology and concepts related to inclusion The words ‘integration’, ‘mainstreaming’ and ‘inclusion’ are sometimes substituted for each other, as if they all had the same meaning. When applied to education and schooling, all the terms imply that students with additional educational needs will use similar educational facilities to those used by most other students. However, there are subtle but important differences between the meanings of the words, as explained below.

integration The term integration refers to a child’s attendance at a regular school. A student who attends a regular school, but is in a separate special unit or class, can still be said to be integrated.

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Integration

Integration is a broad term used to refer to attendance at, or participation in, activities at a regular school, or the process of transferring a student to a less-specialised setting. A student who attends a regular school, but is in a separate special unit or class, such as an EAL/D class or a class for students with an intellectual disability, is still often said to be ‘integrated’ (e.g. Chris’ secondary schooling in Narrative 1.2). Although the student is in a special class, the opportunities to interact with other members of the regular school community are greater than if the student is in a special school. There is also a greater chance that the student will have

CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

siblings or neighbours at the school, and will come into contact with schoolmates in out-ofschool situations. It is also more culturally normative to go to the local school with brothers, sisters or neighbours than to go off to a special school by taxi or special bus.

Many schools with special classes have programs to encourage interaction between students in regular and special classes. In some schools, students spend the mornings in a special class and afternoons in a regular class. Some special schools have ‘integration’ programs where students attend a regular school for a day or more a week. Teachers and assistants from the special school or class support placement in the regular class. Such opportunities for interaction, based on the principle of normalisation, are more likely to occur if the child is attending a regular school, even if in a special class or unit. However, the term ‘integration’ has fallen out of favour because of the implication that somebody who is different is being ‘fitted in’ to a regular setting in a tokenistic way.

Mainstreaming

Students are mainstreamed while they are enrolled in or participating in a regular class. The term ‘mainstream’ is also used more broadly to describe standard community-based services. For example, it is common now for adults with a disability to access mainstream services such as community libraries, restaurants, sporting facilities and health services. In Australia, New Zealand and other developed countries, mainstreaming is regarded as the most culturally normative school placement; that is, it is the most usual type of placement in these cultures. Many parents and school systems consider that mainstreaming should be the standard placement for all students, except under exceptional circumstances.

Inclusion

Inclusive education, while it leads to integration and regular class placement (mainstreaming), comes from a different philosophical base. Indeed, inclusion is a concept that extends well beyond education to society itself, and many countries take pride in having an inclusive ethos in their communities. An inclusive community recognises and values the diversity of its members. In education, inclusion is based on the philosophy that schools should, without question, provide for the needs of all students in the community, whatever their background, their ability or their disability. Inclusive schools welcome and celebrate diversity in ability as well as in cultural, racial, ethnic and social background. An essential difference between integration or mainstreaming and inclusion is that with integration or mainstreaming the school asks ‘Can we provide for the needs of this student?’ whereas with inclusion, the school asks ‘How will we provide for the needs of this student?’ This question is asked about students who are diverse socially, culturally, ethnically, intellectually or behaviourally. The school provides an inclusive and accepting environment, which caters for all members of its community. Inclusion usually involves regular class placement, regardless of the nature of the student’s additional needs.

community-based A program, activity or service that is located in the community. Sports clubs, libraries and shopping facilities are examples of community-based activities and services. mainstreaming Students are mainstreamed while they are enrolled in or participating in a regular class. inclusive education The concept of inclusion is based on the notion that schools should provide for the needs of all the children in their communities, whatever the level of their ability, disability, educational need or other form of diversity.

Research has shown that schools that focus on supports for participation and learning, rather than social competition and comparison, are likely to have a culture that is more inclusive (Haines et al., 2015). Narrative 1.3 showcases a school that celebrates diversity and has provided an inclusive education for students who have disabilities. These students, who might once have attended a special school, now have all of their education in a regular school. As can be seen from Narrative 1.3, considerable planning and resources are sometimes needed to support a regular placement, but considerable planning and resources are needed for students with a disability, regardless of whether they are in a special or regular school.

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PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

The philosophy of inclusion

Inclusion as a movement and a philosophy has been the subject of considerable discussion and debate (Armstrong et al., 2011; Graham & Slee, 2007). Some teachers will have strong views in favour of or against inclusion. Graham and Slee point out that ‘to include is not necessarily to be inclusive’ (2007, p. 278). However, all teachers, regardless of their views, must now be prepared to provide for the needs of a diversity of students, whether those students are ‘integrated’, ‘mainstreamed’ or ‘included’. In this book, we prefer to use the term ‘inclusion’ or ‘inclusive practice’, as this has implications both about the process and about the philosophy that underpins it.

NARRATIVE 1.3 Central Normal School (Te kura tuatahi o papaioea): inclusive education in practice

FIGURE 1.5 Inclusion is part of the ‘shared vision’ at Central Normal School

Central Normal School (CNS) is a contributing primary school for New Entrant (5-year-olds) to Year 6 students (10- to 11-year-olds). It is located in Palmerston North, New Zealand, a university city of approximately 80 000 residents. The school has a roll of between 450–500 students and 22 classes, including a 6-class bilingual team. Families of the school include a diverse mix of ethnic and socioeconomic attributes. Our school philosophy of inclusive education is embraced by the whole school: the students, the teachers, senior leadership staff, the principal, parents/families and the Board of Trustees (our School Governors). Central Normal School is an accredited ‘fund-holder’ school for 20+ high level needs and very high-level needs students. The level of need of these students has been verified through the Ministry of Education, Special Education Team and subsequently funded through the Ongoing

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CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

Resourcing Scheme (ORS). We believe this ‘fund-holder’ status enhances our ability to provide effective practice in supporting our students with special needs. We can be flexible and responsive to need, selecting and contracting the support and specialist services (e.g. speech-language therapist, occupational therapist) that are most appropriate for our students and their families. Management of the ORS funding comes under the responsibility of one of the assistant principals of the school, who is also the Team Leader of the Special Needs team.

What does inclusive education look like at CNS? Collaboration Support for the students and the classroom teachers is based on a ‘shared vision’ involving a collaborative approach. A learning support team of three special education teachers and over 20 teacher assistants is integral to the support systems. Expertise is shared willingly, and this is a critical element of our school culture. Additional support professionals can be accessed through school referrals according to need – Resource Teachers Learning and Behaviour (RTLB), Resource Teacher of Literacy (RT:Lit), itinerant teachers supporting students with hearing and/or vision impairments (RTD, RTV), counsellors, behaviour specialists and/or psychologists. Working together with families is imperative – the education practitioners cannot work alone. Cultural diversity is celebrated across the school. Our school consists of families of many different cultures. School systems and procedures are in place to ensure all people are welcomed and opportunities for success are accessible for all students. Additional support programs are in place for students who have English as their second language. A staff member has responsibility for assisting children who need additional English language support by way of in-class support, intervention programs or assistance with resources. We have six bilingual classes with a team of teachers fluent in te reo Māori. Whānau/families choose for their children to be enrolled in this learning team. The school seeks out opportunities for families of different ethnicities to be involved as much as possible in their children’s learning and in school events. This can involve having a staff member as a ‘link’ person between a particular group of families and the school; who can liaise at various times to ensure all groups have a ‘voice’. Expectations The school is promoted as a ‘learning community for all’ and quality learning is an expectation for everyone. All staff are encouraged and expected to take advantage of opportunities that will help them to develop professionally. An important aspect of the special needs (SN) team leader’s role is planning professional development opportunities for the SN teachers and teacher assistants (TAs). Students’ learning programs are adapted as appropriate for each student in order to provide meaningful learning experiences. Participation in the full life of the school is an understanding that guides staff in their planning for students with diverse needs as it does for all students. Achievements and successes are celebrated throughout the school. ORS students participate in specialised music, movement and swimming programs. A cooking and life skills program emphasises skills for independence. Regular educational visits to places such as the toy library, an indoor swimming pool and participation in the ‘riding for the disabled’ program are made possible through use of the school van for transporting the students and support staff. Communication Open communication processes for sharing information ensure planning and programs are relevant and appropriate. Parents/caregivers and visitors are welcomed into the school. Many of our ORS students are non-verbal, so an effective system for regular information-sharing between home and school is vital. These students have a home–school communication book

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PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

that is recorded in daily by school personnel working with the student and by the family. Regular face-to-face contact with school staff occurs for many of our students’ parents/caregivers when bringing or collecting their children. We have informal coffee mornings for parents/caregivers so that they can network with each other and share concerns, successes, support systems etc. For others, phone and/or email provide critical links. Individual education plan (IEP) meetings are held six-monthly (or sooner if requested) and the student’s full team attends these meetings to evaluate learning outcomes and achievements, and to plan the next steps. Tracking sheets are used to monitor and record progress of each of the IEP learning outcomes over the six-month period. These are helpful in the evaluation process. IEP evaluations, meeting minutes and IEP documents are distributed to each team member. All students have an annual ‘sharing book’ that is a compilation of work samples and records of experiences throughout each year. These books go home during the year at regular intervals for families to share and record comments in. Additional to IEPs, written reports go home in the last term of the year. Digital technology is used in these books to capture evidence of school involvement and achievement. Each team in the school has a Facebook page to share team notices and events with families. The SN teachers meet weekly to discuss matters of relevance to the team and to plan ahead. The assistant principal meets weekly with the school senior management team, prepares biannual reports for the Board of Trustees and reports annually to the Ministry of Education. We are at all times accountable to all stakeholders in each student’s learning. School staff access professionals from outside the school to remove barriers to effective communication (e.g. interpreters for non-English-speaking families, assessors for students who have English as a second language). Transitions Transitions to school and between schools for students with identified diverse needs are planned and informed. Parents are welcome to visit the school any time during the transition-to-school process. This initial visit is very important in building a positive and trusting relationship between CNS and the family. A transition meeting is held once the parents have made a decision about school choice. Early intervention team members, parents/caregivers, preschool education staff and support staff, and the CNS team members attend the transition meeting to plan the transition-to-school process. It may be that the student’s needs are of a medical nature. The same process for transition is followed with the inclusion of the medical personnel who can impact on a successful transition to school for the child, family and school. A timeline of visits is put in place leading up to the school start date. Visits to the preschool centre by the CNS staff are also arranged. When transitioning students from CNS to their next level of schooling, a similar process is followed ensuring the new environment is familiar to the student, and the new school is prepared for the student’s arrival. We provide the parents with the support they need to help them with this often-daunting process. Resources and facilities The school has attractive buildings and classrooms with many purpose-built facilities that are used by students with specific needs These include a large multipurpose facility which includes an indoor sandpit, a fully equipped kitchen, a laundry, a hammock/resting area, an indoor minitrampoline, storage areas for resources, tables and chairs in a quiet work space, a large carpeted area that can be used for multi-sensory or therapy activities; a second multipurpose room with a swing, kitchen area, work spaces, wet floor area and resource areas; and a security-fenced and safety-matted playground with large sturdy playground equipment. Our ORS students spend the majority of each day in their classrooms but these areas provide valuable spaces for individual teaching times, skills development and/or quiet areas for ‘retreat’ times. The school

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CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

has a wonderful library centre which is easily accessible to all students. All classrooms are well resourced with digital technology equipment, and additional computers are provided within the school for specific learning support programs. The flexibility of all school facilities allows for special requirements and the ‘shared vision’ held across the school fosters the successful inclusion of all students. Consistency across the school is high on our list of effective practices. At Central Normal we believe another key attribute of successful inclusion is to value the contribution made by all stakeholders in the learning and development of a child. We believe we develop positive and trusting relationships that produce the best outcomes for all our students, their families and the school. Source: Kerry Howard, Assistant Principal, Central Normal School, Palmerston North, New Zealand

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How important is the philosophy of inclusion at Central Normal School? 2. What methods are used to improve communication between schools and families? 3. What is the importance of resources and facilities in supporting inclusion?

1.5 Language about diversity Language influences the way we think and the way we act, hence the debate on the usage of terms such as integration, mainstreaming and inclusion. Language usage is an important aspect of inclusive practice.

Usage and terminology

Most people nowadays are careful about the use of discriminatory language. The most significant changes in discriminatory language usage have occurred in relation to sexism. It has become widely accepted that schools have ‘principals’ rather than ‘headmasters’ and that prime ministers, judges, doctors and jockeys are no longer always referred to as ‘he’. Some people dismiss concerns about discrimination in the use of language as mere ‘political correctness’, but there is more to it than that and there are frequently important social justice issues at stake. Strong messages are conveyed in the language we use, and this is particularly the case in relation to people with a disability (Foreman, 2005). People who are different from the norm in any way frequently have these differences exaggerated by the language used to describe them. In children, this sometimes leads to namecalling that focuses on the differences.

A common problem is the use of language that suggests that all people with a particular characteristic are similar to each other. Expressions such as ‘the disabled’, ‘the handicapped’, ‘epileptics’, ‘spastics’, ‘the blind’, ‘refugees’, ‘boat people’ all give the impression that we are describing homogeneous groups. In reality, the people who are in the groups referred to by these words are very different from each other.

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PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

When it comes to language about disability, it first needs to be acknowledged that any terms used about people with disability will become at some point in time contentious, and potentially even offensive. For example, centuries ago the term ‘idiot’ was an officially accepted language about people with intellectual disabilities, but over time became an offensive term. This resulted in terminology changing to ‘mental retardation’, which again became offensive (e.g., gradually people started to use this term to call others names – ‘retard’). Therefore, terminology about people with intellectual disabilities changed again. Undoubtedly, there will be new terms developed in future, as – while we do not want to label people – it is important to have language that we can use about specific disabilities; not only for available funding and support reasons but also to enable people to gain self-understanding. Looking at past terms used in relation to different disabilities, as well as at newly introduced terms, we need to respectfully acknowledge that: Each time the new word is coined, it is coined honourably. It is not deliberately created as a euphemism but becomes one because of the painfulness of the subject. (…) It is therefore doing a grave disservice to past pioneers to point contemptuously to their chosen terms. Within another five years the process of euphemism will already be affecting the brave new words. Source: Sinason (2010), p. 35

Language about disability can use diagnostic labels, for example ‘a student with hearing impairment’; or more generic terms, for example, ‘a student with special needs’ (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017). We have already pointed out above how language based on diagnostic labels can be problematic. The same applies to language using more generic terms. For example, some advocates for inclusive education argue against the term ‘a student with special needs’, pointing out that people with disability have the same needs as anybody else.

People- and identity-first language

Many people who have a disability prefer language that emphasises the principle of people first, disability second. When we are referring to a disability within this people-first language framework, it is preferable to talk about a person with a disability or a person who has a disability, rather than a disabled person. This difference seems inconsequential at first, but it is significant and is very important to many people with a disability. By saying ‘people with …’ or ‘people who …’, we convey the impression that the person’s disability is just one of their many characteristics, just a part of their humanity. We still sometimes hear people say ‘Sally is a Down syndrome child’, or even ‘Sally is a Down syndrome’. In reality, Sally is a child with blue eyes, auburn hair, two brothers and Down syndrome. Thus, the people-first language emphasises that a disability is one of many traits of being a human being (Block, 2016). However, it is also important to note that some people or organisations world-wide prefer to speak about ‘disabled people’ to reflect and point out that these people have often been disabled by their environments. Furthermore, some groups of people prefer to use identity-first language. Identity-first language uses adjectives (i.e., disabled, Deaf, autistic) before referring to the person. For example, many people on the autism spectrum will prefer the term ‘autistic people’, because they believe that autism makes them who they are, and is therefore a critical part of their identity. As argued by Brown (2015): It is impossible to separate a person from autism, just as it is impossible to separate a person from the color of his or her skin … Ultimately what we are saying when we say ‘person with autism’ is that the person would be better off if not autistic, and that it would have been better if he or she had been born typical. We suppress the individual’s identity as an autistic person, because we are saying that autism is something inherently bad like a disease. Yet, when we say ‘autistic person,’ we recognize, affirm, and validate an individual’s identity as an autistic person. (Brown, 2015)

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CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

Similarly, the Deaf community feels strongly about the people-first language – deafness for them is not simply a disability, but a linguistic diversity and an important part of who they are.

In relation to identity-first language, it is also important to introduce the concept of ‘neurodiversity’. According to this concept, different neurological conditions (e.g., autism) need to be understood as natural human variations, not a pathology or disorder (Silberman, 2015).

In this book, the authors opted to use people-first language, not only because it is more common, but also because it aligns with their philosophy. In saying that, the authors contributing to this book are very respectful of the identity-first language. The key message of this section about language is that we all need to: • Think about the language that we use about disability (i.e. Do I use people-first or identityfirst language? Or do I use them interchangeably, not realising that there is an important difference and that each of these language frameworks highlights a different message?)

• Acknowledge the power of language and reflect on beliefs that underpin the language we opt to use about disability

• Make clear what approach to the language we opt for and why we are doing that while acknowledging there is no one correct approach. For example, while identity-first language has been embraced by the autistic community, who often feel that it is their autism that makes them who they are, it might not work for people with other disability (e.g., intellectual disability), who feel that their disability is just one of many characteristics they have – hence they embrace people-first language

• Always ensure you know of the language about themselves that students (and adults) with a disability prefer. This all comes down to the respect we have for each other. This is consistent with the American Psychological Association (2020), according to which it is acceptable to use person-first or identity-first language unless the author knows that a group prefers one option. In such case, the author should use the preferred approach (Duncan & O’Neill, 2020).

The limitations of language

Another problem is the use of words that imply pity or suffering, or of people being ‘victims’ of a disability or ‘afflicted with’ a syndrome. We should not conclude that a person necessarily ‘suffers’ because of a disability. Many people who have a disability live very happy and fulfilled lives and do not regard themselves in any way as victims or sufferers. For example, people who are deaf and use signing to communicate generally regard their deafness as an alternative culture rather than as a disability. They may be quite pleased if their own children are also deaf, and therefore part of their culture. They would be justifiably offended at the suggestion that they suffer from deafness. Similarly, the statement ‘She has cerebral palsy’ is much less assumptionladen than ‘She is afflicted with cerebral palsy’. Francesca Martinez, for example, is an English stand-up comedian whose cerebral palsy is an integral part of her act. Members of the deaf community do not usually like to be referred to as having a hearing impairment. They are generally proud of their deafness and are happy with the term ‘deaf’. That is why we have organisations with names such as the Deaf Society of NSW. The deaf community generally distinguishes between people who are deaf and communicate primarily through sign and those with a hearing impairment who communicate orally. Similarly, people who are blind (as opposed to those who have some vision) do not usually refer to themselves as having a vision impairment, and do not resist use of the term ‘blind’. However, it is still preferable to use peoplefirst language such as ‘John, who is blind …’ or ‘My aunt, who is deaf …’. Incidentally, people who have a vision impairment generally prefer it not to be called a visual impairment, as people often confuse the meaning of ‘visual’ and ‘visible’.

impairment An abnormality in the way organs or systems function. It usually refers to a medical condition; for example, shortsightedness, cerebral palsy, spina bifida, deafness.

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PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

People who differ from the average in any way do not like to hear the difference referred to gratuitously in conversation. Such references are not only hurtful but also stereotype certain characteristics. Teachers (and others) should not use expressions such as ‘She’ll have a fit when she finds out’, ‘Are you deaf or something?’, ‘He’s as deaf as a post’, ‘He’s as blind as a bat’, ‘Blind Freddie could see that’, ‘She’s a real egghead’ or ‘He worked like a black’. It is also inappropriate to use the word ‘normal’ as a way of comparing people with and without a particular characteristic, for example, ‘adolescents who are gay compared with normal adolescents’. It is more accurate to say ‘adolescents who are gay compared with heterosexual adolescents’, if that is the comparison being made. Another principle to observe in the use of language is that it is preferable not to refer to a person’s disability, religion, ethnicity or other area of diversity unless the disability or diversity is relevant to the topic being discussed. If the discussion is about blindness, it is reasonable to say: ‘Andrea Bocelli is blind, and he’s made a career as a tenor’. However, if the discussion is about favourite tenors, then blindness is irrelevant and all that needs to be said, if that is what is believed, is that Andrea Bocelli is a fine tenor. Similarly, if the discussion is about homosexuality as an issue in sporting success, it is reasonable to say: ‘Ian Thorpe is gay, and he’s had a fine career as an elite sportsman’. However, if the discussion is about swimming, then sexuality is irrelevant, and all that needs to be said is that Ian Thorpe is one of the most successful Australian swimmers ever.

Examples of inclusive language

Some examples of appropriate and inappropriate use of language in relation to disability are given in Figure 1.6. Note that the names of disabilities are not capitalised unless they contain a person’s name (e.g. autism, Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, Asperger syndrome, spina bifida, Rett syndrome).

Language about Indigenous peoples

Just as we have seen that there have been developments in language when referring to people with a disability, language has also developed in relation to people of different races or cultural backgrounds. The language we use is a crucial aspect of inclusive practice, as the phrases we use can unintentionally lead to inappropriate stereotyping, classifying, or labelling.

Indigenous peoples of Australia

The Indigenous peoples of Australia are diverse, with a variety of ancient and continuing cultures. It is customary to refer to the two major groups as either ‘Aboriginal’, referring to the original peoples of mainland Australia, or ‘Torres Strait Islander’, referring to people whose ancestors’ origin was in the islands of the Torres Strait. They are sometimes collectively referred to as ‘First Nations’, ‘First People’ or ‘First Australians’. In referring to themselves, Aboriginal peoples will often use more specific terminology, such as ‘Koori’, ‘Murri’, ‘Wurundjeri’ or ‘Nyungar’ according to their location of origin. While the use of language about Indigenous peoples is quite a complex area, there are a few principles that should be observed at all times. These principles reflect preferences expressed by Indigenous people: • the terms ‘Indigenous’ and ‘Aboriginal’ should always be capitalised when referring to the Indigenous people of Australia • the acronym ‘ATSI’ should not be used – spell it out in full • The terms ‘islanders’ and ‘natives’ should not be used

• it is preferable to refer to an ‘Aboriginal person’ or an ‘Indigenous person’ rather than ‘an Aborigine’ or ‘an Aboriginal’

• local Indigenous communities should be consulted about how they wish language about them to be used.

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CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

Avoid expressions such as …

Use …

a Down syndrome sufferer

a person with Down syndrome

epileptics

people with epilepsy

the handicapped

people with a disability

his handicap is …

his disability is …

the disabled

people with a disability

the blind

people who are blind

autistic children (however, be respectful as people you are referring to may prefer identity-first language)

children on the autism spectrum

a spastic

a person with cerebral palsy

haemophiliacs

people with haemophilia

a deaf woman

a woman who is deaf

deaf and dumb

deaf

a victim of blindness

a person who is blind

mental retardation

intellectual disability

the retarded

people with an intellectual disability

the intellectually disabled

people with an intellectual disability

he is crippled

he has a physical disability

she has a visual impairment

she has a vision impairment

she is visually impaired

she has a vision impairment

he is afflicted with spina bifida

he has spina bifida

she is wheelchair-bound

she uses a wheelchair

he’s confined to a wheelchair

he uses a wheelchair

he had a fit when I told him

he was angry when I told him

my disabled sister

my sister, who has a disability

disabled children and normal children

children with and without a disability

blind Freddie could see that

most people could see that

FIGURE 1.6 Use of language when talking about disability

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PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa–New Zealand

Māori are the indigenous peoples of Aotearoa–New Zealand. Māori identify with iwi (tribe), hapu (sub-tribes) and whānau (family). Many Māori also identify with a waka (canoe) that their founding ancestors travelled on to Aotearoa–New Zealand. For example, a whānau in the Wairarapa region is likely to belong to the Ngāti Kahungunu iwi and identify with the Tākitimu waka. Iwi and waka are usually geographically based. Although Māori have unique waka and iwi heritage, they share a common language – te reo Māori (the Māori language). Te reo Māori is an official language of Aotearoa–New Zealand and is used widely in the education sector and other public service sectors. Some principles in the use of the term ‘Māori’ and ‘te reo Māori’ include: • the term Māori is both singular and plural, so the word ‘Māoris’ is incorrect

• a macron is positioned above the ‘ā’ (in Māori and some other te reo words) to indicate a long vowel sound • there are five vowel sounds in te reo Māori (a, e, i, o, u) and these can be ‘long’ or ‘short’ and produced in combinations to form ‘diphthongs’ (e.g. ‘eo’ in ‘reo’) • Māori words are often used interchangeably within spoken and written English.

Online resources are available to support the learning of te reo Māori (see weblinks at the end of the chapter).

Impairments, disabilities and handicaps handicap The social or environmental consequences of a disability; for example, inability to follow television news because of deafness. The extent to which a person with a disability also has a handicap depends on how well the environment caters for the disability (e.g. through the provision of closed captions).

The terms ‘impairment’, ‘disability’ and ‘handicap’ are sometimes used interchangeably, but there are important differences in meaning. Over 35 years ago, the World Health Organization (1980) provided definitions of these terms which have received wide acceptance. This is referred to as the International classification of impairments, disabilities and handicaps (ICIDH). The term ‘impairment’ refers to an irregularity in the way organs or systems function. It usually refers to a medically-based condition, for example, short-sightedness, heart problems, cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, spina bifida, deafness. A ‘disability’ is the functional consequence of the impairment – how it affects the person’s functioning. For example, because of the impairment of cerebral palsy, a student may be unable to walk without the assistance of a walking frame; because of a vision impairment, the person may not be able to see further than two metres. The ‘handicap’ is the social or environmental consequence of the disability. The extent to which a person with a disability has a handicap will depend on how well their environment caters for the disability. If a student who uses a walking frame is unable to enter the school library because it is upstairs, then that student will have a handicap in relation to library usage. If, on the other hand, the library and its equipment and contents are fully accessible, then the student does not have a handicap in using the library. Sometimes an impairment can be supported in such a way that the person does not have a disability. A student who is short-sighted (impairment) may have excellent vision when wearing glasses, and therefore does not have a disability. Another student with a severe vision impairment may have the disability of very limited vision, even with glasses. Whether that person has a handicap will depend on whether the school can provide the necessary specialised assessment, teaching, equipment and support. For students with vision impairments, this can now be achieved in most school systems through special equipment, including voice-activated computers and specialist itinerant teachers.

Supporting the student

These examples emphasise the fact that whether or not a disability leads to a handicap is often a function of the flexibility, resources and attitudes of the society in which the person lives. Schools can rarely remove a student’s impairment or disability, but they are well placed to do

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something about the handicapping effects of the student’s disability. A good position for a teacher to take is: ‘If I am aware that a student has an impairment that has led to a disability, I will try to prevent the disability from becoming a handicap’. Of the three terms (impairment, disability and handicap), the most appropriate terminology to use in the current context is students with a disability. However, to avoid the issue of whether we are talking about impairments, disabilities or handicaps, and to focus on what the school’s response needs to be, rather than what is wrong with the student, we will most often refer to ‘students with additional needs’. This focuses on the supports needed rather than ‘deficits’ in the student. And, of course, there are many students in today’s diverse classrooms who have additional needs without those needs being related to a disability.

International classification of functioning, disability and health

The World Health Organization (WHO) worked for some time on a revision of the International classification of impairments, disabilities and handicaps (ICIDH). This has become the International classification of functioning, disability and health (ICF). The previous WHO framework, although found to be very useful by many practitioners, was criticised for ‘medicalising’ disability (Pfeiffer, 1998). The ICF is a framework designed to measure health and disability, and to provide more consistent data for planning and service provision. The classification system was endorsed by the member states of WHO in May 2001 (World Health Organization, 2001). The ICF puts forth new conceptualisations of health and disability. It attempts to mainstream or normalise the experience of disability by acknowledging that any person could experience a disability at any time through illness or accident. The system moves away from seeing disability as a medical or biological dysfunction, and focuses on the impact of adverse health conditions on a person’s functioning. It is a classification of functioning that is applicable to all people, rather than a definition of disability applicable to particular disadvantaged groups.

The aim of ICF is to be able to classify everything a person, or a body, can do across different settings (O’Connor et al., 2014). It does not classify people or disabilities. Rather, it identifies and describes the full range of human functions and any disturbance of those functions, as they relate to a person’s context. This allows the educator or therapist to plan ways to assist the person to improve their functional ability. While the ICF will help to re-order the way some people think about disabilities, it is unlikely, at least in the short term, to replace the current usage of the terms ‘impairment’, ‘disability’ and ‘handicap’ that are in such common use.

1.6 Inclusion in schools: models of schooling for students with a disability The next section of the chapter traces the movement towards more inclusive educational practice, and examines research on the outcomes of inclusive education.

Early types of schooling

The earliest forms of schooling for students with a disability tended to be organised by parents or charity groups, and were rarely seen as a government responsibility. In Australia, it was not until the 1970s that state governments accepted full responsibility for the education of all students,

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including those with a severe disability. Before that, some students missed out on school altogether.

The first special schools, many starting in the nineteenth century, were for students with a sensory disability – children who were deaf or blind (Foreman, 2014). One purpose of these schools was to provide specialised teaching related to hearing or vision. They often took place in residential settings because the relatively small numbers of children who are deaf or blind meant that schools were only viable in large cities. As a result, some students spent most of their young lives only with other children who were also blind or deaf. Residential schools were often organised along a medical model, with students living in hospital-type dormitories supervised by a ‘matron’. The organisations that developed these provisions did so with the best of intentions, with the aim of providing the best possible care and instruction for students with a sensory disability.

The evolution of special schools

For students with an intellectual disability or severe physical disability, the main purpose of institutional provision was physical care, rather than education. As a result, the institutions in which they lived were often designated as ‘hospitals’, organised in wards, staffed by nurses and run by doctors. In some cases, the aim was to remove the person from the community, and the hospitals were often located in isolated country areas, sometimes even on islands (e.g. Peat Island in NSW). This model lasted well into the second half of the twentieth century, when the medical model was gradually replaced by a social or educational model which focused on education and training rather than care and treatment. Special day schools for students with intellectual or physical disabilities were developed with the aim of teaching social and academic skills.

By the mid-1970s, most school systems had established separate special schools for students with a disability. Typically, each school catered for one type of disability: usually intellectual, physical, vision or hearing. Often there was further subdivision according to the level of intellectual disability (mild, moderate or severe) or, for students with hearing impairments, according to the teaching approach (e.g. signing or oral). The development of the system of separate special schools was based on the notion that a child with a disability would benefit from being in a separate setting where it would be possible, at least in theory, to provide small classes and specialised teaching and equipment. The primary aim was education, even though an inevitable outcome was segregation and isolation.

The movement towards inclusive schooling

The normalisation movement of the 1970s led many parents to seek enrolment for their child in regular classes, and professionals began to research and advocate mainstreaming and integration. In 1994, the World Conference on Special Needs Education was held at Salamanca, Spain. Over 90 countries agreed on a statement that supported inclusion as the standard form of education for students with a disability. Article 2 of the Salamanca Statement says: Regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all. Source: UNESCO (1994), p. ix

The Salamanca Statement reinforced the view that education in a regular school should be available as a first option for all students. The statement has been widely endorsed by education systems in Australia, New Zealand and internationally, and has been used as a basis for policy

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development. Chapter 2 details some of the other policy decisions that have influenced support for inclusive education.

Parents, administrators, politicians and educational theorists have all taken leadership roles in the movement towards inclusive education. This has occurred for several reasons. First, there has been widespread acceptance of the right of all persons to participate, without discrimination, in the mainstream community. Second, research has failed to show clearly that separate special schools produce better social or academic outcomes than integrated settings. There is even evidence that some students with severe and multiple disabilities are more engaged with their environment and have more opportunities for communication in regular settings than in special schools (Foreman et al., 2004; Rafferty et al., 2003). The consequence of such changes in thinking about inclusion is that some students who may previously have had to spend their entire school career in a separate setting will now be in a regular class. It is therefore essential that class teachers are competent to teach all the students for whom they are responsible. Booth and his colleagues in the UK have developed an Index for Inclusion, which is a process for analysing school and classroom cultures, policies and practices to see how inclusive they are, and which also suggests ways in which they could become more inclusive (Ainscow, 2015; Ainscow et al., 2006; Booth & Ainscow, 2002; McMaster, 2015). This index has been used elsewhere in the world, including in Australia and New Zealand, and suggests that it is possible to take a systematic and measurable approach to improving the inclusive culture of a school (Carrington & Holm, 2005; Duke, 2009).

In 1998, McGregor and Vogelsberg synthesised the findings of a large number of studies of the effects of various aspects of inclusive schooling, and concluded that the outcomes are generally beneficial.

Outcomes of research on inclusive education

For the present chapter, other findings since that time on the outcomes of research on inclusive education have been reviewed, and are summarised below. The summary uses the headings developed by McGregor and Vogelsberg as a starting point.

Social outcomes for students with a disability

• Students with a disability demonstrate high levels of social interaction in regular settings. • Placement alone does not guarantee positive social outcomes, and some students feel more isolated in regular settings. • Social competence and communication skills improve when students with a disability are educated in inclusive settings. • Friendships develop between students with and without disabilities in inclusive settings. • Some students feel isolated and stigmatised in mainstream settings.

• Students with developmental disabilities can establish friendships that are similar in character to those of typically-developing peers. • Students on the autism spectrum are more likely to be bullied in mainstream settings than in specialised settings.

• Teachers and parents can play a critical role in facilitating friendships between students with a disability and their peers without a disability.

social interaction The ways in which students work together. In an integrated setting it commonly refers to the ways both the integrated and mainstream students accept each other when working together. social competence The ability to independently monitor, use and adapt social skills across social situations.

• Teaching assistants can be trained to increase the interactions between students with severe disabilities and their peers in regular settings.

• Friendship and membership are helped by long-term involvement in the classroom and routine activities of the school. However, social interaction is difficult for some students with a disability.

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• Students with severe multiple disabilities have more communicative interactions and communication partners in regular classes than in special classes.

• Teacher assistants can have a negative influence on the social interaction of students with a disability. • Inclusive settings may raise the work-related aspirations of students with a disability.

• Some students with a disability have a preference for inclusive settings, some for specialised settings.

Outcomes for skill acquisition for students with a disability

behaviour management The control of certain behaviours either by the individual or another person, usually a teacher or a parent. Often applied to a specific management program that has been developed to change unacceptable behaviours.

social acceptance The degree to which mainstream students are willing to accept a student with additional educational needs in their class or in the playground.

• Students with a disability may demonstrate gains in curriculum areas when they are educated in inclusive settings. However, some studies do not show curriculum gains. • Teachers of mainstreamed students sometimes emphasise behaviour management rather than teaching and learning. • Students in mainstream classes will achieve better academic outcomes than students in special classes if the mainstream classes have a greater focus on academic skills. • Students in regular classes benefit from explicit, teacher-directed approaches to classroom learning.

• The majority of studies confirm positive or neutral results of inclusion on academic achievement.

• Students in mainstream classes are likely to spend up to twice as much time on academic skills as those in special classes. • Students in regular classes benefit from explicit, teacher-directed approaches to classroom learning.

• Interactive, small group contexts encourage skill acquisition and social acceptance for students with a disability in general education classrooms.

Impact on students without disability

• The academic performance of typically developing students is not compromised by the presence of students with a disability in their classrooms.

• The classroom behaviour of typically developing students is not generally affected negatively by the presence of students with a disability in their classrooms. However, some studies have suggested that there can be unwanted effects.

• Typically developing students benefit from their involvement and relationships with students with a disability. • Typically developing students may perceive that adaptations and accommodations for students with a disability benefit their own learning. • Some typically developing students have negative attitudes to students with a disability. • Negative attitudes are amenable to change through educational programs.

• Students without a disability in regular classes benefit from explicit, teacher-directed approaches to classroom learning. • The presence of students with a disability in the general education classroom provides learning opportunities and experiences that might not otherwise be part of the curriculum.

Impact on parents

• Parent support for inclusion is encouraged by experience with this approach to education, although experience alone does not shape attitudes. • Parents of students with a disability are looking for positive attitudes, good educational opportunities and acceptance of their child among educators.

• Some parents of students with more severe disability are worried about the loss of the individual support of a specialised setting.

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• Parents who strongly favour inclusion may still be worried about whether their child will lack resources and be socially isolated in regular settings. • Parents need to expend substantial efforts to support their mainstreamed children.

• Some parents of students without disability are worried about the impact of inclusion on their child’s education.

Impact on teachers

• Although many teachers are initially reluctant about inclusion, they become confident in their abilities with support and experience. • Teachers experience professional growth as a result of working in inclusive settings.

• Teachers experience increased personal satisfaction as a result of working in inclusive settings. • Many teachers prefer to have students with disability who have minimal support needs and without behaviour problems in their classes.

• Support from other teachers is a powerful and necessary resource to empower teachers to problem-solve new instructional challenges.

• While many teachers see parents as a valuable resource, others prefer them not to volunteer to assist in the classroom.

• Training, experience with inclusive education, and students’ type of disability and level of support needs can impact on teacher attitudes. • Good support systems, professional development and experience produced positive attitudes in teachers.

Role of teachers

• Teacher attitude is a major factor in successful programs of inclusion.

• Training and experience assist teachers in successful implementation of programs of inclusion. • Teachers may feel they would need highly specialised skills to teach students with a disability.

• Teachers who have a positive sense of self-efficacy in relation to collaboration have more positive attitudes towards inclusion.

• Facilitating the inclusion of students with a disability requires the sensitivity to make on-the-spot judgements about the type and amount of support to encourage participation, while not interfering with student interactions. • The most inclusive classrooms cater for every student’s individual needs rather than modifying the environment only for students with a disability. • Teacher education programs that focus on making the best use of teachers’ existing skills can enhance inclusive practice.

• Increasing pre-service teachers’ knowledge of legislation and policy relevant to inclusion, and improving levels of confidence in becoming inclusive teachers, does not necessarily resolve concerns about having students with disability in their classes.

Role of principals

• Principals tend to be more supportive of inclusion than classroom teachers. • Some principals are concerned about the logistics of planning for inclusion.

• A generally positive school culture will impact on positive attitudes to students with a disability. • Principals’ views reflect the characteristics of their schools.

Other factors

• Factors such as program standards, financial support and teacher education impact on the success of inclusion. • The number of students with a disability in any one classroom should not be excessive – it should be reflective of population numbers.

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• Evaluation of the impact of inclusion needs to use multiple data sources.

• Parents of young children, parents of children with disability who have low support needs, and parents who are more highly educated are more likely to support inclusion. • Parents often face a struggle to have their children accepted in regular classes. • Many pre-service teachers feel unprepared to teach students with a disability. • Pre-service training can improve attitudes and confidence.

Source: Headings and findings are based on McGregor & Vogelsberg (1998), pp. 57–69. Findings have been updated and expanded, using research reports published after 1997 (see Foreman & Arthur-Kelly, 2008).

Headings and findings in italics represent changes to or additions to the findings of McGregor & Vogelsberg. Findings in standard font are confirmatory of McGregor & Vogelsberg’s original conclusions.

Students with a disability in regular classes

It would be unrealistic to suggest that inclusion is never difficult or problematic. The enrolment of a child with a disability will sometimes require considerable effort on the teacher’s part, and pre-service teachers, teachers and principals often worry that they will not have the teaching competencies or physical resources needed to include students with additional needs in their classes (Lambe & Bones, 2006). Certainly, some students will require individualisation of programs and others will require various levels of personal assistance. However, this statement can also be made about children without a disability; for example, students with challenging behaviour or who do not speak English. It is not possible or reasonable to refuse to accept students in a school simply because they may be more difficult to teach, or have an identified disability. All employees have some parts of their work which are more difficult than others, and which they may prefer to do without. Schools and teachers are expected to cater for their communities, and communities include people with and without disabilities, students who learn easily, and those who need much assistance, and students from conventional or unconventional backgrounds. In the same way as architects and developers can no longer say that it is too difficult or expensive to make a new building accessible, schools can no longer say that it is too difficult or expensive to enrol students who may be more difficult to teach.

The process of inclusion may require a lot of effort, planning and input from the principal, teachers, parents, the school community and the education system. Approaches to inclusion vary from school to school (Haines et al., 2015). However, in most cases, participants are happy to make the effort and are pleased with the outcome. Most schools and most teachers now accept that an inclusive school finds ways to cater for all of its community (see Narrative 1.3). Chapter 12 provides several examples of the ways in which a primary school becomes gradually more inclusive through leadership and team work.

How many students have a disability?

The question of how many students have a disability is complex. There are various ways of defining a disability that will result in quite different incidence rates. Consequently, the number of students with a disability depends on how we define a disability. For example, a very large number of people have a vision impairment to the extent that they need to wear glasses. Is a vision impairment a disability? Only if it interferes with everyday functioning.

It is not as simple as numbers

In terms of numbers, we can say that the more severe the disability, the rarer it will be. Thus, there are many more students with a mild intellectual disability than with a moderate intellectual disability, and more students with a moderate disability than with a severe disability. Usually, the number of students who have a disability which, in the past, would have required placement in

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a special school is stated to be around one to two per cent. Dempsey (2011) reported differences in incidence of disability in schools in 2009 ranging from four per cent in Western Australia to 12 per cent in the Northern Territory. Such wide discrepancies must reflect differences in definition rather than genuine differences in identified students. General population figures are sometimes stated to be up to 20 per cent, but these include people with illnesses such as diabetes or heart disease. School-age figures of 10 to 15 per cent would include students who are having difficulty learning to read or who have behavioural problems such as hyperactivity. Most students with learning difficulties or behavioural problems have always been in regular classes and, while it is expected that a school would continue to provide appropriate programs for these students, they cannot be looked on as an additional responsibility resulting from the inclusion process.

The concept of disability

It is also wrong to think of disability as an ‘all or nothing’ concept. Everyone is at some point on a continuum for all their human characteristics – height, weight, intellectual ability, physical ability or physical fitness. Frequently, people with a disability will be at a different point from others on one or more of the many continua of abilities and characteristics that make up an individual. They may be at the same point on some variables, and ahead of many people on others. For example, some students with cerebral palsy and an associated severe physical disability will be more intelligent than their classmates without cerebral palsy. Some students with learning difficulties will be better at sport than some students without learning difficulties. Very often the similarities between people with and without disabilities will be greater than the differences. It is therefore not helpful to focus too much on the differences.

Classroom integration and special schools

In the past, some teachers worried that inclusion meant that special schools would close and that their classes would be overwhelmed by students with a disability. This fear was unfounded for two reasons. First, special schools have not closed. Surprisingly, according to the annual reports of the New South Wales Department of Education and Communities (2011), the percentage of students in special schools and classes rose from 2.15 per cent in 2003 to 2.6 per cent in 2011, while the number of special schools rose from 104 to 113 in the same period. Graham (2009) reported an increase in the proportion of students in New South Wales special schools from 1997 to 2007 from 0.5 per cent to 0.6 per cent of total enrolments. Over the same period, the proportion of students enrolled in special classes within regular schools increased from 1.5 per cent to 1.7 per cent. From 2011 to 2015, the proportion of students in special schools in NSW increased from 0.7% to 0.8% (New South Wales Department of Education and Communities, 2015a). In addition, students who have moved out of special schools have tended to move into special classes and units. There will always be a need for special placements for students whose needs are so intense that there is consensus that the benefits of an inclusive setting are outweighed by the need for a more restrictive placement. Similar trends have been seen overseas. For example, Armstrong (2005) pointed out that, despite inclusive educational policy, the number of students in special schools in the UK reduced by only one per cent between 1997 and 2003. Thus, despite the fact that there has been a substantial increase in funding to support students with disabilities in regular classes, there is no evidence of an overwhelming movement of students from special to regular education.

A second reason why teachers need not fear being overwhelmed by students with a disability is that the relative number of such students is small. With around two to three per cent of school students in special schools and classes, the number of students who would enrol in regular classes in the extremely unlikely event that every special school and class suddenly closed would be less than one student per class. There is just no influx waiting to happen!

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Funding

In recent years, funding to support students with a disability in regular classes has been extended to include students with low support needs. Therefore, the number of students receiving integration funding support in New South Wales increased from 1135 in 1988 (McRae, 1996) to 16 638 in 2002 (Vinson, 2002) and to more than 26 000 in 2007 (Graham, 2009). In 2015, direct funding support was provided to 7500 students, with a further 60 000 students supported though other specialist resources (New South Wales Department of Education and Communities, 2015b). This does not mean that there were 70 times more students with a disability enrolled in regular classes in 2015 compared with 1988. What it does mean is that schools are now receiving financial support to assist students with mild intellectual disability, language impairments, mild autism or emotional/behavioural problems. These students have always been in regular classes, but in the past did not attract integration funding support. Funding models that link resources to diagnosis of disability, while commendable in many ways, can lead to over-diagnosis. The New South Wales Department of Education and Communities and other systems have introduced support programs that provide financial support to all schools without the need for a diagnosis of disability.

Support and resources

Rather than debating what constitutes a disability and how many students with a disability there are, it is more helpful to focus on the type of support that the student needs to receive. The emphasis on identification of support needs rather than identification of disabilities or deficits has been embraced by most school systems, and is reflected in the Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD, 2020) program mentioned earlier. This approach moves the emphasis away from identifying ‘defects’ in the student towards a statement of the responsibilities of the school or system and the resources necessary to ensure the student receives optimal support (Foreman et al., 2001). The best way of providing funding support remains a matter of debate (Sigafoos et al., 2010). A common feature of the newer support systems such as NCCD is that, whereas in the past the question was ‘What is wrong with this student?’, the question has become ‘What additional support does this student need to function well in a regular class?’ This question can be asked about a diverse range of students, with or without a disability. The use of resources to support inclusion is covered in more detail in Chapter 3.

REFLECT ON THIS Some parents want their child to be in a regular school, regardless of the extent of their disability, while others strongly prefer specialised classes. Consider what position you would take if you were faced with deciding on the educational placement of a child with a moderate or severe disability.

partial participation The involvement of people in an activity even though they may not be able to complete all the components of the activity. For example, assistance may be provided for one or more steps in the activity.

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1.7 Overview of approaches to teaching students with additional needs in regular classes There are several ways in which education can be made relevant and useful to all students. These include planning for instruction, adapting the curriculum, encouraging partial participation and modifying classroom environments. These topics are introduced below and treated in more detail in subsequent chapters.

CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

Response to Intervention

Response to intervention (RTI) refers to a systematic, tiered multi-element approach to academic instruction and learning in the regular school. At the core of RTI is the prevention of failure through the deliberate and considered use of research-based intervention strategies and the analysis of student progress to inform decisions about the support provided (Berkeley et al., 2020). An RTI approach to tiers of academic support can also be used to guide funding protocols for students with disabilities, and it is vital to note that this approach is optimal when used at a whole school level. More substantial information on RTI is provided in Chapter 5.

Planning for instruction

Planning is an important aspect of catering for students with diverse educational needs. The type of planning needed will vary with each student. Some will have no difficulty progressing in the regular curriculum, and planning may revolve around the student’s physical and mobility needs, such as providing ramps or accessible bathrooms. For others it will be curriculum content and methods of instruction that form the basis of planning.

An important first aspect of planning for many students is the need to individualise goals. A common procedure is to consider long-term goals, then subdivide these into short-term goals, and perhaps further divide them into teachable tasks. Goals for students with additional needs are usually set in consultation with the student’s parents and, if possible, the student. Chapters 4 and 5 provide more detail about planning goals and strategies.

Curriculum adaptations

There is no school system that mandates that all students should follow the same curriculum or achieve the same outcomes. If there is a standard, base curriculum or set of competencies, the first preference would be for a student with additional needs to achieve at least similar outcomes to other students. However, this may not be possible and it may be necessary to adapt the curriculum to make it more relevant and more accessible to the student with additional needs. For students who are gifted and talented, curriculum enrichment will help to make school more interesting and enjoyable.

Sometimes students with additional needs will be able to follow the regular curriculum with no or minimal curriculum adaptations. For others, the student’s needs will be such that the standard curriculum has no relevance to the student’s life. The teacher will then need to establish a different set of goals in consultation with parents and other relevant personnel. It is important for teachers to recognise that provided a student is progressing in an appropriately planned curriculum, it does not matter if this is different from what is usually expected of the grade. For example, an 11-year-old student with moderate intellectual disability may not read at grade level, but may still be making excellent progress in relation to an appropriate curriculum, centred on skills that are relevant to that child’s life. Teachers need not say, ‘How will I ever teach this child subtraction?’; a more appropriate question is ‘How do I make the classroom numeracy experience relevant for this child?’ (See Chapter 10.) Rietveld argues that the teacher’s role for all students should be as ‘mediators of learning rather than deliverers of curriculum’ (2005, p. 127), and has criticised the pedagogy used by mainstream teachers. Broderick, Mehta-Parekh and Reid recommend that teachers plan ‘responsive lessons that differentiate instruction for all students from the outset’ (2005, p. 194), rather than modifying the curriculum only for students with an identified disability. The above-mentioned concept of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) argues that curriculum should be designed so that it is sufficiently flexible to meet the needs of the greatest variety of learners (Hartmann, 2015) (see Chapters 5 and 13 for more discussion of UDL).

curriculum enrichment Process used to engage and develop gifted and talented students by giving them access to more advanced curriculum and specialised activities related to their interests and talents. curriculum adaptation Altering the quantity of curriculum content, vocabulary and assessment provided to students, to ensure that they are presented with material that they can attempt.

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Evidence-based practices (EBPs)

Research has demonstrated that teachers continue to use practices that are ineffective or even harmful for the students, while under-utilising practices proven by research as efficient; that is, evidence-based practices (Burns & Ysseldyke, 2009). This might be influenced by several variables, including gaps in pre- and in-service teachers’ education, relying on tradition and teaching ‘how I was taught’.

Evidence-based practices (EBPs) are instructional approaches that are proven by highquality and rigorous research to improve outcomes for students with a disability (Torres et al., 2014). When implemented with fidelity, they have the potential to improve students’ outcomes and skills. In order for an evidence-based practice to be acknowledged as such, the Council for Exceptional Children (2014) as well as What Works Clearinghouse (2017) established guidelines for systematic identification of these practices and distinguishing them from ‘best-practices’ or ‘research-based practices’ (Burke et al., 2019). It is critical that teachers become acquainted with evidence-based practices that they can use in their classrooms to improve students’ outcomes across diverse areas (e.g. social skills, communication skills, literacy, numeracy, selfdetermination skills, to name a few). EBPs for all students including students with disabilities are integral to the models such as ‘response to intervention’, which have been adopted by schools (Stoiber & Gettinger, 2016). The authors of this edition introduce diverse evidence-based practices and the ways these can be used.

HLP guide

Lately, the Council for Exceptional Children and the CEEDAR Center (USA) have developed a guide called High-Leverage Practices in Special Education (McLeskey et al., 2019). The high-leverage practices (HLPs) are practices often used in classrooms with a high potential to improve students’ outcomes. HLPs include practices related to assessment, collaboration, instruction, and social/emotional/behaviour (McLeskey et al., 2019), and are discussed in depth in Chapter 5.

Partial or supported participation

Partial participation is a concept that suggests that students who are not able to participate fully in a particular activity may be able to participate partially. For example, many older students with a significant disability participate in ten-pin bowling as a recreational activity through the use of gutter rails and a frame to hold and deliver the bowling ball. This is not the same as full participation, but it still allows the person to participate in an enjoyable, age-appropriate activity. Students who have difficulty with the complexity of a full deck of cards may still be able to play cards with a deck from which jacks, queens and kings have been removed. For older students, this is preferable to playing with a children’s deck. Audio-visual equipment and computers can have the switching simplified so that they are easier to operate. In group work, students can be given a role that is appropriate to their ability level. The reason for partial participation should not be that no-one has bothered to make appropriate accommodations. For example, if the school library is only partly wheelchair accessible, it is preferable for a student to participate partially in library activities rather than not to participate at all, particularly if the student has a need to use the library. However, it would be much better to give the student full access to the library. This might involve providing a ramp or a chairlift or, if this is not possible, arranging for support staff or class peers to assist the student to locate and use inaccessible materials.

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Modifying classroom environments

The classroom environment can be thought of under three headings: social, physical and academic. The environment of the classroom has a significant effect on student learning and social outcomes.

The social environment of the classroom is often its most important aspect. In the ideal social environment, a student with a disability or other additional educational need will be as valued as all other students. This will usually be a reflection of the attitude of the school principal, classroom teachers and other staff, which leads to a positive school culture (Haines et al., 2015; McMaster, 2015). The physical environment may need no modification or quite a lot. A student who uses a wheelchair may not be able to use a standard width aisle or to sit at a standard height desk. A child with a vision impairment may need special lighting and to be seated in a specific position in the classroom. The introduction of appropriate technology in the classroom can make huge differences to the accessibility of the curriculum. An ideal academic environment is one in which the student experiences success and is learning skills that will be useful in a number of current and future environments. In the case of gifted and talented students, this could involve curriculum enrichment or acceleration programs. Several of the subsequent chapters in this book provide extensive information about modifying social, physical and academic environments.

1.8 Diversity across the life-span In the past, schooling was regarded as a period that covered the ages 5 to 15 years and dealt primarily with academic matters. Students with academic potential stayed on until 17 or 18 years, but many students left school at 15. Some students with disabilities did not attend school at all. Even special schools focused only on the traditional school years, and paid little attention to what happened to their students before they reached school age or when they finished with the education system. It was common knowledge and accepted practice that many students with a disability left school and spent the rest of their lives at home or, at best, in a ‘sheltered workshop’.

Gradually, this situation is changing, largely through parent initiatives, backed up by special education and disability research. Educational programs can start from the time the child is born, through early intervention programs, and may continue into adulthood and throughout the person’s life. Governments are increasingly accepting responsibility for lifelong support for people with a disability.

Early intervention programs

Early educational intervention programs have been operating in Australia and New Zealand now for over 40 years. At first, there were a few university-based programs, attended by children whose parents were fortunate enough to have access to information about the programs. Now in Australia and New Zealand, as well as in many developed countries, some form of early intervention program is available to most children with a disability, particularly in metropolitan and large regional areas (see Figure 1.7). In spite of the large research base in early intervention, methodological problems make it difficult to reach firm conclusions about outcomes. However, we no longer try to evaluate early intervention programs in terms of their ability to change the child’s developmental pattern or increase the child’s IQ. Rather, early intervention is seen as the first part of an ongoing educational program: an educational program that can begin in infancy and continue throughout life.

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Gifted and talented students may also benefit from early intervention programs, although there is debate about how this is best provided and how effective it is (Walsh et al., 2012) (see Chapter 11 for further discussion of this issue).

Teachers of school beginners need to be aware that some children in their class will be arriving with a significant social and educational history. The early childhood years are of major significance socially, cognitively and in all aspects of development. Issues related to early childhood programs are also discussed in Chapter 11.

Post-school programs

School education is both an important life activity and a preparation for future life. The importance of school in relation to future options is obvious for a student who is seeking a particular score to allow entry to a university course of their choosing. However, schooling for students with a disability sometimes appears to lead nowhere, and there are examples of students who have finished 12 years of schooling, yet have learned very few skills that prepare them for their future environments.

FIGURE 1.7 Early intervention is available to most young children with a disability.

Inclusive schools ensure that programs have relevance to the lives of all students. There is some evidence that students with an intellectual disability who have attended inclusive schools have higher work aspirations than those who attended specialised schools (Cooney et al., 2006). A question that can be asked when considering curriculum for students with additional needs is: ‘Is this subject matter of interest or importance to this student either now or in a likely postschool environment?’ Because some students with a disability find it difficult to apply what they have learned in school to a variety of settings, it is often necessary for teachers to consider what specific skills the student will need in order to be able to function well in a future environment and as an adult. For example, it may be more important to teach skills to find information online, such as understanding a television guide or checking shopping advertisements than to spend time teaching the student to appreciate a poem or short story. The focus of teaching in technology might be on practical uses of computers to access information. A proficient student can transfer skills they have learned into a variety of other situations. A less proficient student may not be able to make these transfers unless the skills are specifically taught.

Post-school options life-span A life-span approach is an educational orientation that views the student within the context of their life-span from birth to death. Using this approach, a primary school teacher of students with a disability may incorporate employmentrelated skills in the curriculum.

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Another feature of modern educational and social systems is the provision of a wide range of post-school options. For people with a disability, these include training at technical colleges in both regular and specially designed programs, supported employment programs, and diverse community access and training programs. Most government community systems now provide some form of post-school options or adult learning and support programs that extend educational and training support for students with a significant disability, and may continue into adulthood.

Chapter 13 provides information about preparation for work and the transition from school to adult learning. The important factor is that education and training is seen as a life-span process. There is evidence, for example, that young adults with Down syndrome can benefit from a literacy program (Pelatti, 2015), and there is no reason why this should not also apply to adults with other disabilities. People’s needs vary at different life stages and, for some people,

CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

education will be needed either continuously throughout life or at various critical times to help them achieve particular transitions and aspirations. This applies to people with and without disabilities. A teenager arriving in Australia with no English-speaking skills may not be ready for tertiary study until some years after leaving school. Some EAL/D students who struggled at school have had brilliant university careers once the English language is mastered. For people with a disability, some of the most important learning will take place after they have left formal schooling.

1.9 Myths and facts about disability and diversity One of the potential benefits of inclusive schools is that they help to overcome misunderstandings people have about disability and diversity and, as a result, can improve the attitudes of both teachers and students. There is often a fear of the unknown. Getting to know people can help to dispel myths and to provide opportunities for a better understanding of differences. How do we respond to people who communicate through sign, who are transgender, who use a wheelchair, who are blind, or who don’t speak our language? Most people can think of situations in which they were worried about how they might respond to a person or event, and later found that their fear was unjustified, or based on myths. People who are different in any way from the norm often report that the way they are treated is based on a misunderstanding of their difference. One of the strangest, yet most common, misunderstandings is the assumption that people who are blind or have a physical disability also have some form of hearing impairment. People who are blind or use wheelchairs often report that strangers use a much louder than normal voice when talking to them. Figure 1.8 makes several statements about disability and diversity. It is suggested that these be discussed as a group activity.

Myths about teaching students with a disability

One of the most widely held myths about teaching students with a disability is that a detailed knowledge of the child’s disability is needed before a teaching program can be commenced. Teachers often say ‘But I know nothing about fragile X syndrome’ or ‘I haven’t studied cerebral palsy – how could I teach that child?’ Another myth is that teachers need unusual patience and special skills to be able to teach students with a disability. Research suggests that good general teaching skills are required to teach students with a disability or other types of additional needs. There is no need for special patience or unusual skills, other than those that are needed by all competent teachers.

The online resources associated with this book include fact sheets on disabilities and diversity. In addition, the internet is an excellent source of up-to-date information. However, detailed knowledge of specific disabilities is unlikely to provide much insight into how to teach a specific student. Children with a diagnosed disability may differ from each other as much as, or more, than they differ from children without a disability. Knowing that a child has cerebral palsy tells us very little about how to teach that child. A 10-year-old student with cerebral palsy may be an excellent reader or may have few reading skills. What is required is a teaching program that is based on an analysis of that student’s individual needs, including reading skills, just as it would be if the student did not have cerebral palsy. In the future, there may be information about learning styles that will help us plan our teaching for students with particular disabilities.

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True or false? ‘Facts’ about disability and diversity

There are consistent and fundamental differences between the way students with different types of disabilities learn.

People who are born blind have a sixth sense that compensates for their blindness.

Gifted and talented students need less teacher attention than other students.

Most children with a disability are unaware that they are different in ability from other children.

Inability to speak, in a person with cerebral palsy, is an indication of intellectual disability.

The best approach to a person’s disability is to ignore it and pretend that it doesn’t exist.

People who use sign language usually do so because they have a disability with their vocal cords.

Newly arrived students who do not speak English should be discouraged from using their native language in order to focus on English.

People with a disability prefer to mix with other people with a similar disability.

Generally speaking, the greater the physical disability a person has the greater will be their intellectual disability.

You should avoid using the word ‘see’ when talking to a person who is blind.

Adolescents with intellectual disability are likely to be sexually promiscuous.

Most people who are deaf would love to be able to hear.

Indigenous students are naturally less motivated to learn than nonIndigenous students.

People who have a disability need our sympathy.

FIGURE 1.8 True or false? ‘Facts’ about disability and diversity

For example, Bennett, Holmes and Buckley (2013) have demonstrated that computerised memory training can lead to ongoing improvements in short-term memory skills in children with Down syndrome. However, it is likely that techniques that work well with students with Down syndrome will also work well with other students and, at present, comprehensive knowledge of specific disabilities is not the most important requirement when preparing a teaching program.

This is not to say that we do not need to have detailed knowledge about the particular student we are teaching. Parents are usually extremely knowledgeable about their own child, and can provide useful information about the child’s learning history. Parents usually have copies of written reports that will be helpful in planning, and often hold detailed records on their child’s development. There are also organisations associated with specific disabilities that are an excellent source of information and support (e.g. The Down Syndrome Association, Autism New Zealand, and The Royal Institute for Deaf and Blind Children – see weblinks at the end of this

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chapter). However, it is ultimately the student in the classroom who is the most important source of information when it comes to planning educational programs. Later chapters in this book will suggest ways of approaching the planning and implementation of programs for students with additional needs. One example is given below in Narrative 1.4.

NARRATIVE 1.4 Joshua is nearly six and has just been enrolled in his first year of school. He uses a walking frame, and although he makes a strong effort to speak, his speech is unintelligible, other than to his parents and older brother in Year 4. His parents have provided reports from Cerebral Palsy Alliance* indicating that Joshua’s intelligence is average and that he has a good level of receptive language. A physiotherapist and occupational therapist have visited the school to help prepare the classroom and to show Joshua’s teacher, learning support officer and the teacher assistant how to look after his toileting and eating needs and, if necessary, lift him. Joshua’s mother has shown the teachers how to use Joshua’s communication device, and a specialist speech pathologist visits the school to advise on how to adapt the class language and literacy program so that Joshua can fully participate. As Joshua’s literacy skills develop, a more sophisticated electronic communication system will be provided (see Chapter 8). *

Known as The Spastic Centre until 8 February 2011

1.10 The future of inclusion It is likely that two main issues will continue to impact on the education of students with additional needs. These relate to where and how such education takes place.

The ‘where’ question is difficult to answer simply by using research outcomes, and continues to be debated. One view is that people with a disability will always have more opportunity to live a satisfying life when they leave the restrictions of specialised settings and are educated in the local community. An opposing view is that removing students from the more protected environments of special schools and classes leaves them open to isolation, bullying and stigmatism without necessarily improving their learning.

Neither side of the argument can claim to be unequivocally correct; evidence can be found to support both viewpoints. It is clear that the response of individual students is variable and is not always predictable. Some students will find inclusive settings to be stimulating and supportive, while others will find such settings to be confronting and overwhelming. There is less debate about students with most other forms of diversity, and there is almost no argument for students to be separated because of their social background, ethnicity or sexuality.

Inclusive practices today

The difference between current policy and law and that of the past is that parents are now generally able to choose the type of education they want for their child, based on their assessment of their child’s needs and of the likely effects of different placements.

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The question of ‘how’ education of students with additional needs should occur is more easily answered through research processes. For example, there is evidence that better outcomes for students with all types of learning difficulties result when there is: • careful planning of goals and programs • use of appropriate curriculum • individualised instruction

• prompt and accurate feedback

• ongoing monitoring and evaluation

• further planning arising from evaluation.

The use of modern technological approaches, such as computer-assisted instruction, has made it possible to use the above techniques efficiently in regular classes. Computers can provide instruction, practice, feedback and monitoring in a very efficient way, and it is certain that technology will contribute substantially to the inclusion of students with additional needs in the future (Bennett et al., 2013). Wherever individual educators stand on the inclusion debate, there is an expectation that all teachers will provide for the needs of all students – regardless of the level of ability or disability or whatever their additional needs may be. The Australian Professional Standards for Teachers require that proficient teachers: Establish and implement inclusive and positive interactions to engage and support all students in classroom activities. Source: AITSL (2012)

This is now the standard expected of all teachers.

A TEACHER REFLECTS Arlene Monaghan, classroom teacher – support, Kandos High School, NSW Diversity in inclusive practice I graduated with a Bachelor of Education (Primary), at the age of 46, which made me feel proficient as an educator to create a tangible difference in the lives of my students. During my first appointment, as a classroom teacher in a mainstream kindergarten class, I began to realise that I wanted to learn as much as I could about supporting all students equitably. Several of my students had diverse learning disabilities which required substantial adjustments to their curriculum. Hence, a professional challenge was born! I wanted to develop further knowledge around the concept of diversity and disability to increase my skills in providing my students with access to adjusted curriculum and inclusive learning opportunities. Mission in hand, I enrolled in a degree in inclusive education to further develop my instruction skills. With this additional professional learning, I now feel even more confident in my role as support classroom teacher to provide multifaceted accommodations for a diverse range of students. I am able to identify individuals’ learning needs, interests and personal life goals and play a pivotal role in ensuring students successfully meet these goals. I accomplish this through practising flexible teaching and assessment methods, liaising

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with all key stakeholders to ensure all concerned parties have a voice in adopting a wide-ranging curriculum which includes achievable and meaningful course content. Additionally, I encourage students to embrace school-wide integration opportunities and develop communications which promote the importance of diversity and advocate for reflection on diversity. Hence, stimulating personal gratification for learners via educational improvement is framed in realistic and supportive environments which promote positive change. With continued, unwavering inspiration from a most inspiring school executive, I will seize opportunities to provide professional guidance to my colleagues who share my methodology for developing diverse and inclusive learning environments. I will actively promote inclusion and diversity in schools and continue to promote excitement for learning and an enriched sense of belonging for individuals with disabilities.

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STUDY TOOLS

Summary

Various concepts and principles associated with the likely enrolment in regular classes of students with a disability were introduced in this chapter. A rationale for the study of disability was provided, together with a brief overview of historical factors that have led to the likelihood that all teachers will be asked to provide programs for a diversity of students, including those with a disability. The chapter explained some of the philosophical principles underlying the inclusive education process, such as normalisation and the least restrictive environment. The chapter also defined terminology that will be used throughout the book, dealt with issues related to definition and introduced readers to the range of disabilities. The range of possible special education settings was described, and specialised terminology was introduced and discussed. The chapter provided an outline of some approaches to teaching students with disability in regular classes: these include planning for instruction, curriculum adaptation, partial or supported participation and modifying environments. The chapter included an overview of some myths surrounding disability and diversity. These myths include the notion that extensive and specialised knowledge of disability is required to teach students with a range of learning needs, and that students with an identified disability are invariably more of a problem for the teacher than other students.

Discussion questions

1 What are the essential differences between inclusion, integration and mainstreaming?

2 It is sometimes said that it is the environment that ‘handicaps’ an individual. Considering the physical, social and academic components, how could a school provide a handicapping environment?

3 Discuss the key differences between people-first and identity-first language. What are the philosophies that underpin them? What language do you prefer and why? 4 What impact could having parents whose first language is not English have on a student born in Australia? 5 How have you viewed or interacted with people who were different from you in some way in the past? Consider people from different ethnic, racial or social backgrounds, people with a disability and so on. In retrospect, could you have got to know and understand them better?

6 Discuss the extent of the diversity in the last high school you attended. How did the school ensure that the needs of all students were provided for and that all students were valued?

Individual activities

1 Collect some online articles or view and listen to a television or radio news report about people with a disability. How are those people depicted? What type of language is used in describing them? Does this stereotype or patronise them in any way? Are the images positive or negative? Are they infantilised or socially devalued? Is the treatment of the story the same as it would be for people without a disability? Is their disability central to the story?

2 Each of the following news headlines/captions contains language that may be considered discriminatory or inappropriate. Write an alternative headline, no more than two words longer than the existing headline: a CEREBRAL PALSY VICTIM COMPLETES HALF MARATHON b EPILEPTIC MISSING IN ALPINE COUNTRY c ATSI STUDENTS IN TOWN

d NEW LAW FOR THE DISABLED

e HOME FOR THE RETARDED TO CLOSE f ABORIGINE STUDENT GRADUATES

g BLIND UK POLITICIAN VISITS AUCKLAND h GAY JUDGE RECEIVES TOP HONOUR

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3 Write an alternative caption for a newspaper photograph:

a Kurt Fearnley, who is wheelchair bound, starts his Kokoda Track adventure.

b Pictured is 33-year-old Stevie, who suffers from Down syndrome, with fellow workers Ms Lucy Brown and Mr Michael Smith. c Retarded workers at Sunshine Industries are thrilled by a visit from the Prime Minister. d Indigenous politician opens new factory.

4 Rewrite the following statements so that they are expressed in a better way without losing any of the intended meaning: a I taught a fragile X boy last year. b My sister’s a spastic.

c There are three Aborigines in my class. d My uncle is afflicted by spina bifida.

e Her brother’s fiancée is deaf and dumb. f Don’t tell your mum – she’ll have a fit! g She’s an ATSI.

h He’s crippled as a result of a car accident.

i Blind Freddie could see that it was a mistake.

Group activities

1 Consider the research outcomes reported in the research done by McGregor and Vogelsberg (1998 – see under the heading ‘Outcomes of research on inclusive education’ earlier in this chapter on page 31). As a group, provide examples from your own schooling or teaching experience that confirm or contradict some of these findings. 2 As a group, come to a conclusion about whether each of the statements in Figure 1.8 is true or false, and provide reasons why. 3 As a group, discuss the following scenarios. Use the sample grid (below) to prepare answers to the questions about each scenario.

Scenario 1 Mario is an eight-year-old boy with a moderate to severe intellectual disability. He has been attending a special school some distance from the town in which he lives, but hopes to commence at the local school next year. He can walk well and is toilet-trained, but needs to be reminded to go to the toilet. His language is very basic and he cannot read or count. He can do very simple puzzles and likes to scribble. The school he will attend is a large country primary school, with an enrolment of 240 students in 10 classes.

Scenario 2 Penny is six, and her family has recently moved from another city. She has severe, bilateral hearing loss and has aids for both ears. Her parents’ hearing is not impaired. Penny communicates through oral methods (residual hearing/lip reading/speech). She has attended a regular preschool since she was three, with specialised support from a school for children who are deaf. Her speech and language are as would be expected for a student with a severe hearing impairment. She has problems in articulation and has some language delays in both receptive and expressive areas. She will enrol in a regular class. Scenario 3 Fifteen-year-old Fazal is starting in Year 9, his family having recently been accepted in Australia as refugees. He is the eldest of five children. He has been to some English-language classes in Australia, but his English is still very basic. It is believed that he witnessed violence in his own country, including to his relatives.

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For each of these scenarios, to ensure that the students get maximum benefit from their schooling, consider what adjustments might need to be made to: a attitudes/knowledge of staff b attitudes of students

c physical characteristics of the school d timetable

e curriculum

f available resources and equipment

g teaching/learning arrangements and other aspects of school organisation.

Use the following grid to consider the adjustments that could be made to assist these students. Area

What needs to be done?

Who should be involved?

What resources (people or material) can be used to assist?

Staff attitudes/knowledge Student attitudes Physical characteristics of school Timetable Curriculum Available resources and equipment Teaching/learning arrangements

Weblinks

Autism Spectrum Australia (Aspect) http://www.autismspectrum.org.au/ Cerebral Palsy Society of New Zealand http://www.cpsoc.org.nz/ Māori Language Commission http://www.tetaurawhiri.govt.nz/ New Zealand Down Syndrome Association http://nzdsa.org.nz/

Royal Institute for Deaf and Blind Children http://www.ridbc.org.au/

Spina Bifida Association of America http://www.spinabifidaassociation.org/

Recommended reading

Carrington, S., & Macarthur, J. (Eds) (2012). Teaching In inclusive school communities. Milton, Qld: John Wiley.

Hick, P., & Thomas, G. (Eds) (2009). Inclusion and diversity in education. London: Sage.

Frederickson, N., & Cline, T. (2009). Special education needs, inclusion, and diversity: a textbook (2nd edn). Buckingham: Open University Press.

Hodkinson, A., & Vickerman, P. (2009). Key issues in special educational needs and inclusion. London: Sage.

Cornwall, J., & Graham-Matheson, L. (Eds) (2012). Leading on inclusion: dilemmas, debates and new perspectives. London; New York: Routledge.

Hallahan, D. P., Kauffman, J. M., & Pullen, P. C. (2015). Exceptional learners: introduction to special education (13th edn). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

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Hills, G. (2012). The Equality Act for educational professionals: a simple guide to disability inclusion in schools. London: Routledge.

Hyde, M., Carpenter, L., & Conway, R. (Eds) (2010). Diversity and inclusion in Australian schools. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

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McLeskey, J., Rosenberg, M. S., & Westling, D. L. (2013). Inclusion: effective practice for all students. Boston: Pearson.

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Armstrong, D. (2005). Reinventing ‘inclusion’: New Labour and the cultural politics of special education. Oxford Review of Education, 31, 135–151.

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Hartmann, E. (2015). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and learners with severe support needs. International Journal of Whole Schooling, 11, 54–67.

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McRae, D. (1996). The integration/inclusion feasibility study. Sydney: New South Wales Department of Education. Mitchell, D., & Sutherland, D. (2020). What really works in special and inclusive education. Using evidence-based practices (3rd edn). Routledge.

Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD). Homepage, accessed 25 June 2020. https://www.nccd.edu.au/

New South Wales Department of Education and Communities (2011). Annual Report. Retrieved from https://www.det. nsw.edu.au/media/downloads/about-us/how-we-operate/ annual-reports/yr2011/ar2011-full-report.pdf New South Wales Department of Education and Communities (2015a). Key Statistics and Reports. Retrieved from http://www.dec.nsw.gov.au/about-us/ plans-reports-and-statistics/key-statistics-and-reports New South Wales Department of Education and Communities (2015b). Annual Report. Retrieved from https://www.det.nsw.edu.au/media/downloads/aboutus/how-we-operate/annual-reports/yr2014/16051_ Annual_Report_2015_Accessible_In%20Full.pdf Nirje, B. (1970). The normalization principle: implications and comments. British Journal of Mental Subnormality, 16, 62–70. Nirje, B. (1985). The basis and logic of the normalization principle. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 11, 65–68.

O’Connor, M., Howell-Meurs, S., Kvalsvig, A., & Goldfeld, S. (2014). Understanding the impact of special health care

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needs on early school functioning: a conceptual model. Child: Care, Health and Development, 41 (1), 15–22.

Pelatti, C. (2015). Enhancing oral and written language for adolescents and young adults with Down syndrome. Seminars in Speech and Language, 36, 50–59. Pfeiffer, D. (1998). The ICIDH and the need for its revision. Disability and Society, 13, 503–523. Rafferty, Y., Piscitelli, V., & Boettcher, C. (2003). The impact of inclusion on language development and social competence among preschoolers with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69(4), 467–479.

Rietveld, C. (2005). Classroom learning experiences of mathematics by new entrant children with Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 30, 127–138.

Sigafoos, J., Moore, D., Brown, D., Green, V., O’Reilly, M., & Lancioni, G. (2010). Special education funding reform: a review of impact studies. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 34, 17–35. Silberman, S. (2015). Neurotribes: The legacy of autism and the future of neurodiversity. Avery.

Sinason, V. (2010). Mental handicap and the human condition: An analytic approach to intellectual disability (2nd revised edn). Free Association Books. Stoiber, K. C., & Gettinger, M. (2016). Multi-tiered systems of support and evidence-based practices. In S. Jimerson, M. Burns, & A. VanDerHeyden (Eds), Handbook of response to intervention (pp. 121–141). Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-14899-7568-3_9 Torres, C., Farley, C. A., & Cook, B. G. (2014). A special educator’s guide to successfully implementing evidence-based practices. Teaching Exceptional Children, 47(2), 85–93.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (1994). Salamanca Statement

and Framework for Action on Special Educational Needs Paris: United Nations.

Vinson, T. (2002). Inquiry into the provision of public education in New South Wales: final report. Sydney: New South Wales Teachers Federation.

Walsh, R. L., Kemp, C. R., Hodge, K. A., & Bowes, J. M. (2012). Searching for evidence-based practice: a review of the research on educational interventions for intellectually gifted children in the early childhood years. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 35(2), 103–128. What Works Clearinghouse (2017). Standards Handbook (Version 4.0).

Willis, M. (2012). Acceleration: it’s elementary. Parenting for High Potential, 1(7), 14–15.

Wolfensberger, W. (1972). The principle of normalization in human services. Toronto: National Institute on Mental Retardation.

Wolfensberger, W. (1980). A brief overview of the principle of normalization. In R. J. Flynn, & K. E. Nitsch (Eds), Normalization, social integration, and community services (pp. 7–30). Baltimore MD: University Park Press. Wolfensberger, W. (1995). An ‘if this, then that’ formulation of decisions related to social role valorization as a better way of interpreting it to people. Mental Retardation, 33, 163–169.

Woodcock, S., Dixon, R., & Tanner, K. (2013). Teaching in inclusive school environments. Australia: David Barlow Publishing.

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2

Legislation and policies supporting inclusive practice Michael Arthur-Kelly and Phil Foreman This chapter aims to: 2.1 Describe the development of principles and policies related to inclusive education for students with disability 2.2 Describe the important features of legislation for students with disability in the states and territories of Australia and in New Zealand 2.3 Describe the important aspects of policy in Australia and New Zealand for students with disability 2.4 Describe the important features of international legislation and policies for students with disability 2.5 Discuss the practice of inclusion, and the effect groups can have on educational policy.

Introduction

Including diverse students with disability in the regular classroom requires some specific practices on the part of teachers and their colleagues. Later chapters in this book provide examples of ways in which teachers can support a diversity of students in the regular classroom. For example, to meaningfully include students with additional needs, teachers must develop an understanding of the strengths and support needs of the students, and must make relevant adjustments or changes to the learning environment to assist these students. At both the private and the professional level, teachers’ day-to-day practice is a reflection of their beliefs, their obligation to follow the law, and the requirements associated with organisations such as the workplace and educational institutions. In a school environment, the behaviour and practice of teachers is influenced by their training and their personal beliefs, by legislation, and by organisational policy. An awareness of the relationships between principles, laws, policies and practices is important in the context of this book. One of the aims of the book is to provide practical advice about how to support students with a diversity of additional needs in the regular classroom. Consequently, the way these students are supported (the practice) will be influenced by attitudes and beliefs (the principles) and by laws and organisational guidelines (the legislation and policies). In turn, how well we do at the practice will influence future changes in the principles, legislation and policies. The relationship between these variables is shown in Figure 2.1.

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CHAPTER 2 Legislation and policies supporting inclusive practice

2.1 Principles, policies and practice

Principles

Legislation and policies Personal beliefs and philosophies can be expressed as principles that directly or indirectly influence practice. Chapter 1 introduced several principles as they relate to Practice students with additional needs. Examples of these principles are normalisation, use of appropriate language about the experience of disability, least restrictive environment, all FIGURE 2.1 The relationship between principles, students can learn, Universal Design for Learning and partial legislation and policies, and practice participation. A way in which the principle of least restrictive environment could be implemented in schools is that students with a social or behaviour problem who require assistance in anger management would be withdrawn from the regular classroom only for as long as needed to receive instruction in this area from a specialist teacher. In other words, their withdrawal from the regular classroom is the minimum required, because their long-term segregation may negatively impact on their self-esteem self-esteem and their ability to keep up in the classroom. In this case, the principle (least The extent to which restrictive environment) directly impacts on classroom practice. In other cases, the principle individuals value and respect themselves. may impact first on laws or policies (discussed later in this chapter), which in turn may Positive self-esteem influence practice. is a desirable direct and indirect outcome from the school experience.

Social justice

The core of present belief systems about the education of students with additional needs is reflected in the ideas of human rights, equity and social justice. For most educators, social justice means the elimination of injustice to students by ensuring equity in access to education for these groups (see Figure 2.2). Nussbaum explains that social justice is one of the cornerstones of modern liberal societies:

Emotional/ behavioural disorders

A satisfactory account of human justice requires recognizing the equal citizenship of people with impairments, including mental impairments, and appropriately supporting the labour of caring for and educating them, in such a way as to address the associated disabilities. Source: Nussbaum (2006), pp. 98–99

Educational services for students with additional needs date back to the mid-eighteenth century, the first being services for students with sensory impairments. Since that time there has been a steady progression in the range of students supported and the degree to which those students are included in mainstream settings (Department of Education, USA, 2012). In the last three decades, movements such as the regular education initiative (REI) (Jenkins et al., 1990), and the disabled people’s movement (British Council of Organisations of Disabled People, 1997) have produced changes in community attitudes and shifts in education policy for students with disability that have set the scene for inclusion in action today. Alongside these shifts, approaches such as Universal

FIGURE 2.2 Social justice implies equity in access to education

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regular education initiative (REI) A movement that argues that there is no place for special schools in the education system and that all students should be educated in regular schools. REI is generally regarded as the precursor to the full inclusion movement.

Design for Learning (UDL) have highlighted the importance of a ­pro-active, positivist view of learning contexts and strategies that are inclusive of all individuals from the outset, not in a reactive or ‘bolted-on’ approach (CAST, 2018).

Changing values and beliefs

The education of students with disability is based on a number of beliefs and principles. As the last chapter demonstrated, our views of disability and difference have changed in the past century. Practices that we now criticise (such as institutionalisation) were introduced with good intentions and may have been regarded as ‘best practice’ at the time. Consequently, our present views of disability should not be seen as fixed and unchanging. These views represent our society’s current interpretation of disability and diversity, and these views may change in the future. Regardless, these principles have been responsible for the development of legislation and policy that influences school services for all students, and currently represent the most positive attitudes ever to diversity and disability. Of course, attitudes can change for the worse and become more restricting and negative, as they did in Hitler’s Europe in the 1930s.

2.2 Legislation in Australia and New Zealand Before going further, it is helpful to distinguish between legislation and policy. The term ‘legislation’ relates to principles and regulations established by a government with the purpose of controlling the behaviour of individuals and organisations. In Australia and New Zealand, laws need to be passed by parliament before they are enacted, and breaking the law can have consequences ranging from financial penalty to imprisonment. The term ‘policy’ relates to a plan or action to be followed by an individual, organisation or government. While failing to follow an organisation’s policy may not break the law, the breach of policy could have serious consequences for an employee (e.g. termination of employment).

Australian legislation

By the late 1980s, following the International Year of Disabled Persons, there was increasing concern that without a law focusing on the rights of people with a disability, little progress could be made in addressing direct and indirect discrimination. Consequently, in 1992, the Australian government passed the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Australasian Legal Information Institute, 2013; Federal Register, 2018a), which directly addressed a range of areas, including education. The Act applies at all levels of education from preschool through to university (but not to childcare providers). It applies to public schools, schools registered through registration authorities in the private sector, post-compulsory education and training providers, and higher education providers. There are also federal laws covering discrimination in other areas: the Age Discrimination Act 2004, Australian Human Rights Commission Act 1986, Racial Discrimination Act 1975, and the Sex Discrimination Act 1984. Individual states also have more general antidiscrimination acts which complement the federal acts. Refer to Figure 2.3.

Interpreting the DDA

There is some case law which has tested the DDA in relation to education of students with a disability. In 2000, there was a high-profile Federal Court case relating to the enrolment of a young student with spina bifida in a regular school (Federal Court of Australia, 2000). In this case,

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CHAPTER 2 Legislation and policies supporting inclusive practice

It is unlawful for an educational authority to discriminate against a person on the grounds of the person’s disability:

It is unlawful for an educational authority to discriminate against a student on the grounds of the student’s disability:

It is unlawful for an education provider to discriminate against a person on the grounds of the person’s disability:

by refusing or failing to accept the person’s application for admission as a student; or

by denying the student access, or limiting the student’s access, to any benefit provided by the educational authority; or

by developing curricula or training courses having a content that will either exclude the person from participation, or subject the person to any other detriment; or

in the terms or conditions on which it is prepared to admit the person as a student.

by expelling the student; or

by accrediting curricula or training courses having such content.

by subjecting the student to any other detriment.

FIGURE 2.3 The Disability Discrimination Act (DDA), regarding education Source: Australian Legal Information Institute (2013)

a private school was found to have discriminated by refusing to enrol the student in a regular class. The school did not provide a support class placement option, and refused enrolment on ‘unjustifiable hardship’ grounds. The school argued that the student required supports that were beyond the capacity of the institution. The Court noted that the institution was a large education provider with substantial resources. The school was fined and ordered to provide a placement for the student, if she wished (she didn’t). However, in another case (High Court of Australia, 2003), the Court found that it was not discriminatory for a school to exclude a student whose violent and abusive behaviour was a genuine danger to other pupils. The interpretation of the DDA is complex, but it nevertheless provides strong legislative support to inclusive education practice. The reader is encouraged to locate any similar and recent cases in their state or country to then compare with these early landmark cases in Australia. There are a number of features of the Australian DDA that are unique and that have the potential for significant impact on school students. The first of these is that the DDA defines disability as including some impairments that are not always recognised as disabilities in educational settings in Australia (e.g. learning difficulties, behaviour problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and physical disfigurement). In addition, the DDA recognises disabilities that individuals may presently experience, may have had in the past or may have in the future. An example of a ‘future disability’ would be the case of someone who is in the earliest stages of multiple sclerosis. The person may have minimal current disability, but could be expected to have a disability in the future. As we noted in Chapter 1, the Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD) program brings to life both the DDA and the subsequent Education Standards, introduced now.

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Standards for curriculum development and accreditation and delivery

The DDA was strengthened in 2005, after nearly 10 years of discussion, by the enacting of Education Standards which provide more detail about the expectations on educational providers. See Figure 2.4 for the areas the Standards cover. Enrolment and admission

a person with a disability must be able to seek admission and receive advice and support on the same basis as a person without a disability, and without discrimination.

Participation

students with a disability must be able to participate in courses or programs without discrimination.

Curriculum development, delivery and accreditation

all students must be able to participate appropriately in learning experiences.

Provision of student support services

a student with a disability must be able to use services other students use or, if necessary, specialised services.

Harassment and victimisation

processes must be developed to prevent harassment or victimisation of students with a disability.

FIGURE 2.4 Areas the DDA now covers, since the introduction of the Education Standards in 2005

The following is an extract from Australian Disability Standards for Education 2005. 1 The education provider must take reasonable steps to ensure that the course or program is designed in such a way that the student is, or any student with a disability is, able to participate in the learning experiences (including the assessment and certification requirements) of the course or program, and any relevant supplementary course or program, on the same basis as a student without a disability, and without experiencing discrimination. 2 If a student is enrolled in the course or program, the provider must: a consult the student, or an associate of the student, about whether the disability affects the student’s ability to participate in learning experiences of the course or program, or any relevant supplementary course or program; and b in the light of that consultation, decide whether an adjustment is necessary to ensure that the student is able to participate in those learning experiences on the same basis as a student without a disability who is enrolled in the course or program; and c if: i

an adjustment is necessary to achieve the aim mentioned in paragraph (b); and

ii

a reasonable adjustment can be identified in relation to that aim; make a reasonable adjustment for the student in accordance with Part 3.

3 The provider must repeat the process set out in subsection (2) as necessary to allow for the changing needs of the student over time. Source: Sourced from the Federal Register of Legislation (2018b; accessed 25 ­August 2010). For the latest information on Australian Government law, please go to https://www.legislation.gov.au. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence (CC BY 4.0)

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Measures for compliance with standards Measures that the education provider may implement to enable the student to participate in the learning experiences (including the assessment and certification requirements) of the course or program, and any relevant supplementary course or program, on the same basis as a student without a disability, include measures ensuring that: a

the curriculum, teaching materials, and the assessment and certification requirements for the course or program are appropriate to the needs of the student and accessible to him or her; and

b the course or program delivery modes and learning activities take account of intended educational outcomes and the learning capacities and needs of the student; and

c the course or program study materials are made available in a format that is appropriate for the student and, where conversion of materials into alternative accessible formats is required, the student is not disadvantaged by the time taken for conversion; and

d the teaching and delivery strategies for the course or program are adjusted to meet the learning needs of the student and address any disadvantage in the student’s learning resulting from his or her disability, including through the provision of additional support, such as bridging or enabling courses, or the development of disability-specific skills; and e

f

any activities that are not conducted in a classroom, such as field trips, industry site visits and work placements, or activities that are part of the broader course or educational program of which the course or program is a part, are designed to include the student; and the assessment procedures and methodologies for the course or program are adapted to enable the student to demonstrate the knowledge, skills or competencies being assessed.

Source: Sourced from the Federal Register of Legislation (2018b;

accessed 25 August 2010). For the latest information on Australian Government law, please go to https://www.legislation.gov.au. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence (CC BY 4.0)

Each area stipulates the rights of students with a disability in education and training, the legal obligations or responsibilities of education providers, and possible measures that meet the requirements of the Standards. For example, education providers are expected to make ‘reasonable adjustments’ to meet the needs of students with a disability (see later material on the Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability, NCCD, 2020). In doing so, they are expected to consider the views of students and the family; the effects of the adjustment on the students and on others in the school; and to utilise a cost/benefit analysis. The provider is entitled to maintain the academic integrity of the course and its inherent components. This means that it is not illegal for a university to prevent a person from enrolling in a course for which they are unable to complete the academic requirements.

Unjustifiable hardship

While reasonable adjustments are required, ‘unreasonable’ adjustments are not mandated. A provider can offer a defence that adjustments are unreasonable if they produce unjustifiable hardship. In judging whether the adjustments are reasonable or unreasonable, consideration can be given to the financial circumstances of the provider and the cost of the adjustment, as in the case cited above. A small private school is more likely to be able successfully to plead hardship than a large state system or a wealthy independent school. Under the initial DDA, ‘unjustifiable hardship’ was a defence against non-enrolment, but could not be used as a reason to refuse to provide services once the student was enrolled. However, since the adoption of the Education Standards (Federal Register, 2018b), which has been listed for review again since 2020, unjustifiable hardship can also be considered in relation to provision of ongoing services. That is, the school or system can plead ‘unjustifiable hardship’

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if it enrols a student and later discovers that the resources needed are unreasonable. This means that providers no longer have to predict all future needs before enrolling a student. The Standards have provided clear guidance for providers and are undoubtedly a strengthening of the rights of people with a disability. The Standards have also provided an important platform for the ongoing Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD, 2020) initiative in Australia.

The Educational Standards in practice

In 2010, five years after the Educational Standards were enacted, the Australian Government reviewed their effectiveness. Following 200 submissions and national round-table discussions with almost 150 key stakeholders, the review concluded that the Education Standards provide a good framework for promoting the requirement for students with disability to be able to access and participate in education on the same basis as other students, but also identified several issues that have impeded the effectiveness of the Education Standards (Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, 2012). For example, the Education Standards do not have enough emphasis on measures for promoting greater inclusion and removing subtle and indirect discrimination, and the obligations and requirements under the Education Standards lack strong accountability frameworks. The review concluded that most of the issues raised by stakeholders could be addressed through awareness raising, amendments and additions to the Education Standards, and by providing further guidance on the Standards. In addition, the review provided 14 recommendations which covered (a) awareness raising, (b) improving clarity, (c) access, participation, discrimination and inclusion, (d) complaints, accountability and compliance processes, and (e) contemporary education practice and relevant issues, to improve the effectiveness of the Education Standards. The Australian Government acknowledged that students with a disability encounter disadvantage in achieving education outcomes, and responded to each of the 14 review recommendations. At the time of writing this book, the Standards were again the focus of a thorough national review process.

The National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS)

In 2013, the National Disability Insurance Scheme Act (NDIS) was enacted to support Australians with a significant and permanent disability and their families and carers, and included a careful and personalised planning process (Collings et al., 2016). Two of the Act’s objectives are to:

• promote the provision of high quality and innovative supports that enable people with disability to maximise independent lifestyles and full inclusion in the mainstream community; • raise community awareness of the issues that affect the social and economic participation of people with disability, and facilitate greater community inclusion of people with disability. Source: National Disability Insurance Scheme (Registered Providers of Supports) Rules (2013)

The relationship between services provided by the NDIS and school education systems is one that is developing as the system rolls out across Australia. The NDIS provides supports that a student requires that are associated with the functional impact of the student’s disability on their activities of daily living, but not those primarily relating to education or training. For example, the NDIS could provide personal care and support, transport to and from school, and specialist supports for transition from school education to training or employment. As many of these services have previously been provided by schools and education systems, it is possible that the scheme will allow some resources to be diverted back to education or training.

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New Zealand legislation

In New Zealand, the Education Act 1989 and the Human Rights Act 1994 guarantee an education to all students, and provide students with a disability the opportunity to attend their local school (Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 2013b). In the Human Rights Act (New Zealand Legislation, 2015a), disability is defined to include: • physical disability or impairment • physical illness

• psychiatric illness

• intellectual or psychological disability or impairment

• any other loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function • reliance on a guide dog, wheelchair, or other remedial means

• the presence in the body of organisms capable of causing illness.

Source: New Zealand Legislation Parliamentary Counsel Office

In 2014 the New Zealand Government introduced the Vulnerable Children Act 2014 to coordinate child protection services and to prevent abuse of vulnerable children (New Zealand Legislation, 2015b). The New Zealand Education Standards Act 2001 is different from Australia’s Disability Standards for Education of 2005, and relates more to general school administration (New Zealand Legislation, 2015c).

Although none of the New Zealand legislation mandates, to the extent of that of the USA, the way in which the education of students with a disability should be provided, the law states that students with additional needs have the same right as all other students to enrol in regular schools and to receive an appropriate education.

Strengths and weaknesses of more prescriptive legislation

antidiscrimination legislation Laws designed to protect individuals from being unfairly treated on the basis of some personal characteristic or trait. The DDA is Australian legislation with the purpose of ensuring fair treatment for people with a disability.

REFLECT ON THIS How have changes in the law increased the likelihood that students will be educated in a regular school?

The fact that legislation in Australia and New Zealand has not been as prescriptive as that of the USA about the nature of support services can be seen as both a weakness and a strength in meeting the educational needs of students. Supporters of stronger legislation say that laws guarantee a minimum standard and that they may create the circumstances by which attitudes to students with additional needs in the general and teaching communities change in a positive direction. Those critical of legislation point out that there is a difference between ‘following the letter of the law’, and acting in the best interests of students and their families (see Bacon & Causton-Theoharis, 2013). Critics contend that litigation can be a counterproductive process, and that policy makers and bureaucrats, with the assistance of antidiscrimination legislation, are best placed to implement the prevailing community perspective. Whatever the view taken on legislation, the reliance in Australia and New Zealand on educational policy to ensure educational services for students with additional needs is a reflection of both countries’ cultural standards and historical precedent (see Figure 2.5). Development of policy (as opposed to legislation) in Australia FIGURE 2.5 Education policy reflects cultural standards and New Zealand is outlined below.

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2.3 Policy in Australia and New Zealand Policy impacting on educational practice for students with a diversity of needs in Australia and New Zealand is summarised in the following sections.

Policy in Australia

The Australian Government exerts influence over educational policy in the states and territories through agreements it has reached with them, as well as by providing targeted funding. The Australian Government’s education funding initiatives have included additional training for teachers and ongoing professional development, and further support to students with additional needs and disadvantaged students (Australian Government, 2013). In an initiative described as ‘Students First’ (Australian Government, 2014) the government stated its priorities to be teacher quality, school autonomy, engaging parents in education, and strengthening the curriculum.

In Australia there have been several broad national policy statements on educational inclusion. The Adelaide declaration on national goals for schooling in the twenty-first century (2006) reached the following conclusion: Goal 3.1: Schooling should be socially just, so that students’ outcomes from schooling are free from the effects of negative forms of discrimination based on sex, language, culture and ethnicity, religion or disability; and of differences arising from students’ socio-economic background or geographic location. Source: MCEETYA (2006)

Similarly, the 2008 Melbourne declaration on educational goals for young Australians agreed that Australian governments and all school sectors should commit to making significant improvements to achieve both equity and excellence, and to assist all young Australians to become successful learners, confident and creative individuals, and active and informed citizens. The declaration was signed by all state and territory Ministers for Education, and by the Commonwealth Minister. To achieve these goals, the Australian governments, in collaboration with all school sectors, must provide all students with access to excellent educational opportunities to fulfil the various capabilities of each young Australian, without discrimination based on gender, language, sexual orientation, pregnancy, culture, ethnicity, religion, health or disability, socioeconomic background or geographic location. However, the declaration did not specifically refer to inclusion or mainstreaming, or specify where education should take place (Ministerial Council on Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs, 2008). The Council of Australian Governments (COAG) National disability strategy for Australia 2010–2020 has among its strategic outcomes: People with disability achieve their full potential through their participation in an inclusive high quality education system that is responsive to their needs. People with disability have opportunities to continue learning throughout their lives. Source: COAG (2011), p. 53

In order to achieve these outcomes, the suggested policy directions and future actions included:

• Strengthen the capability of all education providers to deliver inclusive high-quality educational programs for people with all abilities from early childhood through adulthood

• Reduce barriers and simplify access for people with disability to a high-quality inclusive education system including early learning, child care, school and further education (COAG, 2011, pp. 54, 58).

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Professional Standards for Teachers

Australia has introduced Professional Standards for Teachers which have been adopted by all states and territories. Among other things, these Standards require all teachers to be able to provide inclusive education programs. For example, graduate teachers in Australia are now required to be able to:

• demonstrate knowledge and understanding of strategies for differentiating teaching to meet the specific learning needs of students across the full range of abilities • demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies that are responsive to the learning strengths and needs of students from diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds • demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of legislative requirements and teaching strategies that support participation and learning of students with disability

• identify strategies to support inclusive student participation and engagement in classroom activities (AITSL, 2015).

Teacher education programs must ensure that all graduates meet these requirements by the time of graduation. Schools must then ensure that newly-employed graduate teachers gain greater proficiency in each of these areas.

Strategies to promote inclusive practices for Indigeneous students A further Australian Government initiative is a commitment to:

reducing disadvantage in education for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students by putting in place policies and delivering programs that work towards halving the gap in reading, writing and numeracy achievements within a decade, and halving the gap in year 12 attainment or equivalent attainment rates by 2020. Source: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2013), www.dfat.gov.au. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia licence (CC BY 3.0).

Examples of strategies to achieve these goals include intensive literacy and numeracy programs and personalised learning plans for Indigenous students. Concern also extends to school attendance and retention. The proportion of Indigenous students attending school is 10 percentage points lower than for non-Indigenous students, and the secondary school retention rate for Indigenous students in 2009 was 45 per cent compared with 77 per cent for non-Indigenous students (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2010). While Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students remain less likely than non-Indigenous students to complete their secondary education, the gap between the two groups has narrowed (49% for Indigenous students in 2011 compared with 81% for non-Indigenous students). For Year 10, the difference between retention rates for Indigenous and non-Indigenous students decreased by 10 percentage points between 2001 and 2011. Differences in the Year 12 retention rate decreased by seven percentage points over the same period (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015).

The National Curriculum strategy

A further mechanism for promoting inclusive practice in Australia has been the National Curriculum strategy. Berlach and Chambers (2011) point out that the Curriculum Framing Papers for English contained nine inclusivity descriptors; Mathematics included eight descriptors, History six, and Science just two. The framing papers formed the basis for the development of the curriculum. More recent statements by the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) suggest a strong commitment to inclusive practice:

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ACARA is committed to the development of a high-quality curriculum for all Australian students, one that promotes excellence and equity in education. All students are entitled to rigorous, relevant and engaging learning programs drawn from a challenging curriculum that addresses their individual learning needs … The Disability Discrimination Act (1992) and the Disability Standards for Education (2005) require education and training service providers to support the rights of students with disability to access the curriculum on the same basis as students without disability. Students with disability are entitled to rigorous, relevant and engaging learning opportunities drawn from age equivalent Australian Curriculum content on the same basis as students without disability. Source: ACARA (2020)

With these commitments in mind, ACARA provided a model of personalised planning for support for student learning in the Australian curriculum called CASE (ACARA, 2020). Accompanied by various resources, including illustrations of practice, the four Steps are Content– Abilities–Standards–Evaluation. This planning process complements the material on highleverage practices discussed in Chapter 5 and embeds planned outcomes for all learners in the context of the Australian curriculum. 16x16

32x32

The Australian Government also recognises the unique needs of students for whom English is an additional language or dialect (EAL/D) (ACARA, 2011). EAL/D students come from diverse, multicultural backgrounds and need varying amounts of social, cultural, emotional and academic support. Examples of such support at the state level are provided later in this section. In addition, national recognition extends to the needs of gifted and talented students. Such students ‘are entitled to rigorous, relevant and engaging learning opportunities drawn from the Australian Curriculum and aligned with their individual learning needs, strengths, interests and goals’ (ACARA, 2020). Another initiative specifically related to services for students with additional needs is the Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD, 2020), This is a joint initiative of federal, state and territory government and non-government education authorities. National data is collected annually to identify the number of school students with disability and the level of reasonable educational adjustment that is provided for them. The national data collection was progressively implemented over the period 2013–15 and has been further refined in the ensuing period. Since 2015, all government and non-government schools have participated annually in the national data collection process. This may help to overcome previously identified variations in identification across states (Dempsey, 2011).

Policy at the state and territory level

Although all Australian states and territories provide educational services for students with additional needs, these services are provided at the discretion of those states and territories. There is some diversity in their special education policy statements, and this illustrates the extent to which arguments for inclusive education may have influenced service provision and how well education is resourced in those states and territories.

All the relevant policies of the states and territories in Australia recognise the ability of every student to learn, the need to focus on students’ strengths and needs (not just on their weaknesses), and that instruction must be individualised so that the educational experience can be positive for the student. There is also agreement that students with additional needs should be placed in the least restrictive environment. Most states and territories interpret ‘least restrictive environment’ as the regular classroom being the first option for initial school placement. All states and territories recognise parental choice as an important component of placement.

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Some Australian states and territories have taken strong positions on inclusion. For example, Education Queensland states that it ‘is committed to providing safe, supportive, inclusive and disciplined learning environments that provide educational opportunities for all Queensland students’. In this regard, the Department supports schools to deliver education that is inclusive of all students through: • learning and disability support

• supporting students with specialised health needs • gifted education

• recognition and valuing of diversity in culture, language, religion, gender and sexuality

• recognition of the needs of students who are refugees, carers, pregnant and parenting or in outof-home care • student mental health wellbeing initiatives • equity in education.

Source: Education Queensland (2013). State of Queensland, Department of Education and Training. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence (CC BY 4.0)

Western Australia has also encouraged innovative teaching and learning strategies to facilitate the inclusion of students with additional needs. Western Australia has a system of ‘schools of special educational needs’ for various categories of disability. These ‘schools’ are staffed by specialist ‘consulting teachers’ who focus on building staff capacity within schools. Techniques such as curriculum differentiation, learning and teaching adjustments, and professional learning opportunities are used to strengthen inclusive schools, cultures and practices. Consulting teachers work collaboratively with other agencies to develop programs for individual students (Department of Education, Western Australia, 2015). The South Australian Department for Education and Child Development (2012) has developed Language and literacy levels to assess and report the language and literacy levels of high-needs students with an EAL/D background, to help teachers identify such students’ specific needs, and to develop learning goals for such students. Many Australian states provide advice and support to classroom teachers in this area. For example, the Department of Education, Western Australia (2013a) provides an EAL/D Information and Resource Centre with, among other things, lesson plans on a range of issues for new arrivals in the classroom. In Victoria, regular classroom placement for students with a wide range of additional learning needs has had a relatively long history and is the preferred educational option in that state. The Department of Education and Training, Victoria undertook a review of the education of students with a disability in 2016, committing to a three-year plan summarised as follows: We’re making Victoria the Education State by building an education system that produces excellence and reduces the impact of disadvantage. An inclusive education system will enable every child and young person to learn in a safe, positive and supportive environment in the setting best suited to their needs. Our response centres on the development of a new, personalised approach to learning for students with disabilities. Effective planning for tailored learning and support begins with a sound understanding of a student’s individual needs and abilities. Successful transition requires careful planning, preparation and communication. Source: Department of Education and Training, Victoria (2016) © State of Victoria, Department of Education and Training. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence (CC BY 4.0)

Features of education policy One of the common features of education policy for students with additional needs in Australia is the desire for meaningful involvement from parents and the formation of ‘learning support

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teams’. Working together, or ‘working collaboratively’, is a team process. It promotes a shared responsibility for discussing and supporting students with additional needs. In Tasmania, as in other states, parents and caregivers are seen as crucial members of the student’s support group, including their role in the development of individual education plans (IEPs): The IEP process is consultative and brings together the contribution of families, school personnel, the student and other relevant people. The collaboration of stakeholders forms a partnership of individuals with shared responsibility. Source: Department of Education, Tasmania (2012) © Government of T ­ asmania, ­Department of Education. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence (CC BY 4.0)

Another important feature of special education policies in Australia is the provision of specialist staff to assist regular class teachers. In Queensland, an example of specialist support staff is advisory visiting teachers (AVT) who ‘support the access, participation and achievement of students with disability’ (Department of Education, Training and Employment, Queensland, 2013a). This model of support can provide professional development activities for staff, give advice on developing teaching programs, and assist in implementing programs and evaluating their success. It can provide specific information on particular learning needs or disabilities, and assist education staff and families to access support networks. The ‘Schools of Special Educational Needs’ in Western Australia, referred to previously, are another example.

For classroom teachers, this type of assistance can help to develop support strategies that can continue to be used. This will usually necessitate the specialist staff member spending time with the teacher and the student in their classroom. For example, the AVT may observe several lessons and provide the teacher with feedback, team teach with the teacher, run an in-class program with the student with additional needs and other students, or develop a program for use by the teacher. Whatever approach is taken, the aim is to leave classroom teachers with skills they can use to continue to assist the student with additional needs. There is much research that has illustrated the effectiveness of collaboration between education staff (for example, Bennett et al., 2014). If national and state policies are to impact on individual students, it is essential that they are also reflected in local policies at a regional and school level. See Narrative 2.1 for an example of a school-level inclusion policy.

NARRATIVE 2.1 Dulwich Hill Public School Inclusion Policy It is our policy that all children at Dulwich Hill Public School: • have the right to be listened to and treated with respect • have the right to feel pride in their learning • have the right to feel safe and secure in a respectful social environment and safe physical environment • share the responsibility to care for the wellbeing and learning opportunities of each other • have the right to participate in learning programs both designed as whole class and as individual plans • are supported towards achieving a common set of learning goals and competencies

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• have the right to contribute their ideas to the curriculum and culture of the school and to receive advocacy for their needs • have learning competence and confidence assessed regularly with the view to revising program provision. Families are provided with avenues for additional support if this is likely to improve the wellbeing of a child. The school community strives to redress any mechanisms which might exclude children from equal access to, participation in and outcomes of schooling based on language or culture, gender, physical, intellectual or emotional state or socioeconomic status. Resources adequate to the task of ensuring the true implementation of this policy are constantly sought, often from outside agencies. Should our resources be inadequate to support the child, referral to services with appropriate resources is undertaken.

It is our practice that: • All children, staff and families are guided by a set of four rights and responsibilities for all. • The curriculum is devised so that children can enter and engage at the point at which they feel competent. • Diagnostic assessment practices are initiated by ESL and LD teachers following enrolment. • The whole school focuses regularly on the value to society of diversity and the fundamental commonality of humanity. Buildings, grounds and equipment are regularly maintained and additional facilities sought to ensure access if necessary. The learning program is devised as an integrated program emphasising the links between areas of knowledge and skill and developing a range of competencies seen as essential for life beyond primary school. • The curriculum attempts to draw upon the life experiences of the children. Specialist teachers of five languages help children to make links between the two dominant cultures of which they are part. It aims to make explicit the contexts and purposes for learning activities so that children can understand why they are doing what they are doing. A profile of knowledge, skill and understanding is developed for each child along a common continuum. • All children, no matter what age or experience, can show learning achievements on this continuum. Assessment, therefore, is criterion referenced and both parents and students can see where the learning is going. Each child has a portfolio which is a means to exhibit their learning achievements. The curriculum is devised to be broad and balanced so that all children, each week, are involved in a rigorous program of intellectual, linguistic, physical, artistic and social experience. • Children whose learning progress is a cause for concern are identified as ‘learners at risk’ for the period that this concern remains. A cycle of discussions, planned diagnostic procedures, interventions and monitoring of change in learning progress occurs to reshape the nature of learning support. • Diagnostic processes take a pathway as follows: physical (health), emotional/welfare then cognitive (psychometric). Children can be referred for specific support in English as a second language, new arrivals, literacy and numeracy support, counselling, Aboriginal literacy, reading recovery, specialist hearing and vision support, intensive reading and language classes, intensive emotional support classes or can be provided with additional support by integration aides whose job is to help students to engage in the classroom program. Children who participate in any of these programs are guided by individual learning plans with parental input and support. Specific technologies and additional funds, as well as sponsorship to facilitate learning outcomes, can be – and are constantly being – sought. Source: Dulwich Hill Public School

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How does this school’s policy reflect state and federal policies and legislation? 2. Which words and phrases in the policy suggest that the school celebrates diversity and provides for the needs of all its students?

Policy in New Zealand

In New Zealand, government priorities include promoting literacy and numeracy skills for all students and, more broadly, enhancing students’ prospects for employment, further training and higher-level education (Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 2013c). The New Zealand Ministry of Education makes strong statements about inclusive education policy: At fully inclusive schools, all students are welcome and are able to take part in all aspects of school life. Diversity is respected and upheld. Inclusive schools believe all students are confident, connected, actively involved, lifelong learners and work towards this within the New Zealand Curriculum. Students’ identities, languages, abilities, and talents are recognised and affirmed and their learning needs are addressed. Source: Ministry of Education (2013c), New Zealand Government. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 New Zealand licence (CC BY 3.0 NZ)

Furthermore, inclusive schools: have ethical standards and leadership that build the culture of an inclusive school; have well-organised systems, effective teamwork and constructive relationships that identify and support the inclusion of all students; use innovative and flexible practices that respond to the needs of all students. Source: Ministry of Education (2013c), New Zealand Government. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 New Zealand licence (CC BY 3.0 NZ)

The New Zealand Government declares its vision to be a fully inclusive education system which includes confident students, confident parents, and confident school teachers and leaders. The Ministry of Education describes inclusive education as being about the participation and achievement of all learners, with all students becoming capable, connected lifelong learners (Ministry of Education, 2015a).

Intensive Wraparound Service

In another government program operating in New Zealand, the Intensive Wraparound Service is designed as a holistic program for students whose challenging behaviour and learning problems may make it difficult for them to remain at school (Ministry of Education, 2015b). A psychologist coordinates all the services provided to an individual student, and works with all involved to develop a comprehensive plan to support the student at school and at home. Many schools also employ teacher assistants to help teachers to support students with additional needs in the classroom. New Zealand has also developed specific strategies to support Māori students (Ministry of Education, 2015c) and Pasifika Students (Ministry of Education, 2015d).

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Other government policy initiatives

The Australian states and territories and the New Zealand Government provide a wide range of support services to classroom teachers to assist them in the inclusion of students with additional needs. In New South Wales, the Learning Support Program provides a range of types of support for all students who experience difficulties in regular classes (NSW Department of Education and Communities, 2012). Part of this program is the use of learning and support teachers to support students who experience learning difficulties in school, without those students having to have a diagnosed disability. These teachers can give one-to-one assistance to individual students, work with groups of students, team-teach and provide professional support and advice to classroom teachers. The advantage of this approach is that the responsibility for supporting the student with additional needs is seen as a shared, school-wide responsibility. In addition, many schools in Australia and New Zealand have access to targeted funding for individual students with a diagnosed disability. These funds can be used in a variety of ways, including the employment of teacher assistants to help in the process of inclusion. Further examples of supports that are available to regular classroom teachers are provided in the next chapter.

Class sizes can also be reduced when the needs of the students warrant this, and accelerated learning is also an option for gifted and talented students. For example, Glenunga International High School in South Australia runs the IGNITE program for students with high intellectual potential. Depending on the student’s needs, the program can provide an accelerated course of study emphasising extension and enrichment rather than grade skipping (Glenunga International High School, 2013). The New South Wales Department of Education and Communities (2011) provides a variety of support materials for teachers and parents of gifted and talented students. All the Australian state and territory departments of education assist teachers with advice on supporting Indigenous students. For example, the Department of Education, Western Australia (2013b) gives lesson plans across curriculum areas and curriculum levels to introduce Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ perspectives in the teaching process.

Curriculum support materials

Several states and territories now provide curriculum support materials for regular classroom teachers to assist students with disabilities and with other additional needs. For example, the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority provides guidelines for teachers to ensure that students with additional needs can access the Victorian Essential Learning Standards, a curriculum framework for all students to Year 10. Such guidelines recognise that ‘every student is entitled to enriching learning experiences across all areas of the curriculum’ (Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority, 2013). The Abilities Based Learning and Education Support (ABLES) program provides a system for assessing the abilities of students with additional learning needs, and developing instructional programs to support them (Department of Education and Early Childhood, Victoria, 2011). In New South Wales, the Board of Studies, Teaching and Educational Standards provides primary school curriculum support documents for students with additional needs, and each of the main high school curricula is supplemented with planning advice to help teachers adapt the curriculum for students with learning problems (NSW Board of Studies, 2013).

Quality teaching framework

Educational authorities are increasingly embedding their advice on ways to support students with additional needs within a framework of ‘quality teaching’. Queensland’s Productive Pedagogies (the use of effective teaching techniques designed to promote student learning outcomes) notes the importance of inclusivity in good classroom practice (Department of

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Education, Training and Employment, Queensland, 2013b). When inclusivity is absent, students are typically treated as a homogeneous group and their diverse backgrounds are not incorporated into classroom activities in meaningful or appropriate ways. This can result in some individuals being unable to participate in those activities. In New South Wales, inclusivity is also a key feature of Quality teaching in NSW schools (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2003), and the more recent Quality Teaching Rounds work of Gore and her colleagues (Gore et al., 2015). Here, high inclusivity is apparent when the classroom is free from negative forms of discrimination or prejudice. Figure 2.6 shows a continuum of inclusivity in the classroom.

Some students are excluded, or exclude themselves, from lesson activities throughout the lesson

Low inclusivity

Students from all groups are included in all aspects of the lesson and their inclusion is both significant and equivalent to the inclusion of students from other groups High inclusivity

FIGURE 2.6 The continuum of inclusivity in the classroom Department for Education and Skills (UK) (2004). By Open Government Licence v3.0

REFLECT ON THIS Think about a school you are familiar with. What examples can you think of which demonstrate that the school had a policy of inclusive practice? Were there any indications to the contrary?

2.4 International legislation and policy The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights included strong statements about rights and freedoms which have subsequently been used to support inclusive practices. For example: Article 26 (3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. Source: United Nations (1948)

This declaration did not lead to immediate changes in the way students with a disability were educated. For example, until the 1970s in Australia, many children with very severe or multiple disabilities were excluded from the public education system. However, the declaration later allowed parent groups and educators to argue for equal access to schooling, and for parental choice. Changes were slow in coming, and even 40 or 50 years after Article 26 (3) was declared, there were many parents in Australian schools who had little or no ‘prior right to choose the kind of education’ that their child would receive. Indeed, some parents would argue that this remains the case today. Subsequent statements have been much more specific about equal access to education as a right for persons with a disability. For example, the World declaration on education for all at Jomtien, Thailand stated in Article III (5):

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Steps need to be taken to provide equal access to education to every category of disabled persons as an integral part of the education system. Source: UNESCO (1990), p. 5

Since that time, UNESCO has produced a series of reports and policies that consistently advocate for inclusive educational practices. In 2001, Booth, in a paper for the UNESCO World Education Forum argued that: Removing exclusion in and from education is only part of the process of reducing exclusion in society. It cannot be separated from policies for economic development and employment. Sustainable inclusive educational development has to be linked to the building of sustainable working opportunities in sustainable environments. Source: UNESCO (2001), p. 46

UNESCO noted that ‘inappropriately-designed curricula … are often the major causes of segregation and exclusion’, and that ‘more than 90 per cent of students with disabilities in developing countries do not attend schools’ (UNESCO, 2004). In 2020 a new report was released by UNECO titled Inclusion and Education: All means all (UNESCO, 2020) that detailed both the progress made towards a series of global goals for inclusion and the challenges encountered in this effort. These statements by a major agency of the United Nations demonstrate that inclusion is more than an isolated Western phenomenon. Inclusion is supported by all members of the United Nations and is relevant to the estimated 115–130 million students of school age who are excluded from regular schools and classes, and the many millions more who either drop out or whose progression through the school system is impeded (UNESCO, 2005).

Attitudes towards inclusive education

To return to the theme discussed earlier in the chapter, UNESCO identifies a number of teacher attitudes and behaviours that are associated with inclusive education. Examples of these attitudes and behaviours are that teachers: • can explain the meaning of inclusive education and can give examples of inclusion • believe that all children, including those with additional needs, can learn • have high expectations for all children and encourage them to achieve

• are aware of resources that are available to assist children with special learning needs • adapt curriculum, lessons and school activities to the needs of children with diverse backgrounds and abilities

• use content, language and strategies in their teaching that help all students to learn • are reflective and open to learning, adapting, experimenting and changing • are able to work as a team (UNESCO, 2005).

On 13 December 2006, the United Nations passed the Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. This Convention provides unambiguous support for inclusive schooling: Article 24 – Education 1 States Parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to education. With a view to realizing this right without discrimination and on the basis of equal opportunity, States Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all levels … Source: United Nations (2006)

Australia and New Zealand are among 160 countries which had ratified the Convention by May 2016, having done so in July 2008. In August 2009, Australia became one of 92 countries

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that have also ratified the optional Protocol which allows the Committee on the Rights of Persons with a Disability to receive communications from persons who believe that they have been a victim of a violation of the Convention. This, of course, strengthens the impact of Article 24 for students with a disability in Australia. New Zealand acceded to the Optional Protocol to the Convention on 5 October 2016.

The University of Melbourne’s Hallmark Disability Research Institute (2015) made the following recommendations, inter alia, to a day of discussion on Article 24 of the Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities: Recommendation 3 Australian education systems need to increase efforts to provide appropriately resourced inclusive education to all students with disability. Students with [additional] learning needs may constitute around 30% of the school age population. Recommendation 4 Teacher development for inclusive education needs to position teaching as a clinicalpractice profession, in line with many allied health professions and should prepare teacher candidates for interventionist and inclusive teaching. Recommendation 5 The concept of universal design, rather than reasonable accommodations, should be promoted in future UN instruments and other documents. Source: Hallmark Disability Research Institute (2015)

International policy statements and conventions such as Article 24 are reflected in the legislation and policy of many countries. Legislation and policy in the USA and the UK are included in this chapter because it has attracted international attention and because it has been a catalyst for policy development in other countries, including Australia and New Zealand. In 2009, the Policy guidelines on inclusion in education (UNESCO, 2009) acknowledged the importance of access to education for all children and young people. The Guidelines also highlighted the need for all children and young people to take full part in school life and achieve desired outcomes from their schooling. In addition, the Guidelines specified the goal of inclusion in education as reaching each individual’s full potential and effective participation in the society. However, it would be incorrect to assume that educational policies and laws about students with additional needs are identical in all countries. As later sections of this chapter show, there are differences in legislation and policy, even across major Western countries, including the USA and the UK.

United States of America

In the USA, the principle of inclusion is supported by legislation requiring school systems to provide mainstream places as a first option, if that is what parents wish. For example, in the USA there is specific legislation relating to schools: the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) (2009). IDEA was developed from the Education of all Handicapped Children Act (1975) and, with subsequent amendments and regulations, provides a strong legal basis for services to students with a disability. An overriding principle of IDEA is that of ‘zero reject’. This means that no child may be excluded from public education on the basis of their disability, no matter how severe. Students must be educated in the least restrictive environment, which means they are expected to be educated in regular, age-appropriate classes to the maximum extent possible. The Act stipulates that there must be parental involvement with assessment and review, and student involvement where appropriate. All students with disabilities must have an individualised educational program (or individualised family support plan if at pre-school level). This IEP

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comprises information about the student’s educational needs, goals and objectives; it specifies the educational and other services (e.g. physiotherapy) to be provided, and defines how the educational goals and objectives will be evaluated. IEPs were introduced briefly in Chapter 1.

Outcomes of IDEA

One outcome of this legislation is that the proportion of students with a disability who are educated in regular schools and classes has increased considerably (Department of Education USA, 2009). In the USA, specialised services need to be provided in the regular class if that is where the student is placed. For example, if the student needs daily physiotherapy, this should be provided at the regular school rather than by sending the student to a special school where physiotherapy is available. In the USA, ‘disability’ includes students with learning difficulties and behaviour problems who are typically not included in disability categories in schools in Australia or New Zealand (Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 2013a; Office of Special Education Programs, 2013).

Despite the strength of the US legislation, there is evidence that some schools use their bureaucratic structures to limit parental input. Bacon and Causton-Theoharis (2013) reported that schools have been observed to use medical and deficit discourse, professionalised language, policy interpretations, and meeting practices to limit the power and input of parents. They suggest that parents need to use advocacy strategies if they are to achieve the best education possible for their children.

Early childhood special education

In the area of early childhood special education, IDEA has had a major impact on educational services to infants with a disability. An important feature of this Act is the use of an individualised family support plan to determine the family’s needs, strengths and resources. This feature is an example of a movement away from child-centred support to family-centred support for young children with a disability (see Chapter 11). The community-based companion to these examples of legislation is the Americans with Disabilities Act (Department of Justice USA, 2010). It extends community civil rights by giving people with a disability access to such services as employment, transport and communications.

United Kingdom

There have been several pieces of legislation in the UK that have addressed the provision of educational services to students with additional needs. Although this legislation is less prescriptive than its USA counterpart, it is comprehensive. The UK’s 2001 Special Educational Needs and Disability Act stipulated that:

A student with a disability … must be educated in a mainstream school unless that is incompatible with the wishes of his [sic] parent or the provision of efficient education for other children. Source: National Archives, UK (2013a)

However, in this case, reference to ‘the provision of efficient education for other children’ could potentially allow schools to refuse entry to a student with a disability if it was considered that the student would disrupt the class and interfere with the education of other children. Nevertheless, in Removing barriers to achievement, the UK Department for Education and Skills (2004) stated:

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All teachers should expect to teach children with special educational needs (SEN) and all schools should play their part in educating children from their local community, whatever their background or ability. Source: Department for Education and Skills (UK) (2004). By Open Government Licence v3.0

Equality Act 2010

The UK legislation was strengthened by the Equality Act 2010 (National Archives, UK, 2015). Under the Equality Act 2010, it is unlawful for any education provider to discriminate between pupils on grounds of disability, race, sexual orientation, gender reassignment, pregnancy and maternity, religion or belief, or sex. It is unlawful to discriminate in relation to prospective pupils, pupils already enrolled at the school, and former pupils who have a continuing relationship with the school. The Act states that a school must not discriminate against a person in its admission arrangements, in the provision of education, in exclusions, or by subjecting a pupil to any other detriment. In the UK, schools have been required to make reasonable adjustments for pupils and prospective pupils with disabilities since 1995. The new Act requires schools to also provide ancillary aids and services as needed. At the wider community level, the UK Disability Discrimination Act 1995 originally addressed discrimination in employment, and gaining access to goods, facilities and services. However, amendments to the Act in 2002 and 2005 require schools not to treat students with a disability less favourably than other students, and to make reasonable adjustments to avoid disadvantaging these students (National Archives, UK, 2013b).

REFLECT ON THIS What ‘reasonable adjustments’ might be needed to assist a trans-gender student to feel included in a secondary school? How could the school ensure that it was not discriminating against the student?

2.5 The practice of inclusion Australian educational jurisdictions provide three main types of enrolment options for students with additional needs. Most of these students will be educated in regular classrooms and will have their needs adequately met by regular classroom teachers, with assistance from specialist support staff as required. A smaller group of students with additional needs is enrolled in either special classes or units in regular schools. A third, smaller, group will be educated in special schools. As explained in Chapter 1, an important principle to follow in the enrolment of students with additional needs is to provide the environment that is the least restrictive. That is, to provide the environment that most closely parallels the regular classroom and places fewest restrictions on the student. The limited evidence available suggests that there are some variations across Australia’s states and territories in the proportion of students identified with a disability, the proportion of students with a disability who are enrolled in regular classes, and the proportion of those students enrolled across the public, Catholic and independent school systems (Dempsey, 2007, 2011; Dempsey & Davies, 2013).

Key players in inclusion

The legislation and policies discussed in this chapter have had an impact on the way in which education is provided to students with additional needs. However, it would be wrong to assume

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that educational practice in this area is influenced by these principles and policies alone. Other potential influences on services to students with additional needs are discussed in this section. Examples of key players in the debate about and the practice of inclusion are teachers, academics, parents, lobby groups, politicians and the media. Public and professional opinion can also influence practice. For example, for the past four decades there has been debate about the adequacy of existing educational placement for students with a disability. Some have argued that there is no place for segregated settings, and that all students have a right to be educated not just in a regular school, but in a regular class along with other students. The basis of this proposal is that a unified and coordinated education system is likely to provide better educational support to all students. Rather than categorising students using psychometric tests and then assigning them to a service, it is argued that students should be assessed on the basis of their support needs and be assisted as far as possible in the regular classroom (see NCCD, 2020). This support would be supplemented by specialist teachers or resources as necessary.

Arguments to support the inclusion movement

There are several arguments used by the inclusion movement to support their case (see Foreman & Arthur-Kelly, 2008), and some of these arguments will now be explored (Figure 2.7). First, it is

A single body of students The education system is not made up of regular and special students, but is instead comprised of a single group of students eligible for education.

Two systems is inefficient Services in special education are sometimes developed by adding on to existing services, which can create overlap and differ from the general education system.

Four segments A separate education system can lead to prejudice The principles of good teaching practice are essentially the same, whether employed in a regular or special classroom, and special education does not make it ‘special’ because of varying teaching strategies.

Maintaining some students in special schools can be unjust It is discriminatory to not allow all students, regardless of disability, access to a regular classroom.

FIGURE 2.7 Arguments to support inclusion in education for all students

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claimed that there are not two types of students in the education system – regular and special. Instead, there is a single body of students eligible for education and these students differ in their abilities and needs, along a variety of continua. Consequently, it is the responsibility of regular schools to meet the needs of all of these students by providing the necessary support (NCCD, 2020). Second, it is argued that having two education systems is inefficient. To some extent, special education has developed by adding on new services to existing services, and this has not always been done in a coordinated way. A problem with this approach is that these new services may bear little relationship to each other and to the general education system, and they may overlap with existing services. An alternative is to service all students from a single education system that is planned in an organised manner. A third argument for inclusion is that having a separate education system leads to the development of inappropriate attitudes and beliefs. For example, it implies that special education is indeed ‘special’ and different, because it uses teaching strategies that are not used in mainstream classes. Some regular class teachers may therefore feel that they do not have the skills needed to support students with additional needs. However, while teachers in special education may use some teaching practices in a more systematic way than teachers in regular education, the principles of good teaching practice are essentially the same, regardless of the setting. Later chapters in this book will explore this issue further.

A final argument for inclusion is that maintaining some students in special schools and support classes is discriminatory and cannot be justified on the basis of equity. It is claimed that it is fundamentally unjust not to allow all students, regardless of the severity of their disability, access to a regular class. Supporters of inclusive education suggest that with appropriate levels of peer and staff support, and with appropriate levels of curriculum modification, the education of students with very high support needs in regular classes can be a meaningful experience for those students and for their peers.

Special education and inclusion

Not surprisingly, some people see inclusive education as an extreme option for many students with a disability. For example, educators and academics, such as Kauffman and Hallahan (2005), have argued that special education ‘lost its way’ by being overly influenced by philosophical arguments supporting inclusion. They argued that special education grew from a recognition that the regular education system did not meet the needs of students with learning problems. Consequently, to deconstruct segregated placements for such students, particularly for students with severe behaviour problems, is seen as illogical. Others argue that inclusion is incompatible with the maintenance of high academic standards in schools, encouraged by national testing programs such as NAPLAN in Australia and National Standards in New Zealand. However, attempts by Australian schools to exclude significant numbers of students from national testing to enhance the performance of their school have been resisted by the Australian Government (Topsfield & Lester, 2010).

Political influence

Politics, the media and ‘pressure groups’ also influence educational policy and practice for students with additional needs. One example of the interplay between press reports, government policy and interest groups relates to students with behaviour problems at school. Watson (2012) reported that in South Australia in 2011 there were over a thousand reported assaults by students in schools, and that 144 were classed as ‘critical incidents’. Such media reports have contributed to significant increases in specialist support for students with behaviour problems, including segregated placements.

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Other important stakeholders in the practice of inclusion are parents and caregivers. Some parents of students who are currently educated in special schools and specialist classrooms feel worried at the prospect of the closure of these settings if inclusion policies were to be comprehensively implemented. The issue is certainly an emotive one. However, the wholesale closure of special schools and classes is highly unlikely. The main reason is that such a closure requires the support not only of administrators and academics, but also of the students, families and teachers involved, and such support is not universal.

Inclusive education in the community

Community support for inclusive education is reflected in a variety of organisations including parent/professional advocacy groups such as The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps (TASH) in the USA and Family Advocacy in NSW (for parents seeking to enrol their child with a disability in regular classes). A consequence of the development of advocacy and lobby groups is that the debate about inclusive education has extended from the school to the wider community. An indication of this change is that it is now common for political parties to develop a policy on inclusion, and in some states the area of disability is recognised as a government portfolio in its own right. The introduction of a National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) in Australia is a reflection of acceptance by government of responsibility to provide for the lifelong needs of people with a disability (NDIS, 2020).

advocacy Assistance or support on behalf of another person. Typically, parents and guardians act as advocates for their child. However, it is in the interests of all students to assist them to advocate for themselves.

Some schools and sections of the wider community continue to debate the merits of including students with a disability. However, the debate currently centres on the degree to which this inclusion should occur (rather than whether it should occur at all), and the strategies that support this inclusion. Perhaps the most important thing that should occur in this process is that families should be given choices in the educational placements offered to them. As mentioned previously, parental choice is a strong feature of educational policy in Australia and New Zealand.

Providing supportive environments

Meeting a diversity of needs in the classroom is a challenge. The demands of teaching in mixed ability classrooms, of changing instruction to meet individual needs, teaching to reduce prejudice, of working with others in the classroom, and of taking time to meet with other professionals are considerable. However, the challenge provides an opportunity to enrich learning and social relations (see Figure 2.8). Meeting this challenge means reforming schools and education systems and organising classroom activities so that students with additional needs achieve success in the activities provided to them. However, the focus is not just on the student with additional needs. The focus is on providing good teaching – teaching that will benefit all the students in the classroom, as indicated by the principles of UDL (Universal Design for Learning) mentioned throughout this book.

The limitations of assessment

A traditional way of meeting additional needs in the classroom has been to attend to real or perceived ‘deficiencies’ in the student. For example, the FIGURE 2.8 Relationships with friends contribute to quality of life assumption may be made that the student is unable to achieve at the same level as their peers because of faulty cognitive or perceptual processing. That is, the student with learning difficulties who reads at a level five years behind their peers may do so because of a cognitive impairment. Assessment

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of the student has been to concentrate on identifying the nature of the impairment and perhaps in quantifying it (e.g. through an individual IQ test).

This approach has its limitations because it does not provide the classroom teacher with useful teaching information. For example, providing the teacher with an IQ score for a student tells the teacher nothing about the strengths, interests and needs of the student. While IQ test results are reasonable predictors of a student’s academic performance, there is a range of other relevant variables (e.g. motivation, family support and personality). Indeed, over-reliance on test scores can have the consequence of creating preconceived ideas about what students can and cannot do. For example, knowing that a student has an IQ score of 73 may lead some teachers to conclude that the student is not capable of achieving academically. The truth is that, given good teaching and support, the student may achieve substantially in academic and other areas.

Defining and exploring the need

A more useful way of thinking about additional needs is to focus on what it is that the student has difficulty doing and needs assistance with. If the student has difficulty reading, then what aspect of the reading activity is the problem (e.g. the length of the passage, the difficulty of the words)? If the student has difficulty with some mathematical tasks, then what aspect of this activity is the problem (e.g. a lack of understanding of a more basic maths concept)? It is here that working collaboratively with specialist staff, as many of the New Zealand and Australian state and territory education policies expect regular classroom teachers to do, can assist. Such specialist staff can make suggestions about ways in which we can modify teaching activities for students with additional needs (see Chapters 9 and 10). Table 2.1 summarises some of the essential features of the inclusion of students with additional educational needs. TABLE 2.1 The defining features of inclusion

Inclusion is:

Inclusion is not:

• embracing the diversity of interests and needs in regular classes

• meeting the needs of some at the expense of others

• seeking to support and benefit all students in the class, not just students with additional needs

• supporting only students with additional needs

• creating classrooms that allow all to achieve to their potential

• conducted only by specialist staff

• the responsibility of all school staff

• applicable only to identified students • conducted only for some learning experiences

• demonstrating flexibility and accessibility in the way all learning experiences are provided

Effective support

The modifications required to effectively support all students in the classroom are part of a broader strategy which sees the environment that the student functions in as being crucial to the success of that student. Teachers are most interested in classroom and school environments. Crucially, these environments comprise a variety of components that interact with each other to influence the learning experience and its outcomes. See Figure 2.9 for some of the important components of classroom and school environments.

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Leadership by the school executive

Characteristics of students with additional needs

Teaching strategies

School policies on inclusion

Important components of classroom and school environments

Curriculum

Attitudes of students without additional needs

Resources and facilities

Experience with students with additional needs

Attitudes of staff

FIGURE 2.9 There are many features of an educational environment requiring collaboration and support.

Leadership provided by the principal and other executive staff can have a profound impact on staff and students. For example, the principal arguing for the benefits of inclusion in staff meetings and providing opportunities for students with additional needs to be included in school assemblies will send a clear message to the school about inclusion (see Haines et al., 2015). At the level of the classroom, the leadership provided by the teacher can also have a profound impact on the behaviour of students and others. For example, teachers who provide opportunities for all students to achieve success show the class that cooperation and acceptance are valued in the classroom. The goal at the classroom level is to create and maintain a supportive environment that will assist all the students in the class, including students with additional needs.

Strategies to measure success

There are several strategies that schools can use to check how successful their inclusive practices are. One approach is to reflect on the degree of match between best practice and reality. Table 2.2 lists key indicators from the Index for Inclusion produced by the Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education (Booth & Ainscow, 2002). Teachers and schools can use these indicators and associated questions to analyse policies and practices, and to identify the barriers to learning and participation that may occur within each of the identified areas (see Ainscow, 2015). Use of such an index has been examined in Australia by Duke (2009) and in New Zealand by McMaster (2015) and provides a valuable means of ensuring that evidence-based practices are implemented in schools and systems.

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TABLE 2.2 Indicators of best practice in inclusion

A Creating inclusive cultures A1 Building community

A2 Establishing inclusive values

• A1.1 Everyone is made to feel welcome

• A2.1 There are high expectations for all students

• A1.2 Students help each other • A1.3 Staff collaborate with each other

• A2.2 Staff, principals, students and parents/carers share a philosophy of inclusion

• A1.4 Staff and students treat one another with respect

• A2.3 Students are equally valued

• A1.5 There is a partnership between staff and parents/ carers

• A2.4 Staff and students recognise that each has an important role

• A1.6 Staff and principals work well together

• A2.5 Staff seek to remove barriers to learning and participation in all aspects of the school

• A1.7 Local communities are involved in the school

• A2.6 The school strives to minimise discriminatory practices

B Producing inclusive policies B1 Developing the school for all

B2 Organising support for diversity

• B1.1 Staff appointments and promotions are fair • B1.2 New staff are helped to settle into the school

• B2.1 Support for all students (including ESL and Indigenous students) is coordinated

• B1.3 The school seeks to admit all students from its locality

• B2.2 Staff development activities help staff to respond to student diversity

• B1.4 The school makes its buildings physically accessible to all people

• B2.3 School policies reflect the principles of inclusion

• B1.5 New students are helped to settle into the school • B1.6 The school arranges teaching groups so that all students are valued and encouraged to achieve

• B2.4 Pastoral care and behaviour support policies are linked to curriculum development and learning • B2.5 Pressures for disciplinary suspension are decreased • B2.6 Barriers to attendance are reduced • B2.7 Bullying is minimised

C Evolving inclusive practices C1 Orchestrating learning

C2 Mobilising resources

• C1.1 Teaching is planned with the learning of all students in mind

• C2.1 Student difference is used as a resource for teaching and learning

• C1.2 Lessons encourage the participation of all students

• C2.2 Staff expertise is fully utilised

• C1.3 Lessons develop an understanding of difference • C1.4 Students are actively involved in their own learning

• C2.3 Staff develop resources to support learning and participation

• C1.5 Students learn collaboratively

• C2.4 Community resources are known and drawn upon

• C1.6 Assessment contributes to the achievements of all students

• C2.5 School resources are distributed fairly so that they support inclusion

• C1.7 Classroom discipline is based on mutual respect • C1.8 Teachers plan, teach and review in partnership • C1.9 Teachers are concerned to support the learning and participation of all students • C1.10 Teaching assistants support the learning and participation of all students • C1.11 All students take part in activities outside the classroom Source: Adapted from Booth and Ainscow (2002)

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REFLECT ON THIS How can the classroom teacher easily locate quality information on best practices or evidence-based strategies for use in their classrooms?

Barriers to an inclusive education

In a review of more than 170 research papers, Cologon (2014) identified several barriers that may impede the realisation of the right to an inclusive education for students with disabilities. These barriers include lack of a clear understanding of inclusive education, negative and discriminatory attitudes and practices, lack of support and resourcing, and insufficient training and professional development for teachers and other relevant professionals. Cologon provided a list of responses that could facilitate the implementation of inclusive education. These include:

• A paradigm shift from special education and deficit thinking towards authentic acceptance of diversity and welcoming differences. • Community advocacy, paying close attention to disability and disability-rights movements. • Encouraging inclusion of all children as early as possible, regardless of their disability and level of additional needs, to develop a culture of inclusion.

• Promoting the quality of pre-service and in-service professional development and training, to equip professionals, paraprofessionals, and other relevant stakeholders with necessary knowledge and skills about inclusion.

• Provision of sufficient support, resourcing, funding and opportunities to make environmental, material and curriculum modifications, to provide specialist support and professional development. • Encouraging parent and student involvement.

• Documenting student outcomes and experiences, and using data-based or evidence-based practice to inform stakeholders (Cologon, 2014, pp. 42–43).

Acting ethically

At a basic level, ethics involves a consideration of the ‘correctness’ of actions or practices in a given situation (Freakley & Burgh, 2002). Ethics is closely associated with moral conduct, and services for students with additional needs are founded on some basic moral concerns. Examples of these concerns are a desire to prevent repetition of past injustices to these students and a belief that affirmative action may be required for this population.

ethics A system of moral principles to judge right or wrong human actions.

Given that our educational services to students with additional needs are influenced by our principles (such as the moral principles identified in the paragraph above), and by policy and legislation, one might ask: Why do teachers need to consider ethics in their day-to-day work? A consideration of ethics via critical reflection is a relevant activity in the daily work of teachers because laws and policies will not always provide us with all the guidance we need. In addition, the following excerpt shows that existing practices and prejudices can work against the spirit of the legislation and policy being implemented: Without the development of inclusive policies in education or an analogous strategy to include all learners, who have a basic human right to education, education for all will not be achieved. The reason is that all systems, even those overtly committed to education for all, have a tendency to exclude, sometimes directly and sometimes indirectly, sometimes consciously, sometimes inadvertently, through the construction of religious, ethnic, racial, gender, linguistic, educational, intellectual and other barriers to participation. Source: UNESCO (2001), p. 4

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The importance of acting ethically

A paper on Education and Learning Issues that emerged in 2019 from the Royal Commission into Violence, Abuse, Neglect and Exploitation of People with Disability again underlined the pivotal role of ethics and human rights in the design and delivery of educational supports for people with disability. By noting the many challenges faced by individuals with disability in schools and jurisdictions, it became clear that a whole-of-system approach is needed to ensure that high quality and ethicallysound learning and participation for all is truly and fairly available in all educational settings. Teachers are key agents of change in this context, a theme that will be developed throughout the book.

REFLECT ON THIS Julia is a secondary school student who is reading at a level four years behind her peers. She struggles to understand much of the content presented in her English, mathematics and science lessons, and she has learnt to stay quiet in class to prevent being asked by the teacher to answer questions. She raises her hand just as the teacher selects another student to answer the question, to give the appearance of participation. Sitting near the back of the class has been a useful strategy for her to achieve this objective. There are several very disruptive students in these classes who occupy much of the teachers’ time. From the teachers’ perspective, these classes are in the lower stream and are difficult to manage. They complain that many of the students do not want to be there and are not interested in the work. Meanwhile, Julia hands in another topic test with fewer than half the questions attempted.

A way to deal with the problem of a difference between educational practice and educational policy is the development of codes of ethics and codes of conduct for employees by their employers. Codes of ethics give general advice about ethical principles that should be followed. Codes of conduct give more specific advice about what should and should not be done in particular situations. For example, the Code of Conduct for teachers used by the Victorian Institute of Teaching states, in part, that ‘teachers demonstrate their commitment to student learning by knowing their students well, respecting their individual differences and catering for their individual abilities …’ and that teachers will have ‘… high expectations of every student, recognising and developing each student’s abilities, skills and talents’ (Victorian Institute of Teaching, 2011). The Australian Professional Standards for Teachers require graduate teachers to understand and apply the key principles described in codes of ethics and conduct for the teaching profession (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL), 2015). While such ethics documents can be helpful to staff, the development of an ethics code is just the start for an organisation encouraging ethical behaviour. Ultimately, a code will be worth no more than the paper it is written on unless the code is ‘owned’ by its members, and is reinforced and supported by management.

REFLECT ON THIS Ethan is in his third year of teaching as a physical education specialist in a secondary school. He seems to be doing well. His classes are always well-controlled and most students seem to be enjoying them. He is very sociable with the staff, but has very strong opinions and seems reluctant to take in the views of others. In the staff room he uses very negative language about some of his students, referring to Lebanese students as ‘the Lebos’ and Pacific islanders as ‘coconuts’. He is also disparaging about overweight students in his classes, calling them ‘blobs’ when talking to other teachers and laughs at students with poor physical skills. His colleagues feel uncomfortable with his attitudes, but they respect his ability to control the behaviour of the students in his classes. He is a very good sportsman and is looked on as something of a star in the physical education group. One colleague did try to speak to Ethan about his attitudes, but he laughed at her and called her a ‘wuss’.

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The success of inclusive practices

Clearly, supporting students with diverse needs in the classroom can be challenging. However, these students have a moral and ethical right to enrol in regular classes, and teachers and schools have a legal responsibility to provide quality educational experiences for them. In meeting this responsibility, it is not helpful to regard students with additional needs as a separate group from the other students in the school. All the students in the school, including, for example, those who may be gifted and talented or from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander or other ethnic or racial backgrounds, will differ along a continuum of abilities and interests. These differences are expected in any school, and they reflect the differences we experience when we interact with others outside the school setting. The argument over whether inclusion works has ended. Inclusion does work when key components of the classroom and the school environment are in place, and legislation and policy now demand that teachers and schools ensure that these components are enacted. In doing so, some students will need changes and modifications to what might normally occur in the classroom. Later chapters will explore the wide range of options that teachers have in changing classroom practice to support students with diverse additional needs.

A TEACHER REFLECTS Justin, Year 4 classroom teacher, regional state primary school, Queensland When I was at uni, I had quite negative attitudes to inclusion. My view of teaching was that it was a hard enough job without having to cope with children with learning difficulties and other special needs. At one of the schools where I did a placement, there was a student with quite severe disabilities, and all the teachers spent quite a lot of time complaining about the extra work this involved in the classroom and playground. However, when I started teaching at a large regional primary school, I found a totally different atmosphere in the school. The principal had a very strong view that the school should be a safe, supportive, and inclusive learning environment for every student. This view permeated all aspects of school policy, and there was a strongly shared view among the staff that all students in the school were welcome and belonged there. I have two students with additional needs in my class who do require some extra work. However, I get a lot of support from the school’s learning support team and I also get a lot of personal satisfaction from seeing how well the students have fitted in and how much they have become part of the school community. I do occasionally complain if I’ve had a difficult day, but I find that my colleagues sympathise with me without blaming the students, and usually have positive suggestions about alternative solutions.

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Summary

This chapter discussed the legislation and educational policies associated with the inclusion of students with additional needs. Some countries have relied on legislation to ensure that the rights of these students are maintained. While Australia and New Zealand have legislation to prevent discrimination against people with a disability, and in Australia education standards have an increasing impact on services for students with additional needs, individual state and territory policies have been the main vehicle by which educational services for students with additional needs have been maintained. Laws and policies both have their limitations, and they provide no guarantee that inclusive practices will be followed by all schools. Consequently, achieving inclusion for students with additional needs is the responsibility of a variety of key players that include regular classroom teachers, parents, the schools the students attend, and the education systems of which the schools are a part.

STUDY TOOLS

Acknowledgement

The content of this chapter is based on a chapter written for earlier editions of this book by Dr Ian Dempsey of the University of Newcastle. Material reproduced in this chapter is used with Dr Dempsey’s permission. The author, editors, and publisher are grateful to Dr Dempsey for his contribution to this chapter.

Discussion questions

1. What are the ramifications of the following extract from the Code of Conduct from the Victorian Institute of Teaching, mentioned earlier in this chapter? ‘Teachers demonstrate their commitment to student learning by knowing their students well, respecting their individual differences and catering for their individual abilities.’ 2. School leadership is vital to ensure the learning environment supports effective inclusion. What role do classroom teachers have in shaping the school culture of support and acceptance for all? 3. To what extent are the indicators of best practice in Table 2.2 reflected in the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers?

Individual activities

1. Conduct a review of some of the literature on inclusion to determine what views parents, teachers and the community hold. 2. Examine a policy related to inclusion of students with additional needs on the website of a school in your region. What does this policy say about the rights and responsibilities of teachers, parents and students?

3. Read the Learning Issues paper that was produced following the Royal Commission into Violence, Abuse, Neglect and Exploitation of People with Disability in 2019. What are the key messages you take from this paper for your work as a teacher in contemporary schools?

Group activities

1. Brainstorm the issues associated with the inclusion of students with additional needs from the perspectives of (a) students, (b) parents, (c) teachers and (d) the community. 2. Using the education standards that appear on pages 61, develop a list of activities that teachers and schools would need to address to ensure that the standards are being met. 3. Debate the following statements:

a. Inclusion is a nice idea but can’t apply to all students.

b. All educators have a responsibility to assist students with additional needs.

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c. If students with additional needs fail in the regular classroom they should return to a specialised setting. d. Enhancing standards in schools is incompatible with the inclusion of students with additional needs. e. The time taken by students with additional needs places an unfair burden on the rest of the class.

4. Discuss the various levels of adjustments that appear in the Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on Students with Disability (NCCD) processes that all Australian schools are involved in each year.

Weblinks

Australian Anti-Discrimination Fact Sheets https://www.humanrights.gov.au/employers/good-practice-goodbusiness-factsheets/quick-guide-australian-discrimination-laws Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education http://www.csie.org.uk/

Department of Education and Children’s Services, Northern Territory Government: Students With Disability https://education.nt.gov.au/policies/students-with-disability Department of Education and Communities, NSW: Supporting students http://www.schools.nsw.edu.au/ studentsupport/

Department of Education and Training, ACT: Services for students with a disability http://www.education. act.gov.au/school_education/disability_education

Department of Education and Training, Queensland: Learning and disability support http://education.qld.gov. au/studentservices/learning/index.html Department of Education, Tasmania, Learner wellbeing and behaviour policy https://www.education.tas.gov. au/documentcentre/Documents/Learner-Wellbeing-and-Behaviour-Policy.pdf Family Advocacy http://www.family-advocacy.com/

United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities http://www.un.org/disabilities/ convention/conventionfull.shtml

Recommended reading

Attorney-General’s Department (2005). Disability standards for education. Accessed 25 August 2010. Retrieved from http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ ComLaw/Legislation/LegislativeInstrument1. nsf/0/4B28EE956766891FCA256FCC0004EF81? OpenDocument

Curcic, S. (2009). Inclusion in PK-12: an international perspective. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 13 (5), 471–487.

Ekins, A. (2009). Inclusion: developing an effective whole school approach. Maidenhead, Berks: McGraw Hill Open University Press. Forlin, C. & Lian, M. J. (Eds) (2009). Reform, inclusion, and teacher education: towards a new era of special and

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Freakley, M. & Burgh, G. (2002). Engaging with ethics: ethical inquiry for teachers. Katoomba, NSW: Social Science Press. Glenunga International High School (2013). Ignite program. Accessed 22 April 2013. Retrieved from http://www. gihs.sa.edu.au/education-programs/ignite-program Gore, J., Smith, M., Bowe, J., Ellis, H., Lloyd, A., & Lubans, D. (2015). Quality Teaching Rounds as a professional development intervention for enhancing the quality of teaching: Rationale and study protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial. International Journal of Educational Research, 74, 82–95.

Haines, S., Gross, J., Blue-Banning, M., Francis, G., & Turnbull, A. (2015). Fostering family-school partnerships in inclusive schools: using practice as a guide. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 40, 227–239. Hallmark Disability Research Institute (2015). Submission: General discussion on the right to education of persons with disabilities. Melbourne: University of Melbourne. High Court of Australia (2003). Purvis v New South Wales, HCA 62; 217 CLR 92; 202 ALR 133; 78 ALJR 1, Accessed 12 November 2015 from http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/ cases/cth/HCA/2003/62.html Jenkins, J. R., Pious, C. G., & Jewell, M. (1990). Special education and the regular education initiative: basic assumptions. Exceptional Children, 56, 479–491.

Kauffman, J. M. & Hallahan, D. P. (Eds) (2005). The illusion of full inclusion: a comprehensive critique of a current special education bandwagon. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

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McMaster, C. (2015) Inclusion in New Zealand: the potential and possibilities of sustainable inclusive change through utilizing a framework for whole school development. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 50, 239–253.

Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (2006). The Adelaide declaration on national goals for schooling in the twenty-first century. Canberra, Australia: Author.

Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (2008). The Melbourne declaration on educational goals for young Australians. Accessed 10 February 2010. Retrieved from http://www.curriculum. edu.au/verve/_resources/National_Declaration_on_the_ Educational_Goals_for_Young_Australians.pdf Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2013a). Special education. Accessed 6 February 2013. Retrieved from http://www.minedu.govt.nz/NZEducation/ EducationPolicies/SpecialEducation.aspx

Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2013b). Education and disability contexts. Accessed 19 February 2013. Retrieved from http://www.minedu.govt.nz/NZEducation/ EducationPolicies/SpecialEducation/AboutUs/ ContextOfOurWork/EducationAndDisabilityContexts.aspx Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2013c). Our six priorities. Accessed 19 February 2013. Retrieved from http://www.minedu.govt.nz/theMinistry/ PublicationsAndResources/StatementOfIntent/ SOI2011/OperatingIntentions/OurSixPriorities.aspx

Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2015a) Te Kete Ipurangi, inclusive education guides for schools. Accessed 19 November 2015 from https://www.tki.org.nz/

Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2015b). Intensive wraparound service. Accessed 20 November 2015 from http://www.education.govt.nz/school/student-support/ special-education/intensive-wraparound-service-iws/ Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2015c). Māori Education Strategy 2013–2017. Accessed 20 November 2015 from http://www.education.govt.nz/ministryof-education/overall-strategies-and-policies/themaori-education-strategy-ka-hikitia-acceleratingsuccess-20132017/

Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2015d). Pasifika education plan, 2013–2017. Accessed 20 November 2015 from http://www.education.govt.nz/ministryof-education/overall-strategies-and-policies/pasifikaeducation-plan-2013–2017/ National Archives, UK (2013a). Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001. Accessed 6 February

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2013. Retrieved from http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ ukpga/2001/10/contents

National Archives, UK (2013b). Disability Discrimination Act 1995. Accessed 6 February 2013. Retrieved from http:// www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1995/50/contents National Archives, UK (2015). The Equality Act 2010, Accessed 13 November 2015. Retrieved from http:// www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/contents National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) (2013). National Disability Insurance Scheme Act 2013.

National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) (2020). Accessed 25 June, 2020. https://www.ndis. gov.au/

Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD) (2020). Accessed 25 June 2020. https://www.nccd.edu.au/ New Zealand Legislation (2015a). Human Rights Amendment Act 2001. Accessed 20 November 2015 from http:// www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1993/0082/latest/ DLM304475.html New Zealand Legislation (2015b). Vulnerable Children Act 2014. Accessed 20 November 2015 from http://www. legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2014/0040/latest/ DLM5501618.html New Zealand Legislation (2015c). Education Standards Act 2001. Accessed 20 November 2015 http://www. legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2001/0088/latest/ DLM117863.html NSW Board of Studies (2013). Home page. Accessed 21 February 2013. Retrieved from http://www. boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/

NSW Department of Education and Communities (2011). Gifted and talented students: policy support. Accessed 22 April 2013. Retrieved from http://www. curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/policies/gats/ support/index.htm NSW Department of Education and Communities (2012). School learning support program. Accessed 21 February 2013. Retrieved from http://www.schools.nsw.edu.au/ studentsupport/programs/disability.php

NSW Department of Education and Training (2003). Quality teaching in NSW schools: a classroom guide to practice. Sydney: Author. Nussbaum, M.C. (2006). Frontiers of justice. London: Belknap Press.

Office of Special Education Programs (2013). Legislation and policy. Accessed 6 February 2013. Retrieved from http:// www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/osep/policy.html

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Royal Commission into Violence, Abuse, Neglect and Exploitation of People with Disability (2019). Education and Learning Issues. Sydney: Government Printer.

South Australian Department for Education and Child Development (2012). Language and literacy levels across the Australian curriculum: EALD students introduction. Accessed 22 April 2012. Retrieved from www.decd. sa.gov.au/sites/g/files/net691/f/language-and-literacylevels-eald-levels-1–6.pdf Topsfield, J. & Lester, T. (2010). Gillard to track national testing turnout. The Age, 13 May 2010. Accessed 10 June 2010. Retrieved from http://www.theage.com. au/national/gillard-to-tracknational-testing-turnout20100512-uy47.html United Nations (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/eng.pdf

United Nations (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Accessed 12 November 2015. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/disabilities/convention/ signature.shtml United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (1990). World declaration on education for all (Jomtien, Thailand). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2001). Inclusion in education: the participation of disabled learners. Paris: UNESCO. Accessed 25 August 2010. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0012/001234/123486e.pdf

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2004). The right to education for persons with disabilities: towards inclusion. Accessed 26 November 2015. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0013/001378/137873e.pdf United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2005). Guidelines for inclusion: ensuring access to education for all. Accessed 15 December 2009. Retrieved from unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0014/001402/140224e.pdf United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2009). Policy guidelines on inclusion in education. Paris, United Nations.

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2020). Inclusion and Education: All means all. Accessed 1 July, 2020. https://en.unesco. org/gem-report/report/2020/inclusion Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA) (2013). Diversity of learners. Accessed 21 February 2013. Retrieved from http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/ foundation10/curriculum/diversityoflearners.aspx Victorian Institute of Teaching (2011). Victorian teaching profession code of conduct. Accessed 21 August 2013. Retrieved from http://www.vit.vic.edu.au/professionalresponsibilities/conduct-and-ethics Watson, C. (2012). Five teachers a day assaulted by students. The Advertiser, 16 July 2012.

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3

Practising inclusion in diverse school communities Michael Arthur-Kelly, Iva Strnadová and Martin Howes This chapter aims to: 3.1 Explore how to embrace inclusion to cultivate a supportive environment 3.2 Describe elements of negotiating inclusion in relation to all the players in a range of educational settings 3.3 Outline the process and the strategies involved in programming for effective inclusion 3.4 Analyse the various elements involved in resourcing inclusion in an effective manner 3.5 Provide a discussion of the various elements needed to build capacity for inclusion in a range of situations.

Introduction Best learning outcomes for students with additional needs

Quality teaching

A facilitative learning environment

Successful Inclusion

FIGURE 3.1 Inclusion – the basics

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A supportive school community

Facilitating the best learning outcomes for all students (including those with disability) in regular schools, is contingent upon the proactive engagement and support of the entire school community, the provision of a highly facilitative learning environment and the daily delivery of best quality teaching that draws on a sound evidence base (Bradfield & Hudson, 2012; Mitchell, 2014; Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020) (see Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.3). Successful schools develop, nurture and promote the values, knowledge, understanding and skills that underpin and facilitate successful inclusion (Boyle & Topping, 2012; Coulsten & Smith, 2013).

This chapter follows the story of Justine, a graduate teacher, newly appointed to teach a composite Year 1 and 2 class at Fortune Public School, where successful inclusion prevails. Fortune Public School is part of a diverse local community and, like many other schools across Australia, has significant enrolments of Indigenous students; students for whom English is an additional language or dialect (EAL/D); students with various disabilities; and students

CHAPTER 3 Practising inclusion in diverse school communities

who are gifted and talented (G&T). Many, but not all, of these students have additional learning and support needs.

Justine’s story is fictional, but it is based on the experiences of real early career teachers. As Justine’s story unfolds through five narratives, the chapter will explain the five evidence-based best practices that result in optimal educational outcomes for all of her students, including those with disability, as well as the best professional outcomes for Justine and her school colleagues (See Figure 3.2). The literature cited throughout the chapter provides research-based evidence for our assertions, and descriptions of relevant best practices from the Australasian and international literature. Some readers who have had less successful experiences and outcomes with inclusion may feel that Justine’s story is too optimistically weighted. We acknowledge that inclusion in diverse educational settings has its challenges and failures and that best-case outcomes are not always achieved. Justine’s story is based on our knowledge of the experiences of real early career teachers who have accepted and overcome these challenges.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students

Students for whom English is an additional language or dialect

Gifted and talented students

This chapter describes and explains the five domains of inclusive practices: embracing inclusion, negotiating inclusion, programming for inclusion, resourcing inclusion and building capacity for inclusion. We begin with the first of five parts of Justine’s story. These sections provide a focus for subsequent discussion and reflection on and around these five domains of inclusive practices (see Narrative 3.1).

NARRATIVE 3.1 Justine: the journey begins! Enjoying a cup of coffee after a long casual day at a local school, I jumped as the phone rang. It was from the Staffing Unit offering me a full-time position starting the next term! I managed to accept my appointment at Fortune Public School through breathless words and excitement. The school website said that Fortune Public School is a small K–6 school in Western New South Wales with a large percentage of Indigenous students. The website said they ‘are an inclusive school, educating students with a wide range of educational needs and have a close relationship with the wider community’. I wondered what types of educational needs they might have. Through further investigation on the Department’s website, I discovered it is classified as a low socioeconomic area in an isolated community and the school receives additional funding because of this. I spent the last couple of weeks of term 1 and the school holidays sorting out my accommodation and belongings, as well as rounding up all my teaching resources. A few days before the start of term 2, I drove the six hours to my new home. When I arrived at school on the first day of term, it was with some trepidation that I shook the principal’s hand. I really wanted to make a good first impression. After receiving bundles of school policies, scope and sequence charts, program outlines, units of work and assessment schedules, I was briefly shown the hall, canteen, playground, students’ eating area, staffroom (mustn’t forget the coffee mug next Monday) and lastly … MY classroom, 1/2B. I looked at all the unfamiliar students’ names displayed on the wall under different job descriptions. Molly and Jamal were the line leaders, Max and Natoya were the messengers, and the list went on. All these different personalities and names to learn. Suddenly, I started to feel very overwhelmed!

scope and sequence chart A visual representation of the content and order of a curriculum, or a unit within a curriculum. units of work A sequence of lessons created around a theme or group of syllabus outcomes. In primary schools, they often integrate common themes from different learning areas.

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Aboriginal Education Consultative Group (AECG) An Aboriginal organisation that provides advice on all matters relevant to education and training with the mandate that this advice represents the Aboriginal community’s viewpoint.

Physical disability

Autism

Communication disorder

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Intellectual disability

I decided to look through the students’ literacy books. The difference in ability was astonishing, although not so surprising, as there were quite a few students with disability. There were students who could write a sentence neatly, and other students who were still struggling with letter formation, placing random letters next to each other, making no specific words. I looked through their maths books to find the same story – a huge range of abilities. The principal told me that 25 per cent of my students were Indigenous and the school worked closely with the local Aboriginal communities through the Aboriginal Education Consultative Group (AECG) to support these students, particularly in literacy and numeracy. There is Jamal, who had just moved to the school. His mum speaks very little English. His dad speaks English quite well but this is not the main language spoken at home. Lauren has cerebral palsy. She is quite bright and requires some physical adjustments to various items of furniture. Lauren uses a tablet computer and specialised software for communication. Max has a primary disability of autism as well as receptive and expressive language disorder, while Jack has a mild intellectual disability and is also on a behaviour plan to try to address his ADHD. Programming to accommodate this diversity was my biggest goal; I wanted all of my students to achieve the best educational outcomes … This was going to be challenging and exciting! I would definitely need to have a closer look at differentiating the curriculum, along with my assessment and pedagogical practices for my diverse group of students. These are the three key foundations of good teaching, and I have to get them right for all of my students. More specifically, I will need to establish literacy and maths groups based on my students’ current work samples and any assessment records I can get my hands on. I will need to conduct a variety of individual and group assessments of my own, and monitor progress on an ongoing basis. I unpacked my teaching resources, organised my new desk and headed back to the office. Most of the staff had already gone home, but I managed to find the principal to ask for some direction in finding out more about my students. He told me I should take a look through the student record files, our student management system on the computer, as well as speak with the counsellor and Learning Support teacher for further information. After reading various files, I decided that as soon as it was possible, I had to make appointments with the students’ parents and school counsellor. I thanked the principal on my way out and drove home. My head was swimming with questions and ideas!

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the key information you would need to locate about the school and your students when commencing your first full-time appointment.

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PRACTISING SUCCESSFUL INCLUSION Building Capacity for Inclusion • Values and attitudes • Change and innovation • Leadership

Embracing Inclusion • Positive values, attitudes and understanding

5 Resourcing Inclusion • Resource needs appraisal • School resources • Systemic resources • Hands-on assistance in the classroom and playground • Assistive technology • Environmental modifications • Professional Development

4

1 3

2

Negotiating Inclusion • Collaborative consultation • The Learning Support Team model • The support cycle • Individual contexts

Programming for Inclusion • Differentiation • Individualisation • Risk assessment and management

FIGURE 3.2 Practising inclusion in diverse school communities: Justine’s story

3.1 Embracing inclusion Embracing inclusion, the first of the five domains of inclusive practices, is primarily about the cultivation and development of a supportive social environment in schools serving students with disability (Carrington, 2007; Forlin, 2012; Graham et al., 2015) (see Figure 3.3). This means that the values, attitudes and understanding of all those involved – including the students, school staff, parents and community members – are proactively supportive of inclusion initiatives taken by the school community (Ashman, 2012; Beacham & Rouse, 2012; Richards & Armstrong, 2016). Successful inclusive school communities aim to meet the diverse needs of all of their students, including those with disability (Foreman & ArthurKelly, 2008). Successfully inclusive school communities collaborate effectively with colleagues across educational settings, including preschools, early intervention services, and local primary and high schools, and with their local communities (Boyle & Topping, 2012; Jackson, 2007; Janus et al., 2008). A school ethos and climate that proactively embraces the inclusion of students with disability does so by acknowledging and celebrating difference and diversity (Palawat & May, 2011; Shaddock et al., 2007; Terzi, 2010). Embracing inclusion is the prerequisite to successfully negotiating, programming, resourcing and building capacity for inclusion (Birzenieks et al., 2020; Coulston & Smith, 2013).

early intervention This refers to supplying educational and/ or therapy services from the time the disability is diagnosed, sometimes from birth.

FIGURE 3.3 Inclusion requires a supportive social environment.

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Positive values, attitudes and understanding

As a country, we have generally moved beyond simple political correctness in regard to the rich diversity of our citizenry. The achievements of many immigrants, refugees, people with disabilities and others are widely recognised and their presence is accepted and celebrated.

Disability support agencies and cultural and ethnic organisations have increased their profiles in the community and media. Spokespeople are vocal in their advocacy for reforms and funding. A minority of individuals, institutions and companies are still out of step with accepted norms and values, and when their inability or unwillingness to accommodate the needs of people with diverse backgrounds, interests and needs is highlighted, there is often a community-driven media backlash. In Narrative 3.1, Justine demonstrates positive values, attitudes and understanding with her clear willingness to embrace inclusion. ‘Programming to accommodate this diversity was my biggest goal; I wanted all of my students to achieve the best educational outcomes.’

However, while individuals and communities have come a long way towards acceptance and tolerance of diverse others, there is still misunderstanding, stigma and discrimination (Brown, 2009; Mooij & Smeets, 2009; Wertheim, Freeman & Trinder, 2012). The media highlights societal reticence to recognise the needs of, and to provide for, individuals with diverse needs, particularly those who live with mental health problems (variously arising developmentally or from environmental factors, such as deprivation, physical and/or emotional abuse and exposure to prescription and/or illegal drugs during pregnancy).

The persisting stigma of mental illness

Emotional/ behavioural disorders (EBD)

Stories of poor practice among government agencies persist (see National Mental Health Commission, 2012). Because we cannot ‘see’ mental illness in the same way that we might observe physical disability, it is often more difficult to accept and understand. The revelations of high-profile community members who are living with mental illness are helping to remove the stigma and increase understanding, but as a community we still have a considerable way to go towards accepting and adequately resourcing mental health initiatives. This differentiation of values, attitudes and understanding is also evident in educational services (including preschools, primary and high schools), where an increasing number of students are being diagnosed with mental health problems (Armstrong, 2015; Karanges et al., 2014; Mowat, 2015).

Students with sensory or physical disability are generally well accepted, but students with mental health issues are generally less well accepted, particularly if they have challenging behaviours (Masse et al., 2013; Wood et al., 2014). This reticence to include these students is more evident among adult members (school staff and parents) and in recent years, special schools and facilities have been established to provide segregated educational placements. Other students are generally more accepting, but are of course strongly influenced by significant adults in their lives (Lyons, Ford & Slee, 2013; McIntosh et al., 2013). In Australia, the federal and state governments have recognised the benefits of early diagnosis and support. Excellent programs, such as Response Ability, KidsMatter and MindMatters, include fully developed teaching packages and programs for primary school, high school and tertiary audiences (see weblinks at the end of this chapter).

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Inclusion in schools

Schools are a reflection of society. All children have a right to an education, and many parents are choosing their neighbourhood preschool and then the local primary school for their child, regardless of disability. Impairments in vision, hearing or mobility are no longer regarded as valid reasons to segregate students from their peers, just as they are not valid reasons to deny adults access to employment, accommodation or transport (Boyle & Topping, 2012; Cooper & Jacobs, 2011; Forlin, 2012) (see Figure 3.4).

Preschool is followed by primary school and high school, and then an adult life where part-time or full-time tertiary study and/ or work is the norm. This process involves a number of stages and obvious transition periods, a point that is developed in detail later FIGURE 3.4 Mobility impairment is no longer regarded in this book. For many individuals, these changes and transitions as a reason for segregated schooling. occur fairly smoothly without the need for additional support or Source: Getty Images/Fotosearch intervention. General community acceptance of the principles of normalisation, integration and inclusion has meant that most children with disability are included and participate in these abovementioned transitions (See Chapter 7 in this book; Coulston & Smith, 2013; Forlin, 2012; also social behaviour A term that is used see the Australasian Journal of Special Education (2013) Issue 1: Special issue on transition for students to describe the with disabilities). However, for a significant number of these children and their families (especially actions of a person, such as calling out or those with high support needs), these changes and transitions are complex and demanding, and working with others, require additional support and resources (Beamish et al., 2012; Park, 2008). Children with disability as distinct from academic behaviour, often participate in special programs, like early intervention, designed to assist transition into each such as completing a new setting (Gillies, 2012; Shaddock et al., 2007) (see Chapters 7, 10, 11, 12 and 13). comprehension task.

Children in educational settings

Some parents of children with disability do not want an inclusive placement and seek enrolment for their child in a special education setting. This is a more restrictive environment, but can be the preferred placement for some students, particularly those with high support needs and challenging behaviours arising from more severe intellectual disability, autism and/or mental health issues (Halpin et al., 2011; Lyons & Cassebohm, 2012; Runswick-Cole, 2008). Often it is in preschool or early primary school settings that children with challenging behaviours arising from autism or mental health issues are first identified. Substantial conflict in early relationships with other children and adults from outside the family can highlight difficulties and differences (Halpin et al., 2011; Lonsdale, 2011). Parents consequently seek professional support and advice about their child’s aberrant social behaviour through services such as Positive Partnerships (see weblinks at the end of the chapter).

The next section explains the second domain of inclusive practices: negotiating inclusion. This is done with particular reference to collaborative consultation, the learning support team (LST) model, the support cycle model and individual (ecological) contexts.

collaborative consultation An interactive and ongoing process where people with differing expertise and knowledge work together in order to find solutions to mutually agreed problems. learning support team (LST) These or equivalent groups such as learning development committees or student welfare committees are responsible for building capacity for, negotiating for, and resourcing for successful inclusion.

3.2 Negotiating inclusion The process of negotiating inclusion is primarily achieved through collaborative consultation centred on individual needs. True collaboration requires participants to have generally embraced the principles of inclusion and diversity in a supportive school social milieu (Ashman, 2012;

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Obiakor, 2011; Palawat & May, 2011; Terzi, 2010; UNESCO, 2009). Thoughtful negotiations over the inclusion of students with disability provide the essential groundwork for successful resourcing and programming for inclusion. These negotiations may variously involve colleagues from local preschools, early intervention services, primary schools and the local high school, and members of the local community (Landmark & Zhang, 2012).

Justine proactively engaged in negotiated inclusion through engagement with various other stakeholders, as demonstrated in Narrative 3.1: ‘I decided that as soon as it was possible, I had to make appointments with the students’ parents and school counsellor.’ See also Narrative 3.2: ‘I’m going to go out and greet the parents this afternoon; a practice I intend to continue.’

By way of illustration, the parents, school staff and other support agency staff of a child with disability who is to be enrolled in their local primary school should commence planning for inclusion as early as 12 months prior to enrolment. This allows time for any necessary capital works to happen, as well as opportunities to prepare the child and family for a significant event in their lives. During this time, the school is also able to assemble necessary resources, such as additional funds, assistive technology and personnel.

The three-phase inclusion process

The successful negotiation and planning of inclusion involves preparing for transitions across settings (Walsh, 2012; see particularly the Australasian Journal of Special Education (2013) Issue 1: Special issue on transition for students with disabilities), and this usually takes into account three phases (see Figure 3.5). • Phase 1 – Preparation phase focuses on the pre-inclusion period; up to 12 months before the child joins the new setting.

• Phase 2 – Transition phase focuses on the period of transition and early inclusion. This phase usually continues for around six months and may involve part-time participation in the new setting. • Phase 3 – Consolidation phase involves planning for continuing, longer-term or substantial inclusion. The three-phase inclusion process Phase 1 • Preparation phase focuses on the pre-inclusion period; up to 12 months before the child joins the new setting.

Phase 2 • Transition phase focuses on the period of transition and early inclusion. This phase usually continues for around six months and may involve part-time participation in the new setting.

FIGURE 3.5 The inclusion process – the three phases

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Phase 3 • Consolidation phase involves planning for continuing, longer-term or substantial inclusion.

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These three phases are not discrete. They ‘flow’ from one phase to the next to constitute the process of inclusion. It is important to emphasise that inclusion is a process – not an event or a simple point in time. Consequently, the identification, accessing and utilisation of resources to support inclusion should also be approached using these three phases. Wherever possible, the child’s anticipated teachers should be involved, along with other key stakeholders, when planning for new or continuing inclusive enrolment.

NARRATIVE 3.2 Justine: planning, planning, planning! I feel like a child on Christmas morning! It’s 5 a.m. and I’m wide awake, anxious and excited about my first day with my own class. I’ve organised a class newsletter to introduce myself to the parents, prepared in Standard Australian English and the local Aboriginal language (which the Aboriginal Liaison Officer (ALO) introduced me to yesterday), and in Jamal’s home language (thank heavens for my smartphone language translation app!). I’m going to go out and greet the parents this afternoon; a practice I intend to continue. This will give me regular opportunities to consult with parents on a collaborative basis. After reflecting on the diversity of my students, I decided to establish and promote a very inclusive classroom and greeting the parents in their own language helps this. Pulling into the car park, I couldn’t help but feel a little overwhelmed. As I entered the office foyer, the principal was standing there waiting to greet me. She informed me that Max’s parents were aware that I was starting this week and had already requested a learning support team (LST) meeting this afternoon … my first meeting with a student’s parents. At the start of the day we had a brief assembly where the principal introduced me to the whole school. After this, I took my class to our room and asked them to come in and sit on the floor in a circle. This was a more difficult task than I thought it would be. Jamal didn’t understand me so he just followed Jack who was walking around making noises and checking everything out that I had changed from last term. Lauren was having trouble getting her electric wheelchair into the correct position and she ran over another student’s hand. Several students were trying to help the injured student who was crying. Max was blocking his ears and yelling at the top of his voice ‘Too loud!’ at all the commotion and only a few students had actually made it to a position that resembled an arc of a circle. I took a deep breath and counted down from five to one, starting loud and bringing my voice to a conversation level by the time I had got to one. Most students responded to this and turned to face me. I pointed out a few students who were still talking and thanked those who had followed my original instructions. I repeated the instruction to form a circle, pointing out that they needed to make a space for Lauren, and then attended to the girl who had her hand run over. I sent her and a friend to the office for some minor first aid. I then went over to Jack and Jamal and pointed to the rest of the group, who were now seated mostly into a circle; they joined in. Finally, I went to Max and reassured him that the noise had now stopped and directed him to join the group on the floor. This seemed to calm him down. I could now go ahead and introduce myself properly to the class and have them introduce themselves to me. I did this with an icebreaker game. After the initial game, I ran through my classroom management plan, explaining the school rules and my expectations of them. After recess, I organised some quiet activities for the students to do in small groups around the room so I could take students aside individually and run some quick assessments. I had to get a feel for where they were at with literacy and numeracy. This information helped me form ability groups for activities, such as guided reading, writing

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and maths, as well as collaborative learning mixed-ability groups for other activities. From my initial assessments and their previous work samples, I could tell I had a wide range of abilities – academically, socially and physically. Max had been diagnosed early with autism. This was first identified by his preschool teachers and he had a comprehensive transition plan set in place, where he visited Fortune PS up to three mornings per week, before he started kindergarten at Fortune PS. However, in my first glance around the classroom I couldn’t locate any visual resources, a ‘quiet corner’ or ‘busy boxes’ for Max. Developing these was going to be an important early task. Throughout the day Max often refused to sit with the class and rarely responded to me. He was generally fixated on spinning the wheels of his toy car. During writing activities, he repeatedly tapped his pencil on the desk and made car motor noises. The teacher assistant helped keep Max on-task during the time she was in my classroom. The bell finally rang, signalling the day’s end. I put a smile on my exhausted face and walked out to meet a wave of parents. The meeting with Max’s parents was extremely useful. They had recently attended an information session on autism. Their concerns matched mine – that is, no visuals had been used in class, no calm space, no ‘time-out’ corner and there hadn’t seemed to be any classroom support other than sporadic brief visits from the learning and support teacher and the teacher assistant. Because it was an LST meeting, the principal had also invited the school counsellor. He said that successful inclusion was a whole-school responsibility. We discussed Max’s needs and possible strategies and resources available to support him. As an early career teacher, I was given additional release from face-to-face teaching each week. I used this time to collect and develop resources needed to support Max and our ‘new improved’ inclusive, yet very diverse, classroom. Although Max would need very significant adjustments and differentiations in his learning program, most of my other students with additional needs could capably pursue and achieve common syllabus outcomes. I was quite confident in my knowledge of the new Australian Curriculum, so no ‘dramas’ there! I felt encouraged by the success of my first LST meeting and immediately started negotiating similar meetings for my other students with additional needs.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Justine was ready to prepare visuals and a quiet calming space even before she had met Max or his parents. She also used a ‘counting down’ strategy to gain the students’ attention. From where and how might she have got this knowledge?

Collaborative consultation

Current best practice in planning for the inclusion of students with disability emphasises the key processes of collaborative planning, appraisal of educational support needs and individual support planning (Birzenieks et al., 2020; Jackson & Willis, 2014; Mitchell, 2014; Test et al., 2015). In an ideal scenario, planning would occur prior to enrolment; however, it is often within the school environment that identification of disability occurs. Planning for inclusion, then, occurs while the student is enrolled and in conjunction with the implementation of evolving learning support plans.

Collaborative consultation is a core element of best practice when planning for the inclusion of students with disability (Boyle & Topping, 2012; Coulston & Smith, 2013; Grima-Farrell, Bain &

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McDonagh, 2011; Masse et al., 2013) (see Figure 3.6). This planning involves assessing individual support needs, as well as developing, implementing and evaluating individual learning plans (DEEWR, 2012; Giangreco et al., 2011; see also Chapter 5 and 7).

The inclusion of students with disability in local schools is a collective responsibility. The enrolment of these students is an enrolment in a school, not just in a class (Jackson, 2007). Class teachers do have a key role to play in ascertaining individual support needs and facilitating successful inclusion, but students with disability, just like all students, are the responsibility of the school community as well as their parents. A whole-school approach, with the committed leadership of the school executive, is prerequisite to successful inclusion (Clerke, 2013; Giangreco et al., 2011; Hoppey, 2013; Theoharis & Causton, 2014; UNESCO, 2009; Webster & Wilkinson, 2015). Justine actively sought out engagement with other stakeholders through various avenues of collaborative consultation. For example, see Narrative 3.2: ‘I’ve organised a class newsletter to introduce myself to the parents, prepared in Standard Australian English and the local Aboriginal language (which the Aboriginal Liaison Officer (ALO) introduced me to yesterday) … I’m going out to greet the parents this afternoon … This gives me regular opportunities to consult with parents on a collaborative basis.’

individual learning plans Documents that set out the agreed educational goals of the individual student, as well as the teaching strategies, resources and time frames that apply to those goals. There are different terms used for these documents, such as ‘personalised individual plans’, Individualised Education Plans’, Individualised Education Program’.

Teachers find that, as part of the collaborative consultation process, they are increasingly working with other professionals, agencies and personnel (Halpin et al., 2011; Starr & Foy, 2012). It is not uncommon for teachers to be liaising with workers from human and community services, health providers, cultural and ethnic support groups and agencies, and even public housing departments (within the legislative regulations of privacy laws) when planning for inclusion, especially in the context of the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS, 2020), mentioned elsewhere in this book including Chapters 1 and 2 (Halpin et al., 2011; Taylor & Sidhu, 2012).

The learning support team (LST) model

Students’ additional needs differ depending upon the setting, the educational programs offered and the people involved. Appraisals of educational support needs and reasonable adjustments must be initially comprehensive and reviewed regularly (Boyle & Topping, 2012). Education authorities have generally recognised and responded to this imperative by requiring schools to establish cooperative groups of interested persons to negotiate and plan for the inclusion of individual students with diverse disabilities in schools. As we have noted in Chapters 1 and 2, and elsewhere in this book, this sense of teamwork and collaboration is a central tenet within the process across all Australian jurisdictions known as the Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD, 2020).

School support staff

Class teacher/s

Student Systemic/ community consultations

Parents/ carers

Significant others

FIGURE 3.6 Collaborative consultation around students with additional needs

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LSTs usually have a broad responsibility to support the learning of all students, but particularly those with disabilities, learning difficulties and additional needs, such as challenging behaviours; EAL/D students; Indigenous students; students with diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and/or socioeconomic backgrounds; and gifted and talented students. It is important to note that not all students with disability and/or learning difficulties have additional needs. Also, not all students with additional needs will have disabilities and/or learning difficulties. All students, particularly those in the groups mentioned above, must be monitored to assess their individual needs on a continual basis. Students should be referred to the LST if a need for additional support arises. LSTs support initiatives, programs and interventions aimed at both individuals and groups of students (see Figure 3.7). LSTs are critical facilitators of successful school-wide inclusion (Janus et al., 2008; Walsh, 2012). In the case of the enrolment of students with additional needs, the first responsibility of LSTs is to conduct appraisals of educational support needs and potential reasonable adjustments and then coordinate the procurement and management of resources to support enrolments (NCCD, 2020; NSW DEC, 2011; Shaddock et al., 2015). Justine sought out and became proactively involved with her school LST as indicated in Narrative 3.2: ‘The meeting with Max’s parents was extremely useful … Because it was an LST meeting, the principal had also invited the school counsellor. He said that successful inclusion was a whole-school responsibility. We discussed Max’s needs and possible strategies and resources available to support him … I felt encouraged by the success of my first LST meeting and immediately started negotiating similar meetings for my other students with additional needs.’

Addresses key areas: • Teaching and learning • School organisation • Training and development • Curriculum • Student support and development • Community participation

Considers: • Implication for school-wide planning • Coordination of support resources within and outside the school • Development of strategies for program planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation • Collaborative approaches to develop support mechanisms for students with special learning needs

A school-based learning support team Contributes to the provision of quality teaching and learning for all students Coordinates planning for students with additional learning needs to implement the support cycle, including: • Appraisal of achievements, goals and needs • Access to services • Program planning, implementation and evaluation • Reappraisal of progress towards planned educational outcomes FIGURE 3.7 The learning support team model

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Addresses key focus areas: • Literacy and numeracy • Aboriginal education • Gender equality • Student welfare • State-wide initiatives and priorities

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Membership and resources

School LSTs have a flexible membership dictated by the focus of their support at any time. Core members usually include the school principal (or deputy principal), the school psychologist/ counsellor and special education/learning support teachers. Depending on the students being discussed, classroom teachers, teacher assistants and the student’s parents or carers may be present. Where practicable, the student will also be in attendance. Often a representative from the education authority or an external service provider, such as a speech pathologist or social worker, who might be providing additional input or resources, is invited. The LST’s membership changes according to the needs that arise (NSW DEC, 2011; VIC DEECD, 2012).

The role of LSTs

One of the key tasks for LSTs is to identify, access and coordinate packages of resources to support any individual or group of students in need (see Figure 3.8). The allocation of human resources is usually determined on a whole-school basis. These human resources potentially include students, adult volunteers, parents, support teachers and classroom teachers, executive staff, the school psychologist/counsellor, specialist support teachers and therapists (from outside of the school) and teacher assistants (see also Figure 3.13). The LST role is central, as they coordinate packages of resources, often as part of individualised learning plans and group programs, in accordance with identified and prioritised educational support needs. Principals may authorise LSTs to provide teachers with temporary relief of their day-to-day teaching responsibilities. This enables teachers to conduct the work necessary to facilitate the LST’s objectives. A whole-school approach is critical to successful inclusion (Ashman, 2012; Coulston & Smith, 2013; Obiakor, 2011; Tissot, 2013; Walsh, 2012).

Student entering setting

Able to access all or some curriculum, pedagogy and assessment content with individualised or differentiated support in all or some subject areas

Able to access age-appropriate curriculum, pedagogy and assessment content with differentiated support in all or some subject areas

Able to access age-appropriate curriculum, pedagogy and assessment content without differentiated support in all or some subject areas

Individualised curriculum pedagogy assessment Identify, select, plan and implement appropriate curriculum, pedagogy and assessment support

Differentiated curriculum pedagogy assessment

Regular curriculum pedagogy assessment

FIGURE 3.8 The planning process

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The support cycle model reasonable adjustments The minimum change needed to ensure that students with disabilities are able to access the curriculum and its delivery.

Generally, all students follow the same basic process when enrolling at their local school. If additional needs are identified, a comprehensive appraisal of educational support needs is needed, with the intention of locating adequate resources to facilitate reasonable adjustments and successful enrolments. It is not always possible to enrol all students in their local school, because educational authorities are not always able to meet the educational needs of some students, particularly those with high support needs and/or substantial additional physical access requirements. Nevertheless, the principle and presumption of inclusion in the least restrictive environment holds for all students as far as possible.

All education authorities have policies and procedures for enrolment and for assessing individual needs (see Figure 3.9 and NCCD, 2020). Classroom teachers may not be directly involved with formal enrolment procedures, but when potential students with known additional needs require further assessments, classroom teachers should be involved to ensure that the needs appraisal and consequent resource implications are thorough and realistic. A range of specialist personnel and organisations is available to contribute to and inform these appraisals.

Justine focused on conducting a comprehensive appraisal of the diverse educational abilities and needs of her students. See Narrative 3.1: ‘I would definitely need to have a closer look at differentiating the curriculum, along with my assessment and pedagogical practices for my diverse group of students … I will need to conduct a variety of individual and group assessments of my own, and monitor progress on an ongoing basis.’

1 Student’s LST meet to discuss student’s needs

2 Curriculum, pedagogical, assessment and physical needs considered

3 Individualised and/or differentiated needs planned and implemented

FIGURE 3.9 The support process

It is important to note that broader and more comprehensive assessment processes are the responsibility of the LST, not of individual teachers. Pertinent policy and procedural documents are available from schools and education authorities.

Individual contexts

An increasing number of students with disability are taking their rightful place in inclusive educational settings as a result of excellent initiatives taken by local school communities. These additional needs are individual needs, so planning for inclusion must take an individual focus (Dempsey, 2012; Landmark & Zhang, 2012; Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 2013; Rose et al., 2012). Taking an individualised approach in the most appropriate learning context is widely regarded as best practice when planning for the inclusion of a student with disability, with the goal of achieving optimal learning outcomes for the student. This approach is also central to assessing individual support needs and then developing, implementing and evaluating individual learning support plans (Cook et al., 2012; Cooper & Jacobs, 2011; also see Chapter 5 in this book).

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Approaches to planning

Planning for individual inclusion should take a personalised focus, and occur in an ecological context. This means taking into account the broader ecology of the individual; all those things that affect or are affected by the individual. Families are a key part of their child’s ecology (DEEWR, 2012; Lonsdale, 2011; Ludicke & Kortman, 2012; Podvey et al., 2011). In the classroom the class teacher, other students, the learning tasks and the physical environment are all part of the individual’s ecology (see Figure 3.10). This approach is based on the Ecological Model of Development originally put forward by Uri Bronfenbrenner (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

Community context School context Class context Focus students

FIGURE 3.10 Inclusion: an ecological context

Justine was sensitive to both individual and ecological contexts. In Narrative 3.3: ‘His parents told me he liked to wrap himself up tight in a blanket when he was feeling anxious. Max’s parents were a great resource; they knew him better than anyone.’

This individualised or personalised approach to planning is paralleled in a number of contexts, including, for example, individual transition planning, individual support planning and individual educational planning (see Chapter 7). The ecological context is evident in the wide range of factors and issues taken into account when preparing these plans, including teacher variables, other students, family, culture and the physical environment (Beamish et al., 2012; Subban & Sharma, 2006; Taylor & Sidhu, 2012).

Negotiating and planning for inclusion is a collaborative process and should be coordinated by teams such as LSTs. At the same time, teachers are key partners in this process, and are usually primarily responsible for the design, development, implementation and evaluation of individual learning plans (ILP) that are central to successful inclusion (Rose et al., 2012). Planning for individual needs within an ecological context is prerequisite and critical to successful inclusion.

transition planning The educational planning usually associated with the movement of students to post-school life. This planning may also occur for preschool to primary school, and primary to high school transitions. (Chapters 7, 10–13)

The next section explains the third evidence-based practice: programming for inclusion. This is done with particular reference to differentiation, individualisation, and risk assessment and management.

3.3 Programming for inclusion Programming for inclusion is primarily about the enhanced development of teaching/learning programs and classroom practices to facilitate best learning outcomes for students with disability and their peers (Anderson & Corbett, 2008; Beamish et al., 2012; Carlson et al., 2012; Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020; Walsh, 2012). Best practice programming is facilitated when it is scaffolded by supportive values, attitudes and understanding among all those involved, but particularly the classroom teacher(s) (Ashman, 2012; Coulston & Smith, 2013; Hemmings & Woodcock, 2011), as well as the timely provision of an appropriately negotiated ‘package’ of resources. Successful programming usually involves colleagues from previous services and placements (e.g., the prior preschool or primary school), but the primary collaborative consultation activities are usually between the core classroom teacher(s) and other support staff. Successful programming involves the adaptation and modification (differentiation) of class programs, and quite often the development of ILPs for students with disability (Bradfield & Hudson, 2012; Carlson et al.,

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PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS key learning areas (KLAs) A set of accepted areas of focus in an educational curriculum. Typically, key learning areas include content in domains such as literacy, numeracy, social and physical sciences, languages and health studies.

2012; Carter et al., 2011) (see Chapter 4 for examples of individual plans, and Chapter 7 for active involvement of students in developing and actioning their ILPs). In primary school settings, the base classroom is the ‘engine room’ for inclusion, and the classroom teacher is its ‘engineer’. In secondary schools adopting a middle-school model, the stage teaching team fulfil a similar function. In other secondary schools there is a greater challenge in coordinating across key learning areas (KLAs) and faculties because of the organisational complexity inherent in these schools. Justine was well focused on programming for inclusion as displayed in Narrative 3.1: ‘Programming to accommodate this diversity was my biggest goal; I wanted all of my students to achieve the best educational outcomes …’

NARRATIVE 3.3 Justine: paperwork! During my ‘release from face-to-face’ time, I spent some of my morning specifically observing Lauren, Jamal, Jack and Max, while another teacher taught the class. It became clear that they all found transitions between activities difficult. Lauren found it difficult to manoeuvre her electric wheelchair around the classroom. Jamal seemed ‘lost’ in time-wasting, and Jack took lesson changes as opportunities to socialise and disrupt others. Max became demanding and aggressive at these times, usually resulting in him being isolated. I had not written a risk assessment before, but I had read about ILPs in textbooks. I then remembered what the school counsellor had said – that successful inclusion was a whole-school responsibility. I knocked on his door and, using the notes from the students’ files as well as my observation notes, we collaboratively developed individual learning plans for each of these students and a risk assessment and management plan for Max. I emailed a copy of the documents to the rest of the staff for discussion at our next weekly staff meeting. I used a large part of my release time printing and laminating visual resources (I had previously been speaking to a uni friend who had started as a classroom teacher at a nearby special school. They had many resources there to support communication development for students in need). I printed activity cards that were placed on a magnetic board where I would display the task analysis daily class timetable. I also printed visuals for task analysis to use on a communication An evidence-based board. practice of breaking a skill or piece of I created labels in Jamal’s home language as well as Standard Australian English knowledge into its to be placed all around the classroom and other learning areas within the school (my component parts. supervisor had put me in contact with a neighbouring school which had a number of This information can then be used EAL/D students enrolled with similar language challenges; they provided much support for the purposes and information). As Max and Jamal had not previously had classroom jobs, I set Max up of assessment, programming and to take the cards off the class timetable and his communication board as each activity instruction. was completed and Jamal to choose a friend to go with him and pick up notes from the office and lunch from the canteen, so he could put his developing language skills into real-life situations. I rearranged my activity transitions so the activities changed tables, not the students, so Lauren didn’t have to keep moving around the room. I taught Jack and Max how to use a task analysis board to ‘bank’ each step of an activity into a box to keep them focused on the task at hand.

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I phoned Max’s parents and asked them to choose and send in some of Max’s favourite family photos. These would be glued into a scrapbook for him to look at when he felt unsettled and needed to calm down. His parents also sent in three of Max’s small toys to be placed in Max’s new ‘busy box’, along with the ‘squishy balls’ I had provided. I brought in a pop-up tent and invited Max to help me organise a calm corner with pillows and a blanket. His parents told me he liked to wrap himself up tight in a blanket when he was feeling anxious. Max’s parents were a great resource; they knew him better than anyone. The next visit I made was to the library. After introducing myself to the librarian, I asked her if she would mind if Max visited the library during lunch or recess with our teacher’s assistant if he needed some quiet time. The teacher’s assistant had told me that Max often ran around tripping over students (and usually getting himself into trouble) because he found the other students on the playground very loud. I made a note to inform all of my teaching colleagues at the next weekly communication meeting. I would need to develop a program to teach Max some playground coping skills, but this arrangement and his risk management program would keep him and others safe in the short term. I collected class documents, such as timetables, class lists, names of students with medical conditions, EAL/D and other additional needs, as well as a list of the diverse but inclusive strategies used for my various students with additional needs, and placed them into a folder. I gave this to the office staff to hand to casual teachers when they were working in my class. I knew that I would have found this useful when I was a casual teacher. Other paperwork included organising a communication book to be shared with the students’ parents, gathering interesting resources based around their special interests and a monitoring card to be used by the staff on playground duty for Max and Jack. Successful inclusion certainly is a whole-school responsibility! The bell rang signalling the end of the school day. Max cupped his hands over his ears as he did not like the sound. I went to greet the parents. I invited Max’s parents into our classroom and encouraged Max to show them the signs on the board and the calm corner. Together we put his treasured photos in a scrapbook and placed his toys in the ‘busy box’. I told Max’s parents about the documents I had written with the school counsellor, the learning support team meeting agenda, the library arrangement for lunchtime and the information folder for casual teachers. Max’s mother was so grateful that there were tears in her eyes. I watched the three of them walk out of the school and felt satisfied with the work I had done that day. I could not have achieved so much if I had not been granted additional ‘release from face-to-face time’. I now felt better prepared and I couldn’t wait until the next day.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Justine developed a range of resources for the students in her class. Make a list of all her resources and add any that you would use if you were in her situation. 2. Justine communicated the plans for her students with all of her colleagues. Why did she do this?

Differentiation

In the office foyer at a New South Wales coastal school there is a long wooden seat, similar to a church pew. It is a relic from the original school that was established in 1891. When this school opened, the students sat in rows in a single room at these benches. Younger students sat in the front of the room and older students towards the back. The teacher stood at the front. The

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assumption was that all students of similar age were at the same academic level and the teaching was directed accordingly. This attitude continued into the twentieth century. Brighter students became bored when they achieved skills and understanding quickly, struggling students were overlooked (or worse, received the cane) and the teaching was directed towards the middle cohort (see Figure 3.11). Diversity was not acknowledged and students with disability remained at home, uneducated, until parents lobbied for the establishment of special schools for their children.

In the twenty-first century, the wooden pew and the antique desks in the foyer at this school FIGURE 3.11 Brighter students became bored, struggling are quaint reminders of a bygone education era. students were overlooked, diversity was not acknowledged and The concept that all students of a similar age are students with disabilities remained at home. at the same stage in their learning also belongs in Source: Getty Images/Underwood Archives the distant past. We now know that there are many influences on student learning, including their early home environment, expectations of parents and teachers and their level of functioning. We also acknowledge that all students can learn, but not necessarily at the same pace at the same time. The challenge for all teachers is to teach a variety of students with a variety of abilities within the one classroom (Coulston & Smith, 2013; Diaz et al., 2015; Obiakor, 2011; Sullivan et al., 2014; Teo Shu Lin & Walker, 2014). The foundation for teaching is the curriculum. Teachers syllabus must be familiar with their syllabus documents and use stated learning outcomes to develop A subsection of their teaching and learning programs. Sometimes they have the benefit of a specific teaching curriculum containing the specific content curriculum for students with disability, such as a life skills program. More frequently, however, areas to be assessed the general curriculum needs to be adapted and modified to meet the range of diverse learners in (e.g. a Year 8 syllabus in geography). the regular classroom (Carlson et al., 2012; Shaddock et al., 2015; Walsh, 2012) (see Figure 3.8). Interactive documents, such as the literacy and numeracy continuums (NSW DEC, 2013a) help teachers identify where their students are placed on the scope and sequence of the English and Maths syllabuses and to plan for and teach individuals or groups of students according to ability and level of understanding, rather than directing teaching to the middle cohort. Justine was clearly aware of the need to concentrate on learning needs around literacy and numeracy. As noted in Narrative 3.1: ‘I would need to establish literacy and maths groups based on my students’ work samples and any assessment records I could get my hands on.’

Facilitating differentiation

For almost all students with disability, adaptation of instructional materials (coupled with more flexible and diverse teaching techniques) provides improved access to the regular curriculum (Lyons et al., 2011; NSW DEC, 2013b; Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020). The following are suggested key starting points for differentiating curriculum and adapting instructional materials.

The first is to investigate exemplary inclusive practices in yours and other local schools. Although it is imperative (when focusing on individuals with disability) to take an individualised approach to adapting curriculum and instructional materials, it is also inefficient

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to reinvent the wheel. Experienced teachers from your own school or colleagues in similar schools, with similar inclusion agendas and identified student needs, can provide invaluable advice and resources for this purpose (Giangreco et al., 2011; Giangreco et al., 2012; Lonsdale, 2011; Vincent et al., 2007). Justine took advantage of the experience and expertise around inclusion in other local schools. See Narrative 3.3: ‘My supervisor had put me in contact with a neighbouring school which had a number of EAL/D students enrolled with similar language challenges; they provided so much support and information.’

Another area to investigate is exemplary practices in special education facilities. Although these are not inclusive settings, special educators usually have experience and training in developing these resources and may be willing to share their expertise and resources with you. One element of the New South Wales Government’s Every Student, Every School (ESES) initiative is to establish some existing special schools as ‘centres of expertise’ where best practice programs and strategies can be developed and made available to other schools through professional development programs (NSW DEC, 2013b). Justine also took advantage of experience and expertise around inclusion in special education facilities, as demonstrated in Narrative 3.3: ‘I had previously been speaking to a uni friend who had started as a classroom teacher at a nearby special school. They had many resources there to support communication development for students in need.’

Sharing resources A good way to facilitate the sharing of these resources with colleagues at other schools is to negotiate through your education authority’s consultancy team. The development of differentiated curriculum and adapted instructional materials is often best achieved collaboratively (Boyle & Topping, 2012; Hoppey, 2013; Shaddock et al., 2015). Collaborative curriculum development days, similar to those held by year, stage and faculty teams, are highly recommended. There is, of course, an important relationship between the curriculum (what is taught), pedagogy (how teaching occurs) and assessment. That is, adaptations and modifications to what is taught are interrelated with how they are taught and how they are assessed. Figure 3.12 demonstrates the relationships between just programming for a ‘regular’ class (including curriculum, pedagogy and assessment) and programming for the inclusion of one or more students with additional needs. Ideally, differentiated or individualised programs should be included within the regular class program (Bradfield & Hudson, 2012; Cooper & Jacobs, 2011).

Individualised curriculum pedagogy assessment

Differentiated curriculum pedagogy assessment

Regular curriculum pedagogy assessment

FIGURE 3.12 Programming for inclusion: differentiating and individualising

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Justine also took advantage of experience and expertise around inclusion provided by her education authority. In Narrative 3.4: ‘I invited Ben, Mia’s new support teacher (hearing), into the class to assist me in explaining to the class how Mia’s hearing aids worked and how it would improve Mia’s learning … Ben was fantastic! He helped to build a supportive and positive school climate by leading staff training and professional development sessions. After all, successful inclusion is a whole-school responsibility! He encouraged me to investigate exemplary inclusion practices in other local schools; these were invaluable experiences.’

Universal Design for Learning

Another approach to differentiation and programming for diversity is Universal Design for Learning (UDL) (Coyne et al., 2012). UDL is: a set of principles for curriculum development that give all individuals equal opportunities to learn. UDL provides a blueprint for creating instructional goals, methods, materials, and assessments that work for everyone; not a single, one-size-fits-all solution but rather flexible approaches that can be customised and adjusted for individual needs. Source: National Center on Universal Design for Learning (2013), p. 1

UDL aligns with the principles of normalisation and inclusion and closely supports differentiation of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment (see Courey et al., 2012; Coyne et al., 2012; Lee & Picanco, 2013; National Center on Universal Design for Learning, 2013).

Originating from architectural principles of universal design, where accessibility is ‘builtin’ from the beginning, rather than added on as specific needs arise, UDL works with the same concept in an educational context. Using a UDL approach, educators should plan to build in inclusion from the beginning, rather than teach to the middle and make adjustments to the program for the outlying students.

Universal Design for Learning has three key complementary elements that provide multiple modes for representation, action and expression, and engagement, and a structure upon which teachers can address the how, what and why of teaching, while simultaneously considering the individuals for whom the program was designed (CAST, 2008). The design of learning programs that provide a variety of strategies for students to gain, retain and apply new knowledge, skills and attitudes, which they intrinsically value, is essential when catering for the needs of all students. UDL demands a clear understanding of the interests, abilities and needs of each student in the classroom environment.1 Chapters 1, 4, 5 and 12 explain UDL in greater detail, and the reader is encouraged to critically consider the implications of UDL principles in their context.

Individualisation

Most students are capable of meeting common curricula/syllabus outcomes. With quality teaching, most students with additional needs will also meet these expectations – at a similar time and similar stage. However, the common curriculum may be inappropriate or inaccessible to some students, particularly those with more severe intellectual disabilities, so individualisation of outcomes, content, and short- and long-term objectives may be necessary (ACARA, 2020).

Programming for individual needs is a significant phase in the inclusion process. Students’ learning needs, and any adaptations for them, take place within the context of classrooms where Information on UDL contributed by Michelle Ralston.

1

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there may be many individuals with diverse needs and abilities. This creates daily challenges for teachers to manage, so high-level organisational skills and an awareness of their students’ learning needs are essential to ensure the smooth operation of diverse classrooms on a day-to-day basis (ACARA, 2020; Boyle & Topping, 2012; Carlson et al., 2012; Walsh, 2012). Strategies such as grouping for literacy and numeracy are often employed to ensure that students are appropriately challenged. For some students with high support needs, an ILP is necessary to identify the appropriate outcomes and additional learning needs of the student (Boyle & Topping, 2012; Dempsey, 2012; Gillies, 2012; Landmark & Zhang, 2012; Rose et al., 2012). It should also identify teaching strategies and resources to assist the student to reach these outcomes and describe when these outcomes have been achieved. Time frames for achievement of short- and long-term objectives may also be set. The school LST usually allocates roles to contributing staff and others to ensure that individuals are aware of their responsibilities. The complexity of ILPs will vary depending on the student’s needs and school or system requirements; they may range from a simple modification and notation in the class program to a complex, separately developed document (see Chapter 4). Justine was well aware of the challenges and benefits of individualising teaching/learning programs. Narrative 3.1 states: ‘Although Max would need very significant adjustments and differentiations, most of my other students with additional needs could capably pursue and achieve common syllabus outcomes; I was quite confident in my knowledge of the new Australian Curriculum, so no “dramas” there!’

Risk assessment and risk management

As stated earlier, a growing challenge for our society and schools is the support and inclusion of students with mental health problems. While there are many diagnoses, the most confronting issue is the management of any associated challenging and even violent behaviours (Allen & McKenzie, 2015; Berger et al., 2015; Rickwood, Mazzer & Telford, 2015). All jurisdictions have developed policies and procedures for responding to aggressive behaviours, but it is the responsibility of schools to develop and implement risk management protocols for individual students in need (NSW DoE, 2014; NT DoE, 2014; VIC DET, 2014). For students with challenging behaviours (often associated with mental health diagnoses), best practice dictates that a risk assessment and management plan should be developed (Barry et al., 2015; Cook et al., 2012; Mowat, 2015). It is important that all stakeholders are consulted as part of this assessment process. This may include out-of-home care agencies and carers, case managers, social workers and community workers, and psychologists or medical practitioners (Mooij & Smeets, 2009; Vaillancourt & Amador, 2015).

A functional behaviour assessment (FBA) involves observers looking for the setting conditions and triggers for violent or aggressive behaviour (our young teacher, Justine, quickly identified that loud noise was a trigger for Max, who has autism). This requires careful observations, but information is often available from parents or care providers. Sometimes triggers are not as immediately obvious, and only the collection of data over time will reveal the cause(s) for challenging behaviours. Once the setting conditions and triggers (antecedents) have been identified, steps need to be taken to minimise the risk of harm. (Justine provided a relaxation corner in the classroom and time in the library for Max during lunch and recess breaks: See Chapter 6 for further information on FBAs.)

functional behaviour assessment (FBA) Assessment of the reasons for classroom misbehaviour, based on the theory that most misbehaviour serves a function for the student. antecedents The events (triggers) that occur before a specific behaviour.

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Management procedures

Emergency or crisis management procedures also need to be considered, documented and communicated to all stakeholders. (Justine communicated her plans by emailing them to all staff and discussing them in the staff meeting.) Variations to routine may require a reassessment and further planning. For example, if Justine were to take her class on an excursion, it would be necessary to consider what the potential triggers might be for Max and how they would be managed in a completely different context. Risk assessment and risk management techniques should not be conducted in isolation. They are part of students’ ILPs and should occur in consultation with parents and other care providers, the school executive and the LST. Management plans should be reviewed frequently and modifications made to ensure their continued effectiveness. Justine was well aware of the need for effective risk assessment and risk management. As noted in Narrative 3.3: ‘I would need to develop a program to teach Max some playground coping skills, but this arrangement (quiet time in the library during playtime) and his risk management program would keep him and others safe in the short term.’

Programming outside of the classroom

Differentiation, individualisation, risk assessment and risk management, are not just the responsibility of classroom teachers. They occur within the context of the whole school and community. It is incumbent on teachers to seek out sources of assistance. Colleagues can provide valuable aid and advice (particularly those who have previously taught the student) and parents and care providers are often a valuable source of information (Clerke, 2013; DEEWR, 2012; Ludicke & Kortman, 2012; Vaillancourt & Amador, 2015). The next section explains the fourth domain of inclusive practices: resourcing inclusion. This is done with particular reference to resource needs appraisal, school resources, systemic resources, hands-on assistance in the classroom and playground, assistive technology, environmental modifications and professional development.

3.4 Resourcing inclusion Resourcing inclusion is about getting the ‘right’ resource package together to facilitate the establishment of the best environment for learning (Boyle & Topping, 2012; Obiakor, 2011; Shaddock et al., 2015; Walsh, 2012). Figure 3.13 indicates typical relationships between various aspects of the resourcing process. As well as consulting with other agencies, LSTs should seek out resources from within their school first. Accessing other resources, such as consultants, specialist teachers and therapists, can support more specific initiatives in schools (Fine, 2016). Team teaching (Solis et al., 2012), inviting parents into classrooms and using peer-tutoring systems are often worthy options (Lindsay & McPherson, 2012; Ncube, 2011; White, 2010). Classrooms are not isolated environments; each classroom teacher is part of a team and inclusion is a whole-school responsibility. Justine was well aware of the necessity to collaborate to bring together the ‘right’ resource packages for her students with additional needs. As Narrative 3.4 indicates: ‘With the help of my colleagues, especially the LST, we had put together reasonable packages of resources and adjustments for all those students in need. This had been a big challenge, but the kids were thriving!’

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Resource package Outer circle Systemic/community resources

Consultants Transport

ing support Fund Visuals

Other Resources

Other learning spaces

Environmental modifications

Human Resources

Classrooms

Colleagues

Specialist teachers

lopment a deve n dt ion ra ss in fe

Assistive technology

P Executive ro

Community groups

Counsellor

Teacher assistants

Support teachers Peers

Mobility

Disabilityspecific organisations

g in

Inner circle School resources

Parents Therapists

Capital works

Volunteers

FIGURE 3.13 Resourcing inclusion

NARRATIVE 3.4 Justine: bringing it all together! I felt like I had been on a roller-coaster, but what a ride! My class was coming together beautifully. I was establishing positive relationships with my students, the staff and the parents and I was receiving encouraging feedback on my students’ progress. With the help of my colleagues, especially the LST, we had put together reasonable packages of resources and adjustments for all those students in need. This had been a big challenge, but the kids were thriving! Staff had commented on the significant improvement they had observed in Max and Jack’s behaviour. Since developing and communicating the risk management plan and ILP with our learning support team, there had been an increased understanding of my students’ additional needs. Max, for example, had responded well to the visual aids in the classroom and was now using the relaxing corner and calm-down box. He eagerly removed the visuals off the task board when each activity was finished. Most importantly, he was happy … and so were his parents. Interestingly (but not surprisingly) many of the differentiations I had made for my students with additional needs had

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significantly helped my other students with their learning as well. I was in the middle of a guided reading lesson when the principal knocked on the classroom door. She introduced our new student, Mia, and her mother to the class. Mia seemed shy and I found myself having to use a lot of hand gestures to guide her around the room to show her where to place her bag and find activities. The principal had left a note on Mia’s file, stating that she had already rung her previous school and was told that they had concerns for Mia. Overall, Mia was a quiet student who rarely communicated to either students or teachers, but when she did FIGURE 3.14 The right resource package can improve student outcomes. speak her voice was often loud and difficult to understand. She had difficulty following instructions Source: iStock.com/FatCamera in class, but there were no behaviour problems. Her previous teacher had arranged a meeting to speak with her mother to suggest that she arrange a hearing assessment. Her mother had left the meeting abruptly and two days later, Mia had left the school. After lunchtime, I asked my students to sit at their desks. Mia sat on the floor, only moving to her desk after realising that’s what the others were doing. As I read a book to the class, I watched her as she concentrated on my face as I read … she rarely looked at the book. I told the principal about Mia’s responses and she arranged a LST meeting for later that week. Together, we raised our concerns for Mia and also discussed possible disability funding and support for her in the classroom; noting that I had other students with additional needs. Mia’s mother was anxious when she heard that our principal had contacted Mia’s last school. It was clear that she hoped that a new start at our school would rule out any further investigations into Mia’s suspected hearing impairment. As the meeting went on, Mia’s mother could see we had Mia’s best interests in mind and agreed to have Mia’s hearing assessed. It was also agreed that, if results showed that Mia did have a hearing impairment, the principal would contact the various department consultants and specialist support agencies. This would include facilitating referrals for Mia and organising for consultants to visit our school to provide training and professional development for all staff. The following week Mia and her mother visited the specialist for a hearing test. Mia’s results undeniably indicated a profound hearing loss, which required bilateral hearing aids for Mia, a voice transceiver system for others communicating with her in the classroom and various environmental modifications to moderate sound interference in our classroom. An early classroom task was to encourage valued student–student relationships and support for Mia. I invited Ben, Mia’s new support teacher (hearing), into the class to assist me in explaining to the class how Mia’s hearing aids worked and how it would improve Mia’s learning. Ben also explained to my students how big a change this was for Mia and that she’d need everyone’s support. All the students agreed. Mia had to sit close to the front of the classroom and it was important that I made sure she could see my face when I spoke. This was such a simple adjustment to the learning environment and my teaching practice, but it helped so much. Ben was fantastic! He helped to build a supportive and positive school climate by leading staff training and professional development sessions. After all, successful inclusion is a whole-school responsibility! He encouraged me to investigate exemplary inclusion practices in other local schools; these were invaluable experiences. The students enjoyed learning Auslan

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(Australian Sign Language) with Ben each Tuesday and they were beginning to communicate with Mia more effectively. The visual aids I developed for Max were extremely useful for Mia too. As well as the weekly visits from Ben, Mia also received support from her peer tutor to regularly revise sounds and letters. Ben suggested that I team-teach with a colleague so that one of us could take charge of the lesson while the other worked with the students needing more individual assistance. I asked Judith (my colleague next door) if she’d be interested in team-teaching. This turned out to be a great experience! Not only did I get to see a more experienced teacher use amazing strategies to deliver engaging lessons, I was able to give Max, Mia and the other students with additional needs the individual attention they needed.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Identify and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Justine’s principal communicating with Mia’s previous school. Are there any privacy or legal issues to be considered? 2. Now list some benefits and challenges of the ‘team-teaching’ strategy that Justine used. How would you feel about team-teaching?

Resource needs appraisal

Successful inclusion is about embracing change and making reasonable adjustments (Miles & Ainscow, 2010; Sainato et al., 2015; Valiandes, 2015), so initial negotiations over the resourcing of any inclusion initiative generally begin during the first phase, pre-inclusion/preparation. (For more detail, please see Figure 3.5; also see the Australian Disability Standards for Education (2005) and NCCD (2020) in Weblinks/References at the end of the chapter). A comprehensive initial appraisal is a prerequisite to successful inclusion. If additional needs are identified, further assessments are conducted with the intention of procuring adequate resources and making reasonable adjustments. All education authorities have policies and procedures for enrolment and the assessing of individual needs and the reader is referred to the abovementioned Australian Disability Standards for Education (2005) and NCCD (2020) for vital information in this area. Imagine an ideal inclusion scenario … A family contacts their local school to advise that their child, who has been receiving coordinated early intervention support through the local preschool, will be enrolling next year (see Chapter 11). Following best practice, the school LST adopts a collaborative approach to planning for the student’s individual needs in an ecological context. An appraisal of educational support needs is conducted and a resource ‘package’ is identified, accessed and organised. Transition and enrolment proceed smoothly. The student initially requires substantial support in transition. However, the student’s continuing enrolment and successful inclusion are maintained with reduced but adequate and sustainable support and resources. The right package of resources to support this successful inclusion may include the following: • positive and enthusiastic student, staff and community support • differentiated curriculum and adapted instructional materials • flexible and enhanced teaching techniques • expert and timely consultancy support • ‘hands-on’ assistance in the classroom

differentiated curriculum The process of adapting teaching (curriculum, pedagogy and assessment) to take into account the individual differences and needs of students, to ensure that instruction is relevant, flexible and responsive and leads to more successful learning.

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• facilitative and convenient assistive technology • appropriate environmental modifications

• initial and ongoing professional development and training • adequate ‘up-front’ and continuing funding support.

Human resources

In the classroom, where class teachers have primary instructional responsibility, a wide variety of human resources are available to support inclusion (see Figure 3.15). These can include students, volunteers, parents, other class and support teachers, executive staff, counsellors, consultants, therapists and teacher assistants (Atkinson et al., 2006; Lonsdale, 2011; FIGURE 3.15 Human resources at the school level to support Webster & Wilkinson, 2015). It is the classroom student learning teacher’s responsibility to direct these human resources to work ‘as a team’. At the school level, the LST usually coordinates these human (and other) resources. At the systemic level, consultants, specialist support teachers and additional funding support are usually available. These people are contacted via the LST. Community groups and voluntary service organisations can also assist.

School resources

If all members of the school community are supportive of initiatives to include students with disability, the likelihood of successful inclusion is strongly enhanced. The leadership and commitment of the school executive is central here (Hoppey, 2013; Tissot, 2013; Webster & Wilkinson, 2015). However, positive support is not always evident, and research has demonstrated the challenges arising from unsupportive attitudes to inclusion (Beacham & Rouse, 2012; Dev & Haynes, 2015; Watson, 2009). These challenges are exacerbated when the students seeking inclusive enrolment have high support needs, particularly when these include challenging behaviours and mental health issues (Armstrong, 2015; Masse et al., 2013).

Building a supportive and positive school climate for the inclusion of students with disability is an ongoing, whole-school issue (Alquraini & Gut, 2012; Ashman, 2012; Coulston & Smith, 2013; Theoharis & Causton, 2014). Attitudes will not change overnight, but well-publicised, positive, valued outcomes arising from successful inclusion initiatives will often generate an improvement in a school community’s support for further inclusion initiatives.

Funding

Funding is often a crucial component of any resource package for supporting the inclusion of students with disability. It is usually preferable for schools to investigate and utilise existing resources before seeking external resources and funding. Resources may already be in the school, or within the school community. School budgets may include allocations for students with disability and others who may have additional needs, but funding may be drawn from other areas of school budgets when expenditure can be shown to be within guidelines and to benefit the school community. For ‘non-essential’ integration initiatives that seek to enhance existing initiatives, funding support can be sought from parent and citizen groups and/or school council groups. An argument could be put that funding allocations and grants will benefit the

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broader school community and not just individual students with additional needs. Schools can also negotiate industry partnerships with local businesses and enter into action research partnerships with local tertiary institutions. The reader is encouraged to read a paper on Quality Teaching Rounds (Gore et al., 2015) in References below and a recent paper by Birzenieks et al. (2020).

Systemic resources

At the systemic level, education authorities usually maintain teams of consultants, specialist support teachers and therapists to support inclusion initiatives in schools.

action research A form of staff development in which the focus of inquiry is the participants’ own practice. Teachers are involved in an inquiry into a situation or practice with an aim to bring about improvement.

Consultants have a diverse range of roles and expertise and may specialise in inclusion, supporting EAL/D, gifted and talented, and/or Indigenous students who might have additional needs, students with disability and assistive technology. Access to their services is usually arranged through the school LST. Consultants can work hands-on with students in classrooms, but usually focus on the professional development of teachers and providing teaching resources.

Specialist support teachers have expertise in dealing with, for example, hearing impairments, vision impairments, behaviour/conduct disorders, mental health issues, autism, language disorders, intellectual and physical disabilities. Their work focuses on developing the capacity of schools to provide support for students with additional needs (Causton-Theoharis, 2009; Halpin et al., 2011). Physiotherapists, occupational therapists, speech pathologists and specialist nurses are also generally available through most education authorities or the public health system, but they more often focus their hands-on or consultative support on students with high support needs (Bose & Hinojosa, 2008; QLD DET, 2016).

Community groups and organisations

Community groups, disability-specific organisations and voluntary service organisations can also provide valuable support for inclusion initiatives. Organisations such as the Royal Institute for Deaf and Blind Children, Cerebral Palsy Alliance and Technical Aid to the Disabled can provide (at little or no cost) expert consultancy and hands-on assistance for the assessment of support needs and modifications for students in need. Local voluntary service organisations, such as the Lions, Apex and View clubs, may also offer the services of skilled members to assist in minor capital works initiatives. Many community groups will fundraise and provide hands-on support for individual students, as well as assistance with special facility modifications and installations. Further consultancy and technical advice and support may be available from the Department of Health and/or private medical services. Best practice in collaborative planning for the inclusion of students with disability in local schools extends beyond ‘just’ the classroom and the school (Starr & Foy, 2012; Theoharis & Causton, 2014; Webster & Wilkinson, 2015). Knowledge of available human resources, and how to access and manage them, is central to successful inclusion.

Government funding

Various education authorities have access to some annual (federal and state) government funds allocated to support students with various additional needs (AUS DET, 2016), delivered through the NCCD (2020) program or special initiatives. These funds are made available to school principals (and their LSTs) to pay for services and/or goods to support students with disability. All schools and education authorities have policies and procedures for seeking this funding support. The school principal and educational authority can advise school LSTs on due process for funding applications (NSW DET, 2013; QLD DET, 2016). Remember, though, that funding is not always essential for successful inclusion; quite often students with disability can be well supported in their local schools using existing resources.

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Hands-on assistance in the classroom and playground cooperative learning A set of instructional methods that emphasise small groups of learners working together on a shared goal. Features include planned interdependence, clearly specified roles and an emphasis on problem-solving as a learning tool. Groups are organised to have a range in ability levels so that higher achieving students can model good learning strategies and lower achieving students can experience success as part of the group.

‘Hands-on’ assistance in the classroom and playground often comes (informally and formally) from students, parents, school colleagues and others. This next section describes and explains these supports.

In consultation with colleague teachers, peer tutoring, buddy systems and cooperative learning groups can operate with students from other classes. Similar arrangements can be made with teachers of older students, including those with disability who can, with training, provide valuable assistance as tutors to younger students (Shenderovich et al., 2016). Students assisting others generally benefit from close and frequent supervision. It is usual that they receive formal training and practice in peer tutoring, taking a ‘buddy’ role and in cooperative learning group work. Even senior high school students, as part of their course of studies, can become involved in supporting students with disability in junior high school classes and at their local primary and preschools (Lindsay & McPherson, 2012; Shearer Lingo, 2014; White, 2010). Establishing links between colleagues in local preschools, primary schools and high schools can be most facilitative. It should be noted that these strategies benefit not only the students with disability; they also benefit the student’s classmates – both socially and academically (Carter et al., 2007; Ncube, 2011; Shearer Lingo, 2014). Adult volunteers are valuable human resources to support the inclusion of students with disability (Causton-Theoharis, 2009; Clerke, 2013). Effective community liaison can identify and engage community volunteers. Parents, as current members of the school community, can similarly be encouraged to contribute some of their time to support inclusion. These need not be parents of students in the class group; indeed, parents often prefer to work with children other than their own. Adult volunteers, under the supervision of teachers, can work with individuals or groups of students in the classroom or in supervised withdrawal settings. It is usual for adult volunteers to participate in some pre-service training focusing on child protection and confidentiality issues as part of an orientation to the school. All adults who are employed or engaged in child-related work, including volunteers, are required to undergo a working with children check (NSW DoE, 2013; VIC JR, 2016).

Available support

All schools have access to an educational psychologist (school counsellor). They are specially trained to do cognitive testing and assessments, as well as provide consultancy and hands-on support to teachers of students with disability (NSW DoE, 2001; Rosenfield, 2013; Solis et al., 2012). Justine was aware of how the school counsellor is able to assist with their expertise. As noted in Narrative 3.3: ‘I then remembered what the school counsellor had said … I knocked on his door and … we collaboratively developed individual learning plans for each of these students and a risk assessment and management plan for Max.’

Most schools also have a support teacher allocation. Support teachers frequently focus on literacy and numeracy development, but this is at the discretion of the principal and in accordance with organisational policy. Support teachers provide hands-on support in the classroom by team-teaching alongside classroom teachers, working with individuals and small groups of students on whole-class activities and/or by withdrawing individual or groups of students for intensive instruction (NSW DEC, 2013b; Solis et al., 2012). In New South Wales, the Every Student, Every School initiative brought changes to the support teacher’s role within

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the school. Now referred to as ‘learning and support teachers’, they are responsible for providing professional development and support for teachers, as well as providing direct support for students with additional needs through a range of strategies in the areas of social integration, language and communication, literacy, numeracy and behaviour, including students with disabilities (NSW DEC, 2013b). (See Figure 3.16.)

Colleagues

Colleague classroom teachers are an invaluable source of support. Although most classroom teachers are full-time on their own classes, it is possible to negotiate team-teaching to take FIGURE 3.16 Support teachers can provide additional hands-on advantage of their experience and expertise support. (Manning & Butcher, 2013; Martin & Williams, Source: Shutterstock.com/Robert Kneschke 2012). Team-teaching arrangements, where pairs of teachers combine their classes for some or all lessons, give colleagues the opportunity to see others in action. This provides opportunities to learn about and draw upon their particular strengths and talents. During team-teaching sessions, it is possible for one teacher to take charge of the main part of the class, while the other teacher focuses on students with additional needs. Team-teaching requires considerable organisation and mutual trust, but provides enriching educational opportunities, both for students and for teachers (Solis et al., 2012).

Teacher assistants

Teacher assistants are probably the most utilised hands-on human resources available to support the day-to-day inclusion of students with disability (Giangreco et al., 2011). An understanding of the diverse roles of TAs is important, if teachers are to make best use of their assistance (Butt & Lowe, 2012; Giangreco et al., 2012; Hájková & Strnadová, 2019; Suter & Giangreco, 2009). Teacher assistants are widely employed in all school settings and teachers have had to take on an increasing managerial role in supervising their work (Giangreco, 2013). Teacher assistants are often employed to assist teachers to meet the additional needs of individual students with a disability, but have a wider role in supporting all of the students in a class. It should be remembered, though, that teacher assistants are employed to implement programs; not to develop them. They are supervised by teachers and do not have direct responsibility for students, other than that which applies under their usual duty of care (Giangreco, 2013).

Education authorities have diverse policies and practices relating to the roles, conditions of employment and number of teacher assistants employed to support students with disability. A teacher assistant’s time is usually allocated as part of a package of resources to support the enrolment of students with moderate to high support needs. Depending on funding sources, it is usual that teacher assistant time allocations for a number of students with disability are consolidated. This facilitates the employment of one or more teacher assistants who then provide support across settings. This more flexible deployment of teacher assistants’ time can better meet the often-changing needs of students and teachers with a minimum of disruptive staff turnover.

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Justine’s students benefited from a range of the above-mentioned school and systemic resources, including human resources in her classroom and hands-on assistance in the classroom and playground. These included the time and expertise of school executive (principal), Aboriginal Education Support Group (see Narrative 3.1), Aboriginal Liaison Officer, teacher assistant, LST, counsellor (see Narrative 3.2), casual relief teacher (relief from face-to-face teaching time), teaching colleagues in other regular and special schools, librarian (see Narrative 3.3), medical specialists, district support teacher and a teaching colleague at Fortune PS (team teaching) (see Narratives 3.4 and 3.5).

Assistive technology

In broad terms, assistive technology is any technology that enhances human performance. For students with disability, it is any technology that enhances their capacity to achieve their educational outcomes. This usually involves overcoming barriers to learning through improved access to and participation in learning environments (Bai et al., 2016; Lancioni et al., 2013). Research substantiates the potential benefits of assistive technology, particularly for students with disability (Adebisi et al., 2015; Cumming & Strnadová, 2012; Draper Rodriguez et al., 2015; Kelley et al., 2011; Spencer & Smullen, 2014; Strnadová et al., 2014).

communication aid An object or device, such as a chart, board, communication book or computer, used to assist communication.

A diverse range of materials, services, systems and devices can be regarded as assistive technology and these can be commercially purchased, adapted from and for existing technologies, or purpose built. Assistive technology includes simple devices that are mechanically uncomplicated, inexpensive and require little training. It also includes complex equipment that is usually computer-based, expensive and requires substantial training. Ergonomic cutlery and utensils, tape-recorded books, Braille equipment, positioning and mobility equipment, communication aids, specialised computer hardware and software, medical equipment and prosthetic devices and adaptive play equipment are all examples of assistive technology (Parette & Blum, 2013). More recently, interactive whiteboards and computer tablets have emerged as very powerful assistive technologies to support all students and, with appropriate software applications, provide support for students with a diverse range of additional needs (Cumming & Strnadová, 2012; Parette & Blum, 2013).

Selecting assistive technology

Identifying and accessing appropriate assistive technologies can be a difficult and timeconsuming task; but it can facilitate improved learning for students with diverse additional needs, especially those arising from EAL/D, sensory impairments, physical impairments and intellectual disabilities (Jacobson, 2016; Sturgis, 2016) (see Figure 3.17). The selection of assistive technologies should be negotiated collaboratively, as part of the resource appraisal process and ILP discussions (Parette & Blum, 2013).

FIGURE 3.17 Assistive technology can enhance educational outcomes. Source: (left to right) Alamy Stock Photo/dpa picture alliance archive; Getty Images/Owen Franken; Alamy Stock Photo/redsnapper

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Parette and Blum (2013) suggest some key considerations when selecting assistive technology. First, the student’s current (and anticipated future) additional needs, capabilities and interests should be considered. Second, family and cultural issues are important. The success of assistive technology for students with disability is highly dependent on family support and involvement (Delarosa et al., 2012). Furthermore, many families of children with disability live in low socioeconomic circumstances and affording technology and/or internet access might be difficult or nearly impossible for them. Third, technology features and service systems are important, such as availability, start-up and operational costs, essential training and customer support, ergonomics and safety. Personal computers (desktop, laptop and tablets) and smart phones are widely used assistive technologies and can provide improved cognitive, physical and sensory accessibility to learning experiences for students with disability (Cumming & Strnadová, 2012). Occupational therapists or physiotherapists can conduct appropriate assessments to ascertain whether conventional input and output devices need to be modified or alternative devices added.

Software

Quality educational software (applications) are prerequisites to a valuable learning experience. Most educational authorities review and make recommendations on software, but classroom teachers can conduct their own evaluations by using some general guidelines (see Parette & Blum, 2013). Personal computers linked to the internet have a great potential to enhance the quality of lives of students with disability, especially those with impairments that impact their opportunity to access other people, places and activities. Talking to a technology and/or special education consultant is a good starting point for identifying possible assistive technology to support inclusion.

Environmental modifications

Some students have significant fine and gross motor impairments, sensory impairments, physical disabilities and mobility problems. Barriers to access can occur getting to and from school, moving around the learning spaces, using facilities and when using specialist equipment. Modifications to school buildings and classrooms are often required to provide fair and safe access for all members of the school community. Workplace health and safety legislation and regulations are most pertinent here. For major installations, education authorities usually have access to design and construction expertise. For smaller modifications, gaining the expertise of physiotherapists and occupational therapists is highly recommended (Steinfeld & Maisel, 2012). Funding for improving access is usually sought by application to the relevant education authority through the LST. The initial set-up time and costs associated with this are often substantial. Major modifications such as toilet/bathroom facilities, ramps and lifts can take more than 12 months from application to installation, so pre-planning is essential (Figure 3.18). These modifications will generally benefit other students with comparable needs and often all members of the school community (Steinfeld & Maisel, 2012).

FIGURE 3.18 Major modifications require time for pre-planning. Source: iStock.com/Cebolla4

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Professional development

For the benefits of inclusion to be realised, all those involved should be appropriately trained, skilled and experienced. Professional development and training needs will differ over the three phases of the inclusion process. At the pre-inclusion/preparation stage, when collaborative planning is the focus activity, knowledge of the student, experience with inclusion and the diverse expertise relating to needs and requisite resources are central. Subsequent to completion of the appraisal of educational support needs and the ILPs, preparations should begin for the early inclusion/transition stage. These preparations will usually include some professional development and training. (In Narrative 3.4, Mia’s support teacher, Ben delivered training to all of the staff.) This often focuses on the needs of classroom teachers, teachers’ assistants and any students involved in peer support roles (Anderson, 2011; Boyle & Topping, 2012).

Training

During the early inclusion/transition stage, staff development is primarily ‘on-the-job’ and experiential. New or changing professional development needs will become evident during this period. Professional development needs will continue into the long-term inclusion/monitoring stage, but are likely to decrease significantly. These will primarily relate to the continuing training demands around assistive technologies, as well as the retraining of any new teachers, teachers’ assistants, volunteers and students involved in peer tutoring and buddy arrangements. It is important to remember that development and training needs are ongoing because a student’s resource support needs change over time. Professional development and training can be provided by colleague teachers or staff, itinerant specialist teachers, or by colleagues from other schools with comparable experience. Education authorities will provide specialist support teachers and consultants to contribute to professional development. Specialist consultants from education authorities frequently organise regular networking meetings and seminars for school staff involved with students with additional needs and disabilities and it may also be possible to conduct collaborative action research (Birzenieks et al., 2020). Disability-specific community organisations also provide consultancy and training services. Professional organisations such as the Australian Association of Special Education (AASE), the New Zealand Special Education Association (NZSEA) and the Australasian Society for Intellectual Disability (ASID) have regular publications and conferences in all states of Australia and in New Zealand. A major focus of these organisations is on the professional development of members.

Formal training

Interested teachers can enrol in postgraduate training courses in a range of areas to improve their capacity to support students with additional learning needs including Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), Aboriginal studies, special education or disability studies, sometimes with financial support from their employer through scholarships. These courses run at many universities at the (graduate) certificate, diploma and degree levels. Teacher assistants benefit greatly from appropriate training and may enrol in nationally accredited training courses; sometimes this is with financial support (Butt & Lowe, 2012; Causton-Theoharis, 2009). A benchmark Australian course is the Certificate III in Education Support (Teacher’s Aide Special). Justine’s students also benefited from all of the abovementioned resources including assistive technology (smartphone apps – see Narrative 3.2, ICT, and communication software to create visuals – see Narrative 3.3, and hearing aids and related communication devices – see Narrative 3.4); environmental modifications (see Narratives 3.3 and 3.4); professional development – see Narrative 3.3, and staff training – see Narrative 3.4).

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3.5 Building capacity for inclusion The final section of this chapter explains the fifth evidence-based practice: building capacity for inclusion. This is done with particular reference to values and attitudes, change and innovation, and school leadership. We will look at three critical and interrelated capacities, informed by action research: values and attitudes, change and innovation, and leadership (see Figure 3.19).

School culture reflects society’s culture. It is essential that this diversity is embraced in the school, staff, community and classroom (Ashman, 2012; Miles & Ainscow, 2010; Palawat & May, 2011; Richards & Armstrong, 2016; Theoharis & Causton, 2014). Individual teachers need to examine their own feelings towards the different characteristics of their students and embrace the shift in values, attitudes and behaviours needed to build the capacity, for inclusion to be a success in their community, school and in their classrooms (Garcia-Fernandez et al., 2013). It is only then that the teacher, along with the school, can immerse themselves in the understanding required to create that dynamic, exciting difference to their students (Ozer et al., 2012; Wertheim et al., 2012).

The achievement of inclusion for one student with additional needs is laudable. At a higher level though, school communities have to achieve systematic, efficient and successful inclusion for an increasing number and broad diversity of students with additional needs – where best learning outcomes are achieved for all (DEEWR, 2012; Miles & Ainscow, 2010; NCCD, 2020). A school community’s capacity for inclusion may be indicated by five contributing capacities. These are the capacities to learn, change, innovate, grow and make a difference.

Action research

Learn

on vati nno di an

Colla bor atio n

Innovate Change

ge an Ch

an dc on su lta t

n io

s and attitudes Value difference Make a Grow

FIGURE 3.19 Building capacity

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NARRATIVE 3.5 Justine: wonderfully inclusive! It was nearing the end of term 4. The principal had invited me in at lunchtime to talk about what she referred to as ‘My wonderfully inclusive class’. I was thrilled! ‘You’ve done so well this year,’ she said. ‘Your students’ results are excellent, including those of young Max. You’ve established a wonderful relationship with him and his parents.’ I was chuffed. ‘And look at the progress Mia has made; what an improvement!’ I knew how well my students had done this year, but it felt fantastic to get this recognition. ‘I understand the team-teaching you negotiated with Judith has also gone well. I was so pleased to hear that Judith was also happy with the regular interaction between her students and yours. It sounds like she’s learned a lot about supporting students with additional needs this year – thanks to you!’ Again I blushed. The collaboration had been hard work, but by midyear the peer support initiatives I had suggested to enhance Mia’s learning had started to show results … even Judith had taken a close interest in working with Mia and her buddy during the morning maths sessions. ‘I have a favour to ask of you. I’d like you to prepare and deliver the morning session at our next staff development day on “Including students with additional needs”. You could explain the programming initiatives you’ve implemented this year, the resources you’ve put together, including the tablet computer and software for Lauren, and the team-teaching you negotiated so successfully with Judith.’ I felt so proud. This was big picture stuff. I had made, and was making, a difference …

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the content you might present at a staff meeting on your ‘wonderfully inclusive class’. Reflecting on the material from this chapter, outline the content of a one-hour presentation on this topic.

Values and attitudes

If school community members, including students, teachers, other school staff, parents and members of the broader school community, do not have positive and supportive values about and attitudes towards diversity and inclusion, the enrolment of students with additional needs in their local school will be compromised (Ashman, 2012; Palawat & May, 2011; Terzi, 2010). A first and key step in increasing the capacity of schools to provide the best educational outcomes for all students, including those with disability, is to focus on building a ‘culture of inclusion’ (Ashman, 2012; Causton-Theoharis, 2009; Miles & Ainscow, 2010; Theoharis & Causton, 2014). This culture of inclusion will need a continuing agenda, facilitated and led by the school executive (Coulston & Smith, 2013; Hoppey, 2013), while engaging variously with students, staff, parents and members of the wider school community. This culture of inclusion needs a continuing program of planned and opportunistic learning activities for students based in and across the curriculum; in-servicing and professional development for staff; and dialogue and information-sharing with parents and members of the wider community (Anderson, 2011; Lonsdale, 2011; Palawat & May, 2011; Wertheim et al., 2012). This program will need to include both formal and informal learning activities, which lead to changes in the way school members

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speak and act (Brown, 2009; Watson, 2009). The degree to which school communities are inclusive varies widely (Taylor & Sidhu, 2012). Initiating and/or facilitating change requires an understanding of the current knowledge, values and attitudes about diversity and inclusion in the school community (Krijan, Jurčec & Borič, 2015; Miles & Ainscow, 2010). This will also require considerable ongoing cooperation and collaboration, so, clearly, teachers have a pivotal role to play, not least of which is to make explicit their valuing of, and respect for, every student (Hemmings & Woodcock, 2011; Ludicke & Kortman, 2012). Teachers are widely recognised as being highly influential upon their students, so they must demonstratively model values that are supportive of social justice and equity if they are to encourage and guide their students in this change (Lovat & Clement, 2008; Starr & Foy, 2012; Taylor & Sidhu, 2012).

Diversity and inclusion to practising teachers

Despite this philosophy and these principles having prevailed in policy in public education for some years, research shows that there is still considerable disagreement about, and misconception of, just what diversity and inclusion mean to pre-service and practising teachers (Hemmings & Woodcock, 2011; Miles & Ainscow, 2010; Palawat & May, 2011; Terzi, 2010; Westwood, 2013). Knowledge about, and experience with, the inclusion of students with additional needs is also a factor in determining and changing values and attitudes (Beacham & Rouse, 2012). For many pre-service and practising teachers, a shift in values, attitudes and behaviours towards proactively supporting inclusion will require an associated shift in teaching practices. This shift, although probably personally and professionally challenging, is prerequisite to the building of capacity for inclusion in a school community (Westwood, 2013).

Change and innovation

Effective inclusive schools recognise the need for, and are able to facilitate, desirable change (Miles & Ainscow, 2010). These schools deliver optimal learning outcomes for all of their students through quality curriculum and pedagogy (Boyle & Topping, 2012; Bradfield & Hudson, 2012; Webster & Wilkinson, 2015), where all students are engaged in their learning and have an input into ‘what happens’ in their learning. This more democratic approach is more empowering to students, particularly those with additional needs, who are consequently more successful. As previously mentioned, the principles of Universal Design for Learning are pertinent, instructive and readily applicable here (Lee & Picanco, 2013).

change The introduction of any innovation, whether program, process or practice, that is new to the person or school.

Successfully inclusive schools are dynamic and embrace change; particularly by employing innovative and creative approaches to problem-solving and overcoming challenges (Boyd, 2012; Miles & Ainscow, 2010). Change in schools particularly refers to the introduction of innovations in policy and practice.

Barriers to change

Some schools (and indeed individual teachers!) have a reputation for being resistant to change. One explanation is that change is often wrongly seen as an event, rather than a process. This misconception somewhat explains why not committing time and effort to innovation results in failure, and therefore a more entrenched resistance to change (Boyd, 2012). This, coupled with insufficient opportunity (and adequate time) to reflect, consolidate and evaluate, exacerbates this resistance. Personal barriers to change (among both teachers and parents) include a perceived (or real) lack of skills or knowledge to engage in the change process, a pervasive negative attitude to change arising from previous negative experience, and/or a fear of unreasonable demand or disadvantage to self or others. These may manifest as passive or active resistance to inclusion.

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These barriers are commonly cited in research into the inclusion of students with additional needs (Ashman, 2012; Boyd, 2012; Kamenopoulou, 2012; Sharma, 2012).

Implementation science is one contemporary area of research focused on bridging the gap between the development of evidence-based practice initiatives and their application to practice in the field. Implementation science focuses on improving the way practice initiatives are brought into and maintained in practice (Cook & Odom, 2013). There is also a substantial body of research indicating that all students can benefit from the pedagogical initiatives that are normally only associated with the teaching of students with additional needs (Boyle & Topping, 2012).

Organisational barriers to inclusion include role and duty conflicts and misunderstandings, particularly concerning the work and roles of support versus classroom teachers, as well as unsupportive leadership. Proactive, supportive and informed leadership is clearly a key facilitator of success (Hoppey, 2013). This is particularly the case in secondary schools where practical challenges to collaboration, such as getting multiple teachers from across faculties together for regular discussion, are almost insurmountable.

Approaches to change

There are several ways to facilitate change across an organisation (see Figure 3.20).

Leadership

Inclusion does require a collaborative whole-school approach. The importance of school leadership though cannot be overstated (Hoppey, 2013). It is critical that school leaders drive, and are seen to be driving, the inclusion agenda within their schools by facilitating the provision of resources as well as providing planning time and support for teachers (Ashman, 2012; Cooper & Jacobs, 2011; Watson, 2009). This sends a message to the community about the philosophy of the school in supporting students with additional needs (Boyle & Topping, 2012; Forlin, 2012; Lonsdale, 2011). The NSW Department of Education and Communities School Leadership Capability Framework is an excellent example of a systemic approach encouraging teachers to ‘make a difference’ at classroom, school and school community levels.

APPROACHES TO WHOLE-SCHOOL CHANGE

Approach 1

Work to transform the internal attitude held about inclusion to become positive, which will help facilitate change

Approach 2

Provide learning. development and training opportunities for those involved with the school to increase confidence in the change concept

Approach 3

Foster a collaborative relationship towards inclusion between students and teachers, engaging students in the planning

FIGURE 3.20 Change is a complex and collaborative process that takes time.

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A supportive principal

Justine, our newly appointed teacher, has the benefit of a principal who recognises the need to provide her with time and access to personnel and resources in order to implement successful inclusion. The principal also recognised that by utilising Justine as a source of professional learning for other staff, she could increase the knowledge of other teachers and so spread the positive benefits of inclusion throughout the school. If Justine did not have her principal’s proactive support, her efforts would take longer. She could still have used the knowledge she had gained through pre-service training and professional experience to meet her students’ needs and by doing so, she would have been able to demonstrate to the principal and other teachers what needed to be done to successfully include students with additional needs. Having a supportive principal makes the process easier.

A TEACHER REFLECTS Matt, learning support teacher from a primary school in NSW When I first started as a learning support teacher, my supervisor instructed me to focus my efforts on improving reading results. I went looking for data to identify those students who I most needed to be working with. It seemed to me that the school didn’t have systems in place to identify those students, outside those identified in the Reading Recovery process in the infant classes, so, with the help of the executive team, I asked teachers to provide me with their students’ reading levels on a once-a-term basis. For some teachers, especially in the middle and upper primary years, this was a huge undertaking, as they needed to be trained in how to take a running record of reading and take the time to assess their individual students. The whole process took a lot of time and effort from everyone involved. After collecting (chasing) all the data, I used the reading age/levels of the assessment kit that the school used to identify students who hadn’t reached those levels. I then went about sourcing and training volunteers that could assist with a ‘pause, prompt and praise’ style of one-on-one reading tutor program. Volunteers included peers (Year 6 students), parents and grandparents attached to the school, as well as a few ex-teachers and elderly people from the local community. I also recruited some pre-service teachers from my old university. Each morning, Monday to Thursday, my team of up to 20 volunteers would tutor every student in the school who had been identified as below their target reading age. The program was very successful in improving the overall reading levels at the school. Not only were the target students receiving daily tutoring, the teachers, especially Years 3–6, were more focused on reading instruction and all students were motivated to read more by a read ‘every day’ promotion I created. I liaised with the marketing manager of the Mariners’ A-League Football Club and designed bookmarks with photos of players and even had a player (who was also a parent at the school) talk at an assembly about the program. The feedback from the community was very positive.

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STUDY TOOLS

Summary

To reiterate what was said in the introduction to this chapter, inclusion – providing the best learning outcomes for all students in regular schools – is contingent upon the proactive engagement and support of the school community, the provision of a facilitative learning environment and quality teaching. Successfully inclusive school communities develop, nurture and promote the values, knowledge, understanding and skills that underpin and facilitate inclusion.

This chapter introduced evidence-based best practices with respect to the inclusion of students with disability in regular schools including embracing, negotiating, programming, resourcing, and building capacity for inclusion. Research-based evidence for these best practices was also provided. Figure 3.2 (see p. 91) represents the relationships between these best practices and successful inclusion in schools. Successful inclusion in schools starts with the school community embracing inclusion and then continuing on to building its capacity for inclusion. This capacity building starts with the negotiating and resourcing processes, while the programming process focuses on meeting the diverse additional needs of individual and groups of students in a school-wide context.

Acknowledgement

The content of this chapter is based on a chapter on this topic written for earlier editions of this book by Dr Gordon Lyons of the University of Newcastle. Material reproduced in this chapter is used with Dr Lyons’ permission. The author, editors, and publisher are grateful to Dr Lyons for his contribution to the production of this chapter.

Discussion questions

1 Based on Justine’s journey, the content from this chapter and your own experiences, identify and discuss some of the best practices for successful inclusion, with reference to the following: a The development of positive attitudes to diversity

b Strategies for creating inclusive learning environments.

2 Describe and explain each of the five evidence-based elements of best practice for inclusion: embracing, negotiating, programming, resourcing and building capacity.

3 Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between Fortune PS (the school in Justine’s story) and your own experiences, with regard to the inclusion of students with diverse needs. 4 Can you assess your current values and attitudes toward including students with additional needs in mainstream schools? What do you conclude? Do you agree that all students, regardless of ability or need should be allowed to enrol in their local school? Or should they be forced to enrol in schools for their specific needs? Or is there some middle ground? If so, which students should be enrolled into which setting?

Individual activities

1 Consider this scenario: You have been newly appointed as a classroom teacher. One (or more!) of your students has specific additional needs. (Construct a hypothetical profile.) If you were going to present a case for additional support and resources to your learning support team, what types of evidence would you provide to inform the decision-making? 2 Use the same scenario as in Question 1. Select a generic lesson plan. How could you differentiate and individualise this to improve the learning outcomes of all of your students? (Consider also the principles of Universal Design for Learning.)

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3 Use the same scenario as in Question 1. Design a resource package using school, community and systemic resources.

4 Go to the website for your local education authority. Find and read the web pages that provide information on how they support the inclusion of students with additional needs. 5 Imagine yourself back at your high school. Also imagine you had a severe visual impairment like retinitis pigmentosa and need general assistance and mobility support for your remaining time at school. Develop a hypothetical individual education plan (see Chapter 4 for an example layout), with an emphasis on a ‘package’ of resources to support you. Consider how you would navigate yourself around the school and access all the learning opportunities you were able to in your real-life high school years.

6 The following journal articles and books (also see Recommended reading further on) focus on various aspects of inclusion and how these relate to pre-service teachers and teacher education. Obtain one or more articles of interest and consider their relevance to your professional development as a pre-service teacher. (We consider all of these as recommended reading for this chapter.)

Beacham, N., & Rouse, M. (2011). Student teachers’ attitudes and beliefs about inclusion and inclusive practice. Journal of Research in Special Education, 12(3), 3–11.

Clark-Louque, A., & Latunde, Y. (2014). Supporting preservice teachers’ collaboration with school leaders. Journal of School Public Relations, 35(4), 494–510. Clerke, S. (2013). Partnering for school improvement: case studies of school-community partnerships in Australia. (A. Lonsdale, Ed.) Retrieved 12 March 2016, from ACER: http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/ viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=policy_analysis_misc

Coyne, P., Pisha, B., Dalton, B., Zeph, L. A., & Smith, N. C. (2012). Literacy by design: a universal design for learning approach for students with significant intellectual disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 33 (3), 162–172.

Garner, P., & Forbes, F. (2012). Disposable assets: are special education teachers still needed in 21st century Australian schools? NISE Bulletin, 11, 62–66.

Hemmings, B., & Woodcock, S. (2011). Preservice teachers’ views of inclusive education: a content analysis. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 35(2), 103–116.

Teo Shu Lin, C., & Walker, S. (2014). Child-related factors that influence teacher-child relationships using an Australian national sample. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 39(2), 51–59.

7 Imagine you are enrolling a child with additional learning needs to your local public school. Briefly summarise the steps you would take to ensure successful inclusion.

8 Is the number of students with additional needs enrolling in any one school problematic? Give reasons for your answer.

Group activities

1 You have been newly appointed to a class with a number of students with additional needs. You have no information about these needs at this time. Your principal has allocated you a teacher assistant for 10 hours per week for at least the first term. How could you plan to use this time as a resource to support you and your students in your classroom? 2 Form a learning support team, with the core members of principal, counsellor, support teacher, the parent and the classroom teacher of a (hypothetical) student with additional learning needs. Role-play an LST meeting where the school is negotiating a resource package to support this student.

3 Make a case in preparation for a debate on the topic: Inclusion for students with mental health issues who have challenging behaviours is unrealistic. Which perspective will you take on this topic? 4 Prepare and engage in a debate on the topic: The Australian Curriculum is inappropriate for students with more severe intellectual disabilities.

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Weblinks

Aboriginal Education Consultative Group Inc. website https://www.aecg.nsw.edu.au/ Australian Curriculum http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/

Australian Disability Standards for Education 2005 http://docs.education.gov.au/documents/disabilitystandards-education-2005 Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) website (information on professional growth) https://www.aitsl.edu.au/lead-develop/develop-others/build-a-professional-growth-culture

BOSTES ‘Find a PD course’ webpage http://www.nswteachers.nsw.edu.au/current-teachers/how-to-getproficient-teacher-accreditation/find-a-pd-course/ Cerebral Palsy Alliance website (a list of assistive technologies with descriptions) https://www. cerebralpalsy.org.au/services/all-programs-and-services/assistive-technology/ KidsMatter (Primary Schools) http://www.kidsmatter.edu.au/

MindMatters (High Schools) http://www.mindmatters.edu.au/

National Centre Against Bullying resources webpage (including information on specific disabilities) http:// www.ncab.org.au/resources/

NSW Department of Education: Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation: Effective practices in literacy and numeracy website (information on differentiated teaching and learning) http://www.cese.nsw. gov.au/EffectivePractices/index.php/effective-practices/differentiated-teaching-and-learning Positive Partnerships website (supporting school-age students on the autism spectrum) http://www. positivepartnerships.com.au/ Response Ability (with links to fact sheets) http://www.responseability.org/

The (US) National Center on Universal Design for Learning homepage http://www.udlcenter.org/

Recommended reading

Australasian Journal of Special Education (2013), Issue 1: Special issue on transition for students with disabilities. Author. Boyle, C., & Topping, K. J. (Eds) (2012). What works in inclusion. Berkshire: Open University Press. Clerke, S. (2013). Partnering for school improvement: case studies of school-community partnerships in Australia. Retrieved 12 March 2016 from http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1020&context=policy_analysis_misc

DEEWR (2009). Belonging, being & becoming: the early years learning framework for Australia. Retrieved 5 April 2016 from https://www.coag.gov.au/sites/ default/files/early_years_learning_framework.pdf

Feldman, R., Carter, E., Asmus, J., & Brock, M. (2016). Presence, proximity, and peer interactions of adolescents with severe disabilities in general education classrooms. Exceptional Children, 82 (2), 192–208. Gore, J. (2014). Towards quality and equity: the case for quality teaching rounds. Retrieved 3 April 2016

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from http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1233&context=research_conference

McCrary, D., Brown, D., & Dyer-Sennette, J. (2016). Using ecological assessment to reduce aggressive behaviours in young children with behaviour problems. Education, 136 (3), 365–377. Morrison, R., & Burgman, I. (2009). Friendship experiences among children with disabilities who attend mainstream Australian schools. The Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 76 (3), 145–160.

Nacheva-Skopalik, L., & Green, S. (2016). Intelligent adaptable e-assessment for inclusive e-learning. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 11 (1), 21–34. Retrieved from http:// go.galegroup.com/ ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA441921158 &v=2.1&u=eduref&it=r&p= GPS&sw=w&asid= bcf123b31d6f2be52e567610e6f80a64

Schwab, S., Holzinger, A., Krammer, M., Gebhardt, M., & Hessels, M. G. P. (2015). Teaching practices and beliefs

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about inclusion of general and special needs teachers in Austria. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 13 (2), 237 +. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i. do?id=GALE%7CA438358639&v=2.1 &u=eduref&it=r&p=GPS&sw=w&as id=e2fb60cc534b281ad0476011129b9dc3

Sokal, L., & Katz, J. (2015). Effects of the three-block model of universal design for learning on early and late middle

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PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES 4 Curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment adjustments 5 Planning effective teaching strategies 6 Encouraging positive interactions 7 Transitions, self-determination and twenty-first-century skills

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Curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment adjustments Carl Leonard and Robert Conway This chapter aims to: 4.1 Examine the concepts of curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment, and their effects on teaching students with disability in classrooms, with reference to the Australian Curriculum 4.2 Consider the effects of the of disability policy and legislation on access to, and participation in, curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment activities 4.3 Discuss the challenges of balancing the expressed desire for inclusive education and academic excellence with members of the school community 4.4 Examine methods of curriculum and content adjustment in the preparation of teaching materials for students with low additional needs in the classroom 4.5 Discuss methods of adjustment for students with high and complex disability in classroom curriculum and teaching activities 4.6 Identify accommodations to assessment that facilitate meaningful evaluation of learning for students with disability 4.7 Identify how a range of technologies, including alternate and adaptive technology, can enhance teaching and learning for students with disability 4.8 Examine staff cooperation and collaboration to increase learning and teaching adjustment skills to develop an expanding bank of resources.

Introduction

This chapter focuses on the role of learning, curriculum and pedagogy in the school, and the strategies used to adjust these to enhance the participation of the diversity of students with disability in classrooms. Strategies that allow for multiple and alternative approaches to learning and teaching are examined, although the chapter acknowledges that, for many teachers, teaching within mainstream settings is very much governed by external curriculum requirements, such as the Australian Curriculum. There is acknowledgement that teachers may perceive that they, as individuals, have limited flexibility in providing learning activities that include students with disability. However, students with disability can be included in classroom learning activities, regardless of their additional need (see Figure 4.1). Inclusive teaching requires self-belief, commitment and effort on the

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part of the teacher, together with support from others in developing resources. It also requires clear and practical support from the school leadership, from the educational jurisdiction and from national bodies, such as the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) and the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL).

FIGURE 4.1 Students with disability can be included in classroom learning activities.

The Australian government, together with the state and territory governments, has developed a national perspective on curriculum (Australian Curriculum), assessment (NAPLAN) and reporting (My School website). This joint government body is ACARA. In the following sections, we examine the role of each part of ACARA and the effects on students with disability.

4.1 Concepts of teaching and the Australian curriculum Australian Curriculum (Foundation to Year 10) The Australian Curriculum (F–10) sets out the core knowledge, understanding, skills and general capabilities important for all Australian students.

Education is in a challenging time as states and territories, and educational systems – government, Catholic and independent – continue to grapple with interpretation and implementation of the Australian Curriculum (Foundation to Year 10) for the needs of futurefocused learners surrounded by declining educational performance – as measured, for example, nationally (NAPLAN) and internationally (PISA). (Note: ‘Foundation’ is used to denote the year of schooling prior to Year 1 as a consistent term nationally.) The Australian Curriculum sets out eight learning areas in which students are to develop knowledge and skills: English, Mathematics, Science, Health and Physical Education (HPE), Humanities and Social Sciences (HASS), the Arts, Technologies, Languages along with the cross-curriculum priorities and general capabilities acquired by students. It is critically important to know, however, that the Australian Curriculum addresses content and assessment, but not pedagogy. As a result, the Australian Curriculum has, to a degree, led to greater national consistency regarding what is taught, but not how teaching occurs. Jurisdictions and schools, and in many instances individual teachers, are left to consider and choose the most appropriate selection of learning and teaching activities. While it was hoped this may have allowed for individualised and specific adjustments to better support students with disability, national and international student performance suggests this has been far from the case. As described above, from a draft national curriculum in 2010, eight learning areas were (finally) endorsed for implementation in schools by Australia’s education ministers in September 2015, along with most jurisdictions offering a mix of additional and optional work studies – vocational education and/or endorsed courses (by state or territory curriculum authorities) in Years 9 and 10 (see https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/ for further detail). Humanities and social sciences, the arts, technologies, and languages each comprise multiple subjects. ACARA also specifies senior curriculum content (Years 11 & 12) in the areas of English, Mathematics, Science, and Humanities and Social Sciences, with state and territory authorities required

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to blend these with their existing senior curricula leading to awarding of their end-of-school qualification or credential, which again varies across states and territories.

Critique of the Australian Curriculum tends to focus on its evolution and construction as a series of subject curriculum documents and statements rather than a logic-driven integrated framework of developed and developing subjects. This is because the approach initially was to develop a national curriculum for each of four learning areas (English, mathematics, science and history), with additional areas added later (Foundation to Year 10). Again, it could be argued that it is not a truly national curriculum as there is no overarching framework or total conception of a curriculum, only a growing series of subject curricula content and assessment criteria developed in relative isolation from each other. Decisions around what constitutes ‘important’ subject content were, and are, made by groups of individuals, each with different value systems, and understandings of diversity and inclusion. What is framed as being ‘valuable’ within curriculum must be questioned, critiqued and, if necessary, challenged (Ditchburn, 2012). How suitable the Australian Curriculum is for Australia’s increasingly diverse student population will now be considered.

The Australian Curriculum (Foundation to Year 10) and students with disability

The Australian Curriculum is designed for all students. However, it has been challenged from its inception in terms of how it caters for students with special needs (Price, 2015). Students with disability were not considered directly in the documentation. This may be due to the decision for pedagogy to be determined by teachers and schools (only content and general capabilities and cross-curriculum perspectives are outlined in each of the Australian Curriculum documents); more likely, it was a glaring and sad omission in initial iterations. A response to this was the evolution of the ‘Student diversity’ section of the Australian Curriculum website (see weblinks at the end of the chapter) that identifies the following three categories of diversity.

Students with disability

The Disability Discrimination Act 1992 and the Disability Standards for Education (2005) require education and training service providers to support the rights of students with disability to access the curriculum on the same basis as other students. Students with disability are entitled to rigorous, relevant and engaging learning opportunities drawn from age-equivalent Australian Curriculum content on the same basis as other students. For more information, see the weblinks at the end of the chapter.

Gifted and talented students

Students who are gifted and talented have a right to rigorous, relevant and engaging learning activities drawn from a challenging curriculum and that address their individual learning needs. Teachers can use the Australian Curriculum flexibly to meet the individual learning needs of gifted and talented students.

Gifted and talented students

Teachers can enrich student learning by providing students with opportunities to work with learning area content in more depth or breadth, encompassing specific aspects of the general capabilities learning continua (e.g. the higher order cognitive skills of the critical and creative thinking capability), and/or focusing on cross-curriculum priorities. Teachers can also accelerate student learning by drawing on content from later levels in the Australian Curriculum and/or from local state and territory teaching and learning materials.

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Teaching students with English as an additional language or dialect (EAL/D)

As part of its commitment to supporting equity of access to the Australian Curriculum for all students, ACARA has developed the English as an additional language or dialect teacher resource.

Students for whom English is an additional language or dialect

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students

This resource is designed to support teachers across the learning areas as they develop teaching and learning programs using the Australian Curriculum with students for whom English is an additional language or dialect (EAL/D) (for more information, see weblinks at the end of the chapter). Somewhat curiously, students from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander backgrounds and students with low education support needs are not specifically addressed in ACARA documents. Both groups of students, within an inclusive approach to education, would need to have their educational needs met within the curriculum, learning and teaching, assessment and reporting. Indigenous cultures and histories are, however, incorporated as one of three cross-curriculum perspectives to be addressed in the education of all students.

The development of ACARA’s materials to support the teaching of diverse students is informed through Equity and Diversity Advisory Groups which meet across Australia’s states and territories. These groups consist of expert teachers, academics and members of professional organisations.

The challenge of addressing issues surrounding students with disability has been a disjointed process. For example, at one stage, students with disability were to use the Victorian preFoundation curriculum content (which was then resurrected within the new 2015 Victorian Curriculum). At a later stage, examples were provided to show how sample content in each of the four initial subjects could be accessed by students with disability. In the January 2013 documentation on student diversity, all references to examples were removed following feedback. These were replaced by annotated ‘Illustrations of personalised learning’ (ACARA, n.d., https:// www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/illustrations-of-practice/), showing various approaches to ensuring all students have their learning needs met within the Australian Curriculum. These illustrations occur across different contexts and show ways in which current teachers make adjustments to include students with disability. Although these video resources may be perceived as ‘best practice’ due to their being shared on the Australian Curriculum website, teachers would benefit from analysing them critically. How do they include students in broad curriculum content? Are students engaged in cooperative learning? Does the teacher show a strong understanding of diverse learning needs? Could activities have a more ‘functional’ focus? Of note also is that the enabling student diversity resources on the Australian Curriculum website have recently been ‘refreshed’ (for more information, see weblinks at the end of the chapter); yet, a critical lens is still required.

An early review of the Australian Curriculum (Department of Education and Training, 2014) recommended that special education experts support ACARA to make the curriculum more inclusive, particularly for students not yet at Foundation level. This recommendation was the result of organisational and parental feedback, identifying that the curriculum did not seem to cater for some students with disability. The Australian Government, in response, signalled its intention to provide further support materials, rather than to alter the curriculum (Department of Education, 2014), as evidenced by the above, if not belated, ‘refresh’. ACARA have revised their guidance for planning for student diversity to a CASE (Content – Abilities – Standards – Evaluation) Planning Pathway (ACARA, n.d.), an extremely helpful methodology to assist teachers to adjust the Australian Curriculum to the diverse needs of their learners.

Assessment, ACARA and the Australian Curriculum

Along with the development of an Australian Curriculum, ACARA is responsible for the national assessment of literacy and numeracy through the NAPLAN protocols, which see all students in all educational jurisdictions assessed on a common set of materials at Years 3, 5, 7 and 9. Data

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are presented for all schools on the My School website (see weblinks at the end of the chapter). These data allow comparison of schools, both locally and nationally, and the website provides information on benchmark student performance on these two measures.

Reporting

The difficulty for students with disability is the failure to adequately report their involvement in national results. While students are reported by gender, language background and whether they identify as Indigenous, there is no identification of whether they have disability. This is beginning to be addressed through the Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on Disability process, which commenced back in 2012, but has been problematic in its implementation. It has however ensured, nationally, there are now four recognised categories of disability (cognitive, physical, sensory and social/emotional), plus the important concept of imputed disability. The NCCD website describes an ‘imputed’ disability as ‘something that someone believes another person has’ (https://www.nccd.edu.au/ wider-support-materials/definitions-disability-and-nccd-categories). In consultation with a parent or carer, where a school team has grounds to make a judgement on the extent of reasonable adjustments being made, often evidenced by (but not necessarily equating to) a personalised learning and/or behaviour management plan, they can make the judgement of an imputed disability. These categories are intended to form the basis of collection of data on student numbers as well as for the purpose of identification in assessment and reporting, such as on the My School website. The issue of whether to exclude students with disability from the reporting is symptomatic of the development of curriculum and assessment models that are beyond the ability of some students with disability. The considerable emphasis placed on literacy, numeracy and science and technology skills in the current Australian educational context also means that students with disability in mainstream classes have added pressure placed on them, since school results are scrutinised at local, state and national levels for educational and political purposes. Although there are benefits of transparent, shared data, there may also be unintended consequences. For example, despite stating that league tables would not be created on My School, leading to the possible stigmatisation of schools, The Australian newspaper chose to develop their own Your School site, using data from My School, which encouraged direct comparison of schools without the factoring in of social or economic considerations. The publication of the nationally consistent collection of data on My School can likewise result in parents being able to ‘shop for schools’ based on their homogeneity (fewer students with disabilities) or heterogeneity (richer diversity). In doing so, a chasm is created between those schools that resist the enrolment of students with disability, and those that develop successful inclusive practices.

Interpreting results beyond scores

There needs to be further and considerable discussion on the value of including students with disability in national testing if the outcome serves only to reinforce their exclusion from mainstream education because they lower the school’s scores (Dempsey & Conway, 2004, 2005). The current approach showing students’ results across all levels of assessment outcomes serves to highlight students with lower academic performance without giving the full picture. In a study of students with disability and NAPLAN, Davies (2012) highlighted the difficulties of adequate engagement of students with the testing and the fact that students are being assessed on materials ‘they have not had the opportunity to learn’ (p. 75) or for which they ‘are afforded only basic testing accommodations that for many place them at risk of comparison with their peers without disability’ (p. 75).

Modifications in national testing

While the original intent of national testing was to allow a diagnostic tool for lower and higher achieving students, the fact is the NAPLAN testing program struggles to facilitate testing

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modifications. Davies argued that, under the Disability Standards for Education (discussed in a subsequent section of this chapter), the continuation of a set format may well be subject to litigation. The adoption of online NAPLAN testing from May 2017 was an attempt to provide an opportunity for adjustments to be embedded within the technological interface; yet, these attempts have proven disastrous due to technical glitches and outages to such an extent that it may lead to abolition of the entire NAPLAN testing regime.

REFLECT ON THIS What challenges face teachers as they endeavour to provide meaningful reporting in inclusive classrooms?

Certainly, the NAPLAN website has developed a series of disability adjustment scenarios (see website links) to illustrate ways to apply testing protocols when assessing students with disability, as well as information regarding exemption procedures. At present, only students with severe intellectual disability and recently arrived non-English-speaking-students are exempt. Many more students with disability do not attempt NAPLAN assessments because their parents are encouraged not to send them on assessment days, or their parents make that choice (Commonwealth of Australia, 2014). Without a model of modifying standards, relevant assessment formats or current assessment method adjustments (Cumming et al., 2016; Elliott et al., 2012), there is little value for some students with disability to engage with NAPLAN testing. Schwab (2012, p. 13) would go so far as to say that ‘high stakes tests such as NAPLAN have questionable validity and can in fact be detrimental, particularly where minority and Indigenous communities are concerned’.

4.2 Learning, teaching and curriculum in inclusive education The concept of inclusive education has many meanings and interpretations (see Chapters 1 and 3 for a detailed discussion). Currently, inclusive education focuses on the philosophy that all students, regardless of any disability, have a moral and social-justice right to be educated in a mainstream setting alongside other students and have their learning needs met through reasonable adjustments to the curriculum content, learning and teaching, and assessment. In the case of students with disability, this extends to a legal right to have those needs met (see the Australian Disability Standards for Education section later in this chapter, p. 145).

FIGURE 4.2 Students need to benefit from their placement, not just experience it.

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Therefore, inclusion requires the provision of adaptations and accommodations to the classroom curriculum so that the student benefits from participation in the placement rather than just experiencing it (integration by proximity) (see Figure 4.2). Students with disability do not have to perform at the same level as their peers without disability. Particularly in the case of students with severe disabilities, inclusive education provides many

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challenges to teachers to involve them meaningfully in appropriate class curriculum content. The argument is that students with disability require a curriculum that empowers them rather than one that simply compensates for their inability to cope with the regular curriculum by watering it down or having lower expectations of them. In the case of students who are gifted and talented, this may require extension activities or higher-level cognitive tasks that extend their thinking and problemsolving; while for students with disability, it may require a very focused activity that relates to class content but which uses the cognitive and problem-solving abilities they have. For students from EAL/D backgrounds, it may require a translation of terms and the time and opportunity to read content in English, consider it in their home language, and then produce a response in English.

Universal Design for Learning

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) (see also Chapters 1, 3, 5, 12) is an educational framework, derived from architectural principles that highlight the need to design environments for all, not simply for most. These same principles can be translated to curriculum. A curriculum developed within UDL principles would consider the full range of student abilities and needs at all times – especially in the planning phase, not as an afterthought (Alchin, 2014; Evans, 2015). Both authors focus on the key principles and steps in the UDL model and how these can be applied in enacting Australian Curriculum content in teaching the diversity of students in our classrooms. As a result, the curriculum would become ‘more expansive and flexible’ (Rose, Gravel & Gordon, 2014, p. 475), enabling greater access to all learners. Arthur-Kelly (2017), describes it thus: ‘Instead of crisis management, a support plan for all learners is designed and enacted as a regular and proactive approach to educational intervention’ (p. 2).

The attempted creation of Progressing to Foundation content demonstrated a retrofitting of inclusion, which UDL attempts to avoid. ACARA has used UDL in materials such as The shape of the Australian Curriculum: health and physical education (ACARA, 2012), which identified the need for inclusive practice within its subject and the provision of multiple means of representation. States and territories developing curriculum that aligns with the Australian Curriculum would benefit from utilising UDL principles from the beginning, rather than bolting them on at the end.

An inclusive curriculum for all? The emergence of hybrid curricula

It is only in recent years that most jurisdictions have engaged in the process of directly acknowledging students with disability in their curriculum documentation or curriculum support materials, noting that, interestingly, specific reference to an inclusive curriculum preceded this refinement in many cases. In the following section we examine different jurisdictions’ approaches to curriculum and students with disability. Although a few years ago the states and territories appeared to be moving towards a single curriculum, hybrid curricula have more recently been developed and approved, enabling national links to be made while reflecting specific priorities.

inclusive curriculum One that ensures all students, including those with additional educational needs, are included in the curriculum taught in the classroom.

Catering for disability in the ACT

In the Australian Capital Territory, the current K to Year 10 curriculum framework, Every chance to learn ‘comprises 10 curriculum principles to guide curriculum decision-making in schools and 25 Essential Learning Achievements that identify what is essential for all ACT students to know, understand, value and be able to do’ (ACT Department of Education and Training, 2013). Importantly, the curriculum framework recognises and addresses students with disability, including students who are gifted and talented, those from EAL/D backgrounds and those with special needs (see Evidence-based practice 4.1).

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EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 4.1 Catering for students with disability in the ACT’s Every chance to learn K–10 curriculum Students with disability will have the same access to essential learning opportunities as all students in ACT schools. Within the Essential Learning Achievements (ELAs), the markers of progress describe the typical achievement expected of students by the end of each band of development (at Years 2, 5, 8 and 10). Most students will make steady progress in each ELA as they move from preschool to Year 10. Some students who are particularly talented in an ELA may make exceptional progress and demonstrate achievement of the markers of progress well before the end of the band of development. School curriculum will extend and enrich learning for these students. Students for whom English is a second or subsequent language demonstrate a wide range of English language proficiency and progress through well-documented stages of English language acquisition. While they are learning English, such students need explicit English language support to enable them to achieve the markers of progress in the ELAs to the same levels as their peers for whom English is a first language. Other students, because of disability or learning difficulty, may not be able to demonstrate achievement of the markers of progress in a particular ELA in the same ways as other students. The Australian Government Disability Standards for Education 2005 state that students with disability have the right to participate in educational courses or programs that are designed to develop their skills, knowledge and understanding, including relevant supplementary programs, on the same basis as their non-disabled peers. Teachers can adapt essential content and markers of progress in particular ELAs, when required, as part of the process of developing individual learning plans or special programs for students with special needs. Source: Every chance to learn, Curriculum Framework for ACT schools, https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/artefact/file/download.php?file=176673&view=46411

Northern Territory essential learnings

The Northern Territory also uses ‘essential learnings’, that underpin the Northern Territory Curriculum Framework (NTCF). The NTCF originated in 2002 and was amended in 2009 to work alongside the Australian Curriculum. It attempts to blend key learning area (KLA) and outcomesbased learning within a curriculum model that includes all students (Northern Territory Government, 2013). Their definition of inclusion is based on the concept that a curriculum is inclusive when all that goes on in school reflects and responds to the needs and rights of all students, and places value on students as individuals. The diverse multilingual cohort comprises 40 per cent of the students in the Northern Territory. The Northern Territory Department of Education and Training sees education for multilingual learners as its core business. The key strategy is to provide programs to enable multilingual learners to become proficient in Standard Australian English (SAE) in order to access the content and learning processes in the delivered curriculum. The Northern Territory Government recognises the blend of both academic and vocational skills for students in their Year 12 Certificate of Education and Training (NTCET) which sits alongside the Certificate of Education (NTCE). This broader range of options assists students with disability through the provision of multiple pathways to completion of Year 12.

Victorian Curriculum F–10

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The Victorian Curriculum F–10 (see weblinks) fully replaced AusVELS (Victorian Essential Learning Standards) in 2017 after a two-year familiarisation period. This hybrid curriculum incorporates the Australian Curriculum with a focus on state-wide priorities. Like ACARA’s

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‘Progressing to foundation’ approach, the new Victorian Curriculum F–10 adopts ‘Towards foundation’ levels from A to D. These provide additional content for students not yet at Foundation level. The four new levels attempt to meet the needs of students with disabilities that severely impact their learning, probably the same students who are struggling to access the Australian Curriculum (Department of Education and Training, 2014). Learners at Level A (Beginning to explore), are identified as being pre-intentional communicators. Students can progress through Levels B (Active exploration), C (Intentional participation) and D (Building independence) before reaching Foundation level.

Limitations

One concern of such an approach is that students may spend their schooling constantly moving toward Foundation level, but never quite getting there. A criticism of any curriculum that adopts a heavily developmental approach is that children grow into adults regardless of whether they meet educational benchmarks (Lyons & Cassebohn, 2012). Worrying practices still exist today where secondary schools teach to early education outcomes due to a belief that it is more appropriate for some students with disability. Such a practice is legally dubious, and socially inappropriate. Parents could claim their child is deprived of a legal right to access the Australian Curriculum. The school, in effect, becomes a barrier to this due to their decision to teach to an alternative curriculum which is neither age-appropriate for senior students, nor approved by ACARA for this purpose.

Students could remain in the Victorian Curriculum’s Levels A–D throughout their entire schooling, never reaching the level where curriculum content would integrate meaningfully with that of the Australian Curriculum. Victorian teachers are also not encouraged to use ageappropriate outcomes as a starting point, contrasting with directions from ACARA. They are instead instructed to assess where a student is developmentally. It might therefore be argued that the Victorian Curriculum presents itself as a barrier to the accessing of the Australian Curriculum.

New South Wales policies

The New South Wales Department of Education (DoE) provides one of the most comprehensive sets of statements on students with disability and their education. Specific sets of documents and policies covering disabilities, gifted and talented, LGBTQ, learning difficulties, multicultural, out-of-home care and anti-racism are provided in the teaching and learning, student wellbeing and policy sections of their website (see http://education.nsw.gov.au). In addition, the NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA), is responsible for curriculum in NSW and has a series of support materials for teachers of students with disability. These include the English K–6 support materials for students with special education needs designed to help primary teachers and special educators plan, program, assess, implement and evaluate learning experiences that enable students to demonstrate achievement in English as well as foster effective communication skills (https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/learning-areas/english-year-10/ special-needs-in-english-guide). There are also support documents for primary students with special needs in the curriculum areas of mathematics, personal development, health and physical education (PD/H/PE) and human society and its environments (HSIE). Resources to support students with special needs are also supplied at secondary level, plus principles to guide teachers in making reasonable adjustments to curriculum content and assessments (see https:// educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/diversity-in-learning/special-education/ adjustments). Another important section of NESA’s website under the Diversity in Learning header relates to Aboriginal Education presenting a range of resources to support school communities in developing contextually and culturally appropriate curriculum and community projects (https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/diversity-in-learning/ aboriginal-education).

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Other states and territories

The exemplars provided above, while not meant to be an exhaustive list, reinforce that education authorities across Australia are making significant attempts to create a culture of inclusion and more systematic processes for supporting students with disability; and that catering for disability in our schools is a constantly evolving space. It is important to remember that the states and territories (and education systems) have responsibility for interpretation and application of inclusive practice (by definition, the Commonwealth Disability Discrimination Act 1992 and Disability Standards for Education 2005). Hence, examining the curriculum, planning, implementation and monitoring processes for your particular jurisdiction can enhance your capacity to cater for students with disability. An excellent starting point is AITSL’s spotlight on inclusive education – teaching students with disability (see Weblinks at the end of this chapter).

Providing supplementary curriculum for students with disability A curriculum dilemma can be produced via the conflicting needs of a curriculum developed broadly for all, and one specific enough to focus on individual student needs (Norwich, 2008). Special educators often seek a balance, ensuring they maintain a student’s right to access mandated curriculum, in combination with meaningfully engaging with other curriculum types.

functional curriculum A term applied to curriculum that focuses on life skills or skills to build independence, inclusive of functional academics

One approach is to augment the existing mainstream curriculum approach with a model based on the same existing KLAs, but with different learning outcomes and assessment activities. This has also been referred to as a functional curriculum approach. This model is used in New South Wales where students with disability can undertake a curriculum that incorporates life skills outcomes and content in high school (Stages 4, 5 and 6 correspond to school years 7–8; 9–10 and 11–12 respectively). For example, the Stage 6 life skills program of study provides courses in each learning area designed to operate as part of the transition-planning process for students across Years 11 and 12 and provides them with both a transition process from school to adult life and a formal qualification in the Higher School Certificate in the same format as all other students. The NESA (2017) states: Life Skills courses provide course options for students with disability in Years 11–12 who cannot access the regular course outcomes, particularly students with an intellectual disability. Before deciding that the student should access a Life Skills course, consideration should be given to other ways of helping the student to engage with regular course outcomes. This may include a range of adjustments to teaching, learning and assessment activities. If the adjustments do not provide a student with sufficient access to some or all outcomes in Years 11–12, one or more Life Skills courses might be appropriate. Life Skills courses are not an appropriate option for students performing below their cohort, who could be helped with appropriate adjustments and support. Source: NESA Life Skills (2017), https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/ nesa/k-10/diversity-in-learning/special-education

NESA provides Life Skills Courses for each of the learning areas in Years 11 to 12 or Stage 6 (see weblinks at the end of the chapter). These include case studies of different special needs profiles as well as transition planning. In addition, there are life skills materials and curriculum documents for students in Stages 4 and 5.

A number of Australian schools use programs such as those provided by ASDAN (Award Scheme Development and Accreditation Network) Education (see weblinks) as an alternative curriculum for students unable to access the mainstream curriculum in one or more subjects. Others supplement the Australian Curriculum with an ecological inventory approach that identifies the skills and knowledge students will need in their identified future environments. Teachers then teach the designated content within a negotiated time frame. One example of an

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ecological approach is a transition plan that identifies required skills, such as travel training, and provides opportunities to develop these skills in advance of when students will actually need them.

REFLECT ON THIS What approach to curriculum is used in your jurisdiction? How does it address the inclusion of students with special needs? Are there aspects of other jurisdiction approaches that could provide examples and/or guidance?

Australian Disability Standards for Education (2005)

As discussed in Chapter 2, the Australian Government’s Disability Standards for Education (Commonwealth of Australia, 2005) were designed to ‘eliminate, as far as possible, discrimination against persons on the grounds of disability in the area of education and training’ (part 1.1.3). Within the scope of the Disability Standards legislation, there were five standards specifically addressed. Two of these relate very clearly to the issues discussed in this chapter: • participation

• curriculum development, accreditation and delivery.

An important consideration is that these standards apply to all levels of education from early childhood through to adult education, in all its forms and in all methods of delivery. For schools this means face-to-face teaching in classrooms, as well as other learning spaces (e.g. sports fields), distance learning documentation and teaching through mediums such as the School of the Air and online delivery. In terms of participation compliance, educational settings are required to provide:

• flexibility in methods of participation

• alternative activities to increase participation

• a system of negotiation, agreement and implementation of programs to increase participation • additional support to assist achievement of learning outcomes

• reasonable substitute activities for those who cannot participate

• activities (both non-classroom and extracurricular) designed to include the student.

The focus of these points is that students with special needs must have opportunities to participate in class activities and these opportunities must be negotiated and supported rather than occurring as an afterthought by the teacher. Importantly, the requirements apply to all activities provided by the educational facility, including excursions, camps, and special events such as graduations.

In terms of curriculum development, accreditation and delivery, the Disability Standards require there be ‘reasonable adjustment’ to each of the following: • curriculum

• teaching materials

• assessment and certification

• teaching and learning activities

• delivery modes including non-classroom.

Some of the items under curriculum development, accreditation and delivery are similar to those listed in the participation compliance section, which reflects the overlapping of required provisions in each section of the Disability Standards. It is also important that educational jurisdictions do not just address only one of the Standards.

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What is reasonable adjustment?

Within the Disability Standards ‘reasonable adjustment’ is defined as the minimum adjustment needed to ensure students with disabilities can access the curriculum and its delivery. What is ‘reasonable’ can also change over time and is not a fixed entity. As the student progresses through school, the adjustments required will change either as skills increase or, in the case of students with debilitating disorders, decrease. It must occur within a ‘reasonable time’ depending on the degree of adjustment required. The change/s made must be only the minimum change needed and this may alter over time. Academic standards can be maintained including the requirements and competencies inherent in, or essential for, the award. Finally, the adjustment(s) do not need to exceed disability access building standards. Importantly, there is also a requirement to adjust assessment procedures and methodologies to allow students to demonstrate knowledge, skills and competencies. Again, this requires teachers to examine how students with special needs can access assessments and provide reasonable adjustments to ensure students can attempt tasks free of impediments. The legislation does not require the academic standards to be lowered, only that assessment tasks are accessible in presentation and/or response format.

The Disability Standards in practice

A review of the Disability Standards in 2012 resulted in a number of recommendations including the strengthening of educator awareness of the Standards and particularly the requirement to make ‘reasonable adjustments’ to curriculum content, learning, teaching and assessment. This occurred through the development and rollout of online learning modules via the educational jurisdictions who contributed to the cost of their development; noting not all jurisdictions used this approach, with alternative models being adopted by some. The other area identified in the review as important – the strengthening of legal provisions for prosecution of educators for failing to meet their legal obligations – hasn’t been as strongly responded to. Ultimately, there may need to be sanctions for those not meeting their legal obligations in order to ensure that the legal rights of students are protected. In 2020, the Australian Government Department of Education, Skills and Employment, on behalf of the Minister for Education, undertook a required five-yearly review of the Standards via a consultation process with the express purpose of determining ‘whether the Standards are doing their job and, if not, how they could be improved’ (https://disabilitystandardsreview.education.gov.au/).

Educators’ responsibility

Educators must in the end ensure that students are able to access all curriculum content, not select areas only, such as the general capabilities. The illustrations of personalised learning for primary schools, provided by ACARA, suggest that general capabilities become the focus for students with intellectual disabilities. One example shows a teacher ‘going to the general capabilities’ for content in order to meet one student’s needs. Another shares a whole-school approach of placing students’ individual goals under the general capabilities. Although general capabilities can be highly useful for special educators, there is a danger that teachers might privilege them to such a degree they become a barrier to students accessing the learning area content (Carson & Walker, 2015). Teachers should use the illustrations of personalised learning to supplement their broad knowledge, not as a ‘how to’ guide. ACARA has made it clear to schools that the general capabilities are not to be used as an alternative curriculum.

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Any understanding of the classroom (or any educational space) as a learning and teaching environment in which curriculum is implemented requires an understanding of the dynamics of that space and how all students have an impact on those dynamics.

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Any classroom is an ecosystem. It has certain inputs and outputs but within the room there are four key factors that influence what happens. These are teacher factors, student factors, curriculum and resources factors, and physical setting factors (see Figure 4.3). All interact constantly in the classroom, and all are critical to the learning and teaching outcomes. Previous chapters introduced some of the factors that make up the ecology of the classroom, while others have introduced factors in different ways, such as teacher and student attitudes. The important point in this chapter is that the four factors constantly interact to have an impact on the learning outcomes. Teacher factors

Student factors

Behaviour, Learning and Teaching

Curriculum and resources factors

Physical setting factors

FIGURE 4.3 The classroom ecosystem as a model for learning and teaching in an inclusive classroom

Teacher factors

Teacher factors include their preparedness to teach students with disability as part of their overall instruction, their knowledge of the skills and prior experiences of the students, their attitudes towards having a student or students with disability in their classroom, and their visible acceptance or otherwise of such students as a model for others in the class (Broderick et al., 2005). Teachers with more positive attitudes toward inclusion are more likely to adjust their instruction and curriculum to meet individual needs of students and have a more positive approach to inclusion (Swain et al., 2012). Other factors include the teacher’s knowledge and beliefs about learning and teaching techniques, particularly those that relate to students with disability. Having a range of strategies that can be implemented rather than relying on one or two strategies is essential for teachers. Strategies that include adjustments for students with special needs, extension and enrichment activities for students who are gifted and talented, and alternative representations of content for students from EAL/D backgrounds mark the skill repertoire of the modern teacher.

Student factors

Student factors include the abilities and skills of all students in a class and their attitudes and willingness towards having a student or students with disability as part of their classroom, sharing an inclusive learning environment. Metacognitive skills and collaborative instruction skills are important for successful inclusion. Metacognitive skills provide the ability to monitor performance and reduce the level of teacher assistance required. The ability to work collaboratively is one of the key skills needed by students in a classroom, whether that is through peer tutoring or other cooperative learning activities. Techniques such as peer-mediated intervention and instruction have proven effective for students with disabilities, particularly autism (Mahoney, 2019). Scruggs, Mastropieri and Marshak (2012) found that in a secondary classroom, students with special needs assigned to mixed peer tutoring groups had higher learning outcomes than students in traditional teaching. In this way the social and academic skills of the students are integrated and enhanced. This is discussed further in Chapter 6.

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Curriculum and resources factors

Curriculum and resources factors include the standard curriculum and any alternative curriculum used in the classroom, the selection of content and vocabulary to be taught, and the methods and resources, such as textbooks, online content and other teaching materials used. It also includes whether students with disability will take part in the curriculum content of the class or whether they will be accessing different curriculum tasks. Importantly, there needs to be differentiation of the curriculum materials for students with disability rather than a watering-down of what is presented to the remainder of the class (Westwood, 2013); or, better still as advocated by Arthur-Kelly (2017), inclusive assessment tasks are designed in the curriculum planning phase. Differentiation means that the teacher identifies specific content for the student with disability and learning tasks that will support the student’s learning, but within the content currently taught. Watering down implies finding tasks at the student’s developmental level and teaching these, even if they are well below the level of the class activities. This concept of differentiation is further discussed when the term ‘adjustment’ currently used in the Australian context is explored.

The ACARA document Student diversity and the Australian curriculum identifies possible instructional adjustments including:

• providing alternative representations of teaching and learning materials (for example, using multimedia, illustrated texts, simplified text or captioned videos) • modelling and demonstrating skills, knowledge and cognitive strategies • scaffolding student learning through guided practice and support • identifying key vocabulary for explicit instruction • frequent cumulative review.

Source: ACARA (2013), p. 8

Physical setting factors

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Physical setting factors include the layout of the classroom, whether there need to be adaptations to accommodate the physical needs of particular students (mobility needs such as a wheelchair or walking frame), specialised or adaptive equipment (a sloped desk or cut-out, for example) and/ or an additional desk for a teacher assistant or support staff, and how the implementation of the curriculum will need to be adapted in terms of accommodating all students in the class. ACARA’s Student diversity and the Australian curriculum identifies possible environmental adjustments including: • providing access to alternative equipment and furnishings • scheduling (for example, a sequence of events)

• use of technology and augmentative and alternative communication systems • changes to buildings and classrooms.

Classroom use and inclusion

Source: ACARA (2013), p. 9

The design and alteration of classroom space have an impact on the inclusion of students; placing a student with disability alongside a paraprofessional in a segregated classroom space, for example, is not inclusive. An inclusive space is one where students are encouraged to learn together, not apart. The design of educational facilities and the way space is used, to either separate students or promote belonging, affects teaching practice and behavioural management within lessons. The creation of specialised learning spaces for students with disability can result in demarcation and the duplication of practices of segregation and seclusion (Armstrong, 2007).

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A critical point is that in any room there will always be learning and teaching occurring. The concept of didactic teaching and learning no longer encapsulates all the activities that occur in the modern classroom: teachers teach and learn, students teach and learn. The other key point in the model is that we no longer conceive of learning and teaching as separate from management of student behaviour. As discussed in Chapter 6, where students are actively engaged in learning and teaching, the opportunity for unproductive behaviour is reduced. The corollary is that where learning and teaching is not adjusted to meet the learning needs of students (including, but not solely, students with disability), students become disengaged from the lesson, and unproductive behaviour increases. These factors are further explained throughout this chapter and in Chapter 6.

What does an inclusive approach mean?

There are three distinctive features of an inclusive approach to pedagogy. These are clearly summarised by Black-Hawkins and Florian (2012) in their study of teachers working in inclusive schools in the UK. The three key aspects identified by Black-Hawkins & Florian are explored in Figure 4.4. These three aspects provide a clear summary of a view that is inclusive, and focuses on the whole cohort, not on individuals.

1. Shifting the focus from one that is concerned with only those individuals who have been identified as having ‘additional needs’ to the learning of all children in the community of the classroom

• Creating learning opportunities that are made available for everyone, so that all learners can participate in classroom life • Extending what is ordinarily available for all learners (creating a rich learning community) rather than using teaching and learning strategies that are suitable for most alongside something ‘additional’ or ‘different’ for some who experience difficulties • Focusing on what is to be taught (and how) rather than who is to learn it.

2. Rejecting deterministic beliefs about ability as being fixed and the associated idea that the presence of some will hold back the progress of others

• Believing that all children will make progress, learn and achieve • Focusing teaching and learning on what children can do rather than what they cannot do • Using a variety of grouping strategies to support everyone’s learning rather than relying on ability grouping to separate (‘able’ from ‘less able’ students) • Using formative assessment to support learning.

3. Seeing difficulties in learning as professional challenges for teachers, which encourage the development of new ways of working, rather than as deficits in learners

• Seeking and trying out new ways of working to support the learning of all children • Working with and through other adults that respect the dignity of learners as full members of the community of the classroom • Being committed to continuing professional development as a way of developing more inclusive practices.

FIGURE 4.4 The three distinctive features of an inclusive approach to pedagogy Source: Classroom teachers’ craft knowledge of their inclusive practice’, Black-Hawkins & Florian, Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 2012, Taylor & Francis, reprinted by permission of the publisher (Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com).

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4.3 Needs, expectations and resistance It would be misleading to suggest that inclusion of students with disability in a classroom is a simple matter requiring little preparation and effort. As discussed below, where students have higher additional needs, there are considerable pressures on teachers, parents and students to ensure inclusion is both academically and socially effective. Even if the student has minimal additional requirements, there is a need to ensure learning and teaching engages all students in the class. After looking at the concerns and issues, we will examine ways of overcoming them at the individual teacher, school and system levels.

Teachers

Teachers have expressed concern about the gap between research evidence on inclusion and how to enact this policy in practice (Black-Hawkins & Florian, 2012; Brennan, King & Travers, 2019). Over a long history of research on inclusive education, teachers have reported that students with disability in their classes cause additional stress (Sari, Celikoz & Secer, 2009), particularly when the student has a moderate or severe intellectual disability (Engelbrecht et al., 2003; Konza, 2008) or where students come from other (non-English-speaking) countries (Jenlink, 2012). Engelbrecht et al. (2003), in a study of South African teachers, identified administrative issues such as lack of knowledge of how to adjust unit planning and competence issues such as sustaining an active learning environment, the inability to teach others in the class while focusing on the student with disability, and a lack of appropriate training, both pre-service and in-service. They also reported difficulties with the short attention span of the students and their poor communication skills. In a study of secondary teachers in Queensland, Watson and Bond (2007, p. 7) found that teacher attitudes toward inclusion did not improve as a result of increased knowledge. The data showed there was a sense of: teacher isolation, frustration, and of teachers being overburdened. Teachers wanted experts to develop programs and strategies, and to solve their problems with these students. (Watson & Bond, 2007)

Westwood and Graham (2003) also identified a broad range of issues for teachers in assisting students with disability in classrooms in South Australia and New South Wales. They identified three categories of challenges for those teachers:

1 Key problems encountered: including lack of time, need for constant supervision of the student with disability, balancing demand of the student with disability with those of the whole class, knowing how to program effectively, and access to appropriate personnel and resources; 2 Operating the classroom program: including time to work with and supervise the student with disability, interruptions and disruptions, management of student behaviours, not keeping up with the set work, additional required preparation, others not getting enough attention, and lack of materials and resources; 3 Pre-service and in-service training: including no required separate subject/unit within preservice training in South Australia and only one subject/unit in New South Wales.

Pre-service teachers

Pre-service teacher attitudes and capabilities with regard to inclusive practice has been an ongoing area of investigation, with a recent study by Miesera, DeVries, Jungjohann and Gebhardt (2019) identifying that lower pre-teachers’ concern on the scales of teacher-related factors, attitudes, concerns and efficacy in inclusion was related to attitudes that were more positive than in the

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past, with greater self-efficacy and stronger intentions towards teaching inclusively. Forlin and Chambers (2011) found that increasing knowledge about legislation and policy relating to inclusion and improving levels of confidence in becoming inclusive teachers did not, in itself, address their concerns, or perceived stress, about having students with disability in their classes. Likewise, a study of pre-service teacher education students enrolled in a subject on inclusive education by Woodcock, Hemmings and Kay (2012), found a key to adequate preparation for teaching in inclusive education was to observe classroom teachers implementing inclusive practices rather than hearing about it in lectures. The importance of pre-service teachers having access to models of inclusive practice during placement has also been highlighted (Specht & Metsala, 2018). The challenge for teacher educators is to balance the acquisition of skills for teaching in an inclusive classroom within the, often crowded, teacher education curriculum. In Australia, many teacher education programs historically placed relatively little emphasis on inclusive education, but since 2014 all programs have included content on students with disability as well as on Indigenous education. A focus in teacher education on the broader concept of additional needs may more effectively create the truly inclusive classroom. Regardless of the approach used, four key components need to be embedded regarding inclusion: 1 the educational reasons for inclusion

2 reasonable adjustment in learning and teaching across curriculum areas 3 strategies for specific special needs

4 collaborative approaches to inclusive practices by teams of teachers and school leaders.

Source: Conway (2012), p. 194

Having identified the numerous difficulties teachers face in inclusive classrooms, there is a process of change that occurs: 1 the processes leading up to and including the decision to change

2 the first experiences of attempting to put the ideas into practice (this can continue for several years) 3 determining whether the change continues or disappears.

Importantly, change is almost always accompanied by anxiety. Where the change is mandated, the range of emotions exhibited by staff can range from resistance to change, fear of change, openness to implementing change with remnant internal uncertainty, willingness and desire to implement change. In the case of inclusion of students with disability, the full range of teacher responses exists in many schools.

Equity and excellence

Teachers are under intense pressure from two major and seemingly contradictory pushes from education systems: equity and excellence (Nehring et al., 2019; Pearce & Forlin, 2005). Excellence demands greater coverage of curriculum content with higher order thinking and exam techniques, and increasingly higher student performance on national testing measures. Equity requires teaching that ensures student mastery of learning, which may occur at differing paces for different students, and is increasingly related to a future-focused set of skills. To quote a secondary teacher in the Watson and Bond study (2007, p. 7): ‘We talk the talk, but we don’t walk the walk’. This reflects the professed commitment to inclusion, but the need to ensure that no student’s performance is diminished at all as a result of the inclusion of students with disability. It also reflects the contradictions in the Melbourne declaration on educational goals for young Australians (MCEETYA, 2008) in which there is a strong focus on the preparation for the future, with little reference to students who may not be able to achieve those goals. Of note, is articulation in the later Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education Declaration (DOE, 2019) of the need to promote approaches to personalised learning, inclusive of effective support, to allow students the opportunity to reach their potential.

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Parents

Many parents who come to the inclusive classroom in primary school have already experienced mainstream education for their child in early childhood settings, where there has historically been a much stronger commitment to inclusive practices (see Chapter 10). Families come to primary school with great hopes that inclusion will work for their child but can quickly become concerned at the lack of adjustment to learning and teaching in mainstream school settings and the resistance of some administrators to enrolment of their child. The Australian Disability Standards for Education (2005) legislation has clear guidelines on how the enrolment process is handled. Students with disability have the same right to enrol as other students. Despite this, some principals sadly still attempt to actively encourage parents to enrol students in another school. Parental expectations of continued mainstreaming, particularly at the secondary level, are often not realised when modifications and adjustments are not made to the curriculum or teaching strategies, and their child slips further behind others in the class. Engagement of parents around issues of social inclusion and behaviour issues is also critical but often ignored (see Chapter 6). As a result, parents may choose more restrictive settings as their child grows older, having met strong resistance to inclusion by some educators (Reupert et al., 2015). One of the common themes from parents in the Reupert et al. study was that ‘flexibility around timetabling, curriculum and staffing’ (p. 89) was one of the key issues that worked in inclusive settings. This was particularly important in secondary schools. Gail (see Narrative 4.1) raises many issues, interestingly as both a parent and as an educator.

NARRATIVE 4.1 A parent’s view of teaching a child with disability in a regular school Gail is the parent of a child with Down syndrome who now attends a special class in a regular high school. Prior to placement in a special unit in primary and high school, he attended an early childhood class in a regular school. Gail is also a teacher and currently the principal of a school. As part of her advice to regular and special education teachers, based on her experiences as a parent, Gail suggests the following: • Concentrate on what our children can do, not what they can’t. If you grade them against the ‘norm’ they may always receive an E grade (on the national A to E ranking model). It is hard to look forward to a report card that emphasises what your child can’t do. • Don’t stereotype children with disabilities – not all children with Down syndrome are ‘loving’ or musical. Certainly, some children with Down syndrome have some things in common, but they are just as individual as anybody else. • Don’t overlook the possibility of talents (even in children with an intellectual disability). Our son has an amazing sense of humour, knows more about rugby league than most people I know, has an accurate throw, and is a born mimic. • Don’t assume that our children respond best to a ‘behaviourist’ or ‘direct instruction’ approach. This seems to be the favourite teaching method promoted in special education training. Our children are not animals to be taught to perform on demand. • Accept that children with disability go through the same stages as other children do. We went through so much unnecessary heartache for two years because teachers were unwilling to accept that adolescents with an intellectual disability have the same difficult times as other adolescents. Things would have been much easier if we had had the support and understanding of the school. • Have reasonable expectations! Be consistent! Be fair!

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The story of Gail’s son and his difficulties with learning and teaching demands, seen from the eyes of a parent who is also an educator, provides an insight into the frustrations that parents and teachers have in gaining appropriate educational access for their children. The final word on learning and teaching is best said in Gail’s words: ‘Realise that parents of children with disability may be overly vocal in defence of their children. This is not because they are more protective, but more because their children are less likely to have teachers or adults who are willing to champion their cause.’

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. If you were a class teacher of a child with an additional special need, what key learning and teaching changes would you make as a result of the advice Gail has given? How would this affect the individual education plan (IEP) you have developed for him/her and which Gail has the right to see and be engaged in developing? 2. At the upcoming parent–teacher meeting with Gail, how would you handle the issues if she raised them? Remember that under the Disability Standards for Education (2005), Gail, as the advocate for her child, has the same legal rights as her son. Also reflect on the AITSL Graduate Standards on communication with parents.

Students

Students with disability have reported that they can feel isolated, disenchanted and alienated from their school (Hall et al., 2020; Watson, 2007). They can also identify positive experiences in school which are often related to specific teachers who have had a positive impact. Watson’s interviews with students identified the importance of: • establishing trust

• developing respect and empathy for students

• providing appropriate pedagogy, support, curricula and classroom structure

• creating a nurturing school community, so students with disability are happy to attend and learn • developing collaborative practices to allow holistic profiles of students to be created.

Wellbeing and inclusion

In a study of students with additional needs in Irish primary schools, McCoy and Banks (2012) found that students with special needs enjoyed school less than those without special needs. Students with multiple disabilities, children with emotional and behaviour disorders, and those with learning disabilities were much more likely to not like school compared to other students with physical, visual, hearing and speech difficulties. Boys were also less likely to enjoy school than girls. The study also highlighted the difficulties students with disability had in fitting into a strong academically focused curriculum model. The key outcome of the research was that unless there is a focus on social integration rather than fitting into an academic curriculum, students with disability are unlikely to see inclusive classrooms as successful. Similarly, Mission Australia’s 2019 Youth Disability Report found that young people with disability reported lower

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levels of school satisfaction than respondents without disability and were only half as likely to complete their senior year of schooling (Hall et al., 2020).

An issue, particularly for students, is the fear of being seen as different. While inclusion suggests support should occur in the classroom, students with disability may prefer to be supported away from the regular class but do not want any label to accompany them (Kauffman & Badar, 2020; Pearce & Forlin, 2005).

This does not mean that students will receive more attention or a ‘better education’ in a segregated special setting. Wehmeyer et al. (2003) found that students with an intellectual disability in inclusive settings were working on tasks related to a curriculum standard for 90 per cent of the time compared with 50 per cent for students in a special class. Students in special classes worked more on specific individual education plan (IEP) tasks rather than general curriculum tasks, with limited exposure to the broader curriculum. Wehmeyer et al. (2003) argued that by having a more open curriculum with open-ended standards, students with an intellectual disability can have greater access to the curriculum and hence to inclusive settings.

The perceptions of mainstream students

Multiple studies have identified that students with disability struggle with friendships, peer interaction and acceptance (Mamas et al., 2019; Petry, 2018; Schwab, 2017), while other research has highlighted that mainstream peers hold negative views of fellow students with disability (Siperstein et al., 2007). Findings of the latter study show that despite efforts from teachers and schools, changes in mainstream student perceptions take ‘effort, creativity and commitment’ (Siperstein et al., 2007, p. 453), with Petry (2018) advocating disability awareness programs and Schwab (2017) recommending teachers facilitate authentic engagement opportunities in activity design.

An issue not often addressed specifically is the need to be more sensitive to the needs of girls with learning difficulties as they have more maladaptive attribution patterns than boys (Young, 2005), although this is a different outcome from that found in the McCoy and Banks (2012) study. Hence, there is a need to provide girls with gender-specific accommodations and graded adaptations. This is important as students who perceive themselves as capable are more willing to work on a task.

Individual needs and instruction

One of the key issues is the effect of specific types of disability on learning activities. The Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) in the USA (see weblinks at the end of the chapter) provides a clear example of how specific students will respond differently to the same materials and methods. There is a need to provide students who have disability with the skills to be able to work within the inclusive classroom, including the metacognitive skills as well as the attributional skills that will enhance their involvement. Moreover, Arthur-Kelly and Foreman (2020) argue that implementation of the principles of universal design for learning (UDL) allows a focus on ‘learning needs through the lens of curriculum, instruction, and contextual supports’ (p. 1) through which individual student learning can be maximised.

Differences in the instructional levels in the classroom

Various tiered instruction structures exist with the purpose of catering for individual need, including response to instruction or intervention (RTI) and iterations of structures commonly grouped as multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS) (Pullen & Kennedy, 2018). The authors suggest that these approaches, efficaciously implemented, facilitate students with disability receiving appropriate, evidence-based instruction.

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Discrepancies exist between the three instructional levels that exist in the classroom: the material instructional level, the teacher instructional level and the student instructional level. Figure 4.5 shows the relationship between the three levels in a Year 8 subject classroom, assuming that the students have been streamed and the class is in the lowest stream. Year 10

Material instructional level

Year 8

Grade level

Year 7

Teacher instructional level

Year 4

Student instructional level

instructional levels Levels in a classroom based on the complexity of syllabus content and vocabulary used at each of the levels: material instructional level, teacher instructional level and student instructional level

Gap between teacher and student instructional levels Gap between material and student instructional levels FIGURE 4.5 Instructional levels in a hypothetical Year 8 classroom

The material instructional level

The material instructional level is determined by the readability level of the written materials (e.g. textbook, web content). Textbooks are written to sell as broadly as possible and to meet the syllabus requirements. Most are not written for students with learning difficulties and few are specifically written for students with disability. Because adults write them, they frequently have a readability level above their targeted grade level. Even some texts written for modified level courses have readability levels well above the ability levels of their target audience. In the hypothetical class in Figure 4.5, the written material has been identified as being at a Year 10 level of readability, two years above the year level.

The teacher instructional level

The teacher instructional level is the level at which teachers communicate with students. For secondary school teachers, the youngest grade level they will normally have taught is Year 7 in most states and territories. Teachers use a certain level of sentence complexity and a vocabulary level, based on their detailed knowledge of the curriculum topic. Hence, teachers could be said to have an instructional level in their oral presentation in class.

The student instructional level

The student instructional level is the level at which the students are operating. Students have two instructional levels: one is the level at which they comprehend the spoken word from the teacher and the other is the comprehension level of the written materials. Because the spoken

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word often contains explanations and restatements and does not require reading skills, it is easier for students to understand. In the example in Figure 4.4, the student instructional level is shown at a Year 4 level, which is roughly equivalent to a functional reading level. In reality, a classroom will contain students operating at a wide range of instructional levels, particularly in mixedability classes. You can confirm this by looking at your school’s NAPLAN scores or Progressive Achievement Test for Reading (PAT-R).

Instructional levels in the classroom

The problem for the teacher and students in Figure 4.5 is that the discrepancy between the student instructional level and the material instructional level is six grades, and between the teacher instructional level and the student instructional level is three grades. This means that the students can understand neither the written material nor the teacher, and effective communication of curriculum content cannot be achieved.

What can be done to address the problem? Clearly it is not instantly possible to increase the instructional level of the students, although teaching of cognitive and metacognitive skills and work-related behaviours may achieve some increases. Teacher instructional levels can be reduced by using language structures students understand, by reducing the use of technical vocabulary where it is unnecessary, as well as learning experiences other than ‘chalk and talk’ or reading written material in silence. The prime area for attention, however, is in the area of reducing the complexity and difficulty of written materials.

Difficulties and strategies associated with textbooks

As discussed earlier, there is reliance, particularly in secondary schools, on textbooks to provide content information, student activities and assessment tasks (Sikorova, 2011; Stahl, 2005). Many teacher editions of popular textbooks provide generic suggestions about additional needs in general and rarely in relation to any specific sections of the textbook. Therefore, teachers are left to make any adaptations themselves. Paula Kluth provides 10 tips for teachers in adapting textbooks for inclusive classrooms via her website (see Weblinks at the end of this chapter). Dyck and Pemberton (2002) suggest five options for adjusting textbooks for use in inclusive classrooms: bypass reading, decrease reading, support reading, organise reading and guide reading: 1 Bypass reading involves the student listening to an audio version of the text with the advantage that understanding is not hampered by reading difficulties. An audio version of the text could be obtained or the reading could be completed by another student or through adaptive technology. 2 Decrease reading includes rewriting sections of text, altering the vocabulary and using only portions of the text.

3 Support reading requires the addition of material to the text to assist understanding, such as providing definitions of key terms in the margins, and adding cues and signals to the text, such as underlining or highlighting key terms.

4 Organise reading involves the use of graphic organisers such as hierarchical trees, compare and contrast charts and concept maps. 5 Guide reading involves the use of summaries and structured notes instead of commercial study guides and graphic organisers. Importantly, Dyck and Pemberton urge that when textbooks are adapted for struggling students, teachers should also adapt assessment. Under the Disability Standards for Education (2005), teachers in Australia are expected to make adjustments to assessment. We will return to this issue later in the chapter.

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Participation by all students in the regular curriculum through levels of adjustment

Under the current funding provisions following from both the Gonski Review of Education and the model for systematic collection of data on students with disability, four levels of adjustment have been identified for students with disability in relation to curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment. While these are designed specifically for students with disability, many of the strategies are applicable to students with EAL/D and other students who struggle in mainstream classrooms, including those with learning difficulties.

Learning difficulties

In the following section, the levels of adjustment are set out for students with disability and this is followed by discussion of adjustment for students who are gifted and talented and those with EAL/D.

Adjustments for students with disability are based on the Disability Standards for Education and are set out in supporting documents: • An ‘adjustment’ is a measure or action taken to assist a student with disability to participate in education and training on the same basis as other students.

• An ‘adjustment’ is reasonable if it achieves this purpose while taking into account the student’s learning needs and balancing the interests of all parties affected, including those of the student with disability, the school, the staff and other students. Source: ACARA (2013)

Four levels of adjustment

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There are four levels of adjustment identified for students with disability, and funding is designed to be provided to support students who satisfy one of the four categories of special need and the level of support needed. The four levels of adjustment are: • support provided within quality differentiated teaching practice • supplementary adjustment • substantial adjustment • extensive adjustment.

It is important to remember that levels of adjustment may vary for each student across educational settings, ages and subjects. The Standing Council on School Education and Early Childhood defines the levels of adjustment as follows: Support provided within quality differentiated teaching practice: Quality differentiated teaching practice is currently meeting the educational needs of the student with a disability. Progress should be monitored to ensure that this continues to be the case. Supplementary adjustments: Supplementary adjustments are provided when there is an assessed need at specific times to complement the strategies and resources already available (for all students) within the school. These adjustments are designed to address the nature and impact of the student’s disability, and any associated barriers to their learning, physical, communication or participatory needs. Substantial adjustments: Substantial adjustments are provided to address the specific nature and significant impact of the student’s disability. These adjustments are designed to address the more significant barriers to their engagement, learning, participation and achievement.

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Extensive adjustments: Extensive adjustments are provided when essential specific measures are required at all times to address the individual nature and acute impact of the student’s disability and the associated barriers to their learning and participation. These adjustments are highly individualised, comprehensive and ongoing. Source: Nationally Consistent Collection of Data: School Students with Disability (2014). Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence (CC BY 4.0)

curriculum overlapping Curriculum overlapping involves overlaying individual student instructional goals on the inclusive curriculum focus. For example, within an art lesson focused on form and technique, one student’s individual goal may be communication and interaction.

Another term that has been used for extensive adjustment is curriculum overlapping where the student participates in the mainstream lesson but for whom the learning goal may be different.

Additional adjustments

The adjustments above relate to students with disabilities. ACARA also provides advice on adjustments for students who are gifted and talented and for those from EAL/D backgrounds, although in these cases there is no legal requirement, as applies to students with disability.

Gifted and talented students

In the case of students who are gifted and talented, ACARA recommends teachers consider that: • gifted and talented students are not a homogeneous group and may require different adjustments according to their individual learning needs, interests, strengths, and goals • gifted and talented students may also have disability and/or English as an additional language or dialect

• gifted and talented students requiring adjustment to one aspect of their learning may not require the same, or any, adjustment to another • before making an adjustment, the student and parent must be consulted • adjustments must be reviewed regularly and changed where necessary.

EAL/D students

Source: ACARA (2013)

Adjustments for students for whom English is an additional language or dialect (EAL/D) require consideration that:

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• EAL/D students are not a homogeneous group and may require different adjustments according to their individual learning needs, interests, strengths and goals • EAL/D students may also be gifted and talented and/or have disability

• EAL/D students requiring adjustment to one aspect of their learning may not require the same, or any, adjustment to another • before making an adjustment, the student and parent must be consulted

• where available teachers should also use the expertise of specialist EAL/D teachers who can draw on their own resources in collaborative planning • adjustments must be reviewed regularly and changed where necessary.

Source: ACARA (2013), p. 21

In the following sections we will examine how adjustment can be made to learning and teaching at both primary and secondary levels for students with disability, using the framework of the levels of adjustment discussed earlier.

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4.4 Students with low additional education support needs in the classroom Some students with low additional support needs may operate using a curriculum adjustment plan (CAP) rather than an IEP (see later section in this chapter, and Chapter 7). In this case, the support teacher or other specialist teacher would work with the class teacher(s) to ensure that the specific needs of the student are addressed using the CAP as a reminder. An example of a CAP developed for schools is shown in Figure 4.6. SAMPLE CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT PLAN (CAP) FORMAT STUDENT: TEACHER: SUBJECT: Amount to be completed

Time

Level of support

• Reduce no. of questions/amount to learn. • Reduce length of oral presentation. • Reduce length of written response/ reading. • Reduce homework/assessment/ subjects.

• Allow extra time to complete task/respond. • Individualise timeline to complete task. • Allow extra time to use disability-specific equipment.

• Change the amount of personal assistance. • Assign peer buddies/tutors & select role models. • Change support groupings in class e.g. small/larger group activities, paired activities.

Teacher input

Student output

Skill level

• • • •

• Adapt how learner responds to instruction. • Instead of written response allow verbal. • Write dot points instead of paragraphs. • Use of communication book/device. • Focus on hands-on learning. • Use note-taker/scribe. • Use of cloze, matching activities, short answer, multiple choice, portfolio, technology/computersupported response. • Student focuses on own goal within class activity e.g. communication, self-care, health issues, use of Braille.

• Allow use of calculator, number line etc. • Student responds using assistive technology/computer software. • Simplify task directions – use a step-by-step guide. • Break down skill/task. • Use of visual glossaries. • Provide support staff/peer to help student cope with each step of skill. • Modify or individualise task to match skill level. • Set up differentiated activities. • Assess different skill, e.g. ignore spelling and focus on communication of ideas.

Learning environment

Materials/Resources

Health/Safety/Self-care

• Sit student at front of class. • Provide separate space in classroom for pre-teaching vocabulary, providing space for tutorials. • Evaluate and plan for new environments e.g. camps. • Support dissemination of information when in non-class environments, e.g. one-on-one explanation of playground/yard information. • Adjust environment to support needs arising from disability, e.g. allow access for wheelchair.

• OHT and notes provided for student. • Use of computer, videos, tapes etc. • Use of disability-specific materials e.g. audio format, Braille, Dream Voice app. • Taped texts, simple notes, hands-on materials, simplified timetables etc. • Vary arrangement on page, size of writing, visuals, point form. • Modification or individualisation of worksheets/resources/assessment.

• Monitor/assist with use of communication device, personal amplification device, specialised equipment, medication, menstruation etc. • Liaise with team stakeholders on regular basis to increase participation, check on health/safety/self-care issues/to communicate needs and feelings. • Monitor lunch time activities to support interaction, safety and direct teaching of skills. • Program specific instruction on self-care/anger/depression management.

• • • • •

Use visual aids/pictorial directions. Provide concrete examples. Provide hands-on activities. Plan for generalisations/links to real-life learning. Repeat/model/highlight language and important points. Provide cues and prompts. Simplify language/pre-teach vocabulary. Specialist teacher/agency input. Provide training and assistance to help student use specialised equipment. Direct teach skills e.g. problem-solving/social skills.

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SAMPLE CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT PLAN (CAP) FORMAT (CONTINUED) Curriculum • Students work on similar outcomes but simpler concepts. • Students work on individualised outcomes while in class, e.g. student focuses on listening and social skills in SOSE. • Teach individualised skills in unit of work, e.g. social skills, symbol reading. • Plan activities to target student need, e.g. group work for communication.

• Relate outcomes to functional skills. • Adjust curriculum to cater for programming required outside of classroom, e.g. community access, supported work experience. • Consistently monitor data to support programming feedback. • Implement additional support plan such as Behaviour Analysis, Sensory Integration Plan to complement programming and IEP.

Students on a Curriculum Adjustment Plan (CAP) are being offered accommodations/adjustments to be able to achieve/participate at grade level or better. Source: Strathalbyn Christian College, Geraldton

FIGURE 4.6 Sample Curriculum Adjustment Plan (CAP) format

A key issue is that while teachers are able to adapt materials for accessibility (large books, spoken books), the issues of adjusting for instruction are much more complex (Bryant, Bryant & Smith, 2019; Stahl, 2005). Several methods to adapt the regular curriculum have been suggested, including ways in which to restructure curriculum content, ways to enhance presentation of the curriculum topics, and additional skills training that will assist curriculum content understanding. The methods are summarised in Table 4.1. In the following sections a number of these approaches are discussed in detail, and examples are given of how they can be developed. Another excellent resource is the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) in the USA. CAST specialises in the study of learner variability from several perspectives including pedagogical, cultural and neuro-scientific aspects (Alchin, 2014). The principles of universal design for learning (UDL) are clearly at work here, which Arthur-Kelly and Foreman (2020), contrasting with a traditional deficit model, ask the question: ‘What is needed now to ensure learners attain and maintain relevant learning goals?’ (p. 1). CAST’s website (see weblinks at the end of the chapter) provides a wide range of ideas on curriculum topics to ensure all students are included in the lesson. TABLE 4.1 Methods of adjusting curriculum content and presentation

Focus

Methods

Curriculum content

• Streamline the sequence of content. • Use a different curriculum format. • Embed a skill in an activity. • Modify the rate and presentation of the curriculum. • Make sure that the tasks are developmentally appropriate and not beyond the ability of the student.

Presentation methods

• Require limited but specific participation by student with disability. • Use alternative materials. • Use learning centres/workstations. • Use the same activity but targeting different skills. • Make the presentation of content relevant to the experiences of the learner.

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Focus

Methods

Presentation methods (cont.)

• Use memory assistance such as charts and checklists where memory of a task is not essential. • Allow the use of aids such as calculators. • Use project work, preferably through cooperative learning activities. • Where possible, use explicit direct teaching of both academic and cognitive skills. • Use individualised learning kits. • Use discovery learning to encourage mental effort, group work, student language and transfer (but be careful not to make activities too unstructured as students with disability may become lost in the process). • Allow time for students to think through the question and then respond. • Involve language skills in lessons and encourage students to use student language. • De-emphasise the use of textbooks. • Modify the assessment requirements to be consistent with teaching approaches. • Provide structure and be explicit in all assignments. • Highlight the critical features of the content being presented. • Make teaching materials clear, well-spaced and unambiguous, and print in a readable font.

Additional skills training to assist curriculum content understanding

• Teach cognitive strategies to encourage self-monitoring, problem-solving and increased self-reliance. • Teach structures such as essay-writing skills. • Teach test-taking skills. • Teach general study skills. • Teach strategic learning or process skills that focus on thinking about, completing and evaluating curriculum tasks.

Supplementary adjustment

The aim of adjusting text is to increase student understanding of the content. One way of achieving this is through improving the readability of the text by rewriting it at a level that can be comprehended by students. This involves adjusting both the sentence structure and the vocabulary, the two main components in readability. Evidence-based practice 4.2, a primarylevel example, and Evidence-based practice 4.3, a secondary-level example, demonstrate how altering sentence structure and vocabulary can increase the opportunity for access to the curriculum content, both for students with disability as well as those from EAL/D backgrounds. The two versions of the text shown in Evidence-based practice 4.3 contain the same information. While students working at a Year 6 level could read the original version with ease, the adapted version could be read by students working at a Year 3 level.

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EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 4.2 Adjustment to text – primary Original version Many thousands of years ago, it seemed that civilisation was possible only in river valleys. Such valleys were flooded once a year. People learned to use the floods for irrigation by digging canals or catchment basins. Irrigation made it possible to produce surplus food. With a surplus of food, came the division of labour and the growth of cities. As people settled down, they developed new areas of knowledge and new forms of government. Each early society that developed a civilisation went through this order of change. Could civilisation develop in other environments? We know that people had been growing crops long before they found out about irrigation.

Adapted version Many thousands of years ago, it seemed that people could live only in river valleys. Each year the valleys were covered with water when it rained a lot. People learned to use the water in a new way. They would dig holes in the ground to catch the water. They saved the water. Later, the water helped to grow more food. They had more food than they needed. With more food they could give people different kinds of work. The cities began to grow. People stopped moving. They stayed in the one place for a long time. They made new kinds of government. Each of the early people changed in this way. Could people live in other places? We know people had been farming long before they found out about catching and saving water. Feature

Original version

Adapted version

Number of sentences

9

15

Average length of sentences

12 words

9 words

Number of words in total

107

133

Words not commonly known at a Year 5 level

22

3

At the secondary level, it is often more difficult than simply rewriting the text’s vocabulary. In order to increase the readability, decisions may also need to be made on reducing the amount of content to be included. Evidence-based practice 4.3 shows both the original and adapted versions of a passage from a secondary textbook. The rewritten text has more, and shorter, sentences to reduce the amount of information within each sentence. This has the effect of reducing the complexity of the sentences and increasing the readability level. The result is that the difficulty of the passage is lowered. The average sentence length of the adapted version is 12.3 words, compared with the original version’s 26 words. The original text contained one short and two long sentences (more than 30 words), while the adapted text contains four short and no long sentences.

The vocabulary has been altered to remove difficult words that reduce meaning, without removing the specific content vocabulary needed. For example, ‘the number of people who have died’ has replaced ‘mortality’. The use of terms such as ‘eighteenth century’ has been replaced by ‘1700s’. Some terms such as ‘Industrial Revolution’ have been retained as the section of text is about the effects of the Industrial Revolution. As a result of adjusting the vocabulary, the level of difficulty of the vocabulary has been reduced.

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EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 4.3 Adjustment to text – secondary Original version As mortality has fallen over the last century so have birth rates, although birth rates have lagged behind mortality decreases. In pre-industrial societies, that is, those of the years before the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century, it was common for death and birth rates to be approximately even, so any increase in population occurred slowly. Industrial societies, however, show a decline in both birth and death rates. Social scientists have studied the reason for this, but while declining death rates can be attributed to improvements in medical science and hygiene, for example, the reasons for declining birth rates are not as clear-cut.

Adapted version The number of people who have died in the past 100 years has dropped. So has the number of people who have been born. Before the Industrial Revolution in the 1700s, the number of people who died was the same as the number of people who were born. Scientists have studied this. They found that fewer people are dying because hygiene has improved. They are not as sure why fewer people are being born. Feature

Original version

Adapted version

Number of sentences

4

6

Average length of sentences

26.0 words

12.3 words

Number of short sentences

1

4

Number of long sentences

2

0

Number of words

104

74

Syllables per word

1.71 (Vocabulary may be too advanced for most readers)

1.32 (Most readers could understand the vocabulary, based on the number of syllables per word)

Flesch Readability Score

36 (Difficult for most readers)

83 (Easy for most readers)

The value of the alternative version is that it allows students who are operating at a younger developmental level to participate in the lesson. In each case, the readability level has been lowered by reducing sentence complexity (more short sentences) and the substitution of alternative vocabulary that would be known by a greater number of students.

Making decisions on what to include in adjusted written material

Adjusting material is based on two key components – content and vocabulary – which are each considered in representing the final material at a relevant instructional level.

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Content

Must know

Some teachers would argue that the adapted version has less information than the original version, and students will miss out on the amount of content they need to learn the task. However, while it is true that the amount of content has been reduced, the overall understanding by students will increase because they are focused on the essential content and not distracted by additional, less vital information. This can be illustrated by the concept of a target (see Figure 4.7).

Knowledge in a specific topic can be divided into at least three categories – must know, should know, could Should know know – and in the case of gifted and talented students – perhaps know. The must know is the information essential to that topic, without which the student could Could know not be said to have mastered the key knowledge. While should know and could know material is also important for students, these categories provide additional knowledge FIGURE 4.7 Content decisions that may confuse the student working at an earlier developmental level. Where the concern of the teacher is that all students work on the same syllabus topic at the same time, the concept of levels of content provides a method of catering for the variety of student performance levels in the class. Another way to conceive what to teach is to consider a pyramid such as Bissaker’s (2010) triangle which illustrates the concept of what is taught to all students, most students and some students. In the example, students within the class are taught to achieve at one of three levels in terms of content (see Figure 4.8).

Vocabulary

In the same way as content needs to be categorised, vocabulary needs to be assigned to one of three categories: essential, alter, or delete. In Figure 4.9, some vocabulary from the content in Evidence-based practice 4.3 has been used to demonstrate the three categories. Another example of altered vocabulary in geography would be to replace the term ‘precipitation’ with ‘rain’, although technically rain is only one form of precipitation. Where the text uses vocabulary that students already have in their repertoire, it allows additional time to concentrate on the content.

It is important to realise that essential vocabulary does need to remain, particularly technical, subject-specific vocabulary, such as the names of pieces of equipment. However, there is a tendency for specialist teachers to believe that all terminology in their subject is vital, when many terms can be expressed in student language without reducing understanding. An important point to remember about adjusting vocabulary in a text is that adaptation also needs to occur in teaching materials and in teachers’ oral language. If essential vocabulary exists, it should be introduced at the time it is needed and through deliberate practice of the concept in the teaching materials, not through a discrete spelling list given in isolation. Evidence-based practice 4.4 shows what an adjusted activity would look like for a student in a history class. In this case, the mainstream students are provided with a one-page set of instructions. The adjusted notes for a student with disability provide a step-by-step set of instructions with visual cues. In this way, the must know curriculum content and key vocabulary are addressed, but in a way that this student can access. We will follow this student’s activities

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Instructional practice

Student

Context

What some students will learn

Some students will give correct change from $5

What most but not all students will learn

Most students will be able to add different coin denominations together

Teacher

All students will identify the different coins by naming their value and sorting them into correct groups

What all students will learn

Topic FIGURE 4.8 Content triangle

Essential Industrial Revolution

Alter Original

Replacement

Century

100 years

Delete Medical science

FIGURE 4.9 Adjusting vocabulary

throughout this chapter as he uses technology to attempt tasks as well as the adjustments made to his assessment tasks. Another important strategy to consider for students with additional educational needs is to relate curriculum activities to their own experiences. This is particularly important for subjects such as history, where events are outside any experiences the students have had. For example, a way to overcome this on a history task on life in medieval times is to relate the medieval daily eating patterns to students’ own experiences, through mapping of their own eating patterns below those of the medieval nobleman and serf.

Learning strategy instruction

As well as making adaptations to teaching materials, there is a need for teachers to look at the way instruction is provided. Excellent online resources exist to support evidence-based instructional practices, such as the Institute of Educational Science’s What Works Clearing House who describes its mission as reviewing ‘existing research on different programs, products, practices, and policies in education … to provide educators with the information they need to make evidence-based decisions’ (https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/). AFIRM (Autism Focused

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Intervention Resources and Modules) provides modules designed to scaffold the process of planning for, using and monitoring individual plans for learners with autism (https://afirm.fpg. unc.edu/afirm-modules). (See Weblinks at the end of the chapter for both these sites.)

One of the key areas is learning strategy instruction, or as Lenz (2006, p. 262) states, teaching students to ‘think and act in ways to consciously learn and perform’. Learning strategy instruction uses cognitive and metacognitive skills to teach the required thinking (cognitive) and thinking about thinking (metacognitive) skills. Both are critical to understanding process rather than just content. Lenz provides eight characteristics of effective learning strategy instruction in classrooms that will support the diversity of learners: 1 Instruction is provided to all students, with more explicit, intensive instruction given to students who are having difficulty with learning strategies. 2 Strategy content includes teaching students how to use cognitive (thinking) and metacognitive (how to think about thinking) processes. 3 Strategies contain elements that ensure generalisation.

4 In both instruction and practice, students can see how using these strategies creates success. 5 Learning strategy instruction is guided by ongoing assessment and feedback. 6 Strategies are taught and used in all subject areas.

7 Teachers have different expectations regarding content mastery based on the content’s importance for helping students meet standards, and students are mastering critical content. 8 The school supports and promotes widespread use of instruction in learning strategies.

Source: Lenz (2006), p. 262

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 4.4 Original and adjusted history activity on drawing a timeline Original Student task: • You are to pay particular attention to the guidelines below on how to construct a timeline. • The following website will also assist you with your research https://www.bbc.co.uk/ bitesize/topics/ztyr9j6/articles/zjcxwty. However, do not limit yourself to just one website. • Please ensure that you can answer the following questions after you have completed your timeline construction. 1 When is the time of the Vikings said to have begun and ended? 2 What were some of the problems or major crises the Vikings encountered? 3 What were some of the successes or highlights for the Vikings? 4 Using the information from Questions 2 and 3 consider the influence of the Vikings. Did they always have considerable influence over the European mainland? Creating a timeline checklist £ Check that you have graph paper, a sharp pencil and an eraser. £ Draw a line in the middle and across the width of your graph paper and place arrows on both ends. £ Work out the scale. • Find the first and the last date you want to show on your timeline. • Subtract the first date from the last date. This gives you the total time span.

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• Measure the length of your line, in centimetres. • Divide the time span by the length of your line. Round this figure up to the nearest whole number. This gives you the scale (i.e. it tells you the time intervals, or the number of years represented by 1 cm on your timeline). £ Lightly mark the time intervals on your line. These can be rubbed out later. £M  ark in the dates you wish to include on one side of your timeline and write a brief description of the event on the other side (use key words not sentences). Make sure your writing is neat and legible. £ Once completed, think up a title for your timeline and put it across the top. A title should • describe the timeline (i.e. it should refer to the events and the time span) • be placed at the top of the page • be big and bold so that it stands out.

Adjusted How to create a timeline: my check list Graph paper Sharp pencil Eraser Ruler Calculator Draw a line in the middle and across the width of your graph paper and arrows on both ends.

Work out the scale by finding the first and last date you want to show on your time line. First date ____________________________________________________________________________ Last date ____________________________________________________________________________ Subtract the first date from the last date. This gives you the total time span. Last date ____________________________________________________________________________ Take away ___________________________________________________________________________ First date ____________________________________________________________________________ Equals _______________________________________________________________________________ Measure the length of your line in centimetres with your ruler.

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How to create a timeline: my check list Divide the time span by the length of your line. This tells you the time intervals (how many years are represented by each 1 cm).

With a pencil, lightly draw the time intervals onto your timeline as short, vertical lines. These can be erased later.

Mark in the dates you wish to include on one side of your timeline. Write a brief description of the event on the other side (use key words, not sentences).

2000 AD Vikings Film was released

Make sure your writing is neat and easy to read. Think of a suitable title for your timeline. Write the title at the top and centre of your page. Make the title large and bold so that it is attractive.

FILMS OF 2000 2000 AD Vikings Film was released

Source: Mrs Rebecca Chapman, Learning Support Teacher Assistant

Adjusting syllabus topics at year level

To this point, the focus has been on adjusting individual teaching materials. Particularly in secondary settings, a useful approach is to adjust a complete unit or syllabus topic. This has the advantage of ensuring that the complete unit, rather than single and isolated learning activities, meets student needs. While individual teachers can adjust units or topics by themselves, this is a skill perhaps best accomplished in a cooperative program with other teachers. Particularly at the secondary level, individual teachers will not be able to adapt all units for all classes they teach. A strong recommendation is to tackle one unit first and see how that succeeds, and then use that experience in developing another unit.

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Preparing an adapted unit of work

The following section assumes syllabus topics are fixed (as in the Australian Curriculum) and that a specific number must be completed in the term. This applies more particularly in secondary schools, where the syllabus is often set beyond the school’s control (see Chapter 13). The preparation of an adapted unit of work follows a sequence of steps that highlight the adjustment techniques discussed earlier. See Figure 4.10. Background

Read through the syllabus unit including any support information. Gather all materials that may be available including textbooks, previous teaching materials and activities and other resources, even if these seem too difficult, as they may be useful for students who are gifted and talented. Decide whether the entire unit is to be adjusted for one ability level, or whether it will be used for multi-ability groups in the class.

Content decisions

Using the diagram in Figure 4.7, decide what content is essential (must know). The should know and could know material can be included in extension activities or in group-work activities, particularly for students who are gifted and talented – they may even do these tasks rather than the must know content, which may be assumed as known. Be realistic about what can reasonably be covered in the time. Divide the unit into subunits to have manageable teaching blocks. Informing students of the subunits allows them to have a clearer idea of the sequence and to monitor progress. This is a very useful strategy for students with autism, who benefit from a clear structure and predictability.

Vocabulary decisions

Using the grid in Figure 4.9, decide what vocabulary will go into each category. Specific technical terms should be retained where they are important. Remember that any alterations or deletions to vocabulary need to be carried through to teaching materials and the teacher’s oral language. Where mixedability groups are used, language activities can reflect differing levels of vocabulary through different activities.

I ncorporate language and reading activities into teaching materials

In preparing teaching materials, group activities and notes, remember to include activities that increase student understanding through doing rather than receiving. Remember to watch sentence length, incorporate vocabulary as it is needed and have variety in activities. Parts of many commercial materials are suitable for use in adapted units or may provide useful ideas that can be adapted. Use some of the presentation methods listed earlier in the chapter.

Assessment

The assessment methods also need to be adapted. Avoid assessing all students in the grade using the one assessment test as it really does not assess what the teacher has taught. Where possible, have assessment as an amalgam of methods, rather than leaving the assessment to one final measure. This gives students a clearer measure of their progress and assists in the remediation of skills not mastered in each subunit.

 heck the adapted C materials

Once you have adapted the content, vocabulary, presentation methods and assessment, check to make sure that you have not left out material that needs to be covered or activities that are needed. It may be useful to have another staff member check the unit as well.

FIGURE 4.10 The sequence of steps to prepare an adapted unit of work

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Autism

In order to set out the unit and cover all the aspects outlined above, the frameworks in Evidence-based practice 4.5 and Figure 4.11 may be useful.

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 4.5 Framework for adjusting a unit of work Cover information Adapted unit of work Topic: ________________________________________________________________________________________ Year: _________________________________________________________________________________________ Subtopics: ____________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ Key content: _________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ Vocabulary: __________________________________________________________________________________ a) General: ___________________________________________________________________________________ b) Specific to subtopic: _______________________________________________________________________

Subtopic preparation details Subtopic: _____________________________________________________________________________________ Lesson number

Lesson content sequence

Topic

Specific vocabulary

Remediation activities for each subunit

State topic objectives

Subunit topics

Select content and vocabulary

Resources

Subunit assessment

Successful mastery of subunit assessment

1.

1.

1.

2.

2.

2.

3.

3.

3.

etc.

etc.

etc.

Extension activities for each subunit

FIGURE 4.11 A method of implementing a unit of work with a mixed-ability class

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No

Yes

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Implementing the unit

Several methods exist for implementing an adjusted unit. The method shown in Figure 4.11 provides the opportunity to teach subunits and then have a short period of enrichment and remediation for students who have, and have not, mastered the subtopic. Within the activities for each subunit, students would be able to operate at a number of levels through same ability groups, mixed-ability groups and individual tasks. An additional benefit of this approach is that more capable students can cover more should know and could know content through the enrichment activities. With a series of subunits, it is possible for the teacher to use a variety of teaching strategies across them, thus increasing student participation.

REFLECT ON THIS What are the advantages of breaking a unit of learning into smaller subunits and making reasonable adjustments to learning and assessment in each? Do you agree with the proposition that ‘for a just assessment everyone must do the same task’?

4.5 Extensive adjustment for students with profound and/or multiple disabilities in the classroom Including students with profound and/or multiple disabilities in a classroom learning and teaching environment requires a greater commitment to innovation and effort (Downing, 2006). There are many ways in which this can very successfully occur.

The key to successfully including a student with profound or multiple disabilities in the classroom is a process based on collaborative planning between class teachers, specialist support teachers, parents and, often, allied professional staff, such as speech pathologists and occupational therapists. The outcome is an individual support plan, that depending on context and purpose goes by varying names not limited to: individual education plan (IEP), individualised learning support plan (LSP), individualised transition plan (ITP), etc. Individual plans are about negotiated and prioritised goals, identifying the impact of disability and adjustments that can ensure success across the focus areas. These programs are developed to support involvement in the inclusive classroom, not to develop a separate program to be taught outside the classroom by non-teaching staff. The planning process identifies the support needs of the student, the specific learning goals for that student, the adjustments that may be required to enable the student to access the curriculum and participate actively in the life of the class and school, and the identification of additional personnel who may have a role in providing information and advice to support the class teacher. The Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority provides an annotated example of a kindergarten IEP online (see weblinks) which connects to the Queensland Kindergarten Learning Guide (QKLG) and can be useful to guide student transitions towards primary schooling. An example of an IEP developed for a student in junior primary is shown in Figure 4.12, beginning on p. 173. Examples of more specific classroom/curriculum adjustments can include:

• use of modified materials (e.g. scissors)

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• use of technology to bypass difficulty of task and to facilitate access and participation within the curriculum – this may include use of notetakers, use of word prediction software, use of alternative and augmentative communication devices (see Chapter 8), and use of switches to activate electrical equipment • specialised seating/positioning equipment

• use of specific teaching strategies (e.g. use of visual supports, explicit teaching strategies).

The planning process for students with profound or multiple disabilities

The collaborative planning process is based on five specific steps and involves the identification of: • student needs/strengths/challenges

• priority learning goals for the student

• adjustments required to achieve the goals

• additional considerations (e.g. medical/health, behaviour support, therapy considerations)

• key personnel to assist in classroom implementation, not as separate programs but embedded in the classroom activities. From the priority goals which were established at the planning meeting (see page 1 of the individual plan, Figure 4.12), the school can identify the adjustments that need to be made both at the school level and at the classroom/curriculum levels. To avoid focusing on challenges alone, at least one goal should focus on developing an identified strength. For some students, this strength could increase their engagement in schooling and lead to future employment, so it is important that educators don’t employ a deficit focus.

Developing an individual plan

Figure 4.12 shows the development of an individual plan for Alyssa, a student with extensive adjustment needs attending a mainstream primary school in Western Australia. It identifies her primary disability (cerebral palsy), the specialised resources she will need (such as a wheelchair and standing frame) as well as the priority goals for the term. Each specific objective must be appropriately assessed, which can take some time. As a result, it would be wise to consider a manageable number of goals. Student learning and curriculum engagement is much broader than what is written in the individual plan. Teachers should therefore ensure the plan addresses key priorities only. The inclusion of clear criteria for ‘success’ within the plan may help the teacher to evaluate student progress, assess gains, and to know when it is time to set a new goal. Note that the parents, teacher and principal are party to the development of the plan that was facilitated by the support teacher. Note also that the plan is very specific in terms of the activities and how they will be undertaken. We will return to Alyssa’s case later when we look at an alternative approach to reporting assessment outcomes. In secondary schools, the subject teachers identify what content and learning the student will be attempting in either the topic or topics that are coming up. The IEP will outline the inclass modifications teachers are utilising, such as scaffolding, modelling, spatial considerations,

172

12 May 2006

Year 1S

Miss Michelle Scott

Mr and Mrs Peter & Mary McLean

Date of Birth:

School Year:

Class teacher:

Parents:

INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLAN

Beechboro Christian School

Teacher: 



Guardian 

IEPReview Date: ____________________



F

F

LEVEL

Term 4 2012

Principal 

Have a ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ symbol/word located on either side of her tray/ desk and/or held by a staff member. Have ‘yes’ and ‘no’ programmed into her language device or the iPad. Use every opportunity to ask questions that require a ‘yes/no’ answer. Encourage Alyssa to turn or nod her head purposefully or reach out and touch the communication device to indicate her preference.

Use the Vantage Lite device across the curriculum to encourage communication. Direct Alyssa to the device by redirecting her hand from the shoulder, upper arm or elbow and then support her hand to touch the device using her index finger. Use the verbal instruction ‘‘Alyssa do it’’ while assisting with a hand under hand to maintain the pointer finger action.

STRATEGY

SCHOOL YEAR: Year 1

Alyssa will consistently answer questions by indicating ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ either by using the Vantage Lite device, eye pointing at the ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ card or by reaching out to touch the ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ card or by nodding or shaking her head.

Alyssa will reach for the device to communicate her wants and needs.

Alyssa will use her Vantage Lite device for communication.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

LEARNING AREA: English/Communication

TEACHER: Miss Michelle Scott

STUDENT: Alyssa McLean

IEP Start Date: ____________________

• To be a valued member of the Year 1 class while being given support to work on her own program.

• To be able to feed herself and be able to hold her own drink.

• To be able to communicate using the Vantage Lite device verbal and gestural.

Priority Goals:

• KAFOs

• Wheelchair; support chair; change table; standing frame; walker

Specialised Equipment/Resources

• The Centre for Cerebral Palsy

Associated Service Providers

• Cerebral Palsy

Nature of Disability/Medical Condition/ Difficulty:

Alyssa McLean

Student name:

IEP for Alyssa, Year 1

CHAPTER 4 Curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment adjustments

173

174 F

To independently pick up an object and give it to the person requesting it. Alyssa will need to use her grasp and release actions to complete this task.



F

To strengthen and develop finger and hand strength and develop coordination and use of both hands. (Haptic touch involves the active use of hands to poke, reach, manipulate, touch, squeeze, pinch and gain information from the world around.)

Guardian 

F

To learn to wait before picking up an object.



F

To verbalise words.

Teacher: 

F

LEVEL

Term 4 2012

Principal 

Alyssa will generally pick up the object but then drop it to her left or right. Use the words ‘No, Alyssa give me the. . .’. Model the request by doing the action using a hand over hand full physical prompt to complete the task.

Place an object in front of Alyssa. Use the words ‘hands down’ or ‘wait’ then ask Alyssa to ‘give me the. . .’

Finger play.

Encouraging ‘push’ actions.

Squeezing tubes of icing or paint or toothpaste.

Sensory materials–play dough, goo, cloud dough, cereals etc.

Use a variety of foods, objects, finger and hand exercises to help Alyssa strengthen her hands.

Place an object on Alyssa’s tray or desk. Use the words ‘hands down’ and ‘wait’. When Alyssa’s hands are down and she has waited for even a second, say ‘now’ and allow her to pick up the item. Increase the time between ‘wait’ and ‘now’ as Alyssa is able to grasp the concept.

Encourage Alyssa to use her words by modelling the word for her or using the Vantage Lite device to say the word. Encourage Alyssa to use her words during transfer from one activity to another such as from her standing frame to her chair ask her to say ‘sit’. Model ‘help’; ‘yes’; ‘no’ ; ‘stop’; ‘go’; ‘more’.

Use the ‘Sound-Object Associations’ guidelines to encourage Alyssa to repeat the sounds heard and to develop ‘communicative intention’. Alyssa responds well to watching herself on the iPad so use the iPad as a motivator for her speech.

STRATEGY

SCHOOL YEAR: Year 1

To listen and repeat sounds on request.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

LEARNING AREA: Social Skills/Communication

TEACHER: Miss Michelle Scott

STUDENT: Alyssa McLean

INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLAN

Beechboro Christian School

PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES



Guardian 



Use hard copies of photos and photos on the iPad to get Alyssa to select the sibling or peer she wishes to say hello to.

F

To be able to match a photo to a peer or sibling.

Teacher: 

Use the terms ‘none’ or ‘lots’ on Alyssa’s Vantage Lite device. Place a selection of objects on Alyssa’s desk and allow her to explore them. Use the term ‘lots of. . .’. When the items have been removed use the term ‘none’. Use hand under hand support to help Alyssa choose the correct term. Ask Alyssa if she wants ‘lots’ or ‘none’. Use chips or pretzels to motivate Alyssa to respond.

F

Teaching ‘none’ or’ lots’. Alyssa will use her Vantage Lite device to choose the correct term ‘none’ or ‘lots’.

Principal 

When answering a question regarding the colour give Alyssa hand under hand support to finger point to either yellow or purple on the Vantage Lite device.

Pre-teach by showing Alyssa where yellow and purple are on the device and give her hand under hand support to choose each colour.

Collect a variety of yellow and purple objects. Ask Alyssa to use her Vantage Lite device to name the colour of the item. ‘What colour is this?’; ‘Do you want the yellow or purple one?’; ‘This doll is . . .?’

STRATEGY

Term 4 2012

F

LEVEL

SCHOOL YEAR: Year 1

To use her Vantage Lite device to name the colour of an item or object. Start with items that are either purple or yellow.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

LEARNING AREA: Mathematics

TEACHER: Miss Scott

STUDENT: Alyssa McLean

INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLAN

Beechboro Christian School

CHAPTER 4 Curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment adjustments

175

176

FIGURE 4.12 Individual plan for Alyssa, Year 1



Principal 

Encourage Alyssa to stand at the hand basin and with verbal prompting and minimal assistance turn the tap on to wash her hands. Give full physical assistance to complete the activity.

Support Alyssa to stand at the toilet while her nappy is being put on and her trousers being pulled up.

Alyssa will be encouraged to drink her milk from a variety of cups and drink bottles. Offer Alyssa a drink from a vessel other than the one she usually uses. Use hand over hand support to help Alyssa hold the drink in her hands. Verbally encourage Alyssa to hold her own drink.

Load the spoon for Alyssa and verbally and physically prompt Alyssa to hold the handle. Physically assist Alyssa with a support grasp from underneath her hand to guide the food to her mouth and then place the spoon back into the bowl or tub of yoghurt.

STRATEGY

Term 4 2012

Source: Beechboro Christian School. Reproduced with permission from parents and school

F

To turn the tap on to wash her hands after using the toilet.

Guardian 

F

To maintain a standing position during toileting when her nappy is being changed.



F

To be able to drink from a variety of cups or drink bottles and to be able to hold her own drink.

Teacher: 

F

LEVEL

SCHOOL YEAR: Year 1

Alyssa will be supported to hold a spoon and purposefully move it to her mouth.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

LEARNING AREA: Health Education/Personal Learning

TEACHER: Miss Scott

STUDENT: Alyssa McLean

INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLAN

Beechboro Christian School

PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES

CHAPTER 4 Curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment adjustments

the provision of extra time, or the colour-coding of key information. Adjustments to assessment practices should also be outlined from the start to avoid confusion and provide students with a valid and fair manner to illustrate what they have learnt. Periods for evaluation and review also need to be documented within the IEP. These processes enable timely changes to teaching practices, objectives, and adjustments if necessary. If students are struggling and the plan is not producing a desired result in their learning, then this needs to be identified sooner rather than later. All teachers are required to sign off on the IEP; this fosters an awareness among the teachers, as well as being a total record of the application of the IEP to the student’s comprehensive inclusive education framework for the upcoming period.

REFLECT ON THIS For primary/ECE (early childhood educator) students: Consider how, as Alyssa’s classroom teacher, you would develop a total IEP for a student such as Alyssa. Who would assist you in this? For secondary students: Consider how you would develop the IEP section for your curriculum area. How would this be integrated within the total IEP for a secondary-level Alyssa?

Adjusting curriculum for students with higher support needs in practical lessons

The discussions above have focused on lessons relating to curriculum activities in the classroom. Adaptation of practical activities such as in visual arts and physical education can, and should, also occur. In a physical education lesson, for example, the teacher may adapt a task, such as using a sound ball for cricket, and blindfolding all students to explore the use of different senses in learning a cricket skill. The Inclusion Club (TIC) talks provide free podcasts that give examples of how inclusion can occur in physical education and sport (see weblinks). Integrating students with disability into a practical visual art lesson can be achieved provided there are some adaptations by the teacher. Vize (2005), an Australian visual arts teacher, suggested positioning and stability of the student, opportunities for decision-making and choice-making, and additional ways to keep safe with equipment should be considered. There is often a need to modify equipment or use adapted procedures to ensure physical participation. For a student who is deaf, this may involve other students using and interpreting sign language to support the student with disability as a participating member of the class. For a student with high physical support needs, this may require assistance from a physiotherapist in enhancing wheelchair mobility to increase access and participation.

Both the above examples emphasise the importance of working as a team rather than having the class teacher work alone on the adaptations. This emphasises the collaborative nature of aiding students with high educational support needs in the classroom. The issue of collaborative planning and teaching will be discussed later in the chapter.

4.6 Assessment Assessment operates at a number of levels. All lessons should have monitoring procedures, particularly for students with disability, to ensure the adjusted content and strategies are allowing the student to learn. At a more formal level, assessment is used to determine whether

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the student has achieved the curriculum goals or whether achievement has been at a lower, personalised level of achievement, as in the case of students requiring substantial or extensive adjustments. In the following section we will look at monitoring, adjustment to assessment tasks for students requiring supplementary adjustments, and alternative assessment and reporting for students requiring substantial and extensive adjustments.

Monitoring of student performance

There are many monitoring strategies that can be employed before, during and after the lesson, and through both formal and informal methods. Different methods will be suited to different students and not all methods listed below will work for all students. For example, the K-W-L strategy may be more suited to students who are gifted and talented, while Think-Pair-Share and Pop Quiz can be useful for students from EAL/D backgrounds as they are oral rather than written. See Figure 4.13 for strategies identified in the literature. student language The language students use in normal conversation with their peers can be a powerful teaching tool explaining teacher talk, and is a critical part of reciprocal teaching and cooperative learning.

Many of the methods discussed above provide examples of cooperative learning between students, and the opportunity to use student language to translate from the teacher’s lesson input to student understanding. While strategies for monitoring are important, the assessment process is often where students with disability are most disadvantaged.

Adjusting assessment methods to reflect adjusted teaching materials

Reasonable adjustment to student assessment is the means of ensuring the mitigation, or even elimination, of disability-related barriers to the demonstration of student achievement at all levels of schooling (Dickson, 2011). Dickson points to the critical importance of adjustment to assessment in senior secondary, as failure to adjust assessment at this level may be the reason a student did not achieve as well as anticipated or the reason a student was excluded from a course and, as a result, from future study and employment opportunities. An important issue in adjusting content and vocabulary is to ensure adjustments within the unit are carried through to adjustments within the assessment tasks as expected under the Disability Standards for Education. This can occur in several ways. One is to use progressive assessment throughout the unit, through evaluating written, oral and other activities, and/or including short progressive assessment tasks at the end of each subunit. If there needs to be an end-of-unit assessment, this should reflect the adapted approach to the unit.

Figure 4.14 shows how this can operate within a secondary history unit. Notice that the assessment format is consistent with the learning materials used during the unit (see Evidencebased practice 4.4, and Figure 4.17 on using technology). Matching the unit and assessment approaches ensures that assessment measures what has been taught, not what is expected at the grade level or some form of generalisation of topic facts or skills. Other methods of assessment avoid the necessity of paper and pencil responses. These include responding orally or through multimedia presentations, use of cooperative learning outcomes and teacher observation (Finnerty et al., 2019; Silva et al., 2005).

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Strategies for reading comprehension Bryant, Bryant & Smith (2019)

Strategies for a general skill set Schumm, Vaughn & Sobel (1997)

Teaching students to ask questions (pre, during, post)

Informal member checks – checking with each student intermittently to see that the key issues are understood.

Help students to link background knowledge Teach students ways to think about content (paraphrasing, monitoring, practising, applying, building vocabulary) Chunking and segmentation Connecting prior knowledge pre new content Examining and using contextual information (illustrations, headings, diagrams) Making predictions with a partner in preparation for contributions to the group Review content at the end of each session or activity Teach key words to signal structure (sequence, cause/effect, problem/solution, compare/contrast, description, enumerative)

Student summaries of the main points – asking the student to summarise the main points during the lesson to see that they are on the right track. Student summary of directions – after giving instructions, asking the student to repeat them. Risk reminders – encouraging students to ask questions that ‘take a risk’ rather than only asking questions where the answers are known. Lesson reaction sheets – students write a brief reaction to the lesson in response to questions such as ‘what did you learn?’ or ‘were there any parts you didn't understand?’ K-W-L – a three-column sheet to use at the end of a lesson to highlight what the student Knows about the topic, Wants to learn more about, and has Learned in the lesson. Learning logs – a type of journal in which the student records entries about their learning in class. This can be as structured or unstructured as needed.

Teach text structures Think-Pair-Share – rather than having to work alone, students are encouraged to think about the topic for a few minutes before then forming into pairs to share their knowledge, followed by pairs sharing with the class. Collaborative open-note tests – using student notes in assessment tasks is helpful, particularly for students with learning difficulties for whom memory is a problem. The notes are gained from a small group summarisation activity at the end of a lesson. These notes are then used to answer a question about the lesson topic. Notes can be revised or added to. Fake pop quiz – a short two-to-five question quiz that is given by the teacher to gauge what has been learned so that further teaching or revision can be undertaken.

FIGURE 4.13 Strategies to monitor student performance Source: Bryant, Bryant, & Smith (2019); Schumm, Vaughn & Sobel (1997)

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Section B: Definitions                 20 marks Total: 2 marks each Instruction: Write the definition (meaning) of each word. 1

Looted

______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________

2

Norse

______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________

3

Midden

______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________

4

Pagans

______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________

5

Sagas

______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ Source: Mrs Rebecca Chapman, Learning Support Teacher Assistant

FIGURE 4.14 Assessment of definitions in history: part of the original

Section B: Definitions

20 marks

Highlight 1 Definition for each of these words Looted

• Borrowed • Stolen

Norse

• Ancient Scandinavia • Ancient Egypt

Midden

• A pile of waste and rubbish • In the middle

Pagans

• A type of long ship • A type of religion or belief

Sagas

• A heroic, historic story • A type of food

Fjords

• A narrow channel of water

Halley’s Comet

• A comet that can be seen about every 75 years

• A tall mountain • A moon Soapstone

• A greasy feeling rock • A type of soap

FIGURE 4.15 Assessment of definitions in history: part of the adjusted Source: Mrs Rebecca Chapman, Learning Support Teacher Assistant

Reporting for students with disability

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Reporting student outcomes is an important part of maintaining accountability to parents for the school’s education provisions for their child/adolescent. There are two clear components of reporting that need to be made if the reporting is to be realistic against Australian Curriculum outcomes, as well as being an accurate representation of the student’s ‘value added’ learning gains.

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The importance of a dual reporting approach

A dual reporting approach is important because of the challenges of the A to E grading model used nationally. This model is in stark contrast to the literature on reporting performance outcomes for students with disability (Dickson, 2011). Studies of alternative grading methods show that students with additional needs (particularly those with disability) are at increased risk of grades that are low, inaccurate and lack meaning. Use of only A to E grades in reporting could see all students with disability or recent arrivals from non-English-speaking backgrounds in inclusive settings consistently assigned a grade D (partial achievement) or E (limited achievement) with few, if any, opportunities to improve their grade. Moreover, whilst the A to E grading is supposed to represent the quality of student learning (depth of understanding, extent of knowledge and sophistication of skill) within a given subject, some teachers incorrectly use the grades as a comparator between students. The consistently low grades may either drive parents to place their children into special settings or cause students to give up and become part of the ‘failure trap’. A method commonly used in schools is to give either a NR (Not recorded) or NA (Not assessed) as a grade for the student and for comments to be made on a supplementary report form. Some schools elect to use the standard school report form for other aspects of school life (attendance, social engagement, etc.) and only report on academic performance in the supplementary form.

Reporting against the IEP

If the student has an IEP, then reporting needs to be against the IEP goals for the student. In the case of Alyssa (Evidence-based practice 4.6), the report against the IEP has been completed with relevant photographs so that the parents and Alyssa can see the activities. The report measures outcomes against the IEP we saw for Alyssa earlier in the chapter. It provides visuals of each of her activities so that Alyssa can share the report with her family and recognise the activities she has engaged in. The grading of performance is not A to E, but rather a scale from Beginning to Achieved. The establishment of clear criteria, stating what is meant by ‘achievement’, can help to celebrate successes, and identify when to move on to new learning objectives.

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 4.6 Extracts from end-of-year report to parents on Alyssa’s performance against the goals in her IEP

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Learning area: English IEP objective

To listen and repeat sounds and words on request.

Level of achievement

Sometimes

Date

December

Activity

Use an iPad, objects and mirrors during explicit teaching. During class activities use every opportunity to encourage a verbal response.

Comment

Alyssa is becoming more and more vocal. She still needs a lot of prompting to repeat the sounds she hears. Often, she will not repeat them on request from staff, but she will say the sounds when watching the lesson on her iPad.

Level of achievement: Beginning; Sometimes; Consistently achieved

Wood Bridge Riverside Park Excursion

Comments: Alyssa has made huge progress this year across all areas. Her confidence has grown which has enabled her to try new things and develop her skills. Alyssa is more independent in her physical movement and has been able to strengthen her muscles to explore walking with support and standing independently. She is using a variety of methods to communicate with others including words, signs and using her communication device. Alyssa has been comfortable in the classroom this year and has been able to fit in with the routine. She interacts with others and enjoys being a part of mat time and group activities where she can be involved with the class. She has been a pleasure to teach and is a very valued member of our class! Class teacher: ______________________________ Principal: ______________________________ Source: Beechboro Christian School. Reproduced with permission from parents and school

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A critical issue is that parents are also made aware of their child’s performance against grade expectations so that there is no confusion between personal learning outcomes and year expectations. This ensures that over time, parents do not become unrealistic about the difference between the two sets of performance levels. It also assists in avoiding issues of possible litigation at a later point when parents may claim they were unaware of the gap. Award Certificates should avoid disclosing the disability status of recipients. Marking an award with such a status could compromise graduates into unwanted disclosure of their disabilities during job application processes, should the certificate need to be forwarded as a document. For example, the South Australian Certificate of Education (SACE) was altered to remove such discriminatory wording to better reflect student achievement.

4.7 Using technology in learning and teaching Today’s learners are digital natives in a technology rich world learning with and using technology as part of every aspect of their lives (Figure 4.16). This also applies to students with disability. Whether classrooms have reflected this societal reality is a critical question. The problem, Reilly argued as far back as 2012, is that we (educators) don’t always work with the technologies students want to use, but rather the approaches of the past we used in our education (Reilly, 2012).

Despite previous reluctance by some educators to effectively engage with technology as a teaching and learning tool, instances such as the Covid-19 self-isolation ‘study-at-home’ period (where vast numbers of students across Australia and many parts of the world were excluded from gathering at school and teachers were tasked with providing content, including online content, to support their students) has necessitated the increased uptake and FIGURE 4.16 Technology usage has become increasingly use of technology by teachers to support all manner sophisticated. of student learning needs. Moreover, there are very Source: Alamy Stock Photo/ David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc. few schools, or even classrooms, that do not have extensive access to ICT via Smart Boards, laptops, notebooks and tablets. There is an almost endless range of digital content available that allows considerable flexibility in use, rather than having one standard approach for any device or activity. For students with disability, technology usage has become increasingly sophisticated, moving well beyond the earlier simpler applications. The vast array of resources now available online has brought the use of technology well beyond the imagination of earlier proponents of computer-aided instruction (CAI). In some secondary schools, students use laptops and notebooks in all lessons, accessing the internet to seek information and acquire knowledge directly from online sources rather than, or in addition to, the teacher. Similarly, in primary schools, many students are now accessing information online, on individual personal devices (laptops, tablets, mobile phones, desktop computers etc.) or via Smart Boards and related technology.

The use of tablet technology, especially iPads, is widespread and the variety of applications, from games to specific learning activities, is extensive. Added to this is a variety of wearables and

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sensing technology (such as smart watches) and augmented and/or virtual reality devices (such as VR goggles) in this ever-emerging and evolving field. While this has considerable advantages for students who have the capacity to learn independently, it provides challenges for students with disability, particularly those students who are functioning well below year level (Bryant et al., 2019).

Alternate and adaptive technology adaptive technology Although sometimes used interchangeably, ‘assistive’ technology refers to any item that improves the functional capability of people with disability bought off-the-shelf or otherwise, while ‘adaptive’ technology is specifically designed for people with disability. peripherals An electronic device that is connected to a computer and is under its control. Examples include mouse, printer, speakers and microphone.

The term ‘adaptive technology’ covers any device used to increase, maintain or improve the functional capabilities of children with disabilities. This extends from simple communication boards to much more sophisticated electronic communication devices, such as speech generation devices, computers/notebooks and their peripherals and mobility aids. Spectronics (see weblink at end of chapter) provides a considerable range of adaptive technology devices, including apps for iPads to support students with specific disabilities. An example of using technology to reduce the demands on a student accessing the yearappropriate curriculum can be seen in Figure 4.17. Here, the student in the history topic we have

Section C: Time Line

10 marks

• Click and drag to move the boxes • Place the boxes in the correct order on the time line

1066 Battle of Hastings

TIME LINE TITLE:

1066 BC

793 BC

793 Vikings invade Lindisfarne Monastery

860 Vikings reach Byzantine Empire

878 Alfred the Great gives Vikings a region in England

911 Normandy (France) given to Vikings

950 Most Danish Vikings are Christians

FIGURE 4.17 Use of technology to complete a class task

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1016 King Canute takes English throne

922 Arab traveller writes about Vikings in Russia

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been looking at is using the computer to construct a timeline by dragging the events into the time line, rather than having to construct the line, draw the boxes and enter the text. The outcome remains the same, but the work involved in achieving the outcome is significantly reduced. A similar activity was used in the assessment of the topic. The use of alternative format texts, such as digital books, has been shown to have positive outcomes for students with a wide range of disabilities (Abell et al., 2005; CAST, 2013) and is a simple and effective implementation of the principles of universal design for learning (UDL) (Arthur-Kelly & Foreman, 2020). CAST provides a large range of digital books and online books via their website (see weblinks). The advantage of electronic text is that it can be adapted through changing its size, appearance and layout to meet specific additional learning needs. It can also be augmented with screen readers, text readers (such as Kurzweil), and other speech synthesisers. Text-reading software enables written text to be scanned and provides auditory feedback. For students with physical disabilities, the use of eBooks on iPads and other tablets enables them to use a stylus to operate any of the above features. The same can be achieved by using peripherals on a laptop/notebook or computer. In addition, the accommodations can be made by the teacher in advance, or by the student during the task.

Technology to support teachers

Technology can also play an important role for teachers in developing programs and evaluation records for students with disability. The Spectronics website provides details of an array of adapted peripherals (including switches) to involve students with moderate and severe disability in curriculum choice-making and the development of their learning portfolio (see weblinks at the end of the chapter). Other technologies being used in many classrooms include class blogs, online learning platforms such as Google Classroom and Edmodo, and subject-specific online programs, such as the multitude of online maths programs. Mitchell and Sutherland (2020) further expanded the lens to encompass ‘Assistive Technology’ (AT), a group of strategies including the use of adaptive technology, computer assisted/aided instruction, accessible digital media, augmentative technology, special education technology, and available technology (such as iPads and mobile phones) paired with specialised devices, such as screen readers. The authors highlight the capacity of these strategies to assist students with disability both in their learning and daily lives within a universal design for learning framework (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020).

Research continues to emerge on the impact of technology as a learning support and adjustment for students with disability and results are generally promising, as a literature review by Snyder and Huber (2019) regarding computer assisted instruction (CAI) to teach academic content to students with intellectual disability demonstrates. From the recent research examined, the authors identified CAI was generally effective for instruction in basic literacy skills (such as spelling and word recognition); however, more investigation was required regarding the teaching of complex and/or chained skills (Snyder & Huber, 2019).

4.8 Staff working cooperatively on adjustments and implementation For many teachers of students with complex needs, the thought of having to adjust curriculum presentation is too daunting. There is commonly the need for additional support in planning and implementing the learning and teaching adaptations discussed above. This support can come

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from specialists within the school or from a broader range of specialists within the education jurisdiction or beyond (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020).

Specialist support

The IEP for Alyssa highlighted the importance of specialist support in the development of learning and teaching adaptations to allow full involvement in the classroom. The classroom teacher and parents had access to the Centre for Cerebral Palsy (now known as the Ability Centre) in developing her IEP as well as specialist support staff in the school. Other professional staff who may be included could be a speech pathologist, a psychologist, social or family worker or an occupational therapist.

Support in adjusting curriculum may come from school-based specialist staff, most often from a special education teacher. A support teacher with special education qualifications can provide assistance, both in terms of understanding student ability level and in strategies for adjusting content and learning activities. The role of the class teacher is to provide the content knowledge and vocabulary. It must be remembered that any specialist support is designed to assist the classroom teacher. The support teacher provides ideas and assistance; the class teacher always remains the professional leading the student’s learning. In the section on preparing an adapted unit of work above, the support teacher could provide assistance in adjusting content and vocabulary, in developing alternative teaching/learning strategies and materials, and in assessment tasks, based on knowledge of student needs and ability. Support teachers can provide assistance to faculties, year levels and the whole school staff on adaptation strategies. Support teachers can also assist with information on assessment requirements, including advising on adjusting existing assessment tasks.

Another possible support person is a teacher aide or school learning support officer. Webster and De Boer (2019) highlighted that the global trend toward inclusion of students with disability has been accompanied by a sustained increase in both the employment and deployment of this workforce. Webster and De Boer further argue that this increase has not necessarily been accompanied by an increase in student achievement of outcomes for all students with special needs. While these staff can provide assistance in carrying out the curriculum adaptation made by the class teacher and specialist teachers, it is not their role to adapt curriculum. One important thing to remember when working with teacher aides is to ensure that they work towards the inclusion of the student with disability within the class curriculum, rather than providing alternative learning tasks that increase a sense of academic isolation. Remember, when another adult assists, either in the adaptation of the curriculum content or in its presentation, the management of the curriculum, the teaching strategies and the student’s education remain the responsibility of the class teacher. The role of the class teacher is to teach; the role of the support person is to assist.

Collaborative planning

One way in which collaboration can enhance learning and teaching is through the process of collaborative planning (O’Rourke & Houghton, 2009; Pearl et al., 2012). Collaborative planning is a team effort in which each member of the team supports the others in developing appropriate instructional plans and in designing differentiated learning and teaching activities for students with disability. The aim is to ensure the student’s active involvement in the classroom learning environment. Collaboration is best defined as how teachers work together rather than what they do and is seen as an intangible process based on the interaction styles professionals use to accomplish their shared goals. Collaboration is a long-term process built on a common and shared understanding of the needs of both students and teachers. Advocacy for collaborative curriculum

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planning is increasing across educational jurisdictions, including NSW, Australia, where the education standards authority (NESA) has a section of their website dedicated to unpacking this process for teachers (https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/diversityin-learning/special-education/collaborative-curriculum-planning). One framework available for developing content and adjustments for students with disability is the action plan model, such as the one developed by Positive Partnerships (see weblink at the end of the chapter). The framework is shown in Table 4.2 and allows staff to contribute ideas and constraints around the key characteristics of students with autism (shown as column headings). TABLE 4.2 Action plan for a student with ASD

Communication

Social

Rigid and repetitive behaviours

Sensory

Information processing learning styles

Characteristics Impact Strategies Resources Action required Multidisciplinary team / community members Source: Positive Partnerships (Aspect ©)

Collaborative planning requires high levels of support from the school executive for the development of the skills of interacting and working as a team, and then the time to implement those skills for specific students. Deppeler (2012) argues that, in developing a model of supporting learning communities in schools, principals must be trained to facilitate school improvement through collaboration. The processes and procedures are the same as for all students with disability in the classroom. The discussions above on the development of learning and teaching adaptations for students with high support needs, such as Alyssa, also reflect the importance of collaborative planning and implementation. In a co-planning approach to teaching in secondary schools in Western Australia, O’Rourke and Houghton (2009, p. 37) highlighted three key considerations: • the types of supports given to focus on mixed-ability teaching

• training necessary to develop skills to match the student’s needs, in terms of the curriculum and the mixed-ability classroom • the structures and resources required in mixed-ability classrooms to enable students to gain maximum benefit from the activities. Similarly, Scruggs and Mastropieri (2017) advocated for enhanced co-teaching efficacy via two practices: 1 Effective Collaboration – communication, planning, content mastery

2 Explicit Instruction – inclusive of PASS principles: prioritise objectives, adapt the environment, materials, instruction, and evaluation, systematically teach, systematically evaluate.

A model of collaborative planning and cooperation on a major scale is reported by Pearl et al. (2012), where the Arkansas Department of Education developed a model of professional learning that encompassed over 3900 students and 780 teachers in over 140 school districts. The professional learning resulted in increases in the implementation of school-level support, coteaching partnerships and improved grades for students with disability in co-taught classrooms.

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Rural and remote schools

A particular set of issues arises for teachers in rural and remote locations (Kuhl et al., 2015). Many beginning teachers have their first appointment or temporary appointment in rural locations, having no experience of rural life (as did both this chapter’s authors). This leads to four key challenges in terms of pedagogy: first with a much larger percentage of young teachers who are concerned with lesson preparation (often in subjects they are not trained to teach) and how to manage student behaviour (see Chapter 6). Hence attending to classroom diversity in learning is less of a priority and there are fewer experienced staff to consult. Challenge two is that rural schools are becoming increasingly heterogeneous and young teachers are becoming frustrated by their inability to address multiple needs. Third, there is often a lack of local resources and support staff, including advisory teachers. Fourth, there is a lack of critical mass of students with disability to ensure that resources are available to meet the needs of a few students per grade. Finally, teachers in rural schools are subject to high visibility from the community and differences in the ability of individual teachers to support the learning of diverse student needs can be seen and compared by parents. Kuhl et al.’s study interviewing young rural teachers is an important contribution to our understanding of the pedagogical challenges facing these teachers.

Co-teaching

Effective communication is one of the biggest hurdles in making collaboration work in a coteaching environment, particularly for the special education teacher. Attempts at overcoming these barriers need to focus on opening the lines of communication among professionals (Jones, 2012), with the special education teacher acting as an adviser to the classroom teacher to support the implementation of the student IEP. In a meta-synthesis of research conducted on co-teaching in inclusive classrooms, Scruggs, Mastropieri and McDuffie (2007) found that the most commonly used version of co-teaching was ‘one teach, one assist’ (p. 392), meaning that the class teacher taught the class and the support teacher assisted the students with disability. This role of the support or special education teacher was subordinate to the class teacher and is not a model recommended in the literature on coteaching. Recommended models were rarely seen. Follow-up research by Scruggs and Mastropieri (2017) confirmed that were still ‘important issues to be addressed in co-taught classes’ (p. 7). Recommended models include: • parallel teaching with each teacher jointly teaching the same or similar content in different class groupings

• station teaching where the two teachers support group-learning activities across the classroom • alternate teaching where one teacher takes a small group for intensive or individual instruction for a short period during the class • team teaching where both are equal in leading the instruction.

The authors saw the co-teaching as being more a ‘contrived collaboration’ (p. 412) because the classroom teacher was dominant. Moving to a more collaborative approach would require a re-conceptualisation of relationships that needs to be led by the principal and other senior staff.

While the cooperative teaching model is often seen as synonymous with students with disability being retained in the regular classroom, it provides all students with a wider range of instructional alternatives than would be provided by one teacher and combines expertise to meet the needs of all students. For students with disability, it enhances opportunities for full class membership and increases opportunities for improved learning outcomes. School executive support for co-teaching is essential for it to work effectively (Hoppey & McLeskey, 2013). Teachers may need the opportunity to train in the skills of co-teaching, as it is a very different approach from the traditional ‘one teacher one class’ model. The model of a

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professional learning community in the school is seen by Deppeler (2012) as a way for staff to collaborate as an inclusive school rather than have teachers work in isolation. Like so many strategies that exist for increased involvement of students with disability in the classroom, teachers need support from the school executive, skills to make the strategies work, and the ability to choose who they work with rather than this being imposed on them.

A final reminder A good way to summarise what has been presented in this chapter is to recognise that among the many ways students with disability can be active participants in an inclusive class is through teachers: • modifying expectations

• providing supports and adjustments

• embedding basic skills and individual education planning (IEP) goals into classroom routines • ensuring that all students are engaged in meaningful academic and social learning experiences • embracing evidence-based practices and approaches to teaching and learning

• using the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) to synthesise the above processes.

A TEACHER REFLECTS Cloe, first year secondary social sciences teacher, rural South Australia I started teaching in a rural school that was fairly isolated, which was a shock for an urban dweller like me! I found that I had a number of students with disability in my classes and was having difficulty meeting all their additional needs at once. The learning and support teacher at the school offered to assist me in planning and preparing lessons. She didn’t offer to prepare them for me, but to work alongside me to provide advice and some examples. She even offered to come into the room, if I was comfortable with that, to share a lesson or two where we would team-teach part of a topic. She also suggested some changes in assessment and reporting for one student who had high support needs. I learnt more from being supported than I would have done if she had simply taken over the planning or sent a learning support assistant into the room. I maintained responsibility and the support teacher did just that – supported me.

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STUDY TOOLS

Summary

This chapter has focused on the role of the regular national and jurisdictional curricula that heavily influence mainstream classroom teaching. The approach has been to examine ways in which the curriculum can be adjusted to meet the requirements of students with disability, rather than developing discrete curricula or teaching models that may exacerbate differences rather than enhance inclusion for all students in the class. Strategies that have been examined include the adjustment of individual teaching materials through adjusting their readability and through the inclusion of language and reading activities that are appropriate to the students’ instructional levels. The difficulties of using text-based materials and the challenges of finding suitable alternatives have been acknowledged, considering the heavy reliance placed on them, particularly by secondary teachers. The rapid expansion of alternative materials through technological sources, such as the internet, is expanding options, but these still need adjustments in many cases for students with disability.

The development of units of work to provide a more selective amount of content, coupled with focused vocabulary has been suggested as an appropriate approach for mainstreamed classes. While such an approach is time-consuming for the individual teacher, the involvement of groups of teachers and whole faculties can reduce the burden on each teacher and increase the array of adjusted materials for later use. Adjusted curriculum presentation has the potential to increase student involvement and reduce disruptive behaviour through teaching at the student instructional level. The more specific adjustments and modifications required for students with high support needs necessitate a greater level of support for classroom teachers. This is perhaps best undertaken through collaborative planning with specialist teachers to ensure maximum participation in classroom learning and assessment and the possible use of teacher’s assistants to supervise learning activities in the class. Finally, it is important for the executive and staff to support a coordinated approach to learning and teaching adjustments. The following chapter will explore further the interrelated areas of social integration and management of the inclusive classroom.

Discussion questions

1 What topics would you include in a half-day staff development session on adjusting curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment for students with disability in your mainstream school? 2 How can you make assessment tasks relevant for all students in the class?

3 What are the types of curriculum, learning and teaching supports required for students with high support needs and how can they be provided?

Individual activities

1 Take a topic in your teaching area and identify the ‘must know’ content and the vocabulary that should be placed in each of the three categories. Compare your results with those of a colleague.

2 Take an existing teaching material and adjust it for use by students with an instructional level at least three grades above or below the grade level for which the teaching material was originally designed.

3 Draw a map of your classroom, including seating plan, position of resources – especially technology that supports the learning of students with additional needs, and location of students with disability and their specific learning needs. Track where you move within the course of most lessons. How does your utilisation of space help to meet diverse student needs? Does your classroom space encourage diverse students to learn together, allow for targeted grouping of students within lesson structures, etc.?

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Group activities

1 As a small group, take a curriculum topic and work through the process of identifying the critical curriculum content, adjusting the vocabulary and then developing a series of sample teaching materials for the topic that demonstrate the importance of adjusting curriculum, reduced vocabulary and appropriate presentation styles. Also prepare an adapted assessment task for the same topic. Share the outcomes with other groups in the same or different curriculum areas.

2 Have each member of the group examine a different technological approach to supporting students with disability in the classroom (e.g. digital books, iPad applications, Read and Write Gold). Discuss your findings with the group and how they could be used in the classroom. 3 Discuss and identify adjustments required for students with special needs, those who are gifted and talented and those with an EAL/D background. Share the outcomes and consider how these differing needs can be met in an inclusive classroom. ACARA’s Illustrations of Practice (https://www. australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/illustrations-of-practice/) include documents (e.g. unit overviews) showing the teaching adjustments made within the video samples. Use these as a comparison to your own approach. Consider how your future planning might best meet individual learning needs within a positive, inclusive climate.

4 Examine and critique ACARA’s CASE Content – Abilities – Standards – Evaluation Planning Pathway (https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/planning-for-student-diversity/ steps-to-personalise-learning-case/)

Weblinks

ACARA (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority website – Student Diversity section (includes illustrations of practice) https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/ AFIRM (Autism Focused Intervention Resources and Modules) https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/afirm-modules AITSL (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership) https://www.aitsl.edu.au/research/ spotlight/inclusive-education-teaching-students-with-disability ASDAN Education for alternative UK curriculum programs http://www.asdan.org.uk/ Center for Applied Special Technology http://www.cast.org

English as an Additional Language or Dialect Teacher Resource. https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/EALD_ Resource_-_EALD_Learning_Progression.pdf IES – What Works Clearing House: https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/

Microsoft alternative pointers add a range of cursor styles, larger icons, the use of inverted colour and lefthanded mouses, to the Windows system http://www.microsoft.com National Assessment Program: Disability Adjustment Scenarios https://www.nap.edu.au/naplan/schoolsupport/adjustments-for-students-with-disability/disability-adjustments-scenarios

NCCD (Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability) https://www.nccd.edu.au/ NESA, Collaborative curriculum planning https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/ diversity-in-learning/special-education/collaborative-curriculum-planning NESA, Life Skills https://edvucationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/diversity-in-learning/ special-education

NESA, Special Education – Year 11 – Year 12 https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/1112/Diversity-in-learning/stage-6-special-education

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Paula Kluth - toward inclusive classrooms and communities blog. Rewriting History, and Nine Other Ways to Adapt Textbooks: https://www.paulakluth.com/readings/differentiating-instruction/rewriting-history-andnine-other-ways-to-adapt-textbooks

Positive Partnerships on Autism Spectrum Disorder for teachers and school leaders http://www.positivepartnerships. com.au/ Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority. IEP: Annotated Sample https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/ downloads/p_10/qklg_pd_iep_annoted_samp.pdf

Spectronics – for students with learning difficulties who struggle with reading and writing but are interested in technology; it includes an activity exchange for Clicker 4 and Clicker 5, Boardmaker, etc. http://www. spectronics.com.au/

TIC Talks is an audio podcast that can be listened to on a variety of devices. It focuses on human rights issues, inclusion, and sport https://itunes.apple.com/au/podcast/tic-talks-all-about-sport/id738247927?mt=2 VCAA: The Victorian Curriculum http://victoriancurriculum.vcaa.vic.edu.au/

Recommended reading

Boyle, C., & Topping, K. (2012). What works in inclusion? Berkshire: Open University Press.

Carson, K., & Walker, P. (2015). The Australian Curriculum: Assessment practices for diverse learners. In H. AskellWilliams. Transforming the future of learning with educational research (pp. 167–187). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Hehir, T., & Katzman, L. I. (2012). Effective inclusive schools: designing successful schoolwide programs. Indianapolis, IN: Jossey-Bass.

References

Abell, M. M., Bauder, D. K., & Simmons, T. J. (2005). Access to the general curriculum: a curriculum and instructional perspective for educators. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41, 82–86.

ACARA (n.d.) CASE Planning Pathway. Retrieved from https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/ student-diversity/planning-for-student-diversity/stepsto-personalise-learning-case/ ACARA (n.d.). Students with disability – illustrations of personalised learning. Retrieved from https://www. australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/studentdiversity/

ACARA (n.d.). Teaching resources for students from EAL/D backgrounds https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/EALD_ Learning_Progression_revised_February_2014.pdf ACARA (2012). The shape of the Australian Curriculum: health and physical education. Sydney: Author.

ACARA (2013). Student diversity and the Australian curriculum: advice for principals, schools and teachers. Melbourne: Author.

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Kuhl, S., Pagliano, P., & Boon, H. (2015). ‘In the too hard basket’: issues faced by 20 rural Australian teachers when students with disabilities are included in their secondary classes. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 19, 697–709.

Loreman, T., Deppeler, J., & Harvey, D. (2nd edn). (2010). Inclusive education: supporting diversity in the classroom. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin.

ACT Department of Education and Training (2013). Every chance to learn: curriculum framework for ACT schools preschool to year 10. Canberra: Author. https:// portfolio.canberra.edu.au/artefact/file/download. php?file=176673&view=46411 Alchin, G. (2014). Is reasonable adjustment a deficit ideology? Special Education Perspectives, 23, 3–6.

Armstrong, F. (2007). Disability, education, and space. In K. N. Gulson & D. C. Symes (Eds), Spatial theories in education: policy and geography matters (pp. 96–100). New York, NY: Routledge. Arthur-Kelly, M. (2017). Calibrating Professional Learning Approaches for Teachers in Inclusive Classrooms in the Context of Implementation. Science Oxford Research Encyclopaedia of Education. https://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/ acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore9780190264093-e-150

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Arthur-Kelly, M., & Foreman, P. (2020). Inclusive and Special Education in Australia. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education. Bissaker, K. (2010). Programming for students with special needs lecture notes. Flinders University: Author.

Black-Hawkins, K., & Florian, L. (2012). Classroom teachers’ craft knowledge of their inclusive practices. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 18, 567–584. Brennan, A., King, F., & Travers, J. (2019). Supporting the enactment of inclusive pedagogy in a primary school. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 1–18.

Broderick, A., Mehta-Parakh, H., & Reid, D. K. (2005). Differentiating instruction for disabled students in inclusive classrooms. Theory into Practice, 44, 194–202.

Bryant, D. P., Bryant, B. R., & Smith, D. D. (2019). Teaching students with special needs in inclusive classrooms. Sage Publications.

Carson, K., & Walker, P. (2015). The Australian Curriculum: assessment practices for diverse learners. In H. AskellWilliams. Transforming the future of learning with educational research (pp. 167–187). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. CAST (2013). Resources for students with special needs. http://www.cast.org/whats-new/learning-tools.html

Commonwealth of Australia (2005). Disability Standards for education (2005). Canberra: Author. Commonwealth of Australia (2014). The effectiveness of the National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy. Senate Report. Retrieved from https://www.aph.gov. au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/ Education_and_Employment/Naplan13 Conway, R. N. F. (2012). Inclusive schools in Australia: rhetoric and practice. In C. Boyle & K. Topping. What works in inclusion? (pp. 188–199). Berkshire: Open University Press.

Cumming, J. J., Wyatt-Smith, C. M., & Colbert, P. J. (2016). Students at risk and NAPLAN. National testing in schools: An Australian assessment, 126–138. Davies, M. (2012). Accessibility to NAPLAN: assessments for students with disabilities: a ‘fair go’. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 36, 62–78.

Dempsey, I., & Conway, R. N. F. (2004). Test accommodations and alternate assessment for students with a disability in Australia. The Australasian Journal of Special Education, 28 (2), 5–16.

Dempsey, I., & Conway, R. N. F. (2005). Educational accountability and students with a disability in Australia. Australian Journal of Education, 49, 152–168.

Department of Education (2014). Review of the Australian Curriculum – Initial Australian Government Response. Retrieved from https://docs.education.gov.au/system/ files/doc/other/initial_australian_government_ response_final_0.pdf

Department of Education (DOE) (2019). Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education Declaration. Retrieved from https://docs.education.gov.au/documents/alice-springsmparntwe-education-declaration Department of Education and Training (2014). Review of the Australian Curriculum Final Report. Retrieved from https://docs.education.gov.au/documents/reviewaustralian-curriculum-final-report Deppeler, J. (2012). Developing inclusive practices: innovation through collaboration. In C. Boyle & K. Topping. What works in inclusion? (pp. 125–138). Berkshire: Open University Press.

Dickson, E. (2011). Reasonable adjustment and the assessment of students with disabilities: Australian legal issues and trends. Australia and New Zealand Education Law Association. Annual Conference, Darwin, NT.

Ditchburn, G. (2012). The Australian Curriculum: finding the hidden narrative? Critical Studies in Education, 55 (3), pp. 347–360. doi:10.1080/17508487.2012.703137 Downing, J. (2006). Students with moderate and severe disabilities: strategies for the K-12 inclusive classroom. The Special Educator, 36 (2), 21. Dyck, N., & Pemberton, J. B. (2002). A model for making decisions about text adaptations. Intervention in School and Clinic, 38 (1), 28–35. Elliott, S. N., Davies, M., & Kettler, R. J. (2012), Australian students with disabilities accessing NAPLAN: lessons from a decade of inclusive assessment in the United States. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 59, 7–19.

Engelbrecht, P., Oswald, M., Swart, E., & Eloff, I. (2003). Including learners with intellectual disabilities: stressful for teachers? International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 50 (3), 293–308. Evans, D. (2015). Curriculum adaptations. In A. Ashman (Ed.). Education for inclusion and diversity (5th edn), pp. 102–130. Melbourne: Pearson.

Finnerty, M. S., Jackson, L. B., & Ostergren, R. (2019). Adaptations in general education classrooms for students with severe disabilities: Access, progress assessment, and sustained use. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 44(2), 87–102.

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Forlin, C., & Chambers, D. (2011). Teacher preparation for inclusive education: increasing knowledge but raising concerns. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 39, 17–32.

Hall, S., Fildes, J., Liyanarachchi, D., Plummer, J., Hoppey, D., & McLeskey, J. (2013). A case study of principal leadership in an effective inclusive school. The Journal of Special Education, 46, 245–256. Jenlink, P. M. (2012). Immigration and teacher education: the crisis and the opportunity. Teacher Education and Practice, 25, 536–539.

Jones, B. A. (2012). Fostering collaboration in inclusive settings: the special education students at a glance approach. Intervention in School and Clinic, 47, 297–306.

Kauffman, J. M., & Badar, J. (2020). Definitions and other issues. On educational inclusion: Meanings, history, issues and international perspectives. Routledge.

Konza, D. (2008). Inclusion of students with disabilities in new times: responding to the challenge. In P. Kell, W. Vialle, D. Konza & G. Vogl (Eds), Learning and the learner: exploring learning for new times (chapter 3). Wollongong: University of Wollongong. Kuhl, S., Pagliano, P., & Boon, H. (2015). ‘In the too hard basket’: issues faced by 20 rural Australian teachers when students with disabilities are included in their secondary classes. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 19, 697–709.

Lenz, B. K. (2006). Creating school-wide conditions for high-quality learning strategy classroom instruction. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41, 261–266.

Lyons, G., & Cassebohm, M. (2012). The education of Australian school students with the most severe intellectual disabilities: where have we been and where could we go? A discussion primer. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 36, 21, pp. 79–95. doi: 10.1017/ jse.2012.8

Mahoney, M. W. (2019.) Peer-mediated instruction and activity schedules: Tools for providing academic support for students with ASD. Teaching Exceptional Children, 51(5), 350–360. Mamas, C., Daly, A. J., & Schaelli, G. H. (2019). Socially responsive classrooms for students with special educational needs and disabilities. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 23, doi: 10.1016/j.lcsi.2019.100334. McCoy, S., & Banks, J. (2012). Simply academic? Why children with special educational needs don’t like school. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 27, 81–97.

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Miesera, S., DeVries, J. M., Jungjohann, J., & Gebhardt, M. (2019). Correlation between attitudes, concerns, self-efficacy and teaching intentions in inclusive education evidence from German pre-service teachers using international scales. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs. 19(2), 103–114. Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) (2008). Melbourne declaration on educational goals for young Australians. Retrieved from http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_ resources/National_Declaration_on_the_Educational_ Goals_for_Young_Australians.pdf Northern Territory Government (2013). NT Curriculum Framework. Darwin: Author.

Mitchell, D., & Sutherland, D. (2020). What really works in special and inclusive education: Using evidence-based teaching strategies. Routledge.

Nehring, J. H., Charner-Laird, M., & Szczesiul, S. A. (2019). Redefining excellence: Teaching in transition, from test performance to 21st century skills. NASSP Bulletin, 103(1), 5–31. Norwich, B. (2008). How compatible is the recognition of dyslexia with inclusive education? In G. Reid (Ed.) The Routledge dyslexia handbook, pp. 177–194, London: Routledge. O’Rourke, J., & Houghton, S. (2009). The perceptions of secondary teachers and students about the implementation of an inclusive classroom model for students with mild disabilities. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 34, 23–41.

Pearce, M., & Forlin, C. (2005). Challenges and potential solutions for enabling inclusion in secondary schools. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 29, 93–105.

Pearl, C., Dieker, L. A., & Kirkpatrick, R. M. (2012). A fiveyear retrospective on the Arkansas Department of Education coteaching project. Professional Development in Education, 38, 571–587.

Petry, K. (2018). The relationship between class attitudes towards peers with a disability and peer acceptance, friendships and peer interactions of students with a disability in regular secondary schools. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 33(2), 254–268. Positive Partnerships (2013). Module 4: Creating positive partnerships. Professional development for teachers and other school staff. Forestville, NSW: Aspect.

Price, D. (2015). Pedagogies for inclusion of students with disabilities in a national curriculum: a central human capacity approach. Journal of Educational Inquiry, 14, 18–32.

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Pullen, P. C., & Kennedy, M. J. (Eds). (2018). Handbook of response to intervention and multi-tiered systems of support. Routledge.

Reilly, P. (2012). Understanding and teaching generation Y. English Language Forum, 50, 2–11.

Snyder, S., & Huber, H. (2019). Computer assisted instruction to teach academic content to students with intellectual disability: A review of the literature. American journal on intellectual and developmental disabilities, 124(4), 374–390.

Reynolds, M. (2020). Young, Willing and Able – Youth Survey Disability Report 2019. Mission Australia: Sydney, NSW.

Stahl, S. (2005). The promise of accessible textbooks: Increased achievement for all students. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum.

Reupert, A., Deppeler, J. A., & Sharma, U. (2015). Enablers for inclusion: the perspectives of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 39, 85–96.

Rose, D. H., Gravel, J. W., & Gordon, D. T. (2014). Universal design for learning. In L. Florian. The SAGE handbook of special education (pp. 475–448). London: Sage. Sari, H., Celikoz, N., & Secer, Z. (2009). An analysis of pre-school teachers’ and student teachers’ attitudes to inclusion and their self-efficacy. International Journal of Special Education, 24 (3), 29–44. Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S., & Sobel, M. C. (1997). Are they getting it? How to monitor student understanding in inclusive classrooms. Intervention in School and Clinic, 32, 168–171. Schwab, R. G. (2012). Indigenous early school leavers: failure, risk and high-stakes testing. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 1, 3–18.

Schwab, S. (2017). The impact of contact on students’ attitudes towards peers with disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 62, 160–165.

Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2017). Making inclusion work with co-teaching. Teaching Exceptional Children, 49 (4), 284–293. Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & Marshak, L. (2012). Peer-mediated instruction in inclusive secondary social studies learning: direct and indirect learning effects. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 27, 12–20. Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & McDuffie, K. A. (2007). Coteaching in inclusive classrooms: a metasynthesis of qualitative research. Exceptional Children, 73, 392–416.

Sikorova, Z. (2011). The role of textbooks in lower secondary schools in the Czech Republic. IARTEM e-Journal, 4(2), 1–22.

Silva, M., Munk, D. D., & Bursuck, W. D. (2005). Grading adaptations for students with disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41, 87–98. Siperstein, G. N., Parker, R. C., Norins Bardon, J., & Widaman, K. F. (2007). A national study of youth attitudes toward the inclusion of students with intellectual disabilities. Exceptional Children, 73, 435–455.

Specht, J. A., & Metsala, J. L. (2018). Predictors of teacher efficacy for inclusive practice in pre-service teachers. Exceptionality Education International, 28(3), 67–82.

Swain, K. D., Nordness, P. D., & Leader-Janssen, E. M. (2012). Changes in preservice teacher attitudes toward inclusion. Preventing School Failure, 56, 75–81.

Vize, A. (2005). Making art activities work for students with special needs. Arts and Activities, 138 (4), 17–18. Watson, J. (2007). Hear my voice: Mainstream secondary students with learning difficulties speak out. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 12, 51–59. Watson, J., & Bond, T. G. (2007). Walking the walk: Rasch Analysis of an exploratory survey of secondary teachers’ understanding of students with learning difficulties. Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12 (1), 1–9.

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5

Planning effective teaching strategies Therese M. Cumming and Michael Arthur-Kelly This chapter aims to: 5.1 Examine curriculum issues, relevant to the education of all students, including individuals with additional needs 5.2 Examine instructional issues, including the instructional cycle and content enhancement 5.3 Establish the importance of key aspects of quality learning contexts, such as classroom management and organisation, classroom climate, and connectedness 5.4 Explain how multi-tiered systems of support can guide the design and implementation of effective teaching interventions, including universal design and response to intervention.

Introduction

How can we maximise the learning outcomes achieved and encourage a demonstrated love for learning in every individual student we teach and engage with? This is the question all effective teachers grapple with, regardless of the classroom settings in which they work or the various needs of the students for whom they are responsible. As suggested in the earlier chapters of this book, students with disability are not vastly different from their peers who do not have additional needs. In fact, it is much more helpful to consider similarities between the two groups rather than differences. The same point is true for the approaches effective teachers use when including students with differing levels of ability in the one class (see Figure 5.1). The pro-active Universal Design for Learning and implementation of high-leverage practices that meet the needs of all students is a process of differentiation grounded in principles of effective teaching and learning that are familiar to all teachers. The content, figures, narratives and discussion questions in this chapter raise issues about how teachers use high-leverage practices to maximise differentiated learning outcomes for all of their students, and how related educational personnel and families work together to support this learning journey. In this chapter, we also stress the importance of the mentoring support that new teachers need as they refine their instructional skills, knowledge and confidence. Carol Tomlinson, a leading educational researcher and practitioner, has highlighted the vital role of teacher flexibility in planning for learning, with special focus on authenticity and meaningfulness for the learner, a sense of timeliness and empowerment and a genuine understanding of each child’s needs (Tomlinson & Moon, 2013). In the same way, new

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teachers need a sense of connection with peers and communities of learning in order to develop as mature professionals, and this theme will permeate this chapter, along with the important focus on achieving the best learning outcomes for children. Researchers such as John Hattie (2012) remind us that best practice in schools involves teaming between education professionals and families. Hattie suggests all educators in a child’s sphere need to know what is being planned, what their role is, and how they would know what success for the child looks like – what he calls ‘visible learning’. This enables professionals to do their best work, while respecting the child, their family and their individual needs.

FIGURE 5.1 All classes have students with differing ability levels.

A report to the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (Cole, 2012) emphasised the direct connection between professional learning for teachers and the delivery of effective teaching and learning to benefit students. In the same vein, initiatives such as a research synthesis of effective teaching by Parsons et al. (2018) and, more locally, the Australian Professional Standards for Teaching (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL), 2018), have highlighted the importance of continuous development in the life cycle of teachers. Perhaps the most challenging daily task, however, is to bring to life in our classrooms what we know to be the evidence-based high-leverage practices of great teaching in the context of so many demands, a discussion that cuts across all human sciences and is typically referred to as implementation science (Cook & Odom, 2013; Mazzotti et al., 2013).

Figure 5.2 shows some of the factors that play a part in the achievement of effective teaching and learning for students, under the headings of curriculum issues, instructional issues and aspects of the learning context. The points listed in this figure are not exhaustive and it may be useful to develop other topics for further consideration and follow-up reading. This may, for example, include a particular focus on how best to include students from an Indigenous heritage or those joining Australian schools from other cultures. The challenge for you as the reader is to make the connections between the larger variables such as curriculum, school context and your own professional learning goals, and the learning experiences and needs of all students in your class. To begin with, we examine curriculum issues in the modern diverse classroom.

5.1 Curriculum issues A number of the factors identified in this aspect of Figure 5.2, such as task achievability and curriculum adaptation, have already been discussed in Chapter 4 and it would be helpful to review these before working through this chapter. These factors are underpinned by the quality of the relationship between the learner and the curriculum on offer in the school. Terms such as ‘accommodations’ and ‘adjustments’, often used in educational literature and syllabus documents, emphasise the fluid nature of curriculum support in modern schools. For example, the effective teacher will consider questions such as: • To what degree does the student recognise the link between current and past learning experiences and lesson content?

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Effective teaching and learning experiences for students

Curriculum issues • Target-direct learning • Task achievability • Content enhancement • Relationship to prior learning • Curriculum adaptation

Aspects of the learning context

Instructional issues

• Classroom management and organisation

• Instructional diversity

• Classroom climate • Communication processes

• Teaching cycle • Established principles of instructional delivery and support

FIGURE 5.2 Factors in the achievement of effective teaching and learning

• Are there general ‘learnings’ that we plan for and teach to, that include every one of our students?

• Can we embed these learnings within a universal design for curriculum and instruction? • How do these outcomes build on each other across the stages of schooling? • How achievable is the material or task presented to the student?

• Is the material presented to the student at a level that will stimulate deep learning?

• Can the student identify the goal of the task and recognise its relevance and application?

• Should assessment material be presented in an adapted format or under different conditions in light of the student’s particular needs? Have all assistive technologies been explored? • How well have I utilised the student’s strengths and interests?

Personal motivation and approaches

An underlying theme in any analysis of curriculum is the level of personal motivation to engage in learning new content and skills, and the degree to which individual needs are met by such experiences. The nature and relevance of school curriculum has been the subject of much discussion in the last decade, and several authors have examined the relationship between the satisfaction of personal and academic needs in the school setting. This includes a recognition of students’ cultural contexts which enables schools to establish a caring learning community (Banks & McGee Banks, 2020; Cumming & Draper Rodriguez, 2019; Lyons et al., 2011). In this context, the teacher is concerned with the interaction between school curricula and student variables, the nature of what is taught to students, and the impact for the individual. A central consideration will be the provision of adjusted assessment. For some students, it will be vital for teachers to use a range of alternative assessment techniques to ascertain exactly how skilled a student is in a particular topic area or skill sequence (see Figure 5.3), in order to gain a picture of anticipated instructional needs and learning supports that may be required.

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Implicit in this personalised approach is recognition of individual preferences both in receiving information and Examples of alternative assessments displaying an understanding or use of it in applied tasks. For example, if writing is a challenge, verbal responses may be permitted for a particular student. Similarly, modifications to • Student reading records • Math samples the curriculum offered in classrooms that include students • Student projects or products (portfolios) with disability can be expected to enhance engagement and • Notes from parents, teachers, specialists, achievement levels. The Council for Exceptional Children and classmates in conjunction with the CEEDAR Center in the USA have • Teacher data, including charts and graphs identified adapting curriculum tasks and materials for specific • Performance events learning goals as an evidence-based, high-leverage practice (McLeskey et al., 2017). This practice involves teachers assessing the individual needs of students then adapting how FIGURE 5.3 Teachers may need to use a range of they access the curriculum, materials and tasks. Some of these alternative assessments. adaptations include using relevant technology, highlighting relevant information, making directions easier to understand and decreasing the length of tasks. Teachers also make strategic decisions on which curriculum elements are essential, how to make tasks meaningful in light of the student’s individualised learning goals and determining the criteria for student success. With this in mind, it is appropriate then to turn to the question of how modified curriculum is taught, and to consider the complex relationship between curriculum and instruction. What are the underlying instructional issues for contemporary teachers?

5.2 Instructional issues In the past three decades, educational research in the area of effective instruction has blossomed (Algozzine et al., 1997; Frey et al., 2017; Good & Brophy, 2000; Westwood, 2007, 2013; Wolfe, 1998). In exploring the many linkages between curriculum (what to teach) and instruction (how to teach), teachers continue to generate creative approaches to program design (Carlson et al., 2012; Cole, 2012), including those centred on cognitive and metacognitive techniques such as strategy instruction and content enhancements (like mnemonics and visual displays) (Diaz, 2015; Li et al., 2017; Putnam, 2015), student-directed learning (Toh, 2016), cooperative learning (Slavin, 2015) and the principles of behavioural analysis (Alberto & Troutman, 2013). At the heart of such diversity, however, is an instructional design that remains constant. In Figure 5.4 a basic instructional cycle, perhaps typical of a daily lesson, is set within the larger process of instructional design. The outer cycle describes the key phases all teachers go through when designing instruction, while the inner cycle represents one of a number of approaches to the delivery of instruction in a daily lesson. Both cycles reflect the same process on a macro and micro scale. The themes raised in this figure are not new and have been discussed by many writers in the area of instructional effectiveness (Algozzine et al., 1997; Rosenshine, 1995; Wolfe, 1998). However, current literature (and common sense!) suggests that instruction and curriculum (the how and the what of teaching) are best considered as part of an integrated approach to effective teaching and learning that reflects principles and strategies of Universal Design for Learning wherever possible (Lyons et al., 2011; Mitchell, 2014).

modified curriculum A course of instruction that is different in content and level of difficulty from that undertaken by most students.

content enhancement The provision of additional information or strategies that assist the student to master content covered in class. instructional cycle The core elements of effective teaching, expressed as a continuous cycle. Universal Design for Learning An approach to teaching aimed at meeting the needs of every student in a classroom through multiple means of representation, engagement, and action and expression.

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Evaluate progress

Review prior learning Assess student performance and learning needs Introduce new material

Provide demonstration, guided practice and application

Promote independent practice and application

Plan teaching and learning program

Link to next task or skill area Implement program

FIGURE 5.4 A typical instructional cycle embedded in the process of instructional design

5.3 Aspects of the learning context The learning context provided for students is a crucial factor in the achievement of productive and effective learning outcomes. Teachers face the daily challenge of establishing and supporting a rich learning environment that is stimulating and efficient and, most importantly, suitable to the diverse needs of the modern classroom (Lyons et al., 2011). Diverse backgrounds and cultural heritage are factors for teachers to consider in creating a classroom climate that taps into the cultural and linguistic resources within the students’ personal experiences and vocabularies (Wilkerson et al., 2014). Although many aspects must be considered, three interrelated themes can be identified. 1 Issues in classroom management and organisation including the development of classroom routines, seating arrangements, and rules (McLeskey et al., 2017).

2 The classroom climate, typically described as the ‘feeling’ or atmosphere experienced by both class participants and visitors. This feature is usually related to the types of expectations teachers have of students, the variety of curricular and instructional approaches used in the promotion of learning, and the degree of encouragement provided to students. Ideally, a positive classroom climate is reflected in a similar school-wide approach which embraces all learners and their families and enables teachers and parents to work together to short-circuit learning and behaviour problems (Wilkerson et al., 2014).

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3 Connectedness, or how much a student feels that adults and peers in their classroom and school care about them as an individual and about their academic success and overall wellbeing. Fostering students’ senses of connectedness has an integral role in the provision of a supportive classroom context. One of the most important factors in fostering school connectedness is the development and maintenance of caring teacher-student relationships (Marsh et al., 2019).

Beyond the classroom

Of course, learning contexts are much broader than the classroom. The school culture and the family both provide vital input to the learning process. At a school level, it is generally agreed that the climate of inclusion, and the use of ongoing systemic reflection and evaluation, is central to the achievement of optimal student learning outcomes (Hattie, 2012). The same point is valid for early career teachers: active mentoring and membership of a learning community is vital. Similarly, parental, sibling and extended familial interest in student abilities ensures that skills learnt at school are followed through in other situations. Schools that engage families in providing back-up to students and engage in the planning of mutually agreed educational programs are able to achieve valuable multiplier effects and a strategic improvement in the students’ achievement of learning outcomes that are valued by all. The quality of the school and classroom context is central to the promotion of learning and behaviour, and readers are encouraged to pursue this area, as well as family perspectives on educational planning and instruction, in greater depth. Several writers have discussed the contribution of careful programming and teaching to the prevention of misbehaviour and the development of positive patterns of behaviour, emphasising the proactive role of the classroom teacher and the importance of understanding the ecology of the individual (Blankenship, 1988; Lyons et al., 2011; Smith & Misra, 1992). In this book, Chapter 6 examines a range of strategies for encouraging appropriate behaviour in students, and Chapter 8 considers the impact of communication difficulties on behaviour.

REFLECT ON THIS Does one specific factor in curriculum, instruction and the learning context stand out for you when you think about your experiences in schools so far? Can you describe it in one sentence?

The following case study describing the development of a collaborative communication curriculum at Cranleigh School in the ACT (Narrative 5.1) illustrates many of the curricular, instructional and organisational aspects of effective teaching and learning discussed in the chapter to this point. The reader should note the interactive use of the principles and procedures described in Figure 5.2. As you read Narrative 5.1, consider the careful teacher navigation of individual needs, whole-school planning and support processes, and the central importance of a school ecology that maximises expectations of and outcomes achieved by all students.

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NARRATIVE 5.1 Cranleigh School: Bringing a communication curriculum to life Cranleigh School is part of a continuum of services for students with additional needs in the Australian Capital Territory. Although some educators may still operate from the inclusionist/ exclusionist viewpoint that ‘all special schools are segregationist’, Cranleigh is working hard to overcome this by serving as a vital link in the inclusion of its students within all aspects of the community. Inclusion at Cranleigh is not simply a matter of a specific location, but a mindset that pervades everything, in particular the teaching and learning environment, the model of classroom planning that is used and the teaching interventions that are employed. Over the past few years, Cranleigh School has had an intensive period of professional learning, working in school– university collaboration, and focusing on teachers developing more effective teaching strategies to increase student learning outcomes. It has been a time of trial and error, of hits and misses, but overall, the team has made some incredibly significant gains. Here is a snapshot of our journey.

The teaching and learning environment Our teaching and learning environment may appear radically different from a regular school setting, with class size being the most obvious dissimilarity. Our school also has a well-equipped gym, a hydrotherapy pool and a wide range of multisensory and interactive pieces of equipment in the playground. However, as with mainstream schools, there remains the enormous challenge of meeting the needs of all students in one class with vastly differing abilities and skills. We discovered that while there were many excellent teachers in our school, the way they taught differed greatly. This variation resulted in issues that arose when students transitioned between classes, differences in individual education programs (IEPs), class programs, difficulties experienced by learning support assistants (LSAs) working across classrooms, and perhaps most

Individual learning plans (ILPs) reporting What do we want our students to learn?

Where are our students now?

Assessing through data collection and recording

Quality Teaching

How will we know when our students get there?

Cranleigh and Malkara preschool and primary curriculum

How will our students get there? Class programs classroom practice

FIGURE 5.5 Cranleigh teaching and learning cycle (TLC) Source: Cranleigh Teaching and Learning Cycle (TLC), courtesy of S. Kerr and adapted with permission from the NSW Department of Education and Communities

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importantly, it created difficulties in our professional dialogue. We were not all on the same page. What the research told us was that ‘coherence’ was an important part of an effective teaching and learning environment in terms of achieving school improvement. So we implemented a whole-school approach. In order not to scare everyone, we decided to make it a whole-school approach to communication and alternative and augmentative communication (AAC), as the vast majority of our student population have severe difficulties in this area. By adopting a whole-school approach, many of the curricular, instructional and learning context issues disappeared, allowing us to focus on what is important – student learning. We became a professional learning community (PLC). This was initially hard, as we tried to come to agreements, and understand what certain words meant to different people. It is only now, in hindsight, that we can see how the sharing that we did in our teacher forums has led to a focus on collaborative practices, mutual accountability for student learning across the school and a shared sense of vision and purpose.

FIGURE 5.6 Cranleigh culture of communication poster developed during a professional learning session with all staff.

FIGURE 5.7 Teachers use the data wall to share their students’ progress in reaching their communication goals.

Source: Cranleigh Teaching

Source: Cranleigh Teaching and Learning Cycle (TLC), courtesy of S. Kerr and a ­ dapted

and Learning Cycle (TLC),

with permission from the NSW Department of Education and Communities.

­courtesy of S. Kerr and ­adapted with permission from the NSW Department of ­Education and Communities.

A model of classroom planning and practice in a specialist school

One of the key goals of the professional learning project was to develop a coherent approach to classroom planning across the school. In a special school, the IEPs for every student add another level of complexity. What we have tried to achieve over the past two years are clear links between each element of our teaching and learning cycle, with quality teaching at the centre. The Cranleigh Teaching and Learning Cycle is a tool to assist teachers in their planning and practice by highlighting these four questions: 1 Where are my students now? (screening/initial assessment) 2 What do I want my students to learn? (goals/outcomes) 3 How will my students get there? (teaching strategies)

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4 How do I know when my students get there? (data collection/assessment) Once we had worked through this cycle and teachers felt comfortable with the TLC it became the whole-school focus that was integrated into all aspects of classroom planning including: • the IEPs • the reports • the class programs • the curriculum and communication matrix • our coaching templates • our data wall • our culture • the way we think and talk about what is happening in our classrooms.

Effective teaching interventions In order to have a coherent approach to communication, we worked with speech pathologists to develop a way to answer the four questions of the teaching and learning cycle. We spent a large part of the professional learning sessions collaboratively developing a communication matrix and then sharing how it could improve our teaching to include the vast range of communication needs across the school. We created a video of good pedagogical practices and this enabled us to provide more effective training to LSAs and parents. The communication matrix is now used by every teacher in the school. This took time, a lot of time. Of course, like all schools we have a staff turnover, so we ensure we cater for this with staff training at the beginning of each year. However, we can also see that tremendous change has occurred and is evident across the school. We now have a culture of communication that has evolved from staff sharing their vision for what our school could be. Most importantly, as we analyse our IEP data and meet to discuss our communication data wall, we can see that our students are making progress in their communication goals. It is a really exciting time, especially as this year, our new project is to focus on a whole-school approach to teaching literacy while maintaining our communication focus. Source: Cranleigh Teaching and Learning Cycle (TLC), courtesy of S. Kerr and adapted with permission from the NSW Department of Education and Communities.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What is your first reaction to this narrative in relation to the issues of instruction, curriculum and learning context as discussed earlier? 2. Why do you think it was helpful to frame change of this scale in terms of the students’ communication needs? 3. Who are the key players reflected in the Cranleigh narrative? 4. Discuss the concept of a professional learning community (PLC)? 5. Can a specialist school be inclusive? Why/why not? 6. How would another kind of school benefit from the PLC approach?

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5.4 Designing effective teaching interventions Having discussed preventative and pro-active aspects of teaching and learning at a school and class level, our attention now turns to the design of specific instructional programs for individuals. Today’s teachers are increasingly tasked with using evidence-based practices (EBPs) to support all students to successfully access the curriculum. The Council for Exceptional Children in collaboration with the CEEDAR Center in the USA have developed a guide, Highleverage practices in special education (McLeskey et al., 2017). Several state education systems in Australia have followed the high-leverage practices (HLPs) concept and developed their own documents to provide teachers with practices that have been shown through research to increase student learning wherever they are implemented. NSW’s What works best: 2020 update (CESE, 2020) and the State of Victoria Department of Education and Training’s (2019) High Impact Teaching Strategies are two recent examples. Although those state documents are targeted to mainstream education teachers, and not specifically meant for students with disability, they are very much aligned with HLPs 11–22 in High-leverage practices in special education (McLeskey et al., 2017). As the latter is more extensive, explicit, and aimed at practices for students with disability, it is described below. Figure 5.8 details the alignment of the Australian guides to HLPs 11–22 in the US guide.

high-leverage practices High-leverage practices (HLPs) are those that research has demonstrated can impact student achievement across different content areas and grade levels.

High-leverage practices in special education

The High-leverage practices in special education (McLeskey et al., 2017) are a set of highly effective practices deeply grounded in research. The 22 high-leverage practices (HLPs) are organised around four categories of practice – collaboration, assessment, social/emotional/behavioural practices, and instruction. The practices are culturally responsive and are considered good practice for all educators, not just special education teachers. Each practice is described below, organised by the four categories of practice.

Collaboration

Effective special education teachers often practise within collaborative or wraparound models – they work with a range of students, educators, service providers and families to ensure that each student’s educational program is designed and implemented effectively to meet their individual needs. Collaborative activities should be centred around designing each student’s program to meet their individual goals and collecting data to monitor progress towards these goals. Therefore, the first HLP in this category is Collaborate with professionals to increase student success. Collaboration requires the teacher to lead and participate in a variety of meetings, so HLP2 is Organise and facilitate effective meetings with professionals and families. This would involve developing a meeting agenda, allocating time to meet the parts of the agenda, and encourage consensus building through positive verbal and non-verbal communication, encouraging the sharing of multiple perspectives, demonstrating active listening and soliciting feedback. Effective teachers collaborate with families; hence HLP3, Collaborate with families to support student learning and secure needed services. This involves communicating effectively and respectfully, in regard to the family’s culture, language and priorities. Teachers work with families to help them build their skills in advocating for their children and supporting their learning. Teachers should also be building positive relationships with students, fostering self-determination and encouraging them to self-advocate.

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CEC/CEEDAR Center High Leverage Practices (HLPs) Instruction

VDET High Impact Teaching Strategies (HITS) .

HLP11 Identify and prioritise longand short-term learning goals.

1. Setting goals

HLP12 Systematically design instruction toward a specific learning goal.

2. Structuring lessons

HLP13 Adapt curriculum tasks and materials for specific learning goals.

2. Structuring lessons

HLP14 Teach cognitive and metacognitive strategies to support learning and independence. HLP15 Provide scaffolded supports. HLP16 Use explicit instruction.

NSW What Works Best . 1. High expectations 4. Use of data to inform practice

10. Differentiated teaching

4. Use of data to inform practice

4. Use of data to inform practice

1. Setting goals

2. Explicit teaching

9. Metacognitive strategies

3. Effective feedback

2. Structuring lessons

1. High expectations

10. Differentiated teaching

4. Use of data to inform practice

3. Explicit teaching 4. Worked examples

HLP17 Use flexible grouping.

5. Collaborative learning

HLP18 Use strategies to promote active student engagement.

5. Collaborative learning 7. Questioning

2. Explicit teaching 7. Collaboration 5. Classroom management 6. Well being 7. Collaboration

HLP19 Use assistive and instructional technologies.

10. Differentiated teaching

1. High expectations

HLP20 Provide intensive instruction.

6. Multiple exposures

2. Explicit teaching

HLP21 Teach students to maintain and generalise new learning across time and settings.

3. Explicit teaching

2. Explicit teaching

6. Multiple exposures

3. Effective feedback

8. Feedback

5. Classroom management

HLP22 Provide positive and constructive feedback to guide students’ learning and behaviour.

FIGURE 5.8 Alignment of evidence-based practice guides Sources: Adapted from CEEDAR, Victorian Department of Education and NSW Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation

Assessment

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High Leverage Practice (HLP) 4 is Use multiple sources of information to develop a comprehensive understanding of a student’s strengths and needs. Teachers can do this by using a variety of measures and sources (e.g., information from families, general education teachers, service providers) to determine the student’s strengths and needs and analyse the education environments to discover potential supports and barriers to the student’s progress. Teachers should take care to ensure that all measurements are linguistically and culturally responsive. After collecting the data, it should be analysed and used to create a profile of the individual student’s strengths and needs.

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All stakeholders should be a part of the assessment, goal development and goal implementation process. Teachers facilitate this through attention to HLP5: Interpret and communicate assessment information with stakeholders to collaboratively design and implement educational programs. This will enable the team of stakeholders to collaboratively design and implement individualised education and transition plans that include evidence-based instructional practices, and accommodations and modifications that are aligned to the student’s strengths and needs. Once the plan is implemented, the special education teacher will Use student assessment data, analyse instructional practices, and make necessary adjustments that improve student outcomes (HLP6). Teachers evaluate and adjust the plan and instructional practices contained within it on an ongoing basis. This can be accomplished through the collection of curriculum-based measures, informal classroom assessments, student observations, teacher self-assessment of instruction, and discussions with the student, family, and service providers. Effective teachers retain, reuse and extend practices that improve student learning and adjust or discard those that do not. As in Narrative 5.1, the following case study of Katie (Narrative 5.2) highlights the importance of a dynamic and collaborative approach to assessment and planning and delivering educational programs that address individual needs by recognising the complex interaction of factors that can influence student learning and participation.

NARRATIVE 5.2 Katie Katie is enrolled in a mainstream primary school. She is an imaginative girl who enjoys reading about cats, playing her favourite video games and visiting her grandparents on weekends. Katie is in Year 2 and has been recently diagnosed on the autism spectrum. Each year the school has struggled to work with a range of behavioural challenges that Katie exhibits, and now the staff are unsure about how to best support Katie due to the increasing severity of these challenges. When Katie arrives at school each morning she plays alone, choosing to run around the school playground and pretend she is a character in her favourite video game. When other students try to engage with her play, she moves far away from them. When it is time Autism for class, Katie chooses to remain outside. A teaching assistant is sometimes successful at getting Katie to enter the classroom by promising a reward if she can complete some class work. When in the classroom, Katie mostly chooses not to attempt class work, instead taking herself to the book corner in the room and seeking out books about cats. When Katie is repeatedly prompted to participate in classroom activities, she can frequently become very angry, yelling and hitting out at staff and then running out of the classroom to resume engaging in fantasy play as a video game character on the playground. On the rare occasion that Katie has participated in class work, she has displayed an above-average academic capacity for the learning tasks. A learning support team meeting was held between Katie’s parents, a therapy team consisting of a psychologist, speech therapist and occupational therapist, the school principal, Katie’s class teacher, teaching assistant, and an itinerant autism education consultant. An IEP was drafted with a focus on establishing proactive strategies to address and support Katie’s needs. Some of the strategies from this IEP are noted below.

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Positive behaviour support Using a Motivational Assessment Scale, the learning support team was able to determine that Katie’s challenging behaviour primarily occurs in relation to a desire to escape staff attention. She appears to feel threatened by the expectations that staff have about following the class routine. When Katie feels threatened, she yells at staff, hits out at them, runs out of the classroom and proceeds to engage in fantasy play by herself. Considering the notion that all behaviour is a form of communication, the learning support team decide that Katie is communicating that she lacks the skills necessary to be able to participate in the classroom without feeling threatened by classroom expectations. It is decided that there are three key domains that Katie needs skill development in so she is able to more confidently participate in the classroom: Katie needs to better understand what is expected of her in the classroom, Katie needs to realise a connection between her special interests and the academic goals of the classroom, and Katie needs to learn better ways of expressing herself when she feels uncomfortable.

Environmental supports While the classroom already uses elements of structured teaching, including a group visual timetable and visual cues on the interactive whiteboard to help students organise their workflow, further environmental supports are required to help Katie feel comfortable with the routines of the classroom. An individual timetable has been created for Katie, displaying a small roster of activities she can complete. The timetable uses cats and video game characters to help make it more appealing for Katie. A social story has been created to help explain the way this individual timetable works, making clear how many tasks Katie needs to complete and what sort of tasks they are. This social story is sent home to be read in the evening and the morning before school with her family, and is then read again to Katie by staff at the start of the school day.

Special interests Katie’s special interests provide her with a lot of comfort. When she feels threatened or uncomfortable, she seeks to escape into the fantasy of her special interests. It is decided that the key to helping Katie feel comfortable in the classroom is to incorporate her special interests into classroom learning activities. For example, literacy tasks that Katie completes now incorporate her interest in cats, and science tasks use Katie’s favourite video game to help meet academic outcomes. Katie is encouraged to take photos of her class work so she can share it with her grandparents when she visits them on the weekend. As well, class peers who share similar interests to Katie have started asking if they can work with her. This utilisation of special interests as part of the class program, rather than solely as a reward given after she completes regular class work, has made a big difference to Katie’s level of comfort and motivation in the classroom, and the social connections with her peers are continuing to flourish.

Emotional and social regulation One of the things that Katie previously had a lot of trouble with was understanding and talking about her emotions and recognising the emotions of others. Previously when her family or school staff would ask Katie how she was feeling, she could not provide an answer. Katie also appeared not to be able to read the emotional and social expressions of her class peers. The learning support team decided that Katie required more education around her emotional and social regulation so she would be able to express herself and more readily recognise the expressions of others. This involved helping Katie to frequently check-in across the school day and reflect on how she was feeling, whether she felt sad, happy, anxious or angry, and to consider the strategies she could use when she is feeling a particular way. These strategies were then visually displayed in

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the classroom near Katie’s desk. They were also incorporated into the whole class program as a regular discussion about emotional expression across the school day so that Katie and her peers could collaboratively practise recognising each other’s emotions.

Conclusion By redesigning the environmental supports used to explain classroom expectations to Katie, by incorporating her special interests into the class program, and by teaching Katie skills around understanding herself and others better, the learning support team was able to provide Katie with the skills she required so that she no longer considered the classroom to be an overwhelming experience. Katie displayed a reduced frequency of engaging in fantasy play alone on the playground and instead displayed an increase in playing socially with her class peers and participating as part of the group in her classroom. Katie’s quality of life and sense of ease at school appeared to significantly increase, and the challenging behaviours related to avoiding the classroom and hitting out at staff were reduced to a point where no challenging incidents were being reported. Katie’s parents and the rest of the learning support team were very pleased with this result. The team also realised that while this was a terrific result, there was still a requirement for consistent monitoring and evaluation of Katie’s success at school so that as she continues to change and grow, so too will the implemented strategies change and grow with her to best support her continued progress. Source: Prepared by Craig Smith, Autism Spectrum Australia (Aspect)

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What is the value of having a variety of participants in a learning support team? How do the participants in a learning support team come to understand how a student presents within the school context, particularly those participants who have only observed a student external to the school? 2. How would you incorporate a student’s special interests into your class program? Consider examples across a variety of curriculum areas. 3. In this narrative it is says that ‘all behaviour is a form of communication’. How might this provide a starting point when approaching an understanding of a student’s challenging behaviour? 4. What are some ways an IEP document could be established to be a flexible, living document that is able to grow and change as the needs of the student it has been created for similarly grow and change?

Social, emotional and behavioural practices

Although these practices are covered in more depth in Chapter 6, it would be remiss to exclude them here, as there exists much overlap between instructional practice and this category. The first HLP in this category, HLP7 is to Establish a consistent, organised, and respectful learning environment. The three HLPs that follow are ways to make this happen: • HLP 8: Provide positive and constructive feedback to guide students’ learning and behaviour • HLP9: Teach social behaviour

• HLP10: Conduct functional behavioural assessments to develop individual student support plans.

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The building and fostering of positive relationships with students requires teachers to establish culturally responsive expectations, routines, and procedures within their classrooms. These should be positively stated, explicitly taught, and practised across the school year. This includes the teaching of social skills, including communication and self-management, aligning lessons with classroom and schoolwide expectations. Teachers should provide positive specific performance feedback in meaningful and caring ways to students who are meeting these expectations. To foster mutually respectful relationships with students, teachers can engage them in creating the rules and routines. A positive classroom climate is respectful and values ethnic, cultural, contextual and linguistic diversity. For students who experience behavioural challenges, conducting a functional behavioural assessment (FBA) is key to designing an effective behaviour plan. More detailed information about FBAs is available in Chapter 6.

Instruction

Because the focus of this chapter is effective teaching strategies, more attention and detail are given to this category to make it clear how these practices, when used in a Universal Design for Learning and Response to Intervention framework can be used to effectively plan instruction. The first HLP in the Instruction category, HLP11, Identify and prioritise long- and short-term learning goals is focused around providing access to and success in the general education and life-skills (if relevant) curricula. Teachers prioritise learning goals according to assessment data and students’ IEP goals. Once the teacher has prioritised learning goals, the next step is to Systematically design instruction toward a specific learning goal (HLP12). They design instruction to ensure that students have a solid foundation for more complex learning and sequence lessons that build on each other. Careful consideration is given to the learning goals, what students need to do to meet the goals, and how much time should be given (pacing). These can be adjusted based on student performance. The following sections demonstrate how instruction is systematically designed through the identification of curriculum priorities and long-term outcome goals, curriculum-based assessment, and designing short-term instructional objectives.

Identification of curriculum priorities and long-term outcome goals

There are a number of possible sources for the curriculum priorities and long-term outcome goals that form the basis of class-level programming designed to include students with disability. At the outset, it is vital that teachers are highly familiar with the relevant state and national curriculum documents (see weblinks at the end of this chapter and throughout the book). First, in the context of the key learning areas, syllabus documents and program directions for the whole class, the teacher may identify specific areas of need for an individual student. For example, a primary school teacher may be generally aware of the difficulties experienced by a Year 5 student in the area of producing different text types, in the light of various work samples and the stages, learning outcomes and indicators described in syllabus documents and education department protocols. The teacher may then decide to use a particular screening test to confirm this suspicion. Of course, parents may also alert the teacher to difficulties the student is having in consolidating and generalising the skills outside the classroom. Second, the established long-term goals, often viewed as an annual target, will usually reflect the needs of students in both their current and future situations. These goals are usually expressed in the form of an individualised educational program or plan (IEP) (AITSL, 2017; Dempsey, 2012; State of Victoria Department of Education and Training, 2020). An IEP is simply a written statement of the target curriculum areas, intended learning outcomes and necessary

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supports for an individual, and usually involves collaborative input from the student, regular and special education (support) teachers, parents and other personnel such as counsellors and speech pathologists (State of Victoria Department of Education and Training, 2020). In some cases, such decisions may be the result of formal review or team meetings. In other situations, they may be agreed on more informally. Regardless of the level of formality, the IEP development and review process is an ideal platform for improving an understanding of the experiences of the learner with additional needs, including their preferences for various modes of sensory input and modes of expression. The importance of teamwork and collaboration in the design of effective teaching interventions was dealt with in detail in Chapter 3 and reviewed earlier in this chapter. At this point, it is critical to note that the process of reviewing student needs and developing an IEP is a fluid yet vital part of effective planning for teaching success, and informs curricular, instructional and contextual supports for students with disability. There is evidence of improved student learning outcomes when a plan of support is developed and implemented by a team that is unified and focused on collaboration (McLeskey et al., 2017). Regardless of the manner in which such priorities and goals are established, the classroom teacher is centrally responsible for their implementation and evaluation. Accordingly, it is vital that both general and special education classroom teachers contribute to and support the planning processes and intended outcomes for students. The curriculum priorities and longterm outcome goals for a student with additional needs may be very similar to those planned for the majority of students in the class, or they may involve modified or alternative curricula (see Chapter 4). The interested reader may wish to review sample learning outcomes from various states and territories accessible through the Australian Government’s education internet portal (see weblinks at the end of the chapter). Having identified appropriate curriculum priorities and long-term outcome goals for the student, the teacher uses the principles of curriculum-based assessment to design and implement a teaching program that aims for student success.

Curriculum-based assessment

Essentially, curriculum-based assessment (CBA) is a framework for class-level testing of student performance, and the use of this information in programming and teaching decisions. Unlike standardised testing, where individual student performance is compared against that of the wider population, the teacher who employs CBA effectively generates a profile of the learner in the context of the specific curriculum goals and experiences of that individual. Blankenship and Lilly (1981) have defined CBA as ‘the process of obtaining direct and frequent measures of a student’s performance on a series of sequentially arranged objectives derived from the curriculum used in the classroom’ (p. 81). Several features of this definition are important to note. First, CBA is a process, rather than an isolated testing event. Second, such measures are direct and frequent, and occur in the classroom as a normal part of the teaching day. Third, student performance is considered in terms of a sequence of objectives. This implies that lesson content is analysed, and targeted student performance is clearly stated. Finally, the curriculum followed in the classroom forms the basis for assessment. Of course, these curricula will often reflect the prescribed content set out in syllabus documents adopted for use in key learning areas. Alternatively, as discussed earlier, long-term teaching and learning goals for a student with disability may be derived from an individualised educational program. The use of systematic data to inform the teaching and curriculum decisions made by the teacher is one of the hallmarks of the CBA approach (Hosp et al., 2016). CBA research over recent years has emphasised that progress monitoring alone does not necessarily provide teachers with the guidance they need to make adaptations, and that expert support and professional development may be required to help teachers design new strategies to meet specific student needs (Gettinger & Stoiber, 2012). For an excellent aid to developing CBA tools, see weblinks at the end of this chapter.

curriculum-based assessment Teaching and testing designed to maximise learning outcomes by emphasising careful assessment, programming and frequent evaluation of performance.

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CBA, then, helps the teacher to clearly identify students’ instructional needs (see Figure 5.9) by pinpointing what the students can presently do as well as the skills and knowledge they need (Hosp et al., 2016). The five main steps involved in CBA are described, along with examples of the application of these procedures later on in this chapter.

FIGURE 5.9 Curriculum-based assessment helps teachers to identify instructional needs.

short-term instructional objectives Precise statements, which specify the learner, the behaviour or content to be achieved, the conditions under which this will occur and a criterion for successful performance.

REFLECT ON THIS Is curriculumbased assessment simply what effective teachers do every day? Or is it something more?

By developing a series of short-term instructional objectives that reflect the specific learning needs of the individual, ensuring that small progress steps are built in and regularly checking the quality of student performance, the teacher is using the principles of mastery learning (Bloom, 1980, 1984).

Designing short-term instructional objectives

To facilitate careful monitoring of student progress and to change teaching and learning programs as necessary, a very clear statement of intended student performance can be designed (see Alberto & Troutman, 2013, for further information on this aspect of programming). Progress is then measured against this objective, allowing the teacher to make informed decisions about whether, for example, to introduce the next skill in the sequence (or section of content) or, alternatively, to revise student understanding and application in the present area. Short-term instructional objectives (sometimes referred to as teaching, performance or behavioural objectives) should reflect small progress steps for the student based on the performance information gathered in the class-level assessment phase. As demonstrated in the two examples that follow, these very specific statements of intended student performance have four features, expressed in a variety of ways (see Alberto & Troutman, 2013). TABLE 5.1 Key components of short-term objectives

Features

Example

Student name

Paul will …

The conditions under which the behaviour will occur

when provided with the cue ‘Paul, write your name’, …

Statement of intended behaviour

legibly write his name within 2 cm boundary lines …

Criteria for successful performance

on three consecutive occasions over two days.

The example provided in Table 5.1 describes an academic skill that is important for Paul, identified from direct assessment of his classroom behaviour and a curriculum sequence. Many teachers write similar objectives for social behaviour, as demonstrated in the next example (Alberto & Troutman, 2013; Lyons et al., 2011). Note that the following example relates to the performance of the whole class, rather than an individual student. Class 4H, on hearing the teacher’s request for silence, will be sitting quietly without noise within 10 seconds, on five consecutive occasions.

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The short-term instructional objective is a precise statement of expected student performance, based on what the students can do and need to be able to do. It does not, however, specify how to teach students.

Adapting curriculum tasks

The step after designing the instruction toward learning goals is HLP13: Adapt curriculum tasks and materials for specific learning goals. Teachers adapt learning tasks and materials so that students can meet their learning goals. Often this involves the use of technology and modifications to the amount of material and criteria for student success. Once tasks and materials are adapted, teachers can then Teach cognitive and metacognitive strategies to support learning and independence (HLP14). Cognitive and metacognitive processing strategies are explicitly taught in order to support students’ memory, attention, and selfregulation of learning. Learning involves not only understanding content but also using cognitive processes to solve problems, regulate attention, organise thoughts and materials, and monitor one’s own thinking. Self-regulation and metacognitive strategy instruction are integrated into lessons on academic content through modelling and explicit instruction. One such example of this is self-directed learning.

Self-directed learning

The development of student autonomy and independence in learning is perhaps the most important and noteworthy aspect of the many cognitive and metacognitive approaches to instruction discussed above. In a similar vein, self-directed learning, as the name implies, is the provision of opportunities for students to explore knowledge in their own way and at their own speed. Teachers may use some form of contract to encourage student completion of particular tasks or modules and could assist students to identify different means of accessing information, including the internet (see information on computer-assisted instruction later in the chapter.). Teachers may have a highly facilitative role initially, or they may need to provide more structure and then withdraw. For example, depending on the ability of the student(s), teachers may identify a very broad topic and ask the student to brainstorm component aspects for subsequent study. Alternatively, they may provide a problem that requires a solution as a framework for the investigation of relevant sources. Without doubt, the motivational benefits of such an approach are the most appealing reason for teachers to utilise self-directed learning. Clearly, maturational factors play a large part in determining whether an individual can responsibly complete such tasks with scaffolded support from a teacher and so, like any other teaching approach, constant monitoring of student engagement is vital for success.

Approaches such as worked examples, collaborative learning (which includes peer tutoring, reciprocal teaching, small group learning), and cooperative learning can be used to help students make connections among the skills, knowledge, and concepts they learn, and to be able to independently tackle new and challenging tasks in school and beyond. See Figure 5.10 for more information about collaborative and cooperative learning.

cognitive approaches Cognitive approaches involve the transfer of a teacher-designed strategy to the student through a series of training steps. The use of scaffolding is common. metacognitive approaches An approach in which the student develops a strategy to attempt a task. The student may receive teacher or student assistance in the initial development of the strategy, although the final strategy requires the student to monitor and evaluate the strategy’s effectiveness.

Scaffolding

High Leverage Practice 15 involves the provision of scaffolded supports. Scaffolding involves temporarily providing students with visual, verbal and written supports based on student ability and need in relation to academic tasks, then gradually removing them once they are no longer needed. The use of explicit instruction (HLP16) places a great deal of emphasis on the clear transmission of information to the learner, and student success on the learning tasks. It often involves making content clear by showing and telling students what to do or think while problem-solving and completing tasks. Explicit instruction is especially important when students are learning new material and/or complex concepts and skills. Teachers choose examples, modify

explicit instruction (EI) A highly structured teaching method in which skills are carefully sequenced and explicitly taught, with continuous feedback to students about performance.

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Collaborative learning

Cooperative learning

Better suited to older students

Better suited to younger students

Method of teaching and learning in which students team together to explore a significant question or create a meaningful project.

A specific kind of collaborative learning where students work together in small groups on a structured activity.

Shared accountability; students assess their own individual and group performance.

Individual accountability through teacher assessment, but work of the whole group is often also assessed.

Could be from different schools or even countries working virtually.

Face-to-face teamwork

Students organise their efforts between themselves (group-structured).

Activities are structured with each student assigned a specific role (teacher-structured).

Activity is not monitored by the teacher, although the group can request teacher assistance.

Teachers provide materials for students to read and analyse.

Success depends on individual strengths.

The success of the group depends upon the efforts of everyone involved.

FIGURE 5.10 Comparison of collaborative learning and cooperative learning

language to support student understanding, highlight essential content, remove distracting information, model steps or processes. The stimulus control principles of explicit instruction are often featured both overtly or covertly in teaching handbooks, resource books, and published instructional programs (Carnine & Fletcher-Janzen, 2013; Mitchell, 2014).

Flexible grouping

HLP17, using flexible grouping, calls for teachers to assign students homogeneous and heterogeneous groups based on learning goals, monitor peer interactions and provide feedback to support learning. Cooperative learning is a research-based method of flexible grouping (Mitchell, 2014). Using a problem-solving focus, students with a range of ability levels work together to achieve learning outcomes through a process of planned interdependence. Rewards can be based on individual or group changes in performance, and many variations on the basic theme, such as Jigsaw, Student Teams Achievement Divisions, and Think-Pair-Share, have been developed. (For a practical discussion of the key aspects of several models and a range of instructional considerations when using cooperative approaches, see Gillies, 2016 and Mitchell, 2014.)

Cooperative learning

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Cooperative learning can promote the inclusion of students with additional needs, with an emphasis on the social process, positive learning outcomes and relevance to a wide variety of student needs highlighted in current literature (Gillies, 2016; Van Ryzin & Roseth, 2018). However, cooperative learning is considerably more than simply placing students into groups and providing a task for them to complete. For example, Gillies (2016) and Van Ryzin & Roseth (2018) both emphasised the importance of preparing students for cooperative

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learning, including the clear definition of roles, and monitoring progress closely as the group works together. McLeskey et al. (2017) suggested that teachers consider group dynamics (e.g. establishing before the activity, as far as possible, which students will be compatible) in the successful introduction of cooperative learning strategies in the classroom. While this method may have a great deal to offer, then, in terms of promoting student acceptance of individual differences and improving student learning outcomes, the time involved in carefully structuring and overviewing such a program may be regarded by some teachers as a limitation to its practical use in schools and classes. Beginning teachers are more likely to succeed when they are given collegial support and there is a whole-school promotion of inclusiveness of approach for all students, particularly when differences in students are perceived as ordinary and everyday (Gillies, 2016; McLeskey et al., 2017). Teachers can use a variety of instructional Strategies to promote active student engagement (HLP18). One of the best ways to do this initially is to build positive student– teacher relationships to foster engagement and motivate reluctant learners (Marsh et al., 2019). They foster these relationships by connecting learning to students’ academic and cultural backgrounds. A seminal article by Simonsen et al. (2008) suggests a variety of evidence-based practices to promote engagement: increasing student opportunities to respond through the use of choral responding and response cards, peer tutoring, and providing positive and constructive feedback. This research has been updated by several researchers in the field (see Briere et al., 2015; Gage et al., 2020, Riden et al., 2020) and now also includes the use of positive behaviour support and supporting students in developing self-regulation and self-determination skills.

Peer tutoring as a strategy to promote active student engagement

Peer tutoring is a general descriptor for teaching strategies that involve one student helping another with specified content or tasks. Typically, these may be referred to as same-age or crossage tutoring arrangements (see Figure 5.11). In the first type, the tutor is usually in the same age-bracket (or class) as the tutored student(s), while in cross-age tutoring, the tutor is older than the tutee. The tutor may have several roles, including modelling, explaining skills or content, and encouraging the tutored student(s), and so training and monitoring of the tutor is an important issue for the supervising teacher. (For an excellent discussion of several critical considerations in the effective use of peer tutoring and peer-centred strategies more generally, see Mitchell, 2014). Tutoring may produce important affective and skills-based improvements for both the tutor and tutee, and promote the achievement of individualised support in inclusive settings (Mitchell, 2014). As noted earlier, teachers may decide to combine strategies in order to best meet the needs of their students. In one study, Spencer, Scruggs and Mastropieri (2003) utilised peer tutoring with strategy instruction in the skill of summarising paragraphs. They found that not only did the targeted students with emotional or behavioural problems enjoy this format when compared with more traditional lesson types, but they demonstrated important improvements in their on-task behaviour and their achievement in some content testing. It should be noted that as peer tutoring is a longestablished practice with a deep evidence base from the 1980s–2000s, that there is a dearth of current literature on the practice, and the most current FIGURE 5.11 Peer tutoring can be same-age or cross-age. literature focuses on its use in higher education.

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Strengths and limitations Like all teaching strategies, peer tutoring has several potential strengths and weaknesses. One of the major contributions of the approach is the use of peers as an additional instructional resource, providing an opportunity for individualised student practice and skill development. On the other hand, peer tutoring may only be suitable for certain curriculum areas or topics and can be overly demanding in terms of preliminary student training as well as ongoing teacher monitoring. Teachers who plan to use peer tutoring should explore the tutor training aspects associated with the strategy in order to avoid the problem of tutees practising errors or diverging off-task due to poor tutor support. In the following Narrative 5.3, note the insightful teacher perspectives on peer relationships and friendships as a critical aspect of inclusion.

NARRATIVE 5.3 A New Zealand teacher’s perspective on the social basis of inclusion People are social beings, and strive to be around other people, regardless of their ability. When a young person leaves school, one hopes they are socially confident, accepted members of their community. Sometimes people need extra support to have successful social experiences. Students in New Zealand with special education needs can access a range of support services, depending on their level of need. These students receive access to all ongoing resourcing scheme (ORS) funding and are of secondary school age. They make up approximately 1% of our school population and have moderate to significant additional needs, which are ongoing and require significant adaptation of the curriculum. Students with special needs must develop a sense of belonging to their communities: school, township, their neighbourhood, the shops they visit and the way they can contribute to their community. Inclusion for these students encompasses many things – participating in school events; using the school facilities; being part of the Youthtown program, attending after-school classes, and participating in events organised by the school. It also includes weekly visits to the town library, supermarket, recreational areas, swimming pool complex and gym. It includes attending some seasonal or local events; for example, going to the park to see All Blacks players when they come to town or visiting the local lead-up to the International Ironman event! These are real and meaningful ways of developing a sense of belonging to our community. These experiences are reinforced in the classroom through discussions and sharing. A successful school experience for our secondary students with special needs must include a program of learning that specifically targets their areas of need – particularly around developing their communication and social skills. A program that considers inclusion across the student’s wider community also includes and empowers their family to support their child’s social development, thereby enhancing the school–home partnership. The current idea in NZ around our ORS-funded students who are in primary mainstream classes is to provide their 0.5 to 1.0 day with some weekly specialist teacher time through a teacher who is attached to a specialist facility and works in an itinerant role. So in larger regions, it may be a special school, but in this geographical area, which is still relatively small, that facility is the special education unit at a secondary school. The idea is that teachers develop their skills through working with a range of students with special needs, and also develop collegial support with others working in the same field. The itinerant specialist teacher’s role is also moving away from working intensively with students, towards working to up-skill and empower the classroom teacher to support students with special needs. This involves modelling for teachers and teacher

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assistants, providing assistance and ideas around ways to adapt the curriculum to meet the students’ needs, as well as ongoing reflective practices. In New Zealand, students’ social learning is as important as their academic learning. For a student to have positive inclusive experiences, the social and communication hurdles are far greater than any learning hurdles. IEPs and subsequent learning programs that include social as well as academic goals help students to develop lifelong skills which will increase their ability to participate in a range of experiences. Other students are a school’s greatest resource for successful inclusive practices. Being honest with students about why someone looks, sounds or acts differently helps to break down barriers to acceptance. Giving students the words to say, or things they can do to help someone else, helps to eliminate worries they may have about working with someone who can react quite differently from themselves. In fact, classroom teachers may also benefit from this type of information as, at times, a child with special needs in their class may be their first experience of someone with special needs. Developing the teacher’s expectation that all students will participate in all class events also helps everyone feel a sense of equality. Friendships are formed across a range of ages, groups and shared experiences. An inclusive environment for our students with special needs is one where they have opportunities to form a range of friendships and to participate in a range of experiences. Successful inclusion in a community is about actively participating in that community, whether it be a small school community or a large town community. Our students are happy – they love to come to school and they love to participate in the community, so they are in an optimum learning situation. We all learn best when we enjoy what we do. Source: Prepared by Michelle Pointon, Special Education Teacher and Support Teacher Outreach Service – Tauhara College, Taupo, New Zealand

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How does this narrative challenge traditional views of educational pathways for students with disability? 2. What are the whole-of-life considerations in this narrative, and who are typically the people best placed to assist students with additional needs to achieve the best educational outcomes? 3. How can teachers utilise peer relationships to support learning in students? 4. How important is the school and community culture in building inclusive opportunities for students?

Technology-supported strategies have also been shown to increase access and engagement for students with disability (Cumming & Draper Rodriguez, 2017) and is aligned with HLP19, Use of assistive and instructional technologies. Effective teachers select and implement assistive and instructional technologies to support the access and participation of students with disabilities. These technologies may include augmentative and alternative communication devices and instructional technology that promotes student learning and independence. To choose technology, they evaluate it based on evidence of effectiveness, student needs and IEP goals, and professional knowledge.

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Information technology and computer-assisted instruction

The role of digital technology in educational and support programs is ever-changing, as access to hardware, software and peripherals continues to improve (for more details and the history of research and practice in this area, see Boone et al., 2006; Cumming & Draper Rodriguez, 2017; Kagohara et al. 2013). In addition to providing augmentative and alternative means of communication for students with severe physical or intellectual disabilities (Cumming & Strnadová, 2020), computers, mobile devices, and other technologies can be used to enhance and support teaching and learning programs in multiple ways. The potential roles and contributions of mobile and digital technologies in instructional programs may include improving student attention to and concentration on tasks, individualised practice and drill opportunities, improved levels of motivation, and enhanced thinking and problem-solving skills in core areas such as grammar as well as specialist subject areas (Cumming & Strnadová, 2020).

Of course, the quality of peripherals such as scanners, digital cameras and videos and relevant instructional software and applications will determine the degree to which technology supports make a positive and sustained impact on student learning and participation. However, it is fairly self-evident that computers and mobile technologies such as smartphones cannot replace teacher-directed instruction, given the constant need for teacher explanation of concepts, linkages to previous and new materials and the complex levels of information processing exhibited by students in classrooms every day. Researchers continue, however, to explore ways in which computers in the form of tablets, iPads and other mobile technologies can support and maximise individual learning processes and outcomes in various educational and social learning contexts (Bedesem, 2012; Bouck et al., 2012; Cumming & Strnadová, 2020; Kagohara et al., 2013). Teachers of students with disability Provide intensive instruction (HLP20) commensurate with the academic and behavioural needs of the students. This is typically small group instruction, where students with similar needs are grouped together and work on a small number of high priority skills, such as literacy or numeracy. Teachers use systematic, explicit, well-paced instruction. Students’ progress is monitored frequently, and instruction is adjusted accordingly. Increased opportunities to respond and immediate corrective feedback are important evidencebased practices used during this instruction. Task analysis is one form of intensive instruction, often used when a student is having difficulty mastering a specific task.

Task analysis

Task analysis, is the strategy of breaking down a task (or activity) into its component parts. Typically, a task will be made up of content (knowledge, concepts, facts) and strategies (what to do with the content) (Snodgrass et al., 2017). A task analysis can assist the general education teacher to answer the question: ‘What is involved in Student A successfully completing that task, or demonstrating that skill?’ In the following example in Figure 5.12 note the sequencing of steps and the role of prerequisites in the overall completion of a task.

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This type of analysis allows the teacher to view, from the perspective of the learner, the complexity of a learning task. In the example above, prerequisites, subtasks, concepts and strategies built into the task include fine motor control (mobile phone use), numerical and operational screen and key recognition and selection, and comparison of results when presented in two formats. Of course, it will not be necessary to analyse such a task in this way for most students in the class. In addition, such an exercise can take up a considerable amount of time. However, for a small number of students, task analysis has a wide range of applications, from the broad (‘What comprises successful grade-level writing?’) to the specific point of focus (‘What is the skills sequence for designing a basic computing program?’). It can be used for academic, social and activity skills (see discussion questions at the end of this chapter) and provides the classroom teacher with information that is useful in three phases of teaching (Snell & Brown, 2011). First, as an assessment device, the task analysis helps the teacher to decide where, in a

CHAPTER 5 Planning effective teaching strategies

given activity or skill, the student is having difficulty. Second, the teacher can then pinpoint the area of need and write appropriate teaching objectives. Third, a task analysis clearly identifies the teaching sequence and allows the teacher to deliver and adjust instruction that builds on previous learning (Snell & Brown, 2011). There are several ways to conduct a task analysis. The teacher may slowly perform a target skill or task, writing down each step in its logical and natural order. In this way, the teacher gains a clear understanding of what is involved, including the sequential and cumulative aspects of the task. Another approach is to watch somebody else performing the skill, while recording the steps and prerequisite sub-skills demonstrated for successful completion of the task or activity. Finally, a teacher may choose to work backwards through a task, from completion to the very first step. In this way, information is gained regarding the complexity of the task, the cumulative use of skills and the chaining of one skill with the next, in a logical order. This sequencing information is especially useful when the teacher is deciding how to work on a difficult task with a student. For example, a teacher may be working with a student on the activity of accurately cutting along a line. It may be appropriate to commence by focusing student effort on the very last step of the task (the student independently cuts for the last 2 cm, having been assisted with the earlier tasks of grasping the paper, coordinating the scissors and so on). Gradually, and dependent on student performance, the student is encouraged to attempt more of the steps in the task, in reverse order, as their success and confidence develops. Referred to as ‘backward chaining’, this strategy is a simple and effective use of the principles of task analysis. There are many other variations of this approach, including forward chaining (working forward through a task, providing assistance at the first point of need) and completion of the whole task, with teacher support on any and all areas of difficulty. The interested reader is referred to a seminal paper by Carter and Kemp (1996) that reviews the different types of task analysis and outlines the implications of a task analytic approach to assessment, planning and teaching approaches relevant to the education of students with and without additional needs.

Review of learning

Prerequisites: Fine motor control in order to grasp and activate the iPhone, and touch appropriate screens. Step 1

Turn iPhone on.

Step 2

Type password if required.

Step 3

Swipe screens to locate utilities icon.

Step 4

Touch utilities icon.

Step 5

Select calculator option.

Step 6

Read through the written problem on the sheet, including solution.

Step 7

Locate and press first number.

Step 8

Press + (addition) symbol.

Step 9

Select next number.

Step 10

Press addition symbol.

Step 11

Select next number.

Step 12

Press addition symbol.

Step 13

Select final number.

Step 14

Press equal symbol.

Step 15

Compare totals on the written sheet and on iPhone calculator display.

Step 16

Exit calculator screen and return to main menu.

Step 17

Turn iPhone off or navigate to another application.

An important goal for all instruction has always been the FIGURE 5.12 Task analysis for using an iPhone to maintenance and generalisation of learning. Therefore, HLP21 check four-digit addition problems from a worksheet is to purposefully Teach students to maintain and generalise Source: Prepared by Rubin and Michael Arthur-Kelly new learning across time and settings. Teachers can use a variety of examples in designing and delivering instruction that require students to apply what they have learned in other settings. Maintenance can be

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promoted through systematic schedules of reinforcement, frequent review, and teaching skills that are reinforced by settings outside of the classroom.

The final HLP is 22: Provide positive and constructive feedback to guide students’ learning and motivation. This HLP has a long-standing strong evidence base that demonstrates the practice has strong positive effects on student learning and behaviour (Whitney & Ackerman, 2020). It is most effective when the student is working towards a goal and the feedback informs them of where they can improve and how they can do that. Feedback can take several forms: verbal, non-verbal, or written and should be genuine, meaningful, age appropriate and contingent. The rate of contingent feedback should be determined according to the task and whether students are in the acquisition, fluency, or maintenance phase of learning. For a complete list and description of all of the High Leverage Practices, see the High Leverage Practices in Special Education at https://highleveragepractices.org

The principles and practices of Universal Design for Learning

Chapter 1 introduced Universal Design for Learning (UDL) – a philosophy that places the student at the centre of instructional design and lesson planning. It relies heavily on understanding and accepting the concept of learner variability – students’ academic and behavioural skills are extremely diverse. The concept of Universal Design began in the field of architecture to ensure that buildings and other environments were accessible to everyone from conception. This good design benefited everyone, not just those with disabilities. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) grew out of the principles of universal design, which stressed equitable, flexible, simple and intuitive use. UDL is an educational framework to guide teaching, learning, assessment and curriculum that is based on research on the brain and in the learning sciences that guides the development of flexible learning environments (CAST, 2011). It is a set of principles for curriculum development that gives all individuals equal opportunities to learn. UDL provides a blueprint for creating instructional goals, methods, materials and assessments that work for everyone – not a single, one-size-fits-all solution but rather flexible approaches that can be customised and adjusted for individual needs (CAST, 2011). To translate this into practice, UDL provides a framework of principles that can be used as guidance for creating and choosing tools, methods and practices based on the learning context, circumstances and students. These three principles are: providing multiple means of representation, engagement and expression. These principles and their related options are further delineated by a set of checkpoints affiliated with each principle that provide more comprehensive examples of factors that align with each principle (CAST, 2018). These are organised by the part of the brain that is activated by those activities (see Figure 5.13).

The UDL model can be used to guide the design of both units of study and individual lessons. CAST (2018) provides an interactive version of Figure 5.13 at http://udlguidelines.cast.org, where each checkpoint is a link that provides ideas and examples of how teachers can incorporate that checkpoint into their lesson. For example, under the principle of Provide Multiple Means of Action and Expression, lies Checkpoint 5.3: Build fluencies with graduated levels of support for practice and performance. When this link is clicked, users are taken to a new page, which has a description of the principle and a series of suggestions (CAST, 2018): • Provide differentiated models to emulate (i.e. models that demonstrate the same outcomes but use differing approaches, strategies, skills, etc.) • Provide differentiated mentors (i.e., teachers/tutors who use different approaches to motivate, guide, feedback or inform) • Provide scaffolds that can be gradually released with increasing independence and skills (e.g., embedded into digital reading and writing software)

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Access

Universal Design for Learning Guidelines Provide multiple means of Engagement

Provide Provide multiple multiple means means ofof Representation Engagement

Provide multiple means of Action & Expression

Affective Networks The “WHY” of learning

Recognition Affective Networks Networks The “WHAT” The “WHY” of learning of learning

Strategic Networks The “HOW” of learning

Provide options for

Provide options for

Provide options for

Recruiting Interest

Perception

Physical Action

• Optimize individual choice and autonomy

• Offer ways of customizing the display of information

• Vary the methods for response and navigation

• Optimize relevance, value, and authenticity

• Offer alternatives for auditory information

• Optimize access to tools and assistive technologies

• Minimize threats and distractions

• Offer alternatives for visual information

Provide options for

Provide options for

• Increase mastery-oriented feedback

Provide options for Language & Symbols • Clarify vocabulary and symbols • Clarify syntax and structure • Support decoding of text, mathematical notation, and symbols • Promote understanding across languages • Illustrate through multiple media

Provide options for

Provide options for

Provide options for

Self Regulation

Comprehension

Executive Function

• Promote expectations and beliefs that optimize motivation

• Activate or supply background knowledge

• Guide appropriate goal-setting

• Facilitate personal coping skills and strategies

• Highlight patterns, critical features, big ideas, and relationships

Sustaining Effort & Persistence

Internalize

Build

• Heighten salience of goals and objectives • Vary demands and resources to optimize challenge • Foster collaboration and community

• Develop self-assessment and reflection

• Guide information processing and visualization • Maximize transfer and generalization

Expression & Communication • Use multiple media for communication • Use multiple tools for construction and composition • Build fluencies with graduated levels of support for practice and performance

• Support planning and strategy development • Facilitate managing information and resources • Enhance capacity for monitoring progress

Goal

Expert Learners who are… Purposeful & Motivated

Resourceful & Knowledgeable

Strategic & Goal-Directed

FIGURE 5.13 Universal Design for Learning guidelines Source: CAST (2018). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 2.2. Retrieved from http://udlguidelines.cast.org

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• Provide differentiated feedback (e.g., feedback that is accessible because it can be customised to individual learners) • Provide multiple examples of novel solutions to authentic problems.

Aligning UDL and HLPs

It is apparent from even this one example how the principles, checkpoints and practice examples of UDL are well aligned with the HLPs described above (collaboration, worked examples, feedback). Each of the 22 checkpoints is represented in a similar manner. Teachers use these checkpoints and examples to design new lessons, or to revise existing lessons to incorporate UDL principles, therefore making learning more accessible to all students. The UDL model and its principles are now widely accepted and recommended as part of different teaching models, including Explicit Instruction (Hall et al., 2011) and Differentiated Instruction models (Tomlinson & Moon, 2013).

Response to intervention

In the past few decades, the term ‘Response to Intervention’ (RTI) has emerged from the recognition, especially in the context of American disability legislation, that every instructional moment and opportunity counts, and that programs need to be carefully tracked for effectiveness in terms of student learning outcomes. Response to Intervention (RTI) is a multi-tiered instructional approach that measures student academic progress against research-based interventions (Berkeley et al., 2020). RTI is a whole-school approach that involves teachers providing high-quality, research-based instructional interventions tailored to student needs. Student response to the research-based interventions is measured in terms of progress towards achieving outcomes in the academic area.

The three tiers of RTI

RTI typically has three tiers and is used to identify students who are having difficulties in the general education setting and provide specific interventions to remediate the problems. Tier 1, Primary Prevention, consists of high-quality classroom instruction, screening, and group interventions (O’Conner & Sanchez, 2011). Teachers use the results of the analysis of student progress data to make instructional decisions. If, for example, a student is struggling and appears to be at risk of failure, resources need to be employed to scaffold changed instructional supports and enhanced opportunities for optimal progress (O’Conner & Sanchez, 2011). See Evidencebased practice 5.1 for an example of a teacher using data as an evidence-based strategy to inform decisions about instructional modifications.

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 5.1 An example of response to intervention in a Year 1 class Mrs Brotherton wanted to monitor the conversational turn-taking behaviours of Sam, a boy with severe intellectual disability in her Year 1 class, when working in paired activities. With 25 students in her class, the most practical method was the incidental use of anecdotal records during observation as the whole class set about tasks in various subject areas. It soon became apparent that the target student tended to respond to his partner, but rarely initiated interactions. Mrs Brotherton took a two-pronged approach: she provided Sam with specific modelling to emphasise the importance of leading into a conversation, and she helped his peer to delay initiating on some occasions to allow Sam enough time to start the process of interaction.

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On the basis of information gained from observations, the teacher may decide to introduce a new or revised student objective, conduct a further task analysis of the skills or content to be learned, change the teaching strategies employed, or cancel the program. Table 5.2 provides some examples of common program changes made in the light of progress information. TABLE 5.2 Typical program changes

Progress information

Program change

Student struggling to achieve short-term instructional objective

Revise objective Review instructional methods Conduct further task analysis of the target skill

Short-term instructional objective achieved

Identify new objective in the light of skills sequence and task analysis

Long-term goal achieved

Establish new long-term goals Monitor mastered skills

Student appears to be bored with task

Review objective for mastery Evaluate instructional methods and change if necessary

In this tier, universal precaution strategies (e.g., universal screening and evidence-based instruction) are used to ensure that all students can access the curriculum. Professional development for teachers and other educators in academics and behaviour is crucial to the effectiveness of Tier 1. If good instruction is being provided to all students in the classroom, the need to provide individualised interventions to students is greatly reduced. Every student in the school has their academics and behaviour screened as part of Tier 1. The purpose of this screening is to identify students who are in need of intervention, as well as to measure the effectiveness of the general education curricula. Students who are identified as at-risk during Tier 1 are moved to Tier 2.

Tier 2, Secondary Prevention, is focused on targeted interventions for students who have been identified as at-risk in Tier 1. Tier 2 interventions are meant to supplement, not supplant, the general education curriculum. Student needs at this tier are often met through focused, small group interventions. RTI teams often use a problem-solving model to identify appropriate interventions for students, choosing from a list of pre-approved research-based interventions as the way to pick intervention (Cumming & Draper Rodriguez, 2019). Student progress is measured more frequently (monthly or bi-monthly) at this tier, so students who respond to the targeted intervention can be placed back into Tier 1, and students who do not respond to their targeted interventions are then referred to Tier 3, where they receive intensive individualised interventions and comprehensive evaluation, which often results in an eligibility determination for special education services. Tier 3, Tertiary Interventions, of the RTI model includes intensive and individualised intervention. The intervention provided in Tier 3 is more precise, focuses on the remediation of skills, and is provided for a longer period of time and occurs in smaller groups. In Tier 3 of RTI, the student’s progress is monitored more frequently, weekly or bi-weekly. One of the major advantages of the RTI model is that students do not need to have a disability label to receive the individualised support afforded them in Tier 3 (Cumming & Draper Rodriguez, 2019) – see Evidence-based practice 5.2.

The RTI model has over two decades of research to support its use to improve the academic skills of students, particularly in the area of literacy, and reduce the number of referrals to special education (Gunn et al., 2000; Shaywitz et al., 2004; Simmons et al., 2002; VanDerHeyden et al., 2007; Vaughn et al., 2003; Vellutino et al., 1996). Some students have support needs in

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non-academic areas; Positive Behaviour Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is a similar model to support students in the area of social, emotional, and behavioural needs. PBIS is discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 5.2 Core concepts of RTI 1 High-quality research-based instruction in the general education setting 2 Educators assume a role in all students’ access to the curriculum 3 School-wide screening of academics and behaviour 4 Continuous monitoring of student performance to identify student difficulties 5 Implementation of research-based interventions to meet identified student needs 6 Progress monitoring to determine effectiveness of interventions with changes made as needed. 7 Family and student involvement throughout the process 8 Evaluation of intervention implementation fidelity Source: NRCLD (2004)

Multi-Tiered Systems of Supports (MTSS)

The RTI and PBIS models have several shared components, but RTI is focused on supporting students academically, while PBIS is used to support students in the areas of behaviour and social emotional needs. Both models are structured as tiered levels of services; therefore, the term Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) has been used to describe a framework which supports students in both academics and behaviour (see Figure 5.14). MTSS has been described as a framework which uses instruction, assessment, intervention and decision-making in a tiered delivery system to integrate multiple tiered systems of academic and behavioural support (McIntosh et al., 2010). MTSS is not simply the dual application of RTI and PBIS, but the synthesis of them.

In order for MTSS systems to be responsive to the needs of all students, there needs to be an understanding of how culturally responsive education can be interwoven with the components of MTSS. Cumming and Draper Rodriguez (2019) responded to calls throughout the literature for RTI (Klinger & Edwards, 2006) and PBIS (Leverson et al., 2019) to incorporate culturally responsive practices by presenting a Culturally Responsive Multi-Tiered System of Support (CRMTSS). This is a strengths-based model that values student differences, rather than viewing them as deficits. The five dimensions of culturally responsive education (Banks & McGee Banks, 2020) are interwoven throughout all aspects of the MTSS. The dimensions are 1) Multicultural Content Integration, 2) Knowledge Construction, 3) Prejudice Reduction, 4) Equity Pedagogy, and 5) Empowerment. See Figure 5.15 for a visual representation of the model.

Final thoughts The Universal Design for Learning and RTI models raise many issues related to the design of effective teaching interventions, and in the limited space available it has been possible to introduce only key ideas, high-leverage practices, and strategies. The reader is strongly encouraged to follow up the suggested reading at the end of the chapter, all of which extends the basic concepts introduced above. The following case study (Narrative 5.4) exemplifies many of the key elements raised in this chapter and emphasises the importance of teamwork in

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FEW 1–8% of Students Require Intensive Intervention

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FIGURE 5.14 Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS) Source: Therese M. Cumming

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the design, implementation and ongoing evaluation of individualised educational programs for students with additional needs. This case study also demonstrates that inclusion is not an ‘all-ornothing’ matter, a point also emphasised in Narrative 5.1. Some special school and special class settings have a central focus on inclusion to ensure that their students are, as far as possible, part of regular society. A major theme to emerge in Narrative 5.4 is the importance of effectively involving other personnel when planning and delivering class-level support.

NARRATIVE 5.4 Inclusion: A New Zealand secondary school perspective I have an exciting, dynamic and very busy career. I am a special education teacher and currently team-teach in a class for students with moderate and severe intellectual, communication and physical needs, in a mainstream secondary school. We currently have 17 students enrolled in our class. Our special unit also oversees a program to provide specialist teaching support to students with additional needs who attend mainstream classes in our local primary schools. Every day presents us with great rewards, new challenges and lots of opportunities for thinking and reflecting! As a team, we are driven to provide the best educational outcomes for our students, thus our program is continually evolving as we respond to student needs. Our program is based on developing the Key Competencies, as stated in the New Zealand Curriculum – Thinking, Using language symbols and text, Managing self, Relating to others and Participating and contributing. All our students are at various stages of working towards Level 1 of the curriculum – a significant difference from their same-age peers. Our understanding of inclusion for our students is that the curriculum is adapted to suit the student’s needs, not the students adapting to meet the curriculum presented. Our students have a regular school experience alongside their peers, participating in a wide variety of whole school events, while also developing skills personalised to their needs. Our school is currently discussing a whole-school approach of personalised learning opportunities for all, with a focus on ‘passion projects’ to motivate and sustain interest for students. To feel included is to have a sense of belonging. It is essential that our students not only have a sense of belonging to our school, but also our wider community. Our teaching and learning program includes many and varied community-based activities, to develop our students’ confidence in participating in the community and also our community’s awareness and understanding of people with additional needs. A sense of safety and being valued in our community is strengthened by becoming known as individuals and recognised for their abilities. We were recently invited to create an art exhibition in our local museum entitled ‘Art from a different view’. This enabled us to have great purpose in our work at school and develop a positive sense of our students in the wider community as individuals with great potential. We begin preparing our students and families for transition from school as soon as they begin with us, as it is often a long journey for everyone to recognise the possibilities and create purposeful ordinary lives post-school. Our school program is focused on developing the competencies and values essential for our students to be active, social members of the community. We work closely with our students’ families in the planning and goal-setting process. We provide regular and ongoing feedback through our class Facebook group and Narrative Assessment portfolios. This year we will be collating student work on individual Google sites, providing families with an ongoing record of their students’ learning and achievements. Our school’s organisation of professional development in cross-faculty groupings offers an opportunity to develop teacher understandings of students’ additional needs and ways to adapt

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curriculum for all learners. Our staff who work in the primary school settings are working to empower the class teacher to understand how to have specific and realistic goals for their learners with special needs and ways to adapt the learning tasks to develop these goals. It is essential that as teachers, we understand what our learning goals are and why we are trying to teach the students to achieve these goals. Learning must be meaningful and relevant to our students, focused on the process, not the product. Essentially, we believe that all of our students are learners. The student who responds only by moving his eyes is showing us he is thinking as he reacts to a stimulus. The student who is learning to manage her emotions to avoid a meltdown is learning lifelong skills and the student who is using higher level thinking skills to solve a problem is building on prior learning and making links with events and experiences. Our goal as educators is to develop an understanding that we are all lifelong learners – the school experience is just one part of the journey. The students in our class feel valued members of our school community. They wear their uniforms with pride and love walking about the school talking to students and staff. They have a sense of purpose in coming to school and are ready for learning from the minute they arrive! Their days are organised, busy and follow a regular routine, enabling them to predict what will happen next, thus reducing anxiety. When asked what they like about school, the main response from students was seeing their friends, followed by their individual favourite activities. By utilising personal interest areas, considering personal learning styles and providing exciting learning experiences at a level that the students can relate to, we have a group of engaged learners who are completely included in the day-to-day goings-on of a regular secondary school in New Zealand. The approach to the teaching and learning programs at our school can be best illustrated by the quote by Deepak Chopra: ‘Instead of thinking outside of the box, get rid of the box.’ Source: Prepared by Michelle Pointon, Special Education Teacher and Support Teacher Outreach Service – Tauhara College, Taupo, New Zealand

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1 What do you believe are the key indicators of good leadership in inclusive schools? 2 How important is planning for the future in curriculum and instruction provided to secondary students with additional needs? How would you build links between the school and the community with the future of your students in mind? 3 Discuss the pivotal role of peers in shaping student expectations of and experiences at school. How can teachers facilitate peers to have meaningful and supportive interactions with students with additional learning needs?

REFLECT ON THIS What is the most powerful challenge emerging teachers face when introducing new instructional techniques into their classroom?

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You will have noted a range of strategies for collaboration and teamwork from the crosscultural and cross-setting narratives in this chapter. A theme throughout this book has been the importance of recognising and supporting the particular needs and dynamics of learning contexts informed by a range of cultural and societal background factors. For example, in Narrative 5.5 consider the unique variables at work in a contemporary Canadian high school.

NARRATIVE 5.5 Inclusion in a Canadian secondary school Teaching in the Canadian North has brought with it a range of challenges. While the temperatures in winter can drop to −30°C and the daylight hours dwindle, students and teachers alike huddle into our school. As my focus turns inward to the hallways and classrooms of this 500-student school, I consider how an inclusion model has evolved, bringing with it its own rewards and challenges. Special education support here typically takes the form of a learning assistance teacher (LAT). These teachers are responsible for case managing students with special needs, writing and facilitating the implementation of IEPs and liaising with paraprofessionals, consultants and other specialists. In the past our LATs have also been scheduled to their own classroom and group of students. Support is provided to students within this class, for the completion of their mainstream coursework and sometimes for the remediation of academic skills. Additionally, our school has had various incarnations of an Essential Skills or Transitions program: a class for students with gaps in their learning. These gaps in learning may be due to learning disabilities, cognitive disabilities, attendance issues or behavioural issues. Currently the program is a Grade 8 and 9 program with four academic subjects: math, science, social studies and English. The Grade 8 classes are usually the largest as we work toward supporting these atrisk students and their transition into high school (high school here is Grade 8–12). As they move into Grade 9 we recommend some students try mainstream subjects while others remain within our program until Grade 10, when all students must be part of mainstream classes. Over recent years there has been a move to recommend more and more students for our transitions program. Our class size has been growing and the goal to have more students moving into mainstream subjects seems to have reversed as our Grade 9 classes swell to become bigger than the Grade 8. Perhaps it’s because we’re doing such a fine job within the transitions program, but without realising it, we have produced a more and more segregated school system. Midyear this year, our four-teacher special education department (LATs and transitions teachers), decided to try something new. Inclusion, after all, is not only proven but legally mandated in our territory. Our local Education Act stipulates that we must deliver programs in the least restrictive and most enabling environment. And so, bolstered by the trust of our administration, we met for an exhausting day to devise a new model for our school. For us, it feels radical. Our new model recommends the complete removal of the Grade 9 transitions program. These students will now, whatever their additional needs, be enrolled in mainstream classes. We have collapsed the three separate learning assistance (LA) classrooms into one main room where all three LATs now teach from. If student enrolment in a particular LA period is low, we spell each other in order to achieve more freedom within our schedule. In this way the LATs can actually be in the mainstream classes working to better support students with additional needs, as well as support their teachers. We are no longer tied to our own classroom for the majority of the day, but have freedom to offer curriculum, teaching or assessment adaptations.

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Our new model has been received with mixed response. Some staff have been pleased to have greater access to us, popping by the LA room with quick questions on particular students. We are much more easily accessible, as we are all now in the one place. Disappointingly however, other staff have argued against our ideas. Our hope to better support teachers in their day-to-day work of differentiating for all students has not been embraced as enthusiastically as we’d have hoped. The collaborative vision of special ed staff and mainstream teachers working together has been slow to develop. Two months into the new model and our second semester of school, we find ourselves as a more united and cohesive special education team. Miscommunications or queries are sorted out immediately and we better know all the students who access LA as opposed to the mere handful we used to work with. That next step, however, of being more involved and practically supporting mainstream teachers has yet to eventuate. It is becoming apparent that as we move into the next school year, we need to look at ways we can collaborate more with mainstream teachers. Greater inclusion is a practice that our Education Department is pushing all schools to practise. On our own school level, we face roadblocks from mainstream teachers and so must look for ways to offer more joint ownership of the approach. How we can effectively involve all school staff into this new model is paramount to the success of this change. Our challenge for the future is to not only consider the individual needs of our students, but also the needs of our colleagues. Together we must work to plan and deliver strategies for mainstream classroom support – and ultimately become a whole school team. Source: Prepared by Camille Luks, Yukon School, Canada

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What barriers to change do you perceive in this narrative and what potential gateways forward are suggested by Camille? 2. In your opinion how long should it take to completely change the way a team works to support students, and what are some of the factors that can influence the rate of change? 3. Identify the universal themes of effective teaching and maximising learning outcomes that underpin this chapter, and review how they are achieved in each of the narratives you have read.

Involving other personnel in teaching and learning programs

A look around any school quickly illustrates the number and range of people who are involved in some aspect of the school community. The challenge for teachers who set out to address the varied needs of the students in a regular classroom is to effectively match the people available, including parents and other students, to the teaching and learning plans and programs on offer (McLeskey et al., 2017). One major issue is the need for cooperation and collaboration, and a school culture that supports teacher professional growth, discussed in detail in Chapter 3 of this book. Another aspect relates to the time that is needed to adequately train support people in the teaching strategies being used, such as peer tutoring (discussed earlier). The complex issues relevant to the wider involvement of people in your classroom, including assistants, parents and volunteers, are discussed in several sections of this book, including in Chapters 3, 11, 12

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and 13. As you consider these issues, remember to think about the nature of the communication processes that will make or break this teamwork. How well is information communicated among participants, and do people feel involved in a shared collaborative effort?

The following chapters continue to explore the practical aspects of class-level support for and inclusion of students with disability in your classroom. In Chapter 6, a range of approaches in the development of prosocial participation by students is explored, with emphasis on the purpose and contexts of behaviour. Chapters 9 and 10 provide an overview of the problems commonly experienced by students in the areas of literacy and numeracy, and specific instructional strategies that target these basic skills are introduced and discussed. Although these approaches are particularly relevant to programs of support for students with learning difficulties, they may be used effectively in the design and implementation of teaching and learning programs for a diversity of students. Chapters 11 to 13 focus on the implementation of inclusive teaching strategies at early childhood, primary and secondary level.

A TEACHER REFLECTS

Amylee Merchant-Dickinson, support teacher, primary school NSW My first year as a special education teacher was full of mixed emotions. It was the most exciting yet also the most challenging year of my life. I left university with so many ideas around how I was going to design my classroom, the types of programs I wanted to run and the management strategies I was going to use. As the days passed, however, I found myself with an endless ‘to do’ list, a quickly deteriorating sense of confidence and so many unanswered questions. I was conflicted about how to program for the needs of students and yet meet goals from the K–10 syllabus. While I had an understanding of task analysis, I still had questions around how to break a task down into achievable steps for students, what time should I allocate to academics in relation to life skills, how do I begin to teach a student to speak, go to the toilet, walk, or to meet sensory needs? Then there was care for myself; who can I speak to when I have had a challenging day, does anyone understand what I am going through, did anyone else feel this way in their first year of teaching, will it get better or will I be up until midnight every night preparing for lessons? Looking back, I see that what was so hard for me as a beginning teacher was spending the first six months of my career on my own, trying to answer the questions and to survive. I was lucky I could turn to a mentor from my undergraduate days, and I also talked to my fellow graduates who were struggling like me. Between us we came up with strategies that could change the feelings of failure. I began to ask my executive and colleagues questions and sought their advice about programming and management. I made time to network with colleagues and to get to know each other on both a professional and personal level. I began to feel like I had a support network around me and this made the days that little bit easier. I had people telling me that I was doing a good job and that I was making a difference for my students. These relationships were the turning point in my career.

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Summary

This chapter provided an introduction to several important programming and teaching strategies that allow the involvement and inclusion of all students into the learning environments of local neighbourhood schools. The practical questions of what to teach and how to teach were discussed, along with some aspects of classroom management relevant to effective program implementation.

STUDY TOOLS

Some of the key principles and approaches relevant to the design of individualised teaching interventions, including high-leverage practices (HLP), Universal Design for Learning, Response to Intervention (RTI), curriculum-based assessment, and task analysis, were discussed in the context of a highleverage practice instructional model designed to foster student success by exploring aspects of assessment, programming, instruction and evaluation. A number of narratives highlighted the ways in which all students can be active participants in classrooms based on effective teaching and learning principles and strategies.

Discussion questions

1 Discuss the importance of the incorporation of high-leverage practices into a teacher’s repertoire.

2 Is it possible to design curriculum that is universally relevant and accessible for all students? Consider the range of goals and outcomes that students may be aiming for. What is your view of the National Curriculum in Australia in this respect? 3 How useful is the strategy of task analysis for the regular classroom teacher? What are the possible applications and problems associated with this approach?

4 How can the classroom teacher involve other personnel in programs designed to optimise learning outcomes for all students? What are some difficulties and some benefits that may be encountered by a class teacher when attempting to collaborate with parents and other partners in the educational field? 5 On the basis of your reading and experience, are there particular teaching strategies that may best assist in the participation and inclusion of students with additional needs in the regular classroom? If so, what are they and how can they be implemented most effectively? 6 What is the link between effective teaching and technology in modern classrooms? Will Smart Boards, iPads and other sophisticated electronic resources ever replace high-quality teachers? What might highquality teaching using technology look like?

Individual activities

1 Conduct an audit of UDL opportunities and challenges in your present class or one in which you have recently taught. How can this exercise assist the classroom teacher in the task of planning and delivering teaching programs that maximise the inclusion and engagement of all students?

2 Conduct a task analysis for an academic skill, such as the early reading behaviour of sounding out and blending words, or simple two-digit addition tasks. Using one of the strategies discussed earlier in this chapter, task-analyse the activity, writing out each step in a logical sequence. As an alternative, you may wish to identify an everyday activity, such as catching a bus, brushing your teeth, or making a cup of coffee and break it into the component steps.

3 Visit https://highleveragepractices.org/videos/ and watch a few of the videos available there to assist you in maximising effective teaching and learning in your classroom. Which of these practices have you already incorporated into your practice? Which do you plan to implement? 4 Using one of the narratives presented in this chapter, along with your reading and experience to date, identify five issues that are of particular importance for the classroom teacher who is aiming to include and support a student with additional educational needs in daily teaching and learning programs and activities.

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5 Visit one or both of the following websites and navigate around the various technology-focused resources and links. How will the information you find in these sites assist you in enhancing the inclusion of all students in your classroom? • http://www2.edc.org/NCIP/library/toc.htm • http://abilityhub.com/

Group activities

1 Identify and discuss ways in which particular aspects of curriculum, instruction and features of the learning context (Figure 5.2) play a role in the achievement of universal design and the provision of effective teaching and learning programs that are inclusive of all students.

2 Why has special education traditionally focused on the use of explicit and systematic teaching approaches? Can you see a place for these approaches in regular education, given the prevalence of mixed abilities in classrooms? 3 Take an existing lesson plan and apply the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) to it.

4 Identify a hypothetical student and develop some examples of long-term goals and short-term instructional objectives in a relevant curriculum area. How could you monitor individual progress towards these targets, given that you may have 30 other students in your class? Design a method (that is practical for you) of tracking and evaluating student learning outcomes in your selected curriculum area. 5 Design and implement either a peer-tutoring or cooperative learning procedure, such as Jigsaw. Discuss the strengths and constraints of the techniques(s) you trial.

Weblinks

Australian Assessment, Curriculum and Reporting Authority (ACARA) http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/ Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) https://www.aitsl.edu.au

Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations: Inclusive instruction for Indigenous students http://www. whatworks.edu.au/ Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria http://www.education.vic.gov.au

Direct instruction https://www.ecu.edu.au/schools/education/research-activity/centre-for-research-in-early-childhood/ news-and-events/crec/2014/08/position-statment-direct-instruction-in-the-early-years High Leverage Practices in Special Education https://highleveragepractices.org New Zealand Education http://www.minedu.govt.nz/NZEducation.aspx/

Queensland Department of Education, Training and Employment http://education.qld.gov.au/

South Australian Department of Education and Child Development, Learning to Learn http://www.learningtolearn.sa.edu. au/tfel/pages/L2Lhistory/ The Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Children with Disability https://www.nccd.edu.au

The following sites are examples of the resources that can be useful for teachers seeking ideas for adjustments in lesson planning for individual needs in their classrooms. They also contain information, both general and subject-specific, and have free and purchasable resources. http://www.teachingtreasures.com.au/educational-links/special-education.htm http://www.senteacher.org/links/

http://www.cast.org/our-work/about-udl.html

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Recommended reading

Algozzine, R., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (2003). Tips for beginning teachers. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2020). The Australian Curriculum v5.0. Retrieved from http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/ Calhoun, M. B., & Fuchs, L. S. (2003). The effects of peerassisted learning strategies and curriculum-based measurement on the mathematics performance of secondary students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 24 (4), 235–245.

Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST) (2007). Improving the learning outcomes of students with disabilities in the early, middle and post compulsory years of schooling. Canberra: Australian Government Printer. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: a synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge.

References

Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (2013). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (9th edn, online version). Boston: Pearson. Algozzine, R., Ysseldyke, J. E., & Elliott, J. (1997). Strategies and tactics for effective instruction. Longmont, CO: Sopris West. Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) (2017). Individual learning plans. AITSL. Retrieved from: https://www.aitsl.edu.au/toolsresources/resource/individual-learning-plansillustration-of-practice

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) (2018). Classroom practice continuum. AITSL. Retrieved from: https://www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/ default-source/teach-documents/classroom-practicecontinuum-revised-edition.pdf?sfvrsn=9344f63c_4 Banks, J. A., & McGee Banks, C. A. (2020). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives. Wiley.

Jones, V. F., & Jones, L. S. (2004). Comprehensive classroom management: creating communities of support and solving problems (7th edn). Boston: Pearson.

Richards, G., & Armstrong, F. (Eds) (2016). Teaching and learning in diverse and inclusive classrooms: key issues for new teachers. Oxford: Routledge. Smedley, T. M., & Higgins, K. (2005). Virtual technology: bringing the world into the special education classroom. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41 (2), 114–119. Tomlinson, C. A., & Stone, J. E. (2009). Learning profiles and achievement. School Administrator, 66 (2), 28–32, 34. Walberg, H. J. (1990). Productive teaching and instruction: assessing the knowledge base. Phi Delta Kappan, February, 470–478.

Wilig E. H., Larson, V. L., & Olson, J. A. (2004). S-MAPs: rubrics for curriculum-based assessment and intervention for grades K–12. Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications.

Blankenship, C. S., & Lilly, M. S. (1981). Mainstreaming students with learning and behavioral problems: techniques for the classroom teacher. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Bloom, B. S. (1980). The new direction in educational research: alterable variables. Phi Delta Kappan, 61, 382–385. Bloom, B. S. (1984). The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Leadership, May, 4–17.

Boone, R. T., Burke, M. D., Fore, C., & Spencer, V. G. (2006). The impact of cognitive organizers and technologybased practices on student success in secondary social studies classrooms. Journal of Special Education Technology, 21 (1), 5–16.

Bedesem, P. L. (2012). Using cell phone technology for selfmonitoring procedures in inclusive settings. Journal of Special Education Technology, 27 (4), 33–45.

Bouck, E. C., Flanagan, S., Miller, B., & Bassette, L. (2012). Rethinking everyday technology as assistive technology to meet students’ IEP goals. Journal of Special Education Technology, 27 (4), 47–80.

Blankenship, C. S. (1988). Structuring the classroom for success. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 12 (2), 25–30.

Carlson, L., Hemmings, B., Wurf, G., & Reupert, A. (2012). The instructional strategies and attitudes of effective inclusive teachers. Special Education Perspectives, 21, 7–20.

Berkeley, S., Scanlon, D., Bailey, T. R., Sutton, J. C., & Sacco, D. M. (2020). A snapshot of RTI implementation a decade later: New picture, same story. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1–11. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022219420915867

Briere, D. E., Simonsen, B., Sugai, G., & Myers, D. (2015). Increasing new teachers’ specific praise using a withinschool consultation intervention. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 17(1), 50–60.

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Carnine, D., & Fletcher-Janzen, E. (2013). Direct instruction. Encyclopedia of special education (2nd edn). 670: 731–733 Wiley Online Library.

Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (2000). Looking in classrooms (8th edn). New York: Longman.

CAST (2011). About UDL. Retrieved from http://www.cast. org/udl/index.html

Hall, T., Strangman, N., & Meyer, A. (2011). Differentiated instruction and implications for UDL implementation. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum. Retrieved from http://aem.cast. org/about/publications/2003/ncac-differentiatedinstructionudl.html#.W_4gmC17Fdg

Carter, M., & Kemp, C. R. (1996). Strategies for task analysis in special education. Educational Psychology, 16 (2), 155–170.

CAST (2018). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines. version 2.2. Retrieved from http://udlguidelines.cast.org

Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation (CESE). (2020). What works best: 2020 update. NSW Department of Education. Retrieved from: https://www.cese.nsw.gov.au// images/stories/PDF/What-works-best-2020-update.pdf

Cole, P. (2012). Linking effective professional learning with effective teaching practice. Commissioned report to the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, Melbourne: PTR Consulting. Cook, B. G., & Odom, S. L. (2013). Evidence-based practices and implementation science in special education. Exceptional Children, 79 (2), 135–144. Cumming, T., & Draper Rodriguez, C. (2019). School success for at-risk students: A culturally responsive tiered approach. Melbourne: Routledge.

Cumming, T. M., & Strnadová, I. (2020). Tablet devices for students with disability in the inclusive classroom. In D. Chambers (ed.) Assistive Technology to Support Inclusive Education. Bingley, UK: Emerald Insight. Dempsey, I. (2012). The use of individual education programs for children in Australian schools. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 36, 21–31.

Diaz, I. (2015). Training in metacognitive strategies for students’ vocabulary improvement by using learning journals. PROFILE Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 17(1), 87–102.

Frey, N., Fisher, D., & Hattie, J. (2017). Surface, deep, and transfer? Considering the role of content literacy instructional strategies. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 60(5), 567–575. Gage, N. A., Beahm, L., MacSuga-Gage, A., & Lee, A. (2020). Using positive behavior interventions and supports to reduce school suspensions. Beyond Behavior, 29(3), 132–40.

Gettinger, M., & Stoiber, K. C. (2012). Curriculum-based early literacy assessment and differentiated instruction with high-risk pre-schoolers. Reading Psychology, 33, 11–46. Gillies, R. M. (2016). Cooperative learning: Review of research and practice. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 41 (3), 39–54.

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Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: maximising impact on learning. London: Routledge.

Hosp, M. K., Hosp, J. L., Howell, K. W. (2016). The ABCs of CBM: A practical guide to curriculum-based measurement (2nd edn). Guilford Press.  Kagohara, D. M., van der Meer, L., Ramdoss, S., O’Reilly, M. F., Lancioni, G. E., Davis, T. N., Rispoli, M., Lang, R., Marschik, P. B., Sutherland, D., Green, V. A., & Sigafoos, J. (2013). Using iPods and iPads in teaching programs for individuals with developmental disabilities: a systematic review, Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34 (1), 147–156. Klinger, J. K., & Edwards, P. A. (2006). Cultural considerations with Response to Intervention models. Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 108–117.

Leverson, M., Smith, K., McIntosh, K., Rose, J., & Pinkelman, S. (2019). PBIS cultural responsiveness field guide: Resources for trainers and coaches. OSEP Technical Assistance Center. Li, C. H., Wu, M. H., & Lin, W.L. (2017). The Use of a ‘ThinkPair-Share’ brainstorming advance organizer to prepare learners to listen in the L2 classroom, International Journal of Listening, 33(2), 114–127. DOI: 10.1080/ 10904018.2017.1394193 Lyons, G., Ford, M., & Arthur-Kelly, M. (2011). Classroom management: creating positive learning environments (3rd edn). Melbourne: Cengage Learning.

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Encouraging positive interactions Robert Conway and Judith Foggett This chapter aims to: 6.1 Explore social behaviour in schools 6.2 Examine social inclusion and its role in the classroom for students with disabilities 6.3 Establish a clear link between managing learning and teaching for all students, and managing social interactions in classrooms as being critical for all students in the classroom and other school settings 6.4 Examine what is meant by social behaviour and how it can become unproductive behaviour 6.5 Examine the factors behind unproductive social behaviour and their effects on students in mainstream classes 6.6 Discuss management strategies for students with disabilities in the context of managing the behaviours of all members of the class 6.7 Discuss social aspects of mainstream classes and why some students with disabilities have difficulty 6.8 Highlight ways parents, students and the teacher can help to increase positive social interactions and integration in the mainstream classroom 6.9 Examine ways in which positive social interactions can be developed and enhanced beyond the classroom.

Introduction

This chapter is about encouraging positive interactions. It has deliberately not been called a chapter on behaviour management or classroom discipline, as the methods of achieving positive interactions are far broader than either of those terms. Positive interactions are affected by student behaviour, teacher behaviour, curriculum content, teaching strategies, the classroom and the school community, and the ways in which these factors combine to produce positive, productive learning environments, not just in the classroom but across all school settings. If these terms sound familiar it’s because, as explained in Chapter 4 on curriculum adaptations and modifications, the concept of the classroom or school as an ecosystem is critical to understanding ways of enhancing positive social environments. Throughout the chapter there are references to the importance of social skills being addressed in the context of the learning and teaching that takes place in the classroom. If teaching and learning are productive, unproductive behaviour is reduced and positive social inclusion is enhanced (see Figure 6.1). If there is little appropriate learning and

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teaching in the inclusive classroom, positive social skills are left to develop in isolation.

FIGURE 6.1 If teaching and learning are productive, social skills are enhanced

teachermanagement strategies The techniques that a teacher uses in managing student behaviour, which can be either positive or negative, depending on the teacher’s skills.

Autism spectrum disorder

Social skills and academic skills provide the two great challenges for the inclusion of students with disabilities. Many teachers tend to focus on the perceived lack of social skills of students with disabilities, particularly those skills associated with peer acceptance, and work-related behaviours such as keeping on-task or completing work with minimum assistance. These issues are addressed in this chapter through examination of approaches that have been shown to be effective in increasing classroom involvement, such as social skills training programs, cooperative learning experiences and positive teacher-management strategies.

6.1 Social behaviour in schools To understand the ways in which positive interactions can occur, it is necessary to focus briefly on what factors can contribute to negative interactions within the classroom and school environments. Unlike other areas of additional need involved in inclusion, the issue of student behaviour and its management has been an area that has met strong resistance from mainstream school teachers and executive (Angus et al., 2009; Conway, 2012). The inclusion of students with disabilities brings additional challenges to regular classes. Students with a primary disability such as an intellectual disability, a sensory disability, or a specific disability such as autism may have an associated behaviour or social interaction difficulty, or may have trouble adjusting to the specific learning–teaching factors in a classroom, or across multiple classrooms.

While the initial discussion that follows focuses on students in general, the discussion on teacher, curriculum and teaching variables is also critical in planning for positive interactions for all students in mainstream classes.

What is behaviour and when does it become unproductive behaviour? socioeconomic influences The influence of the financial and social status of the family. This is often considered an important influence on the school behaviour of students.

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In determining when behaviour becomes unproductive (Angus et al., 2009), we need to consider a number of variables including the frequency, intensity and duration of the behaviour, as well as where the behaviour occurs (location). Other variables include cultural and socioeconomic influences, and the issue of age-appropriate behaviour.

The issue of when ‘behaviour’ becomes ‘unproductive behaviour’ can best be summed up in the following definition that highlights that all children, and all adults, demonstrate problem behaviours at times. Although it was published around 40 years ago, it remains one of the clearest definitions as it shows that any behaviour can be appropriate, or not, depending on the four criteria in the definition.

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What makes behaviours disordered1 is when they are exhibited in the wrong place, at the wrong time, in the presence of the wrong people, and to an inappropriate degree. Source: Blankenship and Lilly (1981) , p 81

This definition brings together the issues of frequency, intensity and duration, together with location and the socioeconomic and cultural values of the observer. It also highlights the importance of the observer in defining problem behaviour. Most students are identified by teachers, parents and others as having problem behaviour because it offends, annoys, or irritates them as observers of the behaviour. This is important to consider when looking back on the terms used so far, such as inappropriate behaviour and unacceptable behaviour, which reflect the label that others place on the behaviour and the student. With the exception perhaps of attentionseekers, few students define themselves as having a behaviour problem.

Why do students misbehave?

One of the clearest ways to identify the cause of problem behaviour is to focus on the grid that is often used in functional behaviour assessment, or FBA for short (see CECP, 2000 and weblinks at the end of the chapter). We will return later in the chapter to consider the process of FBA and positive behaviour improvement plans (BIP) in detail.

Within the FBA process, all behaviour is seen as having a purpose: to get something, to avoid something, to communicate something, or some combination of these. This can occur either internally or externally. An example may be in a classroom when a teacher hands out a worksheet to each student. One student with a history of problem behaviours screws up the paper and throws it across the room and yells out: ‘I’m not doing this (expletive) work’. The teacher responds: ‘You can’t speak to me like that, get out of the room and sit in the corridor!’

attention-seeker A person exhibiting behaviour to attract either positive or negative attention.

behaviour improvement plan (BIP) A series of steps designed to encourage productive behaviour.

The grid (Table 6.1) is used to identify the relationship between getting, avoiding and communicating, in relation to the example above, and provides possible functions of the behaviour. TABLE 6.1 Relationship between getting, avoiding and communicating

Student

Internal

External

Gets

A sense of satisfaction that they have told the teacher off

Kudos from their classmates that they have told the teacher off

Avoids

Having to do a task that is beyond their ability

Classmates seeing that they cannot do the task

Communicates

Aggressive behaviours will meet their needs

Aggressive behaviours produce the desired outcome

Let’s examine the reasons for the behaviour, using the FBA grid method. What does the student get and avoid through the problem behaviour? The student avoids doing the task by being sent out of the room, and avoids others seeing that she cannot do the task. It may well be the case that each time she is confronted with tasks she cannot do, she adopts that same behaviour because she knows what the teacher’s reaction will be and can orchestrate the teacher behaviour of having herself removed. If this is the case, then it is the student who is managing the behaviour, not the teacher. Many times it is a learnt subconscious reaction.

1

The term ‘disordered’ is dated now, and concepts such as productive/unproductive behaviours are preferred.

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PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES negative reinforcement This occurs when a behaviour allows the person to escape from something that they would otherwise find aversive and to avoid an unwanted consequence.

In behavioural terms, both are negatively reinforced by the teacher reactions. By the student displaying the behaviour and the subsequent teacher actions, the teacher is negatively reinforced by having peace in the room and the student out of the room. The student is negatively reinforced by getting out of the work and the room. Importantly, the student has communicated that the work is beyond her ability, and this should be noted by the teacher, particularly if the student does not have the skill to communicate frustrations in other ways. From a social skills perspective, students who display these behaviours are considered to have interfering problem behaviours (Gresham, 2017). Gresham sees these as being in three categories: • social skills acquisition deficits – they do not have appropriate skills in their repertoire

• social skills performance deficits – they have the behaviour and either choose not to use the behaviour, or do not realise that they need to use the skill • social skills fluency deficits – they use the behaviour in the setting in which it is reinforced but fail to use it in other situations.

The issues of social skills will be discussed further later in the chapter as they are critical in ensuring the social inclusion of all students, particularly those with disabilities.

Types of behaviours causing concern

Teachers want to spend most of their time focusing on student learning rather than student behaviour. In order for this to happen, teachers want students to: • start on time

• prepare for the lesson

• attend to what the teacher says • comply with teacher directions

• strive to finish assigned tasks to the highest possible standard

• collaborate constructively with other students when required, and

• work without disturbing others when required (Angus et al., 2009, p. 5).

Angus et al. (2009) were studying teachers in Western Australia and their concerns about student behaviour and classroom learning at Years 2, 4, 6 and 8 (first year of secondary in WA), and particularly in lower socioeconomic areas. They found that the behaviour of most concern to teachers was inattention, with over 20 per cent of students identified as inattentive. Unmotivated behaviour was more commonly reported in secondary than primary classes. Importantly, the unmotivated students were not aggressive in their behaviour; they simply did not engage in learning. Aggressive behaviour was far less common than either productive or unmotivated behaviour at all levels. Angus et al. used the terms ‘productive’, ‘disengaged’, ‘uncooperative’, and ‘low-level disruptive’. Interestingly, only 40 per cent of students were seen as consistently productive, 20 per cent consistently unproductive and the remainder fluctuated from school year to school year. This was attributed to the setting and the types and content of instruction.

Unproductive behaviours

In a study of student behaviours in South Australian schools, Sullivan et al. (2012, 2014) also found that unproductive behaviours of concern to teachers were largely low-level disengaged behaviours, including being late for class, avoiding doing schoolwork and disengaging from classroom activities. Other unproductive behaviours included low-level disruptive behaviours such as disrupting the flow of the lesson, talking out of turn and making distracting noises. Aggressive/antisocial behaviours such as verbally abusing other students, spreading rumours and excluding peers were very uncommon for all teachers. Hence, across all years of schooling

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and all educational systems in South Australia, the vast majority of unproductive behaviour incidents in schools were low-level disruptive or disengaged behaviours. This is in contrast to media reports that often focus on the relatively uncommon high-level violent and antisocial behaviours.

Another way to consider the unproductive behaviours listed above is to cluster behaviours that relate to work habits, coping skills and peer relationships. Work habits include the expectation by teachers that students will attend classes and comply with teacher requests within that class. Some of the behaviours identified as of concern here include failure to complete homework, not completing class work on time, refusing or failing to make corrections, not following teacher requests promptly, and not coming to class prepared to work. Many of these behaviours are associated with reduced academically engaged time, which is a source of annoyance to teachers. Studies have shown that students with learning and behaviour difficulties have significantly less academically engaged time than do higher performing students. Providing appropriate learning experiences would be a simple method of addressing many of these issues. The key issue is that engagement is active learning, cooperation is passive (Miller & Hall, 2005).

Coping skills

Coping skill behaviours of concern to class teachers include inability to express anger appropriately, inability to cope in acceptable ways when something is taken belonging to the student, and problems with coping following an insult or when being bossed, or when being blamed unfairly. Again, acquisition of the alternative behaviour in each case would be seen as positive characteristics, although for students with specific disabilities such as autism, this may require consistent strategies over an extended period (Bullard, 2004).

Peer relationships

Peer relationship difficulties include failure to maintain friendships over time, being thought of as a social isolate, not knowing how to join in group activities, not being able to end a conversation and failing to interact with a variety of peers. As failure in peer relations and poor behaviour patterns are linked to poor academic performance, skill acquisition in these areas is important for successful maintenance of mainstream placement.

Managing student behaviour

Students with behaviour problems can be found in every classroom, and the management of student behaviour has been recognised internationally as the major source of worry for beginning teachers (Australian Education Union, 2008; MacBeath, 2012; Sullivan et al., 2012, 2014). In its annual survey of beginning teachers, the Australian Education Union identified lack of preparation in addressing student behaviour as the second greatest concern of beginning teachers after knowledge of content to teach.

MacBeath (2012), in his monograph on the future of the teaching profession, highlighted that dealing with conflict in classrooms ‘in the many forms in which it is expressed proves to be one of the factors which wears down teachers through a slow and unrelenting process of attrition’ (p. 31). MacBeath also cites four English studies in which 75 per cent of the teachers sampled saw management of classroom behaviour as their main source of dissatisfaction. He cites a number of countries, including Australia and New Zealand, in which education struggles with classroom management of Indigenous students. These findings are reflected in other research on pre-service teachers including work by Main and Hammond (2008) in Western Australia, where they found that pre-service teachers lacked confidence in their ability to manage more difficult student behaviour as they had not experienced this in their professional experience placements. In a study of Victorian pre-service

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teachers by Varcoe and Boyle (2014), student attitudes towards inclusion became less positive after being engaged in a professional experience placement, although the authors indicate that this may be as a result of their perceptions of classroom practices such as resources and support availability rather than a negative bias towards inclusion per se. Murik et al. (2005) and O’Neill & Stephenson (2014) stressed the need for teacher education students to have greater opportunities to reflect on their experiences, particularly with students with more complex disabilities and specifically behaviour and classroom management. This is being belatedly addressed in Australia by a requirement for all teacher education programs to have compulsory components on both classroom management and students with disabilities (although not necessarily a separate subject/unit). In addition, the new standards for teachers in Australia through the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) make direct reference to classroom management and students with a disability. Another way to address this is to provide sustained mentoring support to young teachers, such as occurs in Alberta, Canada (Garvey, 2004). The combination of increased focus within teacher preparation programs and mentoring of beginning teachers in schools is a key strategy towards increased teacher skills in managing all classroom behaviour including that of students with disabilities (Dempsey & Christenson-Foggett, 2011). These issues will be further discussed later in the chapter as they are key strategies to improve classroom management of behaviour in the context of productive learning and teaching.

Students with specific disabilities

In a study of inclusion of students with disabilities in South Australian and New South Wales schools, Westwood and Graham (2003) identified that time to work with and supervise students was the greatest problem created by students with disabilities. Other problems were interruptions and disruptions of other students’ work, the inability of students with disabilities to keep up with class work, and the need for constant behaviour management. Addressing the issues above may assist in increasing academically engaged time in class. The study found that 47 per cent of NSW teachers in the survey identified the emotional and behaviour needs of students as the second highest concern of having students with disabilities in the classrooms. Interestingly, South Australian teachers did not identify this issue at all. The NSW results reflect the concerns raised by teachers on the behaviours of students in the Vinson Report (Vinson, 2002), where the six most common behaviour problems identified for all students were swearing, disobedience, clowning, refusal to cooperate, confronting, and disruption of the teaching and learning process. A later Australian study by Daly (2013) found that ‘students who are Indigenous, from a low socio-economic background, not achieving academically, male or have a disability are more likely than their peers to receive a suspension. In some cases, the difference is eight-fold’ (p. 12). These data are concerning as there are no intrinsic traits that would result in these students demonstrating behaviours that require removal from the classroom. A study by Eddles-Hirsch et al. (2010) on the impact of social context and challenging instruction on the affective development of high-ability students in Australian schools found that high-achieving (gifted) students were likely to have behaviour problems as well as poor affective development if their learning needs were not met. In the language of the South Australian study (Sullivan et al., 2012, 2014), the students were disengaged from learning. Where schools have ensured that gifted students engage with the curriculum, self-efficacy and self-worth are stronger, and productive behaviours replace disengaged behaviours.

Indigenous students

For students with an Indigenous background, engagement with the education system is far less successful (Graham, 2012). There is an over-representation of Indigenous students in segregated settings (Anderson & Boyle, 2015). High levels of incarceration are also noted

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(see Buckskin, 2009; Edwards-Groves & Murray, 2008). Many students have been shown to have growing resentment towards schooling (Schwab, 2012) and some disengage from the education system entirely.

A key to the development of productive and engaged behaviour is, as for gifted students, ensuring that the curriculum is engaging and at the level appropriate to the individual’s current learning capabilities. In some cases, this requires a rethinking of curriculum content to incorporate Indigenous values and culture. This can be accomplished through ongoing professional development on Indigenous teaching which develops stronger teacher ‘confidence about classroom management of Indigenous students’ (Craven & Han, 2014). It also means that schools need to be aware that removal of students from mainstream schools to specialist settings reflects the ‘persistent failure of Australian education systems to engage, support and understand Indigenous students’ (Graham, 2012, p. 173).

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students

Students from culturally diverse backgrounds

Students from diverse cultural backgrounds have differing sets of challenges in mainstream classroom settings. This is most common when EAL/D students are taught in a monolingual classroom where mainstream teachers have not yet incorporated the learning needs of these students into their classroom learning practices (Dobinson & Buchori, 2016). In the case of refugees, data show that many have had seriously disrupted educational experiences and hence may not be aware of expectations of schools and classrooms in Australian educational settings (Strauss & Smedley, 2009). Hence, they may lack basic skills such as how to behave in a structured mainstream classroom. An additional challenge is working with the students’ homes where English may not be used.

For some students there may be a clash between the cultures and values of the home and the cultures and values of the school. This can add to student frustration and hence disengagement with learning and the use of unproductive behaviours in the absence of other appropriate ways to seek assistance.

REFLECT ON THIS

Students for whom English is an additional language or dialect

Using AITSL Graduate Standard 4.1 (Support student participation: Identify strategies to support inclusive student participation and engagement in classroom activities), reflect on what activities in a classroom may increase engagement of the diversity of students in the classroom and those activities that may have the opposite effect. Come back to your reflections at the end of the chapter and see whether these have changed.

Home factors

Students come to school with a set of values and attitudes that cannot be left at the school gate. Family perceptions of school and the value of schooling play an important role both in a student’s attitude to school and its management practices, and in the degree of support that teachers can expect from the home in promoting school management practices. While school behaviour problems cannot be directly attributed to family factors, a number of home issues can exacerbate school problems. These include the type of additional need, single-parent families, marital discord, low socioeconomic status and disturbed child–parent relationships. Particularly in the case of students with mental health needs, there is a clear link between their mental health needs and the home situation. The National Health and Wellbeing Survey (see Sawyer, 2009) conducted across Australia found that approximately 14 per cent of all

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Australian children and youth aged 4 to 17 years had mental health problems and that among the key variables were: • unstable relationships with parents or carers • death of a parent

• inadequate parenting skills

• family discord, violence, separation or family breakdown

• parents with serious mental health problems, alcohol/drug problems that affect parenting.

While schools are not designed to address home issues, increasingly schools are forced to address issues that stem from homes. Many school programs for students with behaviour and mental health needs have provided parenting programs, although these have met with limited success.

For parents of students with disabilities, the home environment plays a critical role in supporting the work of early intervention programs (Conway et al., 2004). When students who have been in early intervention programs arrive at school, the transition process has added importance to ensure their social inclusion. There is a clear need for the process to occur over a protracted period involving school, parents and the child (Kemp, 2003; Petriwskyj et al., 2014); and where this occurs in a formalised, coherent manner, there is greater likelihood that the student with disabilities will maintain a regular class placement. In a study of parents of students with autism entering Victorian inclusive settings, Reupert, Deppeler and Sharma (2015) concluded that schools have the potential to be a ‘catalyst point’ to bring together parents, teachers and community agencies with a focus on engagement of their children in the inclusion setting.

School factors and teachers

The school contributes to behaviour difficulties of students whether they have disabilities or not, and there are clear variations across schools. Each school setting needs to be considered, as practices that are successful in one school won’t necessarily work in a different school with a different mix of students, staff and leadership (Abawi & Oliver, 2013). In fact, the leadership of the school often has a considerable influence on the management of behaviours of students who are included in their school (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2008; Victorian State government, 2016; Wood et al., 2014). Wood et al. found that while principals saw inclusion as beneficial for students with disruptive behaviours, they didn’t see this as positive for other students or staff.

As discussed in Chapter 4, what we teach and the way we teach can provide a catalyst for behaviour problems. Factors include the curriculum, the way in which we teach curriculum topics, the physical features of the classroom and the timetable structure. Each is discussed in the following sections.

Curriculum failure cycle A cycle of increasing social and academic alienation that begins with a failure to learn in class which results in behaviour problems. The cycle can only be broken by addressing both the academic and behaviour needs of the student.

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The curriculum is a major source of school-related behaviour problems, and this is exacerbated for students with disabilities. If the curriculum content is well above the ability level of students, there is little incentive for students to learn. For example, as seen in Chapter 4, if students are in Year 8 and attempting simultaneous quadratic equations when they have not yet mastered the basic operations, there is little incentive to pay attention. The failure cycle is based on failure to learn followed by misbehaviour, followed by failure to learn, until students become trapped in an academic and social failure cycle from which they cannot escape. If the individual teacher perceives they have little control over the topics that are taught, as in some secondary schools, there is a need to ensure that all students are involved in the learning process, not only those students capable of attempting the set topics. This becomes a major area of concern for students with disabilities,

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particularly those with learning difficulties, autism or mild intellectual disability, where the academic performance level of the student may be well below the grade level but the student is required to participate in the regular curricular topics with no modifications or adaptations.

An area often forgotten in adjusting curriculum for students with disabilities is the case of students who are gifted and talented. Students who are not challenged by the learning and teaching in the classroom may engage in unproductive behaviours and feel that mainstream teachers do not value them as classroom members. This can lead to decreases in self-value and a cycle of diminished affective development (Eddles-Hirsch et al., 2010). There are also the additional issues of students who are gifted but also have learning difficulties, and the need to engage them in the curriculum as well as addressing their learning difficulties (Barber & Mueller, 2011). As Cook et al. (2008) explained, effective communication and support of staff by the principal improved the capacity of schools to better support the problem behaviour of students.

Angus et al. (2009) point out non-engagement can lead to disengaged behaviours at a minimum, and disruptive or more serious behaviours at worst. As they state in their report: ‘Simply demanding that all students cover the prescribed content in a curriculum designed for academically engaged students would be a counterproductive policy in many schools and classrooms’ (p. ix). The need to provide curriculum at an appropriate level contrasts with the emerging Australian Curriculum. This requires all schools to access a common curriculum (F–Year 10), take part in a common set of assessments (e.g. NAPLAN) and have the data reported on websites (e.g. My School), where it can be misinterpreted by those unaware of the difficulties of students, particularly those with additional learning needs (see Chapter 4). The Australian Curriculum’s engagement with the issues of students with disabilities has been inconsistent in quality and direction. While the Australian Curriculum remains focused on content and assessment and not learning and teaching strategies, there will be ongoing issues for management of student behaviour, not just for students with disabilities but also for the large group of students who have difficulty with curriculum content in mainstream classes.

Teaching methods

Other school factors include the way in which teachers teach. Teachers cannot compete with the mass of technology that students access in their own time, but they can ensure that they have variety in their lessons, that they are prepared to teach the lesson and that they are able to make learning interesting. As discussed in Chapter 4, being able to teach the curriculum is important, but being positive and being able to interact with all students and treat them as people is also important. Again, the clear link between social and academic issues cannot be overlooked.

This is illustrated in the finding by Good and Brophy (2000) that over 70 per cent of the academic day is spent on independent work rather than on interaction between teacher and student. It is in these periods of independent work that teachers report the occurrence of social behaviour difficulties that arise from the frustration associated with inability to successfully complete independent practice (Gunter, Coutinho & Cade, 2002). Importantly, Gunter, Coutinho and Cade note that students can use the undesirable behaviour to terminate the academic activity. For students with disabilities, the frustration level is quickly reached in classes. Gunter, Coutinho and Cade sum up the finding of the optimal blend of academic and social activities as ‘We believe that the key is to find a ratio of positive, desirable interactions that produces effective teaching and learning for both teachers and students’ (2002, p. 129). In that way both student and teacher needs are met.

Secondary teachers in the Western Australian study (Angus et al., 2009) reported that while it was important to engage in activities other than individual work, whole-class activities such as discussions were very difficult due to the great range in abilities of the students in the class and the lack of listening skills in today’s students.

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The physical classroom

The physical features of a classroom can also have an effect on behaviour. Classrooms that are poorly maintained, with no stimulating features, as often found in some secondary schools, do not create an environment in which students are encouraged to learn. In contrast, some early childhood and primary classrooms are so stimulating that students are constantly distracted by the many things around them. For some students this may exacerbate inattentive or distractible behaviours, especially for students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

The layout of the room also has an effect on the management of student behaviour. Some secondary teachers prefer desks to be in single rows, with minimum contact between students. In contrast, many primary classrooms are arranged with groups of desks and work areas for different subjects, and some new schools have been built as ‘open plan’. Both formal and less formal layouts have advantages for classroom management. Rows of single desks may reduce behaviour disruptions and increase on-task time for both primary and secondary students. If, however, the aim is to promote discussion and increase cooperative work skills, as is often the case for students with disabilities, small groups of desks are more appropriate. Alternatively, for social and academic support, pairs of desks allow a buddy system to operate.

The layout of desks selected by the class teacher will also depend on the level of direct control the teacher wants to have, the communication the teacher wants to have with the class, the level of communication the teacher wants to occur between students, and the types of learning activities that are to take place in the classroom.

Timetabling

Timetabling must be sensitive to the needs of students to ensure that all have access to social as well as academic activities during the school day. The timetable can provide both support and difficulties when it comes to managing classroom behaviour. If high schools are streamed or graded, timetabling the lower ability classes to complete difficult academic subjects late in the afternoon, with more active subjects such as physical education or design and technology earlier in the day, creates difficulties for both students and teachers. In addition, if high schools timetable very active subjects such as physical education followed immediately by subjects such as mathematics that may require sustained individual work, there is the potential for students with behaviour problems to have great difficulty in moving from active to passive behaviour in a short time. Such a timetable also presents considerable difficulties for students who have mobility restrictions that prevent quick movement around a school.

Students with limited ability to complete academic tasks may have great difficulty concentrating on academic tasks late in the day. For example, a primary class teacher may assign mathematics tasks late in the day because the class did not manage to complete them before recess. Students who have great difficulty concentrating on new mathematical skills at that time of the day may have their inattention seen as a behaviour problem, when inappropriate timetabling may have caused the problem. In secondary schools there has been a move to longer periods to reduce the number of periods in the day. While this reduces the number of movements between classrooms, the longer periods can be problematic for students with disabilities, such as ADHD and ASD, who find it difficult to remain on-task for long periods.

Teachers

Kauffman (2001) provided a list of the major ways in which teachers contribute to the development of inappropriate behaviour. Included in the list were actions such as being insensitive to students’ individuality, having inappropriate expectations of students, being

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inconsistent in managing student behaviour, giving inappropriate reinforcement, teaching irrelevant skills, and providing undesirable models of behaviour. Inappropriate models of behaviour can include the way teachers dress, the way they speak to students and the way they present work to students, either on the board or in worksheets.

As teachers spend considerable time with their students, it is essential that discussion about management of behaviours, both for students with and without disabilities, focuses on the perceptions of teachers. Teachers report that disciplining students is time-consuming and frustrating (Davidson, 2009) as it reduces instruction time. In one Australian study (Little, 2005), 68 per cent of secondary teachers said they spent too much time managing student behaviour. This was seen as a waste of teaching time, rather than being seen as an indication that students were not engaged in the learning and teaching. A question that could be posed is whether the teachers also identified why the students were misbehaving and whether this was because the teacher had not engaged them in the class learning activities. However, engagement alone is not the sole answer. No matter how well designed curriculum content is, this doesn’t guarantee lessons free from problem behaviour. Good classroom management skills are also essential (O’Neill & Stephenson, 2014) as well as positive innovative leadership (Martin & Furr, 2010).

Students have also identified important teacher characteristics. From their perspective, schools with the highest levels of academic achievement and pro-social behaviours were those in which teachers were caring and most responsive to student needs (Strahn & Lavell, 2006). These teachers were able to use their existing understanding of the students to make new learning meaningful.

Classroom control as ‘good’ management

Teachers have often expressed concern that having a student with disabilities in a class reduces their ability to control a class (Westwood & Graham, 2003). Control is seen as an important quality and this is reinforced often by administrators who see a quiet class as an indicator of a good teacher. Fear of loss of control frequently forces teachers to adopt a rigid and confrontational management style that is often inconsistent with the needs of students, particularly those with disabilities. More importantly, confrontational behaviour by a teacher often increases the likelihood that a student will react with even more severe behaviours (Lampron & Gonsoulin, 2013; Salend & Sylvestre, 2005).

In a large-scale study of eighth-grade students in over 1000 schools in the USA, Way (2011) found no evidence that tough teacher discipline deterred student misbehaviour. In fact, student misbehaviour increased where such practices existed. Misbehaviour also increased where rules were seen as too strict or unfair. Students with disabilities may require a more supportive, cooperative learning environment in which they can develop coping, learning and social skills with teachers modelling positive rather than confrontational behaviours (Babkie, 2006).

6.2 What is social inclusion? Social inclusion relates to how teachers and students interact within the classroom. Social inclusion factors include peer acceptance, friendships and participation in group activities (see Figure 6.2). Equally important is how teachers interact with students with disabilities.

FIGURE 6.2 Social inclusion involves peer acceptance, friendships and group activities

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Three components of social inclusion can be identified. The first is an affective component that focuses on the way peers and teachers feel about or perceive mainstreamed students. The second or cognitive component is concerned with understanding individual differences and disability in general. The third component is behavioural and covers the verbal, non-verbal and physical actions of students towards their peers. To the last component, the role of teacher behaviour needs to be added. The teacher’s verbal, non-verbal and physical actions are also important, as the teacher acts as a role model for students with disabilities and for the way other students in the class interact with those students.

Difficulties of social inclusion for students with disabilities

Placing students with disabilities within a general education setting does not guarantee that they will establish and maintain desirable social contacts or develop social support networks, and many can remain socially isolated.

A review of early intervention for children with a dual developmental and behaviour disability found that behaviour problems occur far more frequently in children with a developmental disability than in the general early childhood population (Roberts et al., 2003). Among the behaviours reported in studies were non-compliance, aggression towards others, destructiveness, tantrums, self-injury and self-stimulation. The behaviours were identified as stable over time and persisting into adolescence and adulthood. Early childhood intervention was seen as the best opportunity to address the behaviours through positive family-focused interventions based on social learning theory and applied behaviour analysis. Without such interventions, the behaviours can lead to more serious and stigmatising challenging behaviours that may ultimately result in exclusion from community settings. Early intervention within the school education sector through FBA and BIP strategies are seen as important for competent management. This will be discussed further later in the chapter.

Mental health comorbidity Having two or more illnesses or disabilities coexisting.

Students with mental health needs provide a particular challenge for social inclusion. A high level of students with mental health problems has been identified in schools. These problems are exacerbated when there is comorbidity such as conduct disorders, oppositional defiance disorder and ADHD. These students present a considerable social inclusion challenge (Dick et al., 2005). Comorbidity is an increasing issue in our schools and teachers are constantly seeking information from the specialist Australian Government mental health website (see weblinks at the end of the chapter) or from organisations such as the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). Another useful source of information is the Response Ability materials developed to assist pre-service teachers gain skills and confidence in working with students with behaviour and/or mental health needs in schools.

Physical disabilities

In a study of social inclusion for adolescent students with physical disabilities, Mpofu (2003) found that higher achieving students with disabilities were more socially acceptable than those who were low achieving. Just attending the same classes does not enhance social status but those assigned socially desirable school and classroom roles did have a higher sense of social acceptance. They were found to have reinforced confidence and increased social capital. Teachers and students saw social acceptance as important for academic achievement, school retention and adjustment.

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Disability Standards for Education and students with disabilities A key issue to remember regarding social inclusion of students with disabilities is that the Disability Standards for Education (Commonwealth of Australia, 2005) apply. There is no similar legislation in New Zealand. In earlier chapters we saw the reasons behind the development of the Standards. In Chapter 4 we examined the role of the Standards in student participation as well as in the adaptation of curriculum and teaching and learning activities and assessment. The Standards have an indirect impact on social inclusion in relation to harassment and victimisation, although these do not relate only to social behaviours. The Standards’ definition of harassment and victimisation is to humiliate, offend, intimidate, or distress a person with a disability, or their associate. (The associate can include any person who advocates on behalf of the person with a disability.) It can relate to not accepting wheelchairs, breathing equipment, interpreters, or guide dogs as well as the person themselves. Compliance procedures require that:

• all staff and students are advised of their obligations • a complaints mechanism exists

• specific actions are to be taken if harassment or victimisation occurs • professional development is provided to staff.

6.3 Integrating behaviour and academic skills Classrooms are a learning–teaching environment. Hence there is a clear and unambiguous relationship between behaviour, learning and teaching. Both teachers and students teach and learn in a variety of ways, some of them appropriate and some not. By the same token, teachers and students learn from each other. The concept of teachers teaching and students learning in a one-way flow of knowledge and control is out-dated, sometimes perpetuated in models of discipline that suggest that teachers must be assertive and take charge, or use teaching practices that emphasise control. As discussed in Chapter 4, the focus of modern curricula is that students learn from a wide variety of experiences and that teachers guide learning and learn from student output. Hence, behaviour change must be seen in the context of a web of learning and teaching for all students in mainstream classes. Another way of conceiving the close relationship between management of social/behavioural needs and academic needs is to look for clear parallels. Despite this, teachers, particularly at secondary level, have expressed concern about whether they can make a difference:

learning–teaching environment The concept that a classroom is a place in which both teaching and learning occurs throughout the lesson.

Teachers were divided as to whether they can make a difference by modifying their pedagogy, changing the curriculum, streaming students according to their ability, or raising expectations that students must take responsibility for their own learning. Source: Angus et al. (2009), p. 73

As Glasser (1969) suggested in his early model of 10 steps to discipline with disruptive students, the first three steps we need to follow in changing students’ behaviour should be directed at ourselves: What am I doing? Is it working? Make a plan. These steps are aimed at assessing whether we can change our behaviour and, particularly, whether we can change what we teach and how we teach it. It also emphasises the need to do something positive in our interactions with students when they are not being disruptive, such as greeting them or smiling at them.

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Kauffman (2001) asks teachers to reflect upon the relationship between curriculum presentation and behaviour problems. While Kauffman acknowledges that not all behaviour problems can be solved by changing the learning–teaching environment, such changes may avoid the need to embark on specific management programs.

The importance of linking academic and behaviour/social skills has been highlighted already in the research of Mpofu (2003) and Gunter, Coutinho and Cade (2002). In both cases, the social and academic outcomes for students with disabilities were enhanced through the inter-linking of academic and social skills. Similarly, Williams and Reisberg (2003) emphasised the importance of embedding the teaching of social skills in the teaching of curriculum content. Frameworks such as Response to Intervention (RTI) also take into consideration the links between behaviour and learning.

Response to Intervention (RTI)

The RTI framework uses a tiered model originally based on a public health model. There are three tiers of intervention or support required for all students, some students and a few students. Essentially the tiers represent levels of intervention and processes that address both learning or academics and the behaviours needed to succeed. At the primary level all students are supported and recognised as following most programs and implementation plans across the whole school. The idea is to prevent any further issues by providing adequate support through general programming, good engaging teaching practices and access to curriculum and whole school approaches to behaviour (see Figure 6.3). The next tier of support targets some students who may be having difficulty with academics or learning and most likely will have some behavioural

Academic systems

Behavioural systems

Intensive, Individual Interventions • Individual students • Assessment-based • High intensity

1–5%

5–10%

Targeted group interventions • Some students (at-risk) • High efficiency • Rapid response Universal interventions • All students • Preventive, proactive

80–90%

Intensive, Individual Interventions • Individual students • Assessment-based • Intense, durable procedures

1–5%

5–10%

Targeted group interventions • Some students (at-risk) • High efficiency • Rapid response

80–90%

Universal interventions • All settings, all students • Preventive, proactive

FIGURE 6.3 Designing school-wide systems for student success Source: Interventions for Achievement and Behavioral Problems in a Three-Tier Model Including RTI (p. 688) by the National Association of School Psychologists, Bethesda, MD. Copyright 2010 by the National Association of School Psychologists.

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problems. Often students may exhibit behavioural problems before learning issues are discovered. Students in this tier get more support from the school such as adjusted learning or adjusted assessment procedures. Similarly, more targeted support in behaviour would ensue. This may look like addressing learning needs that are affected by behaviour such as planning for transition, providing adjusted worksheets, adjusting examination times, adjusting tasks and changing strategies in how to teach and how to respond to behaviour appropriately. The third tier looks at only a few students that need major adjustments in their learning and may also sense major adjustments with their behaviour sense will need specialised support for learning and often specialised support for behaviour. This tier will require an individual learning program and/or an individual behaviour program that promotes both learning and behaviour outcomes to increase engagement in all aspects of the school context.

Positive Behaviour Intervention Support

Similarly, Positive Behaviour Intervention Support (PBIS) is a tiered framework that focuses on behaviour. Many of the resources and the developers of PBIS have integrated the PBIS framework to be embedded alongside RTI (Sugai et al., 2010). There is continued acknowledgement by USA education departments that learning and behaviour go hand in hand, and therefore PBIS has an important role in increasing the educational outcomes for students in schools. In the primary (schoolwide) level, all students are considered and strategies are developed (such as five basic rules, rewards and consequences consistent across all areas of the school); in the secondary level, more targeted interventions (such as specific social skill development, small group work, adjusted management techniques), occur for some students and groups of students who need more support; and at the tertiary (individual) level, support is for students with chronic and severe problem behaviour. This would likely include conducting a functional behavioural assessment (FBA) and the development of an individual behaviour intervention plan aimed at individual behaviour supports that benefit the individual student (O’Neill & Stephenson, 2014, adapted from Christenson-Foggett PhD thesis 2017). Some iterations of PBIS in Australia and New Zealand are Positive Behaviour for Learning (PBL, PB4L) and Schoolwide Positive Behaviour Support (SWPBS). Early supporters of PBIS in Australia believed that there was a need in Australian schools to replace exclusion practices for problem behaviour with more inclusive approaches (Bryer & Beamish, 2005). PBL was based on the PBIS framework and had been adapted for Australian schools. PBL was a framework for the school and its community to develop ideas collectively and support every student in social and emotional wellbeing through academic and learning engagement, team problem-solving approaches using data of student behaviour, and the development of a continuum of behavioural approaches from early childhood through to senior secondary. In a report on the effectiveness of PBL from the University of Western Sydney, government schools concluded that student motivation and self-concept were generally higher in these schools than in others without PBL. The biggest impact was on the attitudes of staff in developing positive and preventive practices within a schoolwide approach (Mooney et al., 2008.

Preparation and lesson delivery by teachers

The level of preparation by teachers for each class has an important effect on the behaviour of all students during lessons, but most particularly for students with disabilities. If teachers have a number of students with disabilities in their mainstream classes, they need to have adequate activities prepared, particularly if those students are to attempt tasks that are different from those being attempted by the majority of the class, as occurs in curriculum overlapping (see Chapter 4). If the teacher is unable to supervise directly at all times, teacher management difficulties will increase if the students are unable to complete the tasks with

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PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES academically engaged time The amount of time a student is engaged working on a task. In many classrooms, students may appear to be working, but the amount of academically engaged time can be low.

minimum assistance. It is important to increase the academically engaged time or the amount of time spent in productive learning by each student. Similarly, if there is inadequate preparation for the main group in the class, the opportunity for behaviour problems increases from the students without disabilities. The way in which teachers communicate with students can also affect both the presentation of lessons and the behaviour of students. The key is to engage students in the learning (academically engaged) and increase student motivation and engagement, rather than just sitting and passively cooperating (Mackay, 2015; Miller & Hall, 2005).

Appropriate skills for increasing social acceptance of students with disabilities

A number of suggestions have been made on the specific skills to focus on as part of making the classroom a more positive place in which to work. As discussed earlier, the three areas of work habits, coping skills and peer relationships are important areas to focus on, particularly for students with higher levels of learning needs.

Bowd (1990) has suggested a broad approach to grouping skills, rather than focusing on very specific skills. He suggests that teachers consider adapting methods of instruction and classroom management to accommodate five broad areas, which are still very relevant today: • learning to cope with anxiety, fear of failure and fear of rejection

• developing feelings of self-worth both in class and in the wider school

• learning to accept reasonable direction and guidance from teachers including asking for help and following directions • developing behaviours that are likely to increase acceptance by other students

• developing good work habits such as listening, and positive attitudes towards school work.

Clearly the role of the class teacher is to ensure that positive learning situations can occur in the classroom, as well as to encourage the development of these social skills (Casey, 2012).

Managing disruptive behaviours in the classroom

Daniels (1998) provides a clear sequence of 10 questions to ask in managing the disruptive behaviour of students in inclusive classrooms. She commences with the important question of whether misbehaviour could result from inappropriate curriculum or teaching strategies – the issues raised in Chapter 4, which looked at the relationship between academic content and student management. The 10 questions posed by Daniels are shown in Table 6.2. The teacher matches each question to potential actions with adaptations for the Australian context. TABLE 6.2 Questions to ask in managing disruptive behaviour in inclusive classrooms

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Questions to ask

Possible actions

1 Could this misbehaviour be the result of inappropriate curriculum or teaching strategies?

Identify the blockages to learning (curriculum content, resources and equipment). Adapting teaching and learning can reduce the occurrence of student misbehaviour.

2 Could this misbehaviour be the result of the student’s inability to understand the concepts being taught?

Use task analysis to check prerequisite skills, learning styles and ability to determine the functional level of students and assist them in moving to mastery of relevant skills.

CHAPTER 6 Encouraging positive interactions

Questions to ask

Possible actions

3 Could this misbehaviour be an underlying result of the student’s disability?

A knowledge base of the disability and potential behaviour problems is useful (e.g. autism).

4 Could this misbehaviour be a result of other factors?

The ecology of the classroom is important beyond the instructional issues in Q1 above. This includes how students and teachers interact and respond to the included student.

5 Are these causes of misbehaviour that I can control?

The level and forms of feedback to the student are important.

6 How do I determine if the misbehaviour is classroom-based?

Again the classroom ecology is important and conducting a functional assessment may be useful, including identifying events, variables and circumstances that contribute to the problem.

7 How do I teach students to self-regulate or self-manage behaviour?

Teaching students to self-instruct, self-monitor and self-reinforce has been shown to be successful in reducing behaviour problems.

8 How do I determine what methods of control are appropriate without violating the rights of students with disabilities?

Under the Australian Commonwealth and states Disability Discrimination Acts, certain management procedures may be illegal. In addition, use of physical restraint may not be permitted in some educational services. Remember to be positive in feedback, including the use of words, facial expressions, closeness, activities and rewards.

9 How do I use reinforcement strategies to reduce disruptive behaviour?

Reinforcement needs to be systematic over time. Reinforcing alternative positive behaviours and incompatible behaviours has been found to be useful.

10 Is it appropriate for me to use punishment?

Punishment does not have to be physical. It includes time out, loss of earned rewards (response cost), restitution and overcorrection. Any punishment should be paired with reinforcement of positive behaviours and within school policy. It should not be the first or prime management strategy.

response cost A behaviour management technique used as part of a token economy in which a student loses tokens for demonstrating inappropriate behaviour, while gaining tokens for appropriate behaviour.

Source: Adapted from Daniels (1998)

6.4 Approaches to managing behaviours in regular classes Prior to discussing some of the specific approaches that are available to teachers in mainstreamed classes, it is important to realise that a range of approaches is open to all teachers. There is no mystical set of strategies that operates in managing behaviours of students with disabilities. The strategies are the same as those that operate for all students (Fields, 2014). The difference is in the level of management and the consistency of monitoring the chosen management strategy.

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Responding to the levels of behaviour requires a corresponding level of teacher response. Hence: • low-level or infrequent misbehaviour requires a low-level teacher response • moderate or frequent misbehaviour requires a consistent teacher response

• high-level or dangerous misbehaviour requires a strong, consistent teacher response.

At the low misbehaviour level, strategies may be dealt with using techniques such as reflecting, ‘I’ statements (e.g. ‘When you do that I feel …’), redirecting, checking class rules and asking the student ‘What are you doing?’ and ‘What should you be doing?’ At this level, there is no need for specific management programs. Appropriate management at this level may avoid the necessity of moving to more defined management strategies. For many students, a reminder of the rules (previously established and understood by all) and a redirection to work may be sufficient to maintain appropriate social skills. At the moderate misbehaviour level, consistent reminders of rules or consequences, such as having to make up lost working time after a short in-class time-out, may be useful. At the major or repeated misbehaviour level, specific assessment of the behaviour through a formal assessment of the function of the behaviour and a formal management plan may be required. This is discussed in detail later in the chapter.

Another approach is to see the behaviour needs from the perspective of what the teacher does. The response by the teacher can be either before the behaviour, once the behaviour commences, or after the behaviour has occurred. In this way the methods are similar to the ABC sequence (antecedents, behaviour, consequences): • Prior to the behaviour – focus is on teaching desired behaviours and providing effective learning activities. The aim is to develop a positive classroom climate with productive pro-social behaviours.

• When the behaviour commences – focus is on addressing the behaviour after they have commenced. The goal is to arrest the behaviour before it escalates and to assist the student to resume classroom activities. • After the behaviour – focus is on providing consequences for the behaviour and assisting the student to terminate the behaviour and engage in appropriate behaviour on subsequent occasions.

Clearly the first approach is most effective in preventing behaviours, although all approaches will need to be used at some time.

Key factors in any management program

Three important points need to be remembered in regard to any behaviour management approach:

• The students must want to change their behaviour if a behaviour management program is to work effectively. • The development of the process of change requires the active, ongoing involvement of the student. • The process of change must occur within the teaching–learning context.

These points are important because they re-emphasise the necessity of ensuring active involvement of students and the relationship between academic and social skills within the learning environment. The following sections provide a discussion on possible approaches to addressing the behaviour needs of all students, including those with disabilities, starting with specific management approaches for students with high behaviour support needs.

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6.5 Developing specific behaviour plans If students with disabilities require extra assistance in managing their behaviours over and above the classroom and school discipline systems, a specific behaviour management program may be needed. This may be either for a specific behaviour, such as increasing on-task behaviour or staying in their seat, or for a cluster of behaviours, such as work habits or working cooperatively in the classroom. Any specific behaviour management program must be designed with the aim of incorporating the student into the normal management practices of the class and school to the greatest extent possible. This is important both for increasing the social acceptance of the student and for reducing the necessity for operating additional programs that reduce teacher time available for curriculum adaptations and attention to teaching strategies. For some students in regular classrooms, initial behaviour management programs may not be in keeping with the principle of students wanting to change behaviours. Teachers may need to establish programs for acceptable classroom behaviour that a student does not agree with; this is particularly true for students with behavioural or mental health problems. However, once a student has a greater ability to self-regulate, teachers must promptly move the student to a behaviour management program that involves their active willingness to participate.

Functional behaviour assessment

The process of developing a specific behaviour program is based on a sequence of FBA leading into a BIP. The process comes from the intellectual disability literature, and was originally used for students with challenging behaviours where the teacher was unable to gain information from the student directly because of communication and intellectual impairment. Hence the teacher wanted to understand the function of the behaviour in order to develop an appropriate behaviour management plan. In recent years the FBA process has been used widely with students with emotional and behaviour problems in both regular and special settings. While it has increased substantially in use in Australasian schools, there is no mandatory requirement for its use. As a result, the process has the advantage in Australia and New Zealand of being able to be adapted to current needs rather than having to be completed as a legal requirement. Although the function is best determined by a specialist in this area, studies have shown that a regular teacher can implement an FBA and have an understanding of how an FBA assists in developing and implementing a more effective plan based upon the function of a student’s behaviour. The FBA process is based on 10 steps:

1 Describe and verify the seriousness of the behaviour 2 Define the problem

3 Collect information on possible functions of the behaviour 4 Analyse the assessment data

5 Generate a possible hypothesis of the function of behaviour 6 Test the hypothesis

7 Develop the plan directly from the data and the determined function of behaviour and implement 8 Monitor the faithfulness of the plan’s implementation 9 Evaluate the effectiveness of the plan 10 Modify the plan.

The manuals for both FBA and BIP written by the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice (CECP) in the USA are available free of charge from their website (see weblinks at

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the end of the chapter). The three manuals cover an introduction to the FBA and BIP process (CECP, 1998a), conducting an FBA (CECP, 1998b), and the development and implementation of BIPs (CECP, 2000). An extensive range of training manuals, videos and workbooks is available from the USA.

FBA (see weblinks at end of chapter) is aimed at understanding the functions, or reasons, for the behaviours. In particular, it looks at factors in the environment that precede (antecedents) or reinforce (consequences) the occurrence of the behaviour. Functional assessment may include interviews, questionnaires and descriptive analysis followed by direct observation to confirm hypotheses (see Rosenberg et al., 2004 for a detailed description of techniques). While FBA was developed in the USA, it is widely applied in Australian contexts as there are no Australiandeveloped approaches.

FBA involves examining the behaviours of the student before, during and after the behaviour occurs, with the key aim of establishing the function of the behaviour. It covers the first six steps of the sequence. The process is normally conducted by a team rather than individual teachers as the process is extensive and requires up to two weeks to complete for students with severe/ challenging behaviours. individual positive behaviour plan (IPBP) An individualised program focusing on positive approaches to improving behaviour.

An example of a practical and functional BIP is shown in Table 6.3. The plan layout was developed by the Catholic Education Office (Archdiocese of Sydney, 2009a, 2009b) as part of their strategies for addressing students with behaviour needs in schools. The plan is called an individual positive behaviour plan (IPBP) to emphasise the importance of the plan being positive in its focus. There are five columns, each of which is important for the conduct of the plan.

TABLE 6.3 Individual positive behaviour plan

Identified behaviours of concern

Desired outcome

Agreed management strategies

Strategies to be undertaken by

Screwing up worksheets during literacy tasks and refusing to complete.

Robbie will show help card to support assistant or teacher when needs assistance.

Whole-class training and reinforcement in using help cards rehearsing what this looks and sounds like (days 1–5).

Classroom teacher (monitor whole class reward system and initial training);

Robbie will be able to complete the selfevaluation card with Indigenous Student Support Assistant.

Self-evaluation card training and reinforcement of whole class. Students practising filling out evaluation of when and why used help card (days 1–5).

Monitoring comments

Indigenous Student Support Assistant (monitor Robbie’s card and rewards).

Specific rewards targeted at use of cards for specific social skills (e.g. being patient). Adjusted learning tasks. Source: (Source for layout only): Catholic Education Office, Archdiocese of Sydney (2009a) p. 15, (2009b) p. 15

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1 Identified behaviours of concern: these will have been identified through the FBA 2 Desired outcomes: the alternative positive replacement behaviour

3 Agreed management strategies: the activities that have been agreed on by members of the FBA team to manage the change to the positive behaviour 4 Strategies to be undertaken by: who will be responsible for each action (specific people)

5 Monitoring comments: notes on the progress of the IPBP to be used at the review meeting.

It is important to realise that completion of an FBA and BIP sequence does not necessarily lead to positive behaviour outcomes. Scott et al. (2005) found that, despite being trained and supported, teachers still gravitated to more negative and exclusionary strategies. In Australasia the FBA and BIP process is used when we see the need to use it, and hence the likelihood of success is greater through teacher commitment.

The steps in the FBA and BIP are reflected in the case study developed by student management consultants for Robbie (Narrative 6.1), in Year 5, whose behaviour required an FBA and the development of a BIP. Notice that the FBA identified information from the parent that can be incorporated into the activities of the school. Schools should be aware that all students (including Indigenous students) might have other events occurring outside school that could be affecting their behaviour and learning (Schwab, 2012).

NARRATIVE 6.1 Case study: Robbie Robbie began Year 5 in the second week of the new school year at his local school of five hundred students in a suburban area. Robbie’s family (mum and two older brothers) identify as Indigenous. Although they had many close family members in the school community, they were only new to the area the previous year. Robbie had enrolled in the school only in the last two weeks of Term Four, but was absent for most of that time. Robbie enjoyed and was talented at art and was often seen with younger Indigenous students. In the classroom, Robbie struggled with set learning tasks that required writing or reading at his desk. His reading age was two years below his chronological age. He frequently screwed up worksheets and refused to attempt tasks and would lay his head on the table. Work refusal occurred more as the day progressed. If challenged by the teacher, he would leave his desk and leave the room. Leaving the room was accompanied by swearing, pushing items in his way, sweeping off others’ desk items such as pens and papers and occasionally hitting other students if they were close to the door. After leaving the room, Robbie would continue to disrupt by banging on the classroom window, swearing at the teacher and shouting at other students outside rooms. Robbie continued with this behaviour until the principal came. Robbie’s attendance was problematic with frequent absences. Robbie only attended three days a week regularly and often was away visiting relatives back at his previous location. Robbie struggled to return to school and had difficulty settling into classroom routines after absences. Following a number of suspensions for violence and verbal abuse, a team was set up to conduct an FBA. Each person had clear roles related to gathering information for analysis and developing an individual learning plan within the month. Robbie’s class teacher went about tracking patterns on a simple timetable, coding different behaviours. She determined that Robbie’s refusal behaviours were worse in the literacy block and after recess and lunch. Direct observations were undertaken by a support teacher with a view to determining some simple strategies that could be used to engage Robbie in positive social and academic experiences. The principal and

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student management consultant undertook a structured interview with Robbie’s mother. Robbie’s mother revealed that he was missing his family from his previous home and recent family deaths and illness meant returning there often. A triangulation of data gathered was developed and a possible function of the behaviour was proposed.

Data triangulation chart Student: Robbie

Date:

School:

Grade: 5

Teacher: Source 1

Source 2

Source 3

ABC observations

Parent interview

Scatterplot recording

Robbie either pushes worksheets to the floor or sighs loudly and says ‘it’s boring’ when the teacher is explaining to whole class. Robbie will leave the classroom if the teacher insists he pick up his work immediately.

Mum has noticed more angry outbursts at home especially after going back to his previous location and seeing his family. There have been two deaths in the family.

Robbie is more likely to swear and use a loud voice during literacy sessions that require individual desk work. He is worse after the playground.

Interpretation 1 Precipitation events: Individual literacy activities that involve reading and writing, after absences from school visiting old home, after playground. 2 Maintaining consequences for behaviour from teacher: Robbie leaves the room after teacher requests completion of the literacy worksheets. 3 Likely function: Robbie screws up individual worksheets when at his desk to avoid literacy tasks that require independent reading and writing. Source: (for layout only) Gable et al. (1999)

The information led the team to formulate a simple plan, with a two-week review period. Also, a crisis management plan was written, detailing the steps to be taken if Robbie was violent. The initial positive goal was to engage Robbie in completing a set task and to develop some ways to ask for assistance when frustrated with a task. An Indigenous student support assistant was employed to support the teacher in engaging Robbie during the literacy block. In the short term, if Robbie could sit with the support assistant and complete a set task he would be able to select an art activity. If Robbie could manage a number of tasks over a two-week period then he could work with the Kindergarten Indigenous students on art activities. Stamp charts and ongoing small rewards were used to get through the two weeks. However, the real breakthrough came with a suggestion by Robbie that he develop a mural with the Kindergarten students. Gradually, Robbie spent less time refusing work, attended school more often and made some literacy gains. With the help of an Indigenous student assistant and the deputy principal, Robbie embarked on a project that incorporated developing a large wall mural. He was peer-mentored by an Indigenous artist from Robbie’s community who assisted in devising lunchtime art activities. A number of Indigenous murals have been planned by Robbie and other students.

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Review the sequence of an FBA and the development of an IPBP and see how this sequence worked in the development of a program for Robbie. 2. Discuss the influence of home, school and community factors on the experiences of Robbie and his school life. 3. As Robbie is Indigenous, does that change how you would approach an FBA? Why?

6.6 Student and teacher developed behaviour improvement plans An effective technique for students who can be involved in the behaviour process is to allow them to assist in developing a plan for behaviour improvement. This places ownership for the process with the student as well as the teacher. Having students and teachers rate performance also ensures students are active and realistic in their assessment of their own behaviour. Figure 6.4 provides an example of a playground-monitoring sheet for a student with autism. The plan provides for three positive behaviours (identified with the teacher as part of the BIP) as well as the list of school rules. The format provides for daily monitoring by the student with multiple sheets across the week. NAME:

Recess Rules: 1. Follow rules of the game 2. Use equipment in a safe way 3. Everyone can play 4. Keep hands and feet to yourself 5. Use kind words

DATE:

Hands and feet

Kind words

Safe equipment

POINTS

POINTS

1st check

2nd check

= Bonus 2 points for 6x

FIGURE 6.4 Recess monitoring sheet

Behaviour management in inclusive classrooms: meeting the needs of a diverse range of students

A number of strategies are recommended to support the management of challenging behaviours in the classroom, whether they are for students with disabilities or not (Babkie, 2006; Ferko, 2005). There are also lists of recommended strategies for those with specific disabilities such as autism (Bullard, 2004).

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In a list of 20 ways to pro-actively address challenging behaviours in classrooms, Babkie (2006) highlights a range of strategies to meet the diversity of students in the classroom (see Figure 6.5). Importantly, she focuses on a repertoire of strategies rather than relying on only one or two. Not all strategies will work with all students, and the skilled teacher knows which strategies will work with which students at which times.

Step 1

Clarify rules so that students understand your expectations from the beginning (see Figure 6.6).

Step 2

Be consistent and predictable in enforcing rules.

Step 3

Make behaviour boundaries clear.

Step 4

Use routines to increase student certainty.

Step 5

Have an organised classroom.

Step 6

Provide cues of what is happening next.

Step 7

Teach transitioning skills from one task to the next.

Step 8

Teach cognitive (thinking and planning) skills so that students can make and monitor behavioural decisions.

Step 9

Pace lessons on the basis of student needs and responses.

Step 10

Alter the workload if students are having difficulties rather than punishing them for non-completion.

Step 11

Make learning purposeful to ensure active engagement.

Step 12

Look at multiple ways of student responding.

Step 13

Use FBA to choose alternative positive behaviours.

Step 14

Look for triggers to behaviour problems.

FIGURE 6.5 Ways to address challenging behaviours in the classroom

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Step 15

Change the antecedents to prevent behaviours from occurring.

Step 16

Redirect students rather than waiting to deal with behaviour outcomes.

Step 17

Use group dynamics to create a positive climate.

Step 18

Use contracts to work with the student for behaviour change.

Step 19

Be respectful towards students.

Step 20

Ensure that students see themselves as contributing class members.

FIGURE 6.5 Continued

These tips again reinforce the need to link social behaviours in class to academic behaviours.

Preventing escalation of behaviour One of the most difficult teacher skills in a classroom is the prevention of behaviour escalation and confrontation with individual students. For students with autism, behaviour escalation may occur as a result of stress, poor problem-solving ability, organisational skill difficulties and problems in predicting outcomes of social responses (Zager et al., 2012). Escalation of behaviour often occurs without the teacher being aware that the process is occurring until the cycle of confrontation is underway.

‘Behaviour escalation’ is defined as an occasion FIGURE 6.6 Clarify rules so that students understand your where a group of problem behaviours occurs in a expectations sequential pattern in which successive responses are of increasing severity or intensity (ShuklaMehta & Albin, 2003). The sequence usually begins with less severe problems that can be responded to more easily. Through behaviour escalation, however, more severe responses by the teacher and student replace the initial behaviours and the result can be behaviours that are dangerous to people and/or cause property damage. The result of behaviour escalation is the cessation of learning in the classroom and the modelling of inappropriate behaviours to the class. The behaviour of some students with behaviour-focused disabilities is designed to develop a specific response from the teacher and they will ensure that the teacher provides that response. This leads to refusal to comply, which is then escalated into more serious behaviours and confrontation. Here the intent is deliberate on the part of the student. For students with special learning needs, who may escalate behaviours out of frustration or lack of alternative management skills, behaviour escalation is often used as an argument for their permanent

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removal from the class. The classroom teacher’s aim should be to focus on developing positive behaviours that avoid behaviour escalation, rather than responding to it after it occurs. Shukla-Mehta and Albin (2003, p. 156) provide 11 strategies that may assist teachers in avoiding behaviour escalation and confrontation. 1 Reinforce calm and on-task behaviour. 2 Know the triggers.

3 Pay attention to anything unusual about the student’s behaviour. 4 Do not escalate along with the student.

5 Offer students opportunities to display responsible behaviour. 6 Intervene early in the sequence.

7 Know the functions of problem behaviours.

8 Use good judgement about which behaviours to punish. 9 Use extinction procedures wisely.

10 Teach students socially appropriate behaviours to replace the problem behaviours. 11 Teach academic survival skills and set students up for success.

Each of these approaches provides a strategy for the teacher. However, the combination of strategies for individual students will be based on the specific situation the teacher is dealing with, particularly whether the confrontation is with a student with behaviour-focused disabilities or learning-focused disabilities.

6.7 Social skills and enhancing peer acceptance through classroom activities Social skills are complex and include overt, observable behaviours as well as problem-solving behaviours. They are critical to successful social, emotional and cognitive development, particularly for students with problem behaviours (Davies et al., 2015). Hence teachers need to measure social skills, develop effective teaching strategies and evaluate progress as a way to increase connectiveness and a greater sense of inclusion. Elksnin and Elksnin (1998) identify six main types of social skills (Table 6.4).

TABLE 6.4 Types of social skills

Interpersonal behaviours

These behaviours are ‘friendship-making skills’, such as introducing yourself, joining in, asking a favour, offering to help, giving and accepting compliments, and apologising.

Peer-related social skills

These are skills valued by peers that are associated with peer acceptance – examples include working cooperatively, asking for and receiving information, and correctly assessing another’s emotional state.

Teacher-pleasing social skills

These are behaviours associated with school success and include following directions, doing your best work and listening to the teacher.

Self-related behaviours

These skills allow a student to assess a social situation, select an appropriate skill and determine the skill’s effectiveness. Other self-related behaviours include following through, dealing with stress, understanding feelings and controlling anger.

Assertiveness skills

These behaviours allow students to express their needs without resorting to aggression.

Communication skills

Communication skills include listener responsiveness, turn-taking, maintaining conversational attention and giving the speaker feedback. Source: Adapted from Elksnin & Elksnin (1998), p. 132

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Before looking at social skills problems, it needs to be remembered that every lesson is a social skills lesson, as every lesson involves students interacting with other students and the teacher, as well as the teacher interacting with students. Every social interaction is observed by others and affects the way they will interact in the future. If the teacher allows students to interact in socially unacceptable ways (e.g. put-downs, derogatory words), then the class will see this as acceptable social behaviour in that room. Social skills such as initiating and responding to others, showing empathy and dealing with the many frustrations that exist in schools, particularly as they interact with students with disabilities in the classroom, are important for all students (Owen-DeSchryver et al., 2008). Other social skills include sharing and turn-taking; listening and talking; and supporting, assisting and encouraging others (McIntosh & MacKay, 2008). As discussed earlier, social skills deficits can be seen as resulting from one of three categories:

1 social skills acquisition deficits

2 social skills performance deficits 3 social skills fluency deficits.

Where the social skill is not part of their repertoire, some students with disabilities may need to be taught that skill (acquisition) at the individual level prior to incorporating the skill into the general classroom setting. The challenge for teachers of students with social skills performance deficits is that the students may have the skill and choose not to use it. Students that do not generalise the social skill or use it automatically in other environments have fluency deficits. The key issue is that reinforcement for appropriate use of a strategy is critical. Returning to the concept of the function of the behaviour outlined in Table 6.1, the existing behaviours are likely to remain unless the social skills the teacher is promoting lead to better ‘getting’ or ‘avoiding’ by the student. The critical issue for some students with disabilities is to use social skills across situations and without prompting or reinforcement.

Teaching social skills

Teaching social skills has long been considered a critical factor for all students, but particularly those with disabilities (McGrath, 2005). There are two main approaches to teaching social skills. The first is to teach social skills as a specific curriculum, including the use of cooperative learning activities. The second approach is to blend social and academic skills through the use of cooperative learning activities in which the social skills are not explicitly taught but develop within the implementation of the academic program. As discussed above, the type of social skill to be learned, the type of deficit the student demonstrates and the resources available will determine the chosen approach. Most social skills instructional curricula use a format of:

• advanced organiser – explanation of the skill and the steps in learning the task • model – modelling of the skill by the teacher or other students

• guided practice – the teacher guides the student through the skill, acting as a coach and reinforcing the self-instruction of the student

• independent performance – the student practises the skill alone with the teacher observing the skill but without the level of guidance

• generalisation – performance occurs in a variety of situations to reinforce the use of the skills in those settings not just the initial instructional setting.

Source: Williams & Reisberg (2003), p. 206

The format emphasises some key instructional components. First, there is a strong emphasis on the transfer of the skill from the teacher to the student through scaffolding. At the initial step, the teacher possesses the skill and throughout the steps of the procedure, that skill is transferred

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to the student. Scaffolding is a very powerful instructional tool for social skill acquisition, particularly as the teacher can slow down or speed up the rate at which that transfer of skill can occur. For students with high-level disabilities, the process can take a considerable time. Another critical ingredient is the role of the teacher or other student demonstrating the skill. Modelling is a powerful tool to demonstrate appropriate behaviours, particularly when the model is another student. Finally, the use of self-instruction is important as it provides the student with the ability to talk through the steps in the skill. One word of caution: if possible, have students use their own words for the steps in the social skill, rather than the teacher’s words. By using their personal student language, the steps have greater meaning and lead to a sense of ownership of the process, rather than being the teacher’s steps.

Training programs

Social skills training programs have been used to teach a wide variety of skills, although the outcomes have often been less than optimal (see Gresham, 2010; Gresham et al., 2001; Kos et al., 2006; McGrath, 2005). Programs range from the teaching of specific behaviours such as eye contact and facial expressions, to broader, more complex social skills such as making friends. While earlier studies sought to teach these skills in isolation and then generalise them to social settings in the classroom, recent studies have incorporated cognitive and environmental influences in programs. One of these is self-efficacy or the belief we have that we can do a task successfully. As many mainstreamed students have had negative social experiences in classrooms, their self-efficacy may be lowered and hence they are unwilling to persevere if obstacles or rejection occurs.

A number of commercial programs are available to teach social skills, many of which are from the USA (e.g. Goldstein’s Prepare Curriculum [Goldstein, 2000]). An excellent series of Australian resources are by McGrath (see, for example, McGrath & Edwards, 2000; McGrath & Noble, 2003). While these resources have not been updated since their publication, they remain a valuable source of ideas. Other resources include programs by Keefe and Carrington (2007) and Cooper (2006). There are also social skills programs to support students with specific disabilities to integrate into mainstream schools (see Table 6.5 later in the chapter for a social skills group program for a student with complex ASD needs). Teachers use ideas from a variety of sources and develop a program that meets their own needs. It is important to remember that social skills training requires far more than a few individual lessons. It requires a consistent curriculum focus over an extended period, perhaps years.

A level above social skills is social competence (see Figure 6.7). The relationship between social skills and social competence is best explained as ‘social skills are behaviors that must be taught, learned and performed, while social competence represents judgements or evaluations of these behaviors within and across situations’ (Gresham et al., 2001, p. 333). Hence there is a need to create for students, both with and without disabilities, an environment in which social skills can be learned and social competence developed (Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008). Social skills Behaviours that must be taught, learned and performed

Social competence Judgements or evaluations of social skills within and across situations

FIGURE 6.7 Learning social skills can progress to developing social competence Source: Quoted in text from Gresham et al. (2001), p. 333

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Activities to involve all students

Throughout this chapter, the theme of increasing social integration of students with disabilities in mainstream classes has focused on strategies to overcome demonstrated lack of social skills by students with disabilities, either through management programs or through skills training. Development of positive social interactions in the class is best achieved by developing cooperation and support between students, teaching students the specific work-related skills and social skills needed, and consistently monitoring the application of those skills. This section focuses on methods of ensuring that other students have the skills of accepting these students in their class and hence preventing the rejection and isolation that students with disabilities can face.

social integration The placement of a student with additional educational needs into a mainstream class where the emphasis is on the student becoming part of the class’s social fabric.

A way to ensure that social support occurs for all students can be envisaged as a three-level support model as described by Meadan and Monda-Amaya (2008). The model has three structured levels. • Level 1 (structuring a classroom community) provides structured support for the class community through creating an accepting environment for each student in the class, and creating opportunities for social interaction.

• At Level 2 (specific strategies and curriculum for promoting social competence), activities are designed for teaching social skills in large or small group contexts, including activities such as role-playing, games and vignettes. Social skills activities from published curricula or resources can be used. • At Level 3 (targeted individual interventions), the authors suggest four activities: teaching specific social skills corresponding with student needs; teaching students specific strategies for recognising and enhancing their social support networks; teaching self-management strategies; and enhancing and promoting the student’s self-determination. The model provides an excellent example of meeting the needs of all students in a class, regardless of their specific social skills or social competency needs.

Cooperative learning activities

Cooperative learning is based on three key ingredients: small groups of students working together, students making explicit efforts to help each other learn, and students sharing in the evaluation of learning through group evaluation (Jenkins et al., 2003).

self-determination A personal attribute associated with knowing what one wants in life, understanding what it may require to achieve personal goals, and having access to the resources to achieve those goals.

Key benefits of cooperative learning include:

• an improvement in students’ self-esteem, aided by the security that comes from being members of a group, and the higher success rate and improved quality of completed work

• the opportunity for students with disabilities to interact with other students on a less formal level • a chance for less rejection by other students, bringing about an increased motivation to work with others • the development of higher-order thinking skills

• the opportunity to use student language, which employs the language structures and vocabulary of the students, which may increase student understanding.

Using cognitive and metacognitive approaches

Cognitive and metacognitive approaches operate on the assumption that students are aware of their environment and are able to make behaviour decisions based on the information they obtain. The difference between cognitive and metacognitive approaches is that metacognitive

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approaches place greater responsibility on the student to plan a strategy and to monitor its implementation. While a cognitive approach teaches specific steps for the student to work through, a metacognitive approach places emphasis on the student developing a plan for behaviour change, initially with teacher guidance. Cognitive programs rely on teaching students a specific series of steps, which they learn and then apply themselves. Scaffolding is often used, as is verbal self-instruction – as discussed in the earlier section on social skills instruction. The use of cognitive and metacognitive approaches to teach positive social interactions to mainstreamed students may need to be preceded by more specific approaches such as those discussed earlier in the chapter. In this way students can progress through stages of growth in social skills. Not all students will reach the point of being able to plan and monitor their behaviour change, although it is important to have access to the broadest range of strategies.

Self-management

The involvement of self is an important skill for all students, but particularly for students with disabilities, as it takes the responsibility for management of the behaviour support away from the adult and places it on the student. Importantly, this cannot occur without the training and scaffolding discussed previously.

Earlier, in Figure 6.4, we saw how students can track their performance as part of a selfmonitoring procedure. The advantages of this approach include a clearer and more immediate picture of the behaviour improvement, a stronger reinforcement, the involvement of the student in the selection of the behaviours to be monitored and, perhaps most importantly, a measure against their own behaviours rather than against the behaviours of others.

Peer tutoring

Peer tutoring has been widely used both for social and academic support of students with disabilities. Traditionally, students with disabilities have been assisted as tutees in the model, with benefits across a wide range of academic content areas. However, the benefits do not flow only from receiving tutoring. Students with low disabilities can improve their self-esteem through serving as tutors, as they are engaged in the task and are also developing their social skills at the same time (Fulk & King, 2001). The guided practice sessions with peer tutoring are particularly important as they maximise student involvement in the subject content. While the skills of peer tutoring are often implemented in academic subjects, the strong positive social skills component is the critical factor in the success of peer tutoring. Again, it stresses the critical link between academic and social skills.

Buddies

A more general relationship between students with disabilities and their class peers is the use of peer buddies. Buddy support can be used for a wide range of activities. Copeland et al. (2002) identified a range of buddy activities such as:

• teaching class routines

• reading tests and recording answers • paraphrasing text

• helping with augmentative communication device • modelling joining an activity

• teaching the use of a picture sequence • showing how to surf the net

• taking notes for the buddy and discussing them

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• support during cooperative learning activities

• getting the buddy involved in general activities out of class.

In the case of students from EAL/D backgrounds, peer buddies and cooperative learning activities provide the opportunity to practise English and improve communication skills while developing positive peer relationships. Working with a partner (buddy) or in groups reduces the feeling of isolation and provides a positive learning environment. A positive buddy relationship models both formal and informal English-language skills while also practising reading skills at a more intimate level (Allison & Rehm, 2011).

In a study conducted with teachers in secondary schools, Copeland et al. (2002) found that the majority of the benefits of peer buddies noted by special education teachers were social-related, including increased opportunities for interaction and acquisition of age-appropriate skills. Regular class teachers more commonly reported benefits that related to academic or functional skills, the concept of ‘learning useful skills’ (p. 17). This difference is important, as it reflects differing priorities teachers have for social inclusion, and needs to be understood in planning activities to support positive social inclusion. As discussed earlier, peer buddies facilitate increased opportunities for students with disabilities to form positive relationships. As one teacher in the study commented: ‘Prior to receiving peer supports these students tended to isolate themselves from the general education students. I have noticed that they are now more willing (and seeking) to contact students outside their special education group’ (Copeland et al., 2002, p. 19). Importantly, Copeland et al. found that peer buddy roles need to be based on the individual requirements of the student with disabilities so that the relationship is not one of supporter and supportee, but one of a buddy. Hence the reverse role of the student with disabilities as the tutor is also important.

In the Copeland et al. (2002) study, secondary preparation of buddies was required in order to overcome a wide range of difficulties such as buddies not knowing the content well enough to provide support, trying to be over-helpful in doing the tasks for the buddy, failing to monitor the buddy’s performance, and not turning up to provide support when required. If these issues were managed, teachers were very positive about the effects of peer buddies in secondary schools.

Friendship activities

Developing friendships is an important way of maintaining positive social relationships in the classroom and is important for children’s academic achievement and social–emotional adaptation (Estell et al., 2009). Friendship will not always develop spontaneously and may need to be actively encouraged or taught. Ways of doing this include fostering relationships by using cooperative learning strategies or pairing students to work together, encouraging support in the class through discussing ways of helping a new class member settle in, teaching peer support and friendship skills; encouraging all students to recognise individual differences in their lives, and providing good role models.

Webster and Carter (2013) conducted a study of children with autism in mainstream classes in Alice Springs. They found that while students with autism developed friendship and acceptance relationships with their mainstream peers, few developed more intimate relationships such as visiting the homes of mainstream peers or discussing intimate issues. The authors concluded that while friendships did occur, they were at a surface rather than a deeper level. In a study of students with ADHD in Western Australia, Taylor and Houghton (2008) found these students were seen as having difficulties in initiating and sustaining friendships, but the students themselves did not see this as a problem. The critical issue highlighted here is the importance of ensuring that the friendship needs of students are addressed, not the adult perceptions of friendship needs!

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Narrative 6.2 provides a case study of Simon, a boy with disabilities in secondary school, who experiences difficulties in developing friendships with other students as a result of anxiety. The strategies developed focus on an individual program for Simon as well as a classroom focus on social justice issues and bullying. The aim is not to change Simon’s behaviours completely but to work towards engaging him with the curriculum in the classroom. The development of one friend is the beginning of a longer process that may lead to greater involvement in the school. It also demonstrates the need for teacher friendship and trust.

NARRATIVE 6.2 Case study: Simon Simon is 13 years old. He lives at home with his older brother, mum and stepfather. He likes the internet and electronic games and can spend hours playing on the computer. He has a mild intellectual disability and hasn’t been performing well at school, skipping most classes each day. He wears glasses, which get broken a lot and he can’t work effectively without them. He can talk for a long time about subjects of interest to him. Simon is in Year 7 at his local high school. The school’s student welfare coordinator recommended behaviour support after a series of incidents in which Simon was aggressive towards other students. On the referral form, it was written that Simon had knocked a student over resulting in a broken arm, and had also thrown a garbage bin at a student in the playground. By observing Simon in each of his classes and the playground, it became apparent that he had no real friends at school. Through chatting informally, Simon was happy to talk about his ‘cyberspace friends’ and showed no interest at all in making connections with young people in his grade. Also of concern was the frequency of derogatory comments directed at Simon by other students. The school counsellor suggested that Simon had an anxiety problem, and possibly depression, centring on his feeling of rejection by peers. Each of his violent incidents had been a response to being humiliated in front of others. As a result, Simon often ran away from classes and hid. He spent most lunchtimes playing on a computer in the library. His mother reported that Simon often said he wanted to kill himself. A major focus of the support put into place for Simon was around promoting his feeling of safety and belonging at school. A team was formed incorporating a selected group of adults in Simon’s life (his mother, his home group teacher, the student welfare Emotional/behavioural coordinator, the student management consultant and the school counsellor). Members disorders (EBD) of this group met approximately every three weeks with Simon to discuss progress, concerns and articulate goals. Only one goal at a time was highlighted, and strategies were always discussed with Simon in planning meetings. Goals over the course of the program included going to two classes a day, talking with an adult about his feelings each day and interacting with at least one classmate each lesson. Simon himself monitored the plan by filling in a matrix in conjunction with the student management consultant, who visited twice a week for a review discussion with him. Strategies such as self-removal to a designated, yet supervised place when anxious and saying one genuinely nice thing each lesson to a peer replaced Simon’s usual strategy of ‘going berko’. His classmates began to notice that their provocations didn’t have as much of an effect in producing the show they were used to from Simon. The home group teacher took Simon’s case as an opportunity to implement class discussions focusing on social justice issues. The student welfare coordinator began a whole-school blitz on bullying. Simon’s mother saw this as a huge show of support and supported the move by reinforcing each goal with Simon at home.

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By involving Simon in every step of the 12-week behaviour support program, from the initial meeting, through the observation phase, the development of goals and strategies and reviews of his progress, he developed ownership and, ultimately, much more responsibility for his behaviour. Simon has not been suspended for two whole school terms, and now manages to attend nearly every class each week. He has made one friend, who has similar interests to him. While he has no interest in developing friendships with most of his peers, he can at least be in the same classroom or playground without experiencing major anxiety. He has three adults in the school whom he trusts, and makes sure he connects with at least one of them each day for a chat. Recently, Simon expressed interest to his teacher in doing extra practice work in maths. The team celebrated this action, as it was an indicator of a major achievement: the re-engagement of Simon with the school curriculum.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Using the fact sheets developed by the Response Ability program for mental health education in teacher education (see weblinks at the end of the chapter), or a similar resource from the web, consider how a student’s needs could be met in a classroom either at primary or secondary level. 2. How would a teacher work with a school counsellor/guidance officer in implementing a behaviour program for a student with another mental health need (see fact sheet)?

Simon’s case study highlights the fact that friendships may not develop and students should not be forced into friendships they do not want. Importantly, the development of friendships in the regular class should not prevent students with special educational needs from maintaining contact with special needs or specific disability groups, as these may provide a sense of identity as well as the opportunity to mix with people with similar characteristics and interests. For example, a student may attend a regular secondary school, but still be a member of the Spina Bifida Association. In the Estell et al. (2009) study, they found that students with learning difficulties were more likely to have friends with other students with learning difficulties, although they were also likely to have a friend among the typically achieving classmates.

Developing friendships

Ways in which schools have facilitated the development of friendships include the use of friendship games in which students with disabilities are paired with regular students across grades and classes, and the inclusion of friendship as a specific educational objective in IEPs for students with disabilities. In the case of the friendship games, the aim is to gain a shift in regular class students’ attitudes to disability and the development of friendships that can be maintained beyond the games. The Circle of Friends program (Frederickson & Turner, 2002) specifically aims to enhance interactions between students with and without disabilities. The lower social attractiveness of students with disabilities may be due to the limited opportunities students with disabilities may have to interact with a broader range of students. Programs such as Circle of Friends try to overcome this difficulty by structuring positive activities.

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Social stories are a common way of teaching social skills, not only for students with disabilities but for all students. Social stories are based on the specific needs of the behaviour or social skill to be learned or reinforced. They are usually highly predictable in format and use photographs or drawings that directly relate to the social environment of the child and class, and reinforce the appropriate social skills or responses that are being taught. Studies have shown a reduction in inappropriate behaviours from using social stories with children with disabilities (Spencer et al., 2008). Another way to develop friendships and social skills in younger students is through the use of academic content, including the use of children’s literature (Bullard, 2004). In this approach, teachers use books based on themes of friends, socialising, conversation and playing together. Salmon (2005) used enactment of storybooks through puppet group work with young children as a method of inclusion for children with autism in an early childhood setting. Such methods incorporate both academic and social skills as well as fun and involvement by all students in the class. There are opportunities to explore the ideas of friendships and to practise skills in other group situations in class.

Overcoming loneliness

The sections above and Simon’s case study highlight the importance of addressing the issue of loneliness of students with disabilities. Students with disabilities are more vulnerable to feelings of loneliness than their peers without disabilities, for two main reasons (Pavri, 2001). First, they may have difficulty in reading and processing social cues and developing social relationships, leading to rejection from social groups. Second, they may not have the opportunity in the regular school to fully participate in activities that promote a sense of belonging and acceptance. Pavri recommends a multipronged approach to assisting students who are lonely which combines many of the strategies discussed above. See Figure 6.8 for five recommended areas of support and training. Teach social skills • assertiveness training, initiating, maintaining and terminating interactions, conflict resolution skills, social problem-solving skills and dealing with aggressive behaviours.

Create opportunities for social interaction • participating in extracurricular activities, structured recess activities and use of cooperative learning and peer tutoring.

Enhance student self-esteem • using positive reinforcement, encouraging risk-taking and assigning classroom jobs and responsibilities.

Create an accepting classroom climate • developing rapport with students, promoting class membership and belonging and promoting awareness of disabilities.

Teach adaptive coping strategies • a range of coping skills using alternative strategies; changing self-perceptions and attributions through counselling.

FIGURE 6.8 If students are experiencing loneliness, combining strategies can promote a sense of belonging

Many of these strategies were incorporated in the program for Simon (Narrative 6.2). The list also provides a clear summary of the variety of strategies that can be used to assist all students with disabilities to increase their social inclusion in the class and school, not just those who are lonely.

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Facilitating social groups – checklist for social inclusion

In a study of the inclusion of a boy (Kyle) with complex ASD needs in a mainstream classroom, Sartini, Knight and Collins (2013) identified a 10-step model to facilitate increased social interaction with other class members. His classmates were interested in engaging with Kyle, but his social behaviours such as singing out loud, hand-flapping and not speaking to other students even when they attempted to interact, stifled possible classroom social interactions. The program to teach Kyle social skills, which had the explicit support of both the class and teacher, follows 10 steps and provides a blueprint for other teachers. While the program was designed in a junior primary classroom, consider how this would be adapted to increase social interactions in a senior primary or secondary classroom. The 10 steps are outlined in Table 6.5. TABLE 6.5 Ten guidelines to facilitate social groups

Guideline

Questions to consider in relation to the specific student with disabilities (in this case, Kyle)

1 Consider student’s current social skills and establish a goal

What social skills does Kyle currently possess that make him successful? What is the next step?

2 Plan the structure

What level of structure is needed to ensure that Kyle will be successful during a social skills activity?

3 Select peers

Which peer(s) already work with or try to assist Kyle? From which setting should the peers be selected?

4 Select reinforcers

What would Kyle consider a reward?

5 Select topic or activity

What activities does Kyle really enjoy? Can one or more of these activities be embedded into the social skills group or be used as a reward for following the group?

6 Set up visual supports

Will Kyle need a visual schedule? Will he and his peers need a social script?

7 Train the peers

Will the peers need role play examples?

8 Practise

With the initial goal in mind, what is the skill to be practised? Could all students benefit from the practice?

9 Collect data on the skill and monitor progress

Have you defined the skill using measurable terms? Do you know how you will collect data and how you will determine whether it is working or not?

10 Teach for generalisation

In what other settings will the skill be useful? Will this skill be useful for building relationships outside the social group?

The benefit of these guidelines is that it allows a systematic checklist of the process of social skills group development. Refer back to the section on FBA as it follows the same sequence of developing and implementing a social skills intervention. Note also that it collects evidence (data) on the process and, importantly, it looks at transfer of the behaviour gains to other settings. This is critical for students with multiple and complex disabilities, as they are unable to make that transition of time and place that we expect of other students.

Using technology to promote positive relationships

Although the use of technology has traditionally focused on the academic aspects of classroom learning and teaching (see Chapter 4), technology can also be used with a specific focus on management of behaviours as well as in friendship and relating skills. For example, social stories (discussed above) can be developed on computers as well as in the traditional paper-based version (More, 2008).

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One application for increasing student involvement in self-management of behaviour is self-graphing on computers. Gunter, Miller et al. (2002) developed a method of student graphing of data based on the use of Excel which allows the teacher and student to establish the format and even a trendline to show the rate of development required to meet the desired social or academic goal. A very different use of technology is found in the area of friendships. Hobbs et al. (2001) observed students with and without disabilities engaging in computer play, both structured and unstructured. Structured play consisted of predetermined group-based activities in which a student with disabilities was included. An adult worked with each group and directed activities and provided reinforcement. In free-play, students were free to choose who they worked with and which computer activities they wanted to do. Adults limited their activities to general supervision.

Inclusive play occurred on 90 per cent of occasions during structured play and between 40 and 67 per cent in unstructured play. Importantly, inclusive computer play increased over the study time and persisted beyond the training. There are some useful strategies for inclusive computer play: have lots of adult assistance at the start, put students with similar technical and game skills together, have a highly structured limited time session, and have a short wind-down activity after the computer activity to transition to other activities. Other important issues for inclusive computer activities include making certain that students are proficient before encouraging free play, use older or more computer-proficient students as helpers, and tolerate a higher noise level as students have fun. Another approach to friendships through the computer is that of e-buddies where students with and without disabilities can communicate through an email friendship program. This enables students to expand their interactions with other students without the need to have face-to-face contact. The program is from the USA and information can be found on the website (see Weblinks at the end of the chapter).

Computers have often been used as rewards for student cooperation through free time activities. While this is an effective reward for many students, it also provides a period of time for the teacher to work with other students in the class. Where students have specific skills in the use of technology, these can also be used to assist others, particularly in peer or buddy strategies or in other cooperative learning tasks.

Student mentoring

Another method, this time using staff rather than students, is to develop the concept of mentors who can provide individual students with assistance from a non-threatening adult or another student (Pantesco, 2005). Mentors can provide support to students with disabilities by taking a special interest in that student and developing a nurturing, facilitating relationship. Mentors can come from within the school or from the community. They may teach specific skills or act as a general adult support. Benefits of such programs include increased self-esteem, increased attendance and improved academic performance.

Using additional staff and other personnel

A key issue in the ongoing inclusion debate relates to the amount of additional support required to maintain an inclusive placement. All teachers welcome additional appropriate support through the use of support teachers, teacher assistants and parents. If they are used effectively, additional personnel can provide an extra set of hands and eyes to give individual attention, modify the teaching methods, give additional practice and revision, and provide additional teaching– learning ideas. Care needs to be taken that paraprofessional staff such as teacher assistants are

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trained to support inclusion; otherwise, they can, inadvertently, increase the isolation of students with disabilities (Causton-Theoharis, 2003). As discussed in Chapter 4, collaborative teaching requires careful planning to ensure that all staff have a common understanding of the aims and implementation of the program. Collaboration with outside agencies is particularly important when supporting students with mental health needs. Cowling et al. (2005) found that collaboration between school staff and a local child and adolescent mental health service produced positive outcomes in terms of innovative responses by school staff to student behaviour needs.

collaborative teaching Teachers working together to achieve a common teaching goal.

REFLECT ON THIS Reflect on prejudgement versus being aware of potential behaviour issues. What are the advantages of being ‘warned’ about particular students by other staff before you meet a class for the first time? What are the disadvantages?

Collaborative staff teams

The use of a collaborative team of staff to support social inclusion is important, but more in terms of outcomes than process (Gable, Mostert & Tonelson, 2004). The outcome must be increased social performance by students.

In a model of regular education and special education staff collaboration, Hunt et al. (2003) found that students with severe disabilities in regular classrooms improved their academic performance but, more critically for the focus of this chapter, they substantially reduced the amount of non-engaged time, and greatly increased the occasions on which they initiated social interactions. Students’ parents and staff involved in the process reported gains in self-confidence, assertiveness and social interactions with classmates. The importance of full and equal involvement of parents in the planning, implementation and evaluation of the program was seen by all as essential for the success of the student plans. Another important finding of the study was that not only must teams be established; they also need time to meet regularly to reflect together. Hunt et al. (2003) highlight the importance of school executive members ensuring that time is made available for this to occur, as well as ensuring that the required resources are made available. This last need was addressed by ensuring that any support staff in the classroom worked with all students, not only those with disabilities.

6.8 Preparing teachers and students to support social inclusion The placement of students with disabilities in mainstream classes does not guarantee their social integration. While it is important to prepare students with disabilities for placement in mainstream classes, it is also important to prepare the class teacher and students.

Teachers

Teacher preparation needs to include the areas of attitudes, competency and expectations (Conway, 2014). Studies of attitudes to inclusion have shown that teachers are often the least enthusiastic (Forlin, 2001), which is not surprising given that they are ultimately the group that has to implement the process. Attitudes are often stereotypic and, although many studies

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demonstrate that having students with disabilities in the classroom reinforces negative attitudes, other studies have shown a positive change in attitude. Key issues for teachers include the adequacy of pre-service teacher preparation, the placement of beginning teachers in difficult classes, the lack of mentoring of new teachers, and the use of untrained staff to run programs. Teachers leaving the profession because of student behaviour issues continue to be a concern, with studies showing classroom management as a common reason for resignation (Buchanan, 2010; MacBeath, 2012).

Preparation in the area of competency could include developing classroom teaching skills to make the social aspects of inclusion work; for example, the use of strategies such as cooperative learning, buddies, friendship groups and teaching students appropriate learning-related skills. Finally, preparation in the area of expectations would include avoiding stereotypic responses to specific disability labels, responding to the individual social needs of students and addressing the limitations of students as they adapt to a regular education environment. In a study with teachers in Queensland schools, Yamanashi (2008) provided a five-week training program on cooperative group work, and found that teachers needed a greater understanding of the benefits and strategies for including students with disabilities in group work. Following the training and implementation of the strategies in the teachers’ classrooms, Yamanashi found that teachers were more likely to use a social inclusion model and involve the students more, with a reduction in off-task behaviours by the students. The author concluded that training in strategies for cooperative learning creates opportunities for changes in classroom social structures. As discussed in Chapter 4, pre-service teachers can improve their inclusion attitudes and skills during training (Campbell et al., 2003).

Mentoring of staff

As discussed earlier, many new and inexperienced teachers are placed in classes with a diversity of students, often including those with a variety of disabilities, and those with behaviour difficulties. Mentoring of beginning teachers is a critical professional role of experienced school staff, supported by the school executive and at higher levels in the education system (Dempsey & Christenson-Foggett, 2011). In a paper on mentoring beginning teachers in Australia, Eves (2001) sees mentoring as vital, given that teacher training provides much less time on sustained professional experiences than occurred previously, and many new graduates enter teaching with limited management skills. Mentoring provides these teachers with practical advice; it reduces the stress of beginning teaching and provides a broad support network. The South Australian Department of Education and Children’s Services (DECS) has developed a specific staff development program for schools called Recreating the Circle of Wellbeing (DECS, 2007). In it there is a strong focus on ways in which staff can support the learning and emotional needs of students with disabilities in classrooms. The resource addresses the needs of staff as well as ways to integrate wellbeing into the curriculum, whether that be the government curriculum or the International Baccalaureate.

Students

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As with teachers, student attitudes to, and knowledge about, disability need to be improved so that they will be comfortable having students with special educational needs as classmates. Negative attitudes are often a result of ignorance and this leads to preconceived patterns of social interaction. An important social aspect of inclusion is not to avoid the issue of disability as this gives the impression that it is something to hide. Preparation of regular class students through the use of stories about disability or the use of games that simulate disability may increase empathy for students with disability and hence increase the possibility of positive social interactions. These strategies are explored further in the following section.

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Involving parents

Efforts to increase positive social interactions in the classroom have limited value for students with special educational needs if they are not generalised. A key part of the generalisation comes from communication with parents. Six key reasons to involve parents in the process of enhancing social relationships are outlined below: • They have the most important and enduring relationship with their child. • Children learn more from the home environment.

• Parent involvement assists development of their child’s attitude to learning. • Parent involvement promotes understanding between home and school. • Parents make a valuable contribution to school.

• Accountability is more open when parents are involved.

Source: Adapted from Porter (2000), p. 280

Many parents of students with disabilities have played a vital role in securing assistance for their child since birth. They have often been actively involved in early education programs and in seeking an appropriate education placement. Where their child has been in an early education intervention setting before a mainstream placement, they were probably involved in the planning of educational goals, through IEP or individual family service plan (IFSP) meetings (Conway et al., 2004; Kemp, 2003). They should not be forgotten in developing social skills in a mainstream placement. Despite this, current literature still suggests that parents of students with special needs (Lilley, 2015), Indigenous students (Graham, 2012) and EAL/D students (Dobinson & Buchori, 2016) are not actively engaged in their child’s school, particularly around issues of social inclusion and engagement. Lilley (2015) sees this not as a parent failure but as a school failure or a ‘school deficit in social communication/interaction’ (p. 388). She cites specific subcategories of this ‘school deficit’, including ‘difficulties in communicating with families and/or constant negative communications’ and ‘inability to make use of familial knowledge and expertise’. While her study addressed issues relating to parents of students with autism, the issues resonate for parents across all disabilities. A key point emphasised by Lilley (and also by those writing in reference to Indigenous and EAL/D families) is that the focus needs to be on looking at patterns of deficits found in classrooms and school, rather than on the behaviour patterns of students, what she terms ‘autism inclusion disorder’ (p. 394). The issues of teachers and schools creating and/or exacerbating behaviour problems in students with disabilities may be summed up as ‘inclusion is not working for some teachers, some schools and most importantly some students’ (O’Rourke, 2015, p. 538).

The role of parents needs to be a cooperative one, in which the teacher seeks assistance in supporting the social skills programs of the school. This can be achieved through parent–teacher meetings, brief notes home to parents and encouraging parents to visit the class. Brief phone calls to parents to report good news is a positive approach and demonstrates that conveying good as well as bad news increases parental involvement (Mitchem, 2005). A specific technique used for communication between schools and home is the communication book. Hall, Wolfe and Bollig (2003) reported on the use of a communication book between home and school for students with severe disabilities. The key advantages of the approach are that the book provides a permanent record of communications and the opportunity to express in writing views and ideas that cannot always be expressed face-to-face. There is also the opportunity for teachers to incorporate parent information in programming and to review changes in comments and feedback over time.

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6.9 Maintaining positive interactions in the wider school context While programs for enhancing positive social behaviours usually focus on the classroom, the broader school situation should not be ignored for it holds both opportunities and pitfalls for students with disabilities. Earlier discussion of school discipline policies highlighted the need for all teachers in a school to be supportive and consistent in their management of students with disabilities.

Educational jurisdictions have encouraged schools to adopt whole-school approaches to managing student behaviour. While this chapter is about positive interactions, rather than classroom and school management of behaviour, it is important to acknowledge that strategies to increase positive actions do occur within a whole-school model. There is no one model of whole-school behaviour management used across Australian educational jurisdictions. Even within educational jurisdictions, there are variations in the approaches used. Fields (2014) examined a specific approach used in Queensland schools, called the ‘Code of School’, developed with community consultation and designed to provide an insight into how the school viewed students and the ways in which positive behaviours were encouraged and negative behaviours responded to. A model adapted from the USA’s Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) school-wide behaviour framework (see weblinks at the end of the chapter) is the Positive Behaviour Support (PBS) model, alternatively known as Positive Behaviour for Learning (PB4L or PBL, as explained earlier in this chapter). It is implemented in some parts of the NSW Department of Education jurisdiction (see NSW Department of Education, 2016) and in some parts of other states and in parts of some Catholic Education Dioceses, although it is not used commonly in Association of Independent School (AIS) locations. Other common models are based either on roles and responsibilities or sets of values and beliefs held by individual schools. Regardless of the school approach to management of student behaviour, the critical component is the need to support the development of positive social and engagement skills rather than the management of problem behaviour. A particular area of difficulty is the playground, where the actions of other students and teachers may exacerbate social difficulties (Wyra & Lawson, 2008). Wyra and Lawson found that schoolyards were both a source of positive interactions and a place of conflict and friction, particularly for students with disabilities. Teachers often see their role in supervision as being discipline-related, and not an opportunity for positive interactions with all students. While the development of positive social interactions may be achieved in class, the opportunity for other students to bully or threaten students in the playground or between school and home requires a positive social skills program in the wider school, covering many of the issues raised earlier.

A TEACHER REFLECTS Emma, secondary English teacher, NSW I arrived for my first teaching period in my first job as an English teacher. I was one of the first in my graduating year to get a job so I was feeling pretty lucky. I was also feeling very nervous this day as the head teacher during yesterday’s pupil-free day had informed me that I was to teach the dreadful Year Eight Orange for a double-period. The head teacher said this class had not achieved much and often didn’t complete any assignments. I was also warned about Sharelle* and her friends who sat at the back of the room.

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The night before the lesson, I looked on a number of internet sites and downloaded some resources that I could put on Smart Board. Some of my lessons I had prepared for internship were well received last year so I used them and printed them at home. The topic was poetry. I wasn’t worried about the content because I had probably more than I needed and had many levels prepared. I was more worried about how I was going to get the kids to actually work! The first seven minutes went to plan. I introduced myself, discussed the rules and presented the rewards. I was feeling confident. I put up the first slide on the board and that was when it began to unravel. Sharelle shouted out this is boring, the other kids laughed and began to talk. I was feeling concerned and was thinking that I couldn’t do this! I continued with the slide show and practised examples and used all sorts of coloured marking pens and different paper. I also aimed my questions at Sharelle. I walked up near her and reinforced her questions with positive feedback. She still had some loud and silly answers, but I acknowledged her participation. I tried to be positive with all the kids and their ideas. As the lesson progressed, I couldn’t say it was terrific as there was still lots of shouting and answering back, but focusing on the work and saying you could use it for your assignment had kids paying more attention. All the kids wrote a poem! I used the learning tasks to praise kids on their cooperation and attempts, and rewarded them often. As the lesson ended, Sharelle said ‘see you tomorrow’! I was exhausted but could see some glimpses of success. *pseudonym

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STUDY TOOLS

Summary

This chapter focused on the importance of developing positive social interactions in mainstream classrooms, and the role social skills play in that process because ‘schools need to be a place where students (and teachers) feel they belong … [and] where they are recognised and feel connected’ (Blackmore, 2009).

Together with academic skills, social skills are critical if a student with disabilities is to maintain a mainstream placement. As has been discussed, social and behaviour problems are likely to occur in any class and are certainly not the sole province of students with disabilities. The initial section outlined the reasons why all students can demonstrate behaviour problems and suggested that many of the practices we adopt in schools exacerbate those behaviour problems. Despite the obvious concerns teachers have about student behaviour in schools, students with disabilities are often rejected in the mainstream class by both teachers and students because they do not have the interpersonal skills or the work-related skills expected of other students. The chapter discussed reasons for this, including teacher and student characteristics.

In addressing ways to develop social skills and positive interactions, the chapter discussed a variety of approaches that can be used, including specific behaviour management programs, cognitive and metacognitive strategies, social skills programs, cooperative learning methods and friendship/peer support programs. These approaches need to address the issues at both classroom and wider school levels. Social interactions assume a two-way process. Hence, the development of social skills should focus not only on students with disabilities, but also on peers and the class teacher, and ultimately on the school.

Discussion questions

1. Why is it important to focus on positive replacement behaviours, rather than mainly on reducing inappropriate behaviours? What are the benefits? Are there any disadvantages?

2. Current Australian studies of classroom behaviour use the term ‘unproductive’ behaviours rather than problem behaviours. Is this a more useful approach to use and does it better reflect the types of behaviours students demonstrate? 3. Why is it important to link better learning opportunities with behaviour management in the classroom? Give an example from your own experience, where attending to learning equals improved behaviour.

Individual activities

1. How would determining a function of a behaviour (such as in a FBA) benefit students within a mainstream classroom? 2. Look at the example of a positive behaviour improvement plan format in the chapter. Consider a student from one of your professional experience placements. Record the behaviour of concern and then an alternative positive behaviour and the strategies that could have been undertaken to develop that positive replacement behaviour.

3. The Australian Professional Standards for graduate teacher level has as one of the focus areas in Standard 4.3: Manage challenging behaviour: Demonstrate knowledge of practical approaches to manage challenging behaviour. Outline the evidence from your current learning you could use to demonstrate meeting that standard. How could that evidence fit with your evidence for the six Standard 1 focus area statements, and particularly Standard 1.6: Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of legislative requirements and teaching strategies that support participation and learning of students with disability.

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Group activities

1. Think about the social skills needed to successfully interact with other peers both within the classroom and on the playground. How might you intentionally teach these within your classroom program. 2. Identify the social and behavioural challenges that may arise in a secondary setting versus a primary setting for students with behaviour problems. Identify some potential strategies to address these challenges.

3. Beginning teachers often identify behaviour management of all students in an inclusive classroom as one of their greatest challenges. In a group, identify some important strategies to have in your repertoire of skills for the first term of a new class.

Weblinks

Behaviour at School Study in South Australia (see recommended readings below) http://www.bass.edu.au/ publications/ Early Intervention https://beyou.edu.au/learn/early-support e-Buddies Program http://www.ebuddies.org

CECP: Functional behavioral assessment http://cecp.air.org/fba/default.asp

Australian materials to support students with autism in schools http://www.positivepartnerships.com.au BeYou fact sheets and Beyond Blue Mental Health Packages https://beyou.edu.au/fact-sheets

OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) http://www.pbis.org Mental Health Resources and services in Australia https://headtohealth.gov.au/

Recommended reading

Abawi, L., & Oliver, M. (2013). Shared pedagogical understandings: schoolwide inclusion practices supporting learner needs. Improving Schools, 16, 159–174.

Davies, M., Cooper, G., Kettler, R. J., & Elliott, S. N. (2015). Developing social skills of students with additional needs within the context of the Australian curriculum. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 39, 37–55.

LeMessurier, M. (2010). Teaching tough kids: simple and proven strategies for student success. Oxford: Routledge.

McDonald, T. (2013). Classroom management: engaging students in learning (2nd edn). South Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

References

Allison, B. N., & Rehm, M. L. (2011). English language learners: effective teaching strategies, practices for FCS teachers. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 103, 22–27. Anderson, J., & Boyle, C. (2015). Inclusive education in Australia: rhetoric, reality and the road ahead. Support for Learning, 30, 4–22.

McGrath, H. (2003). Better behaviour: activities and ideas to develop better behaviour across the national curriculum. London: A & C Black.

National Rural Students’ Network (2008). When the cowpat hits the windmill: a guide for staying mentally fit written by students for students. Melbourne: Author. Sullivan, A., Johnson, B., Conway, R., Owens, L., & Taddeo, C. (2012). Punish them or engage them? Behaviour at school study: technical report 1. Adelaide: University of South Australia (see download link above in weblinks). Sullivan, A., Johnson, B., Owens, L., Conway, R., & Taddeo, C. (2014). Punish them or engage them? Behaviour at school study: technical report 2. Adelaide: University of South Australia (see download link above in weblinks).

Angus, M., McDonald, T., Ormond, C., Rybarcyk, R., Taylor, A., & Winterton, A. (2009). Trajectories of classroom behaviour and academic progress: a study of student engagement with learning. Perth: Edith Cowan University.

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Apter, S. J. (1982). Troubled children/troubled systems. New York: Pergamon Press.

Archdiocese of Sydney (2009a). Guidelines for the management of students with challenging behaviours in primary schools. Sydney: Author. Archdiocese of Sydney (2009b). Guidelines for the management of students with challenging behaviours in secondary schools. Sydney: Author.

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Babkie, A. M. (2006). Be proactive in managing classroom behavior. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41, 184–187.

Barber, C., & Mueller, C. T. (2011). Social and self-perceptions of adolescents identified as gifted, learning disabled and twice-exceptional. Roeper Review, 33, 109–120.

Blackmore, J. (2009). Inclusive education: what does it mean for students, teachers, leaders and school? Professional Voice, 7, 11–15. Bowd, A. (1990). Exceptional children in the class (2nd edn). Melbourne: Hargreen Publishing Company. Bryer, F., & Beamish, W. (2005). Supporting students with problem behaviour in school settings. In B. Bartlett, F. Bryer, & D. Roebuck (Eds), Stimulating the ‘action’ as participants in participatory research (pp. 146–159). Brisbane: Griffith University.

Buchanan, J. (2010). May I be excused? Why teachers leave the profession. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30, 199–211.

Buckskin, P. (2009). Review of Australian directions in Indigenous education 2005–2008 for the Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs. Adelaide, SA: David Unaipon College of Indigenous Education and Research. Bullard, H. R. (2004). 20 ways to ensure the successful inclusion of a child with Asperger syndrome in the general education classroom. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39, 176–180. Campbell, J., Gilmore, L., & Cuskelly, M. (2003). Changing student attitudes towards disability and inclusion. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 28 (4), 396–399.

Casey, K., (2012). Social skills training and students with emotional and behavioral disorders. In J. Bakken, F. Obiakor & A. Rotatori (Eds). Behavioral Disorders: Practice concerns and student with EBD (pp. 43–60). UK: Emerald Group Publishing Causton-Theoharis, J. N. (2003). Increasing interactions between students with severe disabilities and their

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Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice (CECP) (1998a). Addressing student problem behavior part 1: an IEP team’s introduction to functional behavioral assessment and behavior intervention plans. Washington, DC: Author. Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice (CECP) (1998b). Addressing student problem behavior part 2: conducting a functional behavioral assessment (3rd edn). Washington, DC: Author. Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice (CECP) (2000). Addressing student problem behaviour part 3: creating positive behavioral intervention plans and supports (2nd edn). Washington, DC: Author

Christenson-Foggett, J. (2017). Educators’ views of a local system-based model for addressing student behaviour through school partnerships: The LMG model [Doctoral dissertation, Flinders University] https://flex.flinders. edu.au/file/e380ff09-a760-4f6d-8dd4-bf3760b002a6/1/ Christenson-Foggett%202017.pdf Commonwealth of Australia (2005). Disability standards for education. Canberra: Author. Conway, R. N. F. (2012). Engaging teachers in supporting positive student behavior change. In C. Forlin (Ed.), Teacher education for inclusion: changing paradigms and innovative approaches (pp. 172–179). Abingdon: Routledge.

Conway, R. N. F. (2014). What is the value of award-bearing professional development for teachers working with students with EBD? In P. Garner, J. M. Kauffman & J. Elliott. The SAGE handbook of emotional and behavioural difficulties (pp. 427–438). London: SAGE. Conway, R. N. F., Porter, A., Gray, A., & Pascoe. S. (2004). Experiences of parents of children with special needs transitioning from early childhood to school. In Proceedings of the 6th Biannual Conference of the National Early Childhood Intervention Association, Melbourne.

Cook, B. G., Tankersley, M., & Harjusola-Webb, S. (2008). Evidence-based special education and professional wisdom: Putting it all together. Intervention in School and Clinic, 44, 105–111.

Cooper, J. (2006). Getting on with others: help to teach your child essential social skills. Lane Cove, NSW: Finch Publishers.

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Copeland, S. R., McCall, J., Williams, C. R., Guth, C., Carter, E. W, Fowler, S. E., Presley, J. A., & Hughes, C. (2002). High school buddies: a win–win situation. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35 (1), 16–21.

they’ll be all right!’ The impact of social context and challenging instruction on the affective development of high-ability students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22, 106–128.

Cowling, V., Costin, J., Davidson-Tucks, R., Elser, E., Chapman, A., & Niessen, J. (2005). Responding to disruptive behaviour in schools: collaboration and capacity building for early intervention. Australian e-Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health, 43 (3), 1–8.

Edwards-Groves, C., & Murray, C. (2008). Enabling voices: perceptions of schooling from rural Aboriginal youth at risk of entering the juvenile justice system. The Australasian Journal of Indigenous Education, 37, 165–177.

Daly, E. (2013). Student suspensions: a research review, stage one. Hobart, Tasmania: Commissioner for Children, Tasmania.

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Transitions, self-determination and twenty-first-century skills Iva Strnadová and Michael Wehmeyer This chapter aims to: 7.1 Introduce the themes of life design, twenty-first-century skills, self-determination and self-determined learning 7.2 Discuss transitions in the horizontal manner (e.g., transition to school, transition between primary and secondary education, etc.), and vertical transitions between mainstream and special schools, schools and hospital education, and schools and juvenile justice 7.3 Explore ways in which self-determination can be increased and promoted across different ages, including practical examples 7.4 Provide and explain evidence-based practices that teachers can use to prepare students with disability for meaningful participation in developing and monitoring Individual Learning Plan/ Individual Transition Plan 7.5 Introduce the concept of self-advocacy, both as an area of skills and a movement internationally.

Introduction

Transitions are, perhaps, one of life’s universal experiences. During our lives, we transition from preschool to primary school, from primary to secondary school, from school to adulthood and, even in adulthood, from one job to another or from one home to another. These transitions can, at times, be a source of anxiety and fear: new settings and changing expectations can create uncertainty and apprehension. But such transitions can also be sources of joy and happiness. The graduation from high school or college, for example, brings the excitement of new opportunities and experiences. In fact, most transitions involve a mix of these emotions, but this depends on how prepared we feel to take on new challenges and face these changes. If we feel unprepared, our fear and uncertainty may limit our success. In fact, preparing children and youth to tackle these transitions may be one of the most important tasks faced by educators today. How do we, as educators, prepare all students to solve problems and make decisions that ensure success in each phase of life? How do we adequately prepare students to succeed in rapidly changing times and environments? Preparing all students to be self-determined is at the heart of such efforts. This chapter provides a framework for inclusive practices in transition and self-determination throughout the life span.

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7.1 The context for twenty-first-century transitions It will come as no surprise to readers that much has changed in the contexts of schools and communities in the past 40 years. Technology has removed borders related to learning and communicating. The economy has become increasingly global and interdependent. The nature of work is changing and the demands on students to succeed in this context are changing. It should equally be of little surprise, then, that the context for transitions is changing as well. This chapter is framed by several factors that, together, create the context for twenty-first-century transition: the need for twenty-first-century skills, a life design focus in transition, and the importance of self-determination and self-determined learning for all students.

Twenty-first-century skills

There are several models that seek to describe what are generally referred to as twenty-firstcentury skills. All of these are predicated on the fact that the skills that were needed to function successfully in the twentieth century are not the same as the skills needed to function today. A report from the National Education Agency in the US framed it this way: … education was built for an economy and a society that no longer exists. In the manufacturing and agrarian economies that existed 50 years ago, it was enough to master the ‘Three Rs’ (reading, writing, and arithmetic). In the modern ‘flat world’, the ‘Three Rs’ simply aren’t enough. If today’s students want to compete in this global society, however, they must also be proficient communicators, creators, critical thinkers, and collaborators (the ‘Four Cs’). Source: National Education Association (2016). Preparing 21st century students for a global society: An educator’s guide to the ‘four Cs.’ Washington, DC. Author., p. 5

The same emphasis can be found in the Australian Curriculum, which states that: Increasingly, in a world where knowledge itself is constantly growing and evolving, students need to develop a set of skills, behaviours and dispositions, or general capabilities that apply across subject-based content and equip them to be lifelong learners able to operate with confidence in a complex, information-rich, globalised world Source: Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (n.d.). The Australian Curriculum: A world-class curriculum for the 21st century. Author. p. 1, Accessed online March 30, 2020 at https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/Information_Sheet_A_world-class_curriculum_for_the_21st_century.pdf

A critical element of twenty-first-century learning is that students are not passive recipients of information, but they are active learners. Fullan, Quinn, and McEachen (2018) argue that in twenty-first-century learning, educators must cultivate rich learning environments for children driven by the student’s curiosity, teach students to be problem designers and pose problems in which students can be actively involved, and learn to take risks and engage in a lifelong venture. Fullan and colleagues refer to ‘deep learning’ as increasing ‘student engagement in the learning through personalization and ownership’ and ‘connects students to the “real world”, which is often more reflective of their own reality and cultural identity’ (Fullan et al., 2018, p. 9). Fullan and colleagues argue that learning must be driven by, not just take advantage of, student curiosity and that teachers must believe that creativity is ‘already in the DNA of every human being’ (Fullan et al., 2018, p. 14). That is, all children are born learning machines. 16x16

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Zhao (2012, 2018) has written about world-class learners and the role of personalisable education in achieving the goals of twenty-first-century education. A world-class education, according to Zhao (2012), is characterised by student voice in school governance and environment, student choice in a broad and flexible curriculum, and a strengths-based focus on student uniqueness and curiosity. Harkening back to the themes expressed earlier, Zhao (2018) points out that the educational system is based upon two basic but flawed assumptions: (1) that ‘there is a set of skills and knowledge everyone must have in order to live a successful life in the world’, and (2) that ‘all children are capable of and interested in acquiring the skills and knowledge at a similar pace’ (p. 8). Instead, Zhao suggested that as technology increasingly performs routine tasks, human creativity, entrepreneurship and critical thinking will become more important and that twenty-first-century educators must embrace the idea that every student has unique strengths and that learning should be driven by student curiosity and strengths and motivated because learning has meaning and purpose for the student.

Life design

The Partnership for 21st-Century Learning (P21) (https://www.battelleforkids.org/networks/p21) examined twenty-first-century life and career skills and identified that what twenty-first-century learners and workers needed included skills related to flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural relationships, and productivity and accountability. Researchers in the areas of career and vocational guidance have also recognised that they needed to change how they counselled young people as they prepared for their careers. Savickas (2005) recognised that in the changing world of work: Careers do not unfold; they are constructed as individuals make choices that express their self-concepts and substantiate their goals in the social reality of a work role Source: Savickas (2005), p. 43

Further, Savickas and colleagues (2009) recognised that this was not only pertinent to young people transitioning into the world of work, but was, indeed, applicable for all students in learning how to navigate twenty-first-century learning and lifelong transitions. They proposed a Life Design (or Life Designing) approach. The Life Design approach ‘is framed as a lifelong self-construction process that aims to promote skills and competences in overall life planning’ (Wehmeyer, Nota et al., 2019, p. 182). The gist is that students will need the skills and abilities to ‘design’ their own lives, whether those designs are about what to learn, where to work or how to adjust to a new environment.

Self-determination and self-determined learning

One of the themes that both twenty-first-century skills and a Life Design approach have in common is the critical importance of self-determined learning and for young people to leave school as self-determined young people. Wehmeyer and Zhao (2020) discuss self-determined learning in the context of twenty-first-century skills as such:

REFLECT ON THIS How can you incorporate the focus on twenty-first-century skills and the Life Design approach in your teaching?

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In self-determined learning, teachers teach students to teach themselves. Students learn how to set and achieve goals and make plans. Teachers relinquish ownership for learning to the student … by creating learning communities and using teaching methods that emphasize students’ curiosity and experiences; that are autonomy-supportive and ensure that learning is tied to activities that are intrinsically motivating or lead to the attainment of goals that are valued and based upon student preferences, interests, values. Students take initiative in learning because learning is meaningful and of personal value to them. They act volitionally because they are provided choices that are meaningful, meaningfully different, and autonomy-supportive. Source: Wehmeyer and Zhao (2020), p. 35

Research has established that students who are provided instruction to promote selfdetermination achieve more positive school outcomes, including educational goal attainment, and achieve more positive transition outcomes, including better employment, community inclusion, and quality of life outcomes (Wehmeyer, Shogren, Little, & Lopez, 2017). Shogren and colleagues (2015) defined self-determination as: … a dispositional characteristic manifested as acting as the causal agent in one’s life. Selfdetermined people (i.e., causal agents) act in service to freely chosen goals. Self-determined actions function to enable a person to be the causal agent in his or her life. Source: Shogren et al. (2015), p. 258

Acting as a causal agent means, simply, making or causing things to happen in one’s life. Being self-determined is sometimes confused with acting completely independently, but that is not accurate. People who are self-determined act in ways to make things happen in their own lives based upon their preferences, interests, values and goals. They use whatever resources are necessary to enable them to do so.

Children become self-determined over time based on opportunities to learn to regulate their own action, to act based upon preferences and interests, and by learning to set goals, solve problems, engage in decisions, self-advocate, and self-direct learning. In twenty-first-century learning and in a Life Design focus, ownership for learning and planning is turned over to students (with supports from teachers and other adults, certainly) and students learn how to make things happen in their lives. Learning is meaningful and based upon student interests and experiences. In other words, twenty-first-century transitions, at whatever life stage, will require that we teach and support students to become self-determined learners.

7.2 Diversity of transitions Being self-determined learners will enable students to more easily navigate diverse transitions that they will experience. This is especially important, as the number of transitions experienced in childhood and adolescence can be higher for students with disability. For example, students with a disability experience not only transitions common for all school-aged children and youth (such as transition from early childhood care to kindergarten, from kindergarten to primary school, from primary to secondary education and from secondary education to post-school life – for

REFLECT ON THIS Why is the challenge to become a self-determined learner especially critical for students with disability?

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more information, please see chapter 13) but also some additional ones. These can include but are not limited to: • transition between school environment and a hospital school • transition between school environment and home-schooling

• transition between a mainstream school classroom and a support unit within the mainstream classroom or a special school.

The last-mentioned type of transition is common for students, especially students with higher support needs (such as students with intellectual disability, autism, or severe behavioural disorders). Ideally (where applicable, given the students’ needs and family preferences), a support unit within mainstream school and/or a special school are only temporary placements, with an aim to support the student in returning to mainstream school environments. Nevertheless, transition back to a mainstream school from these specialised settings is not as common and deserves much more support and attention. Martin and colleagues (2019) interviewed three students with autism, their parents, teachers and a teacher aide about their experiences of transitioning from a satellite classroom (a support unit for students with autism) to a mainstream school. Based on the three case studies, the authors identified facilitators of a successful transition back to a mainstream school, which included timely beginning of the transition process, the transition being the students’ choice, collaboration between all stakeholders and environments involved, and utilisation of appropriate classroom strategies such as visual supports and the targeted development of social skills.

Intellectual disability Autism Emotional/behavioural disorders

Transitioning from juvenile justice settings

Another type of transition that is worth mentioning is the transition from a juvenile justice setting back to mainstream school. It is well documented in the literature that students with disability are over-represented in juvenile and criminal justice settings (Indig et al., 2011). Furthermore, statistics about young people returning from a juvenile justice setting to the community are not uplifting.

There are numerous factors contributing to this, such as the return to violent communities, poverty, unemployment, drug and/or alcohol abuse in the family, inconsistent parenting, but also young people’s negative perceptions of themselves and battles they face in resisting old habits (O’Neill, Strnadová, & Cumming, 2017). Schools have a high potential to support all young people and help them to flourish. This also includes young people who have had engagement with the police and juvenile justice system. Indeed, success in education can result in decreased likelihood of re-offending (Blomberg et al., 2011). That is why it is critical not only to support young people in the juvenile justice system to engage with education, both in custody and beyond (The Council of State Governments Justice Center, 2015), but also to minimise the practice of suspensions and expulsions, which often lead to school dropout, and potentially involvement with the juvenile justice system (Leone, 2015). As many young people in the juvenile justice system have a disability (Indig et al., 2011), individual educational and transition planning in custody is an essential evidence-based practice to be implemented in collaborations between the juvenile justice and education staff in the juvenile justice facility, teachers from the school to which a student is returning, the students and their parents, and other relevant stakeholders (Strnadová, O’Neill l [O’Neill], & Cumming, 2017). There are frameworks that can assist educators in transition planning for this population; for example, see O’Neil l [O’Neill], Strnadová, and Cumming (2018).

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NARRATIVE 7.1 Joe: Returning from a juvenile justice setting Joe is a 16-year-old young man. He was diagnosed with mild intellectual disability and ADHD. His parents are divorced and he has lived for the last 10 years with his mother and five siblings. His mother works hard, but struggles to make ends meet. She works in shifts, often returning home late at night. She does not have time or energy to learn with her children. Joe’s schooling history has not been rosy, with many absences and suspensions. He had severe difficulties with literacy and numeracy, which impacted his low academic success. Joe struggled from childhood with peer acceptance. He was always that child who was not invited to birthday parties. But he met friends outside school and was often truant so that he could be with his friends. They often asked him to go with them to ‘have some fun’ by flattening tyres of randomly selected cars and stealing electronics in shops. When caught, everybody ran away but Joe. After numerous encounters with the police, which started when he was just 12 years old, Joe was placed in a juvenile justice setting. He missed his family, but also found some good things about the facility. He was provided with food five times a day. His health was checked and some issues were addressed (e.g., much-needed dentistry work). His classroom in a juvenile justice facility school is small with only six other students attending. His teacher Sonja pays a lot of attention to him. She realised that Joe’s literacy and numeracy skills are on a level of a student attending Year 3. Thus, she focused on teaching Joe literacy and numeracy skills in an age-appropriate way. Sonja and her team are aware that Joe will be released in six months. They know that this return to community and school will be difficult for everyone involved. They want to begin with transition planning as soon as possible. When Sonja talked to Joe about an Individual Learning Plan and Transition Plan meeting, she quickly realised that Joe did not understand what she was talking about. She learnt from his mother and from Joe that he never attended such meetings – his ILP/ITP was developed by a teacher and signed by his mother who did not even read it. He never even saw a copy. Sonja also contacted Joe’s mainstream high school to involve his classroom teacher in developing his ILP/ITP plan. However, she was met with resistance on the school’s part. Given the past history, the mainstream school considered Joe’s return as a risk for the school’s students, and made suggestions about other options for Joe, such as distance education. Sonja pointed out in her response to the school, that given Joe’s socioeconomic background (i.e., living in poverty, with limited internet access) and his family context (i.e., a single mother providing for her six children with a limited time to assist Joe with learning), distance education is not likely to be the best option for Joe.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS  What would be your next steps if you were Sonja? For example, consider: 1. How would you make sure that Joe has a voice in the transition process back to community and his mainstream school? In what ways would you prepare Joe to take an active part in developing his ILP/ITP plan? How could his active engagement be facilitated? 2. Who would be other stakeholders that you would invite to be a part of Joe’s ILP/ITP team? 3. What would be the main areas of focus of Joe’s ILP/ITP plan?

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Schooling transitions can be demanding for any student; however, students with disability especially benefit from starting to plan the next transition sooner than students without disability (Strnadová & Cumming, 2016). It is essential that students with disability are actively involved in transition planning. This also corresponds with increasing policy, practice and research calls for providing students with disability the opportunities to further develop their self-determination skills (Carter et al., 2013). There are numerous strategies and evidence-based practices that support the involvement of students with disability in transition planning through teaching self-determination skills. These will be discussed in the following section, across the life-span. Evidence-based practice 7.1 provides a listing from web sources of evidence-based practice resources on transitions.

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 7.1 Transitions evidence-based practices resources Resource

About the resource

URL

The National Technical Assistance Center on Transition (NTACT)

Evaluation of effective practices and predictors in relation to the amount, type and quality of research conducted; resulting in (a) evidence-based practices, (b) research-based practices, and (c) promising practices.

https://transitionta.org

Practise descriptions and Lesson Plan starters. Links to resources. The National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorder

Free resources for teachers, therapists and other professionals working with people with autism.

What Works Clearinghouse

Reviews of existing research on programs, products, practices and policies in education.

http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/

Resources on how to plan, implement, and monitor specific evidence-based resources. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/ FWW

7.3 Promoting self-determination across the life span In the first section of this chapter, we discussed the importance of self-determination and selfdetermined learning to twenty-first-century transitions. In this section, we turn our attention to how to promote self-determination and self-determined learning across the life-span. We typically think of self-determination as being associated with adolescent transitions, but experiences and opportunities throughout childhood contribute to the development of self-

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determination in adolescence and into adulthood (Wehmeyer, Shogren, Little, & Lopez, 2017). It also needs to be highlighted that across all the different life-span transitions, promoting selfdetermination should be applied across all three tiers of the Response to Intervention model (for more detail, please see Chapter 1 and Chapter 5). In Tier 1, self-determination should be promoted among all students, as elements of self-determined behaviours (e.g., problem-solving, goalsetting) are essential to students’ outcomes at school and beyond (Wehmeyer & Shogren, 2017). Further, students who need more intensive support can be taught to self-determine learning through Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions.

Promoting self-determination in the early childhood and primary years

Young children are not causal agents in their own lives in the fullest sense of the idea. Yes, their actions can cause things to happen in their lives and, yes, young children often act based upon their own interests and preferences. But, as Summers and colleagues (2014, p. 175) note, ‘since young children remain dependent upon others for caregiving and support, they are not developmentally ready to act in a self-determined manner, fundamentally due to a lack of maturity, experience, and overall capabilities’.

Of course, this is true for about everything in child development! The capacity to be selfdetermined comes about as children have learning and other experiences over time. Children need to have opportunities to build foundational skills leading to later self-determination. Examples of the most important such foundational skills and experiences include child engagement, child choice and problem-solving, and child self-regulation (Summers et al., 2014).

Child engagement

At the broadest level, engagement refers simply to the degree to which and amount of time children spend ‘interacting with their environment in a developmentally and contextually appropriate manner’ (McWilliam & Casey, 2008, p. 3). Child engagement with the environment, including people in that environment, stimulates curiosity and learning, but it also helps children learn about preferences and interests and to learn to have a sense of mastery over environments and tasks. Active engagement provides the opportunities to build foundational skills for self-awareness and self-knowledge that will be important to self-determination during adolescence. Of course, practitioners must partner with family members to promote self-determination in the early years. Things that early childhood professionals and families can do to build foundational skills for self-determination through engagement (Erwin et al., 2009) include:

• Providing frequent opportunities for children with disabilities to play with and share activities with their same-age, non-disabled peers. • Structuring environments to facilitate play spaces and play activities that are easily accessible by the child.

• Providing high-interest materials, toys, or activities with which the child can engage.

• Providing a mix of small-group, large-group, teacher-directed and child-directed activities that keep children interested.

Child choice and problem-solving

Choice-making is, obviously, critical to self-determination. Self-determined action is volitional action; that is, people do things because they want to do them! Volitional also

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implies some forethought before acting; it is acting based upon conscious choice, where ‘conscious’ implies that one acts based upon one’s goals and not simply one’s preferences. But choosing is a very powerful motivation for all people, including young children. A study in Spain showed that children eating in a school lunch cafeteria would eat more vegetables simply because they had a choice as to which vegetables they could eat (Domínguez et al., 2013).

Young children develop preferences very early in life, so part of the key to promote future self-determination is enabling them to communicate those preferences, particularly if they communicate in ways other than verbally. And one of the hard lessons all children have to learn is that even if they want something, they can’t always get it! Structuring environments for child engagement will facilitate choice opportunities. Practitioners and families can do some of the following to promote child choice and problem-solving (Wehmeyer, Davis, & Palmer, 2010): • Don’t leave choices to chance. Structure environments and activities to include opportunities for children to choose what to do, when to do it, who to do it with, and so on.

• Provide new experiences and support children to explore their world to find out what they like and don’t like. • Respect children’s preferences and choices even if you disagree with them (as long as it does not place children at risk of harm).

• Involve children in solving simple problems by helping them to state the problem and come up with some solutions, and then let them choose one of the solutions.

This final point brings up the importance of children learning from attempts at which they might initially fail to succeed. All children (and for that matter all adults!) need to approach failure not as the end of something but as a learning experience. They need to learn to identify what about the previous approach may have contributed to the lack of success and how to change what they are doing to achieve a more positive outcome. This is, basically, a problem-solving exercise.

Child self-regulation

Making choices teaches children that they have some degree of control over their environment, as does promoting child self-regulation. Self-regulation involves multiple behaviours and processes, including regulation of one’s actions or emotions, using cognitive executive functioning skills, and engaging in positive social-emotional behaviour. Summers et al. (2014, p. 190) summarised these areas with regard to young children as reflecting a child’s ‘capacity … to form close and secure adult and peer relationships; experience, regulate, and express emotions in socially and culturally appropriate ways; and explore the environment and learn … in the context of family, community, and culture’. Supporting the development of early self-regulation includes:

FIGURE 7.1 Providing choice to children can help them develop selfdetermination and is important for the development of autonomy Shutterstock.com/Hryshchyshen Serhii

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• Talking about feelings and emotions and how they influence the child’s actions.

• Emphasising perspective taking and others’ viewpoints and compare and contrast those with the child’s perspectives and viewpoints. • Structuring the environment to reduce overly burdensome regulatory demands for children and provide greater predictability. • Providing honest, supportive feedback that focuses on alternatives to actions as needed. • Allowing children to take responsibility for their own actions … successes and failures!

Self-management

An evidence-based practice that can be used to support the development of self-regulation in students with disability is self-management. Self-management focuses on a student applying behaviour change strategies to change their own behaviour. Self-management interventions usually include the following strategies: (a) self-monitoring (which includes both self-observing and self-recording); (b) goal setting; (c) self-evaluation; and (d) selfreinforcement (Busacca et al., 2015). When it comes to self-monitoring, prompts for students are mostly auditory; however, there are also visual prompts and, even, some tactile prompts, such as an electronic beeper with a vibrating function, the MotivAider® (Moore et al., 2013). In terms of goal setting, there are various goals that can be addressed using self-management interventions, such as increasing on-task behaviour, task completion, appropriate classroom behaviour, or reducing inappropriate behaviours and vocalisations (Sam & AFFIRM, 2016). In some self-management intervention packages, a ‘teacher-match’ component is also included, which means that the data recorded by a student is compared with data recorded by the teacher. Adding this component models a precise recording of the observed behaviours. An example of an intervention package that includes ‘teacher-match’ component is ‘Self & Match’ system (Bulla & Frieder, 2018). As highlighted by Bulla and Frieder (2018), self-management is often used as an individual intervention, but it can also be adapted by teachers as a class-wide intervention (thus, Tier 1 in the RTI model).

The overarching theme of these interventions and supports is that foundational skills leading to later self-determination are built on relationships that provide children with the opportunity to explore, make choices, and learn to self-regulate their action. Children learn these things by doing them.

Promoting self-determination in the secondary years

As children leave the primary years and transition into secondary schools, they become increasingly independent. Indeed, one goal of adolescent development is to promote greater independence, although in reality, all of us are interdependent all of our lives. Still, students in secondary years can take on increasingly more responsibility for learning and practice skills that will lead to self-determination. One way to do this is to ensure that instructional opportunities to learn and practice component elements are infused into the curriculum and the school day. These component elements comprise the specific skills that enable one to act as a causal agent in one’s life, and interventions in these areas are discussed in this section.

Goal-setting and attainment

Goals provide a way to prioritise what we want to do or achieve and, as a result, act as regulators of our behaviour. Simply put, if a person sets a goal, it increases the probability that they will perform behaviours related to that goal. The process of promoting goal-setting and attainment skills involves teaching students to:

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1 Identify and define a goal.

2 Develop objectives or tasks to achieve the goal. 3 Specify actions needed to achieve the goal.

Instruction to promote goal-setting can easily be integrated into a wide array of transition-related activities and across multiple transition domains, as well as in the transition planning process. Research (Agran, Blanchard, & Wehmeyer, 2000) has suggested some general strategies that make goals both meaningful and attainable for students with disabilities. First, goals should be challenging, but not so challenging that the student cannot attain them. Goals that have personal meaning are more likely to be attained, so it is best for students to participate in setting their own goals. If this is not possible and goals need to be set by teachers, the student’s preferences and interests should be incorporated into the goal to increase the student’s motivation to pursue the goal. Furthermore, goals need to be SMART (i.e., specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound). Teachers can teach goal setting in several steps: 1 Enable students to identify specific strengths and deficits 2 Enable students to identify key behavioural changes

3 Teach students to write a SMART goal (Estrapala & Reed, 2020).

NARRATIVE 7.2 Jan: Goal setting Jan is a 14-year-old student attending a mainstream high school. She has been diagnosed with ADHD. Mr Lukas, Jan’s history teacher, has lately observed a considerable increase in Jan’s offtask behaviours. For example, Jan does not pay attention when Mr Lukas plays videos to class. Instead, she secretly uses her mobile phone to check her Instagram profile and chats with friends on Discord. This happened several times, while Jan knows that using mobile phone during classes is against the school policy. Mr Lukas is concerned, as Jan’s grades got rapidly worse, not only in history class. Mr Lukas talked with Mrs Claire from the school’s Learning Support Unit about Jan. Mrs Claire suggested that Mr Lukas teaches Jan how to set goals to regulate her off-task behaviours.

DISCUSSION QUESTION 1. What would be two possible SMART goals for Jan?

Choice making

Choice making is simply the act of expressing preferences from available options and is, of course, at the heart of self-determination and, to that end, transition. Infusing choice opportunities into transition instruction enhances the meaningfulness of such activities for students and promotes a sense of autonomy and ownership over learning. As noted previously, by making choices, younger children learn that they can exert control over their environment. But making choices remains as important for secondary-age students. Choice opportunities can be infused through the school day in virtually any topic or activity and, in fact, increased opportunities to make

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choices about everything from what to eat for lunch to what classes to take the next semester are hallmarks of adolescence.

Problem-solving

A problem is an activity or situation in which one does not know what to do or how to resolve the situation. Instruction to promote problem-solving skills involves teaching students to identify and define the problem they are trying to solve, identify possible solutions to that problem, consider what the outcome associated with each possible solution might be, and make a choice about which solution is considered best. In many cases, problems that adolescents must solve are social in nature; that is, they involve difficulties or interactions with other people. Often, teaching problem-solving simply involves a teacher or parent saying aloud what they are doing to solve a problem. As adults, we encounter numerous problems each day. Most are small and inconsequential. We employ problem-solving processes when we encounter such barriers, but we just do so automatically and without talking about them. So, by simply verbalising what the problem is, what options might be available, and why one option might be selected, parents and teachers can model the problem-solving process. Further, there are a lot of problems that are meaningful to secondary-age students, from relationships to schoolworkrelated problems. Problem-solving instruction, as such, can occur in contexts that have real relevance to young people, such as how they respond to social pressures to drink or smoke or what to do about a difficult peer.

Decision-making

A decision involves selecting an option that is identified as best for a person at a given time. Decisions differ from problems in that they are bigger and incorporate personal preferences to a greater degree. The decision-making process begins with a problem-solving process to identify the options or alternatives from which a decision might be made. The decider then considers the consequences of each such action or option, the likelihood that each such consequence will occur, how each option aligns with one’s values and preferences and then, finally, choosing one of the options. Learning to make decisions, like learning to solve problems, begins early and involves adults in the child’s life modelling decision-making and supporting the child to participate in the decision-making process. As students get older, they should receive instruction in the decisionmaking process. When teaching decision-making, opportunities to make decisions can be imbedded throughout the curriculum. By supporting students to make decisions in real-world situations, including decisions about significant transition outcomes, like what work one would like to do after graduation or where one might want to live, they will better develop their ability to conceptualise and generalise the decision-making process.

Self-regulation and student-directed learning

In adolescence, the ongoing development of behavioural self-regulation (that is, actively regulating one’s own actions) increasingly incorporates setting goals, developing action plans to achieve those goals, implementing and following the action plans, evaluating the outcomes of the action plan, and changing action plans if the goal was not achieved. Selfregulation skills enable students to explore and examine their environments, evaluate their repertoire of possible responses to situations that arise, and implement and evaluate a response.

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antecedent cue regulation strategies, self-instruction, self-monitoring, self-evaluation and selfreinforcement. Picture cues and antecedent cue regulation strategies involve the use of visual or audio cues that students use to guide their behaviour. Self-instruction involves teaching students to provide their own verbal cues prior to taking an action. Self-monitoring involves teaching students to observe whether they have performed an action or behaviour and/or whether that action or response met whatever existing criteria were established. Self-evaluation and selfreinforcement strategies involve teaching students to compare their performance (as tracked through self-monitoring) with their goal to ‘reward’ themselves for success. A suitable evidencebased practice that could be used by educators is self-management (see earlier in the chapter for a detailed description).

Self-advocacy

Students with disabilities need to learn the skills to advocate on their own behalf if they are to be successful in school and in life. Among areas leading to enhanced self-advocacy, students can learn about their rights and responsibilities, how to be assertive, how to communicate their wants and their perspectives and views, how to negotiate, how to compromise, and how to deal with systems and bureaucracies. Again, there are a host of real-world opportunities in which to learn and practise these skills, beginning with the transition planning process.

Self-awareness and self-knowledge

It is important for students to understand their strengths, abilities, unique learning and support needs and limitations and how to use this understanding to maximise their success and progress. Students acquire this knowledge by interacting with their environment and, importantly, experiencing success, even if initial attempts were not successful.

Self-determined learning

Self-determined learning incorporates all these component elements with the broader goal of enabling students to have greater agency over learning and to take over ownership of all aspects of learning, from what to learn to how to learn it. Wehmeyer, Shogren, and colleagues (Shogren et al., 2019; Wehmeyer et al., 2000) have developed a family of instructional and support models that enable teachers, professionals and even parents to support students to self-regulate problemsolving to set and attain educationally relevant goals; to self-determine learning and goalsetting. Readers can get details about these models and their implementation at http://www. self-determination.org, but a brief description is warranted.

The Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction

The Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction (or SDLMI) is an evidence-based instructional model for use by teachers to promote student self-determined learning through self-regulated problem-solving to attain education (including transition) goals. The intent of the SDLMI is to enable teachers to teach students to teach themselves. This is accomplished by supporting students to engage in self-regulated problem solving to set a goal, create an action plan to achieve that goal, and then to self-monitor and self-evaluate their progress toward the goal, revising their action plan and the goal itself as necessary. The model has three phases. In each phase, students answer a series of four questions, which mirror the problem-solving sequence discussed previously, that support students to solve the problem pertaining to what they want to learn. The problems in each phase are What is my goal?, What is my plan?, and What have I learned?

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Learning difficulties

By answering the four questions in each phase, students solve the problem posed in that phase and, in turn, set educational goals, create action plans to achieve those goals and monitor progress toward those goals, adjusting plans and goals as needed. That is the power of this instructional model: if students are supported to self-regulate problem-solving to set and attain goals, including transition goals, by teachers implementing the model, the process is such that by adjusting plans and goals as needed, students should experience success in setting and attaining a goal every time, even if it is not the same goal that they started out with. The SDLMI includes instructional strategies and supports teachers can use to ensure that students are able to answer the questions and learn how to problem-solve, set goals and self-determine progress toward learning. There is strong evidence of the positive impact of the SDLMI on student educational and transition goal attainment and on enhanced self-determination (see http://www.selfdetermination.org). The SDLMI has been successfully used with students with intellectual disability and learning disabilities (Shogren et al., 2012; Wehmeyer et al., 2012) and emotional behavioural disorders (Mazzotti et al., 2012).

The Self-Determined Career Design Model

A companion to the SDLMI is the Self-Determined Career Design Model (SDCDM; Wehmeyer et al., 2003). It functions in the same way that the SDLMI does, except it is designed for use by professionals in the vocational and career development fields to promote self-regulated problemsolving leading to setting and attaining career and employment-related goals. The problems to solve in the three phases of the SDCDM are What are my Career and Job Goals?, What is my Plan?, and What have I Achieved?. The four problems in each phase, again aligned with a problem-solving sequence, enable adolescents and adults to solve these problems and attain relevant goals. Like the SDLMI, there is good evidence of the positive impact of supporting young adults with disabilities to set and attain employment goals with the SDCDM (Dean et al., 2019). It is important to note that promoting self-determined learning is important not only for students with disabilities, but, indeed, in the changing, technology-driven, global work and economic context, these are critical skills for all learners (Wehmeyer & Zhao, 2020).

7.4 Meaningful participation in Individual Learning Plans/Individual Transition Plans One powerful way to encourage self-determined learning is to promote the active engagement of students with disability in developing their Individual Learning Plans/Individual Transition Plans. Individual Learning Plans (ILP) are often developed for students with disability. A variety of other names are used across the world, such as Personalised Learning Plans, Individualised Education Plans, Individualised Education Programs (to name a few). In some countries, the development of such plans for each student with disability is mandated by law (for example Czech Republic, USA), while in other countries this is only a recommended though not mandated practice. In Australia, though not mandated by law, Individual Learning Plans belong among recommended documentation for the Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD). The NCCD provides information about the number of students with disability in schools, as well as the level of the adjustments they receive (see Chapter 2 for more detail on NCCD).

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Individual Learning Plans

The purpose of the Individual Learning Plans is to support and protect students with disability as well as to provide procedural safeguards for their parents (Twachtman-Cullen & TwachtmanBassett, 2011). When mandated by law, the relevant legislation specifies what should be included in these plans. In Australia, where these are not mandated, there is a considerable variety in how Individual Learning Plans look and what information they contain. Usually, four main areas are included – student, conditions, behaviour and criteria (Hedin & DeSpain, 2018).

Student

The student area involves identifying the student’s strengths, interests and support needs, as well as details about their performance (e.g., data about skills that they mastered, information about what motivates them and supports them in being engaged). When collecting information about a student’s performance, both quantitative and qualitative data are equally important.

Conditions

Conditions area usually includes information about materials (e.g., assistive technology, modified text, but also assessments), assistance (i.e., number, type and level of supports needed by a student to complete a task), and direction/instruction.

Behaviour

The behaviour area is about skills targeted by ILP goals. They are expressed by action verbs, such as read aloud, write.

Criteria

Finally, criteria area contains information about how we can measure achievement of the ILP goals. These criteria are mastery (i.e., what level of performance is expected) and retention (i.e., how often does a student need to achieve mastery criteria so that the targeted behaviour can be considered as mastered) (Hedin & DeSpain, 2018). Each Individual Learning Plan needs to have goals that are SMART, i.e., specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound (Hedin & DeSpain, 2018); also relevant to this topic is information about developing long-term and shortterm instructional goals as discussed in Chapter 5.

Assessing transition needs in the ILP process

The critical starting point for any education and transition planning is assessment. As is the case with instruction in any content area, assessment and instruction go hand-in-hand in efforts to promote positive transition outcomes and student involvement in the ILP process. Determining instructional and curricular needs in transition will involve a combination of standardised and informal procedures incorporating input from multiple sources, including the student, their family, professionals and others. Clark (1996) identified informal assessment from which transition-related decisions can be made as including: a situational or observational learning preferences assessments b curriculum-based assessment

c observational reports from teachers, employers and family members d situational assessments in home, community and work settings e environmental assessments

f personal-future planning activities

g structured interviews with students

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h structured interviews with parents, guardians, advocates, or peers i adaptive, behavioural, or functional skill inventories j

social histories

k employability, independent living, and personal-social skills rating scales l technology or vocational education skills assessments.

Transition assessment consists of five interconnected processes:

a determining what to assess

b selecting appropriate assessments c conducting assessments

d analysing assessment results e using assessment data.

Source: Rowe et al. (2015)

According to Walker et al. (2013), transition assessment should include four broad areas:

i academic achievement ii self-determination

iii vocational interest and exploration

iv adaptive behaviour and independent living.

Source: Walker et al. (2013)

The success of transition assessment can be further enhanced, if it uses twenty-first-century transition processes such as focus on ‘future role as worker, life-long learner, active community member, family member’, so long as it is ongoing rather than only annual, and actively involves the student (Rowe et al., 2015, p. 302). In the beginning of this chapter, we highlighted the need to focus on twenty-first-century skills in transition planning and self-determination development, and assessment is not an exception. Indeed, the twenty-first-century requires additional skills, such as functional academic and life skills (e.g., banking, transportation) and non-academic skills (selfdetermination, persistence, etc.). There are numerous assessments that can be used across a variety of platforms, such as online web assessments, ecological assessments or smart technology, to name a few (Rowe et al., 2015). Table 7.1 below provides a few examples of transition assessment tools that can be used across the four key areas. There are other assessments available – for example, the National Transition Technical Assistance Center (NTTAC) provides guidance on a wide range of transition assessments. It is also a rich resource of evidence-based transition practices. These types of assessment procedures enable planners to form a complete picture of student needs, interests and abilities by gathering input from multiple sources. As self-determination is at the heart of this chapter, we provide below more in-depth discussion about several available assessments of self-determination that can become part of the assessment process.

Self-determination

One, the ARC Self-Determination Scale (SDS, Wehmeyer & Kelchner, 1995 is a 72-item self-report measure based on the functional theory of self-determination. A total of 148 points are available on the scale, with higher scores indicating higher levels of self-determination. An overall selfdetermination score as well as subscale scores for each of the four essential characteristics of selfdetermined behaviour – autonomy, self-regulation, psychological empowerment and self-realisation – are identified in the functional model of self-determination. The SDS was developed and normed with 500 adolescents with cognitive disabilities and has strong reliability and validity (Wehmeyer, 1996).

Using the ARC Self-Determination Scale

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One potential use of the ARC Self-Determination Scale is to generate discussion about items the student finds interesting, problematic, or wants to discuss more broadly. A second use of the Scale

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TABLE 7.1 Examples of transition assessment areas and relevant assessment tools

Assessment area

Assessment tool

URL

Academic achievement

Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd edn, (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2014)

https://www.pearsonassessments. com/store/usassessments/en/Store/ Professional-Assessments/AcademicLearning/Reading/Kaufman-Test-ofEducational-Achievement-%7C-ThirdEdition/p/100000777.html

PSAT, SAT

https://www.collegeboard.org/

ARC Self-Determination Scale (Wehmeyer & Kelchner, 1995)

https://www.ou.edu/education/ centers-and-partnerships/zarrow/ self-determination-assessment tools

AIR Self-Determination Assessment (Wolman, Campeau, Du Bois, Mithaug, & Stolarski, 1994)

https://www.ou.edu/zarrow/ sdetermination.html

Self-Determination Inventory (Shogren, Wehmeyer, Palmer et al., 2017)

http:/www.self-determination.org

O*NET Career Interest Inventory (US Department of Labor, 2002)

https://www.onetonline.org/

Pictorial Interest Inventory (suitable for students with a significant disability)

https://www.cves.org/wp-content/ uploads/2015/08/Pictoral_Interest_ Inventory_template_SHEN.pdf

Self-determination

Vocational interest and exploration

Adaptive behaviour and independent living

Casey Life Skills (Casey Family https://caseylifeskills.secure.force. Programs, 2012) com/ TPI-3: Transition Planning Inventory – Third Edition, Complete Kit

https://www.proedinc.com/ Products/14865/tpi3-transition-planninginventorythird-edition-complete-kit.aspx

Life Skills Inventory

https://transitionresponse.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/09/Life-SkillsAssessment-Div.-Of-Children.pdf

involves scoring it and comparing total, domain and subdomain scores with Scale norms and, more importantly, examining individual strengths and weaknesses across the domains. Any use of the ARC Self-Determination Scale with individual students should focus on potential educational goals and objectives. This discussion, in turn, can consider possible educational programs and activities to address and meet these goals and objectives. Another recently developed measure, the SelfDetermination Inventory (Shogren, Wehmeyer, Palmer et al., 2017; available online at http:/www. self-determination.org), is available in both student self-report and parent/teacher report versions, and again can provide a means for a discussion between teachers and students about strengths in self-determination and areas for potential instructional focus and goal-setting.

REFLECT ON THIS Why is assessment of transition needs important for post-school outcomes of students with disability?

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Transition planning process embedded in Individual Learning Plans

Transition assessment results can help to inform the development of transition goals. The assessment results should be also used to establish the present level of academic and functional performance (PLAFP) in a student’s Individual Learning Plan. Indeed, PLAFP can serve as a starting point from which Individual Learning Plan goals are developed (Rowe et al., 2015) and instruction is designed (e.g., evidence-based practices which will lead to learning the desired skill). Once transition goals are identified, it is advisable to link them with the student’s SMART ILP goals. In reality, at least one ILP goal should be linked to the student’s post-school goals (Szidon et al., 2015). An example of aligned annual ILP and post-school goals is set out in Evidence-based practice 7.2 (adapted from Szidon et al., 2015).

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 7.2 Identifying transition goals Post-school goal

After graduation from high school, Peter will independently travel by train.

Annual ILP goal Given instruction in travelling by train, Peter will complete the steps necessary for him to arrive at five identified community destinations with 100 per cent accuracy across five consecutive opportunities. This will enhance his skills to independently travel by train after he graduates from high school.

Szidon et al. (2015) also suggest trouble-shooting the ILP and transition goals and adjusting them in order to avoid pitfalls such as developing ILP and transition goals that are too specific to curriculum. Of no less importance is to provide students with real-life and real-time opportunities to practise the targeted skills, and to gradually evaluate students’ progress.

ILPs beyond academic skills

It is important for all involved stakeholders to remember that ILPs should include all areas relevant to students’ lives, both current and future. While core curricular subjects (such as English, Mathematics, Humanities, Science) are indeed important, there are others that remain underestimated for the population of students with disability. A prime example is sexuality and sexual identity education (in the Australian curriculum taught within Personal Development, Health and Physical Education [PDHPE] curriculum, or within the Life Skills curriculum). While all students have the right to quality sexuality education, there are some groups of students with disability for whom this becomes a distant dream (e.g., students with intellectual disability) (Pownall et al., 2012). Indeed, a ‘key task for transition is the development of coherent adult identities’, including sexual identity (Wilkinson et al., 2015, p. 94). Thus, sexuality education should be a part of transition or ILP meetings, which is not always the case (Strnadová, Loblinzk, & Danker, under review).

Students’ active involvement in the ILP process

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Of critical importance is that a student with disability be actively involved in all aspects of the ILP (see Figure 7.2). Yet it is unfortunately still too common that students with intellectual disability and students on the autism spectrum are either excluded from ILP meetings or only passively present, with not much support to understand the purpose of ILP and their role in it (Strnadová & Cumming, 2014; Wagner et al., 2012). This is well demonstrated in this real-life statement of a

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student with disability: ‘I sit in them. They talk about my reading skills, math skills, and what I will do after graduation’ (Hughes et al., 2013, p. 8).

Indeed, being an active contributor in a development of their own Individual Learning Plan gives students the opportunity to develop their self-determination skills (for example, choice-making, decision-making, or self-advocacy skills), as well as leadership skills. Students should not only contribute to the plan, but should be actively involved in monitoring their progress FIGURE 7.2 An ILP meeting towards the ILP/ITP goals. This means that they should also receive their own copy, which would be studentSource: iStock.com/shorrocks friendly, without jargon and with pictorials when needed students with intellectual disability and students on the autism spectrum should receive a plain English or Easy Read English version of their plan, if they prefer to. Furthermore, it is important to make sure that parents of students with disability are actively involved in development of both the student’s Individual Learning Plan and self-determination skills. Including students with disability through meaningful participation in their Individual Learning Plan is a journey which should commence in primary school. One possible approach that teachers can use for this age group is a 10-step Self-Advocacy Model for Obtaining IEP Accommodations (Hart & Brehm, 2013). Among evidence-based practices that can be successfully used to develop students with disability’s skills to take an active part and even lead their educational and transition planning are the Self-Directed IEP Curriculum (Martin et al. 1997) and Whose Future Is It Anyway? (Wehmeyer, Lawrence, Kelchner, Palmer, Garner, & Soukup, 2004). Both of these are freely available online (https://www.ou.edu/education/centers-andpartnerships/zarrow) and are described in greater detail subsequently.

NARRATIVE 7.3 Petra: Active participation in educational and transition planning Petra is a 14-year-old high school student who was diagnosed with intellectual disability and autism. She lives with her parents and one brother who is 10 years old. Petra recently transferred from a different school, as her family had to move to a different city. The new school was very different to the previous one. Her new teacher, Mr James, is acutely aware of the importance of timely transition planning for students with disability. He also knows how important it is for the student to take part in their own learning and transition planning meetings, and to be actively involved in it. This does not happen if a student does not understand the purpose of the process and the meetings. Thus, Mr James discussed with Petra and her family using ‘Whose Future is it Anyway?’ curriculum to support Petra in understanding why ILP/ITP is important and how it works. He also asked Petra to prepare a PowerPoint presentation for the next ILP/ITP meeting to talk about herself – what she likes, what she is good at, what is difficult for her in school, and what her plans are for the future.

DISCUSSION QUESTION 1. What evidence-based practices would you use to support Petra to continue with her active involvement in ILP meetings, and to develop her leadership skills that she could utilise in her ILP/ITP planning process?

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The Self-Directed IEP curriculum Expressing goals Step 1

Begin meeting by stating the purpose

Step 2

Introduce everyone

Step 3

Review past goals and performance

Step 4

Ask for others’ feedback

Step 5

State your school and transition goals

Step 6

Ask questions if you don’t understand

Step 7

Deal with differences in opinion

Step 8

State what support you’ll need

Step 9

Summarise your goals

Step 10

Close meeting by thanking everyone

Step 11

Work on IEP goals all year.

FIGURE 7.3 The Self-Directed IEP addresses the third main section of the ChoiceMaker Self-Determination Transition curriculum, expressing goals. Source: Martin, J. E., Marshall, L. H., Maxson, L. M., & Jerman, P. L. (1997). The Self-Directed IEP. Longmont, CO: Sopris West. Retrieved at https://cq5publish.ou.edu/content/dam/ Education/documents/miscellaneous/self-directed-iep-rev.pdf on 16/7/2020

The Self-Directed IEP is one of the key components of the ChoiceMaker Self-Determination Transition curriculum. This curriculum consists of three main sections: (a) choosing goals, (b) expressing goals, and (c) taking action. The SelfDirected IEP, which addressed the expressing goals section, consists of teaching students 11 steps involved in ‘leading’ their planning meeting. Figure 7.3 details these steps.

There are 11 lessons with teacher’s manual available for teachers, who want to introduce this evidence-based practice to their students and parents. The ChoiceMaker Self-Determination Transition curriculum also has an assessment component, the ChoiceMaker Self-Determination Assessment, which consists of three parts allowing one to establish and monitor students’ self-determination skills (Martin & Marshall, 1997).

Whose Future is it Anyway?

Whose Future is it Anyway? (WFA) (Wehmeyer et al., 2004) consists of 36 sessions introducing students to the concept of transition and transition planning and enabling students to self-direct instruction related to 1) self- and disability-awareness; 2) making decisions about transition-related outcomes; 3) identifying and securing community resources to support transition services; 4) writing and evaluating transition goals and objectives; 5) communicating effectively in small groups; and 6) developing skills to become an effective team member, leader, or self-advocate.

The materials are student-directed in that they are written for students as end-users. The level of support needed by students to complete activities varies a great deal. Some students with difficulty reading or writing need one-to-one support to progress through the materials; others can complete the process independently. The materials make every effort to ensure that students retain this control while at the same time receiving the support they need to succeed.

First stage

Section 1 (Getting to Know You) introduces the concept of transition and educational planning; provides information about transition requirements in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA); and enables students to identify who has attended past planning meetings, who is required to be present at meetings, and who they want involved in their planning process. Later, they are introduced to four primary transition outcome areas (employment, community living, postsecondary education, and recreation and leisure). Activities throughout the process focus on these transition outcome areas. The remainder of the sessions in this first section discuss the topic of disability and disability awareness. Students identify their unique characteristics,

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including their abilities and interests. Participants then identify unique learning needs related to their disability. Finally, students identify their unique learning needs resulting from their disability.

Second stages

In the second section (Making Decisions), students learn a simple problem-solving process by working through each step in the process to make a decision about a potential living arrangement and then apply the process to make decisions about the three other transition outcome areas. The third section (How to Get What You Need, Sec. 101) enables students to locate community resources identified in previous planning meetings that are intended to provide supports in each of the transition outcome areas. Section 4 (Goals, Objectives, and the Future) enables learners to apply a set of rules to identify transition-related goals and objectives that are currently on their IEP or transition planning form, evaluate these goals based on their own transition interests and abilities, and develop additional goals to take to their next planning meeting. Students learn what goals and objectives are, how they should be written, and ways to track progress on goals and objectives.

Final stages

The fifth section (Communicating) introduces effective communication strategies for smallgroup situations, such as the transition planning meetings. Students work through sessions that introduce different types of communication (e.g., verbal, body language) and how to interpret these communicative behaviours, the differences between aggressive and assertive communication, how to effectively negotiate and compromise, when to use persuasion, and other skills that will enable them to be more effective communicators during transition planning meetings. The final section (Thank You, Honourable Chairperson) enables students to learn types and purposes of meetings, steps to holding effective meetings, and roles of the meeting chairperson and team members. Students are encouraged to work with school personnel to take a meaningful role in planning for and participating in the meeting.

Students are encouraged to work on one session per week during the weeks between their previous transition planning meeting and the next scheduled meeting. The final two sessions review the previous sessions and provide a refresher for students as they head into their planning meeting. These materials have been field tested and validated for use with students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (Wehmeyer, Palmer, Lee, Williams-Diehm, & Shogren, 2011) and shown to impact student self-determination, self-efficacy for educational planning, and student involvement.

Involving parents in developing students’ self-determination skills

Family plays a critical role in providing opportunities for development of their child’s selfdetermination skills. However, it is also important to remember that family perceptions of the importance of self-determination may differ significantly across families. These perceptions can be influenced by numerous factors (e.g., a personal and family history, cultural and religious background), and would likely influence the level of encouragement families provide to their children in this matter. Furthermore, it is important for teachers to realise that some cultures define and promote self-determination skills in different ways, and for some cultures, fostering interdependence should be the focus of education (Palmer et al., 2012). In this sense self-determination, ‘is more about capacity building and being competent within family or community life’ (p. 43). If schools want to develop self-determination skills effectively, home–school collaboration is crucial. Palmer et al. (2012, p. 43) in this context advocate for a ‘culturally aware partnership’ between school and families, with ‘a mutual understanding of selfdetermination – within the context of the family’s culture’.

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REFLECT ON THIS In what ways can you make sure that your collaboration with students’ families is a ‘culturally aware partnership’?

REFLECT ON THIS Imagine you are a classroom teacher of Year 9 students in an Australian regional high school, which includes diverse learners, including five students with disability, and you want to commence transition planning processes with these students and their families. Briefly summarise the steps you would take to ensure successful transition planning.

7.5 Self-advocacy Self-advocacy skills, which are key to transitions experienced by any student, can be defined as an ‘ability to effectively recognise and articulate one’s needs and rights’ (Holzberg et al., 2019, p. 167). These skills are of critical importance to all adolescents and adults, including students with disability. According to Test et al. (2005), there are four key components of self-advocacy skills: 1 Knowledge of self

2 Knowledge of rights (a student’s personal rights, educational rights, as well as rights of others in the community) 3 Communication (not only verbal communication, but also body language, assertiveness, ability to listen to others, and to compromise) 4 Leadership (which also includes knowing resources and advocating for others).

Knowledge of self

Knowledge of self needs to be a focus of instruction during the early years in school. Students’ understanding of their own strengths as well as areas where they face difficulties is important. Similarly, it is important for students to know about their disability and how it affects them. Teachers should support the development of a positive disability identity in their students; an identity which does not ignore or try to ‘erase impairment or disablement’, but rather ‘embraces and strives to value the self in a culture that more often characterizes disability as a relative dysfunction and failed potential’ (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017, p. 163). Useful tools for teachers can be disability awareness programs and activities which can be used classroom-wide and school-wide. Such programs assist in reducing discrimination, bias, and a fear of the unknown (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017). Incorporating disability awareness into content-area instruction is critical. Another possibility for schools is to organise disability awareness days at schools, with invited speakers who have lived experience of disability and can share their experiences. Using simulations can also be used as a tool to ‘put oneself into the shoes of a person with disability’ – popular simulation activities used during the disability awareness programs include blind-folding, tying back limbs and using a wheelchair (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017). Chae, Park, and Shin (2019) in a meta-analysis of 20 intervention studies concluded that students without disabilities who took part in these interventions significantly improved in disability awareness and in their attitudes toward people with disability. However, it is important to note that some people

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with disability do not support the use of such simulations, as in their opinion it minimises the real experience of living with disability and facing barriers existing in communities.

Knowledge of rights

Knowledge of rights is another critical self-advocacy skill for all students. Students should know about the Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations, 1989), for example, which is also available in a child-friendly version (see https://www.unicef.org/sop/convention-rightschild-child-friendly-version). Similarly, all students (not just students with disability) should learn about the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations, 2017), as knowledge of rights does not just include knowledge of one’s own rights but also the rights of others in the community. This also allows for students to understand that rights go hand in hand with responsibilities. Students should also know about the anti-discrimination policies relevant to countries where they live. In Australia, for example, they should be acquainted with the Disability Standards for Education (2005), and also learn how to advocate for themselves in an appropriate manner.

With knowledge of rights comes Leadership, as learning about how to speak up for oneself also means learning how to speak up for others, who may not be able to do so themselves. There are existing models and programs focused on developing leadership skills of students with disability. The Texas Statewide Youth Leadership Forum aims at training selected participants to become local and national leaders (Grenwelge & Zhang, 2012; Grenwelge et al., 2010). This program has three distinctive parts: (a) developing an advocacy/leadership action plan; (b) implementation of the plan within nine months following the Forum; and (c) a two-day camp where participants share their experiences and successes (Grenwelge et al., 2010). There is also a lot to be learnt from self-advocacy organisations that bring together people with disability to learn how to speak up for themselves and advocate on individual as well as systemic level. Finding ways in which self-advocacy organisations could work together with schools to help students with their selfadvocacy skills is certainly worth pursuing.

REFLECT ON THIS Provide examples of the ways in which you can teach students with disability about themselves and their rights. How can families be best included in this process?

Interventions and evidence-based practices

There are diverse approaches and interventions that can be used to develop self-advocacy skills in students with disability. One of these, the Self-Advocacy and Conflict Resolution (SACR) Training (Rumrill et al., 1999) is an intervention comprising two modules, the first one of which is focused on the development of 19 self-advocacy behaviours when asking for academic accommodations. Another intervention, IMPACT: Ability, is a self-advocacy training targeted at people with intellectual and physical disability, and is based on putting students with disability in simulated unsafe realistic situations. This allows them to practise how to behave in such challenging contexts (Dryden et al., 2014). Active involvement in the Individual Learning Plan process is yet another evidence-based practice, which provides many opportunities for a student with disability to develop their self-advocacy skills (Strnadová, 2020).

Physical disability

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The Self-Advocacy Strategy for Education and Transition Planning (Van Reusen et al., 2002) is a secondary transition evidence-based practice (Test et al., 2009). It was developed to enhance student motivation and is ‘designed to enable students to systematically gain a sense of control and influence over their own learning and development’ (Van Reusen et al., 2002, p. 1). Students progress through a series of lesson plans, focusing on seven instructional stages. Step 1 (Orient and Make Commitments) broadly introduces education and transition planning meetings, the program itself, and how participation can increase student power and control in this process. Step 2 (Describe) defines and provides detailed information about transition and education meetings and advantages students experience if they participate. In this stage, the I PLAN steps of student participation are introduced. These steps provide a simple algorithm that students can use to chart their participation in planning meetings (see Figure 7.4). In Step 3 (Model and prepare), the teacher models the I PLAN steps so students can see the process in action. Students complete an Inventory, Step 1 in the I PLAN process, resulting in information they can use at their conference. In Step 4 (Verbal practice), students are asked questions to make sure they know what to do during each step of the I PLAN strategy and then verbally rehearse each of the steps. In Step 5 (Group practice and feedback), students participate in a simulated group conference (after they have mastered the I PLAN steps). The student receives feedback from the teacher and other students, and the group generates suggestions on where the student might improve. The simulated conference is audio- or videoed for future reference. Stage 6 (Individual practice and feedback) allows the student to meet independently with the teacher for practice, feedback and, eventually, mastery. The audio or video from the previous stage is reviewed, and students provide a self-evaluation of their performance. The student and instructor work together to improve areas of self-identified need and engage in another simulated conference that is also audio or videoed and used to document improvement and re-evaluate performance. Stage 7 (Generalisation) is intended to generalise the I PLAN strategy to actual conferences. This stage has three phases: 1) preparing for and conducting the planning conference, 2) preparing for other uses of the strategy, and 3) preparing for subsequent conferences. Van Reusen and colleagues (2002) have shown that the I PLAN strategy can be successfully implemented with students with disabilities and results in increased motivation and participation. In terms of evidence-based practices, technology-aided instruction and intervention as well as video modelling can be used to further develop students’ skills.

REFLECT ON THIS Which of the above interventions and evidence-based practices could you use in your teaching practice to support students in self-advocacy development? How could you incorporate it in your teaching?

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Orient and make commitments

Step 1

The education and transition planning meetings are introduced, as well as the program itself. This stage also introduces how student power and control can be increased with their participation

Describe

Step 2

Information is supplied about transition and education meetings, and highlights the advantages students experience if they participate. The I PLAN is also introduced

Model and prepare

Step 3

Once the I PLAN is introduced, the teacher builds in the steps, allowing the student to see the process. The student then completes an inventory as a part of the I PLAN, giving them information they can use later

Verbal practice

Step 4

To ensure that students understand what to do during each phase of the I PLAN, students are asked questions and are able to verbally rehearse the steps

Group practice and feedback

Step 5

Once the teacher is satisfied the students understand the I PLAN strategy, students participate in a mock group conference, which is recorded, and receive feedback from both the teacher and their peers

Step 6

The student can now meet with the teacher one-on-one to master the conference. They provide a self-evaluation of their performance in the recording from Stage 5 and work with the instructor to identify areas for improvement

Step 7

The I PLAN strategy is generalised to real conferences, and this stage is divided into three phases:

Individual practice and feedback

Step 7.1

Preparing for and conducting the planning conference

Step 7.2

Preparing for other uses of the strategy

Step 7.3

Preparing for subsequent conferences

Generalisation

FIGURE 7.4 The Self-Advocacy Strategy for Education and Transition Planning outlines seven instructional stages to enhance student engagement

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A TEACHER REFLECTS Michael Arthur-Kelly, special education teacher in special and regular schools in NSW Looking back on my teaching career (around 40 years in schools and universities) and reading this new chapter on transitions, self-determination and twenty-first-century skills, I realise how very far we have come. Lately, I have had a chance to reflect on my work as a teacher, especially with students who experience a range of complex challenges to their learning, and their families. I find myself smiling at the depth of determination in my students and their shared joy of learning. What a privilege it is to be a teacher. At the same time, I am challenged to ponder how I might have changed what I did and how our practices as a profession can continue to improve. Why do I say that? For some decades, we were heavily focused on skill acquisition, an admirable goal for our students. Do not misunderstand me, clarity of both assessment and intervention using evidence-based practices is a foundational pillar of effective special and inclusive education. However, I can certainly think of times, early in my teaching days, when my students’ aspirations were not at the centre of my planning and teaching. Sure, I had clear goals and data-based instructional methodologies, and my students seemed to learn a lot. Did they own that learning? I am not always sure about that! Similarly, a vision for ‘where to from here?’ for each and every student was perhaps obscured by my instructional, task-analysed focus. Don’t get me wrong, terrific outcomes for individuals were often achieved but I do believe that the current emphasis on lifelong learning and the empowering and motivating impact of personalised learning plans owned and shaped by our students means current educational efforts are reaping ongoing benefits for students with disability as they move on from formal school educational programs into the wider community. Finally, I believe the term ‘shared membership’ sits behind all of the concepts and practices outlined in this chapter and available to us in the wider learning community. I do wish I had recognised the symbiotic power of working together a little more in my early career, as a way to both motivate but also hand over the reins to my students as they navigated the learning journey.

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Summary

This chapter introduced the importance of supporting all students, including students with disability, throughout the horizontal and vertical transitions they experience. The importance of developing students’ twenty-first-century skills and their self-determination to become successful in their postschool life was highlighted. Readers learnt about diverse evidence-based practices that educators can use to support their students: particularly, the importance of meaningful and active participation of a student with disability in the development of their ILP/ITP was explored. Last, but not least, the critical importance of self-advocacy for students with disability was explored, including suitable interventions and evidence-based practices.

STUDY TOOLS

Discussion questions

1. Based on the content from this chapter and your own experiences, how can teachers encourage and promote twenty-first-century skills development in their students? 2. Describe and explain the term ‘world-class education’.

3. How can you encourage and support all your students (i.e., including those with disability) when applying a Life Design (or Life Designing) approach in your classroom? 4. What are some of the key self-determination skills that you want to target in your classroom, to best support your students with disability? 5. What are some important steps in transition assessment?

6. Describe the relationship between ILP and transition goals.

Individual activities

1. Go to the website for your local education authority. Find and read the web pages that provide information on how they support self-determination skills of students with disability.

2. Prepare a lesson plan focused on teaching students in your classroom about their rights and responsibilities. 3. Go to the website Partnership for 21st-century Learning. Read the section about 21st-century Learning Exemplar Program. Select one of the case studies presented there, relevant to your setting/background/ interest, read it and reflect on how you can implement the lessons learnt from the case study in your teaching practice.

4. Go to the website Whose Future is it Anyway? (https://www.ou.edu/education/centers-and-partnerships/ zarrow/transition-education-materials/whos-future-is-it-anyway), and select one of the sections. Review one of the sessions and reflect on how you can implement it in your teaching practice.

Group activities

1. Form a learning support team, with the core members of a 14-year-old student with intellectual disability, their parents, classroom teacher, support teacher, and counsellor. Role-play an LST meeting where an individual transition plan is starting to be developed. 2. Prepare and engage in a debate on the topic: Not all students with disability can be self-determined learners.

3. Prepare and engage in a debate on the topic: Students with disability often transition from mainstream schools to special schools, but rarely do they transition back to mainstream schools. Why?

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Weblinks

AFIRM modules: https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/afirm-modules

This website was designed for teachers and other professionals to learn the step-by-step process of planning for, using, and monitoring an EBP with students with autism aged 0 to 22 years.

AIR Self-Determination Assessment (Wolman, Campeau, Du Bois, Mithaug, & Stolarski, 1994) https://www. ou.edu/zarrow/sdetermination.html Casey Life Skills (Casey Family Programs, 2012) https://caseylifeskills.secure.force.com/

Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd edn, (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2014) https://www. pearsonassessments.com/store/usassessments/en/Store/Professional-Assessments/Academic-Learning/ Reading/Kaufman-Test-of-Educational-Achievement-%7C-Third-Edition/p/100000777.html NTACT website: https://www.transitionta.org

This website contains resources related to secondary education and services for students with disability. O*NET Career Interest Inventory (US Department of Labor, 2002) https://www.onetonline.org/

The Partnership for 21st-century Learning (P21). A Network of Battle for Kids: https://www.battelleforkids. org/networks/p21

P21 is the premier organisation ensuring every child — without exception — experiences twenty-first-century learning. Self-determination: http://www.self-determination.org

Provides access to the Self-Determination Inventory assessments as well as teacher support materials pertaining to the Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction. What Works Clearinghouse (WWC): https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/

The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) provides reviews of the existing research on different programs, products, practices, and policies in education.

Zarrow Center for Learning Enrichment: https://www.ou.edu/education/centers-and-partnerships/zarrow The Zarrow Center facilitates student-directed educational, employment and adult living outcomes for individuals with disabilities, fosters innovative self-determination-oriented instruction and transition education practices, and prepares educational leaders.

Recommended reading

Martin, A. J., Strnadová, I., O’Neill, S. C., & Cumming, T. M. (2017). The role of perceived competence in the lives of children with ADHD, emotional and behavioral disorder, learning disability, and developmental disability: A positive psychology perspective. In F. Guay, H. W. Marsh, R. G. Craven, & D. M. McInerney (Eds), SELF – Driving Positive Psychology and Wellbeing (pp. 1–26). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Martin, J. E., Marshall, L. H., Maxson, L. M., & Jerman, P. L. (1997). The Self-Directed IEP. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

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Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2016). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation development, and wellness. New York: The Guilford Press. Shogren, K. A. (2013). Self-determination and student involvement in transition planning. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Strnadová, I., & Cumming, T. M. (2016). Lifespan transitions and disability: A holistic perspective. London: Routledge. Thoma, C. A., Bartholomew, C. C., & Scott, L. A. (2009). Universal Design for Transitions. Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

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Wehmeyer, M. (2007). Promoting self-determination in students with developmental disabilities. New York: Guilford Publications, Inc.

Wehmeyer, M. L., Lawrence, M., Kelchner, K., Palmer, S. B., Garner, N., & Soukup, J. (2004). Whose future is it

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Agran, M., King-Sears, M., Wehmeyer, M. L., & Copeland, S. R. (2003). Teachers’ guides to inclusive practices: Student-directed learning strategies. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (n.d.). The Australian Curriculum: A world-class curriculum for the 21st century. Author. Accessed online 30 March, 2020 at https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/ Information_Sheet_A_world-class_curriculum_for_ the_21st_century.pdf Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2017). Young people returning to sentenced youth justice supervision 2015–16. Juvenile Justice Series No. 21. Canberra, Australia: Author. Baglieri, S. & Shapiro, A. (2017). Disability studies and the inclusive classroom: Critical practices for embracing diversity in education (2nd edn). New York: Routledge.

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Busacca, M. L., Anderson, A., & Moore, D. W. (2015). Self-management for primary school students demonstrating problem behavior in regular classrooms: Evidence review of single-case design research. Journal of Behavioral Education, 24, 373–401. Carter, E. W., Lane, K. L., Cooney, M., Weir, K., Moss, C. K., & Machalicek, W. (2013). Self-determination among transition-age youth with autism or intellectual disability: Parent perspectives. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 38(3), 129–138. doi:10.2511/027494813809330234

anyway? A student-directed transition planning process. (2nd edn). Lawrence, KS: Beach Centre on Disability.

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Fullan, M., Quinn, J., & McEachen, J. (2018). Deep learning: Engage the world change the world. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Grenwelge, C., & Zhang, D. (2012). The effects of the Texas Youth Leadership Forum Summer Training on the self-advocacy abilities of high school students with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 24(3), 158–169. Grenwelge, C., Zhang, D., & Landmark, L. (2010). Comprehensive leadership training for youth with disabilities. A new and improved Youth Leadership Forum model. Teaching Exceptional Children, 42(4), 62–68.

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Hart, J. E., & Brehm, J. (2013). Promoting self-determination. A model for training elementary students to selfadvocate for IEP accommodations. Teaching Exceptional Children, 45(5), 40–48. Hedin, L., & De Spain, S. (2018). SMART or not? Writing specific, measurable IEP goals. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 51(2), 100–110. Holzberg, D. G., Test, D. W., Rusher, D. E. (2019). Selfadvocacy instruction to teach high school seniors with mild disabilities to access accommodations in college. Remedial and Special Education, 40(3), 166–176.

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Indig, D., Vecchiato, C., Haysom, L., Beilby, R., Carter, J., Champion, U., Gaskin, C., Heller, E., Kumar, S., Mamone, N., Muir, P., van den Dolder, P., & Whitton, G. (2011). 2009 NSW young people in custody health survey: Full report. Sydney, Australia: Justice Health and Juvenile Justice. Retrieved from: http://www.justicehealth.nsw. gov.au/publications/ypichs-full.pdf Leone, P. E. (2015). Doing things differently: Education as a vehicle for youth transformation and Finland as a model for Juvenile Justice Reform. In N. E. Dowd, (Ed.), A new juvenile justice system. Total reform for a broken system. (pp. 86–103). New York: New York University Press.

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Martin, J. E., Marshall, L. H., Maxson, L. M., & Jerman, P. L. (1997). The Self-Directed IEP. Longmont, CO: Sopris West. Retrieved at https://cq5publish.ou.edu/content/ dam/Education/documents/miscellaneous/selfdirected-iep-rev.pdf on 16/7/2020 Mazzotti, V. L., Wood, C. L., Test, D. W., & Fowler, C. H. (2012). Effects of computer-assisted instruction on students’ knowledge of the Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction and disruptive behavior. The Journal of Special Education, 45(4), 216–226.

McWilliam, R. A., & Casey, A. M. (2008). Engagement of every child in the preschool classroom. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Moore, D. W., Anderson, A., Glassenbury, M., Lang, R., & Didden, R. (2013). Increasing on-task behavior in students in a regular classroom: Effectiveness of a selfmanagement procedure using a tactile prompt. Journal of Behavioral Education, 22(4), 302–311. National Education Association (2016). Preparing 21st century students for a global society: An educator’s guide to the ‘four Cs.’ Washington, DC. Author. O’Neill, S. C., Strnadová, I., & Cumming, T. M. (2017). Systems barriers to community re-entry for incarcerated youths: A review. Children and Youth Services Review, 79, 29–36.

O’Neil l [O’Neill], S. C., Strnadová, I., & Cumming, T. M. (2018). Transition planning framework for New South Wales youth in custody. UNSW Sydney, NSW Department of Education, NSW Department of Juvenile Justice: Sydney. Palmer, S. B., Summers, J. A., Brotherson, M. J., Erwin, E. J., Maude, S. P., Stroup-Rentier, V., Haines, S. J. (2012). Foundations for self-determination in early childhood: An inclusive model for children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 33(1), 38–47. doi: 10.1177/0271121412445288

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Savickas, M. L. (2005). The theory and practice of career construction. In S. D. Brown, & R. W. Lent (eds). Career development and counselling: Putting theory and research to work (pp. 42–70). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Savickas, M. L., Nota, L., Rossier, J., Bauwalder, J-P., Duarte, M. E., Guichard, J., & van Vianen, A. E. M. (2009). Life designing: A paradigm for career construction in the 21st century. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 75, 239–250. Shogren, K. A., Palmer, S. B., Wehmeyer, M. L., WilliamsDiehm, K., & Little, T. D. (2012). Effect of intervention with the Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction on access and goal attainment, Remedial Spec. Ed. 33(5), 320–330.

Shogren, K. A., Raley, S. K., Burke, K. M., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2019). The Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction Teacher’s Guide. Lawrence, KS: Kansas University Center on Developmental Disabilities. Shogren, K. A., Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., ForberPratt, A., Little, T., & Lopez, S. (2015). Causal Agency Theory: Reconceptualizing a functional model of selfdetermination. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 50(3), 251–263.

Shogren, K. A., Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., Forber-Pratt, A., Little, T. D., & Lopez, S. J. (2017). Self-Determination Inventory: Self-Report. Lawrence, KS: Kansas University Center on Developmental Disabilities. Strnadová, I. (2020). ‘Forgotten but crucial aspects of transition planning for inclusion.’ In U. Sharma (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopedia of Inclusive and Special Education. New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ acrefore/9780190264093.013.1016

Strnadová, I., & Cumming, T. M. (2014). Importance of quality transition process for students with disabilities across settings: Learning from the current situation in New South Wales. Australian Journal of Education, 58(3), 318–336. doi: 10.1177/0004944114543603

Strnadová, I., & Cumming, T. M. (2016). Lifespan transitions and disability: A holistic perspective. London: Routledge. Strnadová, I., Loblinzk, J., & Danker, J. (under review). Importance of sexuality education for a successful post-school transition: Experiences of high school girls with intellectual disability. British Journal of Learning Disabilities.

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PART C STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT INCLUSIVE TEACHING 8 Developing communication skills 9 Understanding and supporting literacy competence 10 Understanding and supporting numeracy competence

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Developing communication skills Dean Sutherland This chapter aims to: 8.1 Highlight the importance of communication for inclusion of all students 8.2 Describe aspects of communication development 8.3 Introduce a range of teaching strategies to support communication 8.4 Consider the communication needs of Indigenous Australian and Māori students 8.5 Inspire teachers to support communication learning for students with diverse needs.

Introduction

Communication is the mechanism by which humans connect with each other. An ability to clearly communicate our needs, wants and feelings is essential for personal wellbeing and to live a meaningful life. Starting with the earliest bonding between infants and their caregivers, to teenage relationships with friends, and throughout many areas of adult life, communication is key. Communication (and language) also provides the means for cultures to be transmitted from generation to generation. This is particularly relevant for Indigenous Australian and Māori cultures. Communication is also the basis for learning and development in all education contexts throughout Australia and New Zealand (see Figure 8.1). Listening and speaking (and signing) support children to learn new skills, acquire knowledge and express their needs and emotions. Communication is also key to children developing an understanding of self and forming friendships. Communication and language are at the heart of both the Australian and New Zealand school curricula. For example, the Year One content of the Australian school curriculum describes learning about different communication systems (including sign language), non-verbal communication, and expressing emotions (ACARA, 2015). ‘Communicating’ also underpins many components of the Framework for Aboriginal Languages and Torres Strait Islander Languages (ACARA, 2020). Similarly, the key competencies of the New Zealand curriculum include ‘using language, symbols and text’ and ‘relating to others’ (Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 2007, p. 7). The following statements introduce Strand 4 of New Zealand’s Early Childhood curriculum Te Whāriki, which is dedicated to Communication – Mana Reo: Ko te whakatipuranga tēnei o te reo. Mā roto i tēnei ka tipu te manatangata me te oranga nui. The languages and symbols of children’s own and other cultures are promoted and protected. Source: Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2017). Te Whāriki He whāriki mātauranga mō ngā mokopuna o Aotearoa Early childhood curriculum. https://tewhariki.tki.org.nz/assets/Uploads/files/Te-Whariki-Early-Childhood-Curriculum.pdf, p 41

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The ability to support all children and young people to learn the art of communication will help to ensure they can participate in preschools, schools, their families, wider communities, and their own and other cultures. However, for many students, developing communication and language skills may not occur through natural exposure and everyday experiences. So it is essential that teachers expand their understanding of how to support all children’s language and communication development.

On the surface, communication appears a relatively simple process. Consider the everyday interaction of a preschool teacher (Gemma) greeting a child (age 4) arriving at a centre. ‘Good morning Kalinda! How are you?’ Kalinda may (or may not) acknowledge this greeting with different words (e.g. ‘okay/good/hot/ hungry’) or gestures (e.g. a smile, a frown or a shrug of her shoulders). This basic example highlights a traditional sender–receiver model of communication (Adler et al., 2017). This model describes communication as involving a sender formulating a message and transmitting it to a receiver using a set of commonly understood symbols (e.g. spoken words or gestures). The receiver then decodes the message and responds to the sender. This sender–receiver model emphasises the meaning of the words spoken and grammatical structure of sentences. However, this model does not consider a variety of contextual and human factors that influence FIGURE 8.1 Communication takes place using many forms. communication. For example, let’s reconsider the Source:Alamy Stock Photo/Bob Daemmrich communication exchange between Kalinda and Gemma and assume that Kalinda did not respond to Gemma’s question/ greeting with words or gestures. Why might Kalinda have not responded? Some possible reasons include: • In Kalinda’s culture it is not polite to respond verbally to a person of significant standing. • Kalinda can hear and understand but is not confident to reply to Gemma.

• Gemma quickly turned her attention to another child after speaking to Kalinda and did not wait to hear what she had to say. • Kalinda is deaf and could not hear Gemma. Instead Kalinda lip-reads and signed ‘good’ in reply. • Kalinda experiences difficulty understanding that a response is usually expected after a question or greeting.

Communication is much more than simply formulating a message and conveying it to another person. The possible reasons listed above for Kalinda’s non-response to Gemma’s greeting, highlight just a few of the factors that can influence communication learning. An individual’s cultural background, personal skills (including speaking ability), attitudes and knowledge of speakers and listeners, and environmental factors, such as background noise and the presence of others, all contribute to the complexity of communication. This complexity ensures that the study of communication and languages cuts across many fields of research and practice, including linguistics, psychology, sociology, education and speech–language pathology. The fields of health, engineering and computer sciences also enhance our understanding of communication and contribute to the development of augmentative and alternative forms of

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communication (AAC), such as those utilised by children with complex communication needs (Light & McNaughton, 2015).

This chapter provides readers with an introduction to the rich and diverse world of communication and language. The chapter begins with a brief discussion of the importance of communication and language for inclusive preschools, kindergartens, primary and secondary schools. A range of evidence-based teaching strategies have been designed to support communication development for children and students with a range of additional learning needs including children with autism or with complex physical and communication needs. The range of teaching strategies described throughout the chapter may be appropriate for children and young people across education settings. These strategies are recommended on the strength of a range of research studies and practical experiences that have demonstrated effective support for communication development. Although this chapter has a focus on verbal (word- or symbol-based) communication, the importance of non-verbal communication in building and maintaining successful relationships must not be underestimated.

8.1 Communication and inclusion For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, learning their own language can have a significant influence on their overall learning and achievements. It can foster a strong sense of identity, pride and self-esteem and enables students to develop a wider recognition and understanding of their culture, Country/Place and People. This then contributes to their wellbeing. Source: ACARA (2020) https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/cross-curriculum-priorities/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-histories-and-cultures/

Contemporary education environments place an emphasis on collaboration between students to support their learning. The mechanism which supports this collaboration is talking. Therefore, communication via oral language is critical for cognitive development and learning (Gillies, 2014). Children also learn about themselves through the ways in which others communicate with them. This places considerable responsibility on parents/caregivers and teachers to consider how they communicate with – and about – children. For teachers, particularly, it is important to reflect on the language used when talking about children. It is also important to reflect on the words and style of communication used when speaking with children. The manner in which adults communicate with each other and children in preschools and classrooms is critical to inclusive education. Consider the following versions of an exchange between two teachers discussing a student’s behaviour. 16x16

Example 1 Teacher A: ‘Scott had another one of his meltdowns this morning. Then the whole session went pear-shaped’. Teacher B: ‘Oh no, you poor thing – that is so frustrating. He has got some real behaviour issues going on.’ Teacher A: ‘It seems every time I try to get him involved in a group activity, he just loses it. I’m sure some of it is just to get under my skin!’ Teacher B:  Yeah, he’s got to learn how to get on with others.’ Teacher A:  I know, and I am going to make sure that he does!’

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Example 2 Teacher A: ‘Scott had another one of his meltdowns this morning. Then the whole session went pear-shaped’. Teacher B: ‘Oh no. That must be tough for you and him. I wonder … is he trying to communicate something?’ Teacher A: ‘It seems every time I try to get him involved in a group activity, he just loses it.’ Teacher B: ‘So is he trying to say that groups are difficult for him?’ Teacher A: ‘I think so! Or maybe that someone in the group makes him feel bad? Or maybe it’s because I always put him in a different group from Lucia …?’ Teacher B: ‘I’m sure he is trying to let you know something … maybe he could explain things in some way when things are calm?’ Teacher A: ‘You know. I think I do need to find out what he is trying to say through his behaviour.’

These exchanges illustrate how an everyday conversation between colleagues about young people can portray different attitudes, beliefs and approaches to difficult situations – both negative and positive. In the first example, the teachers are communicating in a manner that suggests a child’s behaviour is intentional and directed at teachers. In the second exchange, the discussion illustrates the teachers considering a possible communicative basis for Scott’s behaviour. This second exchange also shows a problem-solving approach that supports inclusion. There are many different ways in which teachers can support communication in an inclusive classroom. This chapter describes many of these along with practical examples designed to be put into practice. It is vitally important that teachers understand the influences of their attitudes towards children and the language they use to describe children on their daily practices and interactions (Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 2016). The following questions are designed to help teachers reflect on their attitudes and language use: • Do you value each child in their own right, just because they exist as they are?

• What language do you and colleagues use to describe children (e.g. are phrases such as ‘slow learner’ or ‘below standard’ used)? Are these terms or labels helpful?

• If you hear a colleague use a term or phrase that makes you uncomfortable, how can you raise this in a way that helps others’ learning and development?

• How can you really get to know each of your children/students as people? What opportunities exist for this in the centre or classroom (e.g. family gatherings, sharing information about who you are as a person)? With a foundation of positive attitudes and appropriate language, teachers are well positioned to provide meaningful educational experiences for all children. Many of these experiences will be designed to support children to develop communication and language skills as they progress through the education system. As illustrated in Narrative 8.1, inclusion can be supported by understanding the many aspects of communication as well as some of the challenges that some students experience. The narrative also provides an important reminder of the benefits of including all children in the classroom.

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NARRATIVE 8.1 Communication and inclusion: A parent reflects Sam is Jake’s mum, and is also a professional with extensive experience providing specialist communication support for children, parents, and teachers. In this narrative, Sam reflects on aspects of communication for children with autism and the benefits of having a child with autism in the class. As a parent, I empathise with schools and classroom teachers about how challenging inclusion of children with autism can be. Up to 30+ students in the class, each with their individual learning, social and emotional needs. Juggling the diverse range of subject matter for all students. Then add in parents, colleagues and of course the paperwork demands into the mix – this is a giant circus to orchestrate. When there is a child with autism in the class, a teacher’s work includes: • Supporting and co-ordinating support staff, educational psychologists, therapists, and parents • Learning the student’s communication style, medical issues and medication, behavioural programs and supports for the student • Finding learning and communication strategies/support that work • Making and implementing resources • Developing, reviewing and discussing Individual Education Plans (IEPs) • Counselling and supporting peers of the child who has autism • Extra care and supervision for some students with autism. As both a parent and an education professional, I have worked with many teachers in mainstream and special needs schools. My work focuses on helping support students in the areas of play, receptive and expressive communication, social skills and safe eating and drinking. Here are some of the communication-related information and strategies that I have observed and used to support inclusion of children with autism: 1 Non-verbal communication: understanding what children’s non-verbal communication really means (e.g. understanding subtle non-verbal cues can help support a child before they become really upset). 2 Eye contact: making eye contact and listening at the same time can be really difficult for some children. If a student avoids eye contact, it doesn’t mean that they aren’t listening. It may be their way of focusing on what you are saying. 3 Facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language: These can be tricky to interpret for students with autism. Try describing what the action means (e.g. ‘My eyebrows are lowered and my voice sounds lower because I am feeling angry. This is because you drew on the book.’) 4 A student who rocks their body or flaps an object may be trying to cope with something stressful or they might be processing things they are learning. 5 Many students with autism have difficulty understanding figurative language, idioms and sarcasm. Jake recently tried to resuscitate my cell phone because I had said ‘my phone has died’! Figurative language and idioms are great teaching opportunities – there are many books available to support this. 6 Social interactions with peers are a great way to help a student with autism. Setting up peer work with an older student can help as they can have more maturity and patience than the peer group of the student with autism. 7 Social skills: coaching children with autism to learn the specific communication skills that help social interaction (e.g., greeting, requesting, taking turns, sharing).

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8 Break times are really hard for many students with autism. Difficulty with social interaction, a lack of structure and fewer adults around can lead to problems. Providing a quiet space, using a visual break time activity schedule, setting up a trustworthy peer to play with the student, and keeping breaks shorter can all help. There are so many benefits in having a child with autism as a member of your classroom. These are some that I have observed: 1 developing deeper levels of compassion and understanding 2 learning important life skills of patience and perseverance 3 seeing the world from a different perspective 4 gaining skills in breaking tasks/ goals down into smaller achievable chunks 5 peers may learn about other people’s needs and learn how to support them 6 developing new knowledge and skills from working with other professionals and collaborative problem-solving. Communicating in an inclusive school is also much more than just the words and the communication strategies used. It also involves ‘how’ we communicate. Our actions and nonverbal communication have a significant impact on all children. Jake responds best when adults watch, listen and calmly communicate with him, and then provide time and space for him to process information. Source: Prepared by Sam (Jake’s mum)

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Discuss the visual communication supports you use to get through each day. 2. How might your life be different if you did not understand how to participate in social interactions? 3. Consider the role that non-verbal communication plays in your life. 4. In a group, practise communicating without using speech. What strategies did you use and were these effective? 5. What could you do to ensure that the relationships between yourself as a teacher, parents and professionals are positive and constructive?

8.2 Communication development Although each child experiences different trajectories of communication development, there are general patterns that can be described to help understand the milestones and processes involved. From birth, most babies cry and make reflexive noises associated with breathing, feeding and sleeping. The appearance of an infant’s first words, typically around 12 months of age, signifies entry into the world of words. This milestone is the result of listening to and interacting with people in their environment and is closely related to physical and cognitive development (Owens, 2016). For example, children who have repeated ear infections may experience delayed language development because they have had less experience listening to the sounds of language. Most infants and toddlers will develop an understanding of what is being said around them (receptive language) before they learn how to say words and phrases (expressive language). By age five,

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most children are also becoming adept at using language in a variety of social situations. Language continues to develop throughout school, higher education and vocational contexts (e.g. learning new context-specific vocabulary and fine-tuning nuances of social communication).

Language development

Throughout this chapter the terms ‘communication’ and ‘language’ are used together and interchangeably. ‘Language’ refers to the system of commonly understood symbols (e.g. speech sounds, words, finger and hand-based signs) used during communication. ‘Communication’ is a broader term that may include a variety of language (including gestures and body language) and non-language variables such as timing, context and knowledge. Language consists of four main building blocks that are used in the study of language development. These include: (1) the individual sounds of speech; (2) vocabulary; (3) grammar; and, (4) the social use of language.

Speech sounds (phonology) are the individual units of sound that we combine to form words, phrases and sentences. Vocabulary (semantics) refers to the understanding of words and their meanings. Grammar (syntax) includes the ‘rules’ that determine the order of words in phrases and sentences to support shared understanding. The social use of language (pragmatics) involves

Speech sounds (phonology) Spoken Australian and New Zealand English consist of around 44 different speech sounds (e.g. ‘bat’ has three sounds /b/ /a/ /t/ while ‘shiver’ has four sounds /sh/ /i/ /v/ /er/)

Vocabulary (semantics) Knowledge of words and their meanings. A student who is able to speak or understand a sentence that uses the same word form to convey different meanings is demonstrating advanced semantic knowledge.

Grammar (syntax) Rules of a language that determine the combination and order of words in phrases and sentences. While some elements of the phrase (i.e. word order) break the ‘rules’ of English grammar, you may still grasp the meaning.

Use (pragmatics) How we communicate with others. For example, the different conversational patterns and vocabulary that students use with peers (less formal) compared with talking with teachers (more formal). The understanding of the expectations of conversational turn-taking is also an area of pragmatic language.

FIGURE 8.2 The building blocks of language development

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aspects of conversation such as turn-taking or selecting different vocabulary based on with whom we are talking. Pragmatics also considers different types of written and spoken language (e.g. personal conversations and speeches compared with essays, emails and instant messaging).

These building blocks are interrelated and influence each other in spoken and written language. Children develop skills in these areas very gradually over many years. These skills also continue to develop throughout adulthood. The building blocks are briefly outlined in Figure 8.2.

Students with language learning difficulties

The high levels of individual differences in communication skills observed in most classrooms can be both a cause for celebration of diversity and a challenge for teachers. As with other developmental domains, communication skills can be considered along a continuum. At one end, students are adept at pronunciation, vocabulary learning and narrating sophisticated personal stories. These students may simply require exposure to new language learning opportunities in order to continue their development. In contrast, some children may mispronounce most words and be very difficult to understand. Some children will have acute hearing while some may be deaf and rely on assistive hearing technology. Some children may not speak as the result of extreme shyness or trauma. However, all of these children have the potential, and rights, to learn effective communication skills. For example, some students may be unable to speak naturally due to neurological differences, thus benefiting from alternative means of communication (e.g. a hand-held or wheelchair-mounted device with electronically generated speech). There are many different ways in which children can be supported to learn communication skills. It is important for teachers to consider input from communication specialists in order to increase their understanding of the many complexities and idiosyncrasies of human communication. Identifying students with language learning difficulties is an important activity for preschool and classroom teachers. This is because up to a quarter of all children are thought to experience delays or difficulties developing spoken communication (Law et al., 2017). Children who have difficulty communicating are at increased risk in a number of areas. These include difficulty learning to read and spell, social interaction challenges, and lower levels of academic achievement (Johnson et al., 2010). Children who experience language difficulties are also more likely to be rated negatively on measures of behaviour (Norbury et al., 2016). As an example of language learning difficulties, consider the vocabulary and grammatical complexity of the following spoken language used by two four-year-olds who were asked about an exciting event that happened at home: Child A:  ‘Oh no. Something strange happened! I was asleep. Then a big bang woke me up! But I wasn’t scared.’ Child B:  ‘Mu car voom’.

This example highlights the variability in language development, with child B’s response (i.e. a very short and difficult-to-understand utterance) suggesting that assessment of his language development is warranted.

Children experience amazing changes in their ability to understand what is said to them and the accuracy and complexity of what they can say. From having no ability to speak or understand words at birth, most children are speaking in adult-like phrases and sentences by 5 years of age. Their development of language continues throughout childhood, adolescence and adulthood (Owens, 2016). Table 8.1 provides a summary of some typical communication skills observed in children at various ages. The table illustrates the broad areas of language development and the considerable abilities that contribute to effective spoken communication. These examples are

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TABLE 8.1 Language skills of children at different ages

Domains

Age 3 to 4

Age 8 to 9

Age 12 to 13

Speech

• Familiar people will understand a child most of the time.

• Unfamiliar listeners should be able to comprehend most of the time.

• Intelligible adult-like speech.

• Only around 50% of unfamiliar people will understand a child.

• All speech sounds being used. A few students may benefit • Many children will still from specific support be developing sounds to develop single such as ‘s’, ‘r’, ‘l’, ‘th’, ‘z’, sounds such as ‘r’ or ‘s’. ‘ch’ and ‘sh’. Vocabulary • Uses a word for most things (even if these are not accurate). • A variety of naming (noun), action (verb), positioning (prepositions) and describing (adjective) words.

Grammar

• Uses a range of ‘wh’ question words. • Sentences are often quite short (e.g. three to four words).

• New words continue to • Able to talk about words, different classes (e.g. appear as new learning nouns and verbs) and and experiences take meanings of words. place. • Uses words in more sophisticated manner (e.g. telling jokes). • Able to think and talk about words, their meaning and construction.

• Greets and farewells familiar people. • Uses language during play, commenting and asking some questions. • Can retell familiar events.

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• Able to adjust and reflect on words for humour.

• Uses complex and complete sentences, (e.g. ‘Yesterday, I went to the beach with my family and I caught my first wave.’).

• Accurate use of sentence structures and verb tenses.

• Expresses opinions.

• Can use language for a wide variety of social purposes.

• Uses a variety of words and some verb • Consistently uses correct past tenses. endings to identify • Some pronouns (e.g. past, present and he, she, his, her) may future (e.g. -ed for past be incorrectly used events or actions). during storytelling. Often not accurately. Language use

• Understands and uses words to express abstract concepts (e.g. rights and equality).

• Can provide feedback and basic instructions to others • Can memorise scripts to participate in plays.

• Use of adverbs such as ‘however’ and ‘therefore’ demonstrates increased grammatical complexity.

• Increasing confidence participating in small group discussions and presentations.

• Reasonable confidence • Demonstrates social in discussions with awareness during others. discussions (e.g. ‘those are • Can reflect on and great ideas’). review discussions. • Able to state and support an opinion.

Source: Ministry of Education, New Zealand. (2009 a). Learning through talk: oral language in Years 1 to 3. Learning Media, p 34; Maclagan, M., & Buckley, A. (2016). Talking Baby; helping your child discover language. Finch Publishing.

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based on native English-speakers who have experienced typical language development, and may not necessarily reflect children from different cultural and language backgrounds or children who experience challenges during their language development (e.g. hearing impairment). Students who do not achieve these milestones may benefit from further assessment and specific support.

Supporting communication in centres and classrooms

Understanding when a child’s language and communication development is not progressing as expected is an important role for early childhood and school teachers. Similarly, knowledge of strategies that support communication will enhance teachers’ support of all children in an inclusive classroom.

Assessing communication development

Supporting the development of communication requires teachers to have an understanding of children’s abilities and needs. In an ideal world, all children should have their spoken language assessed using appropriate observations and screening tools. This process is best supported by a suitably experienced teacher or speech–language specialist. However, accessing this specialist support is often difficult (Daniel & McLeod, 2017). Children who are identified as experiencing difficulty should participate in an in-depth review of their spoken language. Depending on the outcome of the assessment process, these children may benefit from an enhanced auditory environment, adaptations to interaction and teaching strategies or input from specialists. The following are typical examples of difficulties experienced by children who are candidates for assessment of their spoken language skills (Paul et al., 2018): • speech difficulties that reduce the child’s ability to be understood (e.g. sound distortions, unusual voice characteristics or visible anxiety associated with speaking)

• regularly using short sentences that lack complexity (e.g. using few grammatical words such as ‘and’, ‘or’ and ‘but’) • using a small range of words or has difficulty spontaneously naming objects (e.g. often says ‘thing’ or ‘it’ instead of the name of objects, people or places)

• difficulty following verbal instructions – consider that many children struggle to follow multistep instructions • older children with seemingly age-appropriate speech may experience difficulty processing higher-level language that is often essential to forming social relationships (e.g. humour, sarcasm and understanding inferences).

Once a child has been identified as a candidate for further assessment, a teacher must determine if specialist support is required. This process should involve conversations with the child’s parents/caregivers and other staff. Examples that indicate a need for specialist assessment support include (1) an 18-month-old who is not using any intelligible words; (2) a five-year-old who is very difficult to understand; or (3) a 10-year old who has few friends and finds it hard to participate in social situations. Once specialist support is provided, teachers are encouraged to work collaboratively with the child’s family and specialists so they can understand any support or adaptations that may be required within the centre or classroom.

Collecting information

Assessment of spoken language is a dynamic process that involves observing and recording information from a range of settings (Dockrell & Marshall, 2015; Paul et al., 2018). The purpose of the assessment process is to identify language and communication skills that children have mastered and skills to support. The key processes involve collecting and analysing information, and integration of identified supports and goals into a child’s education program, as well as ensuring that all people who spend time with the child are working in partnership to support the

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child. Assessing spoken language should involve gathering information from a variety of people and contexts. Information from school, home and community settings should be obtained to provide a complete picture of a student’s spoken language development. Teachers are encouraged to speak with parents, caregivers, previous teachers and specialist support staff, including speech-language pathologists/therapists to help guide this process.

As children’s spoken language can vary from day to day and context to context, observations should take place in a variety of settings on multiple occasions. For example, observing children during one-on-one casual conversations, and centre activities requiring spoken language (e.g. games and small group activities), in addition to home and wider community settings, will provide balanced assessment information. Observations should be recorded and documented in order to monitor progress over time. Some teachers prefer to make regular scheduled observations of children throughout the school year, using this information to illustrate the progress students can make over a period of time (Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 2009a).

Teaching strategies to enhance children’s speech

Teachers who demonstrate and value the importance of communication in their classrooms are likely to have a positive influence on students’ communication development (Mercer, 2019). Many children will develop spoken language and communication skills through exposure to a variety of language experiences and having opportunities to communicate with others. To extend language skills, children must be able to participate in a stimulating and positive environment. For some children, attendance and participation will not necessarily result in learning new skills, requiring more focused teaching that targets specific areas of communication development. The following general teaching strategies are likely to support the development of communication skills for all children. These strategies rarely occur in isolation and there is much overlap between strategies. For example, providing an effective model may include the use of prompts and questions. The effectiveness of these strategies for some children will depend on factors such as the level, intensity and quality of support provided. More specific strategies for working with children with specific areas of need are provided in subsequent sections of this chapter. The following strategies are based on the work of Kuder (2017), Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2009a, 2009b) and Paul et al. (2018).

Modelling

Whenever teachers speak, they model communication. The words teachers use and the manner in which words are spoken (e.g. tone of voice) are therefore important. Consider a teacher who demonstrates enthusiasm and enjoyment of language through the use of their voice, pronunciation of difficult words and valuing children’s input to conversations. By ‘thinking out loud’ and providing opportunities for students to contribute to class discussion, teachers will support students’ development of spoken language. To model effectively for a variety of students, teachers may need to move from sophisticated speech with a group of students to a less complex form when speaking one-on-one with a student who experiences language difficulties. Consider the following examples from a Year 2 teacher. To Student A:  ‘I think Talia looks really angry. I wonder what other emotions she might be feeling. Could you discuss these in your group?’ To Student B:  ‘Why is Talia angry? Is she frustrated or tired?’ (presenting pictures showing symbols representing ‘tired’ and ‘frustration’).

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Prompting Prompting supports students to use their existing knowledge and skills. Prompts might include questions or comments that provide hints or directions. Some examples of words and phrases that might be used as prompts include: • ‘Wow, I can see that you thought really carefully about that!’ • ‘I wonder why they do that?’

• ‘If you were in the same situation, what could you do here?’

• ‘Really! I’m really pleased that you thought about it like that …’

Perhaps one of the most powerful ‘prompts’ is the provision of extra time for children to process information and formulate a response. Although teachers typically pause for a second or less when in discussion with students, increasing the length of pause to three seconds or more will support students’ development of language. This extra time supports students’ processing of spoken information, thinking and formulation of responses. Extra time should ideally include focusing attention on the student and not shifting attention or communicating with others. For students with complex learning and communication needs who use alternative forms of communication, pauses of longer than 30–40 seconds may be necessary to support expressive communication (Mathis et al., 2011). Although this is a very challenging adjustment to make to personal communication habits, it is a critical strategy that some children need in order to process spoken language and participate in conversations.

Asking questions

Asking questions is part of teachers’ work. Questions are used for a variety of communication and educational purposes, and can provide teachers with a deeper understanding of students’ knowledge and skills. Consider the following examples: a ‘On which continent are you most likely to find many species of penguins?’ b ‘What do you think Harper Lee was feeling when she wrote those words?’ c ‘Where is your laptop?’

d ‘Why do most animals live in groups?’ e ‘Can you hear what I am saying?’ f ‘What do you think about that?’

Questions a, c and e are ‘closed’ questions and will probably lead to very specific and short responses. Questions b, d and f are ‘open’ questions and provide opportunity for more complex thought and possibly longer responses. Open questions (with accompanying pauses) are more likely to encourage students to respond, or guide their thinking about a topic or problem and, in turn, support learning and development of spoken language. Responses to open questions often provide further opportunities to scaffold learning through comments and further questions. Questions are also an effective strategy to support students’ development of metalinguistic awareness, or an ability to think and talk about the structure, form and uses of language. Examples of questions that may enhance metalinguistic awareness include: • ‘What are the sounds that make up the word stick?’

• ‘Why do people from different areas of the country sound a little different in the way they speak? • ‘What does it mean when we add -ed to some words?’ • ‘Can you think of another way to say that?’

• ‘How might you talk differently with your friends compared to how you talk with your Grandma?’

Questioning also provides teachers with opportunities to provide students with feedback on their understanding and skills.

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Providing feedback Teacher feedback is one of the most important factors in supporting student achievement (Hattie & Clarke, 2018). Feedback is observed in most communicative interactions. Effective feedback involves sincere and specific information about what a student has said or achieved. Feedback can support students to think about their oral language. For example, if a student has said something that is unclear, a teacher may respond with, ‘I understood this as … is that what you mean?’ Teachers must be mindful of language and cultural and learning differences when providing specific feedback on students’ oral language. For example, dialect differences may lead to students using vocabulary that teachers may perceive as unacceptable. Effective feedback in this context may involve discussion about the similarities, differences and connotations attached to words. Some specific examples of verbal feedback that Beck et al. (1997, pp. 81–100) labelled ‘discussion moves’ include: • Recasting or rewording students’ words with greater accuracy Student: ‘The dog goed home.’ Teacher: ‘Yes – the dog went home.’

• Recapping or summarising key points of a discussion Teacher: ‘So far I have heard you talk about the people we need to contact, and the gear we need to find …’

• Revoicing or reworking to enable others to interpret ideas Student: ‘My Mum was so so mad that she cried.’ Teacher: ‘So your Mum might have been feeling sad as well as angry?’

• Marking or highlighting words or ideas Student: ‘It was different – I do the experiment.’ Teacher: ‘I can see that doing an experiment is a great way to approach this.’

Telling, explaining and directing Telling, explaining or directing involves giving specific information in a direct manner. These strategies include providing explicit information about some aspect of communication. • Telling involves supplying specific information to support learning. For example:

– ‘Thanks to recent studies we now know that Einstein was right. There are such things as gravitational waves.’ – ‘The word purple is an adjective.’

• Explaining includes the reasoning to support information provided. For example:

– ‘Using a greeting and introduction in our speeches will help our audience feel more welcome and involved.’

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– ‘When you have trouble understanding a problem, ask a question. Asking questions may help you find the information.’

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• Directing is the provision of instructions to support students’ achievement of tasks or goals. For example: – ‘When you hear me say a noun word, put your hand up.’

– ‘Write down two reasons why Phelix was excited after reading his letter.’

The limitations of telling, explaining and directing include the decreased opportunity for learners to consider and respond to information. Similar to the other strategies described above, telling, explaining and directing are often combined and occur simultaneously with other teaching strategies.

Cloze or ‘complete the sentence’ activities

The cloze or ‘complete the phrase/sentence’ method of supporting language development is well known for helping students who experience language learning difficulties (Paul et al., 2018). This strategy is less directive than other strategies and provides students with opportunities to develop language skills with additional contextual support. For example, ‘Today, the weather is __________’ or ‘Torika is thinking about __________. She is feeling ____________’.

The effectiveness of the strategies presented here will depend on a teacher’s ability to adapt them for use with students who have different strengths and abilities. Through the process of reflection and consideration of the student’s communication abilities, teachers will be well positioned to provide input at a level most likely to support language and communication development for the majority of students. Many students, however, will benefit from exposure to teaching strategies that focus on specific areas of communication development.

8.3 Teaching strategies to support communication This section focuses on strategies designed to support the development of the specific spoken language domains of speech sounds, vocabulary and grammar. Strategies presented here may be appropriate for early language development (e.g. preschoolers) and also for later language development (primary and secondary school). Some strategies are appropriate for working with groups, and others for working individually with children who may have difficulty developing specific areas of language. However, teachers are advised to consult with communication specialists such as speech-language pathologists/therapists to ensure that any strategies used are based on accurate assessment information, and that targets are appropriate for a child’s level of development and the specific challenges they might be facing.

Speech sounds (phonology)

The ability to identify and manipulate individual sounds within words is known as ‘phonological awareness’. This is a foundational skill that many students rely on to develop reading and spelling skills. Bringing students’ attention to sounds within words during teaching activities is likely to support their development of phonological awareness and can also support students who have difficulty communicating (Ahlgrim-Delzell et al., 2016). Shared book reading activities provide excellent opportunities for developing these skills (see also Chapter 9); for example,

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emphasising the first sound in some words when reading big story books with young children in early childhood centres.

Teachers are advised to use their judgement and discretion when undertaking this sort of individualised teaching, particularly taking into account children’s sensitivity and potential for embarrassment. For example, these instructions might be better provided in small groups without a specific focus on individual children.

Vocabulary (semantics)

Words and the understanding of their meanings are foundational to communication development and academic success. Explicitly talking about words and their meanings should be a core feature of any educational environment. Two examples of the many challenges involved in learning English include learning about homophones – words that sound the same but have different meanings (e.g. be/bee, hear/here) and homonyms – words that can have multiple meanings (e.g. run, bat, book). Words that highlight these idiosyncrasies of English are appropriate teaching targets. For example: ‘Let’s look at the word “nail”. Here is a picture of a nail. What do you use a nail for? Who knows something different called “nails”? ‘What is this animal? (a duck). When someone throws something at us – what can we do? … “duck”. And when someone who plays cricket scores “0” we can say they got a “duck”. Great – so “duck” has three different meanings.’

Students’ understanding of a word, its different meanings and variations will increase through repeated experience in hearing, seeing and using the word. The following example demonstrates exposing older students to a new word and also providing an opportunity for students to use the word: ‘This is a really complex problem. The problem has many aspects and influences on it. So the problem is full of complexities. Complex problems can be tricky to solve.’ ‘Can you think of other things that are complex in life or our environment? What is another meaning of complex?’

Teaching students about word families will also support their vocabulary development. This may involve selecting a root word such as time then developing activities around the effects of suffixes (e.g. timely), prefixes (e.g. untimely) and tense endings (e.g. timed and times). Knowledge of word families improves understanding of the relationships between words and therefore supports children to access a more diverse vocabulary.

Grammar (syntax)

The structure of phrases and sentences, including the use of grammatical words such as pronouns, and well-structured questions are examples of possible grammatical teaching targets. Young students typically experience periods of adjustment to new verb inflections and pronoun use. To support the correct use of these grammatical words, teachers can provide indirect feedback to students, as illustrated in the following two examples. Repetition and use of words in a variety of contexts is also likely to support learning the idiosyncratic grammatical rules of English.

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Tabitha:  ‘Mum new baby.’ Teacher:  ‘Your Mum has a new baby? Xavier:  ‘That is mine bike.’ (pointing to a bike) Teacher:  ‘That’s right – it is your bike. You could say this is my bike – it is mine.’

The use of questions is another important grammatical skill. Many teaching activities can support students to develop the art of questioning. The development of questions begins with the comprehension and use of the ‘wh’ question words (i.e. why, who, when, what and how) during early childhood. The development of more advanced questioning skills can be supported among older students through the use of activities such as the ‘20 questions’ game. To extend students’ questioning skills, insist that each question begins with ‘Is’, ‘Can’ or ‘Does’. The development of more advanced questioning skills will also enhance students’ ability to initiate and participate in conversations.

Centres and classrooms as listening environments

Learning in centres and classrooms that are based on oral language relies on the effective reception and processing of speech (Cole & Flexer, 2019). The transmission of clear and audible acoustic signals between teachers and children, and within small groups of children, is therefore essential to support learning. Children who are unable to access clear auditory signals are at increased risk of experiencing difficulty learning. A number of factors can interfere with their ability to receive speech signals at an appropriate level. These factors include the classroom environment and teacher characteristics.

The acoustic classroom

The acoustic properties of many classrooms are inadequate to support effective learning (Mealings, 2016). Poor classroom acoustics include excess sound reverberation (sound waves bouncing around the room and disrupting our ability to process the sounds) and low signal-tonoise ratios. Signal-to-noise ratios are influenced by background noise and the distance between the person speaking and the listener. These variables must be considered when designing, building and refurbishing learning environments.

Creating a high-quality acoustic learning environment

Mitchell and Sutherland (2020) described two main strategies to provide high-quality acoustic learning environments. These are increasing ‘good’ sounds and decreasing ‘bad’ sounds. To increase good sounds (i.e., the teacher’s voice): • Install and use a Classroom Audio Distribution Systems (CADS): These involve teachers wearing a lapel microphone and speakers placed around the learning space (see Figure 8.8).

• Students use assistive listening technology such as hearing aids or a cochlear implant may benefit from a personal FM system.

• Ensure students with known hearing difficulties are seated in close proximity to you and away from sources of noise. Source:Adapted from Siebein et al. (2000)

A number of steps can be taken to improve the acoustic characteristics of learning spaces. These include:

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• Cover surfaces using materials that absorb sounds (e.g., carpet, curtains, acoustics tiles) as opposed to reflecting sounds (e.g., glass, concrete, linoleum). • Check that walls and ceiling are insulated with noise-absorbing materials.

• Review and monitor the noise generated by electronic items (e.g., projectors, air conditioning units, computers). • Provide separate quiet spaces away from noisy areas.

• Play calming background music at appropriate levels.

Source: Adapted from Siebein et al. (2000)

Supporting students to learn about listening and the influence of noise on their listening is also recommended.

Teacher characteristics

Teachers are professional speakers. With subtle variation in loudness, rate and pitch, a teacher is able to announce, describe, praise, request, guide, discipline and inspire both large groups and individual students. Regular voice use also places teachers at significant risk of developing vocal problems (Cutiva, Vogel & Burdorf, 2013). It is therefore imperative that teachers maintain healthy vocal habits and seek support whenever they experience vocal difficulties. Voice problems include hoarseness, soreness and unusual variations in loudness or pitch. Readers are encouraged to develop their understanding of the role of voice in classroom teaching and the use of the following vocal habits: • drink water regularly

• take steps to minimise stress and anxiety (e.g. regular exercise) • learn how your voice works

• do not abuse your voice by shouting or screaming

• be aware of any changes in your voice (e.g. hoarseness) and seek specialist help early.

The following sections focus on supporting communication and language development for specific groups of children and students.

8.4 Indigenous Australian and Māori students te Reo Māori The Māori language.

Indigenous Australian languages and te reo Māori are fundamental to individual, community and cultural identity and development. With the exception of a few Indigenous Australian schools, Te Kōhanga Reo and Te Kura Kaupapa (Māori language immersion preschools and schools in New Zealand), the education systems in New Zealand and Australia are based on the English language. This provides many barriers to Indigenous Australian and Māori children maintaining knowledge of and skills in their first languages. For example, students are unlikely to retain and develop their first language and cultural skills without support within the school environment. This places considerable responsibility with teachers to understand the needs of Indigenous students and to provide an appropriate language learning environment. Some example supports include strategies designed to: • enhance visibility of the students’ Indigenous language and culture in the school context

• develop and model respectful and positive attitudes towards indigenous languages and cultures • develop relationships with the students’ family and community; this may include welcoming them into the classroom environment or organising class trips to a community centre

• encourage students to continue speaking with others using their first language, and integrate this language into daily classroom activities (Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 2009c).

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Teachers, and other education professionals, must consider a range of information when assessing the language abilities of a student from different language and cultural backgrounds (Kuder, 2017). This includes information about a student’s family, language and cultural experiences as well as motivation and styles of learning. Wherever possible, language assessment should be undertaken and presented using the student’s first language. This may involve support from individuals with the relevant knowledge and experience of the language. Baker and Wright (2017) described the assessment processes that can support bilingual students with additional needs. This includes the assessment of the student’s first language skills and comparing the findings with results from similar English-based assessments in order to provide a comprehensive profile of the student’s strengths and potential areas for support. This profile will then provide a basis for the language development goals.

NARRATIVE 8.2 Supporting Indigenous Australian students in school Medika is an Indigenous Australian student attending a suburban primary school. Her teacher, Garth, explains some of the strategies he put in place to support and include Medika in a year 5 class: For Medika to succeed at school, I needed to reflect on, and enhance my own skills and practices. To do this, I first sought to build a relationship with Medika’s family. Initially, this wasn’t easy. But things got moving after a personal visit to their home where I shared my personal background, experience and desire to learn about Medika, her family, language, place and history. From this initial meeting, our relationship developed and I soon felt well-supported by Medika’s parents and grandmother as my confidence grew. Some of the things I put in place included: • displaying a large map of Australia with all the Aboriginal language groups. We placed all the children’s photos around the map, based on where in Australia their families came from, or where they had family members living. We also had a map of the world with photos of students whose families came from other countries. • supporting Medika’s grandmother and other elders to visit class to guide children’s learning of Aboriginal art, music and the concept of the Dreaming. During these visits, we all learned to use Noongar language greetings and place names. We displayed these words and the English translations (and relevant images) around the class. It took me lots of practice to pronounce these words accurately – a lot longer than the students – who were soon using Noongar words throughout the day. • a class trip to an Aboriginal community hub, where students learned how the didjeridu and bullroarer are made and played. We then made our own bullroarers in class and created YouTube clips of children playing these. • Regularly talking about how different groups of people talk and communicate – including the communicative aspects of art and music. • Sourcing and using a range of books with Aboriginal themes and languages. Medika had a positive year and I still remain in contact with her family. Across the year, I learned much about my own attitudes and limitations – and how I can improve and grow as a person and teacher. Being open, honest and willing to operate outside my comfort zone was key.

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I now feel prepared to support the increasing number of students from different cultural and language backgrounds that I meet each year. Source: Prepared by Garth (Year 5 classroom teacher)

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Discuss with colleagues how they have developed relationships with families of students from diverse backgrounds. 2. Consider what community support you could engage with to help language and communication learning in the classroom. 3. What visual artefacts could you display in the classroom to support Aboriginal languages? 4. How do art and music activities support communication learning?

A challenge for teachers in supporting Indigenous students is maintaining and enhancing students’ Indigenous language knowledge and skills at the same time as supporting English language learning. Teachers are encouraged to use a student’s strengths in their first language to further the development of English. This may involve preparing materials in both languages and creating opportunities for students to present information using their first language. For example, the development and use of dictionaries with translations between the student’s first language and English is likely to increase language development. The following strategies are recommended to support the language development and inclusion of students from Indigenous and other non-English language backgrounds: • use translators and Indigenous language speakers whenever possible

• develop classroom vocabulary resources such as collections of words associated with different activities and topics

• pair or group students with empathetic English speakers to encourage social learning of English • provide extra time for students to process English language (spoken and written)

• ensure English language input is at a level that is appropriate for the student (complex vocabulary or fast speech may be inappropriate) • provide opportunities for students to rehearse communication situations; for example, meeting and greeting an older person appropriately • use visual aids to support students’ participation in classroom discussions

• talk about unusual features of English, such as multiple word meanings or pronunciation differences and compare with words from a student’s first language • provide positive feedback that enhances a student’s confidence in communicating.

Source: Adapted from Ministry of Education, New Zealand Government (2009c)

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The integration of these strategies into regular classroom activities will help to ensure students are provided the best opportunity to retain and develop their first language skills, as well as develop English language skills. Teachers and support staff are also encouraged to consult with specialist teachers and to utilise the wide array of professional resources available in Australia and New Zealand for working with Māori and Indigenous Australian students.

8.5 Supporting communication learning for students with diverse needs It is likely that all teachers will work with a child who has diverse communication needs, and there are strategies that can be employed to help support these students.

Children with autism Teachers who work with children who have [autism] need to understand visual thinking. I could never handle long strings of verbal directions; I simply could not remember them. Written directions are best. All my thinking is in pictures. When somebody speaks to me, I have to translate the words into a video movie on my imagination’s screen. Source: Grandin (2005), p. 1278

At some point in their careers, most teachers across all sectors will work with children who have characteristics or a diagnosis of autism (autism). Recent estimates suggest up to 3% of US children have autism (CDC, 2019). Autism is a developmental disability associated with significant difficulties in learning communication and social interactions, and unusual behaviours (Volkmar et al., 2014). Many of the difficulties that children with autism experience may be linked with differences in the ways their sensory systems process information. For example, a child may be sensitive to particular lighting or sounds.

The inclusion of children with autism in preschools and regular classrooms can be challenging – first and foremost for the child; also, for their teachers, support staff, families and peers. These challenges can be reduced by developing an understanding of children with autism and their sensory, communication and emotional needs and by using evidence-based support strategies. With appropriate support, children with autism can learn academic skills and social communication (Prizant, 2015; Volkmar et al., 2014). This section provides background information to support teachers’ understanding of children with autism, and also a range of support strategies that have demonstrated positive influences on children’s communication and social development.

Communication development

Autism

All children with autism communicate. However, their communication attempts are less frequent and often involve a narrow range of intentions. For example, a young child might only request objects or protest at others’ actions. Requests for objects may be limited to taking a person’s hand and leading them to the desired object as opposed to pointing to the object or asking for it. Additional early indicators of autism include the absence of several key communication and language development skills. These include difficulty with:

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• interest or attention to speech, which includes being non-responsive to their own name being called – most children respond to this by around 12 months of age

• joint attention, which involves moving attention between people and objects, following other people’s gaze and pointing, and drawing others’ attention towards an object or activity in order to share information • symbolic behaviour, where limited or no pretend play or imitation of others may indicate difficulties in developing symbolic understanding, which is critically important for language development (Volkmar et al., 2014).

Although a majority of older children with autism learn to use words, signs or other forms of communication, learning to use these in meaningful ways across a range of social and academic contexts can be difficult. Children with autism might experience problems across all domains of language development. Examples include: • speech, which may use unusual voice pitch, loudness and rate (e.g. unusually fast or slow).

• vocabulary, with persistent pronoun reversals (i.e. the use of ‘you’ instead of ‘I’) are a common early vocabulary feature of children with autism. • use, communicating and using language in social contexts is difficult for all children with autism. For example, they may rarely initiate conversations and often do not take conversational turns.

Interpreting behaviour

Many children with autism also demonstrate ‘behaviour’ that adults and other children find difficult to understand. It is important to the wellbeing of the child and their inclusion in centres and schools that teachers and adults interpret this behaviour accurately. For example, consider a child in preschool who kicks, bites and physically lashes out at other children and adults. One way to view this is as deliberate and uncooperative behaviour by a noncompliant child, who must be ‘punished’ by withdrawing privileges or spending time separated from peers. However, a more productive (child-centred) view of this is that the child is trying to communicate something that is important for them, and the role of the teacher is to determine ‘what’ and ‘why’ s/he is trying to communicate in this manner (Prizant, 2015). Perhaps the child is confused, agitated or fearful about something or someone in their environment (e.g. noise or proximity of others). This child (like many children with autism) might be hypersensitive to sound, light, certain textures, smells or touch. This might result in extreme anxiety and difficulty focusing on anything else while the stimulus is present. If the focus is on managing behaviour (through punishment and rewards) it is likely that the real reason for the behaviour will remain unknown and the child’s needs unmet. This child – like every child – is a child to be understood, acknowledged and accepted. Placing yourself firmly in the shoes of a child with autism will go some way towards developing understanding and acceptance. Once a child’s needs are understood, effective strategies can be put in place to support communication of these needs.

Strategies for supporting children with autism

Children with autism are unique individuals in much the same way as children without autism. Therefore, strategies that positively support some children may not support others. To receive the best ongoing support, each child must be assessed in order to identify their own strengths and focus areas for support. Ensuring that specific sensory needs are taken into account in preschools and classroom environments is an important step in supporting and including children with autism.

Sensory needs

Consider for a moment how challenging you might find listening and talking when your senses are overloaded with distracting noises or lighting that cause you discomfort. This is the

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experience for many children with autism (Prizant, 2015). Gathering data through observations of children, discussion with familiar people, and involvement of sensory-integration specialists in order to develop a sensory profile is an appropriate strategy to support a child with autism. Then taking steps to adapt the environment to minimise adverse sensory input (e.g. dimming or changing lighting, reducing background noise) will help children with autism to process information and learn to regulate sensory input.

Supporting social communication

Children with autism are a diverse group. Some children will present with delayed or no spoken language, whereas others will show advanced spoken language skills but limited knowledge of how to interact with others. With at least 26 different evidence-based strategies and practices reported to support children with autism develop communication and social skills (Wong et al., 2015), it is important for teachers to understand that visual communication strategies and social skills training are a subset of many other practices that can help children and adolescents with autism (see Figure 8.6). For further information about additional evidence-based strategies, readers are encouraged to explore the resources highlighted at the end of this chapter. Evidence-based strategies to support communication development of students with autism range from overarching approaches such as the SCERTS® (social communication, emotional regulation and transactional support) program (Evidence-based practice 8.1) to teaching individual social skills using video modelling (Wong et al., 2015). The goals of overarching approaches may include: • achieving functional and shared communication (using all available modes such as manual signs, words, visual symbols) during play and social activities • supporting children’s understanding that communication can influence other people’s behaviour and will influence aspects of their environment.

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 8.1 SCERTS® The SCERTS® model (Prizant & Wetherby, 2005) is a well-documented social–pragmatic program designed to support the development of social communication and emotional regulation for students with autism. The SCERTS model emphasises: • development of natural social communication • that students are equal communication partners in that they share control of interactions • motivating and meaningful activities and contexts • that inappropriate behaviour is considered to have a communicative basis • varied contexts and people • that development of and sharing emotional knowledge is central to communication development • valuing and supporting multiple modes of communication including gestures, pointing, vocalisations, and AAC (see section below).

Social–pragmatic approaches to supporting social communication development are aligned with the inclusion of students with autism in regular classrooms. For inclusion to be successful for students with autism, there needs to be input from classroom teachers, a wide range of specialists, parents, caregivers, peers and the student with autism. Narrative 8.3 highlights communication adjustments and strategies that can support the inclusion of students with autism in high school.

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The quote at the start of this section from Temple Grandin highlights the need for teachers to think differently when working with children who have autism. Visual supports are one of the most commonly reported strategies that appear to support communication development for children with autism (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020) (see Evidence-based practice 8.2 for a description of evidence-based strategies known to aid learning for children with autism). These strategies typically involve a dedicated person who knows the child with autism, who then uses their knowledge and skills to support the implementation of visual strategies at home, preschool or in classrooms and other environments. For further information and examples of visual strategies, refer to the resource list at the end of the chapter.

Supporting older children with autism

The increasing social and communication demands of primary and then secondary school are likely to challenge most children with autism. Specific social skills training programs aim to support students’ ability to think and behave in appropriate ways in social contexts. Social skills training typically involves explicit teaching of: • the purpose or goals of social exchanges

• breaking down and considering the elements of a social interaction (e.g. who is involved, what they are thinking or feeling) • identifying and understanding relevant cues involved in social interaction

• determining what behaviours (e.g. words, intonation, body language, gesture) might help achieve the social goals • rehearsing the identified behaviours

• reflecting on the effectiveness of the behaviour.

Source: Mitchell, D. and Sutherland, D. (2020). What really works in special and inclusive education: using evidence-based teaching strategies (3rd edn) Routledge., p 60

Evidence suggests that social skills training may be more effective when it includes peers who model and support social interaction (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020). There are many areas that social skills training could focus on for adolescents with autism; some examples include: • aspects of the so-called ‘hidden curriculum’ or the social norms and expectations associated with a specific context (e.g. knowing that it is natural to speak differently to friends than to a friend’s parent or a teacher). • vocational skills such as applying and interviewing for tertiary study or work

• the social communication involved in developing and supporting intimate relationships.

Evidence-based practice 8.3 provides a list and brief description of common visual communication strategies that have been demonstrated to support children and adolescents with autism.

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Today’s Schedule

1

Arriving at School

2

Unpacking

3

Reading

4

Eating

5

Playing

6

Go home

Start over

Clear checks

Review

FIGURE 8.3 A visual schedule template

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 8.2 Visual communication strategies Visual schedule/timetable: Symbols, pictures, photographs (or real objects) representing activities together with timing of activity are placed on a board or page within sight of child with autism. This could involve simply writing a list of activities or choices on a sheet of paper. Teachers refer to the schedule after completing an activity to cue a change to another activity. Communication passport/book: This is a book or folder that contains key information (text and images) about a child with autism. This might include personal information, likes, dislikes, sensitivities, important people in the child’s life, hobbies and strengths. This book can help a child develop relationships with others and help unfamiliar people get to know the child. Video modelling: The creation of short video clips of actors (e.g. teacher, peer, parent, child with autism) modelling a desired skill or behaviour. The video is then viewed by a child with autism to support their learning of the skill or behaviour. Although there is still much research to be undertaken to determine the most effective video-modelling strategies for different target skills (e.g. filmed from a first-person perspective, involving peers, child with autism or teachers as actors), video modelling is considered an evidence-based practice to support learning social communication skills for children with autism (Qi et al., 2018).

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NARRATIVE 8.3 Supporting a student with autism in high school There are many ways in which students with autism can be supported at high school. Bridget has successfully supported her son Nathan through over 12 years of school. Below Bridget reflects on her top communication tips for teachers and education support staff that can help students with autism experience success at high school. .

1

Simplify your language (i.e reduce the length of phrases and sentences, and choose words that are easier to understand. Instead of ‘So in a few minutes we’re going to finish this maths activity, you are going to pack up, then we’re going to geography class …’. Say something like ‘Nathan, 5 more minutes … maths finished … then geography’).

2

Consider and accommodate sensory challenges (i.e. provide quiet spaces, headphones, consider lighting, temperature and background noise).

3

Provide a visual and an oral schedule (i.e. make a daily schedule visible and talk about it).

4

Use a calendar to show events, trips and timetable changes (i.e. have a term calendar visible and refer to it regularly).

5

Use written words to communicate during stressful times (i.e. having a hand-held whiteboard/pen and paper available can support).

6

Use ‘first-then’ strategy (e.g. ‘First we finish this maths activity. Then we are going to PE for running’).

7

Use the phrase, ‘the rule is …’ (e.g. ‘the rule is … we ask a teacher when …’).

8

Be consistent, clear, and direct when you talk with me (e.g., ‘In 2 minutes, I want you to stop …’).

9

Give me choices (e.g., for a librarian role ‘do you want to do shelving before or after returns?’).

10

Catch me doing the right thing (e.g., ‘Thank you Nathan, I love it when you …’).

FIGURE 8.4 Communicating with students with autism

Other key factors that have supported Nathan’s success are: – Motivated, compassionate peers who are excellent communicators, and receptive to learning about how to support a student, can provide really effective support and help in school and community activities.

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– Planning for all transitions (i.e., ‘little ones’ such as transitioning from break time to classrooms, and ‘big ones’ such as moving year groups). – Training and coaching for all staff about autism in general and also about a student’s specific needs. – See special interests or passions as vehicles to support learning, not habits to change or to be eliminated. – Specialists must be involved regularly, and be key members of the team.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What steps can you take to adapt your communication style and use of communication supports to connect with students with autism? 2. How could you ensure that you have effective relationships with students’ parents and other educators who might be supporting a child? 3. Reflect on your attitudes towards and expectations of a student who experiences communication challenges. Discuss with others about what has shaped your attitude. Consider what is needed for you to develop high expectations of success for students.

REFLECT ON THIS How could a teacher integrate the special interest strengths of a student with autism – to support their communication and learning in high school subjects?

Hearing impairment

Children who are d/Deaf

Students who are d/Deaf have little residual hearing and may use hearing aids or a cochlear implant to support spoken communication or they may communicate primarily through Australian Sign Language (AUSLAN) or New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) (see Figure 8.5). These students receive education and communication support from specialists such as teachers of the deaf and hard of hearing. Historically, these students were educated in separate education contexts (e.g. School for the Deaf or in specific classrooms). However, it is now common for students to be supported in inclusive classrooms with teachers of the deaf and hard of hearing providing specialist support directly to classroom teachers

FIGURE 8.5 Two-handed finger-spelling – D-E-A-F

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using a more consultative and collaborative model. As students who experience hearing impairment may feel socially isolated and less accepted than their peers (Schwab et al., 2019), it is important for teachers to consider and support students’ social inclusion.

Deaf students often receive cochlear implants (see Figure 8.6 and Figure 8.7) and learn to communicate using speech. Cochlear implants convert sound to electrical impulses and pass these directly to the cochlear nerve within the inner ear. Students with cochlear implants FIGURE 8.6 A portable pen microphone worn by a teacher typically experience an intensive period of onethat processes and transmits sound to student with a cochlear on-one therapy focused on developing listening implant or using hearing aids and speaking skills. Students who have a hearing Source: Alamy Stock Photo/Brian Mitchell impairment may use personal hearing aids that amplify speech sounds while masking background noise. In a classroom setting, the use of a remote microphone system to transmit the teacher’s voice directly to the student’s hearing aids or cochlear implant sound receiver can support students’ learning. Students’ perceptions of success of remote microphones can be supported by teachers who take the time to learn how to use the system, maintaining a positive attitude towards the technology as well as engaging with available support networks (e.g. specialist teachers, teaching assistants, a student’s family) (Barker, 2020).

Classroom Audio Distribution Systems

FIGURE 8.7 The sound processor (of a cochlear implant) positioned externally behind the ear Source: Science Photo Library/Hannah Gal

Classroom Audio Distribution Systems System of microphone, amplifier and speakers used in classrooms. Teachers use microphones to increase the level of their voice for students with and without hearing difficulties.

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Classroom Audio Distribution Systems (CADS) (see Figure 8.8) can help overcome poor acoustic environments and support students’ development of attention and understanding of classroom instructions (Furno et al., 2020). These systems involve teachers using personal microphones (see Figure 8.6), a sound amplifier and a set of speakers positioned strategically around the classroom. CADS effectively increase the volume of the teacher’s voice for all students (Cole & Flexer, 2019). Using a CADS may also have positive benefits for teachers, with less effort required to gain and maintain the attention of students, thereby reducing the risk of vocal fatigue and associated voice problems.

In the absence of a CADS and less-than-ideal classroom acoustics, there are a number of teaching strategies that can support students who are deaf or experience hearing impairment to develop listening and comprehension skills. In addition to taking steps to optimise classroom acoustics detailed earlier, the following strategies can support success:

• make a commitment to learn about Deaf culture and local sign languages (i.e. AUSLAN, NZSL) • teach all students about the technology of cochlear implants and hearing aids

• ensure your face is always visible for students – this enables students to interpret your facial expressions and be able to lip-read to support their understanding

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• ensure appropriate levels of lighting in classrooms

• articulate words clearly, but without exaggeration.

Reflective teaching practices, collaboration with specialist teachers and ongoing professional development will help to ensure that classroom teachers can provide the best learning environment possible for deaf students. Readers are also encouraged to review Marsharck (2018) (see further recommended reading) for a full evidence-based review of supporting deaf students’ learning. A number of excellent online resources are also listed at the end of this chapter.

REFLECT ON THIS What could you, and other students, learn from supporting a child with a hearing impairment in your class?

Supporting students with social, emotional or behaviour difficulties

Many children arrive at early childhood centres and schools carrying significant social and emotional burdens. Some of these burdens can be linked to challenges that some children may experience learning how to communicate and interact with others. Through the use of language and communication, children learn how to develop appropriate ways of comprehending and interacting with their peers and other people in their environment. Social competence also involves a wider set of skills that unfold as students become more adept communicators. These skills include: • understanding the dynamics of a social situation, including what other people might be thinking and feeling • the ability to interpret subtle cues of social situations (e.g. the meaning of body language and intonation of voices) • knowledge of how to communicate in ways that change other people’s behaviour • problem-solving social challenges such as disagreements and misunderstandings

• being able to clearly communicate one’s own ideas and emotions (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020).

FIGURE 8.8 Components of a CADS Source: © 2021 FrontRow

Up to 70 per cent of children who experience behavioural and emotional difficulties also experience language and communication problems (Helland et al., 2014). Therefore, teachers and other education professionals must consider the role of communication difficulties in the child’s ability to meet social, academic and behaviour expectations. Children may display a range of disruptive and antisocial behaviour ranging from calling out to verbal abuse and physical aggression. Some children who display significant anti-social behaviour at school and who have communication difficulties are at risk of becoming engaged with the criminal-justice system. Research has shown that many youth offenders have had difficulty learning communication and language skills (Snow et al., 2016).

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Assessment

The communication and language skills of any child who demonstrates emotional or behaviour problems should be assessed with the support of an educational psychologist and speech– language specialist/pathologist. The language assessment should be broad-based and cover both comprehension and expression in the domains of speech, vocabulary, grammar and language use. Particular attention should be paid to the functional aspects of language, such as how language is used in social contexts. However, children who experience language difficulties are more likely to be viewed as shy and less sociable than children without language difficulties (Fujiki et al., 2019). Therefore, observations of communication should be made across different settings, times, and with different people to gain a thorough understanding of the child’s communication strengths and difficulties. It is also important to objectively note what happens before, during and after any example of behaviour that you find challenging. This functional communication/behavioural assessment is the basis for determining the relationship between a child’s communication/ behaviour and likely unmet needs. Observing the child during unstructured sessions, such as break time in the playground, structured activities, such as sports, and small group activities will also contribute to a detailed understanding of their communication abilities. Naturally, a child’s emotional and behavioural difficulties may impact on the assessment process. For example, one child may require extensive support to participate in an activity and another child may reject support (Kuder, 2017).

Teaching strategies

Teaching strategies for children with emotional and behavioural problems must consider appropriate language and communication goals. These goals should be based on information gathered during the assessment process. An important goal for many children with language and behaviour problems is the development and use of vocabulary that supports emotional expression (Kuder, 2017). This goal may include a focus on description of subtle differences in meanings between words used to describe emotions and feelings. Additional goals may relate specifically to developing classroom and social communication skills. Table 8.2 provides examples of teaching strategies for children with emotional and behavioural problems associated with communication difficulties. Note the constructive nature of these strategies and the absence of punishment- or reward-based approaches to support children’s learning (see Mitchell & Sutherland (2020) for a detailed review of evidence-based social and emotional learning strategies).

REFLECT ON THIS

augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) All the ways in which people can communicate with each other when someone’s ability to speak is limited. AAC often involves the use of specialised equipment or devices and can supplement existing communication abilities.

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Consider how difficult it is for many adults to interact appropriately and communicate clearly when they are upset, stressed or embarrassed. When you interact with a child who is acting in ways that you find ‘challenging’, consider what they might be trying to ‘communicate’ and how you could support them.

For many young Australians and New Zealanders, the development of effective communication skills presents immense challenges. Some children may never be able to develop a ‘natural’ voice and are likely to benefit from augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). Students with autism, cerebral palsy, intellectual disability and other developmental disabilities may benefit from AAC. It is essential that teachers and educators develop an understanding of the issues involved in the provision of AAC in order to support children to overcome many of the barriers they will encounter. This section provides readers with an overview of the field of AAC and an introduction to the issues involved in working with children who may benefit from, or use, AAC.

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TABLE 8.2 Teaching strategies for working with students who display behaviours that challenge others

Description of problem

Teaching strategies

Interrupts inappropriately

1 Discuss appropriate ways of gaining attention. 2 Create a peer group for the child to seek information from. Model oral language used to seek or provide input. 3 Develop self-monitoring program.

Minimal classroom interaction

4 Establish ‘problem-solving pairs’ or a small group with selected peers. Create opportunities for the child to speak in these contexts. 5 Utilise a child’s interests in centre and classroom activities. 6 Have class votes (e.g. using spoken responses) on topics and issues.

Dominates group interactions with excessive and inappropriate talking

7 Talk about taking turns when talking in a group. 8 Assign a coordination role to monitor input from group members. 9 Use a clock to monitor talking time (e.g. 60 seconds). Source: Based on Table 9.2 in Kuder (2017)

Beukelman and Light (2020) describe AAC as consisting of four components: symbols (e.g. signs, words), aids (e.g. communication boards, speech-generating devices), strategies (e.g. teaching someone to ask questions using a device) and techniques (e.g. developing faster access to commonly used messages). So the term AAC encompasses non-natural speech methods of communication, as well as strategies and teaching techniques that support the development of effective communication. Communication options range from basic manual signs and gestures to complex electronic devices with speech-generating capabilities. Table 8.3 contains definitions of common terms in the field of AAC. Additional examples of AAC systems include:

• printed symbol systems (e.g. PECS, picture exchange communication system described below) • visual schedules and timetables using photos or symbols • communication books with photos and words

• transparent acrylic boards containing symbols or alphabet to which partners respond to student’s eye gaze to interpret messages

• speech generating devices (SGD), from using everyday devices (e.g., smartphones and tablets) to more sophisticated devices designed for complex communication (e.g. Tobii Dynavox I-series®; see Figure 8.9) • mainstream electronic devices that use communication software to function as SGDs (e.g. iPads with appropriate speech-generating apps) (see Figure 8.10).

To use AAC effectively, children require skills that are quite different from those needed to communicate using speech. AAC assessment aims to identify appropriate AAC systems and then support children to develop skills in order to become competent communicators in social and academic settings. A range of internal and external factors contribute to the development of communication and successful inclusion of students using AAC (Kent-Walsh & Binger, 2009). Internal factors include the student’s communication skills, motivation to communicate and language knowledge. Students’ internal factors interact with external factors to create a learning context. These

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Term

Definition

Light-tech

Systems that use printed material or manual signs that do not involve electronic components (e.g., gesture systems or a communication book with photographs and words)

High-tech

Systems that contain electronic components (e.g. a single switch device or speech-generating device)

Aided

Systems that utilise something in addition to a child’s own body (e.g. electronic device, communication book with line drawing symbols or photographs)

Unaided

Communication that utilises a child’s own body (e.g. sign language or gestures such as smiling or fidgeting to convey a message)

Vocabulary

Words (symbols) that occur frequently in spoken language that form the basis of an AAC system

• Core

These words come from all word classes (e.g. I, her, get, yes, in, food, please)

• Fringe

Words that are meaningful to the person using the AAC system (e.g. family and pet names, favourite foods)

Access

How a child accesses their AAC systems

• Direct selection

Pointing to or pressing a message selection using a body part (e.g. toe or finger)

• Eye-gaze

Using eye gaze to indicate a message selection

• Scanning

Using a mechanism (e.g. a switch or communication partner) to scan through message options before selecting an option via a switch or gesture (e.g. blinking an eye). There are different scanning options to suit a range of needs.

FIGURE 8.9 Tobii I-series of speech-generating communication devices Source: Reproduced with permission from Tobii Dynavox, LLC ©2020 Tobii Dynavox. All rights reserved.

FIGURE 8.10 Two iPad screens using Proloquo2Go as a speech-generating application Source: Proloquo2Go® is a registered trademark of AssistiveWare BV. Used with permission.

external factors are presented in Table 8.4. The educational support team must consider both internal and external factors when designing an appropriate communication and educational program.

The provision of effective support for students with complex communication needs will require teachers and the wider support team to confront a number of myths related to AAC (Romski & Sevcik, 2005). These false beliefs are also sometimes held by professionals whose responsibility it is to support students’ language and communication development. The myths include:

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• Myth 1: Using AAC systems may prevent the development of speech or inhibit the use of existing limited speech capabilities. This concern relates to the uncertainty that exists around the level of spoken communication that may develop in children with developmental disabilities. Consequently, professionals and families are often hesitant about recommending

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TABLE 8.4 External factors influencing development of communication and inclusion of students using AAC

External factor

Description

Time demands

Many children with complex needs experience demands on their time through a variety of health and wellbeing needs, and therapy programs focusing on physical and occupational needs. These activities provide many opportunities to support children’s communication.

Knowledge and skills

As children who use AAC are both relatively ‘rare’ and individually ‘unique’, teachers and other education support staff often have gaps in their skills and knowledge in this area of practice.

Communication interactions

Many people who interact with children who use AAC do not provide opportunities for children to develop language and communication skills. Specific reflection and teaching on appropriate interaction strategies is recommended. A sample of interaction and instructional strategies is provided below.

Environment

Children must have access to classrooms that are designed to support their communication development. This may range from wheelchair access and positioning during class activities as well as instructing peers about appropriate interaction strategies.

Resources

Access to resources that aid communication, literacy and academic development. These resources may include a digital camera and colour printer. More sophisticated communication software and communication devices may also be appropriate. These must be readily available and positioned appropriately in order to facilitate access for children.

Source: adapted from: Beukelman, D., & Light, J. (2020). Augmentative and alternative communication: supporting children and adults with complex communication needs (5th edn). Paul Brookes.; Kent-Walsh, J., & Binger, C. (2009). Addressing the communication demands of the classroom for beginning communicators and early language users. In G. Soto & C. Zangari (Eds.), Practically speaking: language, literacy, & academic development for students with AAC needs (pp. 143–172).

or using AAC until a period of time (often several years) has passed to see whether or not speech develops. However, no research has supported this belief. In fact, there is a wealth of evidence that demonstrates the communication development that children experience when AAC is introduced and supported (e.g. O’Neill et al., 2018).

• Myth 2: AAC systems should only be available once a student attains a certain level of cognitive or physical development. On the contrary, there should be no prerequisite skills necessary for introducing some form of AAC (e.g. sign language or communication symbols or photos) in early communication and language interactions. • Myth 3: High-tech AAC systems that generate a synthetic voice should only be available for children with adequate cognitive skills. However, many children with cognitive difficulties have learned to use high-tech AAC systems to communicate with a range of people. The AAC systems provide the mechanism by which these children can interact with their environments.

The perpetuation of these myths will continue to create barriers to appropriate service provision for children who could benefit from AAC. By addressing these myths, teachers will be better positioned to advocate and provide support for children using AAC.

Teaching students who use AAC

Students who use AAC are more likely to develop effective communication and language skills if specific interaction and teaching strategies are used by people who interact with them (Beukelman & Light, 2020). Therefore, teachers, specialist support staff, parents, family and peers and the student must be included in the development of appropriate strategies (Figure 8.11).

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Accept, encourage, and respond to a range of natural communication modes (e.g. facial expressions, gestures, vocalisations) in addition to specific AAC systems.

Provide opportunities for students to initiate and respond during interactions; this may involve providing significantly longer than usual wait time and an ‘expectant gaze’ for students to respond or initiate.

Do not interrupt students when they are formulating a response using their AAC system – try hard to maintain your attention on the student.

Use more open-ended questions such as ‘I want to know what do you think?’ or comments ‘Look! It's a blue cat!’ (accompanied by an expectant gaze) as opposed to questions only requiring yes or no responses.

Actively listen and look for students’ attempts at communication, then respond appropriately (e.g. this may involve subtle eye movements or facial expressions).

FIGURE 8.11 Interaction strategies to reinforce a student’s development of communication skills Source: Kent-Walsh, J., & McNaughton, D. (2005). Communication partner instruction in AAC: present practices and future directions. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 21, 195–204.

Many studies have investigated specific teaching strategies designed to support the development of early communication skills for students who use AAC. For a summary of this research and a comprehensive description and range of examples of teaching strategies, readers are referred to Soto and Zangari (2009). Key features of teaching strategies designed to support early communication development include: • adaptation of instructions and materials • creating communication opportunities

• provision of accessible and appropriate resources

• a hierarchy of cueing and prompting of students to achieve success; this hierarchy extends from physically guiding a student to indicate a choice through to no prompting • adults and peers modelling the use of AAC systems

• reinforcing, expanding and extending students’ communication.

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Students with complex communication needs are likely to have more advanced language skills than others might perceive. These students may comprehend extensive vocabulary, complex sentences and language concepts, yet may not use their AAC systems to communicate effectively in social situations. Goals for supporting these students include:

• further extending their use of language and communication to support their participation in classroom and other social contexts • developing functional and advanced literacy skills to ensure they are able to take full advantage of generative capability of written language and current communication technology.

The following five priorities are identified for teacher and speech–language specialists/ pathologists working with students with complex communication needs and who have developed some language and communication skills (Paul et al., 2018; Zangari & Van Tatenhove, 2009). 1 Ensure AAC systems are always available; this includes supporting students’ multiple communication modes such as gesture, sign, light-tech and high-tech systems.

2 Develop a long-term language and communication plan involving AAC. The plan requires contributors to have knowledge of language development and AAC together with vision and motivation. The plan should cover the student’s complete academic career and describe how AAC systems and the student’s language, academic and social needs will evolve and be supported over time.

3 Establish a class ethos that emphasises communication; students using AAC must be provided with regular opportunities to practise communicating with their peers and teachers. 4 Highlight links between spoken and written language to maximise students’ exposure to literacy materials.

5 Ensure all communication partners interact in ways that ensure students’ language skills are appropriately challenged; this includes having high expectations, scaffolding student’s language use and modelling the use of AAC systems.

The teaching strategies described above for use with all students (i.e. models, prompts, questions, etc.) are also likely to support language and communication gains for students with complex communication needs. These strategies should be provided in a range of individual, small-group and whole-class settings. Additional specific teaching of vocabulary, grammar, word structures and the social use of language will also be central to the ongoing development and inclusion of students with complex communication needs.

Supporting students’ social communication

Students with complex communication needs are at particular risk of exclusion from social interactions due to significant barriers to their development of social skills. These barriers include (Hunt et al., 2009): • fewer opportunities to interact with peers

• reduced motivation to communicate socially as a result of negative prior experiences • difficulty accessing appropriate resources to support development of social skills.

The impact of these barriers means there is a need for explicit planning and teaching, focused on developing social communication skills for these students. Hunt et al. (2009) presents a comprehensive framework aimed at supporting the development of social skills for students with complex needs and their peers. The model emphasises the role of peers in this process and reinforces the need for a collaborative team approach. Teachers and support staff are viewed as facilitators of social interaction. The framework was developed from an extensive evidence base and specifies a range of strategies within three foundational areas (see Evidence-based practice 8.3).

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EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 8.3 Supporting the development of social skills This approach provides teachers with a clear framework for supporting students with complex needs to interact with their peers and develop social communication skills.

1 Informing and supporting peers • Raising peer awareness of appropriate interaction strategies with students who have complex needs. For example, presenting choices, extended pause time and other communication strategies. • Peer groups that meet regularly and focus on friendship during fun activities. • Partner programs that involve matching peers with students who have complex needs; these programs involve specific training, support and monitoring of peers.

2 Identifying and integrating tools and technology • Consideration and integration of a wide variety of communication tools and strategies that support social communication. For example, gestures, sign language, symbols, communication books, high- and light-tech AAC systems and computer-based activities.

3 Establishing interactive activities and supporting positive social exchanges • Building a positive relationship between teachers and peers: This may involve teachers learning about a student’s interests, family and cultural background. This information will help build trust and also enable teachers to highlight similar interests between peers and students with complex needs during social interactions. • Preparing activities requiring social interaction: This may require teachers to prepare materials and communication aids needed to ensure students are able to engage with peers. For example, facilitating a range of common playground games may involve adding pre-recorded voice commands to a student’s communication device, or encouraging all students to use signs or gestures instead of voices. • Teaching during activities: Use opportunities to discuss a student’s communication system and needs during activities in order to help remove barriers to peer-to-peer communication; for example, informing peers that a student may need extra time to respond to a question. • Modelling: Facilitators should always model positive social communication with a student with complex needs. This may also involve redirecting peers to communicate with a student with complex needs instead of the teacher; for example, ‘I don’t know – let’s talk with Oscar about that’. • Reducing facilitator involvement: Facilitators must reduce their level of support to ensure that peer-to-peer interactions do not rely on ongoing adult involvement. Withdrawal of support must not be to the detriment of peer-to-peer interactions. Hunt et al. (2009, p. 259) specify the steps of support, fade, observe and return:

4 Support • Ensure all necessary communication and activity supports are in place, then provide prompts, cues, models and feedback.

5 Fade • Once peer-to-peer interactions begin, adults gradually reduce their proximity and input. Adults then move on to supporting other students.

6 Observe and return • Adults observe from a distance to check that interactions take place spontaneously. Further support is provided when needed, before further fading, observation and return. Source: Hunt et al., 2009, pp. 251–260

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A TEACHER REFLECTS Megan, Year 4 teacher, regional city New Zealand After two terms of teaching a Year 4 class I was ready to admit that teaching wasn’t for me. This was mostly the result of my interactions with Max. He joined my class from another school at the start of term 2. Within the first week I had been hit, kicked and scratched. Max didn’t speak – he communicated with his fists and feet. Thankfully a team of people were on hand to support me – and Max. A learning and behaviour specialist taught me that many of Max’s aggressive outbursts were either because he was experiencing sensory overload, couldn’t understand his emotions or was trying to communicate something (e.g. he wanted to do something that wasn’t the focus of my teaching). We set up picture schedules, communication books, used sign language, and I tried hard to watch my own anxiety and stress. I learned to watch for signs that Max was ‘winding up’ (e.g. clenching his jaw and hands) and started to respond to these signs straight away. We created a quiet space for Max to go to when he needed a break. Max now communicates using some signs and a few words and the good days far outnumber the not-so-good ones. Max has taught me so much about communicating and connecting with children. Perhaps most importantly that they need me to be reliable, relaxed and on their team. He has also taught me that I do have what it takes to be a great teacher!

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Summary

Being able to communicate is critical to full participation in educational contexts, social networks and wider society. Although most students develop communication and social skills without difficulty, some students require dedicated support to learn the art of communication and social interaction. Understanding the information and practising the strategies presented in this chapter will support teachers to help children and students overcome communication challenges. The effectiveness of these strategies will, however, depend on a number of other factors presented elsewhere in this book. These include the attitudes and practices of all people involved in the education process. Centre, school and community practices that nurture and accept all children and young people, particularly those who find it difficult to express their needs in ways that we might expect, will support successful outcomes. Highlighting and using Aboriginal, Torres Strait Island, and Māori languages in all schools will support Indigenous students’ academic and social development as well as help retain and grow these languages. Building and valuing meaningful and empathetic relationships with families of students with complex communication needs and specialist support staff is essential to supporting their communication. Most importantly, young children, students and their peers must be positioned at the centre of planning, preparation and teaching processes. Together, these attitudes, philosophies and practices will help ensure fulfilment of the most basic human right for all young people: the right to communicate.

STUDY TOOLS

Discussion questions

1. Consider the importance of communication to your life.

2. What can a teacher do to help children learn language and communication?

3. What communication considerations can teachers use to develop Indigenous Australian and Māori language knowledge and skills?

4. What strategies can you employ to support children with autism to develop communication and social abilities?

5. If you suddenly found yourself unable to communicate using speech, what features might you appreciate on your personal AAC system?

Individual activities

1. While observing children in a centre or classroom, consider how many opportunities children get to provide oral responses to comments or questions. 2. Reflect on the teacher’s communication style and how this supports children’s development.

3. Converse with a young child (e.g. during a play situation or joint-book reading) and reduce your use of questions. Instead use descriptive comments, long pauses and lots of facial expression and gestures. How does this influence the child’s communication? 4. Speak with a group of high school students about the importance of communication in their lives.

Group activities

1. Set up role-play activities, and practise communicating between a teacher and a student who might display anti-social behaviour.

2. Develop a range of visual resources (e.g. a visual schedule) to support a child’s ability to deal with changes in activities and routines. 3. Develop a resource and activity pack to support students’ learning about local Aboriginal languages and community.

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Weblinks

Aboriginal Language resource https://www.firstlanguages.org.au Auslan Signbank http://www.auslan.org.au/

Autism New Zealand http://www.autismnz.org.nz/

Autism Speaks (US Autism Advocacy and Training) https://www.autismspeaks.org Autism Spectrum Australia http://www.autismspectrum.org.au Deaf Aotearoa New Zealand http://www.deaf.org.nz/ Deaf Australia https://deafaustralia.org.au

Māori Language Commission http://www.tetaurawhiri.govt.nz/

New Zealand Ministry of Education – Inclusive Education resources http://inclusive.tki.org.nz/ Royal Institute for Deaf and Blind Children http://www.ridbc.org.au/

Recommended reading

Dell, A., Newton, D., & Petroff, A. (2016). Assistive technology in the classroom: enhancing the school experiences of students with disabilities (3rd edn). Pearson.

Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2017), Te Whāriki. https://tewhariki.tki.org.nz/assets/Uploads/files/TeWhariki-Early-Childhood-Curriculum.pdf

Marsharck, M. (2018). Raising and Educating a Deaf Child, Third Edition: A Comprehensive Guide to the Choices, Controversies, and Decisions Faced by Parents and Educators (3rd edn). Oxford University Press.

Prizant, B. (2015). Uniquely human: a different way of seeing autism. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Erickson, K. A., & Koppenhaver, D. A. (2020). Comprehensive Literacy for All: Teaching Students with Significant Disabilities to Read and Write. Brookes Publishing Company.

References

Adler, R., Rodman, G., & du Pré, A. (2017). Understanding human communication (13th edn). Oxford University Press.

Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Browder, D. M., Wood, L., Stanger, C., Preston, A. I., & Kemp-Inman, A. (2016). Systematic instruction of phonics skills using an iPad for students with developmental disabilities who are AAC users. The Journal of Special Education, 50(2), 86–97. Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2015). The Australian Curriculum v4.2. https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/Content_for_ Year_1_-_Learning_area_content_descriptions.pdf Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA). (2020). Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages. https://www. australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/ languages/framework-for-aboriginal-languages-andtorres-strait-islander-languages

Baker, C. & Wright, W. (2017). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (6th edn). Channel View Publications.

Mitchell, D. and Sutherland, D. (2020). What really works in special and inclusive education: using evidence-based teaching strategies (3rd edn). Routledge.

Wigglesworth, G., Simpson, J., & Vaughan, J. (2018). Language Practices of Indigenous Children and Youth. Palgrave Macmillan UK.

Barker, R. (2020). Teacher and student experiences of remote microphone systems. [Master’s thesis, University of Canterbury]. UC Research Repository. https://hdl.handle.net/10092/100086

Beck, I., McKeown, M., Hamilton, R., & Kucan, L. (1997). Questioning the author: an approach for enhancing student engagement with text. International Reading Association.

Beukelman, D., & Light, J. (2020). Augmentative and alternative communication: supporting children and adults with complex communication needs (5th edn). Paul Brookes.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2019). Prevalence and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder among Children Aged 4 Years — Early Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, Seven Sites, United States, 2010, 2012, and 2014. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance summaries, 68, 2.

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Cole, E., & Flexer, C. (2019). Children with hearing loss: developing listening and talking, birth to six (4th edn). Plural. Cutiva, L. C. C., Vogel, I., & Burdorf, A. (2013). Voice disorders in teachers and their associations with work-related factors: a systematic review. Journal of Communication Disorders, 46, 143–155.

Daniel, G. R., & McLeod, S. (2017). Children with speech sound disorders at school: Challenges for children, parents and teachers. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 42, 81–101.

Dockrell, J. E., & Marshall, C. R. (2015). Measurement issues: assessing language skills in young children. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 20, 116–125. Fujiki, M., Brinton, B., Hart, C. H., Olsen, J., & Coombs, M. (2019). Using Measurement Invariance to Study Social Withdrawal in Children With Developmental Language Disorders. Language, speech, and hearing services in schools, 50(2), 253–266. Furno, L., Demchak, M., & Bingham, A. (2020). Young Children With Hearing Impairment and Other Diagnoses: Effects of Sound-Field Amplification. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 1–15, DOI: 10.1177/8756870520912473

Gillies, R. M. (2014). Developments in classroom-based talk. International Journal of Educational Research, 63, 63–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2013.05.002 Grandin, T. (2005). A personal perspective of autism. In F. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin & D. Cohen (Eds), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (3rd edn, pp. 1276–1286). John Wiley. Hattie, J. & Clarke, S. (2018). Visible learning: Feedback. Routledge.

Helland, W., Lundervold, A., Heimann, M., & Posserud, M-B. (2014). Stable associations between behavioral problems and language impairments across childhood – the importance of pragmatic language problems. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35, 943–951.

Hunt, P., Doering, K., Maier, J., & Mintz, E. (2009). Strategies to support the development of positive social relationships and friendships for students who use AAC. In G. Soto & C. Zangari (Eds), Practically speaking: language, literacy, & academic development for students with AAC needs (pp. 247–264). Paul H. Brookes. Johnson, C. J., Beitchman, J. H., & Brownlie, E. B. (2010). Twenty-year follow-up of children with and without speech-language impairments: Family, educational, occupational, and quality of life outcomes. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 19(1), 51–65.

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Kent-Walsh, J., & Binger, C. (2009). Addressing the communication demands of the classroom for beginning communicators and early language users. In G. Soto & C. Zangari (Eds), Practically speaking: language, literacy, & academic development for students with AAC needs (pp. 143–172). Kent-Walsh, J., & McNaughton, D. (2005). Communication partner instruction in AAC: present practices and future directions. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 21, 195–204. Kuder, S. (2017). Teaching students with language and communication disabilities (5th edn). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Law, J., Charlton, J., Dockrell, J., Gascoigne, M., McKean, C., & Theakston, A. (2017). Early Language Development: Needs, provision and intervention for pre-school children from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds. London Education Endowment Foundation.

Light, J., & McNaughton, D. (2015). Designing AAC research and intervention to improve outcomes for individuals with complex communication needs. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 31, 85–96. Maclagan, M., & Buckley, A. (2016). Talking Baby; helping your child discover language. Finch Publishing.

Mathis, H., Sutherland, D., & McAuliffe, M. (2011). The effect of pause time upon the communicative interactions of young people who use augmentative and alternative communication. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 13, 411–421.

Mealings, K. (2016). Classroom acoustic conditions: Understanding what is suitable through a review of national and international standards, recommendations, and live classroom measurements. Proceedings of the Australian Acoustical Society ‘Acoustics 2016’ Conference, 9–11 Nov., Brisbane, Australia. Retrieved from https://dspace.nal.gov.au/xmlui/bitstream/ handle/123456789/521/Acoustics2016%20P145_ RevisedPaper_Mealings_5_rev.pdf?sequence=1 Mercer, N. (2019). Language and the Joint Creation of Knowledge: The Selected Works of Neil Mercer. Routledge. Ministry of Education, New Zealand. (2007). The New Zealand Curriculum. Learning Media.

Ministry of Education, New Zealand. (2009 a). Learning through talk: oral language in Years 1 to 3. Learning Media.

Ministry of Education, New Zealand. (2009 b). Learning through talk: oral language in Years 4 to 8. Learning Media.

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Ministry of Education, New Zealand. (2009 c). Supporting English language learning in primary school: a resource for mainstream and ESOL teachers (SELLIPS). Learning Media. Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2016). Inclusive education: guides for schools. Learning Media.

Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2017). Te Whāriki He whāriki mātauranga mō ngā mokopuna o Aotearoa Early childhood curriculum. https://tewhariki.tki.org. nz/assets/Uploads/files/Te-Whariki-Early-ChildhoodCurriculum.pdf Mitchell, D. and Sutherland, D. (2020). What really works in special and inclusive education: using evidence-based teaching strategies (3rd edn) Routledge. Norbury, C. F., Gooch, D., Wray, C., Baird, G., Charman, T., Simonoff, E., Vamvakis, G., & Pickles, A. (2016). The impact of nonverbal ability on prevalence and clinical presentation of language disorder: Evidence from a population study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(11), 1247–1257.

O’Neill, T., Light, J., & Pope, L. (2018). Effects of interventions that include aided augmentative and alternative communication input on the communication of individuals with complex communication needs: A meta-analysis. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 61(7), 1743–1765. Owens, R. (2016). Language development: an introduction (9th edn). Boston: Pearson.

Paul, R., Norbury, C., & Gosse, C. (2018). Language disorders from infancy through adolescence: listening, speaking, reading, writing, and communicating (5th edn). Mosby. Prizant. B. (2015). Uniquely human: a different way of seeing autism. Simon & Schuster.

Prizant, B., & Wetherby, A. (2005). Critical issues in enhancing communication abilities for persons with autism spectrum disorders. In F. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin & D. Cohen (Eds), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (3rd edn, pp. 925–945). John Wiley.

Qi, C. H., Barton, E. E., Collier, M., & Lin, Y. L. (2018). A systematic review of single-case research studies on using video modeling interventions to improve social communication skills for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 33, 249–257. Romski, M., & Sevcik, R. (2005). Augmentative communication and early intervention: myths and realities. Infants and Young Children, 18, 174–185.

Schwab, S., Wimberger, T., & Mamas, C. (2019). Fostering social participation in inclusive classrooms of students who are deaf. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 66(3), 325–342.

Siebein, G., Gold, M., Siebein, G. and Ermann, M. (2000). Ten ways to provide a high-quality acoustical environment in schools. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 31, 376–384. Snow, P., Woodward, M., Mathis, M., & Powell, M. (2016). Language functioning, mental health and alexithymia in incarcerated young offenders. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 18, 20–31. Soto, G., & Zangari, C. (Eds) (2009). Practically speaking: language, literacy, & academic development for students with AAC needs. Paul H. Brookes.

Volkmar, F., Rogers, S., Paul, R., & Pelphrey, K. (2014). Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (4th edn). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Wong, C., Odom, S. L., Hume, K. A., Cox, A. W., Fettig, A., Kucharczyk, S., Brock, M. E., Plavnick, J. B., Fleury, V. P., & Schultz, T. R. (2015). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism spectrum disorder: a comprehensive review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 1951–1966. Zangari, C., & Van Tatenhove, G. (2009). Supporting more advanced linguistic communicators in the classroom. In G. Soto & C. Zangari (Eds), Practically speaking: language, literacy, & academic development for students with AAC needs. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

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9

Understanding and supporting literacy competence Kerry Dally and Michelle Ralston This chapter aims to: 9.1 Provide an outline of underlying processes that may influence literacy development 9.2 Explain the skills required for reading, writing and spelling, and describe effective strategies to assess and support the development of these skills through evidence-based practices 9.3 Discuss the importance of motivation and approaches to integrating literacy across the secondary curriculum.

Introduction

National and international research has consistently confirmed the relationship between literacy levels and life outcomes. As well as being fundamental to school success, literacy competence impacts an individual’s quality of life, chances of employment and financial security, personal autonomy and self-esteem (Nunez et al., 2011; Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2014). The Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education Declaration (Education Services Australia, 2019) recognises literacy as an essential skill for students in becoming successful learners and as a foundation for success in all learning areas. Teaching students to be literate is central to the purpose of schools and is the responsibility of every teacher (see Figure 9.1). This chapter is divided into three sections: underlying processes and influences, components of successful literacy and specific teaching strategies, and integrating literacy across key learning areas. Readers will gain an awareness of the five crucial components of reading as well as the processes required for effective writing and spelling. A range of evidence-based instructional and intervention practices to support the development of literacy skills is provided. Readers will gain insight into understanding how literacy skills are acquired and learn effective strategies to support students’ literacy competence. Literacy is one of the most important achievements in a student’s years at school. Children who fail to learn to read in the first three years at school are likely to be seriously impeded in their achievements in other academic areas. What starts out as a ‘reading difficulty’ can often become a ‘learning difficulty’ and problems in behaviour, self-esteem and motivation to learn may also accrue, in a negatively reinforcing cycle.

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The desire to prevent, rather than remediate, reading difficulties has led to calls for more effective instruction in the beginning reading stages. There is substantial research evidence which shows that quality instruction can improve reading performance as well as prevent or mitigate the severity of future reading disability (Castles et al., 2018).

Terminology

A number of terms are used to describe reading difficulty. The latest edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) (American Psychiatric Association FIGURE 9.1 Literacy is central to the purpose of schools. (APA), 2013) uses the term ‘Specific learning disorder with impairment in reading’ and defines the condition as comprising persistent difficulties in word reading accuracy and/or fluency and reading comprehension. ‘Dyslexia’ is an acceptable and equivalent name for the same condition. According to the DSM-5, ‘Dyslexia is an alternative term used to refer to a pattern of learning difficulties characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities’ (DSM-5, 2013, p. 67). Diagnoses of dyslexia or specific learning disorders previously were based on a measured discrepancy between an individual’s intelligence and academic performance. However, Hempenstall (2012) notes that it can take many years before a child is diagnosed with a learning disability, and in the meantime, the student has fallen further behind.

Response to intervention

Skues and Cunningham (2011) describe how the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach is now being used in Australia to facilitate earlier identification of reading difficulty and provide more timely access to necessary supports. As discussed in Chapter 1, RTI is based on the assumption that learning is strongly influenced by instructional quality and that a ‘diagnosis’ of learning difficulty can only be considered after students have failed to respond to effective whole-class instruction and targeted small-group intervention to address an identified weakness (Hempenstall, 2012). In the US, a similar framework, known as the Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) has been adopted to guide the delivery of evidence-based reading instruction (Hougen, 2014). Like RTI, the first tier of MTSS comprises the most efficacious strategies to support the five components of reading achievement that we will be discussing in this chapter. Tier 2 consists of intensive instruction for students who have not mastered the concepts taught at Tier 1, while Tier 3 focuses on those students who have not responded to the teaching at the previous two levels (Hougen, 2014).

Before describing the crucial components of reading and some evidence-based practices to support the acquisition of these skills, we explore difficulties in some of the underlying processes and influences that can have an indirect effect on reading performance.

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9.1 Underlying processes and influences Reading problems can develop from difficulties in visual and auditory perception and processing or oral language development and may be exacerbated by poor metacognitive functioning.

Visual processes

It is important that accurate visual identification of letters and words is swift and automatic. When people read, the ‘flow’ of word recognition needs to be similar to the ‘flow’ of language when listening to someone speak. Without this ‘fluency’, the construction of meaning from print or language would be very difficult. The three main visual problems associated with reading difficulty are discussed below and in Figure 9.2. Visual perception Students who experience difficulty here might have trouble distinguishing between similar words and may not understand the meaning between punctuation marks.

Optical difficulties These are easily corrected, and occur when the lenses of the eyes do not focus properly. This includes myopia, hyperopia and astigmatism.

Visual problems associated with reading difficulty

Visual processing Skilled readers will process words quickly, but poor readers will focus on words for a longer period of time to interpret meaning.

FIGURE 9.2 There are three main visual problems that contribute to reading difficulty.

Optical difficulties

Optical difficulties occur when the lenses of the eyes do not focus properly and cause refractive errors. These include difficulties such as short-sightedness (myopia, where a person has difficulty seeing things clearly unless they are relatively close to the eyes), long-sightedness (hyperopia, where distant objects are clear, but closer objects are out of focus) and astigmatism (where vision is blurred at any distance). These easily corrected difficulties have a direct impact on reading achievement and school performance (Corcoran, 2019). Census results from the Australian Bureau of Statistics reveal that 12% of children aged 0–14 have optical difficulties (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), 2020). However, Optometry Australia (2020) estimate that the ratio is more likely to be 20 per cent as many vision problems are undetected. This is particularly true for Indigenous Australians, who have three times the rate of vision impairment of other Australians, with 63 per cent of those cases attributed to uncorrected refractive error (AIHW, 2020). The most common risk factor is not undergoing an eye examination by an optometrist (AIHW, 2020).

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Observable symptoms of optical difficulties include: moving the reading material to an unusual distance from the eyes; sitting close to the TV or whiteboard; squinting; blinking; head tilting; eyes not lining up; sensitivity to light; closing one eye to read or view screens; and avoiding sustained reading (Optometry Australia, 2020). Students may also complain about tired, aching or strained eyes and frequent headaches (Optometry Australia, 2020). Teachers can discuss their observations with parents and suggest an eye assessment with an optometrist. Corrective glasses may be prescribed, with the teacher then playing an important role in supporting students to establish new habits with consistent wearing and cleaning of the glasses (Corcoran, 2019).

Visual perception

Visual perception is defined as the ability to identify or interpret what is seen. Reading requires a visual analysis of symbols on a page, not just good eyesight. Learning to recognise distinctive features that determine letter identification, word recognition and punctuation are critical to reading and writing (Joo et al., 2018). Students who have visual perception difficulties may not notice the difference between similar words (where, were), have trouble remembering common sight words (the, said), or not comprehend the nuance in meaning of an exclamation mark over a full stop (Çayir, 2017). When writing, they are likely to reverse letters, have inaccurate letter formation and difficulty organising text (Wasik et al., 2013).

visual perception The ability to understand or make sense of what is seen. In reading, it could be the ability to distinguish between visually similar letters, such as b and d, or p and q.

Visual perception requires visual discrimination, meaningful interpretation and visual memory. Therefore, students can be taught to identify, copy and describe patterns in the visual features of letters and words, while matching them to meaningful letter names, sounds or words. Consistent letter size, font, space between letters, space between lines, and even distribution of vertical space can facilitate visual perception (Joo et al., 2018; Krivec et al., 2020). Provision of printed (not cursive) or typed font to school students is therefore desirable in all school resources. While interventions to address visual perception may assist some learners with literacy and numeracy, it is unlikely to be the only source of reading difficulty (Piotrowska & Willis, 2019). The key components of successful literacy discussed in this chapter must be addressed.

Visual processing

Visual processing relates to the rapid sequential processing of print and include poor eye movement across a page and after-imaging effects. When reading, the eyes do not move smoothly across the page, but progress in a series of very quick ‘jumps’ known as ‘saccades’. The eyes fixate on each individual word and this brief fixation provides a clear image of the word which is then stored in working memory. Fluent readers can view and process a span of words and letters, efficiently using orthographic knowledge (letters, graphemes and syllables) to interpret text. Beginning and poor readers tend to fixate longer on each word and make more regressions (re-reading the word) than skilled readers (Frey & Bosse, 2018). Behavioural optometrists can assess eye movement and tracking skills, including: • eye movement across a page, or movement from the board to the page when copying • coordination/teaming of both eyes to ensure they focus in the same place

• direction or reversal problems in identifying letters and words (e.g. b–d, p–q, was–saw).

Eye-movement (oculomotor) dysfunction has also been associated with a condition known as ‘visual stress’, Irlen syndrome or scotopic sensitivity syndrome (Griffiths et al., 2016; Harries et al., 2015). The reported symptoms include distortion of text such as movement or blurring of print, the background colour moving over words in the foreground, letters moving on top of the letter beside it, glare from printed material, headaches, eye strain, and reading fatigue (Griffiths,

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2016; Guimaraes et al., 2020). Proponents claim coloured overlays and tinted spectacle lenses can improve reading rate, accuracy, fluency and comprehension (e.g. Guimaraes et al., 2020; Harries et al., 2015). However, a systematic review by Griffiths et al. (2016) concluded that, given shortcomings with research methodology, ‘the use of coloured lenses or overlays to ameliorate reading difficulties cannot be endorsed’ (p. 519).

Auditory processes

Auditory processing is an umbrella term that covers the perception, discrimination and processing of sounds. Similar to visual processing difficulties, which occur despite adequate vision, auditory processing disorders refer to difficulties in identifying and discriminating sounds despite having normal hearing (de Wit et al., 2018). Auditory processing disorder (APD) is often associated with reading and language difficulties; however, a causal link has not been established (de Wit et al., 2018; Signor et al., 2020). Cumulative evidence from multiple reviews of research indicates that reading difficulties are more strongly associated with language impairments and speech-sound processing than auditory deficits (de Wit et al., 2018; Signor et al., 2020; Witton et al., 2020; Zuk et al., 2017).

Written and spoken language share a number of common linguistic processes, such as accessing the words of an acquired vocabulary, analysing phrases and sentences and comprehending a message. Many of the processing skills that are required for reading are the same as those that are used in speaking and listening (Witton et al., 2020; Zuk et al., 2017). The processing of incoming language, whether it be written or spoken, relies on the temporary storage of linguistic material in working memory. Some readers tend to have particular difficulty encoding and retrieving verbal information and these difficulties are replicated when they confront printed material.

Oral language

Oral communication is comprised of both expressive language (speech) and receptive language (listening comprehension). It is well recognised that young children’s expressive language skills, such as spoken vocabulary and engaging in verbal discourse, as well as receptive language skills, such as comprehension of words, sentences and stories, are predictive of early literacy (Snowling & Hulme, 2012). Young children’s oral interactions build vocabulary knowledge and lead to an understanding of syntax; that is, the grammatical rules that govern sentence structure (Konza, 2014). Activities such as shared book reading not only improve listening comprehension, but also expose children to the meanings of new words and help develop an awareness of how spoken language is transformed into written words (Diamond & Powell, 2016). As children listen to a story being read they start to ‘tune into’ the sounds within words which, as we will discuss in the next section, lays down a platform for the development of phonological skills (see Figure 9.3). FIGURE 9.3 Shared reading experiences support young children’s literacy learning. Source: Fairfax Photos/Jacky Ghossein

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While inadequate oral experiences or language delays can impede young children’s acquisition of literacy skills, language impairment can persist into adolescence or arise in response to the more complex linguistic demands of secondary classrooms.

CHAPTER 9 Understanding and supporting literacy competence

Receptive language difficulties in adolescence can affect the efficient processing, interpretation and retention of spoken and written language. These difficulties may manifest as disengagement, poor organisational skills or uncooperative behaviour as students may take longer to process information or have difficulty remembering and executing complex instructions. Receptive language problems can also impact on secondary students’ acquisition of subject-specific vocabulary which means they may encounter difficulties understanding and retaining conceptual and factual information fundamental to curricular content (Starling et al., 2011). Expressive language difficulties can be evident when students’ speech is grammatically immature; for example, overusing nonspecific words such as ‘thing’, ‘stuff’ and ‘you know’ (Starling et al., 2011). Written expression can also be affected and is often characterised by difficulties generating ideas, limited written output, or syntactic errors such as verb tense and pronoun agreement (e.g. ‘they done it’). Limited, immature, or incomplete written work caused by problems with language processing and reformulation of information can be interpreted by teachers as laziness or lack of effort (Starling et al., 2011).

Communication disorders

Metacognition

Metacognition refers to the executive thinking processes that govern self-knowledge about appropriate learning strategies as well as the capacity to engage in ongoing self-monitoring and self-regulation during learning activities. Metacognitive awareness helps individuals plan their approach to tasks, select appropriate strategies, monitor and evaluate their performance with regard to those strategies, and revise their approach to a task in light of this self-evaluation.

Metacognitive awareness is most crucial during reading, since the meaning of a text can be lost if active self-monitoring does not occur. Reading could almost be seen as a conversation, but with only one person present. Interaction with the author occurs, just as interaction in oral language may occur, through asking questions, re-reading and accepting or rejecting what has been said. It is easy to miss much of a conversation if you are thinking of something else while the person is speaking and you are not actively monitoring what is said. Similarly, if you do not actively monitor and reflect upon what you are reading, the words may be identified but you will fail to grasp the meaning of the sentence or passage. Successful readers actively engage with a text as they strive to integrate new information from their reading, with what they already know. Good readers also ‘automatically’ attempt to repair any gaps in understanding or lapses of attention.

In contrast, struggling readers do not monitor their reading to track their understanding, nor use strategies (such as re-reading, self-questioning, or summarising) to ensure they are ‘getting the meaning’ of the text (Narkon & Wells, 2013). A deficiency in using metacognitive strategies negatively affects reading comprehension (Botsas, 2017) and students with learning difficulties either use few metacognitive strategies or implement them inefficiently (Wigent, 2013). Therefore, it is extremely important to teach students with learning difficulties how and when to use metacognitive strategies (Firat, 2019).

NARRATIVE 9.1 Liam Liam is in a regular Year 8 class and enjoys playing computer games with his friends online. He often chooses to talk about video games during class time. He does not have many friends at school and is not interested in playing sport. Liam is an only child and is being raised by his

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father in a country town. He attends the region’s central high school and travels to school by bus for about one hour each way. When Liam was in primary school he found learning to read very challenging. The learning support teacher provided additional in-class assistance for two terms when Liam was in Year 2 and his reading skills improved markedly during this time. Never an avid reader, Liam read well enough to read simple passages independently and answer basic comprehension questions accurately. Liam’s parent requested a meeting with the school counsellor after he received Liam’s midyear report. In preparation for the meeting the school counsellor sought information from the school learning support team, but no referrals had been made by class teachers with regard to Liam. The school counsellor then reviewed Liam’s report and emailed his class teachers to gain more information. The school counsellor found that: • Liam experiences difficulties with learning new concepts, vocabulary and reading. • His teachers across all curriculum areas reported that he appears to understand lesson content during one lesson, but does not retain that understanding in the following lesson. • Liam lacks organisation and self-regulation skills and is becoming increasingly uncooperative during class lessons. His affective factors include low self-esteem, low self-concept and low motivation, which have been compounded by learned helplessness. • When asked to write, Liam tends to have difficulties generating new ideas. • Liam never does homework and when asked to complete set tasks during lessons, Liam will begin the activity but rarely completes it. He becomes agitated or frustrated and this escalates into non-compliant behaviour. • Liam complains about headaches and sore eyes. Most teachers have interpreted this as task avoidance. Source: Michelle Ralston

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What might you observe in the classroom to determine the possible cause of Liam’s learning difficulties? 2. Are Liam’s learning problems likely to stem from visual or auditory perception and processing difficulties, language impairment, or cognitive and metacognitive functioning?

9.2 Components of successful literacy and specific teaching strategies In the USA, a major report commissioned by the US Congress, Teaching children to read (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD 2000), and in Australia, the National inquiry into the teaching of literacy (NITL) (Department of Education, Science and Training: Australia (DEST), 2005), both outlined critical components of reading instruction.

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It is not possible to discuss all findings and recommendations of the NITL here (readers are referred to the report for that), but several key findings should be mentioned. Essential components included:

• a balanced and integrated approach to teaching reading that supports the development of oral language, vocabulary, grammar, phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, comprehension and the literacies of the new technologies • direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years

• ongoing assessment commencing at school entry to identify children at risk of not making adequate progress and to identify individual strengths and needs • teachers with a repertoire of skills enabling them to individualise instruction

• collaboration between home and school and recognition of the important contribution made by parents and families.

Perhaps most important of all was the emphasis on literacy as the responsibility of every teacher. All teachers will have students with literacy difficulties in their classrooms at some time; therefore, it is imperative that every teacher has both the skills and understanding that will enable them to support their students, and the desire to do so.

The following section describes the key components of literacy and evidence-based strategies to teach these skills, commencing with a focus on the processes which determine how well children can read words and understand written language, and concluding with an examination of spelling and writing.

Phonological and phonemic awareness

Phonological awareness is the aural ability to notice and manipulate sounds in spoken language (Carson et al., 2019 (see Figure 9.4). At its most basic level phonological awareness involves a conscious realisation that sentences are made up of words, and those words are made up of sounds. Phonological awareness is a fundamental prerequisite skill for reading and a strong predictor of reading achievement (Carson et al., 2019; Knoop-van Campen et al., 2018). Researchers have consistently found that effective teachers can provide interventions that significantly improve reading outcomes (Carson et al., 2019; Hammond, 2015). Phonological analysis skills appear to follow a developmental progression based on increasing sensitivity to smaller units of sound (see Figure 9.5).

The largest unit of sound within a word is the syllable, and pre-reading children are usually able to segment spoken words at the syllabic level (e.g. identify that cowboy has two parts: /cow/ and /boy/). Pre-readers also demonstrate an ability to detect rhyme: that is, identify words that end with the same syllable (e.g. wall and fall). It has also been proposed that syllables can be divided into two parts: an opening, or onset, which comes before the vowel, and an end section, or rime, which includes the vowel and the following consonants

FIGURE 9.4 Young children can develop awareness of sounds in words before learning to read. Source: Shutterstock.com/Kasefoto

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PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS of word sounds

Words in sentences

Rhyme (onset + rime)

Alliteration

Phonemic awareness

Syllables

Blend

Delete

Segment

Substitute

Isolate

Move

Add

Repeat

Phonological processing You can do it in the dark!

FIGURE 9.5 Phonological awareness is the aural ability to notice and manipulate sounds in spoken language.

(Konza, 2016). For example, the one-syllable word brake can be segmented into the onset /br/ and the rime /ake/. The value in being able to identify rhyming words and segment words into onset– rime divisions is that this focus on the end sounds in words allows children to read (and spell) words by analogy. Once a child is familiar with how a rime (e.g. -ake) sounds and looks, they can add new onsets to form ‘word families’, for example, m-ake, t-ake, c-ake. A general awareness that words are composed of constituent sounds (either syllables or onset-rimes) is known as ‘phonological awareness’, while the more specific understanding that each letter within a word represents an individual sound or phoneme, is known as ‘phonemic awareness’. Phonemes are the smallest unit of spoken language and are thought to be the most important for decoding written words. Phonemic awareness is typically assessed by two different types of tasks: phonemic synthesis and phonemic analysis. Phonemic synthesis involves blending or joining sounds together to form words (e.g. /c/ /a/ /t/ makes cat), while phonemic analysis involves segmenting words into their constituent sounds (e.g. cat can be broken into the sounds /c/ /a/ /t/) (Anthony et al., 2002).

There are numerous tasks for assessing phonological and phonemic awareness (see the review by Uhry, 2011), and the Sutherland Phonological Awareness Test (Neilson, 2007) is commonly used in Australian schools. The strategies described next can be used to both support and detect problems in this area.

Strategies to support phonological awareness

Help students discover and create patterns of sounds in words.

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Words in sentences • Students listen to the teacher model, then orally copy words and sounds accurately and clearly, with the teacher providing corrective feedback.

– Repeating and reciting songs, poems, voice acting a character in a story with repeated phrases, e.g. The wolf in the Three Little Pigs says, ‘I will huff, and will puff, and will blow your house down.’ – Talk about compound words that join two words, e.g. football. If I take away ‘foot’, what word would you hear (ball)? – Metalanguage: word, words, join, take away.

Syllables

• Hear and say words slowly to separate the sounds (syllables) and then join the syllables back together. – Perform rhythm percussion (body or musical instruments) to syllables in words, poems, songs, student names. Change the tempo to exaggerate separation of sounds (slowly) and creation of words (fast). – Select objects by their rhythm pattern. e.g. Listen carefully. What do I want to eat? /A/ /pple/ ** or /ba/ /na/ /na/ ***? – Pretend to be robots and talk with staccato.

– Count or represent syllables with counters. See Figure 9.6.

– Metalanguage: join, take away, syllables for students eight years or older.

Source: Michelle Ralston

Show me how many syllables are in ‘Tyrannosaurus Rex’? Say the sounds while you point to each counter.

Ty

ran

o

saur

us

rex

Now show me how many syllables in T-Rex. Say the sounds while you point to each counter.

T

Rex

FIGURE 9.6 Visual representation of syllables

Rhyme • Model and produce rhyme in games, songs, poems, books, e.g. while reading a book, encourage students to follow the pattern and predict the rhyming word. ‘There was a shark in the park, so the dog began to b *.’ Confirm their prediction by revealing the picture. – Create new rhyming words by changing the beginning sound (onset) while maintaining the end sound (rime). See Table 9.1. E.g. Tell me a word that rhymes with ‘sea’. Some students will not be able to think of words independently.

– Provide students with pictures or objects of words that rhyme, so they can ‘see, think and say’ rather than simply repeat what others have said.

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TABLE 9.1 Rhyming words comprise onset and rime

Onset

Rime

(sounds before the vowel)

(vowel and subsequent letters)

r

ug

b

ank

th

ump

br

ight

s

ide

– Identify rhyming and non-rhyming words. Use phrases to answer the question, to reinforce the metalanguage. E.g. Do these words rhyme? Boat/coat? (yes, they rhyme) Car/train? (no, they do not rhyme). – Substitute different rhyming words into known nursery rhymes. E.g. Let’s change the rhyming word. Rub a dub, dub, three friends in a sub, and who do you think they were? A teacher, a cleaner, and undersea creature; All of them wearing some fur!

– Creating art and craft objects to illustrate the rhymes provides further opportunities to practise saying and hearing the patterns of rhyme.

– Play rhyming snap, memory or bingo games. Oral creation of rhymes heralds phonemic awareness as students delete the onset phoneme and replace it with another (Konza, 2016).

– Metalanguage: rhyme, rhyming words, beginning sounds, end sounds, same, different, change.

Alliteration

• The occurrence of the same sound at the beginning of words that are said in close succession is known as alliteration. E.g. ‘Large lion leaping’. – Games that require listening to and differentiating beginning sounds from the rest of the word are valuable. E.g. I spy, Lucy Locket.

– Collect objects starting with the same sound. E.g. tractor, truck, tree, treasure. Playing with these objects creates natural opportunities to practise saying and hearing the sounds, and differentiating between words that start with the same or different sounds. – Art and craft can further support spontaneous learning opportunities.

– Tongue twisters and other alliteration games can be found on the Early Impact webpage https://earlyimpactlearning.com/alliteration-activities-for-preschool/ – Metalanguage: beginning sound, start with, same, different, change.

Strategies to support phonemic awareness

There are many strategies that can be used to help support the student develop skills in phonemic synthesis and analysis. These are explored in Figure 9.7. It is very important that students pronounce single sounds accurately to avoid confusion when letter symbols are introduced. Teachers may benefit from learning cued articulation (Passy, 2010) to ensure accurate modelling of pure consonant and vowel sounds. For example, the ‘stop’ consonants /p/ /b/ /g/ /d/ /t/ can easily be distorted. /b/ is not /buh/ and /p/ is voiceless.

REFLECT ON THIS Articulation of sounds is important when teaching phonemic awareness. Why? What impact does it have on students’ phonics and spelling skills if they pronounce ‘that’ as ‘fat’? or ‘everything’ as ‘everythingk’?

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Isolate

The teacher models sounding out the word, providing the three separated sounds. E.g. /m/ /u/ /d/ What is the first sound in mud? Last sound in mud? Middle sound in mud?

Blend

Provide students with individual sounds that need to be joined together to create a word. Play ‘I’m thinking of a word. The sounds are ‘/b/ /a/ /ck/. The word is ___?’

Segment

Similar strategies can be used to segment words into phonemes, as was discussed when identifying syllables. Words can be said slowly, stretching them out to separate individual sounds. Counters can be used, along with visual aids such as in Figure 9.6. Concept and metalanguage development can be supported with visual aids, to help students identify first, last and middle sounds. • ‘Listen to the word “mud”. Stretch it out and say “mud”. How many sounds in “mud”?’ • Tell students how many sounds, and ask them to tell you what they are. E.g. ‘There are three sounds in “mud”. What are the sounds?’ Students can benefit from using counters to represent three sounds, then point to each counter as they say each sound.

Manipulation of sounds

Involves the movement patterns and metalanguage of: • Add: what word do you make if you add /s/ to the beginning of ‘pot’? (spot) • Delete: what word do you get if you take /c/ away from ‘cat’? (at)

Substitute

What word do you make if you change the end sound of cat to /p/? (cap)

Move

What word do you get if you move /s/ from the beginning of ‘scat’ and put it at the end? (cats)

Repeat, same

What sound is repeated (the same) in ‘mum’? What word do you get if you put /s/ at the beginning and end of ‘eat’? (seats)

FIGURE 9.7 There are numerous strategies available to support phonemic awareness.

Phonics

As described previously, phonological and phonemic awareness are ‘oral’ skills relating to the capacity to identify and manipulate the separate sounds, or phonemes, within spoken words. To read successfully, beginning readers need to link phonemic awareness with knowledge of the letters (graphemes) that make up the written form of the word. Knowledge of the correspondences between letters and sounds, or graphemes and phonemes, is known as graphophonics, often abbreviated to ‘phonics’, and this knowledge assists beginning readers to identify words they previously have not seen (see Figure 9.8).

It is only when readers pay attention to every letter in a word, and not just the word’s shape or initial and final letters, that a complete orthographic representation of the word is acquired. The repeated association of a word’s pronunciation (phonological representation) with its correct spelling (orthographic representation), ultimately allows the word to be recognised as a whole unit, thus leading to more fluent reading (Tremain, 2018). Explicit and systematic teaching

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−ai− brain mail

nail

snail

rail

train

grain

of these graphophonic connections has been shown to be effective in improving children’s reading and spelling (Daffern et al., 2020).

Through repeated exposure to a particular printed word, children with poor phonic skills eventually may learn to recognise the word by sight, but children who cannot apply letter–sound correspondences to ‘sound-out’ novel words will be dependent on others to provide the initial decoding of any written word (Ziegler et al., 2014). Thus, phonic knowledge equips children with the skills to independently produce the appropriate spoken equivalent of a hitherto unseen word. This provides beginning readers with a self-teaching mechanism, by which they gradually acquire the large vocabulary of sight words required for fluent reading and reading comprehension.

Strategies to support phonic skills

Explicit, systematic instruction in letter–sound correspondence, phonics, word decoding and spelling (encoding) is essential for students to become competent readers and writers (Daffern et al., 2020; Dymock & Nicholson, 2017). Approaches to teaching phonics include:

•  Analytic phonics: Words already known by sight are broken down into their separate phonic components (e.g. cat – c/a/t). FIGURE 9.8 Phonics is connecting the letter symbols (graphemes) to the sounds (phonemes) they represent.

•  Synthetic phonics: Letter-to-sound correspondences are taught and practised first (see Figure 9.9), and this knowledge is then used to blend sounds to form words (e.g. /s/-/ee/ – see). Saying the sound while also writing is recommended.

•  Embedded phonics: Analytic and synthetic approaches are combined to decode unfamiliar words that are met within paragraphs of meaningful text. The disadvantage of this approach is that it is less systematic.

•  Phonics through spelling: Letter-to-sound correspondence is learned as students attempt to spell the words they need as they write. Again, this approach is less systematic. Of these, synthetic phonics is the recommended approach for beginning reading and spelling (Konza, 2016). For students beyond the initial acquisition stage, reading text and writing provide further opportunities for instruction and practice.

FIGURE 9.9 Synthetic phonics means blending letters together.

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Several programs to teach phonics systematically are available: for example, Jolly Phonics (Lloyd & Wernham, 1995) and THRASS (Davies & Ritchie, 2004). The latter makes clear the connections between spelling, reading and phonics. Paying attention to phonics, word study and accurate spelling when writing increases awareness of orthographic units and hence enhances both decoding and encoding (spelling) abilities (Alderman & Green, 2011; Daffern, 2018; Daffern et al., 2020).

CHAPTER 9 Understanding and supporting literacy competence

Fluency

Reading fluency depends on efficient and effective word recognition skills. The capacity to recognise words quickly and effortlessly reduces the load on working memory and allows a reader to simultaneously construct the meaning of the text. The three core components of fluency are accuracy, rate or speed of reading, and prosody (Konza, 2014). Dysfluent reading is generally due to inefficient or ineffective word recognition and is characterised by a slow, halting pace, poor phrasing, inadequate intonation and word errors or omissions. As a result, where fluent readers can recognise words and comprehend the text at the same time, less fluent readers must focus their attention on decoding the words, leaving them little attention for understanding the text. The ability to recognise words by sight with no analysis of sound components is known as the ‘lexical route’ to reading comprehension (Castles et al., 2018). The lexical route is used by skilled readers and relies on instant recognition of whole words via the word’s ‘orthography’ (the sequence of letters that comprise the word – that is, its spelling). The term comes from the notion that skilled readers have an ‘orthographic lexicon’ (orthographic = correct form; lexicon = dictionary) in which the spellings of words are stored as whole units (sight words) that can be quickly and automatically retrieved. When the lexical route is used, the reader accesses the ‘phonology’ (the spoken version of the written word) and its meaning at the same time. This makes reading a fluent and efficient process, because as soon as the reader sees the word, they can say the word and understand what the word means. The term ‘non-lexical’ route is used to describe the ‘phonological pathway’ that beginning readers use when they are unable to read a word automatically and therefore need to ‘decode’ the word by breaking it down into its constituent sounds (Castles et al., 2018). Fluent readers are more likely to read for pleasure, and this extra reading serves to further develop their reading skills, while dysfluent readers tend to avoid reading outside of school requirements (see Figure 9.10). Measures of oral reading rate are the most common method of assessing reading fluency. In the oneminute reading assessment, the student is asked to read a passage aloud while the teacher notes down errors and keeps time with a stop watch. After one minute, the student is asked to stop reading and the teacher counts the number of words read and subtracts any errors. This process provides the student’s reading rate, and is recorded as the number of words correct per minute (wcpm) (Carreker, 2011, p. 245). Suggested reading rates vary but Binder et al. (2002) specify the following optimal oral reading rates for students at different stages of schooling: • End of Grade 1: 60–100 wcpm • Grade 2–3: 100–120 wcpm • Grade 4–5: 120–150 wcpm • Grade 6–8: 150–180 wcpm

• Grade 9 and beyond: 180–200 wcpm.

FIGURE 9.10 Reading for enjoyment strengthens reading skills. Source: Shutterstock.com/alexandre zveiger

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A passage selected for fluency assessment or practice should be within a student’s ‘instructional level’: that is, the student should be able to read it with 95 per cent accuracy, making no more than one mistake in every 20 words read (NICHD, 2000). Because reading rate is the most common indicator of fluency, it often receives more attention than prosody. Prosody refers to reading with expression and incorporates phrasing, stress, pitch and rhythm (Konza, 2014). Prosody is linked to comprehension, since punctuation features, such as question marks, full stops and commas, affect not only reading expression but also the meaning of sentences (Rasinski, 2014).

Strategies to support decoding and reading fluency

Skilled reading is characterised by accurate and ‘automatic’ word identification, which readily transfers to fluent passage reading. Previously the expectation was that if students read widely, they would achieve fluency. However, research now shows that at least some students will need explicit instruction and teacher guidance in order to progress efficiently through the stages of reading development until they can recognise both regular and irregular words rapidly (Coyne & Koriakin, 2017). Irregular words are those that cannot be decoded using the ‘regular’ orthographic patterns. The fact that only 13 per cent of all words in the English language have irregular spellings (Carreker, 2011) emphasises the importance of decoding skills, given that 87 per cent of words can be predictably decoded. Thus, the first step in increasing reading fluency is to improve decoding skills through explicit phonics instruction, as described previously. Because most older struggling readers are able to decode single syllable words, interventions for older students should focus on multisyllabic words (Roberts et al., 2008). Roberts et al. recommend ‘word study’ interventions, where students are taught to analyse parts of multisyllabic words by breaking them into smaller, recognisable chunks (see Figure 9.11), or through examination of morphological features such as prefixes and suffixes.

There is some evidence that Repeated Reading (RR), where students read the same passage multiple times until they achieve the reading rate corresponding to their stage of schooling (as described above), is effective in terms of increasing reading fluency (Rasinski, 2014). However, repeatedly reading the same text to increase reading speed does not generalise to an improvement in word reading accuracy, nor comprehension, in unpractised texts (Wexler et al., 2008). Interventions that target accuracy in word reading through systematic phonics instruction are more effective in improving fluency and comprehension, than those targeting reading speed (Castles et al., 2018). An alternative to RR is Continuous Reading (CR, also referred to as wide reading), which involves students reading passages or pages of continuous text. The advantage of CR is that it resembles real reading and exposes students to more unique words, vocabulary and content, all of which are important aspects for developing both fluency and comprehension (Hammerschmidt-Snidarich et al., 2018). As we discuss at the end of this section, finding texts that engage students’ interests and motivate them to persevere in reading is particularly important for secondary students FIGURE 9.11 Multisyllabic words can be broken into smaller, recognisable chunks. (Neugebauer & Gilmour, 2020) who are likely to become bored re-reading the same passage.

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As discussed in Chapter 1, the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) approach is a set of principles that can be used to proactively plan and design lessons that will be accessible to students of all ability levels (Capp, 2016). The UDL framework posits that lessons should not be designed for the ‘majority’ and then adjustments made to ‘retrofit’ the activities for students of lower ability levels, but that the diverse range of student abilities should be considered before planning a lesson. Narrative 9.2 illustrates how fluency instruction and reading interventions for secondary students can be applied at the three levels of the RTI framework utilising the UDL principles of multiples means of representation, multiple means of engagement, and multiple means of action and expression.

NARRATIVE 9.2 A tiered approach to literacy instruction using UDL principles My name is Mirna Farah and my current role is that of a learning and support teacher (LaST) in a secondary school in western Sydney. I support students in Years 7 and 8 with diagnosed disabilities, undiagnosed identified additional learning needs, and students from refugee and diverse language backgrounds. I work with students and their teachers to develop, adapt and implement pedagogical strategies to support the students in their mainstream mixed ability classes. A large part of my role involves working with students who have been identified as needing additional support with their literacy following initial assessment on their enrolment at the school, or at the start of Year 7.

Tier one strategies I have been involved in team-teaching in a Year Eight English class studying the Shakespeare play A Midsummer Night’s Dream. The teacher and I assign roles to each student in the class – approximately 13 students – and our instructions are that they are to follow along and read their part in the play as it comes up. We also encourage students to move around the room and express themselves by acting out and personifying their character. The Mirna Farah teacher and I are present to assist students if they are struggling with decoding a particular word, which is common due to the nature of the text, but when we implement this strategy, students are engaged and motivated, reading aloud and fluently without fear of judgement from their peers. Allowing them to move around to embody the characters, varying their expression and tone of voice means that students are practising all aspects of fluency, thus adhering to the UDL principle of multiple means of action and expression. The teacher and I work together to explain the events of the text as required and ask students questions intermittently to ensure their comprehension of the text.

Tier two strategies Tier two strategies are designed for students who have solid phonemic awareness but struggle with the automation of reading, especially when confronted with a complex piece of text. For students in Year Seven who have moved from primary to high school, this is especially common.

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In my school setting, we use the commercially available program MacqLit (Macquarie Literacy Program, 2019). We begin the program by grouping students based on assessment results, and work through a number of skills depending on student need. The program allows us to move through phonics, sight words, morphology, fluency, automatic word recognition, and eventually reading longer texts with modelling from the teacher before independent reading. We complete these sessions twice a week for 40 minutes at a time. We also use a peer reading strategy where skilled readers are paired with less skilled readers, and they work through reading a variety of texts together. The more skilled reader acts as a model for their peer and assists them in building their vocabulary and developing their reading rate. Students are provided with a wide variety of texts to keep them engaged (UDL Principle 2) and ensure that students are building a strong vocabulary, as well as skills that are transferable across text types and key learning areas.

Tier three strategies Students requiring Tier 3 reading interventions generally struggle with phonics and phonemic awareness. They do not have these basic skills to allow them to read with automation and fluency. The Tier 3 strategy we use is a commercial program – the Reading Tutor Program (Multilit, 2007) – working with targeted students three times a week for 20 minutes each session. We use this program as it is structured, beginning with grapheme-phoneme relationships, before moving on to blends and whole words, as well as factoring in fluency practice. Students using this program have achieved gains in the region of two reading-age years in 12 months, demonstrating its effectiveness in developing phonemic awareness and phonics. Some students with whom I work in a Tier 3 setting have a solid phonemic awareness but struggle with vocabulary and decoding words that do not follow general English spelling rules. In these situations, I use sight word flashcards, withdrawing students three times a week and working through a set of 10 flashcards that include words such as ‘said’ and ‘when’ – words that students need to know but cannot be decoded. I start our first few sessions by modelling the words for students before they say them, and as students become more competent, we get through the words more quickly and eventually through all 20 lists and to the point of revision. As students are learning the words, modelling includes pronunciation and also defining words, using them in sentences, and examining spelling (UDL principle – multiple means of representation). By the end of our series of sessions, students are reading short, basic books including these words. This helps students feel a sense of success while also providing them with an opportunity to practise the skill of automatic recognition in an authentic context. Source: Mirna Farah

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How did the three tiers of the RTI framework facilitate the development of activities to scaffold the students’ progress in different types of reading skills? 2. View the CAST UDL website (http://udlguidelines.cast.org/) and use the guidelines to design a literacy activity. Describe what strategies you will use to provide multiple means of engagement, representation, and action and expression.

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Vocabulary

Vocabulary refers to knowing the meaning of words, and students’ vocabulary knowledge assists both decoding and reading comprehension (Konza, 2014). During the early stages of learning to read, a wide spoken or ‘oral’ vocabulary enables children to predict a word they might have heard before but never seen. For example, a child who understands the meaning of the word ‘planet’ might be reading a story Rocket ship to Mars and come across a sentence containing the word ‘Venus’. Although never having seen this word written, if the child understands what a planet is and has heard the word ‘Venus’ before, he/she is more likely to be able to decode this word using understanding of the sounds of the first and last letters. Vocabulary knowledge is highly correlated with background knowledge: that is, understanding about different aspects of the world around us, and both of these factors contribute to reading comprehension (Swanson et al., 2017). Vocabulary and background knowledge are linked because understanding the meaning of a particular word usually indicates that the reader also has knowledge of the topic in which the word is situated (Elleman et al., 2019).

Language exposure

Oral vocabulary typically is learned indirectly through exposure to new words in conversations, hearing stories, and through the media (Konza, 2014). Therefore, young children who are exposed to broad and rich language experiences prior to school, commence school with a strong foundation in oral vocabulary. This supports their capacity to acquire ‘reading vocabulary’: that is, understanding the meaning of the words they see in print (Diamond & Powell, 2016). Swanson et al. (2017) report that students learn an estimated 2000 to 3000 words per year, incidentally, through reading and talking. However, it can take between eight and 20 exposures to a word before its meaning is completely understood (Elleman et al., 2019). This means that students who read widely will make larger vocabulary gains than students who avoid reading, and this increased exposure to new words not only builds vocabulary knowledge but also builds background knowledge, which in turn assists reading comprehension.

Vocabulary instruction

It cannot be assumed that all students have indirectly developed, or are developing, adequate vocabulary knowledge, and the research recommends that teachers should provide direct and explicit vocabulary instruction for all students (Elleman et al., 2019). Merely asking students to look up unknown words in a dictionary does not help them learn the meaning, since dictionary definitions often use vague or unfamiliar language (Beach et al., 2015). Swanson et al. (2017) describe four key elements of vocabulary instruction for secondary students including: teacherdirected instruction of target words using student-friendly definitions; text-based instruction using the new vocabulary; multiple exposures to the target words and related concepts; and active student engagement through writing and class discussions. Apart from writing activities, these same strategies are also effective for beginning readers, with book reading and retelling playing a major role (Snell et al., 2015), as discussed next.

Strategies to support vocabulary

Reading stories to young children is an effective platform for developing children’s language and vocabulary (Snell et al., 2015). In the same way that wide reading helps build vocabulary for older students, listening to stories also exposes children to more advanced language and vocabulary than they would normally encounter in daily interactions. Snell et al. caution that merely reading a story to children does not adequately support vocabulary growth or listening comprehension. They recommend five evidence-based strategies to enhance the value of shared book reading in early childhood settings (see Evidence-based practice 9.1).

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EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 9.1 Developing vocabulary through shared book reading 1 Draw attention to words which children may not know and provide child-friendly definitions for these words as the story is being read: e.g. ‘a snore is a loud sound that some people or animals make when they are sleeping’. Point to illustrations representing the words if they are available or model actions like snoring and ask children to join in. 2 Have conversations with children about new words and ask questions relating to the new word, e.g. Have you heard someone snoring? 3 Re-read books several times to provide multiple exposures to the new words and gradually build children’s understanding of the new words and the story. 4 Engage children in retelling the story and discussing how the new words and concepts relate to their own experiences. 5 Integrate new words from book readings into other activities during the day. Source: Adapted from Snell et al. (2015)

The evidence-based practices in Evidence-based practice 9.2 are for older readers and are adapted from the explicit vocabulary instruction steps described by Beach et al. (2015), Swanson et al. (2017) and Coyne and Koriakin (2017). Readers are also referred to Elleman et al.’s (2019) recommendations of evidence-based practices for vocabulary instruction and Hougen’s (2014) suggestions for teaching vocabulary at the three RTI levels.

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 9.2 Vocabulary instruction for older readers 1 Select words to teach directly: before teaching a lesson, consider the purpose of the lesson and select target words. Target words should have high academic utility: that is, they are words that students are not likely to encounter indirectly, but are essential to understand the topic and concepts under study or will be useful across content areas, e.g. clarify, investigate. 2 Introduce words and provide student-friendly definitions: Definitions should be short and easy to remember and accompanied by synonyms. Synonyms provide a gist of the word meaning and help with recall, e.g. expand: get bigger. 3 Provide multiple opportunities to interact with the word: If the target word is in a current text, then explain the word in the context of the topic. When introducing a general academic word, present it in a sentence and explain what it means in that sentence. Provide additional sentences, and students discuss how the word is used and what it means in different contexts. 4 Engage students in word play: Ask questions that require students to make decisions about the target word’s meaning, e.g. If I blow into a balloon will it expand or contract? 5 Provide sentence writing opportunities: Start with sentence frames where students substitute a target word for a synonym or complete cloze sentences by choosing appropriate target words. Progress to sentence generation and composing longer texts using a range of target words in authentic contexts. Source: Adapted from Beach et al. (2015), Swanson et al. (2017); Coyne and Koriakin (2017)

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Reading comprehension

It is typically assumed that by the late primary grades decoding skills should have become fully automated, thus freeing up attentional resources to focus on text comprehension. Once students are at the stage of ‘reading to learn’, comprehension is taken as a given and teachers tend to focus on subject-specific knowledge rather than developing generalised reading comprehension skills. However, for some students, explicit instruction in effective reading comprehension strategies may still be needed to assist them in meeting the increasingly complex semantic and syntactic demands that are characteristic of texts in the upper primary and secondary grades. Insights into effective reading comprehension strategies have largely come from analyses of what good readers Reading implicitly do and what poor readers do not do. Before Konza (2014) describes the three phases of metacognitive behaviour that support reading comprehension. These include actions taken before reading, during reading and after reading (Figure 9.12). Hougen (2014) outlines evidencebased instructional practices that all teachers can apply to support the development of reading comprehension skills before, during and after reading. The following strategies were adapted from Hougen’s (2014) MTTS suggestions and from the ‘Super Six’ comprehension strategies (NSW Department of Education and Training (DET), 2010).

reading

comprehension

During reading

After reading FIGURE 9.12 There are three phases of metacognitive behaviour that support reading comprehension.

Before reading

Before reading, good readers tend to be self-motivated, activate prior knowledge, understand what they need to do and set a purpose for reading. In contrast, poor readers begin to read without preparation, are unaware of their purpose for reading and tend to read only because they have to.

Before reading strategies

• Activating prior knowledge: Before reading a story or introducing a new topic, teachers engage the class in a discussion about the focus of the story or the new content they will be reading about. Class discussions allow students to recall what they may already know about the topic in question and a KWL chart (what I Know, what I Would like to know, and what I Learned) can be used to record salient information.

• Previewing: The teacher guides students through the process of looking at pictures, headings and subheadings and provides information about the major themes or concepts that will arise in the text. • Predicting: Learners can use information from graphics, text and their own experiences to anticipate what will be read/viewed/heard and to actively adjust comprehension while reading/viewing/listening. When students are required to predict what might happen next, either before or during reading, they are likely to pay more attention to what they are reading. Sample questions/statements include ‘What words do you expect to see or hear in this text?’ ‘What do you think will happen next?’, A suggested teaching idea is a Before and After Chart: students list predictions before and during reading. As they read, students either confirm or reject their predictions.

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During reading

During reading, good readers are focused, monitor their understanding as they read, anticipate and predict what is likely to happen next, use context to understand the meaning, and use fix-up strategies such as looking up words in a dictionary or re-reading a sentence or passage if they do not understand what they have just read. Poor readers, on the other hand, are easily distracted, and when they do not understand what they are reading are often unaware of the fact and hence fail to take appropriate actions such as re-reading part of the text, scanning ahead for information, self-questioning or attempting to identify the main ideas (Narkon & Wells, 2013). In addition, poor readers can be overwhelmed by unfamiliar vocabulary and do not recognise which words or key concepts are important. Instead of trying to link and integrate new information with pre-existing knowledge, poor readers tend to ‘add-on’ new facts without attempting to build greater understanding of a topic.

During reading strategies

•  Questioning: Learners pose and answer questions that clarify meaning and promote deeper understanding of the text. Questions can be generated by the learner, a peer, or the teacher. Sample questions/ statements include ‘What in the text helped me know that?’, ‘What did the creator of the text mean by …?’, ‘Whose point of view is this?’, ‘What points of view are missing?’ (see Figure 9.13). A suggested teaching idea is Wonderings: using post-it notes, students list all the questions they have about the text. As they read, students continue to write questions. When an answer is found for the wondering, students remove the post-it note.

FIGURE 9.13 Self-questioning during reading promotes deeper understanding. Source: Shutterstock.com/ Hung Chung Chih

After reading

•  Monitoring: Learners stop and think about the text and know what to do when meaning is disrupted. Sample questions/statements include ‘Is this making sense?’, ‘Should I slow down/speed up?’, ‘What does this word mean?’ A suggested teaching idea is Coding: as they read, students code the text with post-it notes; for example, a tick for ‘I understand’; a question mark for ‘I don’t understand’; exclamation mark for ‘I fixed it up myself’. •  Visualising: Learners create a mental image from a text they have read/ viewed/heard. Visualising brings the text to life, engages the imagination and uses all of the senses. Sample questions/statements include ‘What are the pictures I have in my head as I read/view/listen to this text?’, ‘How did the picture in my head help me understand the text?’ A suggested teaching idea is Sketch to Stretch: as a passage/story is read students sketch their visualisation. In groups they share their sketches and discuss reasons for their interpretation.

After reading an assigned reading task, poor readers tend to take no further action. However, good readers think about what they have read, summarise the main ideas (either in writing or conceptually) and are likely to seek more information from other sources if their interest is kindled or they have unanswered questions. Hence, as we discuss in the next section, selecting texts that engage the interest of struggling readers is important, because unless students are interested in the material they are reading they are unlikely to apply the metacognitive strategies they need to support their understanding of the text (Botsas, 2017).

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After reading strategies • Summarising: Learners identify and accumulate the most important ideas and restate them in their own words. Sample questions/statements include ‘What are the main ideas and significant details from the reading/viewing/listening?’, ‘If you were to tell another person about the text read/viewed/heard in a few sentences, what would you tell them?’. A suggested teaching idea is Key Words: students highlight words they believe are key to understanding the passage. These words are written on post-it notes and placed on the page. After reading, the students close the book and arrange the key words in an order that supports a cohesive summary.

• Story maps: These can be used as prompts during or after reading to assist in identifying and locating important information and then using the completed story map to organise ideas for writing about or representing the main ideas in the story (Narkon & Wells, 2013).

• Graphic organisers: These are visual representations that demonstrate relationships between facts and concepts or ideas. They use basic shapes such as circles, rectangles and triangles, with minimal text. Arrows can be used to show cause and effect or sequential relationships. When key concepts are identified and represented in a visual medium, students are supported to recall prior knowledge, apply it to new concepts and consolidate understanding. The visual representation facilitates higher order thinking skills as the learner is able to visually and physically manipulate concepts to analyse relationships, compare and contrast, evaluate, investigate and infer (Singleton & Filce, 2015).

Strategies to support reading comprehension

For comprehension instruction to be of optimal benefit to students with comprehension difficulties, the strategies used by good readers (as outlined above) need to be explicitly taught through explanation of the strategy, modelling, guided support, independent practice and opportunities for student reflection (Konza, 2014).

Teaching practices that focus on making learning processes visible and explicit are consistently associated with more effective outcomes for students with learning difficulties (Baker et al., 2010). Moreover, overt teaching practices (such as teacher modelling and thinking aloud) and explicit instruction (such as breaking complex tasks into a series of steps, see Chapter 5) provide benefits for all learners, particularly those learners who have problems understanding what a task requires, planning their work, monitoring their ongoing performance, and evaluating and revising their final product (Archer & Hughes, 2010).

Benefits of explicit instruction

There are two main benefits in making instruction overt and explicit. The first is that when teachers ‘think aloud’ as they demonstrate how a task is performed (e.g. self-questioning to monitor their comprehension during a reading activity), students are exposed to the metacognitive strategies or ‘thinking’ processes that underlie an effective approach to the task and which they are otherwise unlikely to discover on their own (see Figure 9.14). Second, when tasks are broken into a sequence of explicitly defined steps, students are often

FIGURE 9.14 Teachers who verbalise self-questioning as they read aloud provide an explicit model for students. Source: iStock.com/turk_stock_photographer

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able to monitor their own progress at each step, thus increasing the likelihood that they will become more engaged with the task and begin independently to apply strategies that are more effective. Making learning strategies specific and explicit, and breaking tasks into cumulative and sequential steps, assists students to gain proficiency and independence in foundational skills, while also providing opportunities for teachers or peers to guide a struggling learner with gradually decreasing levels of support. Once teacher prompts and scaffolds are removed, students will only be able to apply reading strategies independently if they are motivated to do so. In the following section, we examine ways in which teachers can engage students with reading, to help motivate them to apply the strategies they require.

Student motivation

Motivation can impact on a student’s willingness to engage and persist in activities, thereby influencing achievement (Neugebauer & Gilmour, 2020; Wigfield et al., 2016). Motivation is the process of instigating and sustaining activity to achieve a goal even in the face of obstacles (Schunk & Mullen, 2013).

Classroom instruction that simultaneously teaches metacognitive use of reading strategies and addresses motivation variables increases engagement in reading tasks, and improves reading comprehension and academic achievement (Damaianti, 2017; Wigfield et al., 2016). Key motivation variables include: Goal setting; What is valued; Self-efficacy; Affect; and Attribution. Cultural differences also have been found to influence motivation, as a person’s culture will often influence their goals and what they value. Teachers can stimulate student motivation to read. Each aspect of motivation will now be discussed, along with supportive classroom practices.

Goal-setting

Goals for reading are usually related to the desire to learn new information or gain pleasure from being immersed in a narrative (Neugebauer & Gilmour, 2020). The goal for reading, for example, may be to construct a shelf by following written instructions or investigate racial bias by reading newspaper articles. To attain these goals, students benefit from a subject-specific focus on the purpose of a genre or text-type, as well as explicit teaching about the meaning and purpose of common text features such as structure, vocabulary and grammar (Troyer, 2017). Research indicates that students aged 10 and over tend to experience a decline in academic intrinsic motivation to read (Neugebauer & Gilmour, 2020; Troyer et al., 2019; Wigfield et al., 2016). Further, social goals can take precedence over academic goals for many adolescents (Urdan, 2013; Wigfield et al., 2016). Social interaction goals are highly motivating, and Urdan (2013) suggests using group activities that are linked to the peer group’s aspirations. Social responsibility, for example, can be harnessed when students work together to complete classwork, thereby developing a culture of the classroom as a learning environment. This culture of peer support and learning in a socially secure environment can unleash student potential for academic achievement (Urdan, 2013). Social interactions around reading such as student discussion, working in pairs or small groups, student-to teacher interactions and peer-led activities are recommended (Neugebauer & Gilmour, 2020; Wigfield et al., 2016).

Value

Interventions to promote motivation include enhancing the student’s perception of the value of a task in relation to set goals. When a student is convinced that the task is important, useful or of interest, they are more likely to persevere. Teaching students to set short-term, valued and attainable goals can foster personal commitment to the development of knowledge and skills. Students who value reading for leisure and reading as a vehicle to independent learning

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experience strong academic success in primary and secondary school (Wigfield et al., 2016). Research indicates that students respond best when the goal is not too easy, provides a sense of challenge, but is not overwhelmingly difficult (Neugebauer & Gilmour, 2020; Schunk & Mullen, 2013). Supporting student autonomy through the provision of choice in activities, topics, texts and procedures encourages student ‘buy in’, particularly with adolescents (Anderman, 2013; De Naeghel et al., 2014; Neugebauer & Gilmour, 2020; Wigfield et al., 2016). Selecting texts that are relevant to the student’s current or future life situation also promotes student engagement in reading (Neugebauer & Gilmour, 2020). Authentic texts such as historic records and road rule books, rather than textbooks and worksheets, have been found to promote engagement with ideas and concepts (Neugebauer & Gilmour, 2020).

Cultural patterns

Cultural patterns around the goals and value of education can impact motivation. Collectivist cultures regard academic success as a means to enhancing the reputation, living conditions and honour of the family, community or nation (Urdan, 2013). Societies that are more individualistic emphasise the pursuit of academic success to distinguish oneself and pursue individual goals (Urdan, 2013). In this case, awareness and sensitivity to the local community in which you teach will guide the teacher in utilising the cultural aspirations of the community in which they work.

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is the judgement an individual makes about their competency to perform a task to a satisfactory level. If a student believes that ability is innate and therefore not within their control, they will have low self-efficacy. If on the other hand they believe that ability is the result of specific skills that can be learned, they are more likely to have a growth mindset whereby their capability can be improved (see Figure 9.15). Teenagers are more likely to align their perception of competence with previous performance (Anderman, 2013; Troyer et al., 2019; Wigfield et al., 2016). The expectation of success or failure thereby affects a student’s motivation to attempt a task. Research also indicates that students from different cultural backgrounds may have a tendency to have lower self-efficacy (Schunk & Mullen, 2013). Cultural norms for gender roles, for example, may limit a student’s expectation of competency.

FIGURE 9.15 Self-efficacy affects children’s approaches to Interventions to build positive self-efficacy learning. include task analysis and the provision of scaffolds that guide the student toward achievement. Well-structured activities that embed student reflection on achievement at each step creates opportunities to teach positive self-talk. This positive self-evaluation can then enhance progress toward broader goals, with the student modifying their perception of themselves as becoming a more competent learner (Troyer et al., 2019).

Affect

Affect, the observable expression of emotion, will impact a student’s willingness to engage in a cognitive task such as reading or writing. Excitement and anticipation enhance motivation whereas a fear of failure or expectation of boredom will adversely impact engagement. Stimulating and interactive reading tasks that heighten a student’s curiosity and involvement

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increase motivation to read and monitor comprehension (Neugebauer & Gilmour, 2020). In addition, teachers who establish supportive environments where students feel connected with, and appreciated by, the teacher are more likely to produce student expectation of enjoyment. Similarly, teacher involvement in small group activities increases student motivation to read, as well as providing an opportunity for the teacher to deliver tailored feedback and positive messages about competence (Neugebauer & Gilmour, (2020).

Attribution

Feedback that links achievement directly to the student’s actions can sustain motivation. For example, telling a student that the consequence of using a particular strategy, such as sounding out a word, has led to reading a previously unknown word. Explicit instruction on reading strategies and attributing reading success to use of these strategies has been associated with increased motivation to read in adolescents (Lesaux et al., 2012). Raising a student’s awareness of the positive consequences of their effort, persistence and use of a specific strategy can enhance their sense of control over learning outcomes (Schunk & Mullen, 2013). When students evaluate their progress toward a valued goal, and attribute achievement to the use of appropriate strategies and sustained effort, the perception of themselves as capable learners is strengthened. Thus, teachers can influence student motivation and engagement in reading by addressing goal-setting, self-efficacy, values, affect and attribution of success. For adolescents in particular, pedagogy that exploits the social aspects of the classroom, authenticity of the text and autonomy of the reader promote reading motivation. However, Anderman (2013) warns ‘No amount of efficacy or autonomy will compensate for a lack of necessary skills or content knowledge or for poor quality instruction’ (p. 187).

Summary of key components of reading

automaticity The ability to complete a task without having to think about the steps involved. For reading, it is the ability instantly to recognise words without thinking about letters and sounds in the word.

The previous discussion described the five key components of successful reading as well as strategies to teach these skills. The ability to decode unfamiliar words depends on phonological and phonemic awareness, an understanding that words are composed of constituent sounds, as well as knowledge of and facility in applying phonic skills to decode unfamiliar words. Word identification is aided by the efficient storage and retrieval of orthographic and semantic information; that is, automatically being able to recognise a word by its spelling and know its meaning. In turn, this automaticity in word identification frees up working memory for processing the meaning of the text.

Reading comprehension is dependent not only on accurate and efficient word identification processes, but also on adequate vocabulary, fluency and metacognitive skills such as selfmonitoring, self-regulation and self-correction. For secondary students who have been struggling for some time with acquiring and implementing these processes, it is particularly important to ensure that reading materials and activities are motivating and engaging. The final part of this section examines writing and spelling processes as well as evidence-based practices to support development of these skills.

Writing

The Australian F–10 Curriculum (v8.1): English (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA], 2015a) is organised into three interrelated strands that support students’ use of Standard Australian English in listening, reading, viewing, speaking and writing. Writing has been described as the most challenging literacy activity. Students with learning difficulties often have severe and persistent writing problems, but these problems are also evident in large numbers of students who do not have learning difficulties. Writing requires

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both ‘transcription’ (or secretarial) and ‘authorial’ skills (Mackenzie et al., 2013). The secretarial elements include handwriting and spelling; vocabulary knowledge; and mastery of the conventions of punctuation, capitalisation, word usage and grammar. The authorial elements require ‘higher order’ processes such as planning, evaluating and revising text. Think of the many skills involved in writing an essay. These can include: • deciding the purpose

• determining the audience

• drawing on prior knowledge

• researching new information and deciding when you have enough • organising separate ideas into related thoughts • planning how the ideas will be sequenced • thinking of where and how to begin

• thinking of a sentence and writing it down • thinking of how to conclude

• re-reading what is written from the perspective of both an author and secretary and revising and editing the final product.

Students with writing problems tend to: start writing without planning what they want to say; lack a strategic approach to planning and presenting their ideas in a logical sequence; not know how or where they will end; stop writing when they can’t think of anything else to write; write less than their peers; be unaware of their audience; have spelling and grammar problems; and fail to re-read and revise or edit their draft. Writing skills can be developed through paired activities where an ‘author’ can gain feedback from an ‘audience’ (see Figure 9.16).

FIGURE 9.16 Shared writing experiences provide opportunities for authors to edit and revise their text. Source: Shutterstock.com/Serhiy Kobyakov

Strategies to support writing

According to Harris and Graham (2013), children’s success as writers is ultimately tied to the quality of instruction they receive. They recommend: • that teachers support students to set clear and specific goals for writing

• explicit teaching of grammar, spelling, punctuation, handwriting and word processing • explicit teaching of sentence and paragraph construction

• that teachers discuss, model and scaffold strategies for planning, editing and revising • that practice is provided in drafting, revising, conferencing, editing, proofreading and publishing • that teachers reinforce positive aspects of students’ writing processes and products • that cooperative and constructive group activities are included

• that the language structures and grammatical features of the genres specific to subject areas are explicitly taught, particularly in secondary schools.

Creating a supportive and positive writing community is perhaps most important of all to ensure student success (Graham et al., 2015) (see Figure 9.17). Readers are referred to Westwood (2019) for weblinks to evidence-based practices to improve writing across the grades.

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Writing strategies using augmentative and alternative communication Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is a form of communication that provides an alternative to speaking and listening, or serves to expand (augment) a person’s current oral language. (See Figure 9.18.) AAC can be in the form of gesture, sign language, symbols (pictures), or assistive technology. Since it is a form of communication, AAC builds student vocabulary, participation in school life, and literacy skills.

AAC provides an alternative means to communicate thoughts, feelings and experiences. FIGURE 9.17 Adolescents benefit from explicit instruction and supportive practice. Symbols can be in the form of photos, line drawings, objects, printed words, braille, or pictures. They can refer to the past, present and future as well as thoughts and values. As the meaning of each symbol needs to be clear to all communication partners, it is generally recommended that symbols have printed words on them to ensure consistency of interpretation and modelling of oral language. FIGURE 9.18 AAC can be used to extend a student’s Consistency of symbols across a person’s living and conversational skills. learning environments is also important. If different Source: Michelle Ralston symbols for the same concept are used in different settings, a student may become overwhelmed with cognitive and vocabulary demands. It is similar to a student learning three different languages simultaneously. For example, the three pictures in Figure 9.19 may depict ‘cars’. Alternatively, they may represent a car, a van and a four-wheel drive.

FIGURE 9.19 Three cars? Or one car, van and 4WD? Consistency between symbols across living and learning environments is essential. Source: Shutterstock.com/Brad Remy, Shutterstock.com/Baloncici, Shutterstock.com/Paulo M. F. Pires

Assistive technology such as Boardmaker, Proloquo2go and Pictello (see Weblinks at the end of the chapter) are readily available. AAC apps for mobile devices such as tablets (iPads) and phones are designed for both children and adults.

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Many students, not just those with communication disorders, benefit from the use of AAC at school. Learning environments that use AAC as a meaningful form of communication facilitate learning through participation for students with autism and emotional disorders such as anxiety. (See Figure 9.20.) The Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (AITSL, 2011) requires teachers to use effective verbal and non-verbal communication strategies to support student understanding, participation, engagement and achievement (Standard 3.5). In some cases, this requires teachers to select or create a range of resources to engage students in their learning (AITSL, 2011, Standard 3.4). Supporting student participation through the provision of reasonable adjustments can be achieved, at least in part, by the establishment and implementation of ‘inclusive and positive interactions to engage and support all students in classroom activities’ (AITSL, 2011, Standard 4.1). Figure 9.21 demonstrates the use of AAC to prompt students to include specific details and sequence when telling or writing a narrative about a recent event.

FIGURE 9.20 Spelling tasks Source: Michelle Ralston

AAC can also be used to ‘establish and maintain orderly and workable routines to create an environment where student time is spent on learning tasks’ (AITSL, 2011, Standard 4.2). An example is seen in Figure 9.22 where students are visually prompted to engage in self-checking, attribution and self-regulation.

Figure 9.23 is an example of a daily routine that teachers may assume is easily understood without explicit instruction. Provision of a visual aid can prompt memory, support independence, promote communication, and help students successfully achieve expected actions.

FIGURE 9.21 Supporting narrative development in oral and written form Source: Michelle Ralston

REFLECT ON THIS An ideal learning environment is filled with social interaction. How would you use and value AAC as a meaningful form of communication in your classroom and playground, on a day-to-day basis?

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FIGURE 9.22 Finished Source: Michelle Ralston

FIGURE 9.23 Following routines Source: Michelle Ralston

Spelling

Communicating through the written word involves learning to spell, since meaning can be conveyed only if the reader can understand what has been written. Spelling involves a thinking process that involves an active search for patterns in words that are heard clearly and pronounced accurately. When a student becomes aware of the predictable nature of spelling and uses multiple strategies to encode words, they become more proficient. Thus, spelling is a cognitive process that requires attention to aural and visual stimuli, short-term memory processing, stored knowledge and selection of strategies. Like phonological processing, spelling involves analysis and synthesis. As students develop their awareness of these cognitive processes, they improve spelling accuracy and writing outcomes (Westwood, 2013). Metacognition, or thinking about our thinking, underpins spelling ability. Students can be taught to intentionally attend to detail, draw on prior knowledge, select the most appropriate learning strategy, self-check and correct.

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Four different forms of knowledge are required for competent spelling:

• phonological knowledge: names of letters and the sounds they represent (e.g. consonants, vowels, vowel digraphs) blends, word families (e.g. m-atch, p-atch, l-atch); onset and rime (e.g. r –at, m –an); syllables (e.g. ta/ble, cat/er/pill/ar)

• visual knowledge: the way words and letter combinations look; frequently occurring letter combinations (e.g. frequent endings such as -ing, -tion); the appearance of words, particularly commonly used and irregular words (e.g. the, was) • morphemic knowledge: the meaning of words and the way spelling changes when words change form; use of prefixes and suffixes (e.g. adding -ly changes how the word may be used in a sentence); ‘y’ is changed to ‘i’ before adding a suffix at the end of a word if preceded by a consonant (e.g. as in cry – cried); construction of compound words (e.g. lunchbox) • etymological knowledge: the derivations of words; roots of words and their meanings.

Spelling also requires adequate visual perception, visual and motor memory (Corcoran, 2019; Joo et al., 2018) and the ability to write or use a keyboard (Berninger et al., 2011). As with writing, students may experience spelling difficulties for many reasons. Underlying difficulties, such as auditory or visual processing problems or poor auditory or visual sequential memory, make spelling confusing and difficult to master. English spelling is complex, drawing upon several different kinds of knowledge. In addition to regular words that can be spelled using letter–sound analysis (e.g. bat, font, ramp), there are many phonically irregular words in common usage that cannot be spelled this way (e.g. was, because, put). As well as learning the orthographic and grammatical rules of English, students must learn the exceptions to rules (e.g. /i/ before /e/ except after /c/, as in receive) and must learn to monitor their performance. Whereas independent reading and exposure to text enhances spelling skills for most readers, poor readers tend to avoid reading and have less exposure to printed words, becoming poorer spellers as well.

Acquisition of spelling knowledge is a developmental process. Awareness of the stages in this process is useful for both instruction and assessment. Useful information on stages is available on the Reading Rockets website (see Weblinks at the end of the chapter).

Stages of acquisition of spelling knowledge • Stage 1: Pre-phonemic – random strings of letters.

• Stage 2: Early phonetic – some evidence of correspondence between letters and sounds; consonants more common than vowels (e.g. /ct/ represents cat; /ctl/ represents kettle).

• Stage 3: Phonetic – letter–sound correspondence is more consistent; irregular words often spelled phonetically (e.g. sed, bcoz, woz).

• Stage 4: Transitional – conventional spelling of irregular words increasing; spelling by analogy common; use of visual checking without relying on phonic checking. • Stage 5: Independence – standard spelling with few errors.

By observing students and analysing work samples and independent writing, teachers can judge the approximate stage of development a student has reached, the knowledge and strategies they use for spelling difficult words and whether they monitor and self-correct. Other difficulties to look for include careless errors, lack of knowledge of common irregular words, and lack of understanding of specific rules (e.g. drop the final /e/ to add /ing/, as in make – making); also patterns of errors or signs of specific underlying difficulties, for example, reversals of letters and words, incorrect letter order, letters added or omitted (visual processing difficulties); or sounds not known or not produced consistently, sounds either added or omitted, or confusion of similar sounds (auditory processing difficulties).

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In addition to informal measures, teachers may use formal tests such as standardised or diagnostic tests; for example, Proof-Reading Tests of Spelling; the South Australian Spelling Test; Waddington’s Spelling Test (Waddington, 2000); or curriculum-based assessment such as teacher-devised tests.

Strategies to support spelling

For students experiencing spelling difficulties, direct instruction and a structured approach to word study is necessary. An effective spelling program: • links reading, writing and spelling, providing opportunities for students to learn about standard spelling and use this knowledge in writing

• includes the four forms of spelling knowledge referred to earlier (i.e. phonological, visual, etymological and morphemic) • provides a balance of modelled, guided and independent teaching strategies

• includes systematic and explicit teaching of spelling knowledge and strategies on a regular basis (according to Carmichael & Hempenstall (2006), practice must be intensive and frequent for any real benefit to accrue, e.g. 20 minutes each day) • includes assessment strategies that involve the collection of authentic evidence to monitor student development while also encouraging student self-monitoring (Westwood, 2013).

Students who receive instruction in appropriate spelling strategies (e.g. phonological analysis, blending, syllabification, spelling by analogy and visual imagery) achieve better spelling results than those who are simply given word lists to memorise (Westwood, 2013). Some useful strategies include:

• Look-say-cover-write-check: encourages accurate visual imagery and is effective for learning words that contain irregular letter-to-sound correspondences (Dymock & Nicholson, 2017).

• Mnemonics: are verbal devices, such as rhymes or chants, designed to aid memory for specific words or rules. When two vowels go a-walking, the first one does the talking (as in sea) You hear with your ear.

• Spelling by analogy: is using known words (e.g. make, bake) to spell unknown words related by sound or visual patterns (e.g. shake, bakery). • Using knowledge of morphemes: helps spellers work out relationships between base words (e.g. talk) and derived words (e.g. talking, talkative); learn rules (e.g. for adding -s, -ed, -ing); and recognise common prefixes and suffixes (e.g. pre-, un-, -ness, -ity).

• Using knowledge of etymology: helps spellers decode and interpret new written vocabulary and apply it to similar words. Root words come from Latin or Greek words but cannot be used alone in English: e.g. aud is a Latin root word related to hearing, but is not a word by itself. Making this connection in meaning can help readers and writers understand and spell similar words, such as audiologist, auditorium and audioblog. • Over-enunciation: is exaggerating the pronunciation of tricky words by breaking them into pronounceable units and stressing the sounds. For example, Wed – NES – day; re – MEM – ber. • Assistive technology: in which software such as word processors, spell-checkers, spelling programs and iPads may be useful for some students (e.g. Musti-Rao et al., 2015).

Narrative 9.3 describes how an itinerant teacher provided individual spelling support for a student with hearing loss, utilising Tier 3 of the RTI framework.

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NARRATIVE 9.3 Response to intervention: Tier 3, spelling ‘Matthew’ is currently in Year Three and has moderate bilateral sensorineural hearing loss. Through observation in classroom activities, in addition to the Oral and Written Language Scales assessment, it was noted that Matthew was below same-age peers in recognition and understanding of suffixes. Matthew tends to mishear the ends of words and finds understanding and applying verb tense challenging. Tier 3 intervention involved Matthew being engaged in oneon-one follow-up activities to extend and consolidate skills in understanding basic suffixes. A past and present verb tense focus incorporated simple errors from Matthew’s writing such as walk, walked, walking and help, helped, helping. Matthew worked with the teacher to visually and aurally identify the -ed and -ing suffixes. Matthew and the teacher worked together using a basic, custom-designed graphic organiser (see Figure 9.24) to focus explicitly on the two base word and suffix combinations. This supported Matthew to hear the base words and morphemes used in context and also see them visually within written text, leading to further discussion of related word families to enable Matthew to recognise common patterns. Amanda Boelen Given that writing is a less preferred area of study for Matthew, the session included online interactive games from Vocabulary Spelling City (Learning City, n.d.) and self-constructed word lists and associated games were used, targeting the suffixes in focus. Following this, flip books (Cecil et al., 2017) were created for further

Suffixes: Present and Past Tense Walking

I like walking to school.

Walked

I walked home from school.

Walk

FIGURE 9.24 Suffixes: present and past tense Source: Amanda Boelen

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consolidation and used at home and in class as a word bank resource for Matthew and relevant students (see Figure 9.25 and Figure 9.26). A broader range of root words was then introduced using more complex graphic organisers (see Figure 9.27) to enable deeper understanding and transference of morphological skills within reading and writing (Herrington & Macken-Horarik, 2015). Together, these one-to-one interventions utilised a multisensory approach where Matthew was actively involved in using different mediums for more targeted learning. Graphic organisers, online games and flip books can also be implemented into a classroom approach at appropriate levels to create inclusive and differentiated opportunities for all students.

FIGURE 9.25 Prefix flip book Source: Michelle Ralston

FIGURE 9.26 Prefix and suffix flip book Source: Michelle Ralston

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Adding to Root words using Prefixes and Suffixes New word

New word

Meaning

Meaning

Root word

New word

New word

Meaning

Meaning

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Why was it important to teach Matthew to use two senses (sight and hearing) to identify ‘ed’ and ‘ing’ suffixes? 2. Try a sample game from the website Vocabulary Spelling City (Learning City, n.d.). https://www.spellingcity.com/ How can a program like this be used in the classroom and home? 3. Matthew and his parents may need some guidance about what to do with the flip books that were sent home. Suggest how Matthew and his parents could use the flip books at home.

FIGURE 9.27 Adding to root words using prefix and suffix Source: Amanda Boelen, Visiting Teacher Service, Victorian Department of Education and Training

9.3 Integrating literacy across key learning areas Learning to read and write is a lifelong process. The responsibility of ensuring that students in schools have access to literacy in all subject areas lies with teachers. The Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL), 2011) map out the required standards of teaching and learning from graduate teachers through to lead teachers. All Australian teachers are accountable in adhering to these Standards. The Standards encompass students with learning difficulties and literacy problems. For example, in Standard 2 – Know the content and how to teach it, Focus Area 2.5.1 requires that graduates ‘know and understand literacy and numeracy teaching strategies and their application in teaching areas’. Similarly, in Focus Area 1.5.1 a graduate teacher is required to ‘demonstrate knowledge and understanding of strategies for differentiating learning needs of students across the full range of abilities’ (see weblink to Australian Professional Standards for Teachers in the References list at the end of the chapter).

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The Australian Curriculum allows students with additional needs to access teaching and learning programs, as well as age-equivalent learning content with an emphasis on the general capabilities of literacy, numeracy, personal and social capability, through the use of the literacy learning continuum. Teachers can select specific literacy skills from the learning area content and utilise other strands. The Australian Curriculum assumes that all students will become literate as they grow in knowledge and skills to use language for communicating and learning effectively. This includes listening, reading, viewing, speaking, writing, and accessing print, visual and digital texts for a range of purposes and contexts (ACARA, v8.1 F–10 Curriculum, 2015b, General Capabilities homepage).

The ERICA model

All teachers are responsible for teaching the subject-specific literacy of their learning area. One approach to integrating literacy into content areas in secondary subjects is the Effective Reading in Content Areas (ERICA) model (cited in Clary & Feez, 2015). The ERICA model involves four stages:

1 Preparation for learning provides a logical framework for reading or viewing; allows students to access prior knowledge and sets up a ‘readiness’ for new language and content. 2 Thinking through assists in interrogating text and making judgements; pairs and group work enhance learning. 3 Extracting and organising helps students collate, sort and categorise information; assists in initial synthesis of knowledge.

4 Translating supports construction of representations of meaning and understanding; various modalities may be used (e.g. artefact, performance, oral or written report).

Readers are referred to Norton (2009) for a detailed description of an Australian middle school unit of work utilising the ERICA model. Developed as a resource, the unit demonstrates to teachers how to meet syllabus requirements while at the same time incorporating effective literacy strategies. It is relevant to teachers and schools in all states.

Content learning approach

Another approach to integrating literacy is the content learning approach (Vaughan et al., 2013). The content learning approach is a ‘during reading’ intervention that aims to improve students’ comprehension of social studies texts while at the same time providing opportunities for the students to connect new information from the text to their previous learning. The intervention promotes student engagement and motivation through team-based learning, which involves students being organised into mixed ability (heterogeneous) groups. Working as teams, the students are required to articulate and apply their understanding of the text to address a question or solve a problem. Silent reading time is supported by prior vocabulary development and teachers identify a key issue or question to provide an overarching ‘comprehension canopy.’ Individual and group quizzes provide a means for both students and teachers to monitor ongoing comprehension and learning.

For further information on how literacy may be integrated across the secondary curriculum in different discipline areas, see Hougen (2014). Useful information on literacy in specific discipline areas is provided in resources prepared by the Victorian Department of Education and Training as well as the NSW Education Standards Authority (see Weblinks at the end of the chapter).

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A TEACHER REFLECTS Hayden, learning support teacher, central high school in rural New South Wales As a new graduate in a country high school, I was nervous about being appointed as a learning support teacher (LST) in my first teaching position. There were many experienced teachers on the staff who had lived in the area for a long time and I was worried how they would feel about a young inexperienced teacher having a specialist role. I was relieved that the teachers willingly helped me and were even keen to take on new ideas that I had learned at uni. As the LST, I was given extra time to go to professional development courses and I joined a support network which met via Skype once a month. I enjoyed co-teaching with my colleagues and I introduced graphic organisers into a history class to help a student struggling with literacy (Narrative 9.1). We were really pleased with how the graphic organiser supported the student’s reading comprehension and helped him acquire and retain new concepts. The learning support team coordinator asked me to work with staff from other faculties to improve the literacy skills of other students. I really liked making a difference for one student, in one class, and think it’s awesome that already I can help modify teaching practice and student outcomes across the school.

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Summary

STUDY TOOLS

This chapter commenced with an acknowledgement of the importance of literacy competence in

achieving positive life outcomes. The first section included discussion of underlying processes and the

impact of these, as well as metacognition on students’ reading success.

The need for a balanced approach to teaching reading that integrates oral language, phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and the skills and understanding required for writing and spelling were discussed. Initial and ongoing assessment, and evidence-based teaching practices for students experiencing difficulties were emphasised. A description of the components of literacy and suggestions for assessing these were discussed. Evidencebased strategies and teaching techniques designed to address difficulties students may experience were presented along with an explanation about the role of motivation. Authentic examples from teachers illustrated how literacy instruction and intervention can be delivered using the frameworks of UDL and RTI, and suggestions were provided for supporting literacy competence with AAC materials.

Throughout the chapter, it was emphasised that it is the responsibility of all educators to integrate literacy across the curriculum, and to actively promote literacy skill development and generalisation.

Discussion questions

1. Investigate eye conditions on the Optometry Australia website Good vision for life. Describe the condition and discuss the causes, how you might detect it in the classroom, and treatment options. What responsibility does the teacher have in supporting the student with this condition? https://goodvisionforlife.com.au/vision-problems/ 2. View the Cued Articulation program developed by Jane Passy (2010). https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=gyGX3RcLG74

   This approach, also referred to as the ‘little mouth method’ uses gesture so that students can visualise phoneme production in the oral cavity. Passy’s (2010) cues prompt production of Australian pronunciation of vowels and consonants. The letter sound is articulated with prompting from these gestures. Jolly phonics, a program based in the UK, incorporates articulation gestures while simultaneously teaching the letter (or letter combination) with the sound. Why is it important for a teacher to check phonics resources for pronunciation accuracy, especially when these resources originate from other nations? E.g. UK, USA, NZ, South Africa. 3. View one or more of the video clips presented by Deslea Konza explaining the Big Six components of reading for the Australian Primary Principals Association available at https://www.youtube.com/ playlist?list=PL0YAmB9RzIMy20KIMcWUfFoZBgLd3MppA. How will you support students to become efficient in the use of these components in your classroom? (Oral language, Phonological awareness, Phonics, Vocabulary, Fluency, Comprehension).

4. View the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (n.d.) and develop a lesson to teach, rather than assess, one of the indicators. National literacy learning progression. https:// www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/national-literacy-and-numeracy-learning-progressions/pdfdocuments/

Individual activities

1. View the resources on the Victorian Department of Education and Training weblink below. How could you support literacy development in Indigenous students and students for whom English is an Additional Language or dialect (EAL/D) https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/ discipline/english/Pages/default.aspx

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2. Read the article by Capp (2016) on the implementation of the UDL framework and use the adjusted UDL scoring rubric in Table 3 on p. 46 to score one of your own lesson plans. Is your learning goal linked to the Australian Curriculum with clearly defined success criteria and can you revise your plan to improve the way the content is delivered and assessed, or to make the learning activities more engaging? 3. Look up some of the weblinks below to find a selection of vocabulary word lists and games to promote vocabulary acquisition. Develop your own list of general academic words or domain-specific words and definitions relevant to your content area. • Coxhead’s Academic Word List: https://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist • Word list games and activities: https://www.vocabulary.com/lists/218701

• Hiebert’s most common word families: http://www.textproject.org/archive/resources/wordzones-for4000-simple-word-families/ • Text Project: http://textproject.org/

• Reading Rockets: http://www.readingrockets.org/

• Word of the Day: https://wordsmith.org/words/today.html

4. Investigate AAC. View articles, videos and resources on the AssistiveWare website: https://www.assistiveware.com/learn-aac

5. Trial Boardmaker online at https://boardmakeronline.com to create and print visuals for your classroom.

Group activities

1. View the webpages associated with changes to eyes related to age. https://goodvisionforlife.com.au/ your-vision/

   Each member of the group should focus on a different age group of students: e.g. children’s vision, teen vision. What information do teachers need to share with students and their parents about healthy eyes? Discuss creative ways you can share these healthy messages at different stages of schooling.

2. The websites listed below provide links to free resources that can be used to support students who are experiencing literacy difficulties. Each member of the group should access one of the websites to locate a useful resource for their group’s stage of schooling or KLA and then describe this resource to the rest of the group. • THRASS (Teaching Handwriting, Reading and Spelling Skills): employs an integrated, direct teaching approach and is designed to teach children how specific letters and letter groups represent the 44 phonemes in the English language. It is particularly appropriate for students with learning difficulties. http://www.thrass.com.au/

• Writing Road to Reading: provides explicit, sequential, multisensory instruction in spelling (including phonics), writing and listening/reading comprehension. http://www.spalding.org/

• UK Literacy Association: access to free literacy teaching resources for non-members. https://ukla.org/ resource_collection/free-resources-for-non-members/ • Teachers Pay Teachers https://www.teacherspayteachers.com. Access to free literacy resources across grades and subjects.

3. The CEEDAR Center provides resources describing evidence-based teaching practices for diverse learners as well as a range of literacy skills and other curriculum areas. Each group should select one publication to explore and prepare a summary of the evidence-based practices to share with the whole class. https://ceedar.education.ufl.edu/innovation-configurations/

4. Auslan is the Australian sign language. Use the online Auslan signbank http://www.auslan.org.au/dictionary/ to learn and teach your peer group some common phrases. Create a sign for your name. E.g. Wendy, who has long curly hair, uses the sign for ‘w’ and spirals her right hand from ear level down to her chest (the length of her hair). Use sign language to greet each other. E.g. Hello, my name is … What is your name?

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Weblinks

Adolescent literacy toolkit http://programs.ccsso.org/projects/adolescent_literacy_toolkit/resources_for_ teachers/10613.php Boardmaker https://boardmakeronline.com

Learning Difficulties online http://www.ldonline.org/

NSW Education Standards Authority https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/learningareas/english-year-10/learning-through-reading-and-writing Pictello https://www.assistiveware.com/products/pictello

Proloquo2Go https://www.assistiveware.com/products/proloquo2go Reading Rockets http://www.readingrockets.org/

Victorian Department of Education and Training http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/ teachingresources/discipline/english/Pages/default.aspx

Recommended reading

Brum, C., Hall, L. J., Reutebach, C., & Perkins, Y. (2019). Reading comprehension strategies for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Teaching Exceptional Children, 52(2), 88–97.

Capp, M. (2016). Is your planning inclusive? The universal design for learning framework for an Australian context. Australian Educational Leader, 38(4), 44–46. Elleman, A. M., Oslund, E. L., Griffin, N. M., & Myers, K. E. (2019). A review of middle school vocabulary

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Understanding and supporting numeracy competence Sally Howell and Sarah Hopkins This chapter aims to provide the reader with an understanding of: 10.1 The learning needs of students with disability 10.2 Numeracy and current approaches to numeracy instruction that support the learning of all students 10.3 The ‘big ideas’ underpinning number sense 10.4 Evidence-based teaching strategies to foster counting and early number skills 10.5 The importance of basic facts and back-up calculation strategies 10.6 Evidence-based problem-solving instruction 10.7 Strategies for teaching multi-digit arithmetic 10.8 The learning needs of students with significant numeracy difficulties 10.9 Extension for students with advanced mathematical skills.

Introduction

The trend towards inclusive education means that recently developed mathematics curricula are designed to be inclusive of all but a very few students. Within the mathematics curricula of both Australia and New Zealand, expected mathematics learning outcomes or ‘standards’ are articulated for each year or stage level of schooling. Schools can use these standards as a scope and sequence to inform teaching. Consistent with the notion of an inclusive mathematics curriculum is the aim to ensure that all students ‘are confident, creative users and communicators of mathematics, able to investigate, present and interpret situations in their personal and work lives and as active citizens’ (ACARA, 2015). In saying that a curriculum is inclusive of all students, the intention is not that all students in a class will be provided with the same content and experiences. Rather the intention is that teachers will select content and implement age-appropriate learning experiences to meet the needs of each student. Consistent with the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework, for some students, this will involve adjusting the way content is delivered and/or the way students respond. For others, also consistent with UDL, it may involve selecting learning outcomes from year levels different from the student’s age cohort and ensuring that the teaching and learning activities are age-appropriate. This will sometimes be the case for students who are achieving well above grade level and for students with significant additional needs. When planning the numeracy program for students who are performing well below year level expectations, and/or who need

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significant adjustments, goals should be set in consultation with parents and other relevant personnel.

Inclusive education brings with it the expectation that teachers will provide high quality mathematics instruction to all students, regardless of their ability or background, which means catering for very diverse student needs. To achieve this, teachers need deep subject-specific knowledge, knowledge of a wide range of effective teaching strategies, knowledge of their students’ strengths, weaknesses and interests, and highly developed organisational skills including good classroom management. This chapter reflects the view that: ‘Teachers should base their teaching on what the students already know, should make explicit the subsequent key ideas, should ensure tasks are posed at an appropriate level of challenge, and should offer feedback on activities, standards and directions as often as possible’ (National Curriculum Board, 2009, p. 14).

dyscalculia A term used to describe a range of maths-related difficulties including difficulties learning arithmetic facts and executing calculation procedures. number sense An understanding of numbers and operations that is applied when solving problems. big ideas of number Statements that express key understandings required for learning mathematics.

The chapter is predominantly about teaching students who exhibit difficulties learning mathematics. We draw upon research literature where students have been identified as being low achieving or as having a mathematics learning disability, a mathematics learning difficulty (MLD), developmental dyscalculia, a cognitive disability, or an intellectual disability. At the same time, we acknowledge there are many factors that contribute to differences in achievement and that some students will be achieving at a level above age/grade expectations. For students who are not proficient in English, the language demands of mathematics rather than a mathematics difficulty may impact performance. Developing teaching and learning activities with the UDL framework in mind will help ensure that learning opportunities are inclusive of all learners.

We begin this chapter by focusing on numeracy and explaining current approaches to mathematics education with particular reference to evidence-based practices for students with difficulties learning mathematics. We then introduce the construct of number sense and the big ideas of number. We illustrate inclusive teaching practices that will assist teachers to support the development of numeracy in students of all abilities, taking into consideration student characteristics that can impact learning. Throughout the chapter we draw on evidence-based practices that support the development of conceptual understanding, procedural knowledge and problem-solving. The narratives included in this chapter illustrate how some of these effective teaching practices can be used to design lessons and activities to meet the diverse learning needs of students and, in particular, students achieving below grade level expectations.

10.1 Understanding students’ learning needs Understanding the learning profiles of all students, but particularly those with a disability, will assist teachers in their planning and programming. The Inclusion in Action fact sheets provide teachers with a useful starting point for understanding some characteristics of different types of learners. It is recommended that teachers read relevant fact sheets for each of the students with additional learning needs in their class. It is essential that teachers are aware of any difficulties students may have (e.g. attention, fine motor, language) so that teaching and learning activities and classroom organisation are planned according to the principles of UDL and thus accommodate student need. An Australian study of children at the end of their final year of preschool sheds some light on the wide range of differences in language and mathematics skills that potentially exists in any

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classroom (Howell & Kemp, 2010). Children in this study attended preschools or day care centres, spoke English as their first language and did not have a diagnosed disability at the time of assessment. In the study, 176 children (89 boys and 87 girls) with a mean age of 59.9 months from one local NSW government area that included the full range of socioeconomic (SES) backgrounds were assessed from October to December prior to Kindergarten, the first year of school in NSW. Howell and Kemp found a range of 5 years 10 months in the children’s receptive vocabulary as measured by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dunn & Dunn, 1997), a range of 4 years 7 months in ability to solve mathematical problems as measured by the Woodcock Applied Problems subtest and a range of 6 years 10 months in mathematical concepts as measured by the Woodcock Quantitative Concepts subtest (Woodcock, McGrew & Mather, 2001).

Mathematics learning difficulty (MLD)

Many students with disability have language difficulties and/or poor vocabulary knowledge either in addition to or independent of MLD. A lack of maths-specific vocabulary and difficulty in expressing mathematical thinking may be the result of problems with language, EAL/D background, socioeconomic background or any combination of these. Just as vocabulary is described as one of the ‘big ideas’ of reading, it also deserves attention in every maths lesson. If students are to explain their solution strategies and to understand peer and teacher ‘maths talk’, understanding of key vocabulary and mathematical terminology is essential. Teachers should not assume that all students have the same levels of maths-specific language (Hughes et al., 2016). Key vocabulary should be taught in context using modelling, definitions and synonyms. Students should be provided with multiple opportunities to practise using new vocabulary in mathematics lessons.

In addition to their poor mathematics performance, students of all ages with MLD typically have problems with working memory and processing speed (Cragg et al., 2017; Geary, 2011). While the precise contribution of these problems to mathematics difficulty is yet to be determined, there is evidence that over time students with MLD fail to make gains in fact retrieval and have difficulty remembering key principles and identifying salient pieces of information, consequently falling further behind their peers as they progress through school (Sayeski & Paulsen, 2010). Current research evidence shows that students who exhibit substantial difficulties learning mathematics are likely to benefit from teachers who have a good understanding of mathematics content and who are familiar with approaches that have been linked with evidence-based practices for students with mathematics learning difficulties (Powell & Sayeski 2015; Sayeski & Paulsen, 2010; Spooner et al., 2019).

10.2 Numeracy Reform in mathematics education across much of the world has encompassed a shift from seeing mathematics as a large collection of skills to be mastered, to conceiving of it as a human sensemaking and problem-solving activity (Goos et al., 2014, Verschaffel & De Corte, 1996). From a reform perspective, an overarching aim of learning mathematics in the classroom is to develop numeracy competence.

Within the Australian Curriculum, numeracy is defined as ‘the capacity, confidence and disposition to use mathematics to meet the demands of learning, school, home, work, community and civic life. This perspective on numeracy emphasises the key role of applications and utility in learning the discipline of mathematics, and illustrates the way that mathematics contributes to the study of other disciplines’ (National Curriculum Board, 2009, p. 5). Similarly, in New Zealand: ‘To be numerate is to have the ability and inclination to use mathematics effectively – at home, at work and in the community’ (Ministry of Education, New Zealand Government, 2001, p. 1).

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Current approaches to mathematics education

With a focus on developing numeracy competence, there has been an evolving change in the goals of mathematics education. First, more emphasis is placed on students developing positive dispositions towards mathematics (Goos et al., 2014). A positive disposition is manifested in the way a student approaches mathematical tasks with confidence and interest, shows a willingness to persevere, explores the possibility of alternative solutions and solution methods, and displays a tendency to reflect on his/her own thinking. Second, greater importance is placed on students’ capacities to use and engage in mathematics in real-life contexts in ways that meet the needs of individuals (Goos et al., 2014). Third, weight is given to procedural fluency and flexibility. All three goals reflect the importance of conceptual understanding.

Changes in the goals of mathematics education have developed alongside changes in the way mathematics is taught. Students need to learn mathematics in ways that enable them to recognise when mathematics might help to interpret information or solve practical problems, apply their knowledge appropriately in contexts where they will have to use mathematical reasoning processes, choose mathematics that makes sense in the circumstances, make assumptions, resolve ambiguity and judge what is reasonable in the context. Source: National Numeracy Review Report (2008), p. 11

Current approaches to teaching mathematics recognise mathematics as a problem-solving tool. Acceptance of the importance of problem solving as a means of developing deep conceptual understanding and procedural fluency does not mean that teachers should abandon practices such as explicit instruction, shown to be effective in the special education literature (Bryant et al., 2016; Sayeski & Paulsen, 2010). Research consistently finds well-structured practice following explicit teacher demonstrations or explanations enhances student performance. Sequenced practice opportunities include student verbalisations, working with manipulatives and written responses. Such opportunities assist with student learning and provide teachers with opportunities to monitor student understanding (Doabler et al., 2019). The US National Mathematics Advisory Panel (NMAP) (2008) reported that:

Explicit instruction with students who have mathematical difficulties has shown consistently positive effects on performance with word problems and computation. Results are consistent for students with learning disabilities, as well as other students who perform in the lowest third of a typical class. By the term explicit instruction, the Panel means that teachers provide clear models for solving a problem type using an array of examples, that students receive extensive practice in use of newly learned strategies and skills, that students are provided with opportunities to think aloud (i.e., talk through the decisions they make and the steps they take), and that students are provided with extensive feedback. Source: US National Mathematics Advisory Panel (2008), p. 23

In keeping with the above goals, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 2014), published eight research-informed practices evident in excellent mathematics programs: 1 Establish mathematics goals to focus learning

2 Implement tasks that promote reasoning and problem-solving 3 Use and connect mathematical representations 4 Facilitate meaningful mathematical discourse 5 Pose purposeful questions

6 Build procedural fluency from conceptual understanding

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Implications of this meta-analysis for teaching • Explicit instruction that includes clear explanations, teacher modelling of the steps or strategy to solve specific problem types and guided student practice in applying the strategy • Sequenced examples that ensure high rates of student success during initial learning of concepts and skills • A sufficient range of examples for students to apply their new knowledge to unfamiliar problems once students demonstrate understanding and some proficiency • Visuals and graphics accompanied by explicit explanations of how to use them • Student verbalisations of their thinking as they implement strategies that they have been taught • Peer-assisted learning where the peers are older students who have been provided with training • Ongoing feedback to students on their effort FIGURE 10.1 The meta-analysis of intervention research identified several implications. Source: Gersten, R., Chard, D. J., Jayanthi, M., Baker, S. K., Morphy, P., & Flojo, J. (2008). Mathematics instruction for students with learning disabilities or difficulty learning mathematics: a synthesis of the intervention. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation Center on Instruction.

7 Support productive struggle in learning mathematics 8 Elicit and use evidence of student thinking.

Source: US National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (2014)

Based on their meta-analysis of intervention research, Gersten et al. (2008) described a number of instructional practices supportive of students with learning difficulties not thus in other chapters across a range of mathematics skills including problem-solving. Figure 10.1 explores the implications of these.

Evidence-based practices

In their recent review of research into the teaching of mathematics to students with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities, Spooner et al. (2019) found systematic instruction, technologyaided instruction, graphic organisers, manipulatives and explicit instruction to be evidence-based practices (EBP). Studies reviewed generally used what Spooner et al. described as a treatment package rather than a single practice. Explicit instruction and manipulatives were features of most studies. Technology-aided instruction included the use of calculators and the use of video clips to provide real-life problem situations. The use of concrete materials to develop mathematics concepts is common practice in younger grades. It is worth noting that the concrete-representationalabstract (CRA) framework is deemed to be an EBP for students with MLD (Bouck et al., 2018; Flores, 2010; Watt et al., 2016) and can be used effectively to teach higher order skills such as multiplying linear expressions (Watt et al., 2016) in senior grades. The CRA framework is best thought of as a graduated instructional sequence that assists students to see the link between conceptual and procedural knowledge (Agrawal & Morin, 2016). Strickland and Maccini (2010) identified explicit instruction, graduated instructional sequences, enhanced anchored instruction and graphic organisers as promising interventions when teaching algebra to students with MLD.

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It is apparent that practices that have been identified as effective in supporting students with disability are not dissimilar to practices advocated in mainstream mathematics literature. Subsequent sections of this chapter are designed to assist teachers to meet the challenges of developing numeracy competence in all their students. The practices outlined in this chapter can support the vast majority of students to develop along a typical trajectory of numeracy competence. The narratives included in this chapter illustrate how effective teaching practices can be used to design lessons and activities to meet the diverse learning needs of students and, in particular, students achieving below grade-level expectations. Teaching suggestions are drawn from comparative and intervention research involving students with MLD and from research examining the development of mathematical competence in typically achieving students.

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 10.1 Practices to help students with MLD Research on effective mathematics instruction for students with MLD is an emerging field. Four practices shown to have a positive impact on students’ mathematics performance and thus deemed to be evidence-based practices are: • Explicit, systematic instruction • Visual representations • Schema instruction • Metacognitive strategies. There are numerous resources on supporting students with MLD available for teachers. Weblinks are available in the weblinks at the end of the chapter. • National Center on Intensive Intervention (NCII) • The IRIS Center • Evidence-Based Intervention (EBI) Network • What Works Clearing House: Assisting students struggling with mathematics: Response to Intervention (RTI) for elementary and middle schools

Focus on teacher knowledge

Developing specialist knowledge of mathematics and effective instruction are challenges facing all teachers as they look for ways to help all students to learn in an inclusive setting. The wider the achievement gap between students in the same class, the harder it becomes to find teaching points, activities and problems that are pitched at the right level of difficulty for all students in one classroom. Moreover, teachers of upper-primary and lower-secondary school may find themselves designing an adapted curriculum for students who need to learn concepts and skills typically taught in the early years, without the experience or knowledge of early years teaching. They may also find themselves tied to the use of maths textbooks designed to meet specific yearlevel curriculum outcomes rather than the individual learning needs of students. To assist teachers in developing a specialist knowledge of mathematics and be able to represent mathematics as a coherent and connected enterprise, there has been a concerted effort to articulate big ideas in mathematics, which link mathematics understandings into a coherent whole and as such are central to the learning of mathematics (Charles, 2005). Siemon, Bleckly and Neal (2012) describe a big idea in mathematics as:

• an idea, strategy, or way of thinking about some key aspect of mathematics, without which students’ progress in mathematics will be seriously impacted;

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• encompassing and connecting many other ideas and strategies;

• providing an organising structure or a frame of reference that supports further learning and generalisations. Source: Siemon, Bleckly and Neal (2012)

The big ideas expressed in this chapter direct attention to the mathematical understandings (conceptual knowledge) associated with developing foundations in number sense and are accompanied with ideas for assessing and teaching these mathematical understandings.

10.3 Big ideas for number sense Over the last three decades the term number sense has been used to describe a variety of aspects of mathematics achievement and/or intuition, and it is a term now firmly entrenched in both special education and mainstream mathematics literature (Howell & Kemp, 2004). In the early years, the term ‘number sense’ is used to describe the intuitive understanding of number that is prerequisite for success in school-based mathematics (Gersten & Chard, 1999; Gersten et al., 2007; Griffin, 2004). Skills appearing under the term ‘number sense’ are also referred to as ‘numerosity’, ‘number competence’, ‘numerical proficiency’ or ‘mathematical proficiency’ by some authors (see, for example, Butterworth, 2005; Dowker, 2005; Jordan et al., 2009; Ramani & Siegler, 2008). Both informal and formal early number skills in kindergarten are associated with future mathematics performance, and intervening through tiered levels of instruction has been shown to improve the mathematics performance of young ‘at risk’ students (Clarke et al., 2016; Shanley et al., 2017).

number sense An understanding of numbers and operations that is applied when solving problems.

Relevant to all years of schooling, McIntosh et al. (1992) divided number sense into three areas: knowledge of and facility with numbers, knowledge of and facility with operations, and applying knowledge of and facility with numbers and operations to problem situations. In their framework for considering number sense, McIntosh et al. (1992) defined number sense in terms of what those who are competent in mathematics can do. They included the abilities to communicate, process and interpret information quantitatively and to recognise the regularity or ‘sense’ of mathematics. Underpinning number sense are big ideas relating to counting, number, addition and subtraction, and multiplication and division.

Big ideas relating to counting

• Counting can be used to find out how many objects are in a set (i.e., answer the question How many?)

• Only one number word can be assigned to each object that needs to be counted (one-to-one principle)

• There is a conventional sequence of number words that are used when counting (stable-order principle) • When counting, the last number gives the number of objects in the set (cardinal principle) • It doesn’t matter in which order you count objects in the set (order irrelevance principle)

• It doesn’t matter if you rearrange the objects in the set, the number of objects will not change (trusting the count).

Big ideas relating to numbers

• For every number word there is a matching symbol (numeral)

• Numbers can represent a quantity and so represent how many objects are in a set • One-to-one correspondence can be used to compare the size of sets

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• Phrases such as more than, less than, or same as refer to the relative size of sets

• Numbers can also represent a measure and so represent a distance on a number line • The distance between consecutive whole numbers is the same on a number line • Numbers increase in size when moving from left to right on a number line

• Phrases such as greater than (larger), less than (smaller), or equal to refer to the relative size of numbers • Numbers can also be used to indicate the order of something (3rd)

• Numbers can also be used as a label (e.g., football jumper with 43 on the back)

• Numbers can be represented in multiple ways using decomposition and recomposition (partpart-whole schema) • Some numbers have more than one digit

• The value of a digit is determined by the place it occupies in the number (e.g., hundreds place, tens place, units place). • Multiplication is used to determine the value of each digit (80 = 8 × 10) • Numbers are the sum of the value of each digit (283 = 200 + 80 + 3).

Big ideas relating to addition and subtraction

• Addition means to put together (combine or join) two or more sets of objects into one set • Subtraction means to remove or take away part of a set

• Real-world problems involving changing, combining, comparing and equalising can be solved using addition or subtraction • Adding and subtracting the same quantity cancel each other out (adding is the inverse of subtraction and vice versa) • Any subtraction problem can be solved using addition

• The order of the operands does not matter when performing addition (commutative property) • The order in which terms are grouped together does not matter when performing addition (associative property) • The order of the operands does matter when performing subtraction

• The order in which terms are grouped together does matter when performing subtraction.

Big ideas relating to multiplication and division

• Multiplication and division involve arranging a set of objects into a specified number of subgroups so that each subgroup contains the same number of objects

• Multiplication and division can help to find how many subgroups there are, how many objects are in each subgroup, and/or how many objects there are altogether • Real-world problems involving multiplicative comparison, proportion, equal groups, multiplicative change, and combinations can be solved using multiplication or division • Any division problem can be solving using multiplication

• Multiplying and dividing the same quantity cancel each other out (multiplication is the inverse of division and vice versa)

• The order of the operands does not matter when performing multiplication (commutative property) • The order in which terms are grouped together does not matter when performing multiplication (associative property)

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• The order of the operands does matter when performing division

• The order in which terms are grouped together does matter when performing division

• The intuitive model of multiplication is repeated addition. The repeated addition model involves thinking of a group of objects that is made up of a specific number of subgroups, each with the same number of objects in it, and the goal is to find out the total number of objects in the group • Multiplicative thinking is an extension of repeated addition thinking

• The two intuitive models of division are the partition (or sharing) model and the quotition (or measurement) model. The partition model of division involves a group of objects that need to be arranged into a specified number of subgroups so that each subgroup contains the same number of objects, and the goal is to find out how many are in each subgroup. The quotition model of division involves a group of objects that need to be arranged into a number of subgroups each containing a specified number of objects, and the goal is to find out how many subgroups there are.

Assessment of the big ideas

Assessment of the big ideas underpinning number sense should be the first step when assessing conceptual understanding of primary and secondary students experiencing mathematics difficulties. Assessment tasks designed for students in the early years can be adapted for older students to align with expected learning outcomes. For example, assessment of older students’ conceptual understanding of number magnitude would include ordering or estimation tasks involving numbers of any size, including fractions and decimals, using an ‘empty’ number line that shows only a first and last number. Tasks designed for older students can also be used with young students with advanced skills and/or exceptional talent.

Concrete-representational-abstract approach

Within the UDL framework a CRA approach can be adopted to assess students’ conceptual and procedural knowledge. When given a problem to solve, some students may be at the concrete level and require manipulatives, some may be at the representational level and use pictures, tallies, number-lines or schema diagrams, while others may be working at the abstract level and solve problems mentally or by using written numerals and symbols. Some students may not have the language or vocabulary knowledge to express their mathematical thinking. If assessments only examine performance at an abstract level, incorrect assumptions may be made about students’ conceptual understanding. Allowing students to solve problems using concrete or semi-concrete representations (e.g., pictures) is consistent with UDL principles. When a student can demonstrate conceptual understanding but not calculation skills, providing a calculator may be the only assistance the student needs. When posing a problem to be solved, ask students to ‘think aloud’ or talk through their thinking and solution process. Error analysis of responses during one-on-one observations or ‘interviews’ provides useful information about a student’s levels of conceptual understanding and procedural proficiency. Teachers need to be mindful of students’ knowledge of mathematical language when assessing and teaching (Powell et al., 2020). See Figure 10.2 for example tasks that are helpful for assessing children’s understanding of the big ideas associated with number sense.

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Counting • Use a puppet to assess students’ understanding of counting principles • Using small numbers, have a puppet count, making an obvious error, and ask students to say what the puppet did wrong • Ask students to explain how they know the total is correct even though the puppet counted in an unconventional but correct way (e.g. all red then all blue counters but not left to right)

Number • Show two or more of sets of objects and ask which set is bigger/smaller, has more/less? • Place a range of numerals in order from smallest to largest, largest to smallest (e.g. 15, 9, 3, 10) • Show a 2-digit (or multidigit) number and ask the student to show the number using base ten materials • Display base ten materials and ask the student to identify what number is represented or have student select a numeral to match the display

Addition and subtraction • Show students a small number of counters that are then hidden from view. Display a second set of counters and ask ‘How many altogether?’ • Present a simple addition or subtraction word problem and have counters/blocks, number line, paper and pencil available. Ask student to solve the problem. • Show students a number of counters. Establish how many there are then hide them from view. Slide some counters out and ask ‘How many are left?’

Multiplication and division • Pose problems that require students to determine the number of items in each subgroup and ask students to explain how they got the answer (e.g., I am going to make 5 party bags. If I have 25 jelly snakes to share how many snakes will be in each bag? • Pose problems that require students to determine the number in each subgroup and ask students to explain how they got the answer (e.g. If I have 25 jelly snakes to share and put 5 in each party bag, how many party bags will I have?

FIGURE 10.2 Assessing the big ideas underpinning number sense

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10.4 Counting and early number There is evidence that it is an understanding of counting principles such as cardinality, and order irrelevance, as well as an understanding of the properties of addition including commutativity and associativity, along with the ability to discern the larger of two numbers (number magnitude) that allows children to develop efficient strategies for solving simple addition and subtraction problems (Dowker, 2005; Gersten et al., 2007; Praet et al., 2013). Attention to the relational nature of equality (e.g. = means ‘the same amount’) also promotes understanding of arithmetic concepts (Chesney et al., 2018). Jordan et al.’s (2009) screening assessment administered at the beginning of Year 1, was shown to have predictive validity of mathematics achievement at the end of Year 1 and Year 3. This assessment included items to assess: verbal counting, one-to-one correspondence, order irrelevance, next number, two numbers after, bigger number, smaller number, number closer to, numeral knowledge and arithmetic operations of addition and subtraction with sums less than 10.

Differences in numerical magnitude knowledge

Siegler and Ramani (2008) found differences in numerical magnitude knowledge between preschoolers who came from low-income and middle-income backgrounds. While low-income children generally displayed less-accurate representations of number magnitude for one-digit numbers (assessed using an estimation task with a number line marked 0–10), these children improved their knowledge and estimation skills after playing a simple board game for 4 x 15-minute sessions over a two-week period. The game in this study consisted of 10 horizontal squares containing the numbers 1 to 10 in sequential order and a spinner that could land on ‘1’ or ‘2’. Two players took it in turns to spin and move their token forward the number of places indicated on the spinner; the player who reached the end first was the winner. Importantly, players were required to verbalise their move each time so, for example, if their token was on the square labelled four and they spun two, the player needed to say ‘five, six’ as they moved their token.

cardinality The number of elements in a set. order irrelevance The order in which items are counted does not change the total number of items. commutativity Changing the order of operands does not change the result a + b = b + a and a × b = b × a. associativity Changing the grouping of elements does not change the result (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (a × b) × c = a × (b × c).

Subitising

As well as learning to count, children need to develop skills with subitising. Subitising is the ability to enumerate small quantities using visual-spatial perception rather than counting. Young children (like adults) can subitise up to around five images or objects regardless of the way these images are arranged (see Figure 10.3).

Looking at any one of the cards in Figure 10.3, children can also see that five dots is comprised of a three-dot and two-dot pattern, as well as a four-dot and one-dot pattern. The notion of units within units lays the foundation for understanding the part-part-whole schema. Clements (1999) distinguished between perceptual subitising (the instant recognition of numerosity) and conceptual subitising, described as a more advanced process that operates beyond the range of perceptual subitising. Conceptual subitising includes counting and patterning abilities to enumerate sets. So, for example, seven items can be recognised as comprising four and three items (or five and two items) using only perceptual subitising; or using a combination of perceptual subitising and counting. Subitising is a foundation skill for the early learning of mathematics (Geary, 2011; Howell & Kemp, 2010) as it promotes students’ understanding of numbers (Conderman et al., 2014; Jung, 2011; McGuire, Kinzie, & Berch, 2012), particularly when learning

subitising The ability to enumerate small quantities using visualspatial perception rather than counting. part-part-whole schema Numbers can be represented in multiple ways using decomposition and recomposition.

FIGURE 10.3 Subitising allows a person to recognise that there are five dots on each card without counting them.

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the first few number words (Benoit et al., 2004). Starkey and McCandliss (2014) found students’ conceptual subitising skills were predictive of future mathematics achievement, and Gray and Reeve (2014) found an association between weak subitising ability and poor addition performance. Obersteiner, Reiss and Ufer (2013) found that children’s perceptual subitising skills improved as a result of practice, and their conceptual subitising skills improved as a result of training. Students with MLD tend to exhibit poor subitising ability compared to their peers (Desoete & Gregoire, 2007; Fischer et al., 2008), but these students also benefit from training (Wilson et al., 2006).

Perceptual and conceptual subitising

A tens frame is a useful tool for developing students perceptual and conceptual subitising abilities. A tens frame is a two-by-five rectangular frame in which images or objects (e.g., counters) can be placed to help children visualise numbers less than or equal to ten (Van de Walle, 1988) as shown in Figure 10.4.

FIGURE 10.4 A tens frame showing eight counters

Using a tens frame, children can describe the different number patterns they can see within a number. For example, in Figure 10.4, children can see 8 counters as comprising 2 lots of 4 counters, 4 lots of 2 counters, 6 and 2 counters, or 2 less than 10 counters. Seeing small numbers in relation to the number 10 is particularly important for developing place-value understanding and for learning decomposition strategies for adding and subtracting numbers. Cheng (2012) used different coloured counters to help children visualise different number patterns and then generate addition equations for different target numbers (e.g., for the target number 5: 1 + 4 = 5, 4 + 1 = 5, 2 + 3 = 5, 3 + 2 = 5).

Teaching suggestions

The teaching suggestions outlined in this section focus on the development of conceptual understanding. Activities can be adapted to reflect different levels of understanding and different levels of number knowledge and mathematical skill.

Counting activities

Counting can help to correctly respond to the question How many? Counting activities help children to understand number as a quantity.

• Verbal counting: Model the count, count together, ask students to count independently. Provide multiple practice opportunities across the day in a variety of contexts. During whole group activities, individualise each student’s turn to build on their current counting range. Students also need to be able to count backwards, to count on from a number other than one, and to count from one number to another.

• One-to-one correspondence: Repeated practice in counting items that are ordered from left to right helps students who have difficulty with keeping track, but it may interfere with understanding of the order irrelevance principle (each item is paired with only one number word but the order in which items are counted does not matter). To ensure students do not learn counting as a rote procedure, have them count objects in a variety of ways (e.g. blue then yellow counters, right to left). For students with fine motor difficulties, provide easily grasped concrete objects. • Cardinal value: Students should automatically provide the last count word as the number of items in a set. Until students independently provide the cardinal value, ask ‘How many?’ immediately after the student has stopped counting. Model counting groups and saying the cardinal value (e.g. ‘How many? 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. There are 5.)’. To establish cardinal value, use groups that are easy to count and groups that can be subitised, and always pair counting with the question ‘How many?’ (see Figure 10.5).

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• Trusting the count: After counting a group of items, rearrange them and ask ‘How many now?’ Initially students may need to recount. Model the activity by counting a group, saying the

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total number (five), moving the items around and saying ‘There is still the same number, there are five’. Count items and either add or remove one or two items or leave the same number of items and have students say ‘same number’ or ‘not the same number’.

How many?

1, 2, 3, 4, 5... Five apples

– To develop ‘maths talk’ at a group or class level, demonstrate counting in unconventional ways and ask students to explain why the count is right or wrong. – Provide explicit feedback to students by restating the salient pieces of information (e.g., ‘Great looking Sophie. You saw that the puppet touched this star two times. When we count, we only count each item once.)

FIGURE 10.5 To have students provide the last count in a set of items, as ‘how many?’, until they can provide this number on their own.

• More/less: Start by asking students to identify the group with more. Pair the groups with numbers when giving feedback. ‘Yes the group of eight is more than the group of two. So eight is more than two.’ Use the activity as an opportunity for students to practise one-to-one correspondence and give the cardinal value of a set by asking a student to count and say how many in each group. Once students can identify the group with more, introduce the words ‘bigger’ (‘larger’). Teach the word ‘less’ and introduce the vocabulary ‘smaller’. • Bigger/smaller number: Provide explicit instruction. ‘When a number is more, we say it is bigger; 10 is bigger than 3.’ Provide multiple opportunities for students to use and demonstrate their understanding of the terms ‘bigger’ and ‘more’ related to numbers. Use the same process for teaching ‘less’. When the terms bigger, smaller, more and less are firm, introduce the term larger. Modelling numbers with Unifix® towers provides students with a strong visual representation of number size.

Number line activities

The number line is a useful tool for demonstrating number as a measure and how numbers can be classified according to ‘size’. • Ordering numbers: Introduce the word order of numbers with the activity of putting numeral cards in order from 1 to 5 or 1 to 10. Once students can place numerals in sequence, they can start to work on ordering a subset of numerals according to size.

• Teach the vocabulary: Teach words such as biggest, largest and smallest while providing concrete demonstrations of ordering numbers. Once students can order concrete representations of numbers, model where each number is located on the number line. Explain and model that, as we move along the number line to the right, the numbers get larger. Accompany all activities with the language of number size. • Number after and number before: Students generally find it much easier to say the number after a given number than the number before. Provide lots of practice locating the number before and number after on a number line. Provide before and after cards for students who need a visual prompt (e.g., Hold up a card with ‘6 __’ and ask, ‘What is the number after six?’ Point to the blank line or box after 6 while stressing the word after. Hold up a card showing ‘__ 3’ and ask, ‘What is the number before 3’. Point to the blank line before 3 while stressing the word before.

• One (or two) more, one (or two) less: Using a number line, model the language one more than, one less than, two more than, two than less than, etc.

• Which number is closer to a third number?: Introduce this activity only after students have a firm understanding of number after, next number, number before, one more, one less. Some students will

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5 3 4 5 6 7 FIGURE 10.6 Students need practice saying the number before and the number after a given number.

need explicit teaching of the vocabulary as well as of the concept. Teach the concept of ‘number closer to’ on a number line. Start with numbers below 10. Model vocabulary using ‘think aloud’ (e.g. ‘Which is closer to five? One or six? Here is five (mark five). I can see six is very near five. One is not so near, one is not so close. I can see six is closer to five.’). More advanced students can work out the number closer to any number in their counting range and to explain how they worked out the answer. For example: ‘Which number is closer to 342: 299 or 366? How do you know?’

• ‘Rounding’ numbers: Demonstrate rounding numbers on a number line and number chart. A similar process to that suggested for closer number can be used to help older students round numbers up or down. Start with rounding to 0, 5, or 10 then to 0, 50 or 100. • Estimation: Ask students to estimate where numbers are located on an empty number line between 1 and 10, 1 and 100, 1 and 1000.

Addition and subtraction: meaning

The intuitive model of addition is joining two sets:

• Introduce the concept of addition with concrete materials or virtual manipulatives. Model the language of addition – plus, add, altogether, equals, is equal to.

• Provide opportunities for students to add two sets by counting concrete objects, then move on to semi-concrete objects including lines (CRA). Students who have difficulty writing and/or drawing will find it much easier to represent problems with lines or small circles. Using lines or circles also saves time by preventing students from becoming carried away with drawing beautiful flowers or accurate cars, etc.

• Ask students to put out objects to model addition stories. Later, ask them to draw lines instead of putting out objects. • Be mindful that if students are distracted by concrete objects, skills will be more efficiently taught using semi-concrete materials such as lines. • The intuitive model of subtraction is to remove or take away part of a set: Introduce the concept with concrete materials. Model the language of subtraction – take away, minus, subtract. • Count back: Model counting back on a number line to solve subtraction story problems.

• −0, −1 rules: Provide activities that will lead students to ‘discover’ −0 and −1 rules. Rephrase student explanations if need be to help all students develop an understanding that when zero is ‘taken away’, the number stays the same and when one is taken away, the answer is one less or the number before. • Count on from the smaller number to find difference: Pose questions seeking to find the difference between two numbers. Model two numbers with Unifix® ‘towers’ and ask students what the difference in size is between the two towers. Ask: ‘How many more is the big tower?’ Model counting up by adding on extra blocks of a different colour until the two ‘towers’ are the same. Model the counting on solution method on a number line. Ask students if they can suggest two ways to find the answer.

Writing equations

When students can model the actions of addition and subtraction and say how many there are, they can start using the terms add, plus, take away, minus, same number as, equals, is equal to. Once they have mastered numeral recognition, they can also be shown how to record addition and subtraction using mathematical notation. • Provide explicit instruction in the concept of ‘equality’.

• Include examples and non-examples of equality accompanied by the symbols ‘=’ and ‘≠’. • Explain that the total number on each side of the ‘=’ sign is ‘the same’: • When the total number ‘is the same’, we say ‘is equal to’ or ‘equals’.

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• Teach ‘=’ sign; apply ‘=’ sign.

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• Practise ‘=’ and ‘≠’ with small groups that students can subitise. • Practise ‘=’ in the form 3 + 2 = 4 + 1 and discuss why this is true.

Subitising activities

• Subitising (the instant recognition of small quantities): Allow students to practise subitising by flashing dot cards of one, two, three, four or five dots and asking ‘How many?’ For students unable to give a verbal response, have numeral cards available and have them point to or hold up the correct card. Note that a variety of dot displays should be used, as subitising is more than just recognising dice patterns.

Differentiation

In an inclusive classroom, many students can have their needs met while working on the same type of task but with differentsized numbers. For example, some students can practise counting from one while others can practise counting practise from a number other than one (17, 29, 88 or 150) to a specified number. Some students might practise counting up and down by ones, while others might practise counting up and down by tens, on and off the decade.

Likewise, when ordering numbers, some students can order numbers below 10 while other students can order larger numbers. Some students may be working on identifying the ‘number after or before’ in the range 0–10, some others on the ‘number after and before’ in the range 0–100. Some students can estimate where one-digit numbers are located on an empty number line between 1 and 10, while others FIGURE 10.7 The flexibility offered by Smart Board can estimate where two-digit numbers technology is of huge assistance. are located on an empty number line between 1 and 100. Students who are gifted and talented can be challenged to order decimals or fractions with the same (or different) denominator on a number REFLECT line. The flexibility offered by Smart Board technology is of huge assistance (see ON THIS Figure 10.7) and provides a means for students with poor fine motor control to What factors demonstrate their skills and knowledge. would you

consider when Having a clear idea about how to structure numeracy blocks into wholedeciding on class, small-group, and paired or individual sessions means that activities and grouping questions can be designed to meet the needs of all students as determined arrangements? through ongoing assessment and monitoring. Teacher organisational skills come into play in making sure that targets for each student are documented in a manageable recording format so that data can easily be collected for different groups of students each day. Efficient recording enables the teacher to determine when students are ready to move on and what each student needs to learn next. When placing students into groups for small group work, consideration should be given to the intended outcomes for every student in the group. Sometimes it will be appropriate to group as homogeneously as possible, while at other times heterogeneous grouping will be a better option. Grouping should be flexible.

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NARRATIVE 10.1 Alex Ms Brown implements a curriculum-based assessment of early number with her Year 1 class. Based on information from students’ end of year reports and conversations with the previous year’s kindergarten teachers, she groups students into tentative levels as a starting point for assessment and organises her materials at Foundation, Year 1 and Year 2 levels. She is mindful of the UDL framework when developing assessment tasks and teaching activities. Alex is aged six and a half and has a diagnosis of a mild to moderate developmental delay. He has poor fine motor skills and poor articulation. He tends to speak in one- or two-word utterances. Alex is confident identifying and naming numerals from one to five but has difficulty writing these numbers. While his articulation is poor, Alex demonstrates that he can count in sequence to six but misses seven before counting eight, nine, ten. Because of his poor fine motor skills, Alex is given the opportunity to count easily handled objects such as toy cars but he does not consistently demonstrate one-to-one correspondence. When asked ‘How many?’ Alex repeats counting from one. He is not able to count on from a number other than one and cannot say the ‘number after’ or ‘number before’ a spoken number to 10. He cannot put numeral cards to five in order when asked to ‘Put the cards in order’ or ‘Show me how the numbers should go’. Alex is able to subitise one and two dot patterns. He cannot say which of two numbers is ‘bigger’ and cannot point to the group that ‘has more’.

Where to from here? Alex takes longer to respond to teacher questions than most of his peers. Ms Brown should ensure she allows sufficient ‘wait time’ for him to respond. Alex’s peers can be taught to hold back until Alex has had a chance to answer. Where possible Ms Brown will rephrase Alex’s responses to expand on the one or two words he says. In group or class activities Alex should be given practice in counting from one to ten with the teacher modelling and stressing 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Knowing that Alex consistently misses seven when counting, his teacher can provide multiple opportunities throughout the day for him to practise his counting. In a meaningful context he can count children at lining-up time, books in a book corner, pencils in a pencil tin, etc. Alex will need explicit instruction in ‘counting on’. During group time Ms Brown can model counting on from numbers other than one, again stressing seven. She can adopt the model ‘I do, we do, you do’ (lead, guide, test). Using a variety of easy-to-handle items Alex can practise matching numerals to sets and responding to ‘How many?’ with a number rather than repeating the count from one. Engaging him in games to develop his automatic recognition of small quantities to five (subitising) should be included in his program. Accompanying each flashed item with the question ‘How many?’ should assist Alex to develop the cardinality principle as he learns that the correct response is a number not a counting sequence. Ms Brown will start with cards showing the digits one to three. Rolling a die and asking Alex ‘How many?’ is another way for him to practise saying a total. Students generally enjoy the challenge of saying how many objects or dots are flashed on the Smart Board or on a card, and all students in Year 1 will benefit from learning to recognise dot patterns to five and to ten on five frames and ten frames. Alex could start with recognising various configurations to three. This should help him develop part-part-whole schema. Activities to build his understanding of ‘bigger’ and ‘smaller’ number can be built around dot cards and numerals to five. Frequent use of a number line to 10 will assist Alex to learn the order of numerals. Teacher talk should emphasise that as we count along the number line the numbers get bigger. Alex can

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play the simple car race game (Siegler & Ramani, 2008) to help develop his numerical magnitude knowledge and to practise counting from numbers other than one. All activities can be a part of either whole-group or small-group instruction with students responding to specific target questions. Likewise, the use of apps for independent ‘work’ will reflect individual needs, including for students with advanced mathematics skills. The school has devised a system for coding apps against curriculum outcomes and Ms Brown will refer to this to select apps for Alex to practise counting, numeral recognition and numeral writing. In particular, she will look for apps consistent with the big ideas of number.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How can Ms Brown use a finger puppet to assess Alex’s understanding of the different counting principles? 2. How can Ms Brown adjust activities using numeral cards 0–9 to suit students already working at a Year 2 level in whole number? 3. What adjustments could Mrs Brown make if she had a student with a vision impairment?

10.5 Basic facts Children are said to be proficient with basic facts when they predominantly use correct retrievalbased strategies to solve single-digit addition and multiplication problems (and corresponding subtraction and division problems). Retrieval-based strategies include direct retrieval (just knowing the answer) and decomposition strategies – deriving the answer from a known fact. There are many types of decomposition strategies. For single-digit addition, the more common strategies involve a doubles fact (e.g., 6 + 5 = 6 + 6 – 1 or 5 + 5 + 1) or an add-to-ten fact (e.g., 4 + 7 = 4 + 6 + 1). For single-digit multiplication, decomposition strategies include a doubling strategy (e.g., 8 × 4 = 8 × 2 × 2 = 16 × 2).

Learning to directly retrieve correct answers to simple addition problems has little to do with memorisation. Students rarely learn to associate an addition problem with its answer by deliberately trying to commit this association to memory. Instead, after much practice using back-up strategies (counting strategies and subitising strategies), they find that they begin to just know the answer. The strategy choice model (Geary et al. 2012; Shrager & Siegler, 1998) provides an explanation of how problem–answer associations are formed in memory, making direct retrieval possible. According to this model, every time a problem is performed using a back-up strategy, the answer is associated with the problem in memory, regardless of whether the answer is correct or not. The strength of the association in memory between a problem and its correct answer is dependent on how often this correct association has been made in relation to how often incorrect associations have been made. When the strength of the correct problem–answer association in memory reaches a particular threshold, it is probable that the student will just know the answer and state it. This model applies to learning to retrieve all basic facts.

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Back-up strategies

Before using retrieval-based strategies, students use a range of back-up strategies that differ in terms of efficiency (described in the section on Teaching suggestions). For addition, backup strategies generally involve counting strategies. Strategy variation is a feature of typical development: the same student may use different counting strategies on different problems, or use different counting strategies for the same problem on different occasions. Variation in strategy use is important as students build confidence when trying new, more efficient strategies. With many opportunities for practice, students replace inefficient counting strategies (count-all strategies and the count-from-first strategy) with the most efficient counting strategy (the mincounting strategy) before retrieval-based strategies come to be relied upon (Hopkins & Lawson, 2002). Poor retrieval of addition facts has long been recognised as a hallmark of MLD (Bryant et al., 2008; Geary et al., 2000; Gersten et al., 2005). Students with MLD often use inefficient counting strategies for a longer period than their typically achieving peers and are likely to produce more counting errors.

The strategy choice model emphasises how important it is that practice with back-up strategies results in the correct answer being associated with each problem. For this reason, if students want to use manipulatives (e.g. counters) or their fingers to help them keep track of the count, they should be encouraged to do so (Jordan et al., 2009). Ostad and Sorensen (2007) found that children with MLD displayed less use of private speech while counting and suggested that systematic training to promote private speech internalisation may help children to make fewer counting errors. Students who use inefficient counting strategies will also benefit from explicit instruction with using the more efficient counting strategies (Fuchs et al., 2010).

Accurate min-counters

A more pervasive difference becomes apparent in middle and upper primary years when students acquire the min-counting strategy and make few errors, but still do not make the transition to retrieval-based strategies (Hopkins & Bayliss, 2017). For these students, practice does not strengthen problem–answer associations in memory, but promotes a fixed way of responding so that min-counting becomes the default strategy used. These students, referred to as accurate min-counters, are likely to fall further and further behind their peers who have learned retrieval-based strategies if their difficulties are not addressed (Hopkins & Bayliss, 2017). Students who display an accurate-min counting pattern of performance will be likely to benefit from explicit instruction with using decomposition strategies (Torbeyns et al., 2005) and/ or strategies that utilise subitising skills (Hopkins & de Villiers, 2016). Along with explicit instruction where needed, students require much practice to develop proficiency with basic facts. For this reason, computer-based instructional systems are helpful (see Figure 10.8).

FIGURE 10.8 Computer-based instructional systems can support numeracy competence

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Teaching suggestions

The teaching suggestions outlined in this section focus on the development of procedural knowledge

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and, in particular, the use of increasingly efficient back-up strategies. There is a bidirectional relationship between procedural and conceptual knowledge: an increase in one type of knowledge leads to an increase in the other (Rittle-Johnson, 2017).

Addition: back-up strategies

There are a variety of counting strategies students use for addition before learning retrievalbased strategies that range in terms of efficiency.

• Count all strategies: The longsum-counting strategy involves two rounds of counting, one to first represent each of the addends with concrete materials (or fingers) and one to add the addends (e.g. 3 + 4 = 1, 2, 3; 1, 2, 3, 4; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). The sum-counting strategy involves one round of counting starting at one (e.g. 3 + 4 = 1, 2, 3; 4, 5, 6, 7). To move students from using the sumcounting strategy, cover one set and ask them to count on the second set. • Count-from-first strategy: Students start at the number value of the first addend and count-on the value of the second addend (e.g. 3 + 4 = 3; 4, 5, 6, 7). Observe students’ counting strategies, be aware of students who are using this strategy and ask them to tell you how they worked how many ‘altogether’. Rephrase or model student explanations as necessary. Ask why this is a good strategy.

• Min-counting strategy (sometimes called the count-from-larger strategy): Students start at the number value of the larger addend and count-on the value of the smaller or minimum addend (e.g. 3 + 4 = 4; 5, 6, 7). Ask students using this strategy to tell you how they worked out how many ‘altogether’. Rephrase or model student explanations as necessary. Ask why this is a good strategy. Ask students who are using this strategy if it is better than counting from the smaller number and why. To move students on from the count from first strategy to the min strategy present problems such as 3 + 24 or 2 + 19 and ask ‘What is the easiest way to find the answer?’ If necessary, model the explanation: ‘When I am adding a big number and a small number it is quicker and easier to count on from the bigger number’. In Year 2 or above, model how to use the min strategy to students who are still counting all or counting from the first addend. Provide a clear explanation and practise use of the strategy when adding on one, two, three, four or five to a larger number. Restricting use of the min strategy to counting-on up to five is based on the fact that students will generally be able to keep track of counting up to five fingers.

• + 0, + 1 rules: Provide activities that will lead students to ‘discover’ + 0 and + 1 rules. Rephrase student explanations to help all students develop an understanding that when zero is added, the number stays the same and when one is added it is one more or the next number. Ask students to apply the rule to large numbers. If a student starts to ‘count all’ prompt them: ‘Remember the plus zero rule. When we plus zero the number …?’ (model ‘stays the same’ if necessary).

Multiplication: back-up strategies

Backup strategies for multiplication include repeated addition, skip counting and decomposition strategies, as well as rule-based strategies for multiplying by one and zero.

• Repeated addition: students interpret the multiplication sign as ‘groups of’. For example, 3 x 4 is thought of as three groups of four (4 + 4 + 4). Students count by ones starting at four, vocalising 4; 5, 6, 7, 8; 9, 10, 11, 12. Encourage students to emphasise each fourth count and whisper the counts in between (known as rhythmic counting): 4; 5, 6, 7, 8; 9, 10, 11, 12.

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• Correctly model ‘groups of’ with objects or diagrams. For example, when modelling ‘three groups of four’, it is important to represent three groups of four and not four groups of three. Either model can represent 3 × 4, but only one model correctly represents ‘3 groups of 4’.

• Arrays are helpful for showing the commutativity of multiplication (e.g., 4 × 7 is represented as an area of 4 squares by 7 squares thus illustrating 7 rows of 4 squares, or when turned 90 degrees, 4 rows of 7 squares, see Figure 10.9).

•  Skip counting: students verbalise a skip counting sequence. For example, to calculate 3 × 8, the sequence 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24 is verbalised until the eighth term. Learning to skip count marks an important conceptual milestone. When counting by threes, children transition from thinking of three as three groups of one to thinking of three as one group of three. Asking children to skip count to find the total number of objects can help them to develop this understanding. For example, here are 30 beans. Can someone count by threes to check there are 30 beans here? FIGURE 10.9 Arrays can show that whichever way two numbers are arranged, their product will be the same.

• Ask students to skip count units of money to find the total amount represented. For example, four five-dollar bills or eight two-dollar coins.

•  Decomposition strategies: connect the 3 and 6 times table, and the 4 and 8 times table. For example, 5 × 6 = 5 × 3 × 2 and 6 × 8 = 6 × 4 × 2. Also connect the 9-times table with the 10-times table (e.g. 4 × 9 = 4 × 10 – 4). Arrays are helpful for illustrating these connections.

NARRATIVE 10.2 Emily Emily has an EAL/D background and is in Year 3. She is able to read, write and order one- and two-digit numbers and can count to 100 by 1s and by 10s. Emily is able to add one-digit numbers by counting on from the larger number (min-strategy) using her fingers. She is not able to explain the strategy she uses. Emily has not yet developed mental strategies for adding two-digit numbers and relies on finger counting. On being shown four full ten frames and a frame with three dots, she did not count by 10s and then add three to give a total of 43, rather she counted by ones.

Where to from here? To check Emily’s conceptual understanding, her teacher models a puppet solving the problem 13 + 5 by counting on from 13 and asks if the puppet is right, then models counting from 5 and asks if the puppet is right. The teacher then asks Emily to show the best way and ask ‘Why?’ This provides an opportunity for Emily to explain her thinking and to establish that she understands it is easier to keep track when ‘counting on’ a small number (5) rather than a larger number (13). Because she is an EAL/D student, Emily’s teacher models correct mathematical language and provides her with explicit instruction in key vocabulary. The class teacher and ESL teacher collaborate to develop resources to support the development of essential mathematical vocabulary and explanations. Charts that record key mathematics vocabulary in English and in each of the languages spoken by students in the class are made available. Emily needs to develop an understanding of place value and counting by 10 as a composite unit. Emily is given activities where she has to count large numbers of Unifix blocks or paddle pop sticks by making groups of ten and counting by 10s. She will then move on to identifying two-digit numbers represented by ten frames. When modelling 14, the teacher puts out a full ten frame

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and a frame with 4 dots with the numeral 10 under the full frame and the numeral 4 under the four-dot frame. Describing 14 as 1 ten and 4 ones (or units), the teacher models moving the 4 numeral card over the zero part of the numeral 10 to show 14. The same activity can be modelled using MAB blocks, with the explanation that the ‘ten’ block is the same as 10 ones. It is important that the ten block is not called ‘a long’ and the 100 block is not called ‘a flat’, as this language does not convey the place value/base ten purpose of the blocks. When Emily can model numbers and ascribe a value to concrete models, the teacher models partitioning two-digit numbers in standard and non-standard ways (e.g., 35 can be 3 tens + 5 ones, 2 tens + 15 ones, 1 ten + 25 ones). Once Emily has a firm understanding of place value applied to two-digit numbers, modelling three-digit numbers using MAB blocks will be introduced.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What mathematical vocabulary does Emily need if she is to understand explanations of mental addition and subtraction strategies? 2. It is important that Emily learns place value skills including counting by 10 as a composite unit and modelling multi-digit numbers with concrete materials. What other place value skills will she need to learn?

10.6 Problem-solving Problem-solving tasks relating to basic arithmetic are often presented as worded problems where students are required to read or listen to a contextualised problem and then select the appropriate operation to solve the problem. Worded problems should not be postponed until children have mastered basic facts; rather, children should work on them at the same time as they are learning strategies for solving basic arithmetic problems so as to promote an understanding of operations. Worded problems should be presented to students at the time that they represent genuine problem-solving tasks. A common mathematical difficulty is related to understanding the nature of the relationship between numbers that are described in worded problems and to decide on the correct operation needed to solve the problem (Jitendra et al., 2016). To address this difficulty, children need to be exposed to a range of situations that can be modelled using each operation.

Worded situations

In the seminal work by Marshall, Barthuli, Brewer, and Rose (1989), worded situations involving the operation of addition or subtraction were categorised into three groups according to their semantic structure: change, group, or compare. Marshall et al. used the term ‘worded situation’ to refer to stories that were complete. Change situations describe a beginning state followed by an action instigating some change, group situations describe two distinct groups that are considered together as forming a new group, and compare situations describe two groups that require a comparison to be made (where there is no action). Each worded situation can be turned into at least three worded problems by making one piece of information unknown. Knowing the different types of worded situations and problems supports teachers to create their own problems for

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students to solve. The three types of worded situations are illustrated in Table 10.1 along with three examples of corresponding word problems. TABLE 10.1 Three types of worded situations and problems involving addition/subtraction

Situation

Problem 1

Problem 2

Problem 3

Daniel had collected 5 stamps. His sister gave him 2 more stamps. How many stamps does he have altogether?

Daniel had collected 5 stamps. His sister then gave him some more stamps. If he now has 7 stamps in his collection, how many did his sister give him?

Daniel had collected some stamps. His sister then gave him two more stamps. If he now has 7 stamps in his collection, how many did he start with?

Emma has 15 marbles and Caleb has 12 marbles. How many marbles do they have altogether?

Together Caleb and Emma have 27 marbles. If Caleb has 12 marbles, how many does Emma have?

Together Caleb and Emma have 27 marbles. If Emma has 15 marbles, how many does Caleb have?

Maddy is paid $6 pocket money each week. If Harry is paid $2 more than Maddy, how much pocket money is Harry given each week?

Harry is paid $8 pocket money each week. If Harry is paid $2 more than Maddy, how much pocket money is Maddy given each week?

Harry is paid $8 pocket money each week. If Maddy is paid $2 less than Harry, how much pocket money is Maddy given each week?

Change Daniel had collected 5 stamps. His sister gave him 2 more stamps. He now has 7 stamps altogether.

Group Emma has 15 marbles and Caleb has 12 marbles. Together they have 27 marbles. Compare Harry is paid $8 pocket money each week and Maddy is paid $6. Harry is paid $2 more than Maddy.

Worded situations involving the operation of multiplication and division were categorised by Marshall et al. as restate situations (including a comparison or relational statement between two quantities) and vary situations (where an association between two things that can described in terms of an IF–THEN relationship). Restate problems have also been referred to as multiplicativecomparison problems (Greer, 1992; Xin et al., 2005) and vary problems have been referred to as proportion problems (Xin et al., 2005) and rate problems (Greer, 1992). Greer (1992) also outlined three more types: equal groups, multiplicative change, and rectangular area (or array). The five problem situations are illustrated in Table 10.2 along with three examples of corresponding word problems.

Schema-based strategy instruction

Schema-based strategy instruction has been shown to help students to solve problems that are created from worded situations. Since its original conception (Marshall et al. 1989), schemabased strategy instruction has been found to be effective for teaching worded problems across a range of ages and problem types (Jitendra et al., 2016). Studies have included teaching problemsolving to middle years students with learning disabilities (Xin et al., 2005), addition and

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CHAPTER 10 Understanding and supporting numeracy competence TABLE 10.2 Five types of worded situations and problems involving multiplication/division

Situation

Problem 1

Problem 2

Problem 3

Josh and Lucy went fishing. Josh caught 3 times as many fish as Lucy. Lucy caught 4 fish. How many fish did Josh catch?

Josh and Lucy went fishing. Josh caught 3 times as many fish as Lucy. Josh caught 12 fish. How many fish did Lucy catch?

Josh and Lucy went fishing. Josh caught 12 fish and Lucy caught 4 fish. How many times more fish did Josh catch?

If one lolly costs 5c, how much does it cost to buy four lollies?

If one lolly costs 5c, how If you bought four many lollies can you buy lollies and it cost 20c, how much was each with 20c? lolly?

Five children have the same number of marbles. They have 20 marbles altogether. How many marbles does each child have?

Five children each have 4 marbles. How many marbles do they have altogether?

Each child has four marbles. There 20 marbles altogether, how many children are there?

A piece of chewed gum can be stretched to 3 times its original length before it breaks. A length of gum that is 5 cm long can be fully stretched to become how long?

A piece of chewed gum can be stretched to 3 times its original length before it breaks. If a fully stretched piece of gum is 15 cm long, how long was it before it was stretched?

A length of gum that is originally 5 cm long can be fully stretched to become 15 cm long. How many times longer is the stretched piece of gum compared to its original length?

There are 5 lines of children with 4 children standing in each line. How many children are there altogether?

There are 5 lines of children with the same number of children in each line. If there are 20 children altogether, how many children are standing in each line?

Multiplicative comparison Josh and Lucy went fishing. Josh caught 3 times as many fish as Lucy. Josh caught 12 fish and Lucy caught 4 fish. Vary If one lolly costs 5c, it costs 20c to buy 4 lollies. Equal groups Five children each have 4 marbles. They have 20 marbles altogether.

Multiplicative change A piece of chewed gum can be stretched to 3 times its original length before it breaks. A length of gum that is 5 cm long can be fully stretched to become 15 cm long.

Rectangular area (array) There are 5 lines of children with 4 children standing in each line. Altogether there are 20 children.

Children are standing in lines with four children in each line. If there are 20 children altogether, how many lines of children are there?

subtraction (one- and two-step problems) to Year 6 and 7 students with learning disabilities (Jitendra et al., 1999), addition and subtraction worded problems to students with emotional and behavioural disorders (Jitendra et al., 2009), proportional reasoning to Year 7 students (Jitendra et al., 2013) and multiplication and division (one- and two-step problems) to Year 8 students with MLD (Jitendra et al., 2002). The main features of this type of instruction are that students are taught to recognise the semantic features of situation types and to represent the problem using a diagram.

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Problem-solving tasks

Russo and Hopkins (2018) presented a different type of worded problem to children in Years 1 and 2. These worded problem-solving tasks encouraged students to use more than one strategy to solve the problem or they required more than one answer (see examples in Figure 10.10). In this study, children worked on a series of problem-solving tasks either at the start of the lesson with no explanation (task-first lesson) or towards the end of the lesson, after some discussion (discussion-first lesson). Pre- and post-program assessments indicated discussion-first lessons were more efficacious in improving procedural fluency but both lesson structures improved problem-solving performance.

Teaching suggestions

• Vocabulary: Students need to understand and use the terms share, sharing, divide, dividing. Upper primary and secondary students should know the terms dividend, divisor, quotient and remainder. • Multiplication and division are opposites: Show students one equation on the board like 5 × 3 = 15 and ask them to generate three more equations from it (3 × 5 = 15, 15 ÷ 5 = 3, 15 ÷ 3 = 5.

• Create problem-solving tasks: Turn any closed question (that has one correct answer) into a problem-solving task (where there is more than one correct answer) by giving the answer and asking students to write down the question. For example, instead of asking what is 5 × 6, ask ‘I am thinking of two numbers that when multiplied together give me 30; what are these numbers?’ Students can work with 30 objects to help find the answers by arranging them in such a way that they make a rectangle (15 × 2, 5 × 6, 10 × 3). See Sullivan and Lilburn (2017) for more ideas for turning closed questions into open-ended problem-solving tasks.

• Create a sequence of problem-solving tasks: Carefully select a group of numbers and ask students to write as many equations as they can using only the numbers given. For example: 3, 20, 5, 6, 12, 3, 24, 15, 4, 9, 8, 2. Note that 3 + 5 = 8, 5 + 3 = 8, 8 – 5 = 3, and 8 – 3 = 5 are four unique equations. Don’t forget problems with three or more operands (e.g., 3 + 5 + 4 = 12). Challenge question: How many unique equations are there for this set of numbers? Show me how you worked out the answer? Challenge question: What is the longest equation you can make? (Hint, it is possible to write one equation with all these numbers in it).

Differentiation

Problem-solving tasks like those shown in Figure 10.10 are easily adapted by changing the size of the numbers. For example, three spiders can be shown or John and Wendy could have baked 10 cakes. The worded situations and open-ended questions can also be adapted for very able children by changing whole numbers to decimals and fractions. For example, I am thinking of two numbers that when added together give me 11; what are these numbers? Answers could be whole numbers or decimal numbers (e.g., 10.5 + 0.5). Secondary students exhibit difficulties with worded problems involving numbers as measures (i.e., decimals and fractions) for a variety of reasons (Fischbein et al., 1985; LortieForgues et al., 2015). One reason is that students continue to think of multiplication in terms of repeated addition. The repeated addition model is not easily extended to represent worded

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Spiders

Cupcakes

Spiders are classified as Arachnids because they have eight legs. Spiders are crafty creatures, who like to spin webs and catch insects in them. Below is a family of spiders.

John and Wendy loved baking. John wanted to try out a brand-new cupcake recipe that had come to him in a dream. John and Wendy baked and baked all day, and finished the day with 20 cupcakes. They decided to share all the cupcakes between them. They both decided that John should get more cupcakes because he was the one who had dreamed up this new recipe. How many cupcakes might John have got? How many cupcakes might Wendy have got? Write down as many combinations as you can.

Can you work out how many spider legs are in the picture, without counting by ones? Can you do it another way? Make sure you show your thinking.

FIGURE 10.10 Examples of problem-solving tasks that require more than one strategy or more than one answer

problems involving a decimal (or fraction) multiplier. For example, based on a repeated addition model of multiplication, 3 groups of 0.5 (3 × 0.5) can be thought of as 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5 but little sense can be made of 0.5 groups of 3 (0.5 × 3) based on this model. Difficulties with division may be attributed to students’ lack of awareness of the two models of division. The quotition model of division may be used to understand worded problems that involve finding the quotient of an expression with a decimal (or fractional) number as a divisor, for example 10 ÷ 0.25 can be thought of as how many groups of size 0.25 make up 10, but the partition (sharing) model is not helpful – how can you share a group of 10 objects evenly among 0.25 things? Similarly, the partition (sharing) model of division may be used to understand worded problems that involve finding the quotient of an expression with a decimal (or fractional) number as the dividend, for example 4.75 ÷ 9 can be thought as sharing 4.75 pizzas equally among 9 people, but the quotition model is not helpful – it doesn’t make sense to think about how many groups of size 9 make 4.75. These points highlight the importance of students (and teachers) being aware of the two different models of division.

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NARRATIVE 10.3 Chris Chris is in Year 7 and requires constant monitoring by his teachers to stay on-task. He has been diagnosed with ADHD and has a reading difficulty. He is taking appropriate medication. Chris’ maths teacher has provided him with a self-monitoring sheet to help him maintain focus and when completing independent work, Chris is allowed to sit at his own work station with his back to the class. At the moment the class is working on solving multiplication word problems. The teacher has been teaching some students a schema-based strategy for solving problems and this has assisted Chris with addition and subtraction problems. His teacher is aware that Chris does not know his times tables and he thinks this is why Chris is now having difficulty solving worded problems. Chris may not have developed the conceptual and/or procedural knowledge that is fundamental to understanding the operation of multiplication. To assess this, his teacher uses an assessment such as Postage Stamp Math (see Figure 10.11) that requires students to estimate or calculate the value of stamp sheets. The teacher takes note of the strategies Chris uses to calculate the value of the sheet. If Chris uses inefficient strategies, such as counting by ones or rhythmic counting, Chris will need to engage in activities that allow him to make the connection between repeated addition and multiplication. Chris will need to memorise some skip-counting sequences at the same time as learning how to apply the appropriate sequence to solve multiplication problems. It is important that his teacher makes explicit the link between the strategy Chris uses and the skip-counting strategy. The constant function on the calculator can be used to generate counting sequences. For example, to count in 5s, use 5 + = = = = and the calculator will display 5, 10, 15, 20. Questions like ‘What will come next?’ will help Chris learn these sequences. Because Chris has demonstrated extreme difficulty mastering multiplication facts, the focus should be on easy-to-learn ‘count by’ sequences (2, 5, and 10) in the first instance. Once Chris has mastered skip counting by 2s, 5s and 10s, the teacher can explicitly show the link between repeated addition and multiplication by demonstrating both strategies at the same time. Money is a very practical and important context for developing this skill. Chris can be asked to calculate the total of a number of coins using both strategies. It is important that he is taught to record both solution methods. For the example shown in Figure 10.11, Chris would record the following for the coins: Total = 20 + 20 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10, and underneath: Total = (2 × 20) + (4 × 10). A colour coding scheme or arrows could be used to highlight the link between the numbers used in both solution methods (for the above example, the link between the number 10 is shown in bold). Unifix blocks are also helpful for developing multiplicative thinking and for highlighting the connection between repeated addition and multiplication. For example, Chris can be asked to make a tower of 10 blocks using blocks of three different colours. A value from his ‘count by’ knowledge is assigned to each colour and Chris is asked to calculate the total value of his tower. Again, it is important that Chris is taught to record both solution methods and that links are made explicit between the same numbers in each solution method. For the block combination in Figure 10.11, Chris would write: Total = 5 + 5 + 5 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 10 + 10, and underneath this write: Total = (3 × 5) + (5 × 2) + (2 × 10). In this example, the link between the two in both solution methods is bolded. This can be a small-group or whole-class activity, with the teacher assigning different colour values to different students. In this way students could be working with larger numbers than Chris. Students needing extension could work on the same activity but be required to multiply decimals or fractions. The program of work designed for Chris should also include lessons to reinforce his conceptual understanding of the commutative property of multiplication (e.g. 2 × 3 = 3 × 2) and the inverse relationship between multiplication and division (5 × 3 = 15; 15 ÷ 3 = 5 and 15 ÷ 5 = 3).

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Example 1. How much is this sheet of stamps worth?

Example 2. What is the total value of these coins?

Example 3. What is the value of this tower if black = 5, grey = 3 and white = 8?

FIGURE 10.11 Activities for explicitly teaching the link between repeated addition and multiplication

Chris should be provided with explicit instruction in using schema-based diagrams to help him solve multiplicative-worded problems that involve numbers for which he knows the skip-counting sequence. Given his history of difficulty with multiplication facts, once Chris has demonstrated multiplicative thinking, he should receive instruction and practice in the efficient use of a calculator. This will enable him to work on worded multiplication problems at the same time as the rest of the class. When introducing new topics that require multiplication or division skills (e.g., equivalent fractions, ratios, percentages and area), Chris will initially work with examples that involve multiplication or division by 2, 5 and 10. This will allow him to participate successfully in class lessons. The teacher should organise cooperative learning groups to support students with reading difficulties and/or EAL/D students. A fluent reader in the group is assigned the role of ‘reader’ with responsibility for reading the problem text aloud to the group. Another group member with good expressive language skills can be given a role of ‘vocabulary expert’, with their job being to explain any mathematical terms in the worded problem. Group discussion then focuses on what is known, what needs to be determined and the best way to find a solution. Group members ask the ‘reader’ to reread the problem or parts of it as needed and/or the ‘vocabulary expert’ to re-explain terms.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Apply the strategy choice model developed by Shrager and Siegler (1998) to explain in your own words how Chris will learn to develop a reliance on retrieval strategies for simple multiplication. 2. What might be some of the advantages and disadvantages of allowing Chris to use a calculator?

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10.7 Multi-digit arithmetic To develop meaningful standard written strategies (algorithms) for solving arithmetic problems with multi-digit numbers, an understanding of place value is essential. Very few primary school students have a firm understanding of the multiplicative relationship within the place value system (Thomas, 2004). Students can often respond correctly to questions about the number of hundreds, tens or ones in a number, but this may reflect only a superficial understanding of the base ten system. It is important that students are aware of the link between grouping by tens, counting by tens, and place value (Fuson et al., 1997) (see Figure 10.12). If students are to correctly solve multi-digit operations using mental or written strategies, they need a firm understanding of combining and separating place value parts. A firm understanding of the place value system as it applies to whole numbers will also assist students to generalise place value to decimal numbers and exponential notation (Battista, 2012; see Recommended reading at the end of the chapter).

FIGURE 10.12 An understanding of the base ten system is an essential part of number knowledge.

Resnick (1983) described the development of place value understanding as an elaboration of the part-part-whole schema in three stages. The first stage is to recognise that numbers can be partitioned into units and tens (e.g. 49 = 4 tens and 9 units or 40 + 9; 328 = 3 hundreds, 2 tens and 8 units or 300 + 20 + 8). This is sometimes referred to as standard partitioning. This stage is the basis for understanding place-value. The second stage is to recognise that numbers can be partitioned in many ways providing equivalence of the whole is maintained (e.g. 49 = 3 tens + 19 units or 30 + 19; 328 = 2 hundreds + 12 tens + 8 units or 200 + 120 + 8). This is sometimes referred to as non-standard partitioning. The third stage is recognising that standard and non-standard partitioning gives meaning to standard written algorithms (standard rules taught) for adding and subtracting two or more digit numbers. Standard written algorithms for addition and subtraction involve the application of standard and non-standard partitioning when the numbers require regrouping from the next place up. This point is illustrated with two examples in Table 10.3.

While some students can be taught a standard written algorithm for multi-digit calculations and be able to extract for themselves the meaning of ‘regrouping’, students with MLD are often not able to do this. When teaching standard written algorithms, it is essential that teachers adhere to the principles of explicit instruction, moving from concrete to semi-concrete representations and clearly articulating the steps of the procedure after first ensuring students have sound conceptual understanding of place value. Some students may require extensive guided practice for each step of the procedure and checklists (Sayeski & Paulson, 2010; Uberti et al., 2004).

The teaching of standard written algorithms may instead be delayed until students have developed mental and non-standard written strategies for solving arithmetic problems. Since mental and non-standard written strategies are based on an understanding of place value that encompasses standard and non-standard partitioning, it is less likely that a gap in understanding will need to be bridged when standard written algorithms are taught.

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CHAPTER 10 Understanding and supporting numeracy competence TABLE 10.3 Illustration of partitioning in standard written algorithms

Problem

3 +

Standard written algorithm

2

8

4

9

3 + 3

3 –

2

8

4

9

23 – 2

1

2

8

4

9

7

7

12

1

Application of standard and non-standard partitioning 3

8 9

7

9

0

+

+

2

0

+

8

4

0

+

9

3

0

0

+

6

0

+

17

3

0

0

+

7

0

+

7

3

1

4

0

0

0

– 3

0

0

– 2

0

0

– 2

0

0

+

2

0

+ 8

(

4

0

+ 9

+

1

0

+ 18

(

4

0

+ 9

+

1  1 0

+ 18

(

4

0

+ 9

+

7

0

+ 9

) ) )

The strategies children use to mentally solve addition and subtraction have been well described in the literature, although different labels have often been used (Blöte et al., 2000; Fuson et al. 1997; Heirdsfield & Cooper, 2002; Reys et al., 1995; Torbeyns et al., 2005). A sample of the strategy students use when asked to mentally solve two-digit problems is illustrated in Table 10.4 for addition and Table 10.5 for subtraction. While these strategies are performed mentally, they are presented here as non-standard written strategies. It should be noted that a very precise setting out of non-standard written algorithms is illustrated in Table 10.4 and Table 10.5, and young students would not be expected to record their informal procedures in this way. Their recordings might simply include a jotting down of numbers and/or jumps on a number line. TABLE 10.4 Mental and non-standard written strategies for addition

Label and description Jump strategy (count on tens and then ones)

Non-standard written strategy 38 + 26 = 38 + 10 + 10 + 6 = 58 + 6 = 64

Split strategy (add tens and ones)

38 + 26 = 30 + 8 + 20 + 6 = 50 + 14 = 64

Overshoot strategy (add more and then subtract)

29 + 16 = 30 + 16 – 1 = 46 – 1 = 45

Equalise strategy (change both operands, usually to make one of the operands a tens number)

29 + 16 = (29 + 1) + (16 – 1) = 30 + 15 = 45

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TABLE 10.5 Mental and non-standard written strategies for subtraction

Label and description Jump Strategy (count back by tens and then ones)

Non-standard written strategy 38 – 26 = 38 – 10 – 10 – 6 = 18 – 6 = 12

Split strategy (add tens and ones)

38 – 26 = 30 – 20 + 8 – 6 = 10 + 2 = 12

Change to addition (think of the corresponding addition problem)

38 – 26 = ? 26 + * = 38 26 + 12 = 38

An emphasis on students’ development of mental strategies for solving single and multi-digit operations as described above is evident in current mathematics curricula, including those of Australia and New Zealand, but few studies have specifically examined the effectiveness of interventions designed to help students with additional learning needs develop such strategies. Students will need to develop a good understanding of basic number, including place value and the sequential structure of number, as well as skills at partitioning numbers and counting forwards and backwards by ten on and off the decade, if they are to be successful. Ellemor-Collins and Wright (2007) found that many Year 3 and 4 students with MLD demonstrated problems with forward and backward number word sequences when counting across decades or hundred numbers. This would make the jump strategy particularly difficult. Some students in their study made errors counting forwards and backwards by ones, particularly when bridging decade or hundred numbers and some could not count by tens off the decade (e.g. 27, 37, 47 …).

Teaching suggestions

• Place value: Ask students to roll two or more dice to make the biggest number: for example, if 3, 5 and 1 were rolled, the biggest number is 531. Ask students to make this number using base-10 blocks or other manipulatives (e.g., loose straws, straws bundled into tens with a rubber band, and straws bundled into hundreds).

• Place value: Students draw up a simple row with two or more columns. Teacher rolls a dice and students decide where to put the digit shown (in the ones, tens or hundreds column). Teacher rolls the dice two more times; after each roll the student places the digit in one of the remaining columns. The objective is to form the largest number. This makes for a great game as winning is based on chance as well as strategy.

• Mental computation strategies: Ask students to solve a problem mentally (in their head) and write down their answer. Then ask students to explain what strategy they had used. The teacher can represent their thinking on the board using diagrams and notes, or students can represent their own thinking. A number of tools have been designed to help students to reflect on and explain the strategies they use. See Figure 10.13 for some examples of aids for supporting students to explain the mental strategies they use to solve problems. • Mental computation strategies: After explaining and representing a range of strategies on the board, ask students to reflect on what strategy they liked best (and why) and what types of problems were best suited for each strategy.

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Arrow cards illustrating split strategy

Hundreds chart illustrating jump strategy 1

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Number line illustrating overshoot strategy

Bars illustrating equalise strategy 45

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FIGURE 10.13 Aids for explaining different mental strategies students used to solve 45 + 24

REFLECT ON THIS What big ideas of number are demonstrated when a student can work through the standard written algorithm to solve addition problems with regrouping?

NARRATIVE 10.4 Katie Katie is in secondary school and mathematics is her favourite subject. She has a diagnosis of autism and works on an adapted curriculum. When she is asked to solve 45 + 24 she immediately writes the problem in standard algorithm form and solves it correctly, but she has difficulty with problems involving regrouping. When she is asked to solve this problem in her head, she counts on from 45 by ones using her fingers to keep track of when she has counted on 24. Katie would benefit from learning different strategies for adding (and subtracting) multi-digit numbers. Her skills with simple addition need to be assessed first. Katie will need to be mostly

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accurate with simple addition and demonstrate some use of direct retrieval and decomposition strategies before she is likely to benefit from instruction to develop efficient (mental and written) strategies to add and subtract multi-digit numbers. When teaching Katie strategies for adding multi-digit numbers, her teacher may first ask Katie if she can think of a different strategy she could use for solving problems mentally. If Katie is unable to think of different strategies, her teacher can model other strategies and ask her if she thinks they would produce the right answer. Sentences requiring Katie to fill in the blanks will help focus her explanations of why they will work. For example, ‘Adding 16+5 is the same as adding 16+4+__ as the 5 has been partitioned into __ and 1.’ To help Katie remember the different strategies taught to her, they should be formally labelled (e.g., jump strategy, split strategy, overshoot strategy and equalise strategy) and illustrated in her notes. If Katie is still developing her conceptual knowledge of number, or if she has difficulty holding information in her memory without losing track of it, she is likely to benefit from diagrams or aids that provide a visual representation of the solution process: arrow cards are helpful when using the split method, a hundred chart and empty number line are helpful when using the jump method. The number line is also helpful for the overshoot method, and bar diagrams are useful for illustrating the equalise method. These aids are illustrated in Figure 10.13. Katie is also likely to benefit from activities allowing her to practise spotting numbers that go together to help make mental arithmetic easier (e.g., that add together to make 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50). Katie will require plenty of practice applying these different strategies to allow her to move on from making jottings or using aids to help her visualise the solution process, to being able to add multi-digit numbers mentally or write down non-standard written algorithms for larger numbers. Katie is likely to benefit from being introduced to different strategies and given opportunities to practise each strategy with selected problems. Katie could comment on and compare the relative efficiency of each strategy for different problems. When she is ready to do so, Katie could be presented with pairs of worked examples (non-standard written algorithms depicting two different strategies used for solving the same problem) and asked to compare the efficiency of each, or state her preference for one strategy and explain why. The program of work should also include activities to develop Katie’s use of efficient subtraction strategies. A priority for Katie, expressed by her parents, is the functional application of her addition and subtraction skills. Katie enjoys helping with grocery shopping and cooking, and so could be given some learning activities involving shopping brochures. Katie can learn to round items to the nearest dollar and apply her mental computation strategies to add the cost of items to get an estimate of the total cost.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Why should Katie’s teacher expose her to models of mental addition and subtraction strategies? 2. Why might Katie have had difficulty when ‘regrouping’ using a standard written algorithm for addition before learning mental strategies?

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10.8 Supporting students with significant numeracy needs When deciding what content from earlier years should be made a priority for a student with numeracy challenges, teachers need to consider how many years the student has been in school and how much learning has occurred. For example, a secondary student who has not yet mastered the count sequence to 20 and who has not yet mastered numeral recognition of 0 to 9 will need a highly individualised program with a focus on functional skills possibly including numeral recognition, with a view to perhaps teaching the student to navigate various devices using numerical keys. Such a student’s program will be developed through a collaborative planning process as explained in earlier chapters. Once specific learning goals have been set through the collaborative planning process, teachers need to be mindful of how the student’s goals can be a focus of classroom activities. This may mean that for some students, the focus of a maths lesson reflects their communication needs rather than a specific maths skill. Examples of this type of adjustment are explained in Chapters 4 and 5. The NESA Years 7–10 life skills mathematics content provides a wide range of skills and knowledge across all strands of mathematics that may be appropriate for such students (see Weblink at end of chapter). Adjustments for students in K to 6 who have significant additional needs are illustrated in the Mathematics K–6 support document for students with special education needs (NESA, 2008) (see Weblink at end of chapter).

10.9 Extending students with advanced mathematical skills Some suggestions for extending students with advanced skills have been made throughout this chapter. Just as planning for students with mathematical difficulties requires careful planning, so too does planning for students with advanced skills. It is essential to monitor the conceptual understanding and procedural knowledge of these students to ensure they do not develop any misconceptions. Within the classroom, curriculum compacting that provides for pre-testing of outcomes and elimination of repetition can be used to accommodate those who learn quickly and have no need for extended practice. Extension work that poses challenging open-ended questions related to class content might be more appropriate than extending students by acceleration. The websites http://nrich.maths.org/frontpage and http://www.nctm.org (see Weblinks at end of this chapter) are sources of mathematical challenges and information for students with exceptional talent. For some students with exceptional talent, grade acceleration including primary to high school or high school to university, may be appropriate. Indeed, there is evidence that acceleration is beneficial to long-term academic outcomes and life satisfaction (Gross, 2006; McClarty, 2015). It is expected that in making decisions about acceleration, consultation with the student and their parents would occur, with school policies and practices determining what form acceleration would take. Where grade acceleration is not an option, opportunities for students to work with other gifted students, either at school or online, should be considered.

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A TEACHER REFLECTS Sally, Year 2 teacher, NSW Having landed a job as a Year 2 teacher I was feeling relatively confident. I arranged a visit and in addition to seeing regular lessons, I was able to see a gifted and talented group working on a challenge. That was the moment it dawned on me … I was going to be teaching some students who were truly gifted in mathematics. Once I combed through work samples and reports, I was stunned to see the range of abilities of my students. In reading there was at least a six-year range of ability. Mathematics was a similar story. Some students were still learning the number bonds to ten. Others had the computational skills expected of students working at a Stage 3 level of the NSW syllabus. My biggest fear was being able to keep on top of the learning needs of the whole class. I was incredibly lucky to have a grade partner who collaborated with me every step of the way. Essentially, I was preparing multiple lessons for each timeslot. I was often surprised by the conceptual misunderstandings that some students had. In equal measure, I was amazed by how many students were ready to work beyond what I had planned for the highest group. My grade partner and I quickly decided to implement short pretests before teaching any new content. These allowed us to reshuffle groups and plan accordingly. ‘Plan’ was the key word for me. The pacing of the program also needed to be flexible. My students on IEPs needed more repetition to learn new content. The students identified as being gifted needed minimal repetition and were promptly ready to work on more challenging content and application tasks. In my first year I worked some incredibly long days but I knew I had to be well-prepared, and all the work paid off in my next year of teaching.

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Summary

The goal of this chapter was to outline information to assist teachers as they design inclusive lesson programs and activities. The emphasis of the chapter is on teaching practices that have been demonstrated to be effective in developing the numeracy skills of all students, and particularly those with additional needs. The chapter has a focus on explicit instruction and the big ideas of number that underpin all four operations and effective problem-solving.

STUDY TOOLS

The information provided in this chapter encompassed details of changes in the way mathematics is taught and common characteristics of students with difficulties learning mathematics, to highlight the importance of matching teaching activities and teacher dialogue to students’ current levels of understanding. Information regarding specific knowledge of mathematics for teaching was also identified, including: • the big ideas underpinning number sense

• the associative, commutative and distributive properties of number

• the part–whole schema and its applications including standard and non-standard-partitioning, and place value • intuitive models for understanding the four operations.

Details of research studies were also provided to document learning of typically achieving students, along with relevant findings revealing performance differences between typically-achieving students and students with MLD. Teachers can use the effective practices identified in this chapter to evaluate numeracy interventions including their own teaching, commercially available programs, computer-based or online instruction, apps and/or textbooks. In particular, consideration should be given to whether or not an intervention provides: • clear achievable goals with explicit performance criteria

• explicit instruction that includes models, and guided and independent practice • opportunities for teacher and student verbalisation (including ‘think aloud’) • visual representation (teaching from concrete to abstract representations) • careful selection of the range and sequence of examples

• instruction in and application of problem-solving strategies.

Discussion questions

1. Assessment should be designed to inform teaching. This requires that it is continuous and that it measures growth and development of both conceptual and procedural knowledge. Do you think this captures the essence of ‘good’ assessment? Discuss the role that national assessments and end-of-unit tests and exams play in determining student needs. With the UDL framework in mind, what are essential considerations when planning any form of assessment? 2. Imagine there is some controversy about teaching approaches at your school and ‘textbooks’ is an agenda item for the next staff meeting. What are some arguments for and against the use of textbooks in primary school and/or high school?

3. The necessity of knowing how to apply standard written algorithms is not disputed in reform documents, but changes have been suggested to the way computation is taught. These changes include the provision of opportunities for students to first develop mental strategies for solving problems involving the four operations. What factors should teachers take into consideration when deciding if a student should practise using mental computation strategies before teaching them standard written algorithms? 4. It is important for teachers to create opportunities for mathematical discussion in classrooms but this is not easy to do (see Stein et al., 2008). What are some barriers to orchestrating mathematical discussions and

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how can these be addressed? What are the features of learning activities that are particularly helpful for encouraging discussion? What questions or prompts can you as teacher give to encourage discussion?

Individual activities

1. The following question is adapted from an item used by Hill et al. (2005) to assess teachers’ understanding of number concepts underpinning the use of non-standard written algorithms for multiplication. Try it to test your own understanding. Imagine three of your students presented the following ways to multiply 45 × 25. Indicate which of these ways would work for all whole numbers and explain why or why not. Student A

Student B

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2. Study each of the four multiplication or division problems presented below and the three solution methods. Standard written algorithm 1

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= 14 (10 – 1) = 14 × 10 – 14 × 1 = 140 – 14 = 126 30

8

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20 × 30

20 × 8

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20 × 30

5×8

Non-standard written algorithm – example 2 14 × 9

= (10 + 4) × 9 = 10 × 9 – 4 × 9 = 90 + 36 = 126

38 × 25

= (40 – 2) × 25 = 40 × 25 – 2 × 25 = 1000 – 50 = 950

38 × 25

= 600 + 160 + 150 + 40 = 760 + 190 = 950

465 ÷ 5

= (500 – 35) ÷ 5 = 500 ÷ 5 – 35 ÷ 5 = 100 – 7 = 93

465 ÷ 5

= (400 + 60 + 5) ÷ 5 = 400 ÷ 5 + 60 ÷ 5 + 5 ÷ 5 = 80 + 12 + 1 = 93

10 + 10 + 10 + 1 = 31

403 ÷ 13

= (390 + 13) ÷ 13 = 390 ÷ 13 + 13 ÷ 13 = 30 + 1 = 31

1

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CHAPTER 10 STUDY TOOLS

a Write four problems of your own that are similar to the four presented here and solve them using three similar solution methods. Compare and contrast each solution method, thinking about the conceptual and procedural knowledge each method presupposes. Which method is most appropriate for the problem? Justify your answer.

b (Challenge question) An application of the distributive property underpins many non-standard written algorithms for multiplication and division. Each of the non-standard written algorithms illustrated above makes use of the distributive property. Can you explain how?

3. You have decided to teach the standard written subtraction algorithm to a group of Year 7 students.

a What prerequisite skills do they need if they are to understand each step of the procedure? With the UDL framework in mind, develop a series of tasks that would enable students with limited English proficiency to demonstrate their conceptual understanding of place value and other prerequisite skills. b Write a worksheet covering the full range of examples you would include to assess students’ application of the standard subtraction algorithm when subtracting from up to a four-digit number. Put the examples in the order you would use to teach this procedure. What would you do to ensure students are not just completing the procedure by rote?

Group activities

1. Ask each person in the group to work out a given computation problem ‘in their head’ and then report back to the rest of the group on how they solved it. Each person should attempt to explain the strategy they used and why it worked. As a group, discuss the conceptual understanding required for each step. Have someone in the group record each step for all the different solution methods. Discuss the different approaches. How easy was each strategy to explain? How easy was it to understand another person’s explanation? Why is it difficult to apply someone else’s approach? What conceptual knowledge has been applied?

2. Write one story situation for each of the three types of worded situations that are commonly associated with the operations of addition and subtraction (see Table 10.1). Turn each story situation into a worded problem and write it on a piece of card. Combine the cards from all the groups, shuffle them and redistribute them so each group receives the same number of cards. As a group, determine which category the worded problem refers to and solve.

3. Explore the addition and subtraction of numbers in different bases. For example, working in base five what is 34 + 23 and 32 − 14? The purpose of this activity is to experience what it feels like to perform calculations with numbers when one has little understanding of (or experience with) the number system. In a sense, it is like having a mathematics-learning difficulty. What did you learn?

4. Select a mathematical task that incorporates the use of digital technology and assess its educative value by considering its potential to help students to (a) construct understanding (conceptual knowledge), (b) develop efficient strategies (procedural knowledge) and (c) foster a mathematical disposition. Share the task and your evaluation of it with the group.

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Weblinks

Department of Education (NSW) http://www.numeracycontinuum.com/interactive-html5-presentations Evidence-Based Intervention (EBI) Network ebi.missouri.edu/?page_id=807 Free printable worksheets http://www.interventioncentral.org/home

Mathematics K-6 Support Document (NESA) https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/ learning-areas/mathematics/support-materials-for-students-with-disability-k-6 National Center on Intensive Intervention (NCII) www.intensiveintervention.org National Council of Teachers of Mathematics http://www.nctm.org

National Library of Virtual Manipulatives http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/vlibrary.html NRICH enriching mathematics http://nrich.maths.org

NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/home nzmaths http://nzmaths.co.nz

The IRIS Center iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu

What Works Clearing House https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/PracticeGuide/2

Years 7–12 Life Skills (NESA) https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/diversity-inlearning/special-education/life-skills/eligibility

Recommended reading

Battista, M. (2012) Cognition-based assessment and teaching of place value: building on students’ reasoning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Cirino, P. T., & Berch, D. B. (Eds) (2010). Perspectives on math difficulty and disability in children [Special Issue]. Learning and Individual Differences, 20 (2), 61–62.

Dowker, A. (2009). What works for children with mathematical difficulties? The effectiveness of intervention schemes. Nottingham: Department for Children, Schools and Families. Hughes, E. M., Powell, S. R., Lembke, E. S. and Riley Tillman, T. C. (2016) Taking the Guesswork out of Locating Evidence-Based Mathematics Practices for Diverse Learners. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 31, 130–141. doi:10.1111/ldrp.12103

References

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Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2015). Australian curriculum v8.1 F-10 curriculum mathematics aims. Retrieved from

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Jitendra, A. K, DiPipi, C. M., & Perron-Jones, N. (2002). An exploratory study of schema-based word-problemsolving instruction for middle school students with learning disabilities: an emphasis on conceptual and procedural understanding. The Journal of Special Education, 36 (1), 23–38.

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Jitendra, A. K., George, M. P., Sood, S., & Price, K. (2009). Schema-based instruction: facilitating mathematical word problem solving for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 54 (3), 145–151.

Jitendra, A. K., Hoff, K., & Beck, M. M. (1999). Teaching middle school students with learning disabilities to solve word problems using a schema-based approach. Remedial and Special Education, 20 (1), 50–64.

Jitendra, A. K., Nelson, G., Pulles, S. M., Kiss, A. J., & Houseworth, J. (2016). Is Mathematical Representation of Problems an Evidence-Based Strategy for Students With Mathematics Difficulties? Exceptional Children, 83(1), 8–25. https://doi-org.simsrad.net.ocs. mq.edu.au/10.1177/0014402915625062 

Jitendra, A. K., Star, J. R., Dupuis, D. N., & Rodriguez, M. C. (2013). Effectiveness of schema-based instruction for improving seventh-grade students’ proportional reasoning: a randomized experiment. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 6(2), 114–136. Jordan, N. C., Kaplan, D., Ramineni, C., & Locuniak, M. N. (2009). Early math matters: kindergarten number competence and later mathematics outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 850.

Lortie-Forgues, H., Tian, J., & Siegler, R. S. (2015). Why is learning fraction and decimal arithmetic so difficult? Developmental Review, 38, 201–221.

Marshall, S. P., Barthuli, K. E., Brewer, M. A., & Rose, F. E. (1989). Story problem solver: A schema based system of instruction. Center for Research in Mathematics and Science Education. California: San Diego University, College of Sciences.

McClarty, K. L. (2015). Life in the fast lane: Effects of early grade acceleration on high school and college outcomes. Gifted Child Quarterly, 59(1), 3–13. https://doi. org/10.1177/0016986214559595 McIntosh, A., Reys, B. J., & Reys, R. E. (1992). A proposed framework for examining basic number sense. For the Learning of Mathematics, 12 (3), 2–8. Ministry of Education NZ (2001). Curriculum Update 45. Wellington: Learning Media. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (2014). Principles to actions: Ensuring mathematical success for all. Reston, VA: The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc.

National Curriculum Board (2009). Shape of the Australian curriculum: mathematics. Barton ACT: Commonwealth of Australia.

National Mathematics Advisory Panel (NMAP, USA) (2008). Foundations for success: the final report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel. Washington, DC: US Department of Education. National Numeracy Review (Australia) (2008). National numeracy review report. Canberra: Council of Australian Governments. Obersteiner, A., Reiss, K., & Ufer, S. (2013). How training on exact or approximate mental representations of number can enhance first-grade students’ basic number processing and arithmetic skills. Learning and Instruction, 23, 125–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. learninstruc.2012.08.004 Ostad, S. A., & Sorensen, P. M. (2007). Private speech and strategy-use patterns: bidirectional comparisons of children with and without mathematical difficulties in a developmental perspective. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40(1), 2–14.

Powell, S., & Sayeski, K. (2015). Connecting Evidence-Based Practice with Implementation Opportunities in Special Education Mathematics Preparation. Intervention in School and Clinic, 51(2), 90–96. Powell, S. R., Berry, K. A., & Tran, L. M. (2020) Performance Differences on a Measure of Mathematics Vocabulary for English Learners and Non-English Learners with and without Mathematics Difficulty, Reading & Writing Quarterly, 36(2), 124–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057 3569.2019.1677538  Praet, M., Titeca, D., Ceulemans, A., & Desoete, A. (2013). Language in the prediction of arithmetics in kindergarten and grade 1. Learning and Individual Differences, 27, 90–96.

Ramani, G. B., & Siegler, R. S. (2008). Promoting broad and stable improvements in low-income children’s numerical knowledge through playing number board games. Child Development, 79 (2), 375–394. Resnick, L. B. (1983). A developmental theory of number understanding. In H. P. Ginsburg (Ed.), The development of mathematical thinking (pp. 109–151). New York: Academic Press.

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Russo, J., & Hopkins, S. (2018). Teaching primary mathematics with challenging tasks: How should lessons be structured? The Journal of Educational Research, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671. 2018.1440369

Sayeski, K. L., & Paulsen, K. J. (2010). Mathematics reform curricula and special education: Identifying intersections and implications for practice. Intervention in School and Clinic, 46(1), 13–21. https://doi. org/10.1177/1053451210369515 Shanley, L., Clarke, B., Doabler, C. T., Kurtz-Nelson, E., & Fien, H. (2017). Early Number Skills Gains and Mathematics Achievement: Intervening to Establish Successful Early Mathematics Trajectories. The Journal of Special Education, 51(3), 177–188. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022466917720455 Shrager J., & Siegler, R. S. (1998). SCADS: a model of children’s strategy choices and strategy discoveries. Psychological Science, 9 (5), 405–406.

Siegler, R. S., & Ramani, G. B. (2008). Playing linear numerical board games promotes low-income children’s numerical development. Developmental Science, 11 (5), 655–661.

Siemon, D., Bleckly, J., & Neal, D. (2012). Working with the big ideas in number and the Australian curriculum: mathematics. In B. Atweh, M. Goos, R. Jorgensen & D. Siemon (Eds), Engaging the Australian national curriculum: mathematics – perspectives from the field (pp. 19–45). Online Publication: Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia. Spooner, F., Root, J. R., Saunders, A. F., & Browder, D. M. (2019). An Updated Evidence-Based Practice Review on Teaching Mathematics to Students With Moderate and Severe Developmental Disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 40(3), 150–165. https://doi. org/10.1177/0741932517751055

Starkey, G. S., & McCandliss, B. D. (2014). The emergence of ‘groupitizin’ in children’s numerical cognition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 126, 120–137. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jecp.2014.03.006 Stein, M. K., Engle, R. A., Smith, M. S., & Hughes, E. K. (2008). Orchestrating productive mathematical discussions: five practices for helping teachers move beyond show and tell. Mathematical

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Strickland, T. K., & Maccini, P. (2010). Strategies for Teaching Algebra to Students With Learning Disabilities: Making Research to Practice Connections. Intervention in School and Clinic, 46(1), 38–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451210369519 

Sullivan, P., & Lilburn, P. (2017). Open ended maths activities (revised edition). Australia: Oxford University Press. Thomas, N. (2004). The development of structure in the number system. In M. J. Hoines & A. B. Fuglestad (Eds), 28th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (pp. 305–312). Bergen, Norway: Bergen University College Press.

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Uberti, H. Z., Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2004). Check it off: individualizing a math algorithm for students with disabilities via self-monitoring checklists. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39 (5), 269–275. Van de Walle, J. A. (1988). The early development of number relations. The Arithmetic Teacher, 35(6), 15–32. Verschaffel, L., & De Corte, E. (1996). Number and arithmetic. In A. J. Bishop et al. (Eds), International handbook of mathematics education (pp. 99–137). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

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PART D INCLUSION ACROSS THE SCHOOL YEARS 11 Inclusion in early childhood 12 Inclusion in primary schools 13 Secondary school inclusion

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11

Inclusion in early childhood Coral Kemp This chapter aims to identify best practice approaches to: 11.1 Early intervention provision in the home and inclusive community-based settings 11.2 Supporting families and carers to provide intervention within naturally occurring home and community settings 11.3 Supporting interventions in inclusive early education settings 11.4 Early childhood transitions 11.5 Inclusive practices in the early years of school.

Introduction

A focus on early childhood generally involves children from birth to eight years. Prior to school, children are able to enrol part-time in preschools at age three but more typically at age four. Parents may place their children in childcare when they are a few weeks or months old. This care will be full-time or part-time depending on the needs of families. Out-of-home care can be centre-based or it can involve a registered family day care provider or a private carer. For children with disabilities and their families, the childcare experience has not always been a positive one (Grace et al., 2008). This is unfortunate, as childcare has the potential to provide an excellent developmental opportunity for infants and young children with disabilities (Kemp et al., 2013).

From five or six years of age (sometimes from the age of four) children typically enter formal schooling, with schooling in Australia and New Zealand mandated from the age of six. Children with disabilities or developmental delays typically begin school at four or five years if they are placed in a special education class or school. If enrolling in regular education classes, sometimes a decision is taken to delay enrolment for a year. The argument for the additional year at preschool or in an early intervention program is that this will allow the child more time to mature and, therefore, is more likely to result in a successful placement. Parents need to have permission for their children to delay school enrolment after the mandatory school age. School principals may also allow children with advanced abilities to begin school at an earlier age than their typically developing peers. When making a decision for early entry, the school must have assessment information from a school counsellor or a registered psychologist confirming the child’s ability. Further, the child should be judged as sufficiently emotionally mature to benefit from early school entry (see, for example, Department of Education and Training Victoria, 2018; Education Queensland, 2019).

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Although there is no firm evidence that services provided in inclusive rather than segregated settings will lead to better outcomes for young children with disabilities, there is evidence to suggest that with the right support, inclusive placements can assist with the ongoing development of skills in young children with disabilities and developmental delays, without negatively impacting their typically-developing peers (see Figure 11.1). In this chapter, the reader is introduced to the range of services available to children with disabilities and their families prior to school entry (early childhood intervention) and inclusive opportunities for students with additional needs in the first three years of school. Ideas are provided for program development including assessment, program design, implementation of FIGURE 11.1 Inclusive placements can help develop skills in young children with disabilities. interventions and program evaluation. In this way, readers will have a greater understanding of how to provide individualised programs to young children with additional needs prior to school and in the early years of school. Planning for smooth transitions from one service to the next within early childhood intervention, and from prior-toschool services to the first year of school and beyond, are also discussed in this chapter.

11.1 Supporting early childhood intervention in the home and in inclusive communitybased settings In this section, general information is provided about early childhood intervention, including populations eligible to receive services, models of intervention, and recommended practices. The contribution of early childhood intervention to positive outcomes for children with disabilities and their families is discussed, as is the contribution of intervention to the move to more inclusive education. Narrative 11.1 illustrates the value of including infants and young children with disabilities within the family. An important role of the early childhood intervention professional is to support this inclusion.

NARRATIVE 11.1 Jon’s story Samantha was 22 when she married and her husband, Jason, was 23. Within a year of their marriage they had saved enough money for a deposit on their first home in a newly developing city suburb and Samantha was pregnant with their first child. It was 1980 when the early childhood intervention teacher made her first home visit. Jon was a delightful two-year-old with a winning smile. He was mischievous like many a two-year-old and ‘full of beans’. He had emptied

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the interventionist’s basket of goodies within a couple of minutes and had spread its contents across the floor of the living room. Unlike most two-year-olds, Jon had Down syndrome, which had been diagnosed while Samantha was still in hospital. As was common more than 40 years ago when Jon was born, Samantha had been advised to go home without her baby. The doctor had told her that Jon would not develop like other children, that he would never be able to learn to read and write or be independent. There were places that catered for children like this. He would be well cared for and she should forget him and try for another baby. As advised by the doctor, Samantha and Jason agreed that their baby should be placed in an institution, but Samantha could not forget her baby. Instead, she would visit him in the institution, which was located some miles away from the city. Her visits to the institution made her very anxious. Whenever she arrived Jon was always alone in his cot, often wet and distressed. It did not take many visits before Samantha decided that she could not leave her baby in this situation, even though she was not sure how well she would cope with him at home. Early childhood intervention was in its relative infancy at that time but it was clear to the interventionist that these parents had made the very best decision for their child. Even if there had been no intervention service at all, the fact that this child was given the opportunity to be loved and nurtured within his family, the same as other children his age, meant that he had a good start in life and the very best opportunity to reach his full potential.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Why might an institutional placement have a negative effect on Jon’s development? 2. How might the early childhood intervention worker support the family to include Jon?

Early childhood intervention: an overview

FIGURE 11.2 The aim of early childhood intervention is to enhance the development of individual children.

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Early intervention for infants and young children with disabilities, or at risk of developing disabilities or delays, targets children from birth, or point of identification, until they enter the formal education system. The intervention is designed to enhance an individual child’s development, with the assistance of family and/or carers (see Figure 11.2). A component of the intervention is support for families/carers who are often coming to terms with the child’s special needs and searching for answers to many questions relating to the child’s future. Early childhood intervention has been largely influenced by the compensatory education movement of the 1960s, early childhood education, special education, maternal and child health services, and child development research (Cook, Klein & Chen, 2012; Meisels & Shonkoff, 2000). National and state government policies and legislation, funding systems, and agencies and

CHAPTER 11 Inclusion in early childhood

professionals providing services to vulnerable infants and young children and their families have also shaped models of early childhood intervention. These influences appear to account for many of the national and local differences in intervention provision. Although the focus for early childhood intervention in Australia and New Zealand has been children with disabilities and delays and their families, the importance of the early years to the development of all children is recognised in both countries. Consequently, the need to support children from economically and socially disadvantaged families, Indigenous families, families from different cultural backgrounds and refugee families has been identified (Petriwskyj, 2010). Regardless of the specific needs of the children and their families, many of the following recommended practice guidelines will still be relevant.

Recommended practices in early childhood intervention

A taskforce of experts, from the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) in the USA, identified practices that are associated with quality programs for infants and young children with special needs. Recommended practices are generally those that research has demonstrated to have a positive effect for children and families. However, some practices do not have evidence to support or to refute them, but may be accepted by a consensus of opinion in the field. In this case, a research program would need to be established in order to demonstrate positive outcomes for these practices. This would be a case of values preceding the establishment of a research base. Many of the DEC recommended practices have been adopted internationally. The most recent DEC document outlines recommended practices, for those delivering early intervention services, within seven topic areas: assessment, environment, family, instruction, interaction, teaming and collaboration, and transition (Division for Early Childhood, 2014). As suggested by the DEC team of experts, recommended practices are not disabilityspecific. They are observable, and can be delivered in both segregated and inclusive settings. Following is a brief overview of the topic areas as outlined in the DEC document. Specific practices can be accessed on the DEC website listed at the end of this chapter.

Assessment

Assessment has several functions in early childhood intervention. It is used to screen for delays, determine eligibility for services, provide information to support individualised planning, monitor child progress and measure child outcomes. Assessment should be planned and carried out in collaboration with family and all professionals supporting the child and family. The cultural sensitivities of the child and family must also be considered when planning assessments. Results of assessments should be useful to families and reported in a way that can be easily understood by them.

Environment

This includes the physical environment (e.g. home, community, childcare centre, preschool), social interactions (with peers, family members, community members), and the activities and routines in which the child participates. Environments can be modified by families, carers, teachers and early intervention practitioners in order to ensure a child’s safety and to maximise the child’s learning opportunities. Natural and inclusive environments are recommended.

Family

Family-centred practice, which is integral to early childhood intervention in the twenty-first century, focuses on the needs of both the child and family. Practitioners encourage families to be actively involved in all aspects of their child’s intervention (assessment, planning, instruction) and provide them with clear and objective information on which to base all decisions related to

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their child’s program. Families are treated with dignity and respect and their individual cultural values are considered when offering intervention support. Practitioners aim to build on family strengths and to assist them to become advocates for their child.

Instruction

Instruction needs to be intentional and systematic with strategies in place for what to teach, how to teach it and how to evaluate the effectiveness of the instruction. Skills chosen for instruction will maximise the child’s development and general functioning in inclusive and/or normalised environments. Practitioners gather data and use these to assist with instructional decisionmaking. With the assistance of the family, children’s strengths and interests, which will inform instruction, are identified. It is acknowledged that the intensity and duration of instruction will vary depending on the needs of the individual child.

Interaction

Interaction is important for the development of communication, cognitive and social–emotional competence. Practitioner interactions with the child should be sensitive and responsive, and implemented across naturally occurring routines and activities. Practitioners will provide guidance to the adults and children who typically engage with the child so that they interact in a way that will promote the child’s development.

Teaming and collaboration

Because various professionals are commonly involved with a child with a disability or delay, and the child’s family, it is important that everyone can work together. This will help the child and family receive the services that they need and so maximise the chances of the child making the best possible gains. Working as part of a team relies on a collaborative approach, where the contributions of all members of the team are valued. Decisions made by the team should be better than the decisions that could be made by any individual team member.

Transition

This refers to the transition across environments and programs. Major transitions include the transition from hospital to home, home to early intervention program, early intervention program to early childhood program, early intervention or early childhood program to school. The relationships between families and practitioners are important to the transition process. The probability of positive outcomes for the child will be increased if these relationships are positive, if information is shared with families, and if strategies for ensuring a successful adjustment are planned in advance.

The importance of leadership

In addition to an overview of the seven topic areas related to practitioners, practices relating to leadership are also outlined in the DEC document. Program leaders should support practitioners to (a) implement research-based practice by the provision of the necessary professional development, (b) gather data for the purpose of evaluating child and family outcomes and for working continuously towards improving the program and (c) promote teamwork across the professions providing early childhood intervention services.

Implementation of recommended practices

Unfortunately, while there appears to be knowledge of and general consensus over what should be happening in early childhood intervention, service providers have acknowledged that the

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recommended practices are not always implemented in their services (Odom, 2009). Parents have also rated service providers as being more confident than competent in six important practice areas (Bruder & Dunst, 2015). Failure to implement recommended practices might also be influenced by accountability requirements. For example, Bailey, Raspa, and Fox (2012) noted that outcomes for families, separate from child-related outcomes, are not required for accountability reports in the USA. In Australasia, many of the better known or better promoted DEC recommended practices, in particular family-centred practice, naturalistic interventions and inclusion, are supported. Early Childhood Intervention Australia (ECIA) developed national guidelines for best practice in early childhood intervention (Early Childhood Intervention Australia, 2016). Although the importance of research-based evidence, clinical knowledge and an outcomes approach is acknowledged in these guidelines, assessment and instruction are not specifically targeted as they are in the DEC recommended practices.

Models of early childhood intervention

A range of early intervention services for infants and young children with disabilities is provided internationally. Models of service delivery differ widely depending on the age of the children, the context in which the service is delivered, the location of the service, the personnel employed, the funding models and, in some cases, the specific disability of the child. Approaches to service provision have changed over the past four decades, influenced by an acknowledgement of the rights of the child, the importance of the family, and the value of naturalistic interventions.

Changing approaches to early childhood intervention

When the first early childhood intervention programs were established, the goal was to keep each child’s developmental trajectory as close to normal as possible. This involved assessing the child’s skills in each domain (gross and fine motor, receptive and expressive language, cognitive, social and self-help) and targeting the next skill in the normal developmental sequence. The inclusion of children with more significant disabilities in early intervention has resulted in a modification of the developmental approach to include functional outcomes. A functional approach focuses on the skills the child needs in order to engage with his or her environment. It addresses many important quality-of-life outcomes such as communication, social and self-help skills and does not strictly observe the notion of readiness, whereby children are expected to move through identified stages of development at their own pace. Age-appropriate activities and routines are used to promote development and individual goals and objectives are addressed using a range of teaching strategies, including intentional teaching. The use of intentional teaching is supported by both the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) in the USA (NAEYC, 2009) and the Australian Early Years Learning Framework (DEEWR, 2009). Both policy statements suggest that the selection of teaching strategies should be guided by the needs of individual children and that all teaching strategies can be implemented in the context of play and structured activities. Intentional teaching is also gaining support in the New Zealand early childhood education sector (McLaughlin, Aspden, & Snyder, 2016).

Families and their role in intervention programs

Initially, families, in particular primary caregivers, were taught strategies for providing additional practice of skills targeted for children in intervention programs. More recently families have been acknowledged to be both the providers and recipients of early intervention. Effective intervention programs concentrate on building positive interactions between parents/caregivers and their children with disabilities in order to enhance development in those children (Guralnick, 2019). When families are stressed because they do not have the financial or personal resources

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to provide effectively for their child with a disability or other additional needs, this will affect the interactions among all family members, not just interactions with the child. Poor adult–child interactions will negatively impact the child’s overall development, including adaptive behaviour. It is not surprising, therefore, that family stresses have been linked with longer-term behaviour problems in children with developmental delays (Mitchell & Hauser-Cram, 2009). Cultural sensitivity is acknowledged to be an important focus in early childhood intervention. Individual family differences are influenced by different cultural values and these need to be understood and respected when offering intervention support. This is something that professionals working in the area might find difficult to accommodate, particularly when a cultural belief appears to be ‘at odds’ with something that is considered to be good practice; for example, encouraging independence. Further, families who do not have English as a first language may be disadvantaged if difficulties with language restrict their access to important information or create unnecessary barriers to communication with service providers. These difficulties should be addressed through the use of an interpreter and/or a written translation of important information. In both Australia and New Zealand, Indigenous families are often disadvantaged and may not be able to easily access available services. There is value in working closely with the Indigenous community and, where a high proportion of Indigenous families are eligible for services, an Indigenous early childhood intervention worker will be a valuable addition to the team.

Screening and assessment

The recommendation from the field is that children with disabilities and delays, or who are at risk of developing these, do not all need the same type or intensity of intervention. Universal screening would identify those who require a thorough and comprehensive assessment and those who need their development to be monitored until it is established that they are developing at a satisfactory rate. General developmental screening devices have been used by community nurses for a number of years. Gellisch (2016) has provided a rationale for developmental screening, a list of validated developmental screening tools and information on the instruments, including content, administration, age range and interpretation of results. Children identified through screening instruments as needing a more comprehensive assessment may also need a comprehensive intervention service. The initial diagnostic assessment may include a range of professions and will determine eligibility for services and for government funding. It may also include medical tests to determine whether or not there is a medical or genetic cause for a disability or delay.

Service delivery

Early childhood intervention can be delivered using home-based, centre-based or clinical services. Infants and young children under the age of three may spend the majority of their time at home where opportunities for assessment and intervention within the natural environment, including daily routines and activities, are plentiful. A natural extension of a home-based service is the implementation of a functional assessment in a variety of community settings and the design of a program to be delivered in those settings. For this to occur, the professional needs to work with the family in the community-based settings in which the child commonly participates. This is likely to be more appropriate for a toddler or preschooler and will probably involve settings that are problematic for the family or settings that the family has identified as providing excellent opportunities for practising many of the important skills that have been prioritised for the child. Difficulties associated with home-based or community-based interventions may include longer travel time for the interventionist and fewer opportunities for regular input from a range

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of professionals. The latter could be addressed by providing input from an early childhood intervention team or individual service provider during a centre-based or clinical session, with the primary interventionist taking responsibility for overseeing the implementation of the individual program and for incorporating suggestions from all service providers into the program as required. Alternatively, visits from a variety of professionals could still be scheduled from time to time or when a family member or the primary interventionist identifies the need. With the development of more sophisticated technology, it is now possible to provide support to families in their own homes using computer software such as SkypeTM, ZoomTM, and FaceTimeTM or using other video-conferencing technology, often referred to as ‘telepractice’ or ‘teleintervention’ (Olsen et al., 2012). For families living in remote areas, this may be their primary or only means of receiving regular intervention input.

Centre-based programs

Centre-based programs can still provide a valuable intervention opportunity. When offering centre-based programs to families with infants and very young children, it is still important that these be individualised. Also important is that information provided by families in relation to typical activities and routines accessed by the child and family in the home and community is central to the individualised plan. Another advantage of a centre-based program is the opportunity for families to get together to share experiences and ideas and to support one another. Some centre-based programs will include an individual session and a playgroup component. Families may regularly access one or both types of intervention. For a child at risk of delay, it may be sufficient to have an intervention package that includes scheduled assessment sessions and monitoring of progress within a playgroup setting – a setting that is attended by a range of professionals and is welcoming of siblings and other members of the child’s family.

Inclusive and segregated preschool programs

Older children (three- to five-year-olds) may be offered a segregated preschool program. This allows the child to practise engaging with typical preschool activities and with same-age peers in a supportive environment, with staff qualified or experienced in working with children with special needs. This may be part of a transition program that is preparing children for the move into out-of-home community education or care settings and will often precede the child’s move to an inclusive early childhood program. A segregated program may also be offered concurrently with an inclusive program. In order to support transition, and to be more inclusive, some early intervention services will offer preschool programs that have places for typically-developing children. The advantage for the typically-developing children is often a smaller preschool environment with highly qualified staff and better child–staff ratios. The danger is that the typically-developing children can simply be regarded as behaviour models for the children with special needs and, therefore, their own developmental needs could be neglected. This model has been referred to in the past as ‘reverse integration’. Inclusion implies that a program includes all eligible parties (in the case of education this means all children of a particular age) and will take into account both group and individual needs (see Chapter 1). Integration, on the other hand, implies that accommodations are included in a program designed for one population in order to allow another population to participate. In the case of mainstream educational programs, this means that the classroom program has been designed to cater for the needs of the typicallydeveloping child, and that special provisions are required in order to accommodate children who are not achieving typical rates of development. In a reverse integration model, the program is essentially targeting children with special needs; however, typically-developing children are still able to participate. If a child is attending a mainstream early childhood program, members of staff from the early childhood intervention service or individual service providers, such as special educators or

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therapists, will provide input to that program. This may be by way of a written or oral report or, where the child attends a special centre-based service, an invitation to staff from the mainstream program to visit the preschool program in the early childhood intervention centre. Comprehensive intervention services, or individual therapy services, can provide consultancy support for inclusion into early childhood programs, such as community preschools and childcare centres.

Early childhood intervention curriculum

The early intervention curriculum for infants and young children will be guided by typical developmental milestones (see Figure 11.3). Skills FIGURE 11.3 Early childhood intervention curriculum is guided needed for the child to function better in the home by typical developmental milestones. and community, and those that will make the lives of the family members easier and more enjoyable, should also be targeted for intervention. Several curricula have been used to guide early childhood intervention programs – for example, the Carolina Curriculum (Johnson-Martin et al., 2004a, 2004b) and the Assessment and Evaluation Programming System (Bricker & Waddell, 2002a, 2002b). Most commercially available curricula include information relating to initial and ongoing assessment in addition to strategies for planning and implementing the program and monitoring the child’s progress.

Working with other professions

Early childhood intervention services have included multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and, transdisciplinary models of delivery. A multidisciplinary model of service delivery involves individual disciplines operating independently of one another. Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches involve a level of collaboration across providers. An interdisciplinary approach involves all professions working together in a collaborative way to meet the needs of the child and family. In a transdisciplinary approach, all professionals contribute in their area of expertise but it may be that one of the professionals takes the major responsibility for implementing the program with ongoing input from the others. The result should be a sharing of knowledge and expertise, which will enhance service provision for infants and young children with disabilities and delays. A practical example of transdisciplinary practice, including easy-to-follow assessment and intervention procedures, has been provided by Boyer and Thompson (2014).

The development of early childhood intervention services in Australasia

Australia and New Zealand have largely adopted and adapted early childhood intervention programs developed overseas, particularly those from the USA. The first comprehensive early childhood intervention programs established in Australia in the mid- to late-1970s were for children with established disabilities and developmental delays. They were linked to tertiary institutions and were later adapted for use by community organisations, with the support of government funding. Preschool services for children from disadvantaged backgrounds and model programs for Indigenous preschoolers have also been trialled in Australia (see, for example, Braithwaite, 1983; Teasdale and Whitelaw, 1981) but generally these have been one-off programs that have not received ongoing funding. Because early childhood intervention for children

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with disabilities and delays is not mandated by legislation in Australia as it is in the USA, until recently, funding for early childhood intervention services was not systematically provided. With the introduction of the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS), established in 2012, person-centred funding has been provided to all individuals with a diagnosis of disability from the point of diagnosis to age 65.

National and state early intervention associations were established in Australia in the 1980s and 1990s to support early intervention practitioners. The Early Intervention Association of Aotearoa New Zealand (EIAANZ), a national association for early childhood intervention practitioners, was established in 1998 (see Weblinks at the end of the chapter). The membership of these organisations has included parents of children with disabilities, and professionals with an interest in, or working in, the field of early childhood intervention.

Models of early childhood intervention in Australasia

Early childhood intervention services can be provided by government and community organisations, with most comprehensive services provided by non-profit community organisations. Government provision differs across Australian states and territories. For example, early childhood services are provided for children with significant disabilities, from birth or point of diagnosis, by the Department of Education in Queensland and by the Tasmanian Government, while in Victoria the Department of Education acts as a coordinating body for early intervention services provided by a range of accredited providers. In New Zealand, early intervention services are provided from birth for children with moderate and severe disability by the Ministry of Education, or providers accredited by the Ministry (Foster-Cohen & van Bysterveldt, 2016). While some state departments of education in Australia have taken responsibility for the education of three- to five-year-olds with disabilities in preschool settings, the places available in these programs are limited in some states, and many who access these programs are still receiving services from a community-based early childhood intervention service and/or a private service provider. Individual providers who are not part of an intervention team may offer services to families of infants and young children with special needs. These providers can be sole educators, or allied health professionals offering a general program in their area of expertise or a specific intervention purported to have positive effects for one or more areas of development.

In addition to child-focused input, many intervention services offer support more generally to the family. This can include family education or support programs. Family education programs generally target areas of identified family need, such as information relating to toileting programs, challenging behaviour, systems of communication and sleep difficulties for the child with special needs, finding services for the child (e.g. preschools and schools) and preparing for transitions. Family support more specifically addresses the needs of family members. This can include information relating to respite, sibling support, counselling and funding to assist the family to access the necessary services.

Changes to the NDIS

The change under the NDIS, from government block funding of early childhood intervention services to the allocation of funding to individual children, has had an impact on both the agencies providing early childhood intervention to infants and young children with disabilities and the way in which services are provided (Marchbank, 2017). Families of newly diagnosed infants and young children are allocated funding to buy early intervention services for their children. Choosing appropriate services requires families to be provided with information that

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allows them to make an informed choice. Problems with the funding model have included families’ concerns about access to reliable information to assist them in their choice of services (Brien et al., 2017; Gavidia-Payne, 2020; Purcal et al., 2018). The danger is that the choices made by families may not reflect the evidence reported in the research literature. Lack of information on evidence-based practice provided to parents/caregivers, who are making decisions about services for their infants and young children, has been identified as problematic (Purcal et al., 2018). The introduction of the NDIS Early Childhood Early Intervention (ECEI) (NDIS, 2016) approach enables children at risk of developmental delay, but who do not have a disability diagnosis, to access services provided by ECEI partners for a short period of time. These partners, selected by the National Disability Insurance Agency (NDIA) for each state and territory, provide limited services, and support families in their application for NDIS funding should this be appropriate (NDIS, 2016). Despite the acknowledgement by the NDIA of the need for a different approach to the administration of ECEI funding under the NDIS, there are still concerns that the new model of funding may not promote evidence-based practice. For example, it may be difficult to factor in time for collaboration across organisations and individuals providing services to infants and young children with disabilities and their families. Family-centred practice, including the value of having goals for parents and carers, separate from their children, is also important because of the impact of stressors on the ability of families to provide responsive parenting to their young children with disabilities (Gavidia-Payne, 2020).

How effective is early childhood intervention?

Two terms used to refer to how well a program or intervention works are efficacy and effectiveness. The term ‘efficacy’ is used to refer to the positive outcomes found when researchers implement controlled studies related to an intervention or program. The term ‘effectiveness’ is used when outcomes are established in less controlled ‘real-world’ situations (Odom, 2009). In the USA, from which most of the research into early childhood intervention has emanated, there is now a general acceptance that establishing the efficacy of early childhood intervention, in a global sense, is neither useful nor possible. This is because many different types of intervention services are implemented with different populations of children. The interventions, or program of interventions, are also likely to be different, as are the measures used to determine their success. Early intervention has now been accepted as a necessary support for infants and young children with disabilities and their families. The focus is to investigate both the efficacy and effectiveness of specific interventions in relation to improved outcomes for children and their families (e.g. Baron et al., 2014). Unfortunately, as in other areas of education, there still exists a gap between the interventions established through scientific research to have positive outcomes and the interventions used in early intervention practice (Cook & Odom, 2013; Odom, 2009). An important support for the families of infants and young children with a disability or delay is the provision of clear and accurate information on both the efficacy and effectiveness of various interventions. Family members are likely to seek the advice of those whom they trust to give an objective opinion, and this will include their service provider. Much of the information that a family will access will be provided by other families and sourced from websites that have not been carefully scrutinised. Unfortunately, these are not the best sources when trying to determine whether or not an intervention has a credible evidence base. It is for this reason that those providing early childhood intervention services should be aware of the most up-to-date research in the field, and that they should not hesitate to provide an objective and accurate summary of the evidence base. The Raising Children Network website (see Weblinks at the end of the chapter) provides current and well-regarded evaluations of interventions for children

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with autism. Other sites that provide evaluations of interventions for children with a range of disabilities and special learning needs include the Cochrane Library and the What Works Clearinghouse (see Weblinks at the end of the chapter). Although research evidence can be used to guide practice in early childhood intervention, it is important to keep in mind that this is a starting point only, and that practices with a strong evidence base will not necessarily work for every child and family (Cook & Odom, 2013).

The role of early childhood intervention in promoting inclusion

Early childhood intervention has been commonly associated with inclusion, although services have not always been provided in inclusive settings. In Australia and New Zealand, this association was partly influenced by the coincidence of the establishment of the first intervention programs with the move to deinstitutionalisation. The gains that children made following intervention led many parents to expect that their child would be included in general education settings following school entry. Families began to ask themselves why they would accept a segregated placement when they had invested so many years in promoting the development of their children to ensure that they had more lifelong opportunities. They were aiming to make their youngsters more independent so that they could take their rightful place in society. Inclusion in a mainstream setting is still an important goal for many families and one that is supported by government policy.

deinstitutionalisation The process of moving people with a disability from institutions and hospitals into the community to live.

Early childhood intervention programs should involve a working relationship between families and professionals, with a view to maximising the child’s development across all the environments in which she needs to function (e.g. home and various community environments). In these situations, inclusion is definitely promoted. On the other hand, some group programs for young children with disabilities are segregated. It is easy to defend the use of segregated programs by arguing that these programs are preparing the child for later inclusive education. Certainly, segregated programs often have an advantage in relation to the number, qualifications and experience of staff working with children with additional needs. One of the disadvantages of segregated group programs is the lack of opportunity for children to engage with peers. This is particularly problematic where segregated programs include children with extreme social and communication difficulties. For this population, the opportunity to engage with peers, and therefore to learn from others, is diminished in segregated programs (see Kishida & Kemp, 2009, for research comparing segregated and inclusive early childhood settings for young children with autism). Further, there is evidence supporting the role of typically developing peers in promoting the learning and engagement of young children with disabilities (see Goldstein et al., 2014).

Access to early education programs

Mainstream early childhood settings, such as preschools and childcare centres enrolling children with additional needs, are not necessarily inclusive either. Merely placing a child in a mainstream setting does not ensure that the educational needs of the child will be met in that setting. Early childhood educators may believe that the developmental focus of early childhood programs is sufficient to cater for the full range of children who access those programs. This approach may fail the child with a disability and, indeed, children with exceptional ability and other additional needs if it is not supplemented with more carefully planned programs that are directly implemented by centre staff.

Autism

For inclusive educational provision to be successful, certain conditions apply. A joint statement by DEC and NAEYC (DEC/NAEYC, 2009) on early childhood inclusion suggests that the

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defining features of inclusion are access, participation and supports. Similarly, a joint statement produced in Australia by Early Childhood Australia (ECA) and ECIA (ECA/ECIA, 2012) identifies participation, engagement and success, with sufficient resources to support full inclusion and quality outcomes, as essential elements of inclusion.

Access does not just mean access to early education programs but refers to access to the early childhood curriculum, including the activities and learning opportunities offered in early childhood settings. Access does not necessarily ensure participation. Child participation relies to a great extent on the planning and intervention of the adults working in the settings. The approach to intervention needed to support participation can include embedded and routines-based teaching (where the skill is taught in the context of the typical routines and activities of the centre) and explicit instruction. The approach to intervention will depend on the individual needs of the child. The incorporation of a Universal Design for Learning (UDL) approach to the early childhood curriculum allows diverse groups of children to learn by ensuring that they are able to access the curriculum and participate regardless of their cognitive, linguistic, cultural and social differences. In order to ensure both access and participation, ‘instruction, questions, expectations and learning opportunities are provided in various formats and at different levels of complexity, addressing a range of ability levels and needs’ (Lieber et al., 2008, p. 21).

The supports required for successful inclusion are professional development for staff, supportive policies, including policies relating to funding and quality standards, and appropriate collaboration across the family and professionals associated with the child. A capacity-building approach to the professional development of staff in early childhood education and care centres is currently favoured (Brien et al., 2017). This approach includes coaching within the workplace and ongoing mentoring in addition to initial training sessions.

REFLECT ON THIS If evidence-based early childhood intervention were mandated in Australasia, as it is in some overseas countries, what differences might you see in approved services and service provision?

11.2 Supporting families and carers to provide intervention within naturally occurring home and community settings In this section, guidance is provided for devising and implementing an intervention program with an infant or young child with a disability or delay, in consultation with the child’s family and supporting professionals. A child with a disability can have a profound effect on the child’s family, as illustrated in Narrative 11.2. Having a family perspective is important when providing intervention services to infants and young children with disabilities.

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NARRATIVE 11.2 Period of discovery Margaret and her husband, Grant, were told that that their baby daughter, Lili, had a severe level of disability after she had contracted meningitis when only a few weeks old. Margaret describes how she and her family felt in the two-year period following the diagnosis: I don’t think anything can prepare you for the challenges, the enormous challenges and also the grief. There is a lot of grief and it’s an emotional rollercoaster of up and down. You can be good one day and down the next. And so in finding out or thinking that there is something wrong you embark on a journey – that is the only way I can describe it – a journey of discovery. What’s wrong with your child? Why is your child not doing this or why is your child doing that? And you need, in order to deal with this and the diagnosis or the label that’s placed on your child, to discover what’s actually best for your child. It’s a maze of medical and therapeutic services that is usually focused on what your child can’t do and that’s usually in the initial couple of years – the period of discovery as I’ve called it.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What could professionals offering services to the families of newly diagnosed children with disabilities do to minimise the grief and anxiety experienced by those families? 2. What are some of the decisions Margaret and Grant will need to make about Lili’s early education and care? 3. How can professionals assist Margaret and Grant with their choice of early childhood interventions?

The individual family service planning process

The individual family service plan (IFSP) is the culmination of a process whereby the needs of the child with a disability are addressed within the context of the family. This acknowledges the fact that the development and behaviour of the child with a disability is greatly influenced by the family environment. It also acknowledges that having a child with a disability has a major impact on the family (Guralnick, 2019). The purpose of the IFSP is to support the family to provide the best possible environment for the child. Supporting the family means that the needs of family members, not just the child with a disability, must also be addressed. Families may need support to find respite or childcare services, to plan for transitions to new services, to locate appropriate intervention or medical services, or support to assist with accessing or paying for additional resources. It might also include support to find services to meet the specific needs of siblings of the child with the disability or assistance with explaining a child’s condition to extended family members, neighbours, friends or strangers (Brien et al., 2017; Bruder & Dunst, 2015).

individual family service plan (IFSP) A plan to which all parties working with the child and family contribute. It is coordinated by the family or a case manager nominated by the family.

Information relevant to their child’s needs is important for families. These families are encouraged to participate as equal partners with professionals in providing appropriate interventions for the child with additional needs, to make decisions relating to future programs

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and to be an ongoing advocate for their child. The right information serves to empower families and give them confidence for this role. The kinds of information that families need include childrelated information such as (a) child development; (b) information about the child’s disability; and (c) guidance for interacting with the child, including strategies for promoting development and behaviour management; and information about the choice of available programs and services (Bailey & Powell, 2005; Guralnick, 2017). This capacity-building approach to working with families is strongly promoted in the early childhood intervention literature (e.g., Brien et al, 2017; Bruder & Dunst, 2015).

The IFSP process requires a meeting of the family and all professionals supporting the family. The initial IFSP meeting will be held following an assessment of the child’s overall development. Sometimes the IFSP meeting will be coordinated by the primary carer, but often a professional closely involved with the family is nominated to coordinate the meeting. The meeting may be small if the child has been recently diagnosed or has only just begun to receive services. Subsequent meetings will often include a range of professionals, all with different skills but with something to contribute to the child and family. If the child attends only one service, a representative of that service should attend the planning meeting. This is probably the professional most closely involved with the family. If the family receives services from more than one agency, several professionals can be present, or if they are not able to attend the meeting they can contribute by providing a verbal or written report. Contributing professionals can be an early childhood special educator, one or more therapists (speech therapist, physiotherapist, occupational therapist), a behaviour specialist, a psychologist or a social worker. An early childhood educator attached to a preschool or childcare centre attended by the child can also be present. It is the role of the coordinator to ensure that relevant input is received from all members of the team and that decisions relating to services to be provided to the child and family are recorded. It is also important to record the person or persons who will take responsibility for all components of the plan and to decide, in advance, how the implementation of the plan will be monitored and the outcomes evaluated. An example of an individual family service plan is provided in Figure 11.4. The IFSP is an overall plan for the child and family. It is not designed to document in detail an individual developmental/education plan for the child. It is important that the plan is simple but inclusive and that it can be completed at, or soon after, the meeting so that the plan can be put into operation. If the plan is too complex, then it might be difficult to implement. The aim of the plan is to coordinate the services for the family and to make sure that outcomes target the needs of the family as well as those of the child with a disability. Individual professionals will design their own programs for the child, with input from other professionals, where appropriate, and with input from the family to ensure that family priorities for the child are addressed. The IFSP meeting provides the parents/carers with an opportunity to identify priorities for themselves and their child with the assistance of the relevant professionals. It may be that for a family overwhelmed by input from a range of professionals, a decision is taken to focus on one specific area for intervention with general advice and strategies provided by the other professionals. An IFSP meeting can make professionals aware of the range of issues faced by the family, including any additional medical and health issues and challenges that family members may need to deal with every day. It is important that the family is happy with the outcome of the meeting and that each professional involved receives a copy of the IFSP. It is then the responsibility of the coordinator to plan a time for the next IFSP meeting with the family. If the priorities of the family change for any reason, the parents/carers need to be aware that they can request an earlier meeting to update the IFSP.

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Address:

Parent(s)/Guardian(s): Jane and Robert White

IFSP Co-ordinator: Josie Main

Date of IFSP Meeting:

Other languages: N/A

Sex: Female

Father (A) Social worker (A) Physiotherapist (A)

Robert White

Josie Main

Margo Mills

Therapy team

Therapy team

Service

Kim Black (W)

Karen Baker (A)

Sam Marks (A)

Name

Therapy team Early childhood intervention service Early childhood intervention service

Early special educator Occupational therapist

Service Speech pathologist

Position/agency

FIGURE 11.4 Individual family service plan

Family priorities: Jane wants to return to work (two days a week) so needs to find a childcare centre that will take Rachael for those days. Both Jane and Robert would like to spend more time with their other daughter as they feel that Kate is sometimes neglected because of the time that Rachael requires. Both parents also want Rachael to be more independent with eating and to be more mobile. They also want to know how to assist in promoting her overall development.

Note contribution: Attended meeting (A) Written/verbal report (W)

Mother (A)

Position/agency

Jane White

Name

FSP participants

Services received by child and family: physiotherapy (once a month at the therapy centre) and speech therapy (once every three or four months at the therapy centre), social worker (seen at the therapy centre for initial visit; rings each month and visits home every few months), home-based early intervention from a special education teacher attached to a comprehensive community-based early childhood intervention service (weekly home visits).

Brief overview of the child's current health and development: Rachael has a significant developmental delay across all areas of development. She is able to sit with support. When placed on her stomach she can push up with her hands. She is not mobile. When supported to sit, she is able to reach and touch objects with either hand, pick up objects and move objects from one hand to another. She is not able to pick up objects with her fingers or to align or stack objects. Rachael is able to take solid and semi-solid food from a spoon held for her and can drink from a cup held for her. Rachael will occasionally shake a rattle when this is demonstrated for her and sometimes indicates that she would like to continue a social game (e.g. peek-a-boo) by laughing or verbalising. It is difficult to maintain her attention when looking at a book or object together. Rachael sometimes imitates an action such as waving or clapping. She sometimes turns towards a person who is speaking but does not take turns with verbalisation.

Primary home language: English

Siblings: Kate (Female, 5 years)

Telephone: (Home) ____________________ (Work) ________________ (Mobile) ____________________

Age: 18 months

INDIVIDUAL FAMILY SERVICE PLAN

Individual family service plan for: Rachael White

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459

460 Rachael will: • begin to use a spoon independently to eat soft and semi-soft foods • eat finger foods with little or no assistance • drink from a cup (with a spout).

The occupational therapist (OT) will visit at a meal time and advise the parents on modification to eating and drinking utensils as necessary. She will also model strategies for promoting independence.

Rachael to eat and drink independently

FIGURE 11.4 Continued

Signature parent/guardian:

Margo Mills (PT) Jane and Robert (parents) Childcare centre staff

Rachael's gross motor skills will improve and eventually she will begin to crawl.

The physiotherapist (PT) will work with Jane and Robert (and childcare centre staff) to encourage Rachael's motor development. Strategies for promoting this will be incorporated into daily routines and activities identified by the parents and childcare workers.

Rachael to be more mobile

Next meeting planned for:

Josie Main (social worker) Jane and Robert (parents)

Jane and Robert spend time with Kate on the Saturdays that Rachael is in care.

Respite for two Saturdays each month; Robert and Jane to investigate activities that they can share with their daughter on those days.

Jane and Robert to spend more time with Kate

Kim Black (OT) Jane and Robert (parents)

Jane White (mother) Karen Baker (special educator) with support from: • Margo Mills (PT) • Kim Black (OT) • Sam Marks (ST)

Centre staff report that Rachael is participating in centre activities at her level.

Transition to the centre-based program including: • meeting with centre staff to determine additional supports needed for Rachael and sharing information • visits to the centre (Jane and Rachael) • securing necessary resources • working with centre staff to develop activity-based plan • monitoring the implementation of the plan.

Rachael to participate in the childcare centre program

Josie Main (social worker)

Jane is working two days a week.

Who is responsible?

Finding a suitable childcare centre that has vacancies for the days Jane needs to return to work.

How will we know that the outcome has been achieved or that progress is being made?

Jane to return to work for two days a week

Outcome

How will this outcome be achieved?

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CHAPTER 11 Inclusion in early childhood

Outcomes for the family

Outcomes for the family should be included when developing an IFSP. In order to do this, early childhood intervention professionals need to be aware of the difference between family outcomes and the services and supports provided to families. Finding respite care for the family is a service or support. A possible outcome of this support is parents spending time with their other children in activities in which the child with the disability cannot easily participate. This may be a priority outcome for the family and important to the ongoing emotional health of individual family members. Early childhood intervention practitioners may provide information about the child’s development and strategies for enhancing that development. The outcome for families would be an increased quality of interaction with the child and the knowledge and confidence to select services to meet the child’s needs and to advocate for the child. Family and child outcomes are very much interdependent (Hughes-Scholes & Gavidia-Payne, 2019). For instance, skills in behaviour management gained by the parents (family outcome) are likely to have positive longterm effects on the social skills of the child, which in turn will influence the child’s long-term prospects. Simple guidelines for producing clear outcomes statements for both child and family are provided by Shelden and Rush (2014).

Outcomes for the child

Just as it is important to distinguish between the outcomes and strategies for families, so too is it important to make the same distinction for the child. Parents will often have priority goals for their child, but this will not always be the case. When the families first engage in early childhood intervention, they may just want their child ‘to get better’ or to ‘improve’. As they learn more about their child and the intervention process, they are likely to gain confidence and become more assertive about what they want for themselves and their child.

The outcomes included in the IFSP will be broad outcomes that are planned in the medium or long term. A developmental assessment will assist in the selection of these outcomes. In order to select short-term objectives and specific instructional strategies, interventionists will need to implement a functional assessment that targets the skills that the child needs within the context in which they are required to demonstrate these skills.

A team approach

Because a range of professions is involved in the delivery of early childhood intervention services, it is easy for services to individual families to become fragmented. The way in which professionals work together influences the quality of the total service to the child and family. To have several professionals all presenting different and, on occasions, conflicting information and advice can be confusing and exhausting for families. One way in which this problem can be addressed is through the IFSP process.

In order to work as part of a team, individual team members need to have skills in active listening, in order to listen, acknowledge and reflect on the contributions of others. They also need skills in negotiation and conflict resolution, in order that they might contribute successfully to the overall plan. It is important to acknowledge parents/carers as equal members of the team. They will play an important role in the assessment of the child, in setting program priorities and in implementing the intervention on a daily basis. Unfortunately, the skills that are needed to work closely and productively with other professionals and with families are generally not targeted in the pre-service programs of most Australian professionals working in the field of early childhood intervention (Kemp, 2016). In New Zealand those teachers who do undertake training in early intervention have few opportunities to take up employment with early intervention

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service providers (Foster-Cohen & van Bysterveldt, 2016). In the USA, Dunst (2015) has noted that much of the in-service training for professionals working in the field of early childhood intervention fails to include evidence-based approaches to professional learning. Australasian early childhood interventionists generally access professional learning through workshops and conference presentations. The evidence-based model suggested by Dunst (2015) is unlikely to be available to these professionals.

An inclusive approach

Few professionals working in the field would deny the value of providing intervention in the most natural environments possible. For infants and toddlers this is nearly always the home or community settings in which the family participates. The assessment of the child’s existing skills should also be implemented in these settings, and the strategies that have been designed to encourage development across all areas of need should be embedded in the daily activities and routines of the child. This means that for very young children, intervention is almost always provided in inclusive settings. If the child’s communication, social and self-help skills are taught in natural environments in which a range of people participate (including family and community members), the child is being prepared to take his place in the wider community. All of the popular curricula for early childhood intervention include assessment components, and these can be adopted or adapted for use in natural settings. Alternatively, individual professionals with the necessary knowledge of skill development in one or more areas can conduct the assessment, ideally in the settings in which the child will need to demonstrate the skills. This can be done as part of a team assessment or individually. Either way, the parents/carers should be involved in the assessment, and a summary of the assessment results should reflect collaboration across the professionals involved. An example of skills targeted for the social–communication development of a two-yearold with a global developmental delay is included in Figure 11.5. When writing an individual program for a child, it is useful to provide a reference to the assessment on which it is based. Knowing the child’s skill level will help guide all interactions with the child which, in turn, will ensure that the adult is working at the right level. In this way, the right context will be provided for promoting all skills, not just those specifically targeted for intervention. The skills need to be expressed in a way that will allow them to be measured easily. The environments, and activities planned for these environments, should be documented along with the strategies used to teach the skills. Finally, the family members working to develop the nominated skills should be clear about what they will see when the child is able to demonstrate the skills. The results will be better if the skills are priority skills nominated by the family.

11.3 Supporting interventions in inclusive early education settings Intellectual disability

462

In this section, the reader is provided with information about the early education settings that are accessed by young children with additional needs. Practical ideas are also suggested for devising and implementing individual programs for children with additional needs within inclusive centre-based settings. Narrative 11.3 illustrates the benefits of inclusive placement for young children with a disability.

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ACTIVITY-BASED PROGRAM PLAN NAME: Tommy Jones

Age: 2 years, 6 months

Developmental area: Social–communication

Summary of assessment information: Tommy engages in vocal exchanges (i.e. babbles) with adults and can participate in joint attention activities (e.g. joint play with an object, or shared book reading) for 1–2 minutes, pointing to pictures and objects while engaged in these activities. He does not respond with vocalisations or gestures to simple questions. He occasionally uses gestures or vocalisations to greet others and is able to protest or reject using gesture/vocalisation. He responds to his name and sometimes follows one-step directions (e.g. ‘Get the cup’) with contextual cues. He is not yet using recognisable words. Skill

Environments/activities

Uses a gesture and/or vocalisation to greet or farewell

1. Whenever a familiar person comes to or leaves the house 2. Whenever Tommy first comes into the presence of or immediately before he leaves the presence of a familiar person (in that person's home or in the broader community)

Strategies for encouraging the skill e.g. Tommy – ‘say hello/goodbye to Grandma’ … ‘Hi/bye Grandma' (wave your hand to model the gesture and then take Tommy's hand and help him to wave). Once you have assisted Tommy to do this on several occasions, wait first for Tommy to initiate the greeting himself and then assist him. Praise all attempts made by Tommy to greet and farewell.

How is it going? • February – Tommy is smiling when greeting. He is watching the adult wave and is allowing a family member to physically prompt his response. • March – Tommy is vocalising when greeting and farewelling. Occasionally he attempts a wave. • April – Tommy vocalises for every greeting and farewell and attempts to wave.

Making word approximations

1. When engaged in a joint activity with an adult (e.g. play, shared book reading) 2. Meal times 3. Bath time 4. Other commonly repeated activities

Say the names of familiar objects in which Tommy shows interest during daily activities. Make sure that he is looking at the object while you are saying the word. Encourage Tommy to say the word. Praise any attempt and say the word again.

• February – Tommy is looking at the objects and sometimes vocalising in response to a family member's model. • March – Tommy is responding to the adult model of the word by saying the first sound in the word or one or more other sounds in the word. • April – Tommy is sometimes giving consistent approximations for ‘ball’ (bu), ‘drink’ (di) and ‘dog’ (ob).

FIGURE 11.5 Activity-based program plan

Supporting appropriate interventions

Many children with a disability, delay or other additional needs will attend a communitybased childcare or preschool setting. It is important to understand that while the programs offered to children in these settings should reflect the developmental and functional needs of the child, they will not necessarily be implemented in a one-to-one instructional arrangement.

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NARRATIVE 11.3 Lili at childcare

LILI

Many parents are anxious when their children with special needs first attend an inclusive early childhood program. Margaret, who told the story of her family’s journey of discovery following the diagnosis of their daughter’s disability (Narrative 11.2), had searched far and wide for a preschool willing to enrol her daughter, Lili, who had been diagnosed with a moderate to severe intellectual disability. She had been consistently told by centre directors that the preschool could not cater for Lili’s special needs. Finally, she found a childcare centre willing to accept three-year-old Lili. Margaret related the following story after Lili had been attending the centre for a few months: A few weeks ago, I called to pick up my daughter Lili and a little girl came up and tugged on my skirt and said ‘Are you Lili’s mum?’ ‘Yes,’ I said. ‘What’s your name?’ She said ‘Alexandra – and I taught Lili a word today.’ ‘Did you?’ I said and Lili was standing there. Alexandra said ‘Yes, it’s spade.’ I said ‘That’s fantastic.’ Alexandra said ‘Lili, say spade.’ And Lili said: ‘Pade’. Alexandra said ‘Tomorrow I’m teaching her sand’.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What were the advantages to Lili and her family in accessing an inclusive childcare centre? 2. What were the advantages for the typically developing children attending the childcare centre?

An individual program does not always require one-to-one instruction. Indeed, there is some evidence that programs implemented in a group arrangement can be just as successful, if not more successful, because they are more motivating for the child and the child has the opportunity to engage in observational learning (Ledford & Wolery, 2015). It is important, also, that the interventions included in these settings are normalised. For example, the child might benefit from speech drills but the preschool setting is probably not the best environment to be implementing such a program. If, on the other hand, an activity can be devised that will allow the child to practise the sounds in the context of a game, in which other children also participate, this would be an appropriate intervention for an inclusive setting. In a preschool or childcare setting, children can participate at a number of different levels, even in a group situation. In story time, the more able child might be expected to predict what will happen next, while the child with language difficulties can practise labelling simple objects or responding with two-word utterances. An important consideration when including a child with additional learning needs in a mainstream early childhood setting will be to provide the necessary structures and routines to ensure that the child is comfortable in the environment and is clear about the teacher’s

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expectations. For some children, activity choice may need to be restricted if having too many choices causes confusion, thereby limiting the child’s ability to engage productively with any of the available activities or materials. Having an activity schedule can assist the child to be prepared for a change of activity and can allow the child to indicate a choice of activity if he or she has limited language. An activity schedule can include a set of visual representations such as photographs or line drawings for each activity. The role of the early childhood interventionist is important in ensuring that the child gets the most out of the inclusive early childhood placement. This setting should not be regarded as an extension of the intervention service but as a new environment in which the child needs to function. Certainly, many of the communication, motor and self-help skills that have been targeted in the intervention service can be practised in the new environment. However, there are social skills and problem-solving skills that will be specific to an early childhood centre-based setting. The skills of the interventionist can be used to assist the early childhood educators to assess the child within the new environment and to program specifically for the inclusive early childhood setting. The priorities of the family should be taken into consideration when planning a program for the inclusive centre. However, if parents/carers have made the decision to enrol their child in an inclusive setting, the chances are that they will want their child to enjoy the program, learn to socialise with other children and be better prepared for school entry. Difficulties may arise if the parents want the staff to use an intervention that is not evidence-based. It is important that professionals are honest with parents and provide them with information relating to the research base for any intervention that they may want to use. If the intervention requires a one-to-one implementation and is not an activity that would typically be offered in a preschool or childcare setting, it is reasonable that centre staff decline to implement it. For this reason, it is important that professionals involved with providing services to infants and young children with disabilities ensure that they are aware of the evidence relating to the effectiveness of interventions.

Children with exceptional ability

In any inclusive early childhood setting, there will be children with a range of ability. Children who are significantly above or below the norm in their development may prove challenging to early childhood staff. Young children who are intellectually gifted generally learn quickly, recall easily, think abstractly and have a long attention span (Harrison, 2003). Language generally develops early in these young children and is often more sophisticated. Unfortunately, not all children who demonstrate exceptional ability in their early years grow up to be successful or even contented adults, despite the perception that these children have a natural advantage. Their need for differentiated programs in order to reach their potential is not commonly acknowledged, nor is the social isolation that they and their families may experience (Hodge, 2012). While much is written about the identification of young gifted children and the need to provide for them in early childhood settings, there is very little research that has identified intervention strategies demonstrated to be effective for this population (Walsh et al., 2012). Therefore, recommended practice includes the provision of a high-quality early childhood curriculum with modifications made in response to individual strengths and interests (Harrison, 2003). Parents commonly report that managing their young children with exceptional ability is difficult at times and, like their counterparts whose children have disabilities, that they need a supportive social network and information and support from professionals.

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Best practice models for early childhood inclusion

The efficacy of Response to Intervention (RTI) and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) has been investigated in early childhood settings and identified in the literature as contributing to successful inclusion (see Rao et al., 2014; Stanton-Chapman et al., 2016). Important components of UDL include multiple means of engaging children and a range of methods to enable children to communicate their needs, ideas, feelings, knowledge and preferences. Parette and Blum (2014) provide useful and practical guidelines for implementing UDL in early childhood classrooms. RTI is a prevention model that includes a three-tiered system of intervention. Children are provided with the level of intervention intensity needed to make adequate progress. Using this model, all children in early education centres are provided with a high-quality early childhood program. For those who are at risk of delay, targeted programs are provided within the typical activities and routines of the centre, with more attention provided to those with greater needs. The top tier of the model targets the very small percentage of children who need a highly specialised program in order to make progress. Evidence-based practice should be incorporated into each layer of the RTI model.

Although RTI and UDL approaches are considered to be best practice, they are only as effective as the specific interventions adopted. RTI will be successful if each tier of the model includes evidence-based interventions, such as progress monitoring, data-based decisionmaking, and the varying of instructional intensity according to the needs of individual children (Shepley & Grisham-Brown, 2018). Reports on UDL efficacy research have identified that specific intervention details are often not provided, making it difficult to determine the contributing components of a successful UDL approach (Ok et al., 2017; Rao et al., 2014).

Individual education programs

As suggested, while a program for a child with additional needs should be individual, it does not have to be implemented in a one-to-one instructional arrangement. However, there should be an individual plan. This should be based on an assessment of the child’s current skill level in engaging with the activities in the natural environment, which in this case will be the early education setting. The interventions selected to promote the specific skills/knowledge for individual children should be supported by research. These interventions must be acceptable to both the early childhood educators and the families of the children involved and should be implemented with a high level of fidelity. This is what is meant by evidence-based practice. Not every intervention will work for every child despite having a strong research base (Cook & Odom, 2013). For this reason, data on intervention effectiveness for individual children should be collected regularly and decisions relating to the children’s programs based on this data.

Activity-based assessment

Skills that have been identified as being important for the child’s current setting, and those that are required for the next educational environment should be included in an activity-based assessment. It is important that the assessment is designed to allow children to demonstrate the skills already achieved as well as those that need to be taught. This will require educators to ensure that children with disabilities in their centres have access to assistive technology to support their communication should this be needed. Again, it is important that the child’s family as well as other professionals involved with the child have input into the development and implementation of the assessment. Given the importance of play in practising skills across a range of developmental areas, it is useful to embed the assessment in play situations as well as in typical centre routines such

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as snack and meal times, toilet routines, greetings and farewells. Planned activities such as language and music groups and story time also provide useful vehicles for both assessing skills and implementing interventions. An example of how a functional activity-based, cross-discipline assessment can be implemented in a centre-based early childhood program has been provided by Grisham-Brown (2000). Practical guidelines for a functional assessment of behaviour within an early childhood setting are also provided by Wood and Ferro (2014). Assessments that accompany the well-known early childhood intervention curricula can also be used to guide activity-based assessment. Macy and Bricker (2006) have given practical information on how these can be implemented as activity-based assessments. Macy and Bricker have also provided practical advice relating to other aspects of a child’s program, including program design and implementation.

Program design

Because it is not possible to target more than four or five skills for systematic instruction, it is suggested that early educators, in collaboration with other professionals working with a child, choose one, possibly two, objectives from the priority developmental domains. This does not mean that these are the only skills that the child will learn while in the centre. Just knowing the developmental level of the child in each of the developmental domains will be important when planning activities for the child or when directing the child to choose activities in the centre.

When a child is very young and also has a disability or delay, progress may be slow. It is important, therefore, that small gains are recognised. For the priority skills specifically targeted, it will be important that the early educators know exactly what the child needs to do to demonstrate each skill. For that reason, the skill should be written as an objective with clear content, a measurable behaviour and the conditions under which the skill will be demonstrated (see Chapter 5). This is important if staff members are to measure the skill in the same way each time. If the skill is assessed in a slightly different way each time, it will not be easy to recognise progress. For example, the objective might be for the child to make a choice of activities by taking, or pointing to, a picture representing the preferred activity. If the child is presented with a different number of activity pictures from which to choose each time, she might be successful on some occasions and not others. In order to make a choice, the child has to recognise the pictures (i.e. match the picture with the correct activity) and, when presented with a number of activity cards, has to be able to scan the choices and then choose one. While the child might easily be able to do this when presented with two familiar activity pictures, she might be less consistent when presented with three pictures, one or more of which is not recognised, and may refuse to choose an activity when presented with four or more pictures. Figure 11.6 is an example of an individual plan for priority fine motor objectives established for a four-year-old with a diagnosed intellectual disability. Again, it is important to be aware of the skills that the child has already demonstrated. Note that the child is attending the childcare centre for four days a week and she will be going to school the following year. In this case, it is useful to collect more specific data on how the child is progressing so that decisions relating to the child’s program can be based on evidence.

REFLECT ON THIS Some prior-to-school and early school educators have suggested that having an individual education plan for a child/student with additional needs is discriminatory. How would you respond to this suggestion?

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INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PRESCHOOL PLAN NAME: Sarah Smith

Age: 4 years, 2 months

Developmental area: Social–communication

Long-term goals: 1. Draw representational figures 2. Cut out shapes Summary of assessment information: Sarah is not using a three-finger grasp to hold the crayon/pencil. She is scribbling but does not draw recognisable shapes or figures. She will sometimes imitate vertical/horizontal lines but is not able to copy simple shapes given a drawn model. Sarah is able to hold an object steady with one hand and use the other to manipulate it (e.g. hold paper with one hand and draw/cut with the other). Sarah is able to cut paper but is not cutting along a line. Objective Sarah will consistently imitate a horizontal or vertical line (successful for five consecutive attempts over three consecutive days).

Activities/routines Indoor play Sarah will practise this skill in a teacher-planned activity organised during the two free-play periods. The teacher will gather a small group of children (including Sarah) to join her for a 10-minute session at the drawing table. The record of progress will be taken during this activity. Outdoor play When Sarah is in the sandpit with an adult, the adult will encourage her to draw lines in the sand with her finger.

Sarah will cut along a straight line 5 cm long and 1 cm thick without deviating from the line (successful for five consecutive attempts over three consecutive days).

Indoor play Sarah will practise this skill at the craft table during the indoor freeplay period. The teacher will direct Sarah to the craft table for two 5-minute sessions during the freeplay period.

Intervention

How is it going?

Make this a turn-taking game Mon Tues involving Sarah and two or three AAAIA AAIII other children. The teacher draws a vertical or horizontal AAAII AAIII line on each of the children’s papers. The children are asked AIAII AIIII to draw a line that is the same. AIIII IIIII When it is Sarah’s turn the teacher will help her to use three fingers to hold the pencil and prompt her to draw the line. The other children are asked to turn their lines into a special drawing while the teacher gives Sarah several more opportunities to imitate line drawing.

Thurs

Fri

AAAII AAIAI AIIII

AIIII

AIIII

IIIII

IIIII

IIIII

Record of progress: Record ‘I’ for successful imitation of the model and ‘A’ to indicate that assistance was needed (first five lines each day). The teacher will have two AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA sheets of five lines on coloured paper prepared for each activity. AAAAA AAAAI AAAAA AAAAA Sarah will be assisted to cut AAAAI AAAII AAAII AAIII across the lines as necessary and will then be encouraged to IAIAI IAAII AIIII IIIII use the coloured paper to make a collage. Teacher assistance will be gradually reduced. Record of progress: Record ‘I’ (independent) for successful cutting and ‘A’ for assistance for the first five lines cut each day.

FIGURE 11.6 Individual education preschool plan

Activity-based intervention

In the same way that interventions for infants and young children need to be embedded in their daily activities and routines in the home and community, so too the planned interventions need to be implemented in centre-based settings. The activities offered in an early education setting will be different from those available in the home and community. However, many opportunities to practise skills are still available in early education settings. As is the case in the home, the advantage of embedding instruction in naturally occurring centre activities includes

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the motivation to participate in the activities and the natural reinforcers that pertain in those settings. There are plenty of practical resources that can be used to assist with implementing evidence-based interventions in inclusive prior-to-school settings (e.g. see Ganz & Flores, 2010; Green et al., 2019; McCollow & Hoffman, 2020; Meadan et al., 2006; Patry & Horn, 2020; Wood & Ferro, 2014).

Program evaluation

An important component of any intervention is the evaluation component. Evaluating an individual program is not an evaluation of the child, but of how well the program is working. This requires the teacher to determine whether progress towards a desired objective is occurring and, if so, whether or not the rate of progress is satisfactory. Any data collected by the preschool/ childcare staff will provide valuable information to assist them in evaluating the program. If no progress is made or progress is slower than anticipated given the child’s initial skill level, it is important to examine components of the program. For example: • Is the skill at an appropriate level and is it a small enough step towards a more-advanced skill to ensure that it is achievable? • Is the intervention appropriate for teaching the skill?

• Is the child getting sufficient opportunities to practise the skill? • Is the child motivated to keep trying?

Regular examination of the data will assist staff to modify the program so that the child continues to make progress. Decisions taken to modify a program should not be too hasty. It is important to recognise that skills take time to develop. It is only when it is clear that progress is not being made that changes to the program are necessary. Practical advice on data-based decision making is provided by McCollow and Hoffman (2020).

11.4 Early childhood transitions Two types of transition – horizontal and vertical – are acknowledged in the early childhood intervention literature (Rous & Hallam, 2012). Horizontal transition refers to the transition from one program or activity to the next, across a day. Vertical transition is the transition from one service or program to the next. Both types of transition are important, but whereas horizontal transitions are addressed through the child’s individual educational program, the overall plan for the vertical transition is addressed through the IFSP. In this section the importance of ensuring that children with disabilities make smooth transitions from one early childhood service type to the next is emphasised, as is the importance of supporting both the child and family through this difficult process. Ideas for planning and executing successful transitions are suggested below.

Transition as a focus for early childhood intervention

Long-term benefits are more likely to accrue if intervention services continue across transition periods. Early childhood intervention services in Australia and New Zealand, like those in the USA, have acknowledged the importance of transitions between programs, and particularly the transition from preschool special education services to mainstream school programs. Planning for transitions, therefore, is seen to be an important component of early childhood intervention. The transition literature focuses on a number of changes at crucial stages in a child’s life. In the early childhood intervention field in Australasia, these are likely to be transition from home to

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inclusive centre-based programs, and transition from home or inclusive early childhood settings to formal school, in particular a mainstream class.

Transition from home to inclusive centre-based programs

In Australia and New Zealand there is not the same dichotomy between services for children up to the age of three years and three- to five-year-old children as in the USA. For this reason, transition to a new service prior to school entry may not involve a break from the original intervention service. The alternatives for this early transition include:

• a change of focus from an individual intervention session, either in the home or in a centre, to a centre-based small group intervention • a change from an individual service in an early childhood intervention setting to a service provided in the context of a regular preschool

• an additional service when the child combines part-time attendance at a regular preschool with the individual or small group session provided by the early childhood intervention service.

This means that, for some children, there may be a change in service providers or a change in the focus or context of early intervention provision, but not a change in personnel delivering the service. For others, there will be additional services and service providers.

In the USA, legislation mandates certain requirements in relation to all early transition periods for children with disabilities. There is no such legislation in Australia or New Zealand and, therefore, planning for the transition period will depend on the policies, interests and expertise of early childhood intervention service providers and the individual preschool and childcare centres.

Difficulties that families may encounter

Early childhood intervention and early education service providers have recognised the difficulties that children and families may encounter when children with additional needs move into preschool or childcare centres. For the children, difficulties include separation from their primary caregiver, relating to a larger number of adults and to an even larger number of children, and adapting to new routines and different expectations. While these are potential challenges for all children moving into centre-based programs, the difficulties are greater for vulnerable children such as those with disabilities and delays. For the families of children with additional needs, entrusting their child to strangers will be difficult. Parents/carers need to be confident that their child will be safe and happy in the new setting. There may be concerns relating to medical conditions that their child might have. Some parents might be concerned that their child will be rejected by other children or even by adults. When planning for a child to transition to early childhood centre-based settings, it is important to choose the centre carefully to ensure that the staff members are sensitive to the child’s needs and to determine the willingness of centre staff to work closely with the FIGURE 11.7 The transition from early childhood intervention to family and with other service providers involved with regular preschool needs to be carefully planned. the child and family (see Figure 11.7).

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Planning for the transition should be part of the IFSP, with the roles taken by current service providers, the receiving service and the family clearly recorded in the plan. The following points explore what should be discussed when identifying a centre, and if they are willing and able to provide a suitable program for the child. • discuss the needs of the child and his/her family

• assist with applications for additional material and personnel resources if eligible • plan for professional development of centre staff where appropriate • negotiate days and times that the child will attend

• plan ways for communicating with the family and other service providers in the future

• plan for the transition period including visits to the centre prior to enrolling and gradually increasing the time the child attends the centre, if necessary

• discuss ways in which other service providers can work with centre staff to assist with the child’s individual program.

Centre-based early childhood services (including preschool and childcare) may receive additional funding to support a child with a disability or delay. To be eligible to apply for this additional funding, centres need to have the relevant documentation relating to the child’s disability. As part of the planning process, intervention services need to ensure that the child has had a recent assessment to support the enrolment application. Following the development of the plan, the steps towards transition need to be implemented and evaluated. If possible, as part of that evaluation the child should be monitored in the new program for a period of time following the commencement of the placement.

Once the child has enrolled in the centre-based program, it is important that communication between the child’s parents/carers and program staff is maintained and that the child’s family continues to feel involved. Salazar (2012) provides practical guidelines for how parents/carers and centre staff might work together as part of the transition process to identify shared goals and plan for learning to occur across home and centre routines.

Transition to inclusive early school environments

Supporting both children with additional needs and their families through the move from prior-to-school services to school is important to the success of the transitions, as illustrated in Narrative 11.4 and Narrative 11.5. In Narrative 11.4, Nathan’s mother describes how her family chose a school for Nathan.

Transition to school has been acknowledged as a potentially stressful time for all children and their families and a child’s early school experiences are thought to influence subsequent academic and social performance. Problems of adjustment to school are exacerbated if students are vulnerable, and this includes students with disabilities and delays. Although the transition to special schools and classes as well as to mainstream classes also needs careful planning, differences in adult–student ratios and the qualifications and experience of special education teachers and teacher assistants means that these transitions may be easier to manage.

State departments of education and other education sectors have produced guidelines to support the transition of children from prior-to-school settings to school. These guidelines, which are available on Department of Education websites, generally acknowledge the additional needs of children with disabilities and the importance of ensuring that the transition is a smooth one for the children and their families. For this transition to be successful, transition planning should

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NARRATIVE 11.4 Choosing a school for Nathan We decided that the best way of making sure that we chose the right school for Nathan was to start early and to visit a number of schools, speak to a lot of parents who lived in our area, and find out what they thought about particular schools and then to actually go in, speak to principals and look at classrooms. On the whole we were fortunate that most of the schools were very open to having Nathan. One of the things that was important to us was how we were accepted as a family. It is important to us that Nathan is seen, first and foremost, as an individual, as a child, and not as a person with a disability and that we are seen as a family, like any other family applying for a position in a school. The initial meeting with the principal was really important as to how we felt that acceptance – right from the start.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are some of the difficulties for parents/carers of students with additional needs when their children enrol in formal schooling? 2. How can school executives and classroom teachers help overcome some of these difficulties?

address the support needs of families, children and teachers and should involve a collaborative relationship between preschool services, families and school services. Support should be provided prior to, during and following the child’s entry to school. Early childhood intervention and early education teachers can assist families to prepare for the transition process by:

• providing them with information about the services offered in the education sectors (some early childhood intervention services organise an information evening where representatives from each sector speak to families about the services offered) • assisting families to identify the needs of their child and to be confident advocates for their child when approaching schools (the prior-to-school services should be able to assist families with questions to ask the principal) • providing families with information about how best to prepare their child for the new environment.

Prior-to-school services and receiving schools should work together with families to ensure a smooth changeover of service provision. This can be facilitated through: • planning meetings

• information exchange

• orientation visits to the school, where the child is supported by a member of the prior-toschool service team (this will be more successful if it involves the teacher in whose class the child will be placed in the following year)

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• relevant information about the child’s skills and specific needs, and intervention strategies that are known to be effective • support from prior-to-school service staff and other professionals involved with the child, following the move to school.

While it is generally acknowledged that it is more important for the school to be ready for the child than the child to be ready for school, there is no doubt that the transition to school for children with additional needs will be easier if children are prepared prior to school entry. ‘Survival skills’ for the first year of school, which have been consistently identified in the empirical literature, include social and behavioural skills such as following teacher directions and working independently (Welchons & McIntyre, 2015). These are skills that can be practised in prior-to-school centre-based settings as children are encouraged to attend in a whole-class or small-group instructional arrangement, and complete tasks that are at their instructional level. As social skills are dependent to a great extent on communication, it will be important to establish a reliable communication system for each child, as a child who is not able to communicate is much more likely to exhibit challenging behaviour. If the child cannot communicate with words, signs or symbols can be used instead (see Chapter 8). Self-help skills, such as independent eating, drinking and toileting, can also be practised in the family home and early childhood centre prior to the child starting school. In Narrative 11.5, Nathan’s mother explains the transition program that had been arranged for Nathan by the school and the early childhood intervention service provider.

NARRATIVE 11.5 Nathan’s transition to school Nathan participated in a transition program that was organised by the early intervention program. In fourth term, he spent half a day on Tuesdays in one of the kindergarten classrooms for a period of five weeks. That was extremely successful. He fitted in really well. He was acting appropriately. He was listening to the teacher and doing all those wonderful things that he had been taught to do. The school itself had organised an orientation period where the children went for three mornings where they did craft activities and book reading and that sort of thing. Apart from that, once we had decided on a placement, I had taken him into the school to get him familiar with the grounds of the school, what the boundaries were, where the bubblers were, where the toilets were. Every time we drove past the school we’d say: ‘What’s the name of your school?’ and he would be able to tell us. So, before he actually got to participate in the transition or orientation program, he was really excited to go to big school.

kindergarten In New South Wales and some other states this refers to the first year of compulsory schooling, while in some states, kindergarten refers to a preschool year.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What can be done by school staff to ensure that the school is able to accommodate Nathan’s individual needs? 2. How can the school better involve the parents in the transition process?

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Transitions across grades

For a student with additional needs, a change of teacher and class routine can be very difficult. For this reason, the transition from one class to the next may provide greater challenges than would be the case for the typical student population. In order to minimise the disruption for the student, it is valuable to know who the new teacher will be before the end of the year, and to make sure that there is contact between the student and the new teacher before the start of the new school year. This might mean that the new teacher spends time in the student’s classroom towards the end of the year, perhaps in a co-teaching situation. Information from the previous grade, including assessment information and information on successful interventions and behaviour management procedures, should be shared with the new teacher. It is also important for the new teacher to gather his/her own assessment information as close as possible to the start of the new school year.

REFLECT ON THIS Collaboration with families and other professionals can be quite challenging. What can you do to make sure that the contributions of all parties, including your own, are respectfully considered?

11.5 Inclusive practices in the early years of school A high-quality early intervention program does not guarantee ongoing success. Despite having a good start, a student with additional needs will not continue to make progress unless the quality of the program is maintained. In this section, practical suggestions are provided for establishing an individual program for the student in the inclusive classroom. This includes selecting appropriate content, assessing the student’s skills in the content area, and designing and implementing the programs. Potential pitfalls, such as the inappropriate use of teacher assistants and the segregation of the student with a disability within the mainstream classroom and playground, are also addressed.

Inclusive opportunities in the first three years of school

While not all children with disabilities and delays will enrol in a mainstream setting, the indication is that more students with disabilities have enrolled in inclusive settings in recent years. In Narrative 11.6, Nathan’s mother describes her hopes for Nathan as he embarks on his school career in an inclusive early school classroom.

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NARRATIVE 11.6 My hopes and dreams for Nathan I’m hoping for Nathan (see Narrative 11.5) that he’s going to be happy, that he’s going to enjoy his time at school and I’m hoping that he will progress. I know this will be a gradual progression and that he will not be able to keep up with his peers. I am realistic about that. I do think that he has been well prepared and I am confident that the working relationship we have with the school will enable a program to be put in place with the expectation that he will finish primary school in a regular mainstream class. I hope that he can be accepted for who he is as an individual and that people can look beyond the disability and see that Nathan has many strengths and he has weaknesses, like we all do. Acceptance is a big factor. All parents want their children to be accepted and to have friends and to be happy. My dreams for Nathan are the same as any other parent has for their children. I guess that we just worry a bit more.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Is Nathan’s mother realistic in what she hopes for her son? 2. What are the important steps that need to be taken by the school staff to ensure that this mother’s dreams for her son are realised?

An alternative to a mainstream classroom that is commonly offered at schools in Australia is a special class in a mainstream school. These classes may offer a range of opportunities for inclusion. However, in many cases there will only be opportunities for social inclusion (i.e. sharing the playground with typically developing children of the same age, attending school assemblies and participating in special events such as visiting programs, school excursions, sports events and other whole-school extracurricular events). Although this provides an opportunity for students with disabilities to interact with their typically developing peers, students generally interact with other members of their special class in the playground and are less likely to interact with students from other classes.

Children bring an enormous range of skills to their first year of school. The range of skills in any regular classroom will be influenced not just by student IQ but also by their prior-to-school experiences and the presence, if any, of additional needs. If a teacher knows that there is likely to be a broad range of ability in the class and is willing to cater for the ability range, all students in the class will benefit, including those with disabilities, learning difficulties and exceptional abilities. It is important that individual programs for students with additional needs are devised within the context of the programs provided to all children in the classroom. These programs should be based on an assessment of the students’ current skills and include evidence-based instructional strategies.

Individual education programs

If an effective transition plan has been implemented, the chances are that detailed assessment information will be passed to the school before the student arrives. The student will also have spent some time in a classroom (hopefully with his/her current teacher) in the year before school

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and will be familiar with many of the school routines, including classroom and playground routines. Perhaps the teacher will have visited the preschool or early childhood intervention service and will have received input from the staff. This input could include information about the activities and routines that the student enjoys and the interventions that work best. As part of the transition plan, a meeting or series of meetings will have been held so that the child and family were prepared for the transition and were supported through the transition process. Support for the early stages of the inclusive placement would have been arranged to include: • consultancy input from the relevant professionals working with the child • consultancy support at a school and systems level

• access to additional resources where needed (including personnel and material resources).

Arrangements will have been made for an information exchange between the school and the family of the student with additional needs. This is in recognition of the need for the parents/ carers to continue to follow the progress of their child and to provide important information about his/her learning, including assisting with the selection of priority objectives. Given the difficulties that many students with additional needs may have with accessing the regular curriculum, it is important that teachers modify the way in which instruction is planned and delivered in order to meet individual needs. Incorporating components of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) into assessments and program design and implementation has the potential to contribute to student learning (Ok et al., 2017).

Curriculum-based assessment

The information provided by prior-to-school services or previous teachers will guide the selection of content to include in the initial curriculum-based assessment (see also Chapters 4 and 5). The content should contribute to the student’s social, communication and academic development and should focus on skills, not general aptitude. For example, skill areas targeted for assessment can include: • communication/social skills

– interacting with adults and peers in an appropriate manner

– using a socially acceptable way of asking for help or rejecting a request • classroom skills

– following classroom routines – following adult directions

– completing a task at the appropriate level (see Figure 11.8) – participating in group lessons

• playground skills

– following playground routines

– keeping within the allocated playground area – following adult directions

• self-help skills

– independent toileting

– independent eating and drinking

– relevant dressing skills (e.g. putting on and taking off shoes and socks)

• academic skills FIGURE 11.8 Classroom skills include completing a task at an appropriate level.

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– early literacy skills

– early numeracy skills.

CHAPTER 11 Inclusion in early childhood

General learning skills, such as increased attention, better short-term memory, and complex and layered language skills (e.g. understanding same and different), are not useful to include in an individual program. These types of skill are likely to improve with improved skills in the areas listed above. It is most important that the content addresses the skills that the student needs to function well in the classroom and playground, as well as those skills needed for future social and academic development.

Communication skills

Most children will be competent language speakers when they begin school and will have many social and self-help skills or will gain these skills quickly. Students with disability or a significant learning problem may have difficulty with understanding (receptive) and using (expressive) language and this is likely to adversely affect their communication skills. If this is the case, these students will probably have had a speech and language assessment, with the results of this assessment included in a report that should be available to the school. Information provided in the report will assist the class teacher to know how the student will communicate, so that this form of communication can be used in the classroom and can feature in the individual program that is devised for the student (see Chapter 8). The communication skills targeted for both assessment and programming should include the mode used to communicate (e.g. speech, signing, visual aids).

Once the teacher has decided on what to target in the area of social, communication and self-help skills, the student’s level of skill needs to be recorded. The teacher should observe communication and peer and adult interaction in each of the classroom and playground activities/routines in which the student is required to participate. For example, how does the student respond to a question or a direction from the teacher or to an interaction from another student? Classroom and playground skills also need to be observed in order to record the level of skill that the student with a disability is able to demonstrate. The assessment of self-help skills can include a combination of observation (e.g. watching to see whether the student is able to take him or herself to the toilet as required, use the toilet independently, eat and drink independently) or direct assessment (e.g. asking the student to wash and dry her hands, put on and remove her shoes and socks).

Developing curriculum-based assessments

Selecting content for literacy and numeracy assessments should be based on the importance of skills to the development of early literacy and numeracy. Once selected, the skills need to be sequenced in the order in which they are to be taught. There is value in profiling the skills of all the students in the class, which should not be difficult to do, especially in the first three years of school. In view of the potential range of skills in any one class, it is valuable to include ‘off-level’ testing which refers to the inclusion of content that would be expected of students in earlier and later years. An important principle is to include items that are not only relevant, but that will also provide information as to what the student can do as well as what the student cannot do. Both pieces of information are needed in order to develop an appropriate program. When developing curriculum-based assessments, a broad range of skill levels should be included, especially if the assessment is to be used to assess other students in the class. For example, in the area of rote counting, research by Howell and Kemp (2010) found that, immediately prior to school entry, all children could count to 2, 92 per cent could count to 10 and 40 per cent could count to 20. In the interest of efficiency, it is best to start with the skill that most children in the class are expected to have mastered and to test down for students with significant learning problems and up for those who have demonstrated mastery of the initial skill assessed. For children who are unable to count independently, counting following a model could then be assessed. For children who can count fluently to 30 and above, other counting skills such

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as counting from a number other than one, series counting (e.g. by 10s, 2s, 5s) and object counting can be assessed (see Chapter 10).

The approach to assessment would be similar for the area of literacy. Skills needed for early literacy include oral language, elements of phonemic awareness and letter–sound correspondence (see Chapter 9). Skills relating to letter–sound correspondence and the relevant components of phonemic awareness can be assessed for the whole class, again with the plan to assess up or down depending on the performance of the individual student. Language difficulties should not be used as an excuse for delaying instruction in reading. For students with limited language, the initial reading program might focus on whole word instruction. Printed words provide another way of representing language and could be used to help develop language skills.

Program design

As with younger populations of children with additional needs, it is important for young school students to have a thorough assessment on which to base an individual program. Just knowing what the child can or cannot do will influence the way in which the teacher or teacher assistant will interact with the student, and will lead to many learning opportunities for the student. Some objectives will be addressed in the context of everyday routines. Skills taught in this way will include communication, social, classroom and most self-help skills (see Figure 11.9). Early literacy and numeracy skills will need to be taught explicitly and systematically.

The degree to which the teacher has had to ‘test down’ will provide useful information for program FIGURE 11.9 Skills taught include communication, social and design. If the student’s skill level is very low, this will self-help skills. indicate not only the entry-level skill but may also provide information about the rate of learning that should be expected for the student. This, in turn, will guide the size of the teaching step and the size of the learning set (i.e. how much to include for instruction). If, for example, the child is not able to remain seated in a whole-class or group lesson for more than 30 seconds, choosing an objective that requires the child to sit for 20 minutes is not realistic and is, therefore, likely to adversely affect the progress of the student. A more realistic objective would be for the student to sit for one or two minutes in a small group of two or three students. Similarly, if the student is unable to match letters of the alphabet when asked to make a correct match to one of three different letters, it would not be sensible to expect the child to give the correct sound for 10 letters.

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A limited number of individual objectives will make it easier for the teacher to plan for the student and will make it more likely that the program is implemented effectively. The objectives specifically targeted should be priority objectives that take into consideration the skills needed for the child to remain included in the classroom and also those skills that are crucial for the student’s ongoing personal and academic development. The priorities of the parent as well as those of the school and individual classroom teacher should guide the selection of priority objectives. Once selected, the objectives should be written in a way that will enable them to be accurately measured. Again, these objectives should reflect relevant content and should include a clear and measurable behaviour and conditions that define the range of the skill being measured. An example of priority objectives for a six-year-old in his second year of school is provided in Figure 11.10.

CHAPTER 11 Inclusion in early childhood

INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION EARLY SCHOOL PLAN NAME: Paul Green

Class: 1S

Teacher: Mrs Smith

Priority area: Numeracy – Term 1, Weeks 2–5

Summary of assessment information: Paul can rote count to 8 consistently and sometimes counts to 10. He can name the numeral 1 but cannot name any other numeral. He can count a group of 1–4 objects consistently but is not always able to say how many he has counted. Paul is able to write the numeral 1 when asked but is not able to write any other numeral. He can make a legible copy of the numeral 4. Objective When asked, Paul will rote count to 15 correctly five times in a row over three consecutive days.

Ongoing assessment and intervention Step 1: Paul will count to 10 (from Week 2)

2

Intervention: Counting practice will be provided on at least five occasions during the day. For the first two days of introducing the new counting sequence the adult or peer assisting will model the sequence and then count with Paul whenever he reaches the new sequence. After two days the person assisting will only provide assistance as needed. Step 1: Paul will count up to 5 objects (from week 2)

Intervention: Counting practice is to be provided on at least five occasions during the day. Place 1–5 (Step 1) or 1–10 (Step 2) 1-cm blocks in a line (not touching). Say: ‘Count the blocks, Paul.’ Help Paul to count the blocks using the correct sequence with one count for each block. Say the last number after he counts and tell him how many (e.g. 4, there are 4 blocks. How many? 4.). Use the model only when practising and not when assessing. For Step 2 make sure that you include a count of 9 or 10 for one of the trials.

Tues

Wed

Thurs

Fri

– – + + + – + + + + + + + + + + + 2

+ + 4

+ + 5

+ + 5

5

3

4

5

2

Step 2: Paul will count up to 10 blocks (after Step 1 is mastered) Assessment: Paul will be asked to count the specified number of objects on five occasions in the first 5 minutes of the numeracy lesson and to say how many he has counted. Correct (+) and incorrect (–) responses to be recorded. For Step 2, assessment will commence after one week of practice.

Mon

+ –

Step 2: Paul will count to 15 (after Step 1 is mastered) Assessment: Paul will be asked to count to the specified number on five occasions in the first 5 minutes of the numeracy lesson. Correct (+) and incorrect (–) responses will be recorded. Step 2 assessment will commence after two days of practice.

When asked ‘How many?’, Paul will say how many he has counted after he has counted 1–10 blocks five times in a row over three consecutive days.

Week

– – + – + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + 3

+ + 4

+ + 5

+ + 5

5

3

4

5

FIGURE 11.10 Individual education early school plan

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Program implementation

The individual plan illustrated in Figure 11.10 does not necessarily require one-to-one implementation. To have individual instructional arrangements for all content taught to the student with special education needs can be counterproductive, as the student may become dependent on one-to-one instruction and may learn to ‘turn off’ to any other type of instructional arrangement, such as small-group or whole-class instruction. It can also lead to confrontation between the student and teacher or teacher assistant as the student attempts to exert his will. Where possible, a student with additional learning needs should be taught in a small group. If one or more other students have a similar entry skill level, they can be included in the group with this student. This will allow opportunities for group practice of some skills as well as opportunities for individual practice within the group. This is likely to be more successful if the skills of every student in the class have been profiled and it is clear which students can be grouped together to ensure that instruction is both effective and efficient. Group instruction can also be very useful when managing challenging behaviour. If a student refuses to participate in the instruction, the teacher is able to focus on other more compliant students in the group and, therefore, a model of appropriate behaviour as well as successful responding is available to the student. The possibility of using peer tutors is also one that should be considered, particularly in the second half of the first year of school, and in the second and third school years. By this time students will be familiar with classroom expectations and routines. Teachers will be able to identify those students who are able to provide clear instruction and/or practice opportunities to students with significant learning needs. If the peer tutor is also a high-status student (i.e. one who is favoured by the other students) the students with additional needs may be more motivated to participate in classroom instruction. Peer tutoring need not take up a lot of a peer’s time. Frequent, short practice sessions scattered throughout the day are likely to be far more successful than one or two long sessions. It is not necessary for the same peer to implement each session. However, it is important that the peer is properly instructed by the teacher in how to conduct the tutoring session, and for the sessions to be regularly monitored by the teacher.

Program evaluation

The procedures for evaluating a school-based program are similar to those suggested for the centre-based prior-to-school programs. If the student is not making progress, the program has not been effective. The way in which progress data is collected at the school level is likely to be more rigorous than the data collected in the activities and routines of the early childhood centre. Given that a lot of the learning is hierarchical (specifically that related to early literacy and numeracy), it is important that the foundation skills are mastered before new learning is introduced. In many cases the learning will not be intrinsically motivating, as was learning related to the more functional skills that were included in the prior-to-school programs. It is important, therefore, that the student is successful. In many cases this success will depend on how well prior learning has been mastered. The procedure for deciding how and when to modify the program will be much the same as that presented in the previous section.

Use of a teacher assistant

Giangreco and Broer (2007) suggested that ‘assigning a student with disabilities extensive paraprofessional support is one of the most potentially different and restrictive supports that can be offered in schools’ (p. 156). The use of teacher assistants to support students with additional needs in regular education classrooms can result in unintentional detriments including: • interference with student engagement with the class teacher • interference in peer interactions

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• development of dependent behaviour • maintenance of behaviour problems • stigmatisation

• instruction from unqualified or minimally qualified personnel.

Source: Giangreco & Broer (2005, 2007)

Unfortunately, many school executives, and teachers who have students with additional needs in their classrooms, appear to regard the teacher assistant as their most important resource. It is not unusual to find that the teacher assistant is the person who is the primary instructor for the child with additional needs (Giangreco et al., 2013). This may also involve the assistant in devising as well as implementing the individual program, sometimes with minimal input from the classroom teacher, and sometimes with the assistance of service providers outside the school system. It is also not unusual to see a teacher assistant working individually with a student while the teacher continues with a whole-class presentation or supervises the work of the other children. This is a case of the person with the lowest level of training and experience teaching the most educationally challenged students, and doing this in a way that teaches the child not to attend to the teacher in a whole-class lesson.

A more appropriate use of teacher assistant time is to assist the classroom teacher. For example, in an early school classroom, the assistant could be used to provide individual reading practice for all students in the class or just the weaker students. Alternatively, the assistant could be used to supervise task completion activities, while the teacher takes a small group of students who require more careful instruction. In this way, the teacher assistant is seen to be a resource for all children in the class, and it is less likely that the child with additional learning needs will become dependent on the assistant. It is also more likely that the teacher will be the person responsible for the teaching and learning of all students in the class.

The role of other professionals

Including a student with additional needs should be a whole-school responsibility. If the classroom teacher is not supported by the school staff, including the school executive, this is likely to impact the short- and long-term success of the placement. Support for the teacher might also be provided by special education staff within the school or by outside consultants provided by the school sector. Also, professionals outside the school system might be involved with the student and family on an intermittent or regular basis. In order to better support the student with additional needs and his or her family, the classroom teacher should share information with these professionals with the consent of the family, and use their skills to assist with the development of the school-based program.

Parent involvement

One of the difficulties experienced by parents/carers as their child moves from prior-to-school programs to the school system is that they no longer feel as welcome or as included in the decision-making process. The IFSP system does not generally operate once children are at school and, whereas lip service is often paid to parent involvement, the feedback from parents suggests that the sharing of information is likely to diminish. For parents who have been used to working with professionals to promote the development of their child, this can lead to anxiety and, in some circumstances, a mistrust of the school system. If this occurs, parents/carers may not be willing to share important information with the school, including information relating to other services that the child is receiving. The educational provision for a child with additional needs should be regularly and formally reviewed. It is important that parents are an integral part of

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this review. If there has been regular formal and informal information-sharing with parents, the formal review should be easy and it is less likely there will be a discrepancy between school recommendations and the wishes of the parents/carers.

A TEACHER REFLECTS

Kathleen, early childhood/primary teacher, NSW I had completed my teacher training two years prior to securing a temporary appointment on a Year 1 class at a school in my local area. There were 22 children in my class. Marcus was just one of them. Nothing could have prepared me for Marcus. He did not have a diagnosed disability so there was no prior warning of the difficulties that he and I would face. From his first day at school, Marcus’ behaviour was extremely challenging. He made disruptive noises, refused to follow directions, regularly soiled himself and, as time passed, became aggressive towards the other children. He would often hold a chair above his head and threaten to throw it. In addition to difficulties with behaviour, it was also clear that Marcus had problems with academic learning and was soon considerably behind the other children in the class. Marcus came from a split family. Mum and Dad had equal shared custody of him, but because their relationship was not an amicable one it was difficult to work with the family to address either the behaviour or academic challenges. I was, however, able to discuss with my supervisor the difficulties that I was experiencing with Marcus. On her recommendation Marcus was referred to the school’s learning support team. He was withdrawn for extra assistance with academic learning and I learned to provide him with easier academic tasks and to reduce the amount of work expected of him. As it turned out, many of my friends reported having similar experiences in their first teaching positions.

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Summary

Inclusion in the early childhood years can be successful for children with a range of types and levels of additional needs, but it requires a team effort, with the family of the child and the relevant professions all contributing to the planning and implementation of appropriate interventions and supports. Before they enter the education system, whether it is at the preschool or early school level, children are naturally included in their families and in the community activities in which their families participate. Supporting children and families through IFSPs and individual activity plans is an important function of early childhood professionals. Wherever possible, program assessments and interventions should be designed with family priorities in mind and should be implemented in naturally occurring activities and routines. An important function of the IFSP is to identify outcomes for families as well as children, and so acknowledge the importance of the family, in particular quality parent–child interactions, to the development of the child.

STUDY TOOLS

Early childhood professionals should ensure that children with disabilities and their families make a smooth transition from home-based to centre-based services and from prior-to-school programs to early school programs. The receiving schools also have a responsibility to ensure that information relating to the child’s development and preschool performance is used to assist with the development of school-based programs and that the transition from one year to the next is carefully planned to ensure that the student’s learning is not impeded. With careful planning, including the early assessment of classroom and playground-related skills, communication and self-help skills and early literacy and numeracy skills, an individual program plan can be developed for the child and implemented in relevant school-based activities. Wherever possible, smallgroup instruction should be implemented for part of the day and supplemented by one-to-one instruction by the teacher and peer tutoring, where necessary. The support of teacher assistants should be used judiciously, mainly to assist the teacher rather than an individual child.

Once the child begins his or her school career, it is important to continue to involve the family in the decision-making process. Some families will want to be heavily involved, while others will want to be kept informed but will be happy for the school to make the important decisions relating to individual program planning. Wherever possible, there should be a team approach. The team should include the family and other professionals working with the child and also the relevant school personnel, including a member of the school executive, the school counsellor and the classroom teacher.

Discussion questions

1 In Australia, the approach taken by the National Disability Insurance Agency (NDIA) to the provision of early intervention services to young children with developmental delay or disability is to use a familycentred approach that builds capacity and supports inclusion in mainstream settings (NDIS, 2016). However, parents/carers of infants and young children with disabilities have suggested that they are not well supported to make informed choices with regard to programs/interventions for their children.

• Why do you think that parents/carers have identified difficulties in making informed intervention and service choices?

• What skills/knowledge will the early childhood intervention partners and NDIS planners need to assist parents/carers to identify appropriate supports for the child and family and to guide the family in the selection of services?

• Will outcomes for parents/carers be overlooked under the NDIS funding model? Why are these outcomes important and how can they be safeguarded under the new funding model? • How do you think the NDIA will determine whether early childhood intervention providers are using best-practice approaches? What might be some of the difficulties with this?

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2 What are the potential advantages and disadvantages of an inclusive early childhood centre for infants/ children with disabilities or delays and their families? 3 How can a successful placement for an infant/child with additional needs be advanced in an inclusive setting?

4 What is the difference between an individual family service plan (IFSP) and an individual education plan (IEP)?

Individual activities

1 The objective for three-year-old Jamie is for him to be able to make simple choices. Jamie is able to vocalise and uses simple gestures (pointing, nodding and shaking head).

• How would you identify the activities/routines for assessing this skill and implementing an intervention in consultation with the family/early childhood teacher? • What interventions could you use in the home/community or early childhood centre in order to develop this skill?

2 You are the teacher of children in their first year of school. One of your students has autism and you are keen to support his inclusion in your class. The child’s mother has asked you to implement some strategies to manage her child’s sensory issues. Although you want to involve the family, you are concerned that some of these strategies may not be appropriate. • What can you do to find out more about these specific interventions and how well they work?

• How would you communicate with the family with regard to any concerns you have about implementing the interventions?

3 Seven-year-old Stephanie can say the most common sound for the letters ‘m’, ‘s’, ‘a’ and ‘t’ when shown the letter, but is sometimes slow to do this. The classroom teacher has decided to introduce a new sound (for the letter ‘i’) and wants Stephanie to learn this new sound without forgetting the sounds that she has already learnt. The objective is for Stephanie to be able to learn this new sound and to be more automatic in saying the letter sounds that she knows. Devise a peer-tutoring program that will assist Stephanie to achieve this objective.

Group activities

1 You are the director of a community preschool. A three-year-old girl with a diagnosed disability attends the preschool for three days a week. The child’s mother has included occupational therapy and speech pathology services received from individual providers in her child’s intervention plan. Both therapists have contacted you to arrange to visit the centre to determine how the child’s intervention goals might be included in the centre program. • What advantages do you see for the child and centre staff from this type of professional involvement? • What disadvantages might there be?

• How can you ensure that the child, family and centre staff benefit most from the involvement of the therapists?

2 The preschool teacher has identified a four-year-old boy who is having difficulties interacting appropriately with his peers. He seems unable to play cooperatively and is often aggressive. The child’s language appears to be delayed but the teacher is not sure whether this is because English is not his first language. • Who should the preschool teacher consult for advice? Why?

• What data should the teacher collect to inform the design of a program to assist the child with appropriate peer interactions?

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3 Read the individual education early school plan included in Figure 11.10. As a group address the following: • When will Step 2 of the first objective be taught (week and day)?

• When will the teacher begin recording the data for Step 2 of the second objective (week and day)? • Suggest a third objective to include in this individual program. How would you teach this skill?

Weblinks

Cochrane Library https://www.cochranelibrary.com

Council for Exceptional Children, Division for Early Childhood https://www.dec-sped.org/ Early Childhood Association of Victoria and Tasmania https://www.eciavic.org.au/

Early Intervention Association of Aotearoa New Zealand http://www.earlyinterventionassociation.org.nz/ International Society on Early Intervention http://depts.washington.edu/isei/ National Disability Insurance Scheme homepage https://www.ndis.gov.au/

Raising Children Network (Australian parenting website) https://raisingchildren.net.au/

Te Whāriki (New Zealand early childhood curriculum policy statement) http://www.educate.ece.govt.nz/learning/ curriculumAndLearning/TeWhariki.aspx What Works Clearinghouse https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/

Recommended reading

Banda, D. R., Grimmett, E., & Hart, S. L. (2009). Activity schedules: helping students with autism spectrum disorders in general education classrooms manage transition issues. Teaching Exceptional Children, 41 (4), 16–21. Branson, D. M., & Bingham, A. (2009). Using interagency collaboration to support family centred transition practices. Young Exceptional Children, 12 (3), 15–31.

Guralnick, M. J. (2019). Effective early intervention. The developmental systems approach. Baltimore MD: Paul H. Brookes. Horn, E., & Jones, H. (Eds) (2006). Interdisciplinary teams. Young Exceptional Children, Monograph Series No. 6.

References

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Early Childhood Intervention Australia (ECIA) (2016). National guidelines: best practice in early childhood intervention. Retrieved from https://www.eciavic.org.au/ resources/eci-best-practice-guidelines ECA/ECIA (2012). Position statement on the inclusion of children with a disability in early childhood education and care. Retrieved from http://www.earlychildhoodaustralia. org.au/our-work/inclusion-resources/ Education Queensland (2019). Early and delayed entry to prep. Retrieved from https://education.qld.gov.

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Green, K. B., Robbins, S. H., & Bucholz, J. L. (2019). Positive behaviour interventions and supports: Maximizing the universal tier for young children with or at risk for disabilities. Young Exceptional Children, 22(1), 6–21. Grisham-Brown, J. (2000). Transdisciplinary activitybased assessment for young children with multiple disabilities: a program planning approach. Young Exceptional Children, 2 (2), 3–10.

Guralnick, M. J. (2017). Early intervention for children with intellectual disabilities: An update. Journal of Applied Research in intellectual disabilities, 30, 211–229.

CHAPTER 11 STUDY TOOLS

Guralnick, M. J. (2019). Effective early intervention. The developmental systems approach. Baltimore MD: Paul H. Brookes Harrison, C. (2003). Giftedness in early childhood (3rd edn). Sydney: Gifted Education Research, Resource and Information Centre, University of New South Wales. Hodge, K. (2012). Giftedness. In J. Bowes, R. Grace & K. Hodge (Eds), Children, families and communities (pp. 58–73). Melbourne, Vic: Oxford University Press.

Howell, S., & Kemp, C. (2010). Assessing preschool number sense: skills demonstrated by children prior to school entry. Educational Psychology, 30, 411–429.

Hughes-Scholes, C. H., & Gavidia-Payne, S. (2019). Early childhood intervention program quality: Examining family-centred practice, parental self-efficacy and child and family outcomes. Early Childhood Education Journal, 47, 719–729. Johnson-Martin, N. M., Attermeier, S. M., & Hacker, B. J. (2004a). The Carolina curriculum for infants and toddlers with special needs (CCITSN) (3rd edn). Baltimore, MD: Brookes. Johnson-Martin, N. M., Attermeier, S. M., & Hacker, B. J. (2004b). The Carolina curriculum for preschoolers with special needs (CCPSN) (2nd edn). Baltimore, MD: Brookes. Kemp, C. (2016). Early childhood inclusion in Australia. Infants and Young Children, 29, 178–187.

Kemp, C., Kishida, Y., Carter, M., & Sweller, N. (2013). The effect of activity type on the engagement and interaction of young children with disabilities in inclusive childcare. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28, 124–143.

Kishida, Y., & Kemp, C. (2009). The engagement and interaction of children with autism spectrum disorder in segregated and inclusive early childhood center-based settings. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 29, 105–118.

transition to ‘user pay’ for early intervention service delivery. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 42, 46–53.

McCollow M. M., & Hoffman, H. H. (2020). Evidence-based decision-making: A team effort toward achieving goals. Young Exceptional Children, 23(1), 15–23. McLaughlin, T., Aspden, K., & Snyder, P. (2016). Intentional teaching as a pathway to equity in early childhood education: Participation, quality, and equity. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 51, 175–195.

Meadan, H., Ostrosky, M. M., & Halle, J. W. (2006). ‘What?’; ‘I don’t understand’; and ‘Pardon’: using communication breakdowns to encourage communication. Young Exceptional Children, 9 (3), 2–9. Meisels, S. J., & Shonkoff, J. P. (2000). Early childhood intervention: a continuing evolution. In J. P. Shonkoff & S. J. Meisels (Eds), Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd edn, pp. 3–31). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mitchell, D. B., & Hauser-Cram, P. (2009). Early predictors of behavior problems two years after early intervention. Journal of Early Intervention, 32, 3–16.

NAEYC (2009). NAEYC position statement. In C. Copple, & S. Bredekamp (Eds), Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8 (pp. 1–31). Washington DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. NDIS (February, 2016). NDIS early childhood early intervention (ECEI) approach. Retrieved from http:// www.ndis.gov.au/about-us/information-publicationsand-reports

Odom, S. L. (2009). The tie that binds. Evidence-based practice, implementation science, and outcomes for children. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 29, 53–61.

Ok, M. W., Rao, K., Bryant, B. R., & McDougal, D. (2017). Universal design for learning in pre-K to grade 12: A systematic review of research, Exceptionality, 25, 116–138.

Ledford, J., & Wolery, M. (2015). Observational learning of academic and social behaviors during small-group direct instruction. Exceptional Children, 81, 272–291.

Olsen, S., Fiechtl, B., & Rule, S. (2012). An evaluation of virtual home visits in early intervention: feasibility of ‘virtual intervention’. The Volta Review, 13, 267–281.

Macy, M. G., & Bricker, D. (2006). Practical applications for using curriculum-based assessment to create embedded learning opportunities for young children. Young Exceptional Children, 9 (4), 12–21.

Patry, M. B., & Horn, E. (2020). Supporting the play of preschoolers with autism through peer-mediated interventions. Young Exceptional Children, 23(1), 3–14.

Lieber, J., Horn, E., Palmer, S., & Flemming, K. (2008). Access to the general education curriculum for pre-schoolers with disabilities. Exceptionality, 16, 18–32.

Marchbank, A. M. (2017). The National Disability Insurance Scheme: Administrators’ perspectives of agency

Parette, P., & Blum, C. (2014). Using flexible participation in technology-supported universally designed preschool activities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 46(3), 60–67.

Petriwskyj, A. (2010). Who has rights to what? Inclusion in Australian early childhood programs. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 11, 342–352.

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Purcal, C., Hill, T., Meltzer, A., Boden, N., & Fisher, K. R. (2018). Implementation of the NDIS in the early childhood intervention sector in NSW – Final report (SPRC Report 2/18). Sydney: Social Policy Research Centre, UNSW Sydney. http://dx.doi. org/10.4225/53/5b2ae9c2563c5

Stanton-Chapman, T. L., Walker, V. L., Voorhees, M. D., & Snell, M. E. (2016). The evaluation of a three-tier model of positive behaviour interventions and supports for preschoolers in Head Start. Remedial and Special Education, 37, 333–344.

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Rao, K., Ok, M. W., & Bryant, B. R. (2014). A review of research on universal design educational models, Remedial and Special Education, 35, 153–166.

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Inclusion in primary schools Umesh Sharma and Martin Howes This chapter aims to: 12.1 Identify inclusive primary schools as holistic places of learning, where staff (and parents) have a collective responsibility for all students 12.2 Clarify the importance of building a community of learning that is inclusive of all students, where staff recognise and provide for the full diversity of student learning needs 12.3 Foster an awareness of the nature and characteristics of best practice in inclusion in primary school settings 12.4 Describe a variety of processes and practices prerequisite to, and facilitative of, building a school community’s capacity for inclusion 12.5 Explain the diversity of challenges and experiences around successful transition ‘into, through and out of’ primary schools 12.6 Explain and describe the critical role of good leadership in organisational change and development 12.7 Provide pre-service and early career teachers with the knowledge to engage confidently with their primary school colleagues in building an inclusive community of learning 12.8 Assist the reader to plan to engage as an active change agent in facilitating better inclusion outcomes for students with disability in primary schools.

Introduction

This chapter is presented differently from other chapters in this book. It follows a story about a hypothetical school, Barawun Public School. It contains ongoing narratives, internal reflections and discussion questions. The story spans approximately three years. We take a close look at the first year and check in at regular intervals over the following two years. We hope as you read this chapter, you will learn about how one school transforms from a largely dysfunctional and struggling place to a fully inclusive school over an extended period of time. You will learn about how the school applies some of the ideas presented in earlier chapters to become more inclusive of learners with a range of disabilities. We strongly recommend that you answer reflective activities presented throughout the chapter as this will allow you to make strong connections with the knowledge you have acquired from various sources. The chapter describes and explains how this struggling suburban primary school transformed itself into a successful inclusive

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school community where all students, including those with various disabilities, are provided with the opportunity to reach their educational potential (see Figure 12.1). To achieve this, the school community had to develop the collective will and capacity to do so. Much of the responsibility for this transformation rested with the school’s leaders and teaching staff, working in partnership with families and the wider community.

It is important to emphasise that successful inclusion for students with disability is a schoolwide community concern and is best understood in a broader context as part of the development FIGURE 12.1 In an inclusive school, all students have the of a successful school, where all learners have the opportunity to reach their potential. opportunity to achieve their best learning outcomes. Inclusion is not just about one teacher doing their best for students with disability in one classroom and it is not something that can be achieved in the short term.

In Part A of this book, and particularly in Chapter 3, the elements of successful inclusion (the pro-active engagement and support of the school community, the provision of a facilitative learning environment and quality teaching) were introduced. Chapter 3 also explained the critical necessity for successful inclusion in school communities to be reflective of an ability to: • embrace and build capacity for inclusion • negotiate and resource appropriately • adopt inclusive programming.

This chapter is scaffolded on this understanding and these critical necessities. In Parts B and C of the book, a number of evidence-based strategies and techniques required to achieve successful inclusion were described and explained. This chapter will refer back to these elements as well as some new elements. You are encouraged to compare and contrast these best practices with those that emerged, developed and took hold at Barawun PS. We have used generic terms throughout this chapter. Be aware that different school systems, and individual schools within those systems, use different terms, processes and proformas to explain and facilitate inclusive practices. Refer to Chapter 4 for examples of proformas used for adjusted programming and individual learning plans.

REFLECT ON THIS Before reading the story about Barawun PS, think back to your experiences in schools and consider what, if any, evidence-based practices those schools have had in place to support students with additional education needs. You may like to briefly review evidence-based practices listed on the IRIS Center website prior to doing the reflective activity. The IRIS Center provides the description of several evidence-based practices that could help you create an inclusive classroom. You can find a link to the IRIS Center in the weblinks at the end of this chapter.

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Barawun Primary School

This is a story about a three-year journey, and the challenges faced and overcome by one school community. Although Barawun PS is a hypothetical school with fictional characters, this story is based upon the real-life experiences of many principals, parents, teachers and students. This school community has its successes and failures, strengths and shortcomings. There are staff, parent and student conflicts and ‘casualties’. Good (let alone best) learning outcomes are not always achieved. Overall, though, this is a story about how Barawun PS evolved into a successful learning community where its students were safe, happy and achieving. The parents and other community members had confidence in the school staff and the staff were achieving their professional goals. To best understand the key messages in this chapter, it is suggested that you read it from start through to end – in the order that it is written. The chapter is built around sets of narratives provided by six storytellers*: Jacinta Johnson (the new principal), Sam Yusef (an early career teacher who started her career at the school), Jenny West (the mother of a young Aboriginal child with additional educational needs), Mary Jones (a teacher who has been at Barawun PS for over 30 years), David Yoshida (an older student with a physical disability and who mainly speaks Japanese at home) and Tony Spiteri (a local small business owner).

The chapter commences with a simple scene-setter about the first day of a school year. There follows the first set of narrations, provided by each storyteller, giving personal ‘snapshot’ views of their understanding of their experiences in the school. This first set of narratives is followed by a commentary provided by the author to help you, the reader, reflect on the storytellers’ comments and to compare and contrast these with your emerging understanding of what successful inclusive primary school communities should be. This commentary is followed by questions for your reflection and discussion. Further sets of narratives, commentaries and questions follow throughout the three-year journey.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students

Physical disability

Students for whom English is an additional language or dialect

We hope that by reading the story of Barawun PS, you learn how best to contribute to successful inclusion in primary (and other) schools from the first day of your teaching career.

12.1 Barawun PS: Day 1, term 1, about three years ago … Barawun PS is located in a low socioeconomic, urban community. It has a student population of approximately 700 students. Most of the 30 teachers have taught there for many years.

At 8:30 a.m. playground supervision begins and eventually three teachers emerge for duty. They appear disconnected – no greetings or communication with students or parents – giving no indication that their school is a happy place for learning. Some students cluster in the playground, while others push, tease, shout and jostle in active play. Conflicts arise, with students and teachers all yelling. Disrespect from students is met with sarcasm from the teachers. Parents get involved; some abuse teachers and/or students who they perceive to have ‘wronged’ or bullied their child. The 9:00 a.m. assembly bell rings. Students, teachers and community members shuffle towards the assembly area. Talking, shouting and confrontation prevail. Attention to the assembly is fractured as students and community members continue their conversations and conflicts. Teachers re-gather around the assembly area to continue discussions and to

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occasionally admonish a wayward student. The assembly ends. Teachers escort students to their classrooms and the parents leave.

In most of the classrooms, disharmony and distrust prevail. Interactions between the teachers and students are curt, even rude. Learning seems sporadic, and motivation poor (see Figure 12.2). The school day lurches from boredom to conflict.

At 3:00 p.m. students explode from the classrooms. Laughter mixes with argument, teachers leave, and by 3:15 p.m. the schoolyard is empty except for rubbish, graffiti and signs of vandalism. FIGURE 12.2 Learning seems sporadic, and motivation poor Source: Shutterstock.com/Pressmaster

Jacinta, new school principal: narrative 1

It’s nearly 8:30 a.m. Walking around – getting my first feel for the school ‘in action’ – there is a cacophony of screaming and arguing students and adults. School bags and discarded fast-food packaging are everywhere and graffiti reigns! I send students to the relative safety of the open area where an on-duty teacher can ‘supervise’ them. Each teacher has a different interpretation of playground expectations; similarly, for some of the students. I intervene in a nearby argument. This schoolyard is a nightmare!

At 9:00 a.m. I call the assembly to order. The PA (public address) system doesn’t work properly, so many students and parents can’t hear me over their own noise. I quickly instruct the emerging staff to settle the students. What a debacle! It appears neither students nor teachers are interested in learning here. After the assembly, I spend the morning visiting classrooms. My concerns about the school climate are substantiated. I’ve taught in challenging schools before, with students having a diversity of additional needs, but this is different …

At 3:15 p.m. everyone’s gone except for a few students kicking a ball. Barawun PS is certainly no collaborative community of learners. Three distinct, uncooperative ‘tribes’ prevail; the students, the teachers and the parents. Each seems to be heading in their own direction, with no unity, and in frequent conflict with each other. Many students and parents seem confronted and overwhelmed. Many of my staff are burnt out before 3:00 p.m.! Where do I start?

Sam (Samantha Yusef), beginning teacher: narrative 1

It’s 8:30 a.m. This is not what I expected! There’s a feeling of despair and anxiety in the staffroom. There’s no discussion about lesson planning, programs, kids, or even the new principal. Thank heavens I had yesterday’s pupil-free day to plan for my first few days with Year 5! The staff said hello … but I feel lonely. The morning playground duty teachers look like they’re about to face a firing squad! At 8:55 I head out to my first assembly … MADNESS – kids and parents everywhere! Am I alone out here? Jacinta asks me to round up my kids while she’s trying to get everyone’s attention. 700 students – which ones are mine? – it’s like juggling marbles! Who’s seeing to that parent over there with her little boy in his new uniform? Why is he crying? Looks like he has a disability; little fella’s probably scared witless. I wish this assembly would hurry up so I can escape to my new classroom!

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It’s 9:15 a.m. and I’m finally in my room with most of my class. No one told me about David’s disability. He looks lost. Shouldn’t I have a teacher assistant? That chair and desk just don’t fit him. How’s he going to work? No interactive whiteboard (IWB)! That’s a real disappointment – Jacinta said she’d review school funds … CAN’T YOU KIDS LISTEN! It’s 10:30 a.m. and still half an hour till recess. Did these kids learn anything last year?! I can’t believe their ability range! SIT DOWN JASMIN! I’ve got to do some serious differentiation on my programs. Big mistake negotiating classroom rules today – or ever! HANDS OFF ERIC! LAST WARNING! 3:00 p.m. – kids are gone – except poor David struggling to get past the scattered furniture, books and homework sheets. David’s gone now. I’m exhausted!

Jenny, mother of an Aboriginal child with a range of educational needs: narrative 1

It’s 8:50 a.m. They said Mrs Jones would be here to meet Josh and me at 8:45. Don’t they understand his needs? This is his first day of Kindergarten and MADNESS is everywhere! Your new teacher will be here soon, Josh. Do you remember meeting her last year? Give me a cuddle darling – it’s going to be fabulous … You’re going to love big school … Where’s Mrs Jones?

interactive whiteboard (IWB) The generic term for an interactive projector/whiteboard that can be operated by touch. They are often referred to by their ‘brands’ (e.g. Smart Board, Panoboard). differentiation Adapting teaching to take into account the individual differences and needs of students, to ensure that instruction is relevant, flexible and responsive and leads to successful learning.

Mary, a teacher at Barawun PS for over 30 years: narrative 1

Back again for another year. Just a few more until I retire! We’ve got yet another new principal this year. At least this one is a bit younger – maybe she’ll stick around for a while, unlike the last few who were knocking on retirement’s door when they arrived! She seems enthusiastic enough, but it’s going to take a lot more than enthusiasm to get things moving around here. We’ve also got a brand-new graduate teacher. I remember when I was eager like her. I wonder if she’ll last. There’s the bell, time to go on playground duty. I can’t believe they gave me morning duty when I have a new student with an identified disability starting today!

David, an older student with a disability: narrative 1

Ms Yusef seems nice, but I hate changing classrooms. I hope I get a new desk and chair this year. Now that I’m in Year 5, Mum might buy me a laptop. I’ll be able to type the best stories then and Ms Yusef will love them! I think I saw her cry today – probably the rude kids were giving her a hard time. I wish I could catch the bus home like the others – this ‘special’ transport sucks!

Tony, local small business owner: narrative 1

Any more graffiti sprayed on my window by those rotten Barawun kids and I’ll lose it! That new principal had better control those bloody kids! The school yard’s a pigsty. They need to get back to basics and give them some discipline. We didn’t dare disrespect our elders when I was a kid!

Author’s commentary 1

Jacinta, Sam, Jenny, Mary, David and Tony are all clearly unhappy. Each has legitimate concerns about Barawun PS. It would seem that caring and respect are non-existent. Relationships between many students, staff, parents and community members seem poor. The general attitude among the staff and students towards learning also seems poor. Please carefully review the narratives once again and now pay close attention to the italicised text in each scenario. We hope that you will notice that there is enough evidence to show that Barawun PS is not a quality learning environment (Cohen & Geier, 2010; Coulsten & Smith, 2013; Finkelstein et al., 2019; Lawrie et al., 2017; Lyons, Ford & Arthur-Kelly, 2011).

quality learning environment A respectful learning space where teachers give clear explanations, have high expectations of student work and students have some choice of learning activities to engage in.

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In regard to the elements of successful inclusion (see Chapter 3), there is little evidence of the proactive engagement and support of the school community (DEEWR, 2012; Lonsdale, 2011). Many of the teachers were late to the assembly and left the school within 15 minutes of the final bell. Parents seemed preoccupied with squabbling over their children’s playground arguments. The importance of a facilitative learning environment does not appear to have been recognised. Even David, a Year 5 student with a physical disability, has started his year without the basics of an appropriate chair and desk. Quality teaching seems to be minimal, as teachers battle with discipline and poor behaviour.

Regarding the critical necessities for successful inclusion (Chapter 3), the school community seems unwilling or unable to engage in benchmark standard teaching and learning for the ‘average’ student. The school failed to organise a staff member to meet Josh West, the new kindergarten student with additional needs (and Jenny, his mother), on his first day. The evidencebased strategies and techniques required to achieve successful inclusion were nowhere to be seen. Look back to the chapter aims, and consider Barawun PS at this time. Refer to Figure 12.3 and compare these hallmarks of an inclusive primary school with Barawun PS. You will notice there The Three Rs Although standards and observation checklists are helpful guides to identify inclusive classrooms, sometimes it’s easier to remember what I call the ‘Three Rs’ of effective inclusion – respect, relationships and responsibility.

1

1

Respect Inclusive classrooms provide an environment of respect for each and every student. All students have names, gifts, talents – there’s Tanya, a talented artist, in fourth grade; Israel in middle school and a great athlete; Savannah starting Pre-K, and she loves animals. All students belong and are members of the general education classroom. They are known by their names and unique personalities and strengths – not by numbers or scores.

2

Relationships When students are respected and accepted as full members of their school community, relationships develop. Students are no longer isolated but are connected members of a school community. Relationships create a safety net for students to develop a growth mindset, a belief that they can learn if they work hard and persevere. Student needs, not labels, drive instructional and support decisions.

2

3

3

Responsibility Once relationships form, teachers, students, and parents develop the capacity to better address all kinds of student diversity and share the responsibility for student success. The general education classroom becomes the starting point for all students, and services and supports are brought to that classroom as needed and appropriate. Teachers do not blame students but claim responsibility for their success. These Three Rs, respect, relationships, and responsibility, help us to remember what inclusion is all about in and out of classrooms and throughout the larger community.

FIGURE 12.3 The three Rs Source: The Inclusive Schools Network, https://inclusiveschools.org/what-does-an-inclusive-classroom-look-like/

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are hardly any aspects of an inclusive primary school at Barawun PS. It is not a holistic place of learning where staff demonstrate a collective responsibility for all students and there is hardly any collaboration amongst staff members.

There is little evidence of a learning community inclusive of all students, where staff recognise and provide for the full diversity of learning needs. There is little awareness of the nature and characteristics of evidence-based practices in inclusion in primary school settings, although Sam had some knowledge of the potential of ICT (information and communication technologies) in learning (Bai et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2014). Transition ‘into, through and out of’ the school appears to be unsuccessful – Jacinta, Sam, Jenny, Mary and David all noting the school’s failings. There were no explicitly evidenced processes or practices facilitative of building the school community’s capacity for inclusion – notwithstanding that it was day 1 of the school year. Any pre-service and early career teachers (like Sam or you!) who engaged with the Barawun PS staff would almost certainly not be given the knowledge to start building an inclusive learning community. It is possible though that you, the reader, may have learned a little about facilitating better inclusion outcomes for students with disability in primary schools … and that’s simply to avoid doing what Barawun PS did! A lot has to change in the school before we start thinking about inclusion. Inclusion is not just about placement of students like Josh or David in a regular classroom, it is about high-quality education for all. There is no point including Josh and David into a dysfunctional school. Inclusion into a dysfunctional school is not good for students with or without disabilities, staff and the community.

ICT (information and communication technologies) In an educational setting, is usually any computer technology that teachers and/ or students use to assist in the learning process.

REFLECT ON THIS • If you were in Sam’s position, what would be some of the first things you would try to change at Barawun PS, in order to create a more inclusive learning environment? How would you prioritise your actions? • What explicit or implicit evidence can you identify in the story so far of any members of the school community engaging with the critical necessities of successful inclusion (i.e. embracing and building capacity for, negotiating and resourcing for, or programming for successful inclusion)?

12.2 End of week 1, the first year After the first week of school, Barawun’s newest members of staff, Jacinta and Sam, are showing signs of concern for their new school. Even though it seems like a steep mountain to climb, they are already starting to think of ways they can make the school a more inclusive learning environment.

Jacinta, narrative 2

Week 1 finished! What a complex and challenging place. I’ve got to start afresh to rebuild this school. For Barawun PS to flourish, my staff and our school community have to want it too. I have to rebuild my teachers’ confidence and enthusiasm and establish trust in the school community. The teachers and students have to have confidence in each other, the executive team and me! I’ll have another look over my draft School Vision and Development Plan priorities, put quality teaching back on the agenda and try to bring the wider school community on board. But I don’t want an agenda and vision that’s just mine, I want everyone in my school to own the agenda and I want everyone to engage in building a new vision for the school. I need to get everyone to

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embrace this vision in order to bring Barawun to life. I want hope, enthusiasm and results! It’ll need increased effort from everyone and I reckon there’ll be some resistance from the troops!

I’ve got to spend some money and get some new ICT into the classrooms (see Figure 12.4). Maybe Sam Yusef knows about IWBs – she’s just graduated and seems keen to have one. I’ll rekindle the P&C as I’ll need their support and fundraising efforts too. My staff requires quality professional development that meets their interests and the school’s needs. I’ll take a look at their performance and development plans (PDP) to find out their goals. I need to establish a school-wide support system for struggling students, and a merit system that recognises effort and achievement. The learning development committee (LDC) can help create this. I’ll appoint my deputy to head this and coordinate student transition and inclusion throughout the school. The LDC obviously hasn’t been active for some time.

Sam, narrative 2

I only just survived this week! It’s been the hardest week of my life. I’ve got some serious planning to do this weekend! I’ll check the student records for assessment results and to identify any FIGURE 12.4 ICT can help make lessons more other learning needs, and differentiate my programs so they can all engaging. Source: iStock.com/davidf engage. I also want to learn more about each student as a person rather than just as a student in my class. I want to build personal connections with each one of them. I know from my university training that students don’t learn from teachers that they don’t like and that no teaching can take P&C Parents and citizens place if teachers don’t connect with their students. I still remember watching that fascinating interest group Ted talk (‘Every kid needs a champion’) by Rita Pierson. If they continue to fail, they’ll give up attached to most public schools in NSW. on learning and themselves. I’ll make my classroom management plan simpler, and focus on performance and rewarding appropriate behaviour. Hopefully this’ll swing the ‘fence sitters’ and make it easier to development plans manage the more difficult students. Quite a few boys need improved social skills. Perhaps I can (PDP) In NSW, teachers set include a daily class session of modelling turn-taking, being polite and sharing. I wonder if the goals annually to plan LDC knows of any social-skills programs I could use. Maybe I could choose some of my class to be for their professional improvement. kindy helpers, especially for little Josh. Giving them an important job like that could help them Goals are aligned feel more important. with departmental policies and relate to the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers.

LDC or PSG Learning development committee (LDC) or equivalent group (e.g. Program Support Group in Victoria) such as learning support teams. These teams are responsible for building capacity for, negotiating for, and resourcing for successful inclusion.

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David’s a lovely kid. Thank heavens my referral to the LDC came through with a new chair and desk. Perhaps I can ask them for a laptop with a wireless ergonomic keyboard too. I reckon David has great potential. I wonder what his parents think? I’m looking forward to meeting them with the LDC next week to discuss his individual education plan (IEP). I’d love to get some team-teaching happening. I might work with a teacher assistant or another teacher during team teaching … I wish!!

Jenny, narrative 2

Hello darling! It’s home time! How was your first week at big school? Was it fun? Oh, Mrs Jones, here are some spare pants for Josh. Could you encourage him to use the toilet every hour or so? He’s toilet-trained but I don’t know why he’s having accidents. Maybe you could give him a little cuddle if he gets to the toilet on time? I know he’s in big school now, but he’s used to a lot of encouragement with toileting at home. It’s been hard work but we’ve come a long way in the last few months. I think this would be good for Josh and us.

CHAPTER 12 Inclusion in primary schools

Mary, narrative 2

I forgot how needy kindy kids are when they first start. They’re still babies and it’s hard work keeping them all happy, let alone engaged in learning. Josh wet his pants a few times this week. I try to remember to get him to the toilet but the other students are so needy! It’s impossible to do everything at once. I’m going to ask the LDC for a teacher assistant to help out.

David, narrative 2

Mum, I’m SO bored at school. Can I please have a laptop? I’ve saved all my pocket money. It’s so much easier for me to type than to write. I used a computer in the library to work on my journal writing and I actually got it finished! I showed Ms Yusef and she said I’ve got potential. I felt smart!

Tony, narrative 2

Do teachers have ANY idea about the real world? When I see that new principal next week, I’ll give her a piece of my mind. I can’t stand these kids and the trouble they cause in the community before and after school!

Author’s commentary 2

It is the end of the first week of the first year of the Barawun PS story. Clearly Jacinta, Sam, Jenny (and son Josh) are feeling differently from how they did on day 1. Now there is also mixed evidence of hope, despair, commitment, anger, industriousness and longing. Each still has understandable and legitimate concerns about Barawun PS and what is, and isn’t, happening there. It still seems a mostly unhappy and unsuccessful school, but there is a spark of hope …

In regard to the elements of successful inclusion (see Chapter 3), there is still little evidence of the proactive engagement and support of the school community. The elements of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and the importance of a facilitative learning environment do appear to have been recognised – at least by some (see Jacinta’s and Sam’s stories). Refer to Chapters 3, 4 and 5 for further information on UDL. There are also hints of some quality teaching (Sam). In regard to the critical necessity for the school community to embrace and build capacity for, negotiate and resource for, and program for successful inclusion, there are hints of evidence (Jacinta, Sam, Jenny, Mary and David). In regard to the evidence-based strategies and techniques required to achieve successful inclusion (Chapters 3 through to 9 and at the IRIS Center) – again, there are hints of evidence (Jacinta, Sam).

REFLECT ON THIS • Can you identify different actions taken by Jacinta and Sam that shows that the school is making attempts to be more responsive to students like David? What else could all members of the school do to make the school more engaging for David and other students?

12.3 End of term 1, the first year It’s still very early stages, but plans have been made and the ball is rolling. Barawun PS and its community are starting to make the necessary changes.

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Jacinta, narrative 3

Well … term 1’s over (relaxing with her partner after school). We’ve come a long way but still have a long way to go. The executive team has a lot of potential and so much experience has been lying dormant for so long. My teacher team has so much to learn about inclusive education. With almost no direction and no professional development for so long, most didn’t even know what ‘quality teaching’ was! Thank heavens for young Sam. She’s a dynamo! I couldn’t believe her brilliant IWB ideas and the students love them. Young David’s so inspiring. His disabilities don’t slow him down a bit. We’ve got lots of students with additional needs whose teachers also need support. I’ll have to chase up the LDC to complete the support request applications before the deadline next term, so we can put some additional funds towards supporting them properly. I am pleased that our Vision Statement and Development Plan that we jointly developed are in place. With a little more support from the P&C and the local businesses we can finish our playground makeover without blowing the budget. Thank heavens for Tony Spiteri joining the P&C – he’s got great influence among the locals.

The new school-wide discipline system seems to be working. The staff now frequently comment that they are feeling a little more in control. I am so pleased that we could conduct a whole-school positive behaviour support training program for staff. You can actually see the staff focusing on positive behaviours and using more encouraging language. I believe teaching quality is improving. I also think involving students and parents in the weekly assemblies has given them some ownership and pride. It’s fantastic to see the pride in students’ faces when their parents see them receive an award.

Sam, narrative 3

What a term, Mum! I’m loving this school! Some kids have been difficult, but they’re trying and wanting to learn. Our lunchtime IWB sessions are so popular, we’ve made a roster for other classes to join in – even some ‘oldie’ teachers are dropping in!

I rewrote my programs to accommodate all of my students and their learning needs. You know, Mum, if you challenge kids with engaging activities, they really go for it! Mum, I got to know each one of my students, their interests and their hobbies and it made such a huge difference. I felt so much at ease when teaching them. I could see that they also felt comfortable interacting with me. I can clearly see the power of connecting with my students at personal level. The next thing I did was simplify my classroom management plan, which seems to be working for most students. My biggest challenge is still Eric. He has a diagnosed emotional behaviour disorder (EBD). The LDC and I have him on an individual behaviour improvement plan. The EAL/D teacher and I are also working on improving David’s English language skills.

Emotional/ behavioural disorders

That David is just so clever. He helps with the IWB sessions and with his own laptop and ergonomic keyboard, he can type up his work faster than the others. They used to treat him so bad! I’m not sure about his maths though – it just doesn’t gel for him. Studying special education at uni was so helpful!

Team-teaching has been an eye opener. Marion next door is an old dear and a bit stuck in her ways when it comes to technology, but she is excellent at teaching maths. The kids really get it with her! Those are the moments, Mum, when the kids get it. I’m learning heaps from her, but I might look into some further professional development in teaching maths! Maybe that can be one of my professional learning goals this year.

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Jenny, narrative 3

Sweetie, give mummy a big cuddle. It’s been a hard first term, Mrs Jones. I’m so glad Josh has made some new friends. Little Billy is coming over in the holidays and maybe Josh can have sleepovers too. It all depends on what the doctor and physio say. I know he’s not strong academically, but I enrolled him at Barawun PS because I wanted him to learn to look after himself, socialise with other kids and just be happy. You mentioned an IEP meeting in the letter home. What does that mean?

Mary, narrative 3

With the help of a teacher assistant for two hours a day, the class is starting to settle into a routine and Josh has come a long way. It’s been weeks since he last had a toileting accident. He doesn’t work at the same level as the other students because of his intellectual disability, but it’s been great to see his social skills begin to develop, especially with Billy. I have some ideas I want to run by Jenny when we meet for his IEP meeting. With their Indigenous heritage, if Jenny would join the local Aboriginal Education Consultative Group (AECG), I think she will feel more supported at school and in the community. I wonder if she has looked into setting up an individual plan for Josh with the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS). They may be able to help ease the burden of his day-to-day care as well as refer her to services that will help him in the future. I am pleased that Josh is now covered under the Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD) scheme and our school is receiving funding to make educational adjustments for him.

David, narrative 3

National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) A funding scheme that supports people with a permanent and significant disability that affects their ability to take part in everyday activities. Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with disability (NCCD) The NCCD provides information about the number of students with a disability in a school as well as educational adjustments made for them.

Dear Ojiisan [Grandpa], I am typing this letter on the new computer Ms Yusef organised for me [see Figure 12.5]. I love writing stories and showing the class on the IWB. It’s like having a giant computer screen as a whiteboard, but you use your fingers on the screen to move things instead of a keyboard or mouse. It’s so cool!

FIGURE 12.5 I am typing this letter on the new computer. Source: Shutterstock.com/Monkey Business Images

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Ms Yusef’s really nice. I help her with the IWB and I’ve even taught Mr Holloways how to surf the web on it! I still don’t like maths, but sometimes Ms Yusef and Mrs Potter next door teach together. Mrs Potter’s a whizz and she makes maths fun! School’s good. I’ve made some friends and I don’t get bullied any more. Your loving mago [grandchild], David PS My EAL/D teacher is showing me how to use the language translator on my laptop so I can translate my school notes. Now Mum can understand them better, so she can help me with my homework too.

Tony, narrative 3

Fancy getting conned into the school P&C committee! Jacinta, the principal, is one clever cookie. I never knew how hard teachers worked until she talked me into helping in class with some struggling readers. Some parents are helping with a daily reading program now and doing a great job! I reckon if some more helped out, we wouldn’t have the kids trashing the town. It’s about engagement and motivation you know. It’s good to get a better idea of what school and learning are all about. Funny that … Remember that little brat Eric, who I caught with the spray cans in February? He’s not really that bad. I met his dad at the P&C meeting last month. There’s no mum around and his dad works most nights. A tough situation really. I’m hoping that when the new playground’s finished and the P&C’s plans for an after-school care and homework centre come through, Eric will have something more constructive to do after school …

Author’s commentary 3

It is the end of term 1 of the first year of the Barawun PS story.

There is increasing change in the way Jacinta, Sam, Jenny, Mary, David and Tony feel and think about Barawun PS. There is increasing evidence of commitment, inspiration, relief and optimism. The school seems to have come out of its malaise and the ‘spark’ of hope referred to in our last commentary seems to have evolved into a ‘smouldering of opportunity’.

In regard to the elements of successful inclusion (Chapter 3), there is some evidence of the pro-active engagement and support of the school community. The importance of a facilitative learning environment appears to have been recognised by some (Jacinta, Sam, Mary and Tony). There are also hints of quality teaching (Sam and Mary). Regarding the critical necessity for the school community to embrace and build capacity for, negotiate and resource for, and program for successful inclusion – again, there are hints of evidence (Jacinta, Sam, Jenny, Mary and Tony). In regard to the best evidence-based strategies and techniques required to achieve successful inclusion (Chapters 4 to 10), there are again some hints of evidence (Jacinta, Sam and Mary). Sam mentioned that Eric is on a BIP. Chapter 6 features information on functional behaviour assessments, behaviour improvement plans, and behaviour management strategies for inclusive classrooms.

Look back to the chapter aims and consider Barawun PS at this point in time – just one school term into this three-year story. What progress has been made towards achieving these aims?

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REFLECT ON THIS • Consider Sam’s journey so far. Would you have taken similar steps in her situation or would you approach it differently? If so, how? • What are some of the attributes that you can identify in Sam’s teaching which show that she is clearly making a difference in her class? • What explicit or implicit evidence of the elements of successful inclusion can you identify since the previous reflection and discussion? (i.e. the proactive engagement and support of the school community and the provision of a facilitative learning environment through Universal Design for Learning and quality teaching). You may like to browse through evidence-based inclusive strategies online at the IRIS Center or High Leverage Practices in Special Education prior to undertaking this reflective activity.

12.4 End of term 2, the first year Halfway through the school year and changes are underway at Barawun PS. Jacinta and the others are working hard to ensure their school is a holistic place of learning, where the staff (and parents) have a collective responsibility for all students.

Jacinta, narrative 4

OK folks! (Jacinta addresses the 40 or so attendees at the end of a two-day professional development and training retreat at the end of term 2). Let’s summarise …

Thank you all not only for attending, but for really engaging with the agenda. It was fantastic to get the whole staff together, including our teacher assistants and administration staff, as well as representatives from our P&C. I hope we’ve burnt down some rickety old bridges and built some new solid ones in the knowledge that all our students can learn! If we keep our school motto in view constantly, we can focus on becoming a truly inclusive learning community.

Our next step is for our students to become the focus of this learning community. Our teaching staff carries much of the responsibility for this by designing, developing, implementing and evaluating all formal teaching and learning activities. I want to see quality teaching that ensures all our students achieve their full potential. To do this, our teachers need the knowledge, skills, abilities and support of all staff, parents and community members. This is an ongoing priority. Let’s focus on this and I assure you, we will see improvement in our K–6 literacy and numeracy results. For me, students and staff are equally important. I know that unless staff members are well supported, there is no way we can teach really well. You will have my support at all times – never hesitate to ask for anything that makes your job easier. I am so pleased to see how each one of you have gone out of your way to support each other – THANKS! Even though we now have systems that are having a positive impact, student welfare and discipline are still challenges for us all. We’ve got a long way to go to meet the additional learning needs for all students and our teaching and support staff are on a steep learning curve. Our reestablished LDC has been set the task of helping staff recognise and provide for the full diversity of these learning needs. Thanks to those who’ve committed themselves to this and to those who provide their ongoing support.

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Sam, narrative 4

Thank you for the opportunity to speak to this year’s interns, Professor. It’s an honour to be invited back to the university as an early career teacher to speak with pre-service teachers, just six months into my career. Hello everyone, I was asked to speak to you about my early career experiences. It’s been a roller coaster, but nothing that my training didn’t prepare me for. Firstly, I’ll introduce eight points, then I’ll go on to elaborate on each:

1 Know what quality teaching is and how you ‘do’ it! Be prepared to manage the learning environment and know your students well, both academically and personally. If you don’t know where they’re at, you won’t know where to take them. Get to know your students as individuals rather than just as your students.

2 Teaching is about curriculum, assessment and pedagogy, all focusing on improving student outcomes. These are the big three. Spend time getting to know the interests, hobbies and weekend routines of your students. 3 Collaborate! You are not alone. Students are enrolled in the school, not just in your class, so seek help from others. Be prepared to help others.

4 One-size teaching and learning does not fit all students. Differentiate and personalise so that everyone can learn. 5 Follow your classroom management plan, but don’t be afraid to change it if it’s not working out. Catch them being good and reward that behaviour! 6 Work smarter, not harder. Remember: KIS – keep it simple.

7 Be respectful at all times with colleagues, parents and especially students. Authentically involve parents whenever you can. Connect with them early in the academic year.

8 Go back to point number 1. Always be reflective and never stop learning! Ask your students for feedback on a regular basis.

Jenny, narrative 4

Mrs Jones, thank you for inviting me to Josh’s first IEP review meeting. It was great to have a say about his learning goals.

I know he’s difficult to manage, but I want him to make local friends. I don’t want him travelling across town to another school with kids he’d hardly see outside of school. I don’t have a car and I’m on my own. I’ve got my hands full and only my mum to help out. I know Josh won’t progress academically like the other students, but I’m happy with his social development. His friend Billy came over last holidays. Billy’s mum and I have coffee occasionally now. The AECG has been very supportive with advice and resources too. I think you’re doing a great job here and I appreciated the opportunity to be involved in his education plan.

Mary, narrative 4

This new principal seems to know what she’s doing. She has the community more involved in the school than it has been in years and she has realistic long-term goals! Maybe she does plan to stick around for a while.

David, narrative 4

Thank you, Ms Yusef, for inviting me to my first IEP meeting. I appreciate being involved. Speaking is hard sometimes, so I’ve typed my answers to the questions you gave me about my

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learning this year and my hopes for high school. My new laptop has helped me communicate better than ever. Thanks for caring enough to ask the school to get it for me.

Tony, narrative 4

[Tony is talking with his mate Mick.] You know, Mick, those kids are amazing. You’ve just gotta give them a go! They just love playing on the new adventure playground, but the kids with disabilities can’t because they need so much help. If we could get the blokes together and make some small changes, it’d be perfect for everyone. What do you reckon?

I’ll ask the principal, Jacinta, if there’s any tradie parents in the school who can help out and I’m sure some local businesses will kick in for some supplies.

Author’s commentary 4

It is the end of term 2 of the first year of the Barawun PS story.

The first ‘flames of progress’ are building. The stories all indicate an awareness of, and confidence in, evident progress. The school focus is clearly on whole-school improvement in teaching and learning, but inclusion is now high on the agenda with the (re)establishment of an LDC.

In regard to the elements of successful inclusion (Chapter 3), evidence of the proactive engagement and support of the school community is clear. An acknowledgement of the importance of a facilitative learning environment is also clear. Quality teaching and learning is now evident. In regard to the critical necessity for school community members to embrace and build capacity for, negotiate and resource for, and program for successful inclusion – there is planning and action on multiple fronts. Similar positive comments can be made about the use of appropriate strategies and techniques required to achieve successful inclusion. For example: improved curriculum, teaching and learning (Chapter 4), planning for and implementing effective assessment, planning and teaching strategies (Chapter 5), supporting positive behaviour (Chapter 6), a focus on the development of communication skills (Chapter 8), and an emphasis on the ‘basics’ of literacy and numeracy (Chapters 9 and 10).

In the first three author’s commentaries it was suggested that you look back at each of the chapter aims, and consider any progress made by the Barawun PS community towards those aims. This, and the remaining author’s commentaries, will focus on just one chapter aim at a time. Consider the first chapter aim: To identify inclusive primary schools as holistic places of learning where the staff (and parents) have a collective responsibility for all students. Preschool and early intervention services generally adopt a dual child-centred and family-centred approach to supporting and educating young children. Given the young age of the children enrolled in and supported by these services, and the close level of involvement of families and carers in the daily lives of these children, this is not surprising. The ‘emergent’ curriculum is closely centred on individual children’s interests, and the relatively smaller child-to-staff ratios (compared with the ratio in most kindergartens) means individualisation of engagement and close personal attention is possible – and indeed expected (Koc & Celik, 2014; European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education (EASNIE), 2016; McDonagh et al., 2014). Teachers in inclusive classrooms use inclusive pedagogy. Inclusive pedagogy is not something additional to what most teachers do. It is a pedagogy which builds upon what most effective teachers often do in classrooms. Inclusive pedagogy is being more alert to the diversity in the classroom and being responsive to meet the needs of all learners by using evidence-based teaching strategies more frequently to ensure that the content is relevant, interesting and meaningful (EASNIE, 2016).

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Responsibility

When young children graduate into kindergarten in primary school there is a shift to a classcentred instructional and care approach. Class sizes are larger with approximately 20 students per class, and the learning focus turns to the more formal ‘academic’ curriculum with group instructional pedagogies prevailing. (As students move into the primary years, class sizes generally increase to around 25–30 students). Nevertheless, primary schooling remains a relatively child-focused and holistic experience (EASNIE, 2016; McDonagh et al., 2014). The curriculum, although generally separated into different syllabuses, is frequently delivered in an integrated way to minimise fragmentation and to maximise the benefits of more contextualised learning. Students are usually placed in a ‘base’ class with one teacher, and generally most of their teaching/learning engagements are delivered in this same class group.

There are exceptions, particularly in upper primary settings, where students in some primary schools who are preparing for transition to middle/high school are taught by teachers who have specialist knowledge in particular (key) learning areas. Other exceptions include schools who adopt ‘vertical integration’ models, where students are taught in groups according to their competencies in learning areas, regardless of their age (Coulsten & Smith, 2013; Johnston & Wildy, 2016). The key point here is that although primary students may spend much of their instructional time in a (base) class, they are not enrolled in a class; they are enrolled in their school and are therefore the shared responsibility of all the school staff. Of course, the teacher-on-duty is the adult immediately responsible for the students in their care, but the principle stands. Children remain the responsibility of their parents (or legal guardians), who monitor and support their academic progress – obviously with most information being provided by the school principal, (base) class teacher or designated others. While the students are attending school, the teachers have a substantial duty of care (NSWTF, 2013). When parents and teachers collaborate proactively by communicating, negotiating and implementing/supporting teaching learning programs, outcomes are invariably better (Galindo & Sheldon, 2012; Jigyel et al., 2019; Wilder, 2014). We already know that parents face a number of barriers (e.g. linguistic, societal) which could negatively affect their involvement in the schooling of their child (Hornby & Blackwell, 2018). Schools need to pro-actively identify and address such barriers. The responsibilities of primary school teachers and parents are the same for all students, regardless of whether or not they have additional needs, and regardless of whether they have been placed in a regular or support class in their local primary school. Successful inclusive primary schools are holistic places of learning where the staff (and parents) have a collective responsibility for all students.

REFLECT ON THIS What evidence is there that Barawun PS is an inclusive primary school that is a holistic place of learning, where the staff and parents have a collective responsibility for all students? Can you identify any elements of inclusive pedagogy being used in the school?

12.5 End of the first year 504

One-third of the way through our peek inside Barawun PS and we can see that, with Jacinta’s leadership, the entire community is focused on quality teaching and learning through the process of nurturing and developing values, attitudes and understanding about the importance of education for all.

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Jacinta, narrative 5

[Addressing the end-of-year assembly] I’d like to say how proud your parents, teachers and I are of your improving results this year. We really are becoming a clever school. Your reading, writing and maths are all improving. One reason for this is that we have become a learning community where we respect, care and support each other. Thank you, teachers, parents, and community members, and thank you, students. I am proud to be your principal.

Sam, narrative 5

It’s 2:45 p.m. on the last school day of the school year. Thank you for these wonderful gifts class. As this was my first year of teaching, I found it difficult to teach at the start and some of you found it difficult to learn, but we all eventually managed to settle in. I’m proud of all of you for striving to achieve your personal best. I have these personalised bookmarks for each of you. I hope you remember to use them over the summer break and throughout next year, while you keep up your great reading!

Jenny, narrative 5 Dear Mrs Johnson, My name is Jenny West. My son Josh’s start at Barawun was traumatic for us. No-one was there to introduce him to the school on his first day, and he cried each morning for most of the first few weeks. Our efforts to toilet-train him at home were counteracted by this difficult start. I am pleased to say, however, that his teacher, Mrs Jones, has included me in his education plans and he has made some big improvements this year under her guidance. She introduced me to the local AECG so I could find out more about educational services in the community for Indigenous students and their families. I am now an active member of the local AECG and I plan to become more involved in the school’s P&C next year to help other Indigenous students at our school. Thank you for leading our school in a more prosperous direction. Yours sincerely, Jenny West

Mary, narrative 5

What a year! I was a bit apprehensive at first about the extra work of having Josh in my class. I didn’t think I had the knowledge or skills to teach a student like Josh. I’ve been teaching at Barawun PS now for 31 years but I haven’t seen a groundswell of enthusiasm for learning like this in a long, long time. I’m still not keen on all this technology they want me to use and all this talk about quality teaching. But I can see the changes taking place are for the better and I’m willing to move with the times. Who said you couldn’t teach an old dog new tricks?!

David, narrative 5

[Addressing the end-of-year assembly] My name is David Yoshida. Thank you for voting me onto our Student Council for next year. [Cheers!] I’ll do my best to look after my fellow students’ interests. I look forward to talking with students, teachers, parents and other members of our Barawun Public School Community of Learners. I especially want to help other students with

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additional needs. I hope they’ll be as lucky as I was to get a teacher like Ms Yusef! Thanks too – Mum and Dad. Remember our school motto! All students learn at Barawun! [Cheers!]

Tony, narrative 5

[Addressing the end-of-year assembly] Thank you Principal Johnson for inviting me to be part of this assembly. I’ve lived in Barawun my whole life and went to this school more than 50 years ago. I own the corner store, and I’ve worked there for more than 30 years. I am a proud member of the Barawun community and nothing makes me prouder than seeing our community come together for a good FIGURE 12.6 The new adventure playground looks great. cause like it has this year. The new adventure playground looks great! [see Figure 12.6]. A lot of locals chipped in to make it happen [Cheers!] The P&C, along with the school’s teachers and leaders, have worked hard to make improvements and I’m looking forward to having more involvement next year as the new president of the P&C.

Finally, a special thank you to all the parents and students who turned up to the P&C working bees to work on the gardens and to tidy our school. Well done!

Author’s commentary 5

It is the end of the first year of the Barawun PS story. There is a ‘cosy fire’ now warming the Barawun PS community. Our six stories suggest that the community has generally embraced inclusion as part of the school-wide plan to improve teaching and learning for all. Along with systemic initiatives to improve teaching and learning, there is evidence at the classroom and individual levels that positive changes have begun and will continue to occur.

In regard to the elements of successful inclusion (Chapter 3), evidence of the pro-active engagement and support of the school community is mounting. There is a school-wide push to build a facilitative learning environment. Quality teaching and learning is the primary focus. The school staff learned that teaching a student who has difficulty in learning does not necessarily always require teachers to use special techniques. It requires teachers to use the evidencebased strategies they already know more efficiently and also more frequently. Techniques that positively engage learners with disability are also equally effective for all learners. The school community has further embraced inclusion, and has collaboratively built increased capacity to resource and program for successful inclusion. Evidence-based strategies and techniques required to achieve successful inclusion are increasingly evident (Boyle & Topping, 2012; Crosland & Dunlap, 2012; De Bruin, 2020; Lindsay et al., 2014; Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020; see Chapters 4 to 10).

Building a community of learning

Let’s focus now on the second aim for this chapter: To clarify the importance of building a community of learning inclusive of all students, where staff recognise and provide for the full diversity of student learning needs. Building a community of learning is mostly about nurturing and developing values, attitudes and understanding about the importance of formal and lifelong learning (Marszalek, 2012; Webster & Wilkinson, 2015). For a primary school to become a successful community of learning, all members of the school community – students, teachers,

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parents and others – need to embrace the notion that a love of learning is one of the most powerful gifts we can give to following generations (Clerke, 2013; Marszalek, 2012). Good learning can involve healthy competition, but is better if it is based around the contemporary constructivist principles of cooperative and collaborative learning (Sidney, 2015). Pedagogy based around cooperative learning, peer-mediated learning, ‘buddy’ programs, outcomes-based assessment, and formative assessment based on personal best and mastery are excellent examples of the application of constructivist learning principles (Gillies, 2012; Sidney, 2015).

Building a school community of learning, inclusive of all students, similarly requires the nurturing and developing of positive values, attitudes and understanding towards the principles of inclusion through recognition and acceptance of difference and diversity as normal parts of life (Ashman, 2015). Much of the responsibility for this rests with the school staff, especially the teachers. Teachers need not only the will to embrace, but also the capacity (knowledge, skills and experiences) to recognise and provide for students with disability. It is easier to say but harder to inculcate love for learning in all students. Students have diverse interests, abilities and experiences. While teachers need to know the subject matter really well, they also need to know their students really well. As demonstrated in the Barawun PS story, a wide range of additional needs can arise as a result of individual students’ learning abilities, and/or cultural, racial and socioeconomic differences, and/or sexual orientations (Learning Difficulties Australia, 2016; Westwood, 2013).

To build a school’s capacity for inclusion, attention needs to be given to identifying students who have learning needs and, more specifically, what these needs are and how they can be met. Teachers and schools must keep in mind that identification of additional needs can sometimes lead to labelling of students. They must take extra precautions to avoid the trap of labelling the students. Two foci must be considered. First, the identification of all students with disability who are new to the school, not just those who enter the school through an early childhood intervention program (see Chapter 11). Second, the identification of current students who have not previously been identified, either because they have ‘slipped through the system’ or have experienced some traumatic change in their lives, resulting in acquired additional needs. Also, schools must carefully monitor the additional needs of any students currently diagnosed with a disability because these can change over time due to maturation, deterioration, or changes in the student’s ecology.

Assessment

Classroom teachers need to be trained in a variety of assessment techniques to recognise the full diversity of student learning needs in a school or class. Assessment, along with reporting, programming and teaching, make up the teaching and learning cycle (NSW BOSTES, 2012; NSW DEC, 2011a). As teachers become more experienced, they also become more adept at ‘spotting’ students who are and are not reaching the usual milestones. Primary schools generally have access to school-based and district-based staff (counsellors and support teachers) who have additional expertise in the assessment of learning difficulties and disabilities (NSW DoE, 2001; 2015). One example of early assessment and intervention in primary schools is the Reading Recovery Program, a supplementary reading program for Year 1 students who are identified as having difficulties in the early establishment of foundation reading skills (see Weblinks at the end of the chapter).

A focus on pedagogy

To provide for this diversity of student learning needs, focus should also be maintained on pedagogy. Primary classroom teachers are trained in designing, delivering and evaluating

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teaching and learning programs across the whole primary curriculum (as expressed in syllabus documents issued by each education authority) (NSW BOSTES 2012; NSW DEC 2011a; VIT, 2020). Best-practice pedagogy (e.g. Queensland’s Productive Pedagogies or the NSW Quality Teaching model – see the Weblinks at the end of the chapter) provides guidelines for designing and implementing classroom practices and assessment practices which address diversity and difference in classrooms for K–12. Pedagogy is enhanced when teachers competently differentiate and personalise the curriculum, and assessment practices to meet diverse student needs (Boyle & Topping, 2012; Dempsey, 2012; EASNIE, 2016; Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020). We recommend the differentiation of teaching/learning programs and activities as a first preference. Comprehensively differentiated teaching/learning programs and activities are generally useful across various settings and contexts, whereas individualised learning programs (ILPs) are generally only useful for the focus students, or those with very similar needs (EASNIE, 2016; Rose et al., 2012; Valiandes, 2015).

REFLECT ON THIS What evidence is there in the Barawun PS story of policies and practices that are inclusive of all students (and particularly those with disability) and that staff recognise and provide for the full diversity of student needs? Have you experienced similar situations in schools you have visited? Or in your own school where you studied?

12.6 Day 1, the second year The second year is about to start and there’s no time to rest on their laurels. The Barawun community has grown a lot over the past year, but there’s still plenty of work to do. Jacinta’s sights are set firmly on evidence-based practices in inclusion.

Jacinta, narrative 6

[Day 1, Year 2, staff development day, speaking to the staff executive team] OK folks, I’ll summarise the main revisions to our School Development Plan.

Our Vision Statement remains on track, but we’re ‘ramping up’ efforts this year to support students with disability. Staff, students, parents and the community are gradually embracing our notion of a community of learning and shared responsibility, but we need everyone to feel confident to support all our students.

Our students with additional needs, whether arising from disabilities, or racial, cultural or socioeconomic background factors, or their sexual orientations need our support. Our community needs to be able to recognise these differences and diversities first, and then be empowered to respond to and meet these needs. I know this is not a one-year-wonder project! I want our school to build its capacity to support all students and their families by inclusion! Your executive summary outlines the professional development program for this year, which focuses on learning about and developing contemporary best practices in inclusion. Our LDC will ensure that students with disability transitioning into kindergarten, between years and stages and into high school are duly supported through adequate preparation, early transition and consolidation of the transition process (see Figure 12.7). The summary also outlines the K–6 curriculum initiatives we discussed to build the students’ capacity to support their peers.

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The three-phase inclusion process 1 Preparation phase Pre-inclusion

2 Transition phase Early inclusion

3 Consolidation phase Continuing inclusion

FIGURE 12.7 The inclusion process – the three phases

Sam, narrative 6

Wow, my first year of teaching went so quick! What a learning curve! I’ll miss my last year’s class. I’ve had my transition meetings with David’s and Eric’s teachers for next year and we’ve put in place some steps to support them this year, as well as transition them both into high school next year. With guidance from Jacinta and Marion, plus quite a lot of professional development courses during my first year, I feel I’m so much more prepared for this year. Bring on my new Year 5 class!

Jenny, narrative 6

[Addressing the school staff at the start-of-year staff development day] Hi everyone, I’m a bit nervous. Until recently I’ve only been in a school staffroom when I was in trouble. (Lots of friendly laughter) My name’s Jenny West and I’m a new P&C member. Thanks to Tony Spiteri, the president, and Jacinta, the principal, for supporting me. Jacinta’s also asked me to join the school LDC. I got involved because my son Josh has a disability. I wanted him to attend his local school so he could make friends with local kids. He doesn’t learn as easily as them but he does learn. He starts Year 1 tomorrow and has one close friend and a few mates as well.

I think it would be great if the schools could actively involve and support the families of students with additional needs, regardless of how these needs arise. I truly believe that when carers and teachers work together – it helps everybody and creates a positive school environment where all learners succeed. As a member of the P&C and the LDC I know I can make a difference in our school and in our local community. Thank you.

Mary, narrative 6

I have to admit I learnt a lot about my teaching last year with Josh in my class, but having him here was a lot of additional work. I had a bit of teacher assistant time but I could have used a lot more. Jenny is a lovely lady and I’m sure she has her son’s best interest at heart. But aren’t these students better off in a special school where their needs are catered for? Having him here puts so much more pressure on us all.

David, narrative 6 Dear Ojiisan, I start Year 6 tomorrow. I’m scared, but excited too! Last year I spoke with Ms Yusef and my new teacher, Mr Holloways, about ways to make the classroom easier for me. Mr Holloways said he was hoping that I’d help him with his new IWB! I’ll be visiting the high school a bit this year with our school teacher assistant, Mr Martin. He said he wants to make sure they have everything I need in place before I start there next year. They have a weekly writing group for students who meet to talk about their stories and poems! Unreal!

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Love you, David. PS I’m still struggling with maths but Mr Martin’s coming to help me and some other kids who struggle. PPS My new Student Council member badge looks great!

Tony, narrative 6

Hi everyone. I’m Tony, your new P&C president. [Cheers!] After discussions with Jacinta and the staff, the P&C have decided to focus on fund-raising and working bees around supporting our students with disabilities. As Jacinta mentioned, the Department’s Public Works Branch have started on new ramps, door widening, a new bathroom and wet area and renovations to the library. We need a lot more done to make it better for everyone, because I know we all want the best school possible.

I’ve rounded up a few of the local tradies who’ve agreed to donate their time and materials at cost to get the smaller jobs done. I’ve also organised a working-bee roster and hope to get more volunteers.

Author’s commentary 6

It is day 1 of the second year of the Barawun PS story. The school community is buzzing! Our six stories suggest that the community has embraced inclusion (although Mary is showing some resistance as she is still concerned with the school’s capacity to cater for students with higher support needs) and are now focusing on building capacity for inclusion – still within the context of improving teaching and learning for all students across the school. Initiatives and programs are clearly evident at the individual, classroom and school-wide levels. All of the storytellers have identified priorities for action, and strategies for achieving these priorities. Jacinta, Sam, Jenny, Mary, David and Tony sound happy. None of them now focuses on the failings of Barawun PS, but rather on what’s improving. It is perhaps one of the most remarkable changes that has taken place at Barawun PS over the past year. Focusing on the strengths of people and organisations could be highly empowering to everyone. The idea of systematically focusing on strengths (or using Appreciative Inquiry) was proposed by Cooperrider & Srivastva as long ago as 1987 and is still critical today. A key underlying assumption in AI is that every organisation (in our case Barawun PS) has something that is working well with regard to a change initiative (i.e. inclusive education). The organisation should systematically identify what’s working and build upon successful practices. People in the organisation should be encouraged to ask the right question by focusing on the strengths of the organisation (Cooperrider et al., 2008). Right questions could be key catalysts that initiate, drive and sustain positive change. Most staff at the school have started asking the right questions. It would seem that caring and respect are now the norm. Relationships between the students, staff and parents and other community members seem supportive. The general attitude among the staff and students towards learning is more positive. At this stage, the evidence is that Barawun PS is a happy and increasingly successful primary school. In regard to the elements of successful inclusion (Chapter 3), evidence of the pro-active engagement and support of the school community continues to mount. The school-wide push for a facilitative learning environment continues, but with an emphasis on capacity building. Inclusion and transition are driven by an LDC which relies on collaborative consultation as its primary form of negotiation (see Figure 12.8). Quality teaching and learning for all students remains the key focus for all projects and initiatives. The school community continues to build

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1 Student’s LST meet to discuss student’s needs

2 Curriculum, pedagogical, assessment and physical needs considered

3 Individualised and/or differentiated needs planned and implemented

FIGURE 12.8 The support process

capacity for, negotiate and resource for, and program for successful inclusion. Evidence-based strategies and techniques required to achieve successful inclusion are emerging as benchmark practices across the school community, particularly among the teaching and paraprofessional staff (Chapters 4 to 10).

Best practices

Now to the third chapter aim: Foster an awareness of the nature and characteristics of best practice in inclusion in primary school settings. Best practice in inclusion in primary school settings is informed by two sources: that is, student learning outcomes (Chapters 4–6) and credible research-based evidence (Crosland & Dunlap, 2012; Fields, 2014; EASNIE, 2016; Finkelstein et al., 2019; Foreman & Arthur-Kelly, 2008; Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020; Theoharis & Causton, 2014). Outcomes for most primary students are generally benchmarked against external (standards-referenced) tests. (NAPLAN is one example of a nationally benchmarked external assessment for students in Years 3 and 5 – see Weblinks.) For students with additional learning needs arising from disabilities and other causes, accommodations, such as having a reader, can be provided. However, openly competitive testing might still be inappropriate. Curriculum-based assessment is preferable. In curriculum-based assessment, the student is set the same (syllabus) learning outcome targets as other students, but the goal is to make substantial progress towards these outcomes, as evidenced by alternative, individualised indicators or objectives. An alternative is to negotiate an IEP wherein some or all learning objectives are individualised (Chapters 4 and 5; Janney & Snell, 2006; Landmark & Zhang, 2012; Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020; Rehfeldt et al., 2010). Best practices, then, are those that lead to the best academic (or other negotiated) outcomes. Credible research-based evidence provides and explains best practices in pedagogy (instruction), assessment and curriculum. These best practices frequently become the subjects of pre-service and in-service training and professional development activities (Arthur-Kelly et al., 2013; Dempsey & Christenson-Foggett, 2011; Grima-Farrell et al., 2011; Hemmings & Woodcock, 2011; Sharma, 2018). Primary school teachers are ‘notoriously’ poor at engaging directly with quality professional reading in peer-reviewed journal articles and tend to rely more upon wordof-mouth advice from their peers. Although there is merit in this information, it hardly compares with credible research-based evidence sourced by professional and action researchers in the field (Argyropoulos & Nikolaraizi, 2009; Beamish & Strnadová, 2012).

A significant proportion of the recognised best-practice pedagogy in primary education can be sourced to educational (action) research undertaken by special educators looking to improve instructional methodologies for students with disability (Carlson et al., 2012; Carter et al., 2011; Grima-Farrell et al., 2011). We strongly encourage you to maintain an interest in reading the scholarly literature around teaching and learning, especially about students with various disabilities. Note again that these disabilities can arise from other sources including racial and cultural heritage, socioeconomic disadvantage and challenging behaviours arising from mental health issues (Grant & Sleeter, 2009; Westwood, 2013). A large number of articles are now freely available on. ‘Google scholar’ or could be requested directly from ‘ResearchGate’ from the authors.

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Students with diverse cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds

In Australia, teachers are required to keep at least a minimum level of professional development hours throughout their careers to maintain their status with the professional accrediting bodies in their state or territory. This is usually aligned with the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (see Weblinks). This provides an avenue for teachers to continue developing their knowledge and pedagogy either by directly engaging with the research literature through formal study, or indirectly though shorter courses offered by their state education department or other registered training organisations (RTOs).

REFLECT ON THIS • In your experiences with primary schools, how do they foster an awareness of the nature and characteristics of best practice in their setting? • Do you think focusing on positives in a school can allow school to be more inclusive of student diversities? How? • Mary suggests the local school may not be the best setting for Josh. Under what circumstances do you think Josh, or any student with disability, might be ‘better off’ enrolling in a special class or school, rather than Kindergarten at their local primary school?

12.7 End of term 2, the second year Halfway through the second year and halfway through our story of Barawun PS. It’s a time for reflection – looking back at how far the Barawun learning community has come and the variety of processes and practices they have now put in place to facilitate the building of their school community’s capacity for inclusion.

Jacinta, narrative 7

[Addressing staff at the end-of-term meeting] It’s great to see such a turnout. It’s a good indication of the close team we have become. I’d like to take this opportunity to highlight our ‘wins’ so far this year … 1 Our review of the Kindergarten Transition Plan was received positively. The LDC is working on a few bugs. Our staff sick day count is dropping, so there’s some money in the budget I can re-allocate for face-to-face relief time for staff to work on student IEPs.

2 Literacy is improving, especially amongst the K–1 students, who have been involved in Reading Recovery and teachers inviting parent helpers into their classrooms. I think the Pause, Prompt and Praise strategy Mr Martin uses in the school-wide buddy reading program has really helped the struggling students to blossom [see Figure 12.9].

FIGURE 12.9 Buddy reading program

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3 The numeracy support program is only in its early days, but I can already see that the use of technology is helping support the differentiated learning that is required for such a diverse group. This was implemented by the LDC after their school-wide audit of student support needs identified numeracy as a priority.

CHAPTER 12 Inclusion in primary schools

4 Our Year 6–7 Transition Program, in partnership with the high school, is powering ahead. The high school principal is really keen on this initiative, especially for our students with additional needs. David Yoshida’s successes could make him our first ‘transition ambassador’.

Sam, narrative 7

Hi Mum, Jacinta called me into her office today and said she’d noticed the good work I’ve been doing with the students in my class and with the LDC. She said I remind her a lot of her when she first started teaching, minus the technology stuff. I’m glad someone has noticed, because it’s been a lot of hard work.

Jenny, narrative 7

Hi everyone! Our LDC is fabulous but we’ve created a monster! We’ve identified quite a few more students with additional needs who require assessment. We don’t have the resources to do this as quickly as we need to, but the Department has allowed Carla from the District Support Team to help us out for two weeks.

We’ve almost finished planning the Transition Program. It’s about improving communications between local preschools and early intervention services, so students with additional needs starting next year will be properly supported. This dovetails with our new Head Start Program and the Year 6–7 Transition Program.

Mary, narrative 7

My class this year is more work than last year! I don’t have Josh any more, but I’ve still got students who require additional support. It seems like there’s more and more coming each year! Luckily, I’ve got a teacher assistant with me for the whole day now. All this extra paperwork I have to do to include them in my teaching program takes up even more time that I don’t have …

David, narrative 7

[Mid-morning session, last day Term 2] Excuse me, Mr Holloways? Can we go to Mrs Jones’ kinder class now for our final buddy session? We’ve got our peer support lesson for 30 minutes and you said I could coordinate the games groups. The four kids with additional needs all need help with using the equipment. ‘Of course, David, and well done. I’m really proud of you and the other Student Council members for doing all this.’

Tony, narrative 7

My final P&C newsletter for the term – Phew! I’ve got to see Jacinta about the progress of the capital works projects so I can organise the working bee. I’ve also got to get up to meet the high school P&C president to make sure the Year 6–7 Transition Program goes well. Never a dull moment!

Author’s commentary 7

It is the end of term 2 of the second year of the Barawun PS story. The community is a ‘furnace’ of teaching and learning! Five of our storytellers exude positive values and attitudes, clear understandings of what best-practice inclusion is and how this can be achieved. Negotiations for inclusion and programming for inclusion are well underway. Resources have been identified and/or are being prepared. The school community’s capacity for inclusion continues to build

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strongly. Barawun appears to be a happy primary school with substantial outcomes and achievements.

In regard to the elements of successful inclusion (Chapter 3), clear and substantial evidence of the pro-active engagement and support of the school community is on record. The school and classroom learning environments are highly facilitative of good teaching and learning. Initiatives and programs focusing on inclusion and transition are fully operational. Quality teaching and learning for all students remains the school community’s number one focus. The community has built a substantial capacity for successful inclusion and for meeting the educational needs of all students. One way the school has become so successful in achieving inclusion is by supporting each other and more specifically by engaging in more co-teaching practices. Co-teaching is an effective way to create successful inclusion. Dawkins (2019) talks about doing five things to get maximum benefits of co-teaching. 1. Co-planning the classroom time together 2. Using one of the many effective co-teaching methods. 3. Building strong rapport with students. 4. Staff participating in relevant professional development program, and lastly, 5. Reaching out to school leaders when staff realise that they need more support. A number of evidence-based strategies and techniques required to achieve successful inclusion (discussed in Chapters 4 through 10) are benchmark expectations across the school community.

Successful inclusion

Now to the fourth aim of the chapter: Describe a variety of processes and practices prerequisite to, and facilitative of, building a school community’s capacity for inclusion. Central to the success of any (primary) school community is its ability to support its students with additional needs, so that all of the school’s students have an equitable opportunity to achieve their academic potential (Ashman, 2015; Boyle & Topping, 2012; EASNIE, 2016; Theoharis & Causton, 2014). The most successful schools have the capacity to provide this support, as well as the additional capacity to support emergent additional needs arising out of new and current enrolments. Inclusive school are pro-active in identifying learners who need additional support. They are also pro-active in providing necessary support to the students and their teachers. Successful primary schools have the capacity to provide the best transitions for students coming into the school community from early intervention services and preschool placements and for students graduating to middle and high schools (Beamish et al., 2012; EASNIE, 2016; Halpin et al., 2011). Successful (primary) school communities:

• have staff who are willing to include learners with a range of diversities with their heart (high level of commitment to teach all), head (knowledge of specific teaching methods to include learners with a range of diversities including those with additional needs) and hands (ability to transform knowledge in real life practices) (Sharma, 2018)

• have a focused and functional LDC, which primarily uses collaborative consultation as its mechanism for communication and negotiation, and active participants from across the school community

• are able to identify and access resources to support the transition and inclusion of all of their students with additional needs, including consultancy support, hands-on assistance in the classroom, assistive technology, environmental modifications, professional development and training, and funding support • have the capacity to change, innovate and grow in response to emerging student needs, particularly through excellent leadership and action research (see, for example, ACD NSW, 2008; Cook & Odom, 2013; Damore & Murray, 2009; Finkelstein et. al., 2019; Giangreco et al., 2011; Hoppey, 2013; Sharma & Salend, 2016; Tissot, 2013).

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REFLECT ON THIS • Describe some of the processes and practices prerequisite to, and facilitative of, building the Barawun community’s capacity for inclusion. • As a classroom teacher, how might you go about increasing your own capacity for supporting the inclusion of students with additional needs in your classroom? • How would you identify and use the existing resources to implement inclusive practices in your classroom?

12.8 End of the second year Another six months pass and the Barawun learning community turn their focus from ‘inside the school’, to transitioning students into and out of their learning community to ensure successful inclusion and the best possible learning outcomes for all.

Jacinta, narrative 8

On the agenda for our final executive meeting is our Transition Program. Thank you all for contributing. The LDC’s program is full steam ahead. The additional needs audit was followed up with assessment support from the district support team and students have been identified and assessed. Next year’s incoming kindergarten children have really enjoyed the Head Start program and having our kindergarten staff visit the local preschools has been invaluable. The LDC will be ready to help and each student with a disability will have an IEP.

Our Year 6–7 Transition Program has also been effective. The high school staff are very happy with the program highlighting the kids’ strengths and interests and the students have benefited from the first sessions of the senior students’ buddy program. David Yoshida has flourished with the middle school writing group, has made new friends and is showing great talent.

Tony’s P&C collaboration has worked wonders and the high school will be targeting fundraising towards specialist ICT equipment for David and other new students with additional needs. I am very proud of how you all have collaborated on transitioning students with disabilities from pre-school right through to high school. Your hard work has overcome lots of challenges and I am confident that all our students will have the best chance to succeed.

Sam, narrative 8

Mum! Jacinta has asked me to take a Year 6 class next year! There’s a lot of responsibility for Year 6 teachers and I’m looking forward to working with the high school teachers with the Transition Program.

I know the kids really well, having taught a lot of them last year, but there’s a new girl, Michelle, who has very specific learning difficulties who’ll start next year. She’s already started to visit us so she can become familiar with her new setting. She’s a fair way behind her classmates, but the support teacher and I have been working on differentiating my literacy program so we can include her better. I’m responsible for coordinating the Year 6–7 Transition Program next year. David, my wonderful helper last year, has been appointed as our Transition Ambassador so I get his great help again!

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Jenny, narrative 8

Mr Thomson, I can’t thank you enough! Josh has had a great year with you as his Year 1 teacher. It’s been so much easier the second year in. Now he’s established here, I can help out more often. Tony Spiteri has stepped down and I’m going to be president of the P&C next year, but I’ll still find an hour each morning to help out in Josh’s classroom. He’s going great guns and I know he’s really looking forward to moving up to Year 2.

Mary, narrative 8

I knew I’d end up with more students with disabilities next year! It’s not as bad as I thought though. The school’s Transition Program seems to have settled them and the other kindy students in better than previous years. Now that I’ve visited them at preschool and met with their parents and the LDC, I can use my assessment data and spend some time over the break planning resources and programming for next year (see Figure 12.10). Having this information now is so much better than a couple of years back when they just dumped kids like Josh in my class on day 1.

PRACTISING SUCCESSFUL INCLUSION Building Capacity for Inclusion • Values & attitudes • Change & innovation • Leadership

Embracing Inclusion • Positive values, attitudes & understanding

5 Resourcing Inclusion • Resource needs appraisal • School resources • Systemic resources • Hands-on assistance in the classroom & playground • Assistive technology • Environmental modifications • Professional development

4

1 3

2

Negotiating Inclusion • Collaborative consultation • The Learning Support Team model • The support cycle • Individual contexts

Programming for Inclusion • Differentiation • Individualisation • Risk assessment & management

FIGURE 12.10 Five steps to inclusion in diverse school communities

David, narrative 8

Thanks, Mr Kingston [principal, Barawun High School]. The Barawun Community Year 6–7 Transition Program is going really well and I hope I can offer a few ideas to help students make the move into high school even more successful. Perhaps we can introduce the program into other feeder primary schools too?

Tony, narrative 8

[At the local club with friend Mick] Well, mate, what a year! I’ve stepped down as P&C president. The school named the new adventure playground after me! Next year’s going to be a bit quieter. I’m still staying with our P&C to help with fundraising activities and, now that I’ve sold the business, I’ve got a bit of spare cash to donate now and then!

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Remember that young rascal Eric who used to graffiti the shop? Well, he starts high school next year and I’ve got him some part-time work with the new shop owner in the afternoons. He’ll need a bit of assistance, but he’s a great kid really and I think it’ll be good for him.

Author’s commentary 8

It is the end of the second year of the Barawun PS story. The school community remains a ‘furnace’ of teaching and learning. All six storytellers now exude confidence in and about the school – and particularly about its transition and inclusion initiatives. Barawun is a successfully inclusive primary school. The three elements of successful inclusion (Chapter 3) are substantially evident. All the critical necessities for the school community to embrace and build capacity for, negotiate and resource for, and program for successful inclusion are also substantially evident. The evidence-based strategies and techniques required to achieve successful inclusion (Chapters 4 through 10) are now benchmark practices. Let’s now focus on the fifth aim for the chapter: Explain the diversity of challenges and experiences around successful transition into, through and out of primary schools. Transition and inclusion are closely related processes and phenomena. Students must transition into primary schools in order to be included. Successful inclusion is generally predicated on a successful transition from another setting – usually an early intervention program or a preschool program or special school to regular primary school (Brown et al., 2011; Docket et al., 2011; Martin et al., 2019; Sainato et al., 2015; see Chapters 7 and 13). Transitions also occur when students move between other primary mainstream or special education settings. Transitions also occur between base classes within the primary school, as students progress towards the senior primary years with their peers. Successful inclusion in middle and high school settings is also usually predicated on successful transitioning from a primary school (Alquraini & Gut, 2012; VIC DET, 2014). There is a diversity of potential challenges to be faced by students with disabilities, their teachers and peers, and their families. Many of these are similar to those faced by all students transitioning into, through and out of primary schools, but the degree of impact these potential challenges hold is frequently exacerbated by additional needs arising from disabilities (Crosland & Dunlap, 2012; Martin et al., 2019; Rosenkoetter et al., 2007) and other sources.

Chapters 7 and 13 explain many of the potential challenges faced by students with disability (and their families, peers and teachers) as they move from preschool settings and programs into primary schools. In 2016, ACT Education published a video that identifies some of the most significant issues we should take into consideration when planning for transition of all children from primary to secondary schools (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=tuE0qOkEofE). There is a comparable body of literature explaining similar potential challenges for students moving out of primary schools into middle and high schools (Chapter 13). These potential challenges include: • behavioural barriers/resistance arising from unsupportive values and attitudes, particularly among recipient setting participants • anxiety about and fear of the unknown among all parties • lack of belongingness in the new environment

• disorientation arising out of change, particularly among the transitioning students

• poor planning resulting in inadequate teaching, learning, programming and resourcing.

Source: Ankeny & Lehmann (2011); Landmark & Zhang (2012); Rehfeldt, Clark & Lee (2010); Strnadová & Cumming (2014)

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Challenges in the transition process

Teachers and parents should view the transition process as an opportunity to communicate their way through many of these potential challenges (Docket et al., 2011). A common limiting factor here is the time available to meet and discuss these matters (Hewitt-Taylor, 2009; Shevlin et al., 2013). In general, though, when participating organisations have the ‘will’, and appropriate resources are identified and available, a ‘way’ is found that should lead to an efficient and successful transition and eventually successful inclusion.

It should be noted that the challenges around transitioning (and including) students with mental health diagnoses and associated challenging behaviours are often more substantial than for students with other disabilities (Arthur-Kelly et al., 2007; Lohrmann & Bambara, 2006; Lyons et al., 2011; Strnadová & Cumming, 2014). In general, students with additional needs arising from mild intellectual disability can have these needs met in mainstream classes throughout primary school. This is usually also the case for students with physical and/or sensory impairments and disabilities (Hewitt-Taylor, 2009). Students with more severe intellectual or multiple disabilities often spend more of their instructional time in support classes, either in regular or special schools (Downing & Peckham-Hardin, 2007). Students with highly challenging behaviours can have their additional needs met in mainstream settings but are sometimes enrolled in support classes and special programs as part of their IEPs. Online, AFIRM modules on evidence-based practices provide specific strategies that are effective with learners with high support needs and highly challenging behaviours. Most primary schools have ‘local’ students with a diversity of additional needs successfully placed in mainstream classes and for many of these successfully inclusive schools, diversity and difference is ‘the norm’. But even these schools find meeting the additional needs of students with mental health diagnoses and associated challenging behaviours to be the most difficult. This is mostly to do with risk assessment and management (Chapter 3 and 6) and the relative instability and difficulty in predicting and managing risk of harm to the student and others (Lyons et al., 2011). Exemplary programs such as BeyondBlue, MindMatters (High School), KidsMatter (Primary School), and Response Ability (see weblinks at the end of the chapter), which focus on developing school and individual student capacity to support and manage the impacts of mental health problems, are gradually yet significantly improving educational outcomes for these students.

REFLECT ON THIS Explain some of the diversity of challenges and experiences around successful transition ‘into, through and out of’ primary schools that the whole Barawun learning community (pre-, primary and high schools) have experienced. Have you witnessed or experienced similar challenges? What are some of the most significant challenges faced by students with disabilities when they transition from primary to secondary settings or special to regular school settings? How best you can support the students and their families with the transition process?

12.9 Day 1, the third year A new year begins and Jacinta is demonstrating how critical the role of good leadership is in organisational change and development to really drive the ‘inclusion’ agenda within the learning community.

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Jacinta, narrative 9

(Principal’s assembly address) Welcome back, everyone, to the Barawun PS Community of Learning. We’re in the business of learning for everyone – students, parents, staff and community members. [Enthusiastic applause] The previous two years have seen steady improvement and our results compare well with our neighbouring schools. This year we’re going to do even better! This year leadership and responsibility will be shared among our student welfare committee, the P&C Association, our LDC, stage learning teams and the student council. They’ll all support the school Executive Team and myself to build our capacity to meet all of our students’ needs.

Sam, narrative 9

Loved Jacinta’s speech – so different from two years ago! What great staff and a great boss – oh, and a great community. Outstanding support everywhere! Class, this is Michelle. She’s starting here today because her family have moved to Barawun over the Christmas break. Kathryn, (already identified as a ‘buddy’ to help Michelle during her transition visits) can you please make a space next to your desk so Michelle can sit there?

Jenny, narrative 9

Good morning Miss Cooper, Thanks so much for your time at the end of last year. It means so much to me to be involved in Josh’s learning goals. I can see you’ve already made some adjustments to accommodate Josh in his new classroom. That’s fantastic! I’m sure he’s going to have a great time here this year with you as his teacher.

Mary, narrative 9

I can’t believe this is my last year! After 35 years of teaching, I’m really looking forward to retirement!

Hi parents. Come on in and I’ll show you around the room before the other students arrive. I’ve spent a bit of time over the holidays programming for your child’s arrival at Barawun PS. Here’s where Jay will sit and this is his communication board …

David, narrative 9 Dear Ojiisan, Just a quick email to say hi. I can’t believe I’m in high school! I love it! I can’t wait to start the New Start support group. I’ll be seeing Ms Yusef later this week and visiting my old school next week. I’ve got to go now though … I’ve got a meeting with the support teacher and year coordinator to talk about my IEP. Love you, David

Tony, narrative 9

[A phone message for Tony’s mate] Hey Mick, why don’t we nick up to the school and see what they’ve got planned for this year? They might need a hand with a few things – bring your ute and tools.

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Author’s commentary 9

It is the beginning of the third and final year of this part of the Barawun PS story. The school community is emerging as a model for successful inclusion in action! The brief stories clearly indicate that inclusion – meeting the educational needs of all the students – is among the highest priorities of the School Development Plan. Barawun PS is a successfully inclusive primary school. The three elements of successful inclusion and the critical necessities for school communities to embrace and build capacity for, negotiate and resource for, and program for successful inclusion are substantially evident. The evidence-based strategies and techniques required to achieve successful inclusion are benchmark practices. Now look specifically at the sixth chapter aim: Explain and describe the critical role of good leadership in organisational change and development. Successful inclusion requires a whole-school approach guided by excellent leadership, particularly that of the principal, along with other teaching executive staff members and committee leaders (Billingsley et al., 2018; Blackmore, 2009; Salisbury, 2006; Theoharis & Causton, 2014; Webster & Wilkinson, 2015). In order to lead a school where everyone belongs and diversity thrives requires leaders to adopt inclusive leadership. What does inclusive leadership look like? What do these leaders do? School leaders at all levels must proactively ‘drive’ the school’s inclusion agenda. Much of this agenda is about planning and providing time and support for teachers and promoting a positive schoolwide philosophy (McIntosh et al., 2013). All teachers have a role to play by being pro-active and providing and using information to help themselves improve outcomes for students. This information should be shared with the executive, as well as with their classroom teaching colleagues. (See Chapter 3 for a discussion on effective leadership.)

REFLECT ON THIS Students with diverse cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds

What evidence is there in the Barawun PS story of good leadership in relation to organisational change and development? (Consider not just the role of Jacinta, but also others in the learning community that took leadership type roles to bring about change.) What strengths and/or experiences do you have that you could potentially lead others in? How do inclusive leaders build the capacity of their schools to be more inclusive of diversity? How do they support their staff?

12.10 End of term 2, the third year The Barawun learning community are experiencing some fantastic results, but this is only achieved through genuine teamwork and collaboration with all involved.

Jacinta, narrative 10

Thanks, Frank. [the local education district director] I’m thrilled with our results too. We’re certainly powering ahead with achieving our goals! I’m glad you mentioned the work Sam has been doing both here and at the high school. Could you present that teaching award personally next term? I’ve suggested she puts her name up for the relieving assistant principal role when Meredith goes on maternity leave next term. The experience will be good for her. Now, let’s discuss how a strong school can spend some extra funding, shall we …

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Sam, narrative 10

[Putting together an Expression of Interest for the role as Relieving Assistant Principal] With my colleagues’ support, I have developed the knowledge and skills to meet the demands of this position. I have a vision, consistent with the wider school community, to advance our students’ wellbeing and have demonstrated enthusiasm and commitment to support my vision. I can confidently explain how my intention to focus on the development of the values, attitudes and capacity of the whole school community is central to our successes, and I can explain why my leadership skills would be central to effective organisational change and development. Let me explain …

Jenny, narrative 10

You know, it’s amazing how powerful good communication and cooperation can be (addressing the P&C). I’ve only been president since February, but I’ve also spent a lot of time helping in classrooms. It’s so important to support our teachers. If we want to help our students with additional needs, we need to support our teachers in developing their knowledge, skills and abilities. We also need to develop our school resources and the most important resource we have is our teaching team. I move that we set aside some of our fundraising money to help pay for additional resources the teachers need in the classroom (see Figure 12.11).

FIGURE 12.11 Additional resources in the classroom

David, narrative 10 Dear Ojiisan, All is going well here at Barawun High School. I’m even liking maths … a bit! The New Start Support Group meetings are brilliant. The Transition Program finished up a while back, but our review team has made lots of changes, which will improve the program for next year’s Year 7 students, which starts early term 3. So much to do, so little time! Year 12’s a long way off, but I’ve been taking online lessons in computer programming and Mr Kingston, my principal, says I might be able to make a career of it, if my maths keeps improving … I’m working on it. Love Dave

Tony, narrative 10

Thank you for the opportunity to be part of this initiative [the Barawun District Education Network]. Since retiring and handing over the Barawun Primary School P&C presidency to Ms Jenny West – who is a fantastic president – I’ve been a bit underworked. [Laughter]

This collaboration between our local government, early intervention and support teams, preschools, Barawun High School and its feeder schools, as well as the local employment services

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is probably a first. It’s my honour to be involved and support the students of Barawun Primary School, even if I’m just making a financial donation.

Author’s commentary 10

It is the end of term 2 of the third year of the Barawun PS story. The school community is a model of successful inclusion. The three elements of successful inclusion and the critical necessities for school communities to embrace and build capacity for, negotiate and resource for, and program for successful inclusion are an obvious presence.

Consider now the seventh chapter aim: Provide pre-service and early career teachers with the knowledge to engage confidently with their primary school colleagues in building an inclusive community of learning. In the past, teaching was often referred to as ‘the lonely profession’, where most work was done ‘alone’ (in a classroom full of students!). Now of course a lot of teaching preparation and practice is done in collaboration with others (Birzenieks et al., 2020; Boyle & Topping, 2012; Damore & Murray, 2009; Tannock, 2009). Teachers now do a lot of collaborative preparation in year, stage and faculty teams, and in professional groups such as LDCs and student welfare teams, and in various school committees and review teams. Parents, community members, other professionals and district consultant staff are commonly involved (DEEWR, 2012; Lonsdale, 2011; O’Connor, 2008; Rosenkoetter et al., 2007). Teachers now also do a lot of classroom work collaboratively. Team-teaching with regular and support teacher colleagues and teacher assistants (Belmont et al., 2009) is becoming more common, as is sharing classes, or groups of students, over the school day and week. Teamwork has long been accepted as a prerequisite to successful inclusion, whereas collaborative consultation has emerged more recently (Rosenfield, 2013; Thompson, 2013). Teamwork and collaboration are critical in general for most jobs, and the ability to collaborate and work cooperatively with others is absolutely critical to teach in inclusive classrooms. It is possible that not much attention will be paid during teacher education about working with other adults, but you should actively seek out opportunities to collaborate with others (e.g. parents, paraprofessionals, social workers and psychologists) during your teaching placements and practise the skills which will assist you to teach well in inclusive schools. You may like to learn and reflect how the teachers work with teacher assistants. Teacher assistants are great resources in a school. They should ideally work with the teacher to support all students rather than always to support a ‘funded’ student.

Collaborative consultation

A key skill for pre-service and early career teachers to learn and develop, therefore, is collaborative consultation: ‘interaction in which school personnel and families confer, consult and collaborate as a team to identify learning and behavioural needs, and to plan, implement, evaluate, and revise as needed, the educational programs that are expected to serve those needs’ (Dettmer et al., 1999, p. 6; see also EASNIE, 2016; Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020).

School change and innovation is facilitated when collaborative consultation is enacted because those involved feel empowered through collaborative ownership (Billingsley et. al, 2018; Carter et al., 2009; Jiminez & Graf, 2008). Proactive participants take the opportunity to learn from others and respect their points of view (Brownell et al., 2006). Collaborative consultation and its characteristics are explored in Figure 12.12.

Although some barriers can arise (e.g. lack of role clarity and understanding, lack of time, poor credibility among members, philosophical conflict, organisational and knowledge limitations, and lack of evaluation), there are clear advantages to working collaboratively (Carter et al., 2009; Dobson & Gifford-Bryan, 2014; Ludicke & Kortman, 2012). A significant benefit is the probability

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Collaborative consultation involves • • • • •

goal-setting problem identification exploration of intervention options implementation evaluation and review.

Collaborative consultation is characterised by • voluntary participation • a confident belief in the equal value of each other’s unique contributions • reciprocity of knowledge and skills • mutually recognised challenges and negotiated goals • shared responsibility and accountability • an agreed commitment to due process and outcomes (Gillies, 2012; Rashid, 2010).

FIGURE 12.12 Collaborative consultation is an interaction between the school and families. Source: Gillies, R. M. (2012). Effective early intervention approaches in reading and inclusive educational practices: what do they have in common? International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 59 (4), 337–339. & Rashid, N. (2010). Inclusion and diversity in education: guidelines for inclusion and diversity in schools. Madrid: British Council. Gillies (2012); Rashid (2010)

of improved partnerships between school, home and the community. Remember that parents are experts in knowing their children and their potential to contribute should not be overlooked or missed (Ashman, 2015; see also Chapter 3).

REFLECT ON THIS Coming to the end of the Barawun PS story, what new knowledge have you acquired that will help you engage confidently with your primary school colleagues in building an inclusive community of learning as an early career teacher?

12.11 End of the third year We’ve come to the end of our peek inside the story of Barawun PS. Along the way we’ve witnessed how each of our six storytellers became ‘change agents’ to facilitate better inclusion outcomes for students with disability within their school.

Jacinta, narrative 11

Well, that’s the end of year three (relaxing at dinner with her partner) and we’ve come a long way. We’ve got a functioning and collaborative school-wide community of learners. The staff are happy, our parents are happy, the community is happy and the kids are forging ahead.

I think the best thing is that our capacity for learning is snowballing. The staff continue to just grow and grow professionally. Young Sam is a marvel, so much energy and potential. Without her ideas and enthusiasm, I doubt we’d be where we are now. Young teachers these days have an excellent knowledge base and a very positive attitude towards difference and diversity. They gain confidence quickly in inclusive programming for students with additional needs. I’m glad she’s doing well in her relieving role. Our parent and community support has been outstanding, despite the rough start. I can still remember the first day I arrived here. What a disaster! I’ve got to remember to focus our efforts on building the capacity of parents too. If you’ve got the parents … you’re halfway there!

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Sam, narrative 11

[Reflecting on the last three years] Wow! Three years gone already! They’ve been hard work, but it’s all been worth it. I remember the chaos on my first day. Barawun PS is such a different school now. I think the other teachers have really taken inclusion on board and we’ve seen a huge improvement, not only in the achievements of those students who don’t fit the ‘norm’ for whatever reason, but the adjustments and differentiations we’ve made have helped all our students achieve at much higher levels than they were before. I can’t wait for the next three years!

Jenny, narrative 11

It’s holidays now my little man! I know you’re going to miss school but your friends can come for sleepovers if you’re good. You’ve learned so much this year and so have I. I love our big family at Barawun Primary School!

Mary, narrative 11

A few years ago, I wouldn’t have said it, but I’ll be sad to leave this place … I know the students are in good hands with Jacinta, Sam, the other executive and teachers … Retirement at last!

David, narrative 11 (Christmas card)

Dear Ms Yusef, A very happy Christmas to you too. Thank you for helping me like school. I remember 5Y like it was just yesterday. Year 8 next year and I’m still keen on computer programming. I know I can do it … you gave me the confidence to do anything I put my mind to! Thank you, David

Tony, narrative 11

[To mate Mick] Mate, let’s organise a working bee at the school over the holidays. Seems a shame the playground’s empty and the building works aren’t finished. You busy? Get your ute and tools ready!

Author’s commentary 11

It is the end of the third and final year of the Barawun PS story. The three elements of successful inclusion and the critical necessities to embrace and build capacity for, negotiate and resource for, and program for successful inclusion are obviously present. change agent A person or persons working with other people usually with the objective of bringing about positive change in attitudes and/or processes.

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Now, refer finally to the eighth and final chapter aim: Assist the reader to plan to engage as an active change agent in facilitating better inclusion outcomes for students with additional needs in primary schools. You have now followed the story of Barawun Primary School – as seen through the eyes of the six storytellers – from its ‘dark’ and low beginnings to this triumphant high. At 11 points in time over this three-year period the story has been elucidated by the six storytellers. At each point, an author’s commentary was provided to help you to focus on salient issues and to make reference back to pertinent chapters in the text, and questions were provided to focus your reflections.

CHAPTER 12 Inclusion in primary schools

The ultimate aim of this chapter is to assist you to engage as an active change agent in facilitating better inclusion outcomes for all students including those with disability, particularly in primary schools, but also in settings before and after. Following is the final set of questions for reflection and some discussion questions, then a set of individual and group activities which extend upon the issues and topics raised by these questions. You might find it helpful to watch John Patton’s Ted Talk What if educators acted like change agents? before working through the activities. He argues that ‘educators play an important role in the world – the ability to initiate and inspire change’. I believe that inclusive educators not only need to initiate change, they also need to support the rest of the school community to embrace change.

REFLECT ON THIS • How can the Barawun PS story assist you (as a pre-service/early career teacher) to plan to engage as an active change agent in facilitating better inclusion outcomes for students with disabilities? • How might your planning for supporting students with additional needs differ in the following three scenarios:

– as a full-time permanent classroom teacher



– as a temporary teacher on a one-term block



– as a casual day-to-day relief teacher?

Students with diverse cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds

A TEACHER REFLECTS Garry, primary teacher, NSW In my Year 6 classroom I have a 12-year-old student with a mild intellectual disability. He has very good perceptive and receptive communication and comprehension skills; however, due to his cultural background some of his speech has been affected. I have employed an intervention program on his literacy skills, focusing on his reading. My differentiation includes visual cues, inferential questioning, writing cues and content adjustment in order for him to feel successful in his learning environment. The use of ongoing assessment during this process allows for flexible adjustments to be made to suit his individual needs.

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STUDY TOOLS

Summary

This chapter followed the story of the hypothetical Barawun Primary School over a three-year period. It described and explained how a struggling school transformed itself into a successful inclusive school community where all students were provided with the opportunity to reach their potential.

Successful inclusion for students with additional needs is a school- and community-wide concern. This is best understood in a broader context as part of the development of a successful school, where all learners have the opportunity to achieve their best outcomes. Inclusion is not just about one teacher doing their best for students with disability in one classroom and it is not something that can be achieved in the short term. At Barawun PS the elements of successful inclusion were embraced, including:

1 the proactive engagement and support of the school community 2 the provision of a facilitative learning environment 3 quality teaching.

The school community supported and built capacity for, negotiated and resourced for, and programmed for successful inclusion. The evidence-based strategies and techniques required to achieve successful inclusion (described in Parts B and C of this book) were adopted and applied. This was an optimistic story over a relatively short period of time. It is important to acknowledge the often-complex challenges faced, particularly by teachers; and although professionally rewarding, achieving successful inclusion can also be very demanding.

Acknowledgement

The content of this chapter is based on a chapter on this topic written for earlier editions of this book by Dr Gordon Lyons of the University of Newcastle. Material reproduced in this chapter is used with Dr Lyons’ permission. The author, editors, and publisher are grateful to Dr Lyons for his contribution to the production of this chapter.

Discussion questions

1 What explicit or implicit evidence can you identify of the three elements of successful inclusion in Barawun’s story? (See list in Summary above.)

2 What explicit or implicit evidence can you identify of any members of the Barawun school community engaging with the critical necessities of successful inclusion (i.e. embracing and building capacity for, negotiating and resourcing for, or programming for successful inclusion)?

3 Reflect on the story of Barawun PS. How might this school (community) have fallen into such a ‘bad’ state, with respect to teaching and learning, especially for those students who have additional disabilities?

4 Consider the process of transition into, through, and out of school for students with additional needs. What specific strategies could you use to facilitate these transitions? 5 How did the school’s capacity to implement inclusive practices increase? Who were the most instrumental players in making this change?

Individual activities

1 Use the Weblinks section below to investigate any policies, procedures and programs used or developed by primary schools (or relevant education authorities) to facilitate inclusive education for students with additional needs.

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2 Visit the Australian Curriculum’s Student Diversity page and identify any aspects which relate to accommodating and providing for individual students with additional needs http://www. australiancurriculum.edu.au/studentdiversity/meeting-diverse-learning-needs

3 Review various chapters in this text to view the ‘evidence-based teaching strategies’. Choose one strategy and describe how you will apply it in your class/school. 4 Visit the NCCD website and complete the e-learning module case study to learn about how schools in Australia decide if a student has a disability and how best he or she can be supported.

Group activities

1 Reflect on your professional experience placements to date. What were your impressions of the students, teachers and school community with respect to the inclusion of students with additional needs? Were there any differences in attitudes and beliefs with respect to students with different additional needs or levels of needs? How did the school involve parents and carers in educational planning of students with disability? What were your impressions of policies and practices – particularly as they related to the inclusion of students with additional needs? 2 View the National School Improvement Tool on the ACER website and download the Differentiated teaching and learning file. Identify and discuss aspects of this domain that are similar to or different from the content covered in this chapter. What rating (low, medium, high or outstanding) would you give Barawun PS at the start of each of the three years in the story? https://www.acer.edu.au/files/NSIT_7th_domain.pdf

3 Read and discuss one or more of the following journal articles which relate specifically to teacher education, pre-service teachers and inclusion: • Jordan, A., Schwartz, E., & McGhie-Richmond, D. (2009). Preparing teachers for inclusive classrooms. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25 (4), 535–542. • Miller, A. L., Wilt, C. L., Allcock, H. C., Kurth, J. A., Morningstar, M. E., & Ruppar, A. L. (2020) Teacher agency for inclusive education: an international scoping review, International Journal of Inclusive Education, DOI: 10.1080/13603116.2020.1789766 • Sharma, U. (2018). Preparing to teach in Inclusive classroom. Submitted to the Oxford Encyclopaedia of Research in Education. (Ed. George Nosbit). Oxford University Press: New York, USA. Available at: https://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore9780190264093-e-113

Weblinks

Aboriginal Education Consultative Group (AECG) https://www.aecg.nsw.edu.au/about/

ACT Education: Video about transition from primary to secondary school https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=tuE0qOkEofE AFIRM Modules https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/afirm-modules

Australian Association of Special Education http://www.aase.edu.au/

Australian Professional Standards for Teachers http://www.aitsl.edu.au/australian-professional-standards-forteachers/standards/list Beyond Blue website https://www.beyondblue.org.au/

Disability Standards for Education: a practical guide for individuals, families and communities, http://resource. dse.theeducationinstitute.edu.au/ Every kid needs a champion, Rita Pierson, TED Talks Education, https://www.ted.com/talks/rita_pierson_ every_kid_needs_a_champion?language=en

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Evidence-Based Practice Summaries, the IRIS Center https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/resources/ebp_ summaries/ High Leverage Practices https://highleveragepractices.org/

Inclusive education for students with disabilities. https://www.education.vic.gov.au/about/programs/Pages/ Inclusive-education-for-students-with-disabilities.aspx KidsMatter website (primary schools) http://www.kidsmatter.edu.au/

MindMatters website (high schools) http://www.mindmatters.edu.au/ National Assessment Program (NAPLAN) http://www.nap.edu.au/

National Disability Insurance Scheme website http://www.ndis.gov.au/

NSW Quality Teaching framework http://www.rqt.edu.au/files/5514/1774/9895/NSW_DET_2003-Quality_ Teaching_Guide.pdf QLD Productive Pedagogies https://musghillss.eq.edu.au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/ Documents/prodped.pdf

Reading Recovery: NSW Department of Education website http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov. au/earlyyears/reading_recovery/ Response Ability website (with links to fact sheets) http://www.responseability.org/

School Transition and Resilience Training Program (START): Victoria Department of Education and Early Childhood Development http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/principals/transitions/Pages/start.aspx

Students with special education needs, Ministry of Education, New Zealand website http://www.education. govt.nz/school/student-support/special-education/

The Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD), https://www.nccd. edu.au/wider-support-materials/what-nccd?parent=/understanding-nccd&activity=/wider-support-materials/ what-nccd&step=-1 What if educators acted like change agents? John Patton, TEDxStGilgenInternationalSchool, https://www.ted. com/talks/john_patton_what_if_educators_acted_like_change_agents This short video explains ‘inclusive leadership’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OkrES2EmgEk

Recommended reading

Anderson, C. J., Klassen, R. M., & Georgiou, G. K. (2007). Inclusion in Australia: what teachers say they need and what school psychologists can offer. School Psychology International, 28 (2), 131–147.

Crosland, K., & Dunlap, G. (2012). Effective strategies for the inclusion of children with autism in general education classrooms. Behaviour Modification, 36 (3), 251–269. Hoppey, D., & McLeskey, J. (2013). A case study of principal leadership in an effective inclusive school. The Journal of Special Education, 46 (4), 245–256.

MacDonald, P., & Brown, G. S. (2014). Is Apple transforming special education? Assessing the efficacy of the iPad as an assistive technology for students with special education needs. Special Education Perspectives, 23 (1), 17–28. Theoharis, G., & Causton, J. (2014). Leading inclusive reform for students with disabilities: a school- and system-wide

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approach. Inclusive Schooling and Leadership for Social Justice, 53 (2), 82–97.

Webster, A., & Wilkinson, J. (2015). Leading school communities to implement a sustainable school-wide model leading to enhancing learning outcomes for students with ASD. Special Education Perspectives, 24 (1), 27–37.

Whitburn, B. (2013, December). The dissection of paraprofessional support in inclusive education: ‘You’re in mainstream with a chaperone’. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 37 (2), 147–161. Wilson, A., Poed, S., & Byrnes, L. J. (2015). Full steam ahead: facilitating the involvement of Australian students with impairments in individual planning processes through student-led program support group meetings. Special Education Perspectives, 24 (1), 15–25.

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References

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Arthur-Kelly, M., Lyons, G. S., Butterfield, N., & Gordon, C. (2007). Classroom management: creating positive learning environments. South Melbourne: Thomson. Arthur-Kelly, M., Sutherland, D., Lyons, G., Macfarlane, S., & Foreman, P. (2013). Reflections on enhancing pre-service teacher education programmes to support inclusion: perspectives from New Zealand and Australia. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 28 (2), 217–233. Ashman, A. (Ed.) (2015) Education for inclusion and diversity (5th edn; pp. 2–33). Melbourne: Pearson. Association for Children with a Disability in NSW (ACD NSW) (2008). Through the maze. Retrieved 13 March 2016 from http://www.swslhd.nsw.gov.au/CCQ/ CAT%5Ccontent/pdf/Throughthemaze.pdf

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Cooperrider, D. L., Whitney, D., & Stavros, J. M. (2008). Appreciative Inquiry Handbook for Leaders of Change (2nd edn). Brunswick, OH: Crown Custom.

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Foreman, P., & Arthur-Kelly, M. (2008). Social justice principles, the law and research, as bases for inclusion. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 32 (1), 109–124. Galindo, C., & Sheldon, S. (2012). School and home connections and children’s kindergarten achievement gains: the mediating role of family involvement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27 (1), 90–103. Giangreco, M., Suter, J., & Broer, S. (2011), Guidelines for selecting alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals: field-testing in inclusion-oriented schools. Remedial and Special Education 32 (1), 22–38.

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Hemmings, B., & Woodcock, S. (2011). Preservice teachers’ views of inclusive education: a content analysis. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 35 (2), 103–116. Hewitt-Taylor, J. (2009). Children who have complex health needs: parents’ experiences of their child’s education. Child: Care, Health and Development, 35 (4), 521–526. Hoppey, D. (2013). A case study of principal leadership in an effective inclusive school. The Journal of Special Education, 46 (4), 245–256.

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*

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Secondary school inclusion Michael Davies This chapter aims to: 13.1 Provide an overview of issues related to inclusion in secondary schools 13.2 Outline collaborative and planning strategies for inclusion in secondary schools 13.3 Describe the 10 strategies for teaching for diversity in secondary settings 13.4 Provide understanding of secondary curriculum issues in meeting the needs of all students 13.5 Reflect on the use of collaborative teaching and teaming in secondary schools 13.6 Outline how secondary education can be made more relevant and meaningful 13.7 Describe the transition planning process for students to successfully achieve postschool outcomes and goals 13.8 Outline the importance of providing structured work experience and vocational training through agency collaboration.

Introduction

Secondary schooling is a critical educational experience for the learner. After managing the transitions from the primary settings, the learner needs to develop appropriate knowledge and skills through relevant curriculum. Moreover, the development of positive attitudes is paramount, and a sense of being independent and self-determined will help the learner to move into post-school experiences with confidence. Teachers need to be mindful of the need to facilitate this developmental process by providing opportunities for learners to increasingly take responsibility, control and autonomy over their learning experiences. While this chapter has a focus on learners with disability, it must be emphasised that the strategies provided in this chapter are relevant to and will facilitate learning for all students. Adapting learning experiences and evidence-based practices outlined in this chapter is not special education pedagogy; they provide good teaching practices that benefit all learners.

13.1 Issues on inclusion in secondary schools A number of contextual issues need to be outlined as a background to understanding inclusion in secondary schools. Recognising the developmental processes that secondary

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students are experiencing is the first issue that needs to be considered. Understanding the need for relationships and the skills to effectively manage these relationships also needs to be outlined. Last of all, we need to explore the important transitions that adolescents face moving into and out of secondary school, especially for students with disability.

Developmental processes

Secondary students experience considerable change in their physical, social and psychological capacities through the developmental period of adolescence FIGURE 13.1 Secondary students experience considerable (see Figure 13.1). Cognitive capacities also develop, changes during adolescence but the impact of these multidimensional changes on individual students and their capacity to be successful learners varies considerably. Neurologically, a network and wiring upgrade takes place from the rear to the front of the brain between our 12th and 25th year. Maturation of the limbic or emotional brain is not supported by the reasoning brain, which matures in the twenties, so poor decision-making, risk taking, emotionality, susceptibility to stress, and peer affiliations are often evidenced (Armstrong, 2016). For those with disability, careful reviewing and monitoring is required. Increased sensitivity to surroundings by adolescents raises the complexities of the interplay between adolescence and schooling. However, adolescents are also primed to be positively influenced by role models at school and dynamic classroom strategies (Armstrong, 2016; Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020).

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Emotional/ behavioural disorders

Adolescence is also a time when psychological problems such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), anxiety, depression and psychosis are most likely to begin, although often these are a result of problems from childhood (Weir, 2012; Williams et al., 2009). The report on the second Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (Lawrence et al., 2015) indicated that ADHD continued to be the most common disorder with 7.4 per cent of all children and adolescents (aged 4–17), with 9.8 per cent of males aged 12–17 years. The prevalence of ADHD for females was only 2.7 per cent for 12–17-year-olds, half the rate for young girls aged 4–11 years (5.4 per cent). Anxiety disorders were experienced by 6.9 per cent of children and adolescents while the prevalence of major depressive disorder was higher in adolescents compared to those aged 4–11 years for both sexes. Among adolescents, the prevalence of major depressive disorder was 5.8 per cent for females and 4.3 per cent for males. Secondary teachers can be important early identifiers of at-risk students who might be showing signs of anxiety and depression amongst other issues, but who lack formal knowledge (Trudgen & Lawn, 2011). Teachers are expected to refer these students on to specialists, such as school psychologists or guidance counsellors, although many schools promote wellbeing and encourage teachers to support a range of innovative strategies in mental health promotion, prevention and intervention, such as those promoted by Mindmatters (see Weblinks at end of chapter).

Relationships

Adolescence is also a period when relationships with peers and friends take on new and significant meanings as the adolescent moves away from the influence of the family in a bid for more personal autonomy. Steinberg (2008) indicated that parents and peers remain influential

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in different arenas of adolescents’ lives. Parents are important sources of influence regarding foundational issues (such as moral issues and values and career choices), whereas peers influence orientations to adolescent culture such as matters of taste, style and appearance, with antisocial conformity to peers peaking around Year 9. The quality of peer relationships is associated with students’ academic orientation and school performance (Juvonen et al., 2012), and the development of social competence and successful relationships in later adulthood. Developing close friendships and belonging to peer groups provides adolescents with an opportunity to share common FIGURE 13.2 Belonging to peer groups allows students to share issues and develop coping strategies (see Figure 13.2). common issues and develop coping strategies Such social networking often linked to social media use can provide adolescents with a sense of connectedness and opportunities to improve social competence (Allen et al., 2014). However, breakdowns in adolescents’ social networks can lead to problems in mental health and social behaviour, and can inhibit academic progress. While teachers need to provide opportunities for learners to develop and maintain social networks, some teachers need to develop specific social skills in students.

Social skills

Many students with disability have greater difficulties, compared to others in their cohort, in effectively relating to others, developing friendships and connecting with peer groups. Some learners lack confidence in their capacities, and others lack the capabilities to keep up with conversation or to respond appropriately. Further, the capacity to develop and maintain friendships and fit into social networks requires fine-tuned social and interpersonal skills. Social skills are also an academic enabler that can impact on student achievement in the reading/ language arts and mathematics (DiPerna et al., 2002; 2005). Interpersonal skills and prior achievement influence motivation, which in turn promotes study skills and engagement, thereby influencing achievement. Australian research by Kettler et al. (2012) indicates that teacher assessment of social skills can assist in the identification of learning problems among school students.

Bullying

Students who lack social skills and the capacity to connect with peer groups can experience peer group exclusion or bullying. Adolescents who belong to high-status groups view exclusion as less wrong and less unfair than do adolescents who either do not belong to a group or belong to low-status groups. However, the majority of adolescents have a high level of respect for peers from all backgrounds (Horn, 2003). While social acceptability has historically been a major issue for adolescents with a disability, greater acceptability and involvement of adolescents with disabilities across various activities has been noted more recently (Maxey & Beckert, 2017). Bullying, is defined as any intentional and repeated behaviour which causes physical, emotional, or social harm to a person with less power imbalance (Australian Education Authorities, 2019). Drawing on longitudinal data on students from Australia and the United States, Hemphill et al. (2012) reported that 15 per cent of students engaged in cyber bullying (using communication technology such as the internet and mobile phones) while 21 per cent engaged in traditional bullying, and 7 per cent in both. It was estimated using data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (AIFS, 2017) that almost three-quarters of young

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adolescents aged 12–13 experienced some type of bullying, with 60 per cent of this group experiencing bullying in the last month. Bullying is more common among young adolescents with a disability, from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, and who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and gender diverse or children with intersex variations (Australian Education Authorities, 2019). Already low on resilience factors, these victims can experience lower self-esteem in middle adolescence and depressive symptoms in early adulthood, as well as increased school-related difficulties such as lower grades, disliking school and absenteeism (Eisenberg et al., 2003). Students with disability are at risk for these poor social outcomes and the consequential damage to their psychological wellbeing and learning outcomes.

Training programs for social skills

Screening students for social skills and other academic enablers can be a useful start to planning the appropriate application of classroom and individual social skills training programs (see Elliott et al., 2015; Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020). The majority of secondary students could benefit from training in social skills to help manage the range of challenging interpersonal situations that they encounter at school or in the community in the short term, while improving long-term life outcomes. In recognition of the importance of social skills, the new Australian Curriculum has identified personal and social capability as a critical set of life skills for students that includes recognising and regulating emotions, developing empathy for others and understanding relationships, to be able to establish and build positive relationships, make responsible decisions, work effectively in teams, handle challenging situations constructively and develop leadership skills. These skills can be embedded within every subject area, but stronger gains are made when explicitly taught in the classroom (see Davies et al., 2019). While individual learners significantly gain from whole of school social skills interventions, school performance indicators also greatly improve (Davies et al., 2019). Teachers should seek advice from the school counsellor or guidance officer on the most appropriate interventions for individual learners, and discuss how learning these skills can be integrated into class teaching or taught as a separate program.

Transitions for students into secondary settings

All students moving from primary to secondary settings need to adjust to the differences found in secondary schools. While primary classrooms are generally integrated across most subjects, most secondary schools adopt a more fragmented curriculum, with multiple subjects and classrooms to attend each day. Many schools embed a home room approach to help provide a sense of belonging, but then students move from room to room, with up to eight different teachers daily. From the teachers’ perspective, it can be difficult to get to know individual students, since they work with up to 150 students each day across five or more classes. Developing the strategies to accommodate the various year groups and individuals with such diverse learning needs becomes more difficult, and students can also feel less engaged (see Figure 13.3). One strategy is to provide pre-transition peer support. Virtanen et al. (2019) found that the more students experienced such peer support, the less they reported post-transition cynicism, and the higher their academic achievement and behavioural engagement.

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School structures and schedules can also be demanding on students. Block scheduling means that some students are expected to be concentrating in their classrooms for up to two or three hours at a time. Many students with disability (especially those with attention deficit disorder) might have difficulty in concentration, and may need opportunities to move around and shorter times to engage in activities (Weller & McLeskey, 2016). Scheduling that involves frequent change of classrooms can cause difficulties for many students (especially those on the autism spectrum), including uncertainty and confusion. Students will need to adapt to the different instructional and interpersonal styles of teachers and will have to divide their attention across

CHAPTER 13 Secondary school inclusion

Support strategies from a school perspective

Support strategies from a classroom/teacher perspective

Develop effective information and orientation programs for new students.

Try to understand individual students and their developmental needs.

Use existing students as a resource.

Use reflective processes (ask and listen carefully).

Consider the best ways of helping students to connect with peers and to belong to the school community – develop and/or use school systems that can encourage connectedness.

Discuss and adjust mutual learning expectations with students.

Provide a staff support/buddy system, especially for midyear starters.

Help students to deal with the change to being the ‘little fish in the big pond’.

Encourage the development of respectful relationships between students.

Consider classroom activities/tasks that can help expression of thoughts and emotions.

FIGURE 13.3 Support for students in their transition to secondary school

a large number of subject areas, each with their own performance demands, to learn particular knowledge and skills. McCoy et al. (2020) found that students with special educational needs (SEN) are three times more likely to experience a poor transition compared to those without SEN. The case of David in Narrative 13.1 demonstrates a comprehensive approach to assisting students to transition successfully.

Intellectual disability

NARRATIVE 13.1 David – a student with an intellectual disability Overview David experienced health problems from birth, underwent life-saving surgery and had a pacemaker fitted. With a diagnosis of moderate intellectual disability, he was described by his case manager as a frail boy spending most of his school day in the special education program (SEP) resting on the couch and needing a daily nap due to fatigue. He could not participate in contact sports, although most activities were modified so David could participate. David enjoyed art, cooking and music – all components of alternative SEP programs in the primary setting.

Transition to secondary school Davids’ move from a local feeder primary school to high school started in term 4 of his final year in primary school. It was evident that David would have significant challenges with the transition to

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high school – orientation and mobility around the 15-hectare high school campus, an eight-period day with multiple transitions between classes, a smorgasbord of subjects with academic, social and physical rigour and no couch. In term 4 of his final primary year, David participated in a transition program with four other students with disabilities from the feeder primary schools. Over a three-week period, David attended high school for half a day each week. On these days, a lesson was organised with a different faculty area – an art lesson with the head of department, a science lesson with a middle school teacher (also the Year 8 coordinator) in the science lab, and a study -of- society lesson, where students designed a coat of arms and shared some personal details about themselves. The deputy principal spoke about school pride and the wearing of the school uniform, and the head of middle school described their new subjects, the timetable structure and the subject codes. The students recorded this information in an activity book designed by special education (SE) staff, with visual information and fun activities including code breakers, and art activities. These transition days and activities also gave the school staff some baseline information about David. Transition concluded with a scavenger hunt around the school that took them to the principal’s office to find out her name (pre-arranged of course), to the tuckshop to find the cost of a hamburger (and check out the school menu) and to the kitchens to see what was cooking. Over these three weeks, staff from the SE team, including learning support teachers, teacher assistants and student mentors, were rostered on to participate in the transition program at different times to get to know the students, and vice versa. David would return again in early December as part of a formal transition day with other transitioning students. On that day, he would be with his peers, listening to the principal and year coordinator talk about behaviour and expectations, be led around the school in groups by student guides and purchase lunch from the tuckshop. For David, because of the structured transition he had already participated in, this would be a social occasion where he could participate with his classmates without the stigma of an accompanying teacher, and being reminded of ‘helpful’ information. He might even be able to answer a few questions which might boost his social status within the group.

Development of individual education plan – middle school Equally important to David’s transition was the sharing of critical information between high school and primary school staff at a meeting arranged at the primary school with his class teacher, his case manager and teacher assistant, followed up with an individual learning plan (ILP) meeting involving David, his parents and school support team. A questionnaire, developed by the high school, and based on the focus areas in the education adjustment profile (EAP) was used to lead the discussions. In-depth discussion occurred around the following: • curriculum – including David’s level of literacy and numeracy, participation in regular and alternative curriculum programs, and adjustments to teaching, learning and assessment • communication – including both expressive and receptive skill levels and behaviour issues that might stem from any difficulties • social participation and emotional wellbeing – including a discussion of his circle of friends and areas in his school life where he accesses the natural support of peers, his twin brother, and SEP staff • health – including the impact of his condition on access and participation in regular curriculum • safety – including discussions of new high school curriculum such as manual arts, home economics, art and science where planning and adjustments were needed for David’s safe participation and the safety of other students

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• access to the learning environment – including David’s ability to organise himself in the more complex high school environment, and the support that would be required from parents, class teachers and SEP staff. The outcome of this initial meeting and the follow-up ILP meeting was the development of his ILP. This document is prepared by SEP staff across Years 7–12 and uploaded to a database for retrieval by all David’s class teachers to assist with differentiating his learning. The ILP is reviewed and revised at key junctures by both class teachers and special education to maintain currency and relevance. Information is organised under these headings: • critical information: verified diagnosis, medication information and health issues • student and parent aspirations • student strengths and interests • academic profile – literacy and numeracy benchmarks, learning style, work ethic, etc. • impact of the student’s disability compared with same-age peers and effective management strategies • curriculum planning adjustments including evidence-based teaching strategies • assessment and reporting including the intended curriculum and report format (key juncture focus), adjustments to assessment • individualised learning goals to improve student performance across EAP focus areas. David was invited to both meetings to meet his high school learning support teacher and was encouraged to talk about his feelings about high school. He expressed ‘fears’ similar to many of his classmates. His class teacher spoke about her concerns for David, particularly the academic challenges, the complexity of high school life and David’s resilience. Although they wanted David to attend a regular high school, his parents were concerned about the academic challenges ahead and the status of David’s health. Therefore, three transition ILP goals were collaboratively identified for David: 1 Organisation – reading a colour-coded visual timetable to access classes and learning the names of his class teachers 2 Literacy – developing his skills in the use of his iPad 3 Self-direction – asking for and accepting assistance when needed. In addition, a multi-risk assessment was developed to maximise David’s access and participation in the Year 7 elective subjects and a health care plan was developed to manage his fatigue and allergies. The final step in the transition to high school was to review his current EAP profile of the adjustments required in a more complex high school setting. The support team determined that the frequency and intensity of adjustments would substantially increase, at least during the transition phase. It would be the responsibility of the high school to ensure the planning and adjustments were well documented to validate this new profile. Source: Diane Gannon, secondary teacher, Queensland

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the transition programs that operate in schools in your region. How comprehensive are they? 2. What are the characteristics of the most effective programs? 3. Discuss the process used in the development of the ILP for students in transition to secondary school, and identify the most essential components of this process.

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Academic skills

Additionally, academic demands at secondary schools are increasing. In a climate of national testing for academic skills, and the public rating of academic achievement, schools are attempting to push their students to perform at improved levels. Many students with disability enter general education courses without many of the prerequisite skills for success, such as reading capacity and selective learning, or at the very least lack confidence in these skills. Deficits can involve skill levels in the literacy and numeracy domain, and students need to be encouraged to develop these capacities and to become independent learners.

Most secondary students develop strategies to connect and organise new learning with old information, remember important elements from lessons, and access and retrieve what they have learnt. Some students enter secondary school lacking these strategies, and may appear disorganised, unmotivated, uninterested and disruptive, avoiding both learning and assessment opportunities. These behavioural characteristics are often indicators of learning problems or disability, and the product of many years of ‘learned helplessness’ overlaid by a lack of capacity to understand and organise material effectively. When we add the additional variable of instructional style, the issue becomes even more concerning. Whole group instruction is the norm in secondary school classes, and with teachers presuming all students have prerequisite skills and mastery of old information, lessons are conducted at a more rapid rate (Deshler et al., 2006).

Disparities between educational demands and skills of students with disability may mean that, while they are included in mainstream classes, the learning context is such that students do not truly have the same opportunity to learn.

REFLECT ON THIS What planning strategies will you put into place so that you can better meet the needs of students with disability in your future classes?

13.2 Strategies for inclusion in secondary schools In their analysis of issues arising from their report on improving learning outcomes for students with disabilities in Australia, Shaddock et al. (2007) concluded that teaching students with disabilities in secondary schools is complicated. Policies, both external and internal, school structures and expectations leave little room for flexibility around student needs and international evidence indicates that equity and quality are correlated (OECD, 2012). Most secondary schools are ruled by timetables, teacher communication in discrete units of time and information, and the downward flow of information. These practices are disempowering for most students, but may pose even more challenges for students with disability. While there are major policy and systemic challenges such as the Australian Curriculum to be resolved, teachers have control over their own teaching strategies, and with their careful, considered and flexible application, much can be achieved to meet the diverse needs of students. The strategies required to include students with diverse needs are similar to those already raised in the preceding chapters for early childhood and primary schooling. However, because of the differences in students at the secondary level, some variations in application are necessary. Secondary teachers in Australia report lower levels of adaptation, less positive attitudes and

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more barriers to inclusion, compared to primary teachers (Shaddock et al., 2007). Perceptions that adolescent students with intellectual and other learning disabilities have reached a plateau in their learning capacity pervade, despite research to the contrary. Some secondary teachers believe that students with disability are best supported through withdrawal programs. However, most of these students spend the majority of their time in regular classrooms and pose daily challenges to these teachers. Many teachers share a sense of isolation, frustration and being overburdened with these challenges. Some teachers avoid ownership of the problem, wanting ‘experts to develop programs and strategies and to solve their problems with these students’ (Watson & Bond, 2007, p. 7). In most states in Australia and New Zealand, learning (and) support teachers are employed by educational authorities to provide this expertise in secondary schools. While many classroom teachers might want these specialist teachers to work directly with students, the preferred approach to improve learning outcomes of students with disability is to work collaboratively with classroom teachers.

Collaboration

Secondary teachers claim they have minimal time for collaboration, or extra attention for individual students and preparing and implementing ILPs, since preparation and marking already consume their spare time (Forlin, 2004). Many experienced secondary teachers have not been trained in how to plan and teach for diversity, and so may teach inappropriate curricula using inappropriate teaching strategies. Teachers trained in inclusive practices and learning support teachers may need to assist other teachers to review their practices and consider how to begin to weave effective inclusive strategies and practices into their teaching. Some states, such as Queensland (see Weblinks at the end of the chapter) use coaching strategies with online activities to promote the use of inclusive strategies. Effective strategies focus on content (what to teach) and design (how to teach) (Ellis & Lenz, 1996). However, because teaching is a highly interactive process, the additional focus of process (interaction with and between learners) needs to be added. The most effective strategies across these three focus areas are presented in this chapter. However, before considering the use of strategies, there is a need to understand how to plan for diversity.

Planning for diversity

While secondary schools traditionally focus on content and the transmission of curriculum, the new regime of inclusive classrooms challenges teachers to plan to meet the learning needs of a diverse range of students. Consider what it might be like for learners who lack the skills to acquire the content material presented in traditional classes. Many students have difficulty understanding incoming information because of receptive language problems, reading comprehension difficulties and short- and long-term memory deficits, all compounded by distractibility. Additionally, students may be unable to organise this information through note-taking skills and may lack specific strategies to deal with subject matter, or may select inappropriate approaches for the task. They may not reflect on the content of previous lessons or alternative ways of considering the content, or evaluate their initial thinking. Students may also lack study skills and test-taking skills to demonstrate knowledge. As a consequence, frustration builds, motivation falls and students experience continued failure (McLeskey et al., 2018). To mask their academic difficulties, these students may engage in inappropriate behaviour, and teacher attention tends to focus on behaviour, not learning. The specific teaching of organisational strategies for learning can assist these students to manage curriculum demands. Schumaker and Deshler (2006) describe a program plan conducted and monitored by special and general teachers to help students develop these strategies. (See the Kansas University Center for Research on Learning in Curriculum Materials Weblink for a useful website for teaching students academic skills strategies.)

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The perspective above focuses on ‘deficits’ of students, but it is critical for teachers to develop a positive solution-focused approach (see Metcalf, 2008) that considers all students as learners with ability and potential by identifying and building on strengths. Teachers who focus on strengths and success (rather than deficits and failure) provide a foundation for further success in learning (see Figure 13.4). Teacher expectations of what individual students can accomplish will influence student motivation and learning. If this approach is applied to the whole class, the teacher can start to identify the class strengths, and build on these to produce a positive learning culture. A class approach has another distinct advantage as it avoids the issue of sensitive adolescent learners reacting against the teacher’s extra attention.

Developing a class profile

To assist planning, it is highly recommended that teachers develop a class profile. The following process provides an excellent starting point to developing a profile for the class and the individual students who may need teacher attention. There are three steps involved when developing a class profile, which are explored below. • Step 1 is based on observations, so briefly describe the class. Reflect on gender composition, general academic competence, attitude, motivation, relationship, overall positives and things that need to change. Try to use data as much as possible, rather than hearsay. • Step 2 identifies class strengths, so consider what all or most of the class can do well.

• Step 3 requires looking at the class list. Place a colour-coded category label (reflecting traffic lights) against each student in the class. Place the word Go in green beside those who do not seem to have any learning issues. Place the word Watch in orange beside those that need to be observed further. Place the word Review in red beside those students that need support over and above what is provided in the regular teaching program. Record those students who have an orange or red label and who require special attention in this category. Identify what extra information is needed to confirm or allay concerns. Plan to talk to these students and gather their perspective.

A sample class profile

See Figure 13.4 for a brief sample of how a class profile can be completed. Complete steps 1–3 at this stage for a class you are familiar with. Information to complete steps 5 and 6 is provided after a review of learning and teaching strategies that can be used to teach in inclusive secondary classrooms.

Step 1: Based on observations, briefly describe the class

Class 9B is made up of 13 girls and 10 boys. They are a solid class academically, with the majority having a positive attitude, although some demonstrate poor motivation. They generally get on well, and a number of same-sex groups seem very close. A class with potential, but their attitude toward a number of students who are struggling socially and academically needs to change. Most are highly collaborative, and I may need to engineer some learning partnerships, buddies and small groups to improve this class.

Step 2: Identify class strengths for this subject: English

• ALL students are reading well, with sound comprehension. They love activities. • MOST of the class can write quite well

• SOME need assistance with forming paragraphs, while others are writing creatively and well.

Step 3: Look at the class list

Place a colour-coded category label (reflecting traffic lights) against each student in your class (as described above).

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Step 4: ‘Review’ students Develop a brief summary of each red ‘Review’ student in the first column of the following table. Ask the student to help you develop this, using authentic communication skills (see Figure 13.4. If an ILP or ITP, or equivalent, has been developed, this should assist in describing: • the personal and general academic (reading, writing and maths) competence and skills of the student, especially in relation to the subject of interest; but also work habits and communication, social, behaviour and motor skills • the interests of this student that might relate to the subject

• what support the student might need to maximise learning.

Step 5: Strategise

Identify the strategies that can be applied to best address the learning needs of the student – and involve the student! Place these in the middle column (note the full listing of strategies and content enhancements at the bottom of the table).

Step 6: Apply

Consider how these teaching strategies can be applied. An example is provided in the following table, with blank cells to review some ‘red’ students.

CLASS PROFILE Students and their needs (clarify with the learner)

Strategies to be applied to assist learning

How can these be applied to my teaching?

Steven (code red) likes to draw and is good with maths and computers. He is struggling with some learning difficulties, but is very creative. Reports from Year 8 indicated poor writing skills and organisation. Interested in computer games. Socially isolated – seems to be a loner. Need to engage him more.

• • • • •

Need to sit down and really understand Steven better, and how his learning is being held back. He needs to be better organised and I need to scaffold his lessons with organisers, and his writing skills, by providing some alternative tasks. Pairing him with John, who would mentor well, and is also into computers, should work well.

Authentic listening Lesson organisers Scaffold writing tasks Use ICT as a motivator Cooperative learning options – choose a buddy • Class activities involving teams

Student:

Student:

FIGURE 13.4 Student profile

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13.3 Ten strategies for teaching for diversity With a clearer perspective of individuals in each class, as well as a generalised understanding of the class learning climate, secondary teachers need to consider how to maximise the opportunity to reach all students, and teach them all effectively via a range of strategies that best present relevant subject content. While Mitchell and Sutherland (2020) outline 29 evidence-based teaching strategies, this chapter provides an overview of 10 established teaching strategies, many of which are evidence-based, that have direct application to secondary settings (see Figure 13.5). Many of these strategies are content and design focused, but the first strategy is process focused and provides an approach that should be embedded within the following 10 strategies.

Authentic communication skills

For teachers to become specialists at helping students to learn, it is critical for them to develop the capacity to empathically engage learners and to authentically communicate with them. These

10 approaches to teaching for diversity • Authentic communication skills • Universal Design for Learning (UDL) • Lesson planning and contextualising content • Task analysis • Scaffolding • Explicit and direct instruction (EDI) • Guided discovery learning • Cooperative learning • Information and communication technologies (ICT) in the classroom • Differentiated instruction to enhance content: input, process routine, time, size, difficulty, level of support, degree of participation, modifying goals, substitute curriculum, output and feedback FIGURE 13.5 Teaching diversity can be approached by using many established strategies

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capacities are based on a set of personal skills and competencies. They build from basic empathy of understanding what the learner might be thinking and feeling in general, and at critical learning moments in particular. Basic but authentic communication skills such as active listening and inquiry skills need to be used before applying a range of student-led solution-finding skills and strategies (see Figure 13.6). Authentic communication also involves careful presentation of content that reflects the needs of all learners. Information needs to be delivered using age-appropriate language, at an appropriate pace and with full explanation of any new concepts or terms. To further assist all learners, provide a visual list of key points and refer to it as part of the explanation or provide a concept map of how terms are related. Repeating key points or asking class members to do so in their own words to one another or in their group are also useful strategies. The more opportunities that are provided for student self-responsibility and control, the more engaged and self-determining these students are likely to become.

Universal design for learning

The overarching design of all teaching and learning strategies that aim to meet the needs of students with diverse needs is based on the philosophical principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL), a concept raised in previous chapters, and identified by Mitchell and Sutherland (2020) in their overview of evidence-based teaching strategies (Strategy 29). Rather than making adaptations in method and materials after the fact, UDL builds supports and accommodation into the original mode of teaching to make instruction accessible for all students. Universal design

Basic authentic communication skills • Recognise and acknowledge the important role of the learner in providing their own perspective and determining their own solutions. • Actively listen to students to understand them as learners. • Ask them to explain what is happening for them at the moment (in a learning situation). • Paraphrase what they have just told you using the key words in their message. • Seek clarification by asking for further information about their key words. • Ask inquiry questions that help you and the student to begin to understand a learning difficulty and what is happening. • Ask what happened for them at critical moments (process recall), especially success scenarios. • Ask them how they succeeded last time they were in a similar situation, and what were the key elements that helped in the success scenario (being solution focused – SF). • Explore what the student is doing and/or feeling when they are experiencing success – emotionally, cognitively and strategically – and how the student can make success happen more often (SF). • What would they need to do for success to be more frequent? FIGURE 13.6 Basic authentic communication skills

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is commonly applied in architecture and the development of products. Designing buildings with ramps is now universal and essential to allow access for all users, including those with wheeled equipment (e.g. trolleys for deliveries, as well as for wheelchairs).

Building universally designed techniques into lesson plans enhances teachers’ delivery of instructions for all students. For instance, beginning each lesson with the display of an advance or graphic organiser outlining the main points of content, and providing wellspaced, guided notes along with these main points, helps all students to follow the lesson (McLeskey et al., 2018). The strategies outlined in Narrative 13.2 are examples of the active application of UDL.

NARRATIVE 13.2 Application of universal design to curriculum adjustments for David Like every other Year 7 student, David is able to prioritise his two favourite electives from the arts faculty. He chooses art and drama. He also has the opportunity to do home economics, manual arts, and health and physical education (HPE) and his core subjects of English, study of society and the environment (SOSE), maths and science. The only subject David does not do with his peers is a language other than English – he is exempt from this and instead has a tutorial with special education staff. The program-at-a-glance is the primary SEP planning document for class teachers in each key learning area. Within the structure of the middle school, David has one teacher for English and SOSE and one teacher for maths and science, with specialist teachers for his elective subjects. The case manager is available to consult and co-plan with all his teachers on a needs basis. Teacher assistants are assigned to classes where safety is paramount – art, home economics, manual arts and HPE. Teacher assistants are then able to gather baseline data on David’s performance in these classes and report back to his case manager. Multi-risk assessments are developed to make the necessary adjustments to ensure David can participate safely and as independently as possible. Teacher assistants are also trained to move between multiple roles of a ‘velcro’ 1:1 support; to ‘shadow’ support, hovering to provide assistance as needed; to ‘invisible’ support, where David is supervised from a distance and adjustments are fine-tuned to allow him maximum independence. This also prevents the development of any ‘learned helplessness’ and the metaphor practised is ‘never take the pen out of the student’s hand’, meaning don’t do anything for the student they can do for themselves. Over time, this has allowed David to become more aware of his strengths and limitations, and he has become more assertive about his own support needs and increasing independence. More intensive co-planning and curriculum adjustments have been carried out in the core subjects of English, SOSE and maths. With the introduction of the Australian Curriculum, and a clearer understanding of the standards or outcomes required at the end of the Year 9 key juncture, David’s learning support teacher was able to map his progress more precisely. Working collaboratively with core teachers, who were on a steep learning curve themselves, a curriculum planning template was used to document the English, SOSE and science curriculum units throughout middle school and map the adjustments David would need to access and to participate successfully in the classroom with his peers. This template uses the acronym KISS to map adjustments needed in K = knowledge and understandings, I = interactions within the class, S = strategies for teaching and learning, and S = strategies for assessment. This planning involves the class teacher and case manager meeting before the commencement of a new unit of work, armed with the curriculum unit and the

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student’s program-at-a-glance, and discussing and documenting the adjustments required. Initially, these meetings took an hour to 90 minutes but were substantially reduced as the teacher became more familiar with David’s learning needs. In this process, additional resources in the form of teacher assistant support, alternative texts, adaptive technology and so on are identified and sourced before the commencement of the unit. Using the key learning areas (KLA) scopeand-sequence guides in English and maths, David’s progress could be mapped to the appropriate key juncture he was working at and the curriculum outcome planned to optimise success. This juncture for David was Year 3 for both English and maths and, while working on the same topics as his classmates, his class work and assessment was adjusted to this standard. David worked on an alternative program in maths under the direction of a teacher assistant within the maths class.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Identify the key elements that led to successful application of universal design to adjust David’s curriculum. 2. Discuss how universal design principles could be applied so that other students might also benefit.

Lesson planning and contextualising content

An overall course plan defines the mindset and lays the framework for how lessons and units will be developed (Lenz & Adams, 2006). If academic diversity, inclusive teaching and UDL are not part of early thinking, then change is more difficult after the course is launched. Lessons need to be well thought out, and planned and developed in line with the teacher’s understanding of the class and individual students, and how to maximise learning for all. Lessons should also be embedded within a carefully constructed unit plan. ACARA (2016) has an overarching strategy that focuses on content for managing student diversity in the Australian curriculum. The strategy encourages teachers to identify learning goals appropriate to each student by drawing on content from different learning areas and levels in the year. Additionally, Lenz and Adams (2006) provide comprehensive information regarding the planning of units using graphic organisers to drive inclusive lessons. All students will be able to engage more with each lesson if they can understand how it relates to themselves and to the content they have learned earlier. Each lesson plan and lesson introduction to the class should outline: • how the lesson might relate to students (consider real-life applications) • how the lesson relates to other content they have learnt recently

• an outline of what is to be learnt – goals for the lesson identifying what students need to know, understand and do, and for students to identify their own individual learning goals

• structure and sequence of the learning tasks that will engage students

• a summary of the material covered and planning for post-lesson application (generalisation of knowledge).

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Task analysis

When the goal of the lesson is identified, the application of task analysis, or breaking the lesson down into sequential teachable components, is the next important evidence-based practice. Identification of teachable steps is best completed by the teacher working through the task to identify the micro-components. Completing such an analysis provides the teacher with a useful strategy that can become a blueprint for teaching that skill in the future. An example of this is the DEFENDS strategy for writing persuasive essays (Figure 13.7). This step-by-step analysis then forms the basis for the lesson plan and for scaffolding tasks.

Scaffolding

Many students need assistance to learn new information, skills, or practices to advance to the next level of learning. Teachers and peers may need to ask questions of the learner to help them to ‘scaffold’ and determine the next steps. Even with scaffolding, students may make mistakes and be far from achieving mastery of the task. With constructive feedback and easing back (‘fading’) of the level of support, student performance usually improves one step at a time, and ultimately the student can successfully perform independently (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Scaffolding is a very powerful evidence-based approach to use with students who have a fear of failure and who need some level of success as they learn. See Evidence-based practice 13.1 for examples of scaffolding in secondary settings.

D Decide on the goals and theme

N Note each main idea and supporting points one by one

E Estimate the main ideas and details

F Figure out what is the best order of these main ideas and details

D Drive home the message in the last sentence

E Express the theme in the first sentence to set the scene

S Search for errors and correct before submission

FIGURE 13.7 DEFENDS writing strategy Source: McLeskey et al. (2013)

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 13.1 Scaffolding in secondary settings • helping the learner identify and learn vocabulary, content and questioning skills relevant to the task • structures that encourage task participation, inquiry and student talk • helping learners to develop cognitive mapping to organise reading and writing processes • heterogeneous student groups, with or without the teacher, constructing text together, using modelling for one another and then sharing text with other groups • marking points on a reading with questions to challenge students and to encourage thinking.

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Explicit teaching and direct instruction

Explicit teaching and direct instruction (EDI) are very similar evidence-based approaches endorsed as Strategy 3 by Mitchell and Sutherland (2020). Together they involve a set of teacher behaviours and curriculum materials that are applied through a sequence of guided activities to teach specific knowledge, skills and practices. Major topics are reduced to smaller steps or units (see the discussion of task analysis earlier in this chapter) that are sequentially taught by the teacher through the structured and predictable components of explaining, demonstrating, guided practice and independent practice. This tell, show and do approach can be repeated for each step in the task until students are confident with each step, and can then ultimately complete the sequence of steps as one skill set or task. For example, by applying EDI in a secondary maths class to teach the formula for determining an interior angle of a parallelogram when the three other interior angles are known, the teacher first identifies the relevant steps. The teacher then explicitly teaches the formula, then demonstrates and guides the class through the steps, before asking students to independently solve a problem. Guided practice is often closely supervised, with teacher cues, prompts and corrective feedback applied. It can also be used with small groups of students solving problems together. Independent practice should involve creative instructional processes and cooperative group projects, but in most secondary classrooms, students spend up to 70 per cent of the instructional period in seated activities (McLeskey et al., 2018). Even so, teachers should ensure that activities are age-appropriate, in line with lesson goals, have multiple response formats and contain components that all students can complete successfully.

Guided discovery learning

Guided discovery learning extends task analysis, scaffolding and EDI by teaching students to become independent problem-solvers through the application of generic steps of scientific inquiry and logical thinking. The teacher provides novel problems involving different information that requires similar problem-solving strategies. The students are then guided through a natural dialogue that encourages them to identify the steps for solving the problem, with students gradually taking over the procedures. Teachers need to sensitively apply necessary support for learning (scaffolding) before allowing independent problem-solving. The emphasis of the process is guiding student problem-solving, not content, to develop the capacity for the student to be an independent learner and problem solver (Rosenberg et al., 2006). This strategy can be extended into problem-based learning (Savery & Duffy, 2001) whereby teachers provide stimulus by asking questions such as ‘What do we need to know?’, and ‘How might we find this information?’ This approach emphasises the process of students finding their own solutions, which they can then apply.

Peer-mediated instruction and intervention

With an emphasis on social process, cooperative learning helps secondary students with diverse needs to learn from each other (Strategy 7 in Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020). Students in groups accomplish group goals that depend on heterogeneous, diverse group members working together, as well as each individual attaining their own learning and social goals. Students can practise social skills (e.g. turn-taking), cooperative skills (e.g. helping, encouraging) and leadership skills (e.g. providing direction). Students also learn to be individually accountable for their own learning and their contribution to the group (McLeskey et al., 2018). As discussed in Chapter 5, a number of cooperative learning approaches have been developed, and most are applicable to the secondary school environment. Peer tutoring, jigsaw and student teaming that can involve team and/or individual improvement scoring are commonly-used strategies.

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Technology-aided instruction and intervention

New technologies capture the attention of adolescents. For those with disability, the application of information and communication technologies can have distinct advantages, such as engaging through interactive software packages that use multiple information-processing channels and assisting learning through the application of repetitive, but reinforcing, systems. The use of graphics and animations in game-like activities can enhance the presentation of information and challenge the learner to demonstrate their understanding across multiple literacies and content areas. For some students with specific disabilities, assistive technology (Strategy 22 in Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020) provides an increasing range of tools and applications that can help them to be fully independent in mainstream classes. Qahri-Saremi and Turel (2016) provide an empirical overview of the application of technology for adolescent learners. Other useful websites on assistive technology can be found in the Weblinks at the end of this chapter. Age-appropriate programs for secondary settings are available, but teachers need to carefully consider how their use might augment learning goals (see Narrative 13.3).

NARRATIVE 13.3 Adjustments to teaching/learning process for David It became evident over time, through following best-practice examples and a trial-and-error process, that a common set of reasonable adjustments could be offered by David’s educational support team. It was important, however, that we all shared a common belief that ‘all students can learn’ and a common goal to ‘maximise student independence’. These common adjustments for David applied across the key learning areas and involved: • some form of pre-assessment to gain baseline data on David’s skills and abilities. In maths this was a simple functional (authentic) task like purchasing an item from the tuckshop. In home economics, it was preparing a toasted sandwich snack to assess kitchen safety, hygiene and food preparation skills. In art, it was making a greeting card to assess scissor skills, handwriting and literacy skills • investigating and incorporating the use of adaptive technology in daily lessons including:

–

use of an AlphaSmart Neo in classes requiring extensive note-taking



–

use of a Canon calculator with print capabilities in maths



– producing written texts in alternative formats, such as weekly recipes for home economics, using Writing with Symbols 2000 software incorporating simplified text and graphics



–

use of Clicker 5 and compatible software aligned to key learning areas



–

installing the WordTalk plugin (free) on all school computers to enable text-to-speech application



– purchasing a range of equipment; for example, pens, kitchen peelers, scissors, non-slip mats and so on to suit student needs



– use of modern technology; for example, a food processor in the kitchen for food preparation, or digital organisers



– providing access to a word processor and explicit teaching of the basic applications, for example, Word and Publisher, for completion of assessment tasks



– providing a laptop or tablet in classes with engaging software programs to provide drill and practice and opportunities to over-learn new content

• providing and teaching the use of additional ‘look up’ materials; for example, vocabulary lists, frequently used words, scientific equipment, addition and multiplication grids and so on in subject exercise books, desk toppers or wall charts. This includes incorporating visual materials on safety and hygiene in the learning environment for all students

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• planning by class teachers to incorporate organisational and classroom management procedures into daily routines; for example, checking that students entered the class with the required materials, a seating plan that matched more capable (and sometimes preferred) peers with those requiring additional support and that allowed for a support person to work beside a student without isolating the student when needed, and group work roles which were both specific and authentic. It was equally important for David to maintain social participation with his peer group • adjustments that were age-appropriate, authentic and aligned to the classroom programs made to the curriculum content, tasks and materials. A range of curriculum resources were purchased, including Steve Parish picture and activity books; other visually appealing and content-rich picture books; teacher-prepared worksheets incorporating cloze activities and three levels of guided questions to differentiate instruction; commercially-produced blackline master materials on common themes at different levels, including lower primary, upper primary and lower secondary; novels in text, audio and DVD format; and for maths, alternative workbooks using a variety of resources are collated in lieu of the textbook • explicitly teaching and re-teaching concepts within the class by the class teacher or support person, or in an extra tutorial • successfully recognising when David required ‘velcro’, ‘shadow’ or ‘invisible’ support and responding appropriately to maximise his independence • providing multiple opportunities to assess David’s progress throughout the unit of work. A portfolio of student work was collected throughout the unit including work samples, teacher observations and self-assessments, as well as the adjusted formal assessment tasks. All of these pieces were used to determine the standard of work David achieved, and were reported on • providing David with additional time for tests, a quiet place and a reader if needed. In some cases, formatting was changed with the addition of lines to help with setting out of maths problems, rules and formulae were provided on the test paper if memorisation of these was not being assessed, and visuals in the form of number lines and real-life objects – for example, thermometers – were added to enhance the meaning of the problems. The use of a calculator was a standard adjustment for David • providing David with literacy support from class teachers and teacher assistants through the use of sentence starters and word banks, ‘talk throughs’ and ‘think alouds’, then composing the answers together on a mini whiteboard for David to copy into his exercise book. While these adjustments were taking place in regular classes, David was also participating in priority programs identified through his ILP and delivered by special education staff. These skillbased programs addressed areas that David recognised as barriers to his continued personal development and included: • a tutorial in place of his foreign language classes where assistance with homework and assignments was provided with access to computers and small group support • a social skills program (one lesson of the tutorial) to learn and practise age-appropriate behaviours using video modelling and role plays • a 10-minute daily reading program (ARK) instead of roll class to improve decoding and word recognition skills • a regular morning debrief with his case manager to settle and focus David for his day ahead. Checks were made that he had materials he needed for each lesson and he was able to debrief any home issues which helped his positive mind-set for the day: • social stories and problem-solving visuals developed by his case manager and used on a daily basis to shape David’s behaviour when needed

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• a ‘calm box’ with two to three choices of calming activities when he used his ‘take-a-break’ card to remove himself from class when he became frustrated with work. David would initially choose some popular music, a game of UNO or computer time. (Now he is able to simply leave the classroom and have a drink before returning to recommence his work.) • positive behaviour plans to shape target behaviours with incentives identified through personal inventories (Ben 10 pens, stickers and stationery were David’s favourite rewards in Years 8 and 9; now he seeks positive affirmation from staff) • structured recess programs where David participates in modified games with selected peers to develop good sportsmanship and have some fun • recognition of David’s achievements through ‘student of the week’ awards for work effort and task completion, good sportsmanship and behaviours that exemplified the school values of respect, responsibility, resilience and reliability, which were also posted home to parents.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the need for balance between providing adjustment and support, and maximising student independence in the teaching/learning process. 2. Identify two or three strategies from the narrative that you would definitely want to apply with your students in the future, if appropriate.

Differentiated instruction to enhance content

While the application of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is the preferred proactive approach to enhancing content, often during teaching or in post-lesson reflection, teachers realise that instructional techniques need to be rethought and varied to ensure that learners with diverse needs can understand, store and access subject material. Teachers need to adapt the way they organise information and explain difficult concepts to promote learning for all. Such enhancements provide a distinct advantage in that many who have not been identified as having disability will benefit from instructions, information presentation and tasks that are more learner friendly. Employing understanding by design strategies (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005) can help in the process of planning and redesigning instruction and materials, using many adaptations that are obvious, and are commonly in use. These include the 11 content enhancements set out in Figure 13.8. Many students in secondary settings will be very wary of receiving individual attention for learning in inclusive settings. Some students may reject your carefully designed and individualised accommodations and adaptations to the curriculum if you indicate that they are specifically and obviously directed at them (Loreman, 2000). Therefore, differentiation and adaptation of instruction in secondary settings is most effectively carried out through approaches that involve the whole class. (For further information, see the Kansas University Center for Research on Learning weblink at the end of the chapter.) While each of the 10 approaches to teaching for diversity outlined above has potential, asking students about teacher strategies that they have found most effective as learners can be a very useful and empowering start. Now that you have reviewed the approaches to teaching for diversity you can complete Steps 5 and 6 in a class profile (see the section ‘A sample class profile’, earlier in this chapter at the end of section 13.2). Identify the strategies that can be applied to address apparent learning needs, and place these in the middle column. Note that the full listing of strategies and content

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Input

Process routine

Apply instructional strategies such as visual aids and graphic organisers to facilitate learning, for understanding relationships between more abstract concepts; use concrete prompts and cues; provide contextual information through field trips and DVDs; and teach memory using key words and mnemonic strategies.

Teach integrated steps and procedures to help organise materials and guide learning, such as unit and lesson organisers.

Time

Provide flexible time for student learning, allowing individual timelines for task completion and assessment.

Size

Adapt or reduce the number of tasks to be completed, or the length of a verbal or written report.

Difficulty

Level of support

Vary levels of skill, processes and conceptual levels of information presented (and demonstrated).

Vary assistance to the learner from teachers or teacher assistants, such as scaffolding, peer tutors and/or cooperative groups.

Degree of Provide learning activities with different levels of involvement, especially participation with group activities that provide various jobs or functions at different levels of complexity.

Modifying goals

Adapt outcome expectations, such as completing more simple mathematical problems of similar type.

Substitute curriculum

Develop differentiated instruction and materials in line with learners’ goals.

Output

Vary how learners demonstrate learning, such as writing or telling a story, designing a poster or writing a song. In terms of assessment, use multiple methods to assess performance, and allow students to choose the method. Assessment data can help evaluate and refine instruction.

Feedback

Acknowledge and praise individual achievement of goals in large groups.

FIGURE 13.8 Content enhancements to differentiate instruction

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enhancements is provided at the bottom of the table. Then you need to consider how these teaching strategies can be applied. Examine the list of strategies and identify the most common across the red Review and amber Watch students. These strategies should guide lesson plan development for this class in the future.

REFLECT ON THIS Which of the 10 approaches to teaching for diversity (see Figure 13.5) do you feel you will definitely apply when you first start to teach?

13.4 Inclusion across the secondary curriculum Teachers in every curriculum area need to develop the capacity to apply teaching strategies to meet the needs of all students. Some teaching strategies are likely to be more effective than others, according to the subject area. Early career teachers need to develop confidence in teaching and assessing their curricular areas and then learn to adjust the curriculum and assessment to meet the needs of students with disability. Teachers can talk to other more experienced teachers in their curriculum areas and share successful strategies and applications. If adaptations and differentiated instructions are yet to be applied, the teaching strategies described in the previous section are a good beginning. Additionally, Janney and Snell (2013) provide a guide to modifying information and the Australian Curriculum provides examples of adjustments to the curriculum for students with diverse needs. Special education or learning support teachers are also a source of advice and support. Collaboration with other teachers is critical to the success of inclusive practices, and is further discussed in the next section of the chapter.

Meeting individual needs

The challenge is for teachers to strike a balance between meeting the needs of individual students and covering mandated curriculum content required for state authority assessments. Under ACARA advice, curriculum content can be delivered at the various levels that reflect the classroom cohort. Teachers are expected to use instructional processes and assessment strategies flexibly to ensure that all students are able to access and engage with the Australian Curriculum in ways that are rigorous, relevant and meaningful. The ACARA achievement standards describe a broad sequence of expected learning in terms of what students are typically able to understand and do. Teachers use these standards to identify the students’ current levels of achievement and then plan programs that build on, and account for, the different abilities of students, their prior learning experiences, cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and the different rates at which they learn. Additionally, the application of differentiated instruction and other teaching strategies previously outlined can provide methods to help all students to learn the curriculum content. ACARA (2016) argues that students with disability can engage with the curriculum, provided the necessary adjustments are made to the complexity of the curriculum content and to the means through which students demonstrate their knowledge, skills and understanding (inclusive assessment). For some learners, making adjustments to instructional processes and to assessment strategies enables students to achieve educational standards commensurate with their peers. For other learners, teachers will need to make appropriate adjustments to the complexity of the curriculum content and, by necessity, how the student’s progress is monitored, assessed and reported (see Davies et al., 2016, for a useful list of 67 adjustments).

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ILP goals and program settings

All students with disability have strengths that can provide a base for success. The individual learning plan (ILP) goals, developed with the student and parents, should maximise these strengths, but also aim to build skills in essential areas that are a current weakness. The ILP or other planning process goals should help to determine subject selection, subject withdrawal and engagement in alternative programs, with full involvement of parents and students in the ultimate decisions. Plans to meet these goals should be developed with the assistance of special education or learning support teachers to provide various levels of assistance to the regular classroom teachers. Sometimes students with disability are withdrawn from the more academically challenging lessons or subjects. The appropriateness of withdrawal depends on a number of learning variables, such as the content, class numbers, support available and the impact on peer relationships (e.g. stigma resulting in being marginalised). Students who have been withdrawn may then be able to undertake alternative learning programs with more of a life skills or functional approach to learning. These programs might focus on outdoor activities, such as camping, hiking, ropes courses and so on with potential gains in a range of personal attitudes, such as self-confidence in line with personal and social capability. This type of programming is likely to be conducted by learning specialists within the school or outside consultants. These initiatives should be carefully scrutinised and reviewed by parents, students and staff to ensure that positive outcomes are in line with ILP/ITP student learning goals. The key issue is that, whether the decision is to withdraw or to apply full inclusion, curriculum flexibility, differentiation and support must ensure that the learning needs of the student are met.

As students move through their secondary years, there should be an overarching wholeschool plan that promotes continuity of appropriately sequenced experiences across year levels to help ensure continuity of curriculum for students with diverse needs (see the Queensland Curriculum Guidelines weblink at the end of the chapter).

full inclusion The concept that all students should be in regular classes, regardless of the severity of their disability.

Teaching across subjects

In terms of individual subjects, some suggestions on strategies for the inclusive teaching of various subjects, based on the work of Peterson and Hittie (2010), are presented in Figure 13.9. Teachers should also consult the ACARA website (see Weblinks at the end of this chapter) for examples of curriculum adjustments to various subjects as they are developed.

Textbooks

Subject textbooks are the primary medium of instruction for many secondary teachers. To help ensure that students with disability are not disadvantaged, teachers need to examine their texts and their application and consider altering how they are used. Vaughn, Bos and Schumm (2007) provide effective strategies for making adaptations to content area textbooks. Teachers need to become familiar with the textbook, and then evaluate the text across five criteria: • subject content, in terms of comprehensiveness, accuracy and currency • social content, in terms of values and portrayal of minority groups • instructional design, the way content is taught • readability level

• friendliness level, in terms of organisation, explication (explains ideas), conceptual density (new terms), meta-discourse (talking to the reader) and instructional devices (learning tools).

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Subject

Teaching strategies

Reading skills

For reading skills, students need to read at their own level with support to develop strategies through mini-lessons and peer support. Students need to write from their own perspective at their own level, and small student groups are most effective.

Mathematics

Mathematics needs to focus on understanding the meaning of concepts, not just following procedures to solve problems. Authentic learning in mathematics needs concrete materials to strengthen understanding.

Science

Science is about learning how to think and to inquire, research, collect and interpret data through multilevel differentiated lessons. Social studies and science can be central subjects that organise authentic themes to link with other subjects. Memorising facts in these two subjects is ineffective as a learning strategy.

History

History needs to involve active learning strategies using multilevel and tiered lessons to support inclusive teaching.

Arts and PE

The arts and physical education are natural subjects for inclusive teaching since they are activity-based and support students at their own performance level; they need to be integrated into curriculum for the whole school.

FIGURE 13.9 Inclusive teaching of various subjects

In line with judgements about these criteria, the textbook may need adaptation. Vaughn et al. (2007) recommend the following adaptations, although many others can also be applied: • study guides, either commercial or teacher-developed, can help to scaffold learning • highlight key points in the text

• alternative reading materials at different conceptual levels can augment the textbook.

For inclusive education to be most effective, decisions involving differentiation of instruction, textbooks, lessons, or assessment are best undertaken through a collaborative process (see also Chapter 4).

13.5 Collaborative teaching and teaming in secondary schools Collaboration involves working jointly with others, willingly cooperating with others and sharing in goal setting, problem solving and goal achievement (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010). Teachers have always collaborated with others to some degree, but with higher demands for achievement and related accountability, and the increasing diversity of students in classrooms, teachers now need to more fully and more frequently collaborate with other professionals and parents (Strategy 9 in Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020). Collaboration with other stakeholders

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(professionals and parents/caregivers) needs to be applied with the following characteristics in mind, adapted from Friend and Cook (2007): • Collaboration is based on parity, with input from everyone of equal value. • Collaborators share a mutual goal that is important to all.

• Collaborators evenly participate, make collective decisions and share accountability. • Collaborators share their resources and expertise, with all contributions valued.

• Collaboration emerges from the personal characteristics of all participants by valuing the process, gaining trust and respect of others, and working to develop a sense of community and complementarity.

Such collaboration is more structured and may take various forms such as collaborative teams, collaborative consultation, co-teaching and collaborating with parents. These collaborative techniques are briefly described below.

Collaborative teams

In secondary schools, collaborative teams of professionals may include inclusion-support teams to plan, implement, monitor and evaluate school inclusion programs; individual learning planning (ILP) teams; and behaviour or teacher assistance teams. Collaborative consultation might involve a mainstream teacher working with another secondary teacher, a special educator, learning support teacher, guidance officer or teacher assistant to seek solutions to a problem, such as the learning needs of an individual or managing a class. Such consultation can provide an opportunity to reflect on what is happening and why, and to use the skills and knowledge resources of others. Learning support teachers, advisory visiting teachers and guidance officers can provide advice and coordinate services within the school and in the community, but the substantive teaching role remains with the teacher.

In terms of collaborative teaching, many mainstream teachers rely on teacher assistants to support students with disability in their classroom (Butt, 2016). While some teacher assistants might have experience and personal knowledge of students with disability, they generally do not have the comprehensive training that teachers receive. With support from learning (and support) teachers, classroom teachers need to give directions to teacher assistants regarding their expectations, roles and preferred instructional strategies, as well as providing feedback about their performance with students (Blatchford et al., 2012). Teacher assistants also need not be always anchored with a student with disability, but can also assist in ways that allow the teacher more flexibility in working across all students.

Co-teaching and coaching

Co-teaching is increasingly being used at the secondary level as an inclusive teaching method. Also known as collaborative, cooperative, or team-teaching, co-teaching involves regular and special educators actively working in partnership to deliver ‘substantive instruction to a diverse or blended group of students in a single physical space’ (Cook & Friend, 1995, p. 2). Approaches include: one teach/one observe; one teach/one assist; parallel teaching; station teaching; alternative teaching; and team-teaching (see Villa et al., 2008). In a co-taught class, regular and special educators experience and ‘enjoy’ teaching together, experience the sharing and blending of expertise and feel ‘valued’ by their partner (Beamish et al., 2005). Regular educators are able to expand their skills in specific instructional adaptations, and special educators are able to expand their skills in the delivery of regular curriculum content. In both primary (Mackey et al., 2018) and secondary schools (Willard, 2019) there is a deepening appreciation of the benefits of co-teaching for students and for teachers. However, concerns about co-teaching seem to be magnified at the

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secondary level. According to Dieker and Murawski (2003), some of the major difficulties with secondary settings and the application of co- teaching are:

• teachers lack understanding about the components of co-teaching and do not differentiate that the classroom teacher is the expert in curriculum and the special education teacher is the expert in special methods (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010) • lack of adequate planning time for the special educator to discuss student needs/ILPs, and for the regular educator to discuss content, and for both educators to then jointly decide on instruction plans

• the ‘silo’ structure of subject departments and separate special education departments does not encourage collaboration.

Suggested solutions

Some solutions to these issues (based on Dieker & Murawski, 2003, and other practices), are for teachers to:

• seek professional development for special and regular teachers to jointly review co-teaching models, consider groupings and use coaching strategies to start planning sessions • select co-teaching partners carefully, and create common planning periods with them

• be proactive: plan together early; share experiences; develop class and individual learning goals; and discuss thoughts on complementary co-teaching styles

• schedule students into co-taught classrooms before other scheduling (class schedules need to be flexible) • use block scheduling for various instructional techniques to be applied in the extended time

• vary instructional practices for co-teachers to develop new practices and approaches together • adapt co-teaching approaches and practices to meet the diverse needs of students • consider alternative methods of assessment to authentically assess all students

• expect some relationship difficulties between teachers as teaming develops and ensure any issues are worked through • increase communication between subject teachers on adaptive strategies with special educators as consultants (or facilitators) to develop most effective practices.

Collaborating with parents

individual transition plan (ITP) A written, formal plan or series of plans that results from coordinated application of a planning tool and a supportive framework that helps students, with family members, to plan for life after school.

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Many secondary teachers have limited contact with parents and caregivers, other than through parent–teacher interviews. For the parents of students with disability, however, there is likely to be more frequent involvement. Parents of students with disability have been lifetime advocates for the progression of their child through school and other service systems, and close parent involvement with their child’s education has demonstrated positive outcomes across many measures (Kochhar-Bryant, 2008). While some parents will be less involved as their child moves into adolescence, many remain strongly involved. The school system also seeks parent involvement through the ILP or alternative planning process, such as the individual transition plan (ITP), and the monitoring of these plans throughout the school program. For teachers in inclusive classrooms, parent support can significantly enhance student outcomes and expand the resources available to meet student needs. Interventions to address student needs are highly effective when teacher–caregiver collaboration takes place (Strategy 10 in Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020). Moreover, because post-school pathways for students with disability are typically complex and constrained, family involvement continues to be considered an essential component of the transition process (Davies & Beamish, 2009).

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Facilitating family involvement

Collaborating with parents requires the characteristics outlined earlier from Friend and Cook (2007). Additionally, Blue-Banning et al. (2004) identified indicators of professional behaviours that facilitated collaborative partnerships with families. The indicators were clustered into themes of communication, commitment, equality, skills, trust and respect. In practice, teachers might consider how to develop effective home–school links to support the teaching and learning process. Apart from the need for parents to review and monitor student homework (Hay & Winn, 2005), forging an alliance with parents and opening communication channels with them can help teachers to understand students and families more, so that more relevant assignment topics and lesson themes are set, and to deal with any concerns more quickly. Figure 13.10 identifies some barriers to parent involvement in transition planning and some possibilities for facilitating their involvement. Significantly improving the performance of underachieving students occurs only when teachers are well supported in their work and when teachers collaboratively team with others. The Kansas Center for Research on Learning (see Weblinks at the end of the chapter) provides excellent information on the importance of collaborative teaming to embed learning strategies and content enhancement into teaching practice. Barriers 1 Professional and family misconceptions. Teachers may see the current level of family involvement as inappropriate, and parents may distrust the school or be frustrated by a lack of opportunity for involvement. 2 Low and conflicting expectations. On the one hand, some families are seen as having low expectations for their son or daughter (perhaps influenced by a lack of awareness of opportunities, or a genuine lack of services), or families who want different things from professionals may be seen as having ‘unrealistic expectations’. 3 Lack of opportunity. Some families report being left out of planning educational supports for their son or daughter. Often planning meetings are held at a time and place that is not convenient for parents. 4 Stress during transition. While adolescence is a stressful time for many families, the situation is compounded for families with a member with a disability because transition involves moving from a time of some certainty of services at school, to uncertainty about what community services may be accessible.

Opportunities 1 Clarifying roles. Professionals need to consider families’ needs and accept a level of involvement that the family is comfortable with. Teachers cease to be ‘experts’ and become ‘partners’. Families cease to be ‘passive recipients’ and become ‘active players’. 2 Provide information early and throughout planning. Families need information about what services the school can provide, and what community services they may be able to access now and in the future. This information may need to be provided more than once, so the planning process should start early. 3 Establishing new opportunities. The focus of the ILP meeting is the student’s and the family’s vision. The meeting is ‘owned’ by the student and their family. 4 Developing new skills. As the transition process will continue well after the student leaves school, it makes sense for students and their families to use the planning skills they will require while they are still at school.

FIGURE 13.10 Barriers to and opportunities for family involvement in transition planning Source: Adapted from Morningstar, M. E., Kleinhammer-Tramill, P. J., & Lattin, D. L. (1999). Using successful models of student-centered transition planning and services for adolescents with disabilities. Focus on Exceptional Children, 31(9), 1–19.

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REFLECT ON THIS What will you need to do to ensure that you become a successful collaborator with other stakeholders?

13.6 Making secondary education meaningful Alongside the movement towards inclusion, there has been a movement toward increasing the academic demands of general education courses. This movement has been recognised in the USA, where all students are expected to read, write and think at more complex levels (Brand & Partee, 2000). Additionally, textbooks have increased in size and complexity resulting in increased demands on students to read more pages of more complex information at higher readability levels (Mastropieri, 2003). In Australia and New Zealand, similar trends are evident. In Australia, the national curriculum prescribes new standards of achievement as benchmarks for student performance. There is also increasing pressure for students to be demonstrating academic competence through the National Assessment Program for Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) (Davies & Dempsey, 2011). The resulting impact of NAPLAN scores and pressure from the introduction of the My School website is being felt by many students, teachers, schools, school principals, education authorities and governments, especially if performances at their level of responsibility in the system fall below expectations and/or the National Minimum Standards. In New Zealand, a new national curriculum became mandatory in 2010, and national standards were established for reading, writing and mathematics. This new wave of national assessment, academic standards and accountability may promote academic competence to the detriment of more meaningful curriculum, especially for students with disability (Davies, 2012; Elliott et al., 2012). The ultimate goal of secondary schooling is that completion of high school prepares young people to successfully participate and engage in post-school employment and/or education, independent living and other social and recreational activities. While students are expected to undertake the regular study program as much as possible, this expectation needs to be balanced by the need to ensure that students study courses and subjects that are meaningful and relevant to them individually, and ultimately provide them with exit capacities that maximise their chance of successfully engaging in post-school study, work, or life options.

Relevant and meaningful

Focusing on the most relevant and meaningful programs for individual students with disability may require the development of particular knowledge and skills. Some students with disability will need to work on literacy and numeracy skills and gaps in their content knowledge. Many will require adjustments to help them to process and subsequently learn and apply new information. Some will need organisational skills such as time and assignment management, while instruction on note-taking skills to be able to readily organise and record information will be important for others (Kreider et al., 2019). Other students may need assistance with communication, and to develop and then apply social skills and to help make and maintain friendships (see Figure 13.11.). A range of life skills might also be targeted.

Self-determination

An overarching area of focus is the capacity for individuals to be self-determining and to take responsibility for their own actions and learning – a capacity that may take many years to

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develop. Teachers can provide opportunities for students to develop options and make choices that can empower these students to be selfdirective and self-regulating – behaviours that can become life-changing for students. These skills could initially be encouraged and taught by learning support staff through coteaching, with the general teacher focusing on embedding these skills within subjects of the general education program. The senior phase of schooling (Years 10 to 12) can provide multiple curriculum pathways for students as they prepare to transition from school to post-school life. Education systems need to provide broad learning options and flexibility in what, where and when learning occurs. This will now be discussed in greater detail in the sections on transition planning and work experience.

FIGURE 13.11 Some students need help to manage the complexities of secondary school life.

13.7 Transition planning The transition from school to adult life involves a number of life-changing aspects. This transition can be both an exciting and challenging time as young people prepare as adults to live, learn and work in a constantly changing and complex world. Planning for transition to postschool life is critical and typically involves seeking specific advice on school subjects for those students planning to continue their post-secondary education, students considering possible careers, and the opportunity for work experience in the final years of schooling.

For young people with diverse needs and their families, the transition to post-school life can be a challenging time, particularly if the needs are high and complex (Bambara et al., 2007; Strnadová & Cumming, 2016). A comprehensive and coordinated transition planning process is vital for these students. The research literature has consistently shown that post-school outcomes for students with disability are poor in comparison to other students (Davies et al., 2013). School leavers with low levels of education are at a much greater risk of unemployment for multiple and longer periods of time than those with higher levels of education. Moreover, students with intellectual and developmental disabilities lack the opportunities and choices for post-secondary education, community living and employment that are commonly available to their peers without a disability (Redgrove et al., 2016). In a recent Queensland study of post-school outcomes, most school leavers with a disability had limited participation in community employment, were isolated from the community and had limited access to recreational options and services. Most young adults lived at home with their parents or carer, and all were at risk of being disengaged from mainstream society (Davies & Beamish, 2009). These outcomes are particularly concerning when evidence suggests that how students live in their first year after school is predictive of how they will spend the rest of their lives. See Morgan and Riesen (2016) for specific predictor variables. With increasing numbers of students with diverse needs in their classrooms, teachers can provide those students with the chance to develop both academic and life skills so that they can

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careers adviser A member of staff in secondary schools who provides vocational support for all students. This person may assess the vocational needs of students, advise students on employment options, locate work experience placements and monitor the placement of students at these sites.

have successful post-school lives. The challenge is to balance tensions between achieving high academic outcome goals while also addressing broader learning/life goals in their classrooms. In secondary inclusive settings, transition officers, learning support teachers, special education staff, career advisers and school counsellors have been appointed to help promote curriculum planning in line with transition planning. Teachers need to encourage and support transition planning initiatives, support students to achieve identified goals and complete their study program so as to realise successful post-school outcomes.

The planning process

Transition planning is a process that helps young people to plan, prepare and work towards achieving their future goals. The focus on transition planning in secondary schools is based on the recognition that when young people engage in transition planning processes: • they make smoother transitions into adult life when they are supported to do so

• they have greatly enhanced post-school outcomes and quality of life if schools are capable of providing coordinated support programs. The transition of young adults with diverse needs to post-school life demands coordinated planning, collaboration and decision-making among school staff, families and a network of community agencies (Beamish et al., 2020). Comprehensive transition planning provides a framework for the student to cumulatively develop the skills, resources and supports necessary to achieve desired goals (McDonnell & Hardman, 2010). It involves planning now for a desired future, using a process that: • promotes a smooth transition to adult life • is empowering

• maximises choices

• informs decision-making

• provides direction and purpose.

Specialised, detailed and intensive planning for individualised support is required for these young people to make a successful transition to adult life and to realise successful post-school goals and quality-of-life outcomes. Planning is person-centred and guided by the young person’s hopes, interests, aspirations and needs, and by an understanding of who they are. In collaboration and partnership with family and others, young people are encouraged and supported to play a leading role in their own transition planning, and to identify what skills and behaviours they need to develop for a successful transition to life as an adult. Within a team approach, young people and their families are supported to create and realise their personal vision for the future by: • planning for life after school

• identifying and working towards desired outcomes and goals vocational education and training (VET) Technical education provided by colleges of further education and private providers and sometimes undertaken by students while they are in the final years of high school.

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• designing school, home and community experiences to ensure the young person develops the skills, knowledge, understanding and dispositions to achieve desired outcomes and goals • making connections and establishing partnerships necessary to achieve those outcomes and goals.

Transition planning is not a single event or meeting. The process starts early, either in Year 9 or Year 10, when young students are expected to take a more active role on deciding what, when and how they will learn. Year 9 is also the first year in most states when students are able to take vocational education and training (VET) courses and other workplace learning options. Starting early also allows the young person time and opportunities to develop the skills and understandings with appropriate support, services and information. Transition planning develops a comprehensive and holistic profile of the young person because all aspects of life for a young person with disability impact on one another.

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Outcomes and goals beyond school

Planning also needs to identify learning goals, services and supports necessary for a smooth transition from school to future settings and roles. To achieve successful post-school community living, four general outcomes have been identified by Crockett and Hardman (2010) as universally critical: • establishing a network of friends and acquaintances

• developing skills to use community resources for daily living

• securing a paid job that supports the use of community resources and peer interaction • establishing independence and autonomy in making lifestyle choices.

Planning to achieve these outcomes through the school, programs need to consider:

• current and future environments such as work, education and training, leisure and recreation, living arrangements and community • roles such as worker, parent, friend, community participant or flatmate

• life dimensions, such as social, physical, spiritual, emotional and intellectual

• required skills, knowledge, understandings, information and connections, such as positive social skills, self-determination skills, transport and mobility, independent living skills, leisure and recreational activities, and education and training courses and programs.

Documentation

Transition planning needs to be documented. Various educational authorities in Australia and New Zealand have developed their own version of a planning document, each with their own strengths and weaknesses. The ILP or ITP, which might have been evolving for some students with disability for some time, usually makes way for a more appropriate transition planning document such as the individual transition plan (ITP), or in the Australian Capital Territory it is the ‘student pathways planning’. In Western Australia, the outcomes-based and futures-focused ‘my life, my plan’ is in place. In Queensland, the initial planning of goals for students uses a generalist senior education and training (SET) plan, although on the Gold Coast, the south coast transition model (SCTM) for students with disability adopts a ‘personal future action plan’. This particular plan requires the team to complete columns across a landscape page for long-term goals (10 years), short-term goals (now and next couple of years), strategies (ways to achieve goals), persons responsible, target date and the date action was completed. Table 13.1 portrays the summary of planning needs for John, a 15-year-old student, who attended Year 10 at a high school on the Gold Coast. The second page provides details of some of the documented planning that John and the team discussed and decided upon.

Planning documents are critical to the transition planning process, but the primary issue in judging effectiveness of a transition program is whether best practices are embedded in documentation, and then whether they are implemented. In terms of best practice in transition planning, a literature review of school to post-school transitions (Meadows et al., 2006) indicated that one of the most comprehensive and widely accepted frameworks of quality transition practice is the taxonomy for Taxonomy for Transition Programming 2.0 (Kohler et al., 2016). According to Xu et al. (2016), Kohler’s taxonomy is the only research-based transition model in the literature. In this model, practices are organised according to five key areas indicative of successful transition-focused programming and an outcome-oriented planning process. These areas are: (i) student-focused planning, (ii) student development, (iii) interagency collaboration, (iv) family involvement, and (v) program structure, and each of these areas has a number of specific indicators. For example, student-focused planning includes ILP planning, student participation and planning strategies.

563

564 Attended first expo, gained general awareness of options available.

21.07.20

Date addressed

14.02.20

Date considered

Lifelong learning and study (to be integrated with above areas where necessary)

Other factors (considerations for addressing where possible in above life environments as goals/actions)

Persons responsible

Target date

Short-term goals (now and next couple years)

Long-term goals (10 years’ time)

Strategies (ways to achieve goals)

To have a good job with qualifications. To be living at home as independently as possible. In spare time, kick the footy (with friends and dad); go to the gym and also to just relax.

Vision statement (10 years’ time):

Parent and John given contact at Centrelink to discuss disability support pension and associated payment, unsure whether John will qualify. Discuss at first review (August 2015) – achieved.

14.02.20

20.08.20 (disability support pension and associated payments from 17.05.20)

Comment

Finances/income – including Centrelink payment, other

Transport/mobility – including mobility allowance, taxi vouchers

Respite – overnight, short stay, other

Consider at first review – achieved, friends network is increasing, not a priority for planning.

14.02.20

Social/recreational

John has very good general living skills.

14.02.20

Living arrangements

14.02.20

14.02.20

Comment

Vocational

Date addressed/being addressed

Date considered

Life environment (key planning domains)

TABLE 13.1 Personal future action plan for John: summary of planning needs

Date action completed

Facilitator’s signature

Facilitator’s signature

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(i.e., It’s not just about going to subjects or doing chores!)

NB. Goals now the focus for John – school and home assistance is provided to achieve goals.

– ? (Plan B).

– Plumbing

Current interests:

– have decent qualifications – TAFE/ Uni.

– good money

– reasonably enjoyable

– work with hands (practical)

– routine and variety

– working with people

– inside and outside

– Technology studies – metal (MIT) Chemistry

Subjects:

1.3 For John to pass Year 10 and get a better maths result.

NB. Consider traineeship/ apprenticeship when adequate work experience is completed.

– sample different occupations.

– gain exposure to the world of work

1.2 For John to participate in the school work experience program to:

1.3 (a) John to maintain effort in MIT and hospitality and increase effort in English and SOSE

1.2 (b) Father to organise transport for placements.

NB. If necessary (if placement cannot be easily found), will do on-campus placement in grounds or maintenance.

1. Plumbing?

1.2 (a) School to facilitate access to placements. Mode: 1 day per week – probably Wednesdays? In 4–5 week blocks, when achievable. Preferences:

– cooking dinner three nights per week (also important living skill).

– putting washing up away daily (within time limits)

1.1 (b) John to complete set chores at home:

– teamwork/social competencies: NB. John to consider other subjects. accepting the views of others Case manager to explain to – finishing the job properly: subject teachers for their attention to the last steps. implementation.

– productivity: increase

John Wilson

Peter Wilson

Industry liaison officer John Wilson, Peter Wilson

John and Peter Wilson

Case manager, Technology Studies in Metal (MIT) and hospitality subjects teachers

1.1 (a) School program to address three noted needs in MIT and hospitality (John’s choices).

1.1 For John to develop the following work-related skills/ abilities:

1 To have a job with the following qualities:

– working full-time

Comment

Date addressed/being addressed

Date considered

Life environment (key planning domains)

To start 15.02.20

To start Week 1 Term 2, 2020

Placement to start week 1 term 2, 2020

To start 14.02.20 Ongoing 2020

To start 19.02.20 Ongoing 2020

Facilitator’s signature

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Implementation practices

In terms of implementation of these areas and their indicators, a study (Beamish et al., 2010; Kohler et al., 2017) examined Queensland teachers’ agreement that each of the 46 practices from Kohler’s taxonomy was an indicator of program quality, and the current use of the practice in their school program. Transition practices in the areas of student development, student-focused planning and family involvement were strongly endorsed and frequently implemented. However, lower levels of endorsement and implementation were signalled in the areas of interagency collaboration and program structure. These results indicated that relationships between school staff and post-school community agencies in Queensland are problematic and that more formal collaborative structures between sectors need to be developed locally between schools and community agencies and at the cross-departmental systems level. The results for program structure indicated a lack of commitment to and support for transition-focused education at school and systems levels. Several features of the model used on the Gold Coast reflect best transition practice in the areas of self-determination, student-focused planning, family involvement, interagency collaboration and program structures (Meadows, 2009). While many teachers have difficulty implementing some practices, others are able to implement these practices well. Individual teachers, therefore, can make a difference if they apply best-practice transition strategies in their own schools (see Narrative 13.4). Drawing upon data from two Queensland benchmarking inquiries into effective transition practices, Davies et al. (2013) identified seven key practices that secondary educators need to put in place, which are explored in Figure 13.12.

1

Students take an active role in planning (see Chapter 7 for more detail).

2

Students have work experiences in the last 3–4 years of school.

3

Teachers meet regularly with post-school service providers to identify and address issues.

4

Family members are integral team members and, with the student, lead decision-making.

5

Program philosophy and policy surrounding transition education at the school is documented.

6

Ongoing evaluation of transition education and student outcomes is carried out by the school.

7

Professional development and other training in transition education is available to teachers.

FIGURE 13.12 Seven practices to put into place to ensure an effective transition.

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The importance of these seven practices is demonstrated with the material on transitionfocused education that follows.

NARRATIVE 13.4 ILP and transition planning for David to Year 10

FIGURE 13.13 David and his family at a planning meeting

At the completion of Year 8, David had identified food studies and art as two favourite subjects and possible career pathways. This was supported by his family’s vision for David to gain employment in the hospitality industry, and training pathways were identified in his ILP meeting at the end of the year. David would continue with food studies as an elective in Years 9 and 10. However, further training in a simulated work environment would prepare him better for the real world of work. A course was available at a local special school. One other student had successfully completed this course but was reluctant to continue, as working with students with more severe disabilities was a personal challenge. As this training enterprise was also operating a retail coffee shop, a visit to the coffee shop was organised in term 4, Year 8. David, his mother and case manager were shown over the facilities and, over morning tea, it was agreed that this would be an appropriate training course for David. Timing would be important and a decision was made not to fast-track into vocational training in Year 9, and to allow David to complete middle school with his peers. He continued with food studies in Year 9 and was booked into the course to commence term 1, Year 10.

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David was enrolled into the user-pays course and completed a term of training. A teacher assistant accompanies each student undertaking the course. Midway through this term, the hospitality teacher contacted the school to report on David’s progress. Initial minor behaviour problems were quickly resolved when the groupings were re-arranged and David had shown such progress that he was invited to complete the course in term 2 without a teacher assistant. Some initial problems with transport to the facility in term 2 were identified, and transition planning to include travel training is being discussed. David further capitalised on hospitality training offered by the high school by taking a Certificate I in Food Processing – one 70-minute lesson per week over the school year. This is one of many Certificate I courses offered to Year 10 students to open their learning accounts and earn credit towards their Queensland Certificate in Education. The Year 10 life skills lessons focused on preparing students for their career pathway and completion of their SET plans towards the end of the year. Through David’s ILP and transition planning, he was on the way to choosing suitable school subjects in areas where he had already achieved success, as well as looking beyond the classroom to work experience, a possible traineeship and casual work with the support of a disability service provider in his senior years at high school.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the importance of cooperative planning by relevant stakeholders in transition planning. 2. Who might the relevant stakeholders be at different stages in transition planning? How can collaborative processes be maximised?

Credentialling

credentialling The process of awarding students a certificate showing that they have attained a certain standard. For example, in New South Wales all school students are now eligible to receive a certificate after 10 and 12 years of schooling, regardless of the level of their ability.

568

In line with the development of ILPs/ITPs, the plan development team needs to help students achieve the best possible outcome, which will then launch these students into post-school education or employment options. In Australia, each state and territory has their own certification system, and decisions regarding subjects, including vocational education and training (VET) options, are made that provide the best credentialling outcome for each student. See Aussie Educator and ACARA in Weblinks under the Curriculum sub-section for further information.

In Queensland, for example, if the requirements for moderation and certification for achievement of the various certificates are understood, then the senior education and training (SET) plan could identify whether a student should be working toward achievement of the Queensland Certificate of Individual Achievement, the Queensland Certificate of Education (QCE) or VET awards. The QCE is Queensland’s senior school qualification awarded to eligible students, usually at the end of Year 12. The QCE recognises broad learning options and offers flexibility in what, where and when learning occurs. Students working towards a QCE have a wide range of learning options that can include senior school subjects; vocational education and training; workplace and community learning; and university subjects undertaken while at school. In Queensland senior schooling includes:

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• building Year 10 as a transition to the senior phase of learning

• requiring schools to develop individual student plans for the senior phase of learning – senior education and training (SET) plans – during Year 10 with young people and their parents or guardians • requiring schools to register young people with the Queensland Study Authority during Year 10, in order to open a learning account so their progress can be monitored and achievements recorded in their senior phase of learning. (For further information on certification in Queensland, see Weblinks at the end of the chapter.)

Documentation for completion of secondary school

The New South Wales Department of Education has made both the School Certificate (typically completed after 10 school years), and the Higher School Certificate (12 school years of study), available to all students, regardless of the course of study that they have completed at school. For those students who completed a non-standard syllabus, a record of achievement shows the key learning area balance in the student’s program of study, and a student profile shows outcomes achieved in each of the key learning areas. The record for some students will indicate that they completed all non-standard subjects, while for others it will show a mix of mainstream and other subjects, such as those covering life skills outcomes and content. An important outcome from this credentialling is that students with disability now receive official recognition for their school achievements. Teachers need to investigate the credentialling or certification system in operation that will impact on their students, and to ensure that the best possible program is in place to maximise each student’s outcome.

Self-determination

In a major review of transition literature, Meadows et al. (2006) found substantial evidence of the value of teaching self-determination skills and behaviours to students with disabilities. Selfdetermination is defined as: knowing what one wants in life and having the mechanisms to achieve these goals … The self-determined individual knows a great deal about him- or herself, has a clear vision for the future, feels a sense of control over the immediate environment and decisions, can self-advocate, and can muster the necessary supports to accomplish what he or she wants. Source: Whitney-Thomas & Moloney, 2001, p. 376

Shogren et al. (2015) concluded that self-determination interventions in secondary school may lead to better post-school outcomes. Schools should be teaching students to be self-sufficient citizens who are capable of looking after themselves as well as making a positive contribution to society. This goal is doubly important for many students with disability because, as discussed earlier in this chapter, the post-school outcomes for these students are poor in comparison with other students. It may be that some students will never be fully independent in the community, and will continue to rely on their family and government supports for some aspects of their lives. Regardless, the promotion of as much independence as possible remains a worthwhile goal as a means of enhancing the self-esteem of these students, and of reducing the level of financial and other community supports that they may need in the future. Teachers can do much to promote self-determination in their students by recognising that there are everyday opportunities that they can provide to their students for choice and decisionmaking, problem-solving, goal-setting, promoting dignity of risk, self-evaluation, self-awareness and self-efficacy (a belief that one’s actions may be successful) (Trainor, 2005). Additionally,

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self-determination can be developed at secondary school using experiential learning, and involvement in transition planning and peer mentoring (Powers et al., 2006). Some examples of learning activities that address different aspects of self-determination follow (and in more detail in Chapter 7).

Choice-making and decision-making

Making a choice between options involves making a decision and then communicating this preference. The value of making choices is in experiencing some control, in understanding that not all options may be available at the time, and that choices are constrained for everyone. The wide range of activities experienced by students at school provides many opportunities for choice-making that can be incorporated into learning activities: • choosing between two or more activities • deciding when to complete an activity • selecting with whom to participate • deciding where to do the activity

• having the choice not to participate in an activity.

Teachers need to look for every opportunity to provide choice as a standard protocol in their classrooms.

Problem-solving

Classroom activities that incorporate problem-solving of issues that relate to real-life situations and are consistent with personal and social capability from the Australian Curriculum can assist students in preparing for when they will assume greater responsibility for their own life and welfare. Hughes and her colleagues (2006) describe the ‘Get a life’ curriculum that is part of instruction for students with learning difficulties at a high school. The curriculum includes units on establishing a career and an income, setting up and managing a budget, understanding wages and dealing with the unexpected. Since coping with unexpected situations is part of adult life, the curriculum unit uses a pack of cards, similar to ‘Chance’ cards, to simulate the ups and downs of life. The pack contains a set of ‘sorry’ cards and one or two ‘good luck’ cards (e.g. birthday gift, raffle prize). Once a fortnight all students draw one card from the deck and they have a fortnight to check the cost of the problem shown on the card by visiting local businesses or by internet research. By combining this information with budgeting activities, students can learn that it is in their interests to include a cushion in their budgets to allow for the unexpected. Examples of ‘sorry’ cards appear in Table 13.2. TABLE 13.2 Examples of ‘sorry’ cards to promote problem-solving and ‘good luck’ card examples below them

Health

Automotive

Property

You lose your glasses.

You pay a speeding fine.

Your toilet becomes blocked.

You break your arm.

You replace a broken headlight.

You need to pay for a pregnancy test. You need an antibiotic prescription.

You lose your keys and need to You pay to have your car serviced. replace the locks. You need the bond for a new You pay for registration and apartment. insurance. You need to renew your licence.

You need to replace a broken window.

You need to visit your doctor. A new medication cures your long-standing medical problem.

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The carpet needs cleaning.

You win a raffle for a new European sports car.

Your house is chosen to be painted for free as part of a marketing promotion.

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Self-awareness and self-knowledge

There are many opportunities to help students to develop self-awareness through everyday classroom activities. Making time for reflection, discussion and publishing (written or verbal) on what and how the student learnt in a class activity could be established as a standard component that could improve learning as well as self-awareness. An extension of this activity is the use of literature circles as a self-determination strategy for secondary students with learning difficulties (Blum et al., 2002). Each circle comprises three to six students who are encouraged to read for a purpose, report on what they have read and to reflect on their reading. Readers prepare themselves for discussion by assuming different roles (e.g. leader, illustrator, vocabulary helper) and then complete a worksheet. Some examples of instructions on these worksheets appear in the following examples.

Illustrator Your job is to draw a picture about the reading. It could be a cartoon, sketch, diagram or something else. You can draw a picture of something in the book, something that the reading reminded you of or a feeling you got from the reading. When the leader asks you to, you can show the picture to the rest of the group. One at a time, they get to guess what the picture is about. When they have finished you can tell them what the picture means to you.

Vocabulary helper Your job is to find tricky words and phrases in the reading. These could be words that you had trouble reading, or long or complicated words. Try to use the dictionary to help you with difficult words. List the words on your sheet in large writing. When the leader asks you to, you should show the list to the rest of the group. Read the list to them and explain why you chose the words on your list. You can ask the group if they have any other tricky words to add. Source: Adapted from Blum et al. (2002)

This activity can be combined with a survey that students complete before they experience literature circles, and then again several weeks later. The survey, shown in Table 13.3, is designed to encourage the students to reflect on their reading skills as a means to understanding themselves better. This activity could be used as a precursor to the students setting learning goals for themselves. TABLE 13.3 Student survey used in literature circles

STUDENT SURVEY USED IN LITERATURE CIRCLES High

Low How do you rate your reading ability?

1

2

3

Strongly disagree

4

5

Strongly agree

I understand what I read

1

2

3

4

5

I remember what I read

1

2

3

4

5

I can explain to others what I read

1

2

3

4

5

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Self-awareness can also be developed more explicitly in creating the student’s ILP/ITP, or can be used to supplement the student’s portfolio. The review of personal plans is also an opportunity to develop a sense of self. Utilising solution-focused questioning can develop insight for all, as well as helping to find solutions. One process involves simple scaling (from 1 ‘the worst’ to 10 ‘the best’) of subjects/motivation/ happiness and so on, with follow-up questions as to what would need to happen for the rating to be one or two numbers further up the scale.

13.8 Work experience and transition from school There is substantial evidence showing the effect of structured work experience and workplace-based vocational learning on positive post-school outcomes (Kohler et al., 2016; Meadows et al., 2006). Students are provided with new experiences and opportunities to develop new work-based knowledge and skills that would be difficult, if not impossible, to provide on the school campus. Some programs have structured work experience as an alternative educational program that is central to the ITP, and the student’s stated vocational goals. For many students with disability in their final years of schooling, work experience can provide a potential stepping stone into employment. For students with significant disabilities, work experience is also an important educational strategy. On the Gold Coast, the SCTM has developed a well-structured and monitored sampling program, utilising a coordinated access procedure. Sampling is the term used in the program to describe a school student who chooses to participate in activities at non-paid employment, post-school service providers for the purpose of experiencing voluntary work, or to help develop socialisation/recreation and living skills, such as familiarisation and decision-making. Sampling also aims to assist students to make more informed choices about which service/s may best suit them to achieve their post-school vocational goals. The program was developed in 2006 as an organised solution to individual schools and families approaching the same services to arrange sampling activities for students. Annual evaluation indicates that it is a consistently successful program.

Work experience can offer significant advantages as an extension program to classroom learning. To maximise learning outcomes, teachers need to consider how they can augment these experiences with carefully constructed curricular activities.

Vocational education and training

The potential of vocational education and training (VET) in enhancing outcomes for students with disability has been recognised for several decades. However, in recent years there has been a resurgence of interest in vocational education for regular education students (see Figure 13.14). This interest raises the debate about the extent to which schools should prepare students for work, through vocational training, in addition to providing a more traditional academic education in academic skills required for access to university. Schools have a responsibility to provide meaningful curriculum in the final years of schooling not only to students who may want to continue their education at university, but also to students who want to follow a career as a technician, a tradesperson or in other vocationally-oriented professions. VET is a popular option, with 242 000 Australian secondary school students taking part in VET in 2017 (NCVER, 2019). Vocational education in schools has the potential to assist many students with disability.

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In the past decade, state and territory governments have become increasingly concerned about both educational and post-educational outcomes for students with a disability. In particular, attention has been focused on participation by people with a disability in VET and on

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their success in securing employment at the completion of their training. From 2008 to 2011, participation in VET by people with a disability increased by 48 per cent (Australian Government Department of Industry, 2012), and in 2011, 119 400 students with a disability were training in the VET system, up 8.4 per cent from the previous year (NCVER, 2012). Employment outcomes after VET are generally poorer for people with a disability, although this does vary by disability type. In 2019, 73.7 per cent of VET graduates with a disability were employed or in further study after training, compared with 86.6 per cent of VET graduates with no disability (NCVER, 2019).

Practical experience

A common theme in the literature is that people with a disability whose training involves practical experience in the workplace are more likely to find employment. Training targeted to specific employment opportunities or career pathways is also more likely to lead to employment (Guenther et al., 2008). Better employment outcomes have been achieved for students enrolled in an apprenticeship or traineeship (Bonaccio et al., 2020), probably because of the immediate employment relationship embedded in the apprenticeship and traineeship model. However, as discussed earlier, participation is lower for people with a disability.

FIGURE 13.14 Vocational training is gaining popularity in secondary schools.

VET provides a different, adult-oriented learning environment, as an alternative to traditional school education. Typically, each VET course would be offered for one half-day each week, with the student attending school for the remainder of the week. In most Australian states, a range of course types is offered. Discrete Certificate I or II level qualifications can provide an entry to higher-level training following the completion of school. Examples of the areas covered in this training are business services, hospitality, construction, retail and primary industries. In addition, students may undertake some courses that will provide them with advanced standing for future VET courses. If students meet the course requirements, then their VET results will count towards their final school certificate. This option suits many students with disability whose transition plan is vocationally oriented.

Unfortunately, some schools have not been encouraging VET options for their students. As previously noted, increased numbers of students who previously may have left school after Year 9 or 10 (including students with learning and social problems) are continuing to high school completion, and some school systems have been slow to change curriculum offerings to meet their needs. If wider options were more available and were accepted by teachers, young people choosing VET would be less likely to be labelled as ‘at risk’ students and VET programs would not be seen as something less than the standard curriculum.

Employment organisations

A significant change in disability services in the last two decades has been the development of a wide range of community employment options. For example, 10 years ago it was not uncommon to find that the only employment option for a person with a disability was a sheltered workshop. Now, particularly in metropolitan areas, employment services may include open employment, supported employment, enclaves (small groups of workers within a larger business), work crews, small businesses and cooperatives. In addition, there are post-school options programs in many areas that provide training for young people with a disability who may not currently have the

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skills for entry into the workforce. Employers are now offered a range of incentives to employ people with a disability, and employees with a disability are now guaranteed a minimum wage and equitable working conditions. Students who are unable to find employment when they leave school may be provided with a place in a community access program that allows them to further develop their community living skills. Many employers seem reluctant to consider taking on workers with a disability, perhaps because of perceived costs associated with the need to make physical adjustments to the workplace; a loss of productivity; or higher costs of insurance, workers’ compensation and occupational health and safety. Many employers are also likely to demonstrate a lack of awareness about the skills and abilities of people with a disability (Bonaccio et al., 2020). Hence the attitudes and preconceptions of employers can pose additional barriers to employment for this group of people. However, with exposure to students with disability through work experience, employers are becoming more realistic about what these students can offer.

Partnerships

Some regions have developed collaborative working parties to help secure post-school and schoolbased apprenticeships and traineeships for school leavers with disability. These partnerships between schools, employers and the VET sector have been most successful in some regions. As an example, the Gold Coast region has produced an access guide and directory that sets out how the apprenticeships and traineeships partnership for students with disabilities operates. Teachers need to check with their regional educational authority as to what systems and services might be operating in their region.

Collaboration between agencies

The array of community organisations associated with the transition from school can be confusing for students with disability and their families. To address this problem, the national disability coordination officer (NDCO) program was funded by the Department of Education and Training (DET). There are presently 31 positions in place across Australia and you can consult the DET website to find the regional hosts nationwide (see Weblinks at the end of this chapter). NDCOs perform a range of functions focused on the development of resources, training and related activities to encourage a cohesive educational environment where students, and people in the community, can plan and participate in the transition process into further training, education and employment. This is achieved by working directly with teachers and disability staff in each sector, and employers and related employment services, to identify gaps in regional services or appropriate resources, and by establishing supportive professional networks and information bases for staff, students and their families. An important activity in this process is interagency collaboration between schools and post-school service agencies such as training organisations, universities, and other relevant government departments. While teachers perceive this collaboration as important, they do not implement collaborative practices. Meadows et al. (2014) suggest that teachers do not engage with other agencies because they lack knowledge about the transition process. They emphasise the importance of engaging with the post-school sector. Additionally, funding issues often preclude students from engaging with post-school services. Meadows et al., (2014) suggest that teachers need training in understanding the system, in coordinating the post-school transition process and in advocating for systemic support. To better understand the system, the next sections describe the nature of the expanding relationship between schools and government departments.

Working with government departments 574

Many families of a student with disability find it difficult to understand how the community service system operates. Schools should assist families by providing coordination of a range of

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different support services. However, once students leave school there is rarely a ‘one-stop shop’ to give this level of coordination. Instead, they must deal with a wide range of agencies and organisations at Commonwealth, state and sometimes local government levels. Frequent changes in the names of government departments, and changes in the responsibility for the operation of some services contribute to this confusion. School staff, especially special education or learning support staff, need to keep up with the service system structure, and pass on this information to students and their families when relevant.

Australia

In Australia, the Commonwealth Government is responsible for funding of employment services for people with a disability, and state governments operate or oversee accommodation, respite care, leisure and other disability services. All services are required to follow a set of service standards that are designed to ensure that these services meet minimum requirements. Complaints are handled by the Commonwealth Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, and similar organisations exist in the states and territories. To assist the process of engaging with the right set of services, the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) aims to provide information and referrals, links to services and activities, individualised plans and, where necessary, supports over a lifetime (see Weblinks).

New Zealand

In New Zealand, a number of government departments provide direct services to people with a disability. The Office for Disability Issues (see weblink under the Transition Focused Education materials sub-section) is responsible for promoting, monitoring and reporting on the progress of the New Zealand Disability Strategy (a policy to include people with a disability in mainstream society) within government and the wider community.

Working within limited resources and time

The long-term future of transition planning for students with disability in Australia remains uncertain because the Commonwealth and state and territory government departments have not all committed themselves to continuing designated funding in this area. In addition, at some schools a formal transition planning program may not operate. Nevertheless, there may be some students with disability enrolled in regular classes who would benefit from transition planning. Continuing to provide a core curriculum that focuses on the academic requirements for university education is likely to be inconsistent with the needs of those students. The Australian Curriculum is providing some encouragement for teachers to make adjustments in learning programs and in teaching processes. Additionally, by applying the strategies and practices outlined in this chapter, teachers and other school staff can help those students prepare for post-school life.

The curriculum

The school curriculum can be made more relevant to students with disability. The selfdetermination section of this chapter demonstrated some practical ways in which regular classroom teachers can encourage independence in their students. If teachers find that the curriculum they are delivering to their students is not meeting their needs, some changes to what is taught need to be made (if it is not working, fix it!). For example, restructuring the curriculum to include units that relate to the students’ current and future life interests can be a way to teach a range of academic skills in a more interesting manner. Such a restructured curriculum for students studying English in high school could include units on choosing a career, finding a place to live, running a household and budgeting. Relevant content that could be covered in the unit on living accommodation might include reading advertisements, translating abbreviations in advertisements, comparing and contrasting choices, assessing available accommodation and developing questions

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flexible progression The opportunity for students to complete their schooling at a faster or slower rate than is normally the case.

to ask the landlord. This flexible and creative approach can be followed in other key learning areas. In maths, the budgeting unit could cover basic computations, use of spreadsheets and estimations for living away from home. Apart from variations in content, students with disabilities can also be afforded the option of flexible progression of their school curriculum program.

Employment education program

In schools where the guidance officer, special educator, or learning support teacher can provide some coordination, the development of a generic employment education program may assist many students with disability. Here, learning activities could address preparing job applications and résumés, attending interviews, getting along with co-workers and maintaining good attendance patterns. Integrating career education into the curriculum can make the school experience more relevant, and can encourage many students with disability to stay at school until the end of 12 years of education, which will enhance their post-school outcomes.

Ensuring future success

To ensure that what is taught to students with disability is relevant, teachers should frequently ask the student if they feel the learning material matters to them. Teachers should also ask themselves why they teach what they do. If the answer is that the content meets the current and future needs of the students, then they are justified in teaching it. Once this is done, the what, when, where and how to assess, plan and teach students will logically proceed. The message that schools in Australia and New Zealand should give to students with disability and their families is that to make the system work for you, you need to know what services are available and how the system operates, before you seek out assistance.

A TEACHER REFLECTS Bronwyn Welling, integrated student support teacher (secondary), Darling Downs Region, Queensland I work as part of the integrated student support team in a regional high school. My role involves teaching and supporting students with diverse leaning needs, and their teachers, in the mainstream environment. For the first few weeks of teaching a new class, my focus is almost exclusively on relationship building: student-toteacher and student-to-student. Using social stories, group activities and problem-solving games, I can observe student interaction, communication and learning preferences; and plan for universal adjustments like seating plans and work groups. My students with disability seem to benefit greatly from these activities – building and strengthening friendships and feeling part of a team. Transferring inclusive practices to teaching curriculum is challenging initially, but becomes easier over time. I have been fortunate to have a team of experienced classroom teachers, special educators and support teachers around me. These teachers hold a wealth of knowledge about my students and a repertoire of proven strategies to help them. Collaborative teaching is now my preferred teaching method. Utilising the specialised skills and knowledge of others – from planning and resourcing through to lesson implementation, assessment and reporting – makes teaching in an inclusive classroom less stressful and more rewarding. It’s great to be able to share the load with other teachers and ultimately has led to the best growth for myself as a teacher and the best outcomes for students.

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Summary

This chapter discussed the main issues associated with the transition of students with disability into secondary school from primary settings; how to plan for and put into place strategies for inclusive teaching that involve teaching for diversity; and issues regarding the transition from school to postschool life. These issues included the developmental aspects of secondary school students, especially relationship and social skills and adjusting to secondary school. Planning for diversity should lead teachers to develop a class profile and apply the 10 approaches to teaching diverse classes that involve content, design and process strategies. The application of inclusive strategies across the secondary curriculum is supported by collaborative teaching and teaming approaches that make these issues less daunting for the individual teacher. An overview of transition planning was provided as a critical process in maximising the curriculum experiences and the post-school outcomes for students with disability. The importance of developing self-determination skills; community-based support services; the roles of parents and families in the transition process; work experience; and employment options were also outlined. A theme throughout the chapter was the importance of the coordination of individual transition plans for students, and the cooperation between the key players in the transition process.

STUDY TOOLS

Several recent trends have had a significant impact on transition planning. One of these trends is the increase in vocational training offered through schools. Also addressed were the issues of credentialling for students who are unable to benefit from a regular curriculum, and flexible progression through the curriculum for students enrolled in regular classes.

Discussion questions

1. Considering the level of diversity of students in today’s classrooms, the challenge for high school teachers is to find the time to understand the learners in each classroom, and then to adjust their classrooms and their instruction to flexibly meet the learning needs of all. What are the initial steps you will take to put this process into place when you commence teaching classes for the first time? 2. What are the most important strategies that high school teachers should apply to meet the learning needs of all students? Focus on your own area/s of specialisation, and explain how students with disability could be supported in the regular classroom. 3. How might you go about assisting other mainstream teachers to adopt the steps and evidence-based strategies above in their classrooms?

Individual activities

1. Reflect on when you moved from primary to secondary school. How did you feel about the transition? How did you manage the issues? What strategies did you employ that helped you to manage the changes? What could teachers and others have done to further help you? How can you put this into place for your students? 2. Think of teachers who engaged you in their subject area. What did these teachers do to engage you in effective learning? What role did the teachers’ expectations have on your level of engagement and your learning performance in this subject? How might you apply these behaviours in your own teaching of students with disabilities to more effectively engage them?

3. Think of classes that you have attended that demonstrate the extremes of learning culture – positive at one end and negative on the other. What were the characteristics of these classes? What role did teachers have in developing this class culture? How well were the needs of individual students met in each of these classes? What type of learning culture will you develop in your classroom? 4. Think of classes that you have attended that effectively used any of the 10 evidence-based or other approaches to teaching for diversity. How did they apply the approaches? How well were the needs of

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individual students met in each of these classes? What other approaches might also have been utilised in this classroom?

5. Develop a class profile in line with Figure 13.4. How useful has the development of this class profile been for you to understand the class in focus and the individuals that might need some extra support from you? Do you think you might use this profile in your classroom in the future? What do you need to do to adapt the class profile to better suit your needs/style? Develop your own version of this class profile using a table for your own future use. 6. Develop a list of:

a. school-based transition support services and personnel that can be accessed by secondary school students with disabilities, and by regular teachers of these students, in your region or school system



b. community-based support services that may be relevant to adolescent students with disability in your local community. Check your local government and internet sources for listings.

Group activities

1. What special challenges does your teaching (subject) area pose for students with disabilities? How can you adapt the teaching strategies you utilise in your subject areas to accommodate students with disability? Discuss this with your peers. Examine the current subject textbooks you have observed being used in the schools. What adaptations might you consider to make the textbooks more user-friendly for a range of students with diverse needs? What technology driven approaches might improve student engagement?

2. Share and discuss your class profile (see Individual activity 5 above) with your peers. Review those students with a red Review label along with those on an orange Watch label with your peers and with others who know the student well. Seek their perspectives on needs and strategies to help you determine what strategies you might follow. 3. Review your behaviour with others in the group.

• How committed are you to developing collaborative relationships with others?

• Discuss how you might advocate for and apply the co-teaching solutions outlined above.

• How might you work effectively with other teaching professionals who might be resistant and reluctant to adopt your recommendations?

4. If the class profile is based on a real class at a school, discuss your profile with other teachers and learning support personnel at the school. 5. Discuss with others how you might apply Kohler’s Taxonomy for Transition Programming in assisting a school to become more focused on effective transition planning.

Weblinks

Curriculum materials

Aussie Educator www.aussieeducator.org.au› curriculum › subjects Australian Curriculum http://www.acara.edu.au/curriculum

Kansas University Center for Research on Learning http://www.kucrl.org/sim/content.shtml Learner diversity information http://www.ascd.org

Mindmatters http://www.mindmatters.edu.au/ default.asp

National Disability Coordination Officer (NDCO) Program https://www.education.gov.au/national-disabilitycoordination-officer-programme Queensland Curriculum Guidelines http://education.qld.gov.au/staff/learning/diversity/ otsp/index.html

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http://education.qld.gov.au/teach/online-coaching-modules.html Transition Focused Education materials

National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) http://www.ndis.gov.au/about-us

Office for Disability Issues New Zealand https://www.odi.govt.nz/nz-disability-strategy/

Zarrow Center for Learning Enrichment, http://www.ou.edu/education/centers-and-partnerships/zarrow.html Additional resources

Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, (2008). Special Issue on Self Determination, 31(2). https:// journals.sagepub.com/toc/cdea/31/2

Division on Career development and Transition, Fast Facts: • Self-determination and self-advocacy (2013). • Goal setting for transition-age youth (2005). http://community.cec.sped.org/dcdt/publications/fast-facts I’m Determined http://www.imdetermined.org/

National Gateway to Self-Determination http://www.ngsd.org/

Shogren, K. (2013). Self-determination and transition planning. Brookes. http://archive.brookespublishing.com/ documents/Shogren-what-is-self-determination.pdf Additional USA websites with information on student-focused planning:

• California: https://secure.californiacolleges.edu/Career_Planning/_default.aspx • Colorado: https://www.collegeincolorado.org/

• District of Columbia: http://ossesecondarytransition.org/topic/determination • Georgia: https://www.gacollege411.org/

• Indiana: https://www.driveofyourlife.org/main/index.html • Pennsylvania: http://www.secondarytransition.org/ Resources for student development

Clark, G., Field, S., Patton, J., Brolin, D., & Sitlington, P. (1994). Life-skills instruction: A necessary component for all students with disabilities: A position statement of the division on career development and transition. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 17(2), 125–134. Retrieved from http://www.dcdt.org/ publications/

Division on Career Development and Transition Fast Facts: Work study (2014). • Non-academic behaviours associated with post-school success (2013). • Occupational courses (2013). • Community experiences (2013). • Independent living (2013). • Age-appropriate transition assessment (2008). http://community.cec.sped.org/dcdt/publications/fast-facts

Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Workplace supports located at Virginia Commonwealth: http:// www.worksupport.com/ Resources for interagency collaboration

Antosh, A. et al. (2013). A collaborative interagency, interdisciplinary approach to transition from adolescence to adulthood. Association of University Centers on Disability. Retrieved from http://www.aucd.org/docs/ publications/transition2013_full_sm2.pdf

Australian Government Department of Education. More Support for Students with Disabilities 2012–2014: Building School Capacity in Transition-Focused Education. Brisbane Catholic Education Queensland School Service Centre North. Retrieved from https://www.google.com.au/search?q=Capacity+building+in+transitionfocused+education&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&gws_rd=cr&ei=bFGxVpbcFIWc0gSGu6TIDQ

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DCDT Fast Facts. Interagency Collaboration. https://higherlogicdownload.s3.amazonaws.com/SPED/34aee1c17ded-4d59-af82-da4af08d5fc4/UploadedImages/DCDT_IAC%20Fast%20Fact_Final.pdf Project 10 Transition Wheel: Interagency Collaboration Retrieved from http://project10.info/files/ TWInteragencyCollaborationL.pdf

Kohler, P. (n.d.). Building capacity for transition-focused education. Retrieved from http://www.ndpc-sd.org/ documents/SEA/2006_SEA_Forum/Kohler_P--Building_Capacity.pdf

Mazzotti, V., Stevenson, B., & Rowe, D. (2015) Webinar on evidence-based and promising practices available at: http://www.transitionta.org/ , click on Events, and click on the Webinar archive of the NTACT Evidence-Based and Promising Practices presentation Tools for reflecting on transition-focused education. http://homepages.wmich.edu/~kohlerp/research7. html#Taxonomy

Recommended reading

Brown, L., Shiraga, B., & Kessler, K. (2006). The quest for ordinary lives: the integrated post-school functioning of 50 workers with significant disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31(2), 93–121.

Cimera, E. V. (2007). The cumulative cost-effectiveness of supported and sheltered employees with mental retardation. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 32(4), 247–252. deFur, S. H. (2008). Transition to postsecondary education. Exceptionality, 16, 175–177.

deFur, S. H., & Korinek, L. (2008). The evolution toward lifelong learning as a critical transition outcome for the 21st century. Exceptionality, 16, 178–191. Dempsey, I., & Ford, J. (2009). Employment of people with an intellectual disability in Australia and the United Kingdom. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 19, 233–243.

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APPENDIX 1

Common abbreviations and shortened forms AAC augmentative and alternative communication ABA applied behaviour analysis ACARA Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority ADHD attention deficit hyperactivity disorder AECG Aboriginal Education Consultative Group AITSL Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership APD auditory processing disorder AS Asperger syndrome AT assistive technology AVT advisory visiting teachers BIP behaviour improvement/intervention plans BOSTES Board of Studies, Teaching, and Educational Standards CAI computer-assisted instruction CAST Center for Applied Special Technology CBA curriculum-based assessment CECP Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, USA DAP developmentally appropriate practice DDA Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Cwlth) DEC Department of Education & Communities NSW DEC Division of Early Childhood USA DET Department of Education and Training, NSW DETI designing effective teaching interventions EAL/D English as an additional language or dialect EAP education adjustment profile EBP evidence-based practice(s) ECI Early Childhood Intervention Australia EDI explicit (teaching) and direct instruction EI explicit instruction EIAANZ Early Intervention Association of Aotearoa New Zealand ESL English as a second language FBA functional behaviour assessment GAT gifted and talented ICF International classification of functioning, disability and health

ICT information and communications technology IDEA Individuals with Disability Education Act (USA) IEP individual education plan IFSP individual family service plan ILP individual learning plan IPBP individual positive behaviour plan IQ intelligence quotient ISP individual support plan ITP individual transition plan KLA key learning area LD learning difficulty LDC learning development committee LSA learning support assistant LSP learning support plan LST learning support team LSU learning support unit MCEECDYA Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs MCEETYA Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs MLD mathematics-learning difficulty MLD+RD mathematics-learning difficulty + reading difficulty NAEYC National Association for the Education of Young Children NAPLAN National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy NDCO National Disability Coordination Officer NDIS National Disability Insurance Scheme (Australia) NESB non-English-speaking background ORS Ongoing Resourcing Scheme (New Zealand) P&C parents and citizens PBI process-based instruction PBIS positive behaviour interventions and supports PBS positive behaviour supports PDP performance and development plans PECS picture exchange communication system PS primary school

585

APPENDIX 1

REI regular education initiative RTI response to intervention RTO registered training organisation SEN special educational needs SEP special education program SET senior education and training SF solution-focused

586

SGD speech generation device TA teacher assistant TAFE technical and further education UDL universal design for learning VET vocational education and training WHO World Health Organization

APPENDIX 2

Fact sheets These fact sheets have been created for pre-service teaching students and teachers as a companion tool to the 6th edition of Inclusion in Action. They are provided on the student website for the book.

The fact sheets give background information on some of the common forms of diversity that teachers may come across within the mainstream classroom, and suggest starting points for finding further information, resources and useful associations. Consistent with the aims of the text, we expect readers to treat learners as individuals and assess their individual learning needs. These fact sheets are intended as a tool to give background information that may be of use to teachers, and to point them in the direction of further helpful resources that may be pertinent to that particular situation. The fact sheets are referred to throughout this text and indicated by the new Fact Sheet icon.

When you see this icon, ask your instructor for access to the fact sheet that relates to that topic. The fact sheets available are:

• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students • Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) • Autism • Communication disorders • Emotional/behavioural disorders • Epilepsy • Gifted and talented students • Hearing impairment

• • • •

Intellectual disability Learning difficulties Physical disability Students for whom English is an additional language or dialect • Students with diverse cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds • Vision impairment

587

Index abbreviations and shortened forms 585–6 Abilities Based Learning and Education Support (ABLES) program 67 Aboriginal Education Consultative Group (AECG) 90, 499 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples 26 see also Barawun Primary School, Jenny (parent with Aboriginal child with a range of educational needs) Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students 6, 17, 138 language teaching 334–7 supporting in schools [narrative] 335–6 academic environment 39 academic skills integrating with behaviour 248–53 secondary schools 540 academically engaged time 252 access, funding for improved 117 acoustic classroom 333–4 ACT catering for students with disability 141–2 to Every chance learn, K-10 Curriculum Framework 141, 142 action plans 187 action research 113 activity-based assessment 466–7 adaptations 199 adapted unit of work implementing 171 preparing 169–70 adaptive technology 184–5 addition back-up strategies 419 big ideas 408, 410 meaning 414 mental and non-standard written strategies for 429 worded situations 422 Adelaide declaration on national goals for schooling in the twentyfirst century 60 adjusting material 163 adjusting text 161–3

588

content 164 example - drawing a history timeline 166–8 preparing/implementing an adapted unit of work 169–70 vocabulary 164–5 adjustments 157–8 adjusting assessment methods to reflect adjusted teaching materials 178–80 adjusting curriculum for students with higher support needs in practical lessons 177 for curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment 135–90 EAL/D students 158 extensive adjustment for students with profound and/ or multiple disabilities in the classroom 158, 171–7 gifted and talented students 158, 245 level 157–8 participation by all students in regular curriculum through 157–8 substantial 157 supplementary 157, 161–3 syllabus topics at year level 168 what to include in adjusted written material? 163–5 see also curriculum adjustment plans adolescence bullying 535–6 developmental processes 534 relationships 534–5 social skills 535 training programs for social skills 536 advisory visiting teachers (AVT) 64 affect 381–2 after reading strategies 379 Age Discrimination Act 2004 (Cth) 54 age-appropriate behaviour 11 aggressive behaviour 240 algorithms 428, 429, 430 Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education Declaration 151, 358 alliteration 368

alternate teaching 188 analytic phonics 370 antidiscrimination legislation 54–5, 59 apprenticeships 573 ARC Self-Determination Scale 300–1 Arthur-Kelly, Michael 310 articulation 368 arts 136, 556 ASDAN (Award Scheme Development and Accreditation Network) Education 144 assertiveness skills 262 assessment 136, 177–83, 507 activity-based (preschool setting) 466 adjusting assessment methods to reflect adjusted teaching materials 178–80 alternative assessments 198, 199 big ideas underpinning number sense 409–10 communication and language skills 346 communication development 327–8 curriculum-based assessment (CBA) 211–12 in early childhood intervention 447, 450 high-leverage practice 206–7 limitations of 75–6 mathematics 403 monitoring of student performance 178 NAPLAN 138–40 vocabulary 403 assistive technology 116, 185, 217, 550 selecting 116–17 software 117 associativity 411 astigmatism 360 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 246, 248, 267 attention-seekers 239 attitudes positive 92, 120–1 to disability 4, 5

INDEX

towards inclusive education 69–70 attribution 382 auditory processing 362 auditory processing disorder (APD) 362 augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) 346–8 definitions of common terms 348 external factors affecting development of students using 349 myths 348–9 systems 347 teaching students who use AAC 349–51 for writing 384–6 AUSLAN (Australian Sign Language) 343, 344 Australia government departments responsible for funding of employment services for people with a disability 575 legislation in 54–8 policy in 60–5 Australian Curriculum 136, 245, 392, 403, 570 benefits from utilising UDL principles 141 and concepts of teaching 136–40 early review 138 learning areas 136–7 state/territory amendments 142–3 supplementary curricula 144–5 Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) 61–2, 136, 138, 382, 554 assessment of literacy and numeracy through NAPLAN 138–40 Framework for Aboriginal Languages and Torres Strait Islander Languages 318 Student diversity and the Australian curriculum 148 Australian Curriculum (Foundation to Year 10) 136, 245 and students with disability 137–8 Australian Disability Standards for Education 2005 56, 137, 144,

145–6, 152, 249 curriculum development, accreditation and delivery 145 educators’ responsibility 146 measures for compliance with standards 57 participation compliance 145 in practice 58, 146 reasonable adjustments 57, 146 social inclusion 249 unjustifiable hardship 56–7 Australian Government legislation 54–6 policy initiatives 59–62 Australian Human Rights Commission Act 1986 54 Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) 136 Australian Professional Standards for Teachers 61, 80, 197, 391 Australian Sign Language (AUSLAN) 343, 344 authentic communication skills 544–5 autism spectrum disorder (ASD/ autism) 93, 96, 107, 246 action plan 187 case study 207–9 checklist for social inclusion 271 communication and inclusion (parent’s perspective) 322–3 communication learning 337–43 and friendships 267 interpreting behaviour 338 sensory needs 338–9 support for children with 338 supporting older children with 340, 340–3 supporting social communication 339–40 transitions 289 autistic people 24 automaticity 382 Award Certificates 183 Barawun Primary School 489, 490, 491–526 day 1, term 1, about three years ago 491–2 end of week 1, the first year 495–7 end of term 1, the first year 497–500

end of term 2, the first year 501–4 end of the first year 504–8 day 1, the second year 508–12 end of term 2, the second year 512–14 end of the second year 515–18 day 1, the third year 518–20 end of term 2, the third year 520–3 end of the third year 523–5 author’s commentary 493–5, 497, 500, 503–4, 506–8, 510–12, 513–14, 517–18, 520, 522–3, 524–5 David (an older student with a disability), narrative 493, 497, 499–500, 502–3, 505–6, 509–10, 513, 516, 519, 521, 524 Jacinta (new school principal), narrative 492, 495–6, 498, 501, 505, 508–9, 512, 515, 519, 520, 523 Jenny (mother of an Aboriginal child with additional educational needs), narrative 493, 496, 499, 502, 505, 509, 513, 516, 519, 521, 524 Mary (a teacher at Barawun PS for over 30 years), narrative 493, 497, 499, 502, 505, 509, 513, 516, 519, 524 Sam (beginning teacher), narrative 491–2, 496, 498, 502, 505, 509, 513, 515, 519, 521, 524 Tony (local small business owner), narrative 493, 497, 500, 503, 506, 510, 516–17, 519, 521–2, 524 basic facts 417–21 accurate min-counters 418 back-up strategies 418, 419–20 narrative example 420–1 teaching suggestions 418–20 before reading strategies 377 behaviour aggressive 240 defined 238 disengaged 240, 241, 245 disruptive 252–3 escalation 261–2 frequency, intensity and duration 238, 239

589

INDEX

functional behaviour assessment 107, 239, 255–9 home factors affecting 243–4 integrating with academic skills 248–53 reasons for student misbehaviour 239–40 relationship between getting, avoiding and communicating 239 school factors and teachers affecting 244–7 social 238–47 students with specific disabilities 242–3 types causing concern 240–1 unproductive 238–9, 240–1 behaviour improvement plans (BIPs) 239, 255–9 case study 257–9 student and teacher developed 259–62 behaviour management 241–2 in classrooms 247, 252–3 developing specific behaviour plans 255–9 in inclusive classrooms 259–61 key factors in management programs 254 preventing behaviour escalation 261–2 in regular classes 253–4 self-management using technology 272 behavioural practices 209–10, 223 behavioural problems 16 language and communication goals 346 students with specific disabilities 242–3 supporting students communication and language needs 345–52 teaching strategies for students with 346–7 beliefs, changing 54 big ideas assessment 409–10 in mathematics 406–7 for number sense 402, 407–10 relating to addition and subtraction 408, 410 relating to counting 407, 410

590

relating to multiplication and division 408–9, 410 relating to numbers 407–8, 410 bigger/smaller numbers 413 blind/blindness 15, 25 buddy systems 114, 266–7, 512 building capacity for inclusion 119–23, 516 bullying 535–6 Canadian secondary schools, inclusion 228–9 cardinal value 412 cardinality 411 career advisers 562 carers involvement in early years of school 481 supporting to provide intervention within home and community settings 456–62 see also parents Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) 154, 160, 185 Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice (CECP) 255–6 Central Normal School (Te kura tuatahi o papaioea): inclusive education in practice [narrative] 20–3 centre-based early childhood services 471 centre-based programs 451 transition from home to inclusive 470–1 centres as listening environments 333–4 supporting communication in 327–31 change approaches to 122 barriers to 121–2 and innovation 121 change agents 524–5 changing values and beliefs 54 child choice and problem-solving 292 child engagement 292 child self-regulation 293–4 children all children can learn 5–6 with autism 337–43 in educational settings 93 outcomes of ISP for 461

choice-making 295–6, 570 ChoiceMaker Self-Determination Transition curriculum 304 Circle of Friends program 269 class profile, developing 542–3 class size 67 Classroom Audio Distribution Systems (CADS) 344–5 classroom integration 35 classrooms behaviour management approaches 247, 252–4, 259–61 beyond the classroom 201 classroom control as ‘good’ management 247 climate 200 co-teaching 188–9 continuum of inclusivity 68 as ecosystems 146–9 effective support 76–8 environments 39 ‘hands-on’ assistance 114–16 instructional level differences 154–6 layout and student behaviour 246 learning strategy instruction 166 as learning–teaching environment 249–50 as listening environments 334–5 management and organisation 200 physical classroom 246 programming outside of 108 providing supportive environments 75–6 skills for increasing social acceptance of students with disabilities 252 students with low additional education support needs 159–71 supporting communication in 327–31 textbook difficulties and strategies 156 use and inclusion 148–9 cloze 331 coaching 557–8 cochlear implants 16, 343, 344 Cochrane Library 455 Code of Conduct for teachers 80 ‘Code of School’ 276 coding 378 cognitive ability 13 cognitive approaches 213, 265–6

INDEX

collaboration 448, 541, 556–7 between schools and post-school service agencies 574 high-leverage practices 205 with parents 558–9 see also collaborative teaching collaborative consultation 93, 96–7, 522–3 collaborative learning 213, 214 collaborative planning 186–8 collaborative staff teams 273 collaborative teaching 64, 186–8, 273, 557 collaborative teams 557 colleague classroom teachers 115 collecting information 327–8 Commonwealth Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 575 communication 318–19 at heart of Australian and New Zealand school curricula 318 authentic communication skills 544–5 children with autism 337–43 and inclusion 320–3 sender–receiver model 319 strategies to enhance children’s speech 328–31 strategies to support 331–4 supporting in centres and classrooms 327–31 see also language communication aids 116 communication development 323–31 assessing 327–8 children with autism 337–8 children who are d/Deaf 343–5 students with social, emotional or behavioural difficulties 345–52 communication skills 262, 318–53 assessment 346, 471 communities, diverse school communities 88–124, 516 community-based services 19 community groups 113 community support for inclusive education for 75 commutativity 411 comorbidity 248 ‘complete the sentence’ activities 331 computer-assisted instruction 218–20

computer play 272 conceptual subitising 411, 412 concrete-representational-abstract (CRA) approach 409 connectedness 201 consolidation phase 94 content adjustment 164 content enhancement 199 to differentiate instruction 552–4 content learning approach 392 content triangle 164, 165 contextualising content 547 Continuous Reading (CR) 372 Convention on the Rights of the Child 307 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 69–70, 307 cooperative learning 114, 213, 214–15, 265 cooperative working 185–9, 273 coping skills 241 co-teaching 188–9, 557–8 Council of Australian Governments (COAG) 60 Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)/CEEDAR Center 199 High Leverage Practices instruction 205, 206 counting 411–17 activities 412–13 big ideas 407, 410 count-from-first strategy 419 longsum-counting strategy 419 min-counting strategy 418, 419 narrative example 416–17 number line activities 413–14 skip counting 420 trusting the count 412–13 see also addition; multiplication; subtraction counting back 414, 415 counting on 414, 415 counting up 415 Cranleigh School, collaborative communication curriculum [narrative] 202–4 credentialling 568–9 cross-age tutoring 215 cultural patterns 381 cultural sensitivity 450 Culturally Responsive Multi-Tiered System of Support (CRMTSS) 224, 225 culture of inclusion 120–1

curriculum 15 adaptations 37 adapting curriculum tasks 213 adjustments see adjustments Australian Curriculum see Australian Curriculum collaborative communication curriculum [narrative] 202–4 differentiation 17, 104–5 and Disability Standards for Education 145–6 early childhood intervention 452, 456 flexible progression 576 functional 144–5 inclusive 141–4 in inclusive education 140–1 individualisation 106–7 issues 197–9 making it more relevant for students with a disability 575–6 methods of adjusting content and presentation 160–1 National Curriculum strategy 61–2 national perspective 136 priorities 210–20 regular curriculum 157–8 secondary, inclusion across 554–6 Self-Directed IEP 304 and student behaviour 244–5 supplementary 144–5 curriculum and resource factors 148 curriculum adjustment plans (CAP) 159 sample 159–60 curriculum enrichment 37 curriculum support materials 67 curriculum-based assessment (CBA) 211–12 developing 477–8 early years of school 476–8 deaf/deafness 15, 16, 25, 343–5 support strategies 344–5 decision-making 296, 570 decoding 370, 371, 372, 375, 377 decomposition strategies 420 DEFENDS writing strategy 548 deinstitutionalisation 4, 455 developmental disabilities 14

591

INDEX

developmental processes (adolescence) 534 Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale 15 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) 359 differentiation 17, 104, 493 facilitating 104–5 gifted and talented young children 465 historical perspective 103–4 mathematics classroom 415, 424–5 to enhance content 552–4 digital technology 218–20 directing 331 disability 2 changing attitudes to 5 concept of 35 diagnosed disability 2 language about 23–4 learning disability or difficulty 3, 16 myths and facts 41–3 terminology 28, 29 what is it? 13–16 Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Cth) 5, 54, 137, 144 interpreting 54–5 Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (UK) 72 disability-specific organisations 113 Disability Standards for Education 2005 see Australian Disability Standards for Education 2005 ‘disabled people’ 24 discriminatory language 23 disengaged behaviour 240, 241, 245 disruptive behaviour 252–3 diverse school communities, practicing inclusion in 88–124, 516 diversity 2 across the life-span 39–41 forms of 17–18 and inclusion to practising teachers 121 language about 23–9 myths and facts 41–3 planning 541–2 ten approaches to teaching for 544–54

592

division big ideas 408–9, 410 as opposite to multiplication 424 worded situations 422, 423 dual reporting approach 181 Dulwich Hill Public School, inclusion policy [narrative] 64–5 during reading strategies 378 dyscalculia 402 dysfluent reading 371 dyslexia 359 early childhood, self-determination 292–4 Early Childhood Early Intervention (ECEI) 454 early childhood inclusion 455–6 early childhood intervention 444–83 Australasian models 453–4 changing approaches to 449–50 curriculum 452, 456 development of services in Australasia 452–3 effectiveness 454–5 families role 449–50 implementation of recommended practices 448–9 inclusive approach 462 in inclusive early education settings 462–9 inclusive and segregated preschool programs 451–2 models 449–53 overview 446–7 recommended practices 447–9 role in promoting inclusion 455–6 service delivery 450–1, 452 supporting in the home and in inclusive community-based settings 445–56 team approach 461–2 transition as focus for 469–74 working with other professions 452 early childhood special education, USA 71 early childhood/primary teacher, reflection 482 early childhood transitions 469–74 across grades 473 difficulties that families may encounter 470–1 as focus for early childhood intervention 469–74

from home to inclusive centrebased programs 470–1 to inclusive early school environments 471–3 early education programs, access to 455–6 Early Intervention Association of Aotearoa New Zealand (EIAANZ) 453 early intervention programs 39–40, 91 early number 411–17 early years of school inclusive opportunities in the first three years of school 474–5 inclusive practices in 474–82 individual education programs 474–80 parent involvement 481–2 role of other professionals 481 teacher assistant use 480–1 ecological context 101 education disability standards see Australian Disability Standards for Education 2005 inclusive 2–46 see also secondary education Education Act 1989 (NZ) 59 Education Act 1992 (Cth) 5 Education of all Handicapped Children Act (1975) (USA) 70 education authority consultancy team 105 education policy in Australia 63–4 in political influence in 74–5 education providers, ‘reasonable adjustments’ 57, 100, 146 Education Standards Act 2001 (NZ) 59 educational environment, features requiring collaboration and support 76–7 educational journey [narrative] 8–11 educational psychologists 114 educational settings 7 participation compliance 145 see also schools Effective Reading in Content Areas (ERICA) model 392 effectiveness 454 efficacy 454 embedded phonics 370 embracing inclusion 91–3, 516 emotional practices 209–10, 223

INDEX

emotional problems 16 language and communication goals 346 supporting students communication and language needs 345–52 teaching strategies for students with 346–9 empathy 544 employment education programs 576 employment organisations 573–4 English 136, 334 English is an additional language or dialect (EAL/D students) 17–18, 62, 138, 141, 158, 243, 267 environment, natural and inclusive 447 environmental modifications 117 equalise strategy 429, 431 Equality Act 2010 (UK) 72 equations, writing 414–15 equity and excellence 151 ERICA model 392 essay writing skills/strategy 383, 548 estimation 414 ethics 79–80 etymological knowledge 387 Every chance to learn, Curriculum Framework for ACT schools 141, 142 Every Student, Every School (ESES) initiative 105, 114–15 evidence-based best practice (EBP) 38, 89, 91–124 exemplary inclusive practices in yours and other local schools 104–5 exemplary practices in special education facilities 105 explaining 330 explicit instruction 213, 379–80, 384, 404 explicit teaching and direct instruction (EDI) 549 expressive language skills/ difficulties 362, 363 extending students with advanced mathematical skills 433 extensive adjustments 158

failure cycle 244 families efficacy and effectiveness of various interventions 454–5 facilitating collaborative involvement with 559 individual family service plan 457–61, 471, 481 NDIS early intervention services funding 453–4 outcomes of IFSP for 461 possible difficulties with early childhood transitions 470–1 role in early childhood intervention programs 449–50 supporting to provide intervention within naturally occurring home and community settings 456–62 value of including infants and young children with disabilities within 445–6 family-centred practice 447–8 feedback 220, 330 flexible grouping 214 flexible progression 576 fluency (reading) 371–3 formal training 118 Fortune Public School, inclusive practices see Justine (early career teacher), inclusive practices at Fortune Public School friendships 267–8 case study 268–9 developing 269–70 technology use 272 functional behaviour assessment (FBA) 107, 239, 255–9 functional curriculum 144–5 funding 36, 112–13 centre-based early childhood services 471 government 113–14 government departments responsible for funding of employment services for people with a disability 575 for improved access 117 NDIS early intervention services 453–4

facilitating differentiation 104–5 fact sheets 587

general capabilities 146 general skill set strategies 179

gifted and talented students 17 accelerated learning 67 and Australian Curriculum 137 curriculum adjustments 158, 245 curriculum enrichment 37, 141 early intervention programs 40 special classes 17 gifted and talented young children 465 Glenunga International High School, IGNITE program 67 goal-setting and attainment 294–5, 380 example 295 government funding 113–14, 575 policy initiatives 60–4 see also Australian Government; state and territory governments grades, transitions across 473 grammar 324, 326, 332–3 graphemes 369, 370 graphic organisers 379 guided discovery learning 549 ‘handicap’ 28, 29 ‘hands-on’ assistance in the classroom and playground 114–16 health and physical education (HPE) 136 hearing aids 343, 344 hearing impairments 15–16, 25, 93, 343–5 see also deaf/deafness high-leverage practices (HLPs) 38, 205–10, 213–15, 217, 218, 219–20 aligning with Universal Design for Learning 22 high-quality acoustic learning environment 333–4 high school settings 93 Higher School Certificate 569 history 556 home settings home factors affecting behaviour 243–4 naturally occurring 456–62 supporting early childhood intervention in 445–56 transition to inclusive centrebased programs 470–1 homonyms 332 homophones 332 human resources 112

593

INDEX

human rights 5 Human Rights Act 1994 (NZ) 5, 59 humanities and social sciences (HASS) 136 hybrid curricula 141–4 hyperopia 360 ICT (information and communication technologies) 495 identity-first language 24, 25 IGNITE program 67 IMPACT: Ability 307 impairment 25, 28 imputed disability 2 inattention 240 inclusion across the school years 444–83 arguments to support 73–4 building capacity for 119–23, 514, 516 and communication 320–3 defining and exploring the need 76 in early childhood 444–83 in early years of school 474–82 ecological context 101 in education 2–46 effective support 76–8 embracing 91–3, 516 evidence-based best practice 91–124 five steps to 516 future of 43–5 indicators of best practice 77, 78 key players 72–5 negotiating 93–101, 516 New Zealand secondary school perspective [narrative] 226–7 philosophy 20 practice of 72–81 in primary schools 489–526 principles underlying 5–13 programming for inclusion 101–8, 516 resourcing 56, 108–18 in schools 29–36, 93 in secondary schools 533–77 and special education 74–5 strategies for Indigenous students 61 terminology and concepts 18–20 three Rs of 494 three-phase inclusion process 94–5, 509

594

to practising teachers 121 Inclusion and Education: All means all 69 inclusion process, three-phase 94–5, 509 inclusive approach to early childhood intervention 462 to pedagogy 149 inclusive centre-based programs, transition from home to 470–1 inclusive computer play 272 inclusive curriculum 141–4 inclusive early education settings, supporting interventions in 462–9 appropriate interventions 463–5 benefits 462–3 best practice models 466 children with exceptional ability 465 example 464 individual education programs 466–9 inclusive early school environments inclusive opportunities in the first three years of school 474–5 inclusive practices 474–82 transition to 471–3 inclusive education 19 arguments to support 73–4 attitudes towards 69–70 barriers to 79 community support for 75 learning, teaching and curriculum 140–9 level of additional staff and other personnel needed 272–3 movement towards 30–1 narrative 20–3 outcomes of research 31–4 policy in Australia 60–4 policy in New Zealand 66 practices today 43–5 providing supportive environments 75–6 students benefits from participation 140 inclusive education programs 61 inclusive environments 2–46, 52–82, 88–124 inclusive language (when talking about disability) 26, 27 inclusive practices

in diverse school communities 88–124, 516 in the early years of school 474–82 evidence-based best practices 91–124 exemplary practices in schools 104–5 success of 81 inclusive preschool programs 451–2 inclusive schools, change and innovation in 121–2 inclusive teaching, strategies supporting 318–53, 358–94, 401–35 Index for Inclusion 31, 77, 78 Indigenous Australian languages 334 Indigenous families 450 Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa–New Zealand 28 of Australia 26 see also Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people; Māori Indigenous students 6, 17 behaviour issues 242–3 strategies to promote inclusive practices for 61 supporting English language learning 336–7 see also Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students; Māori students individual contexts (planning inclusion) 100–1 individual education plans (IEPs) 22, 70–1, 171 developing 172–6 example 538–9 reporting against 181–2 Self-Directed IEP 304 specific classroom/curriculum adjustments 171–2 see also individual learning plans (ILPs) individual education programs (early years of school) 475–80 curriculum-based assessment 476–8 program design 478–9 program evaluation 481 program implementation 480

INDEX

individual family service plan (IFSP) 457–61, 471, 481 example 459–60 outcomes for the child 461 outcomes for the family 461 individual learning plans (ILPs) 97, 107, 171, 298 assessing transition needs in the ILP process 208–301 beyond academic skills 302 goals and program settings 555 meaningful participation in 297–305 student, conditions, behaviour and criteria 299 students’ active involvement in 302–5 transition planning process embedded in 302 individual positive behaviour plan (IPBP) 256–7 individual preschool education programs 466–9 activity-based assessment 466–7 activity-based intervention 468–9 program design 467–8 program evaluation 469 individualisation 108–9, 154 individualised transition plans (ITP) 171, 298, 558, 563 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) (2009) (USA) 70 and early childhood special education 71 outcomes 71 information technology 218–20 innovation and change 121 institutional placement, example 445–6 institutions 4, 30 instruction early childhood intervention 448 high-leverage practices 210 individualisation 108–9, 154 issues 199–200 learning strategy instruction 165–6 level differences in classrooms 154–6 planning for 37 short-term instructional objectives 212–13 instructional cycle 199, 200

integrated student support teacher (secondary), reflection 576 integration 18–19 intellectual disability 6 identification 13–14 IQ tests 14–15 terminology 13, 14 intelligence quotient (IQ) tests 13, 14–15 intensive instruction 218–19 Intensive Wraparound Service 66 interaction, early childhood intervention 448 interactive whiteboard (IWB) 493 interfering problem behaviours 240 International classification of functioning, disability and health (ICF) 29 International classification of impairments, disabilities and handicaps (ICIDH) 28, 29 international legislation and policy 68–72 International Year of Disabled Persons (IYDP) 4, 54 interpersonal behaviours 262 intervention designing effective teaching interventions 205–24 early childhood 444–83 early intervention programs 39–40, 91 and evidence-based practices 307–9 to build positive self-efficacy 381 to promote motivation 380–1 see also Positive Behaviour Intervention Support (PBIS); response to intervention (RTI); Universal Design for Learning Jigsaw 214 Jolly Phonics 370 jump strategy 429, 430, 431 Justine (early career teacher), inclusive practices at Fortune Public School 88–9 appraisal of the diverse educational abilities and needs of her students 100 available support 114, 116 collaborative consultation 96–7 facilitating differentiation 105

individual and ecological contexts 101 individualising teaching/ learning programs 107 journey begins 89–90 learning support team (LST) meetings 98 literacy and numeracy learning needs 104 negotiating inclusion 94 planning, planning, planning! 95–6 positive values, attitudes and understanding 92 programming for inclusion 102–3 recognition for her wonderfully inclusive class 120 resources 118 resourcing inclusion 108, 109–11 taking advantage of experience and expertise around inclusion 106 juvenile justice settings, transitions from 289–90 key learning areas (KLAs) 102 key words 379 KidsMatter 92 Kindergarten Transition Plan 512 knowledge of rights 307 knowledge of self 306 Kohler’s Taxonomy for Transition Programming 2.0 563, 566 language about diversity 23–9 about Indigenous peoples 26–8 identity-first 24, 25 inclusive 26, 27 limitations 25–6 people-first 24–5 see also communication language development 324–31 children who are d/Deaf 343–5 children with autism 337–43 Indigenous Australian and Māori students 334–7 strategies to enhance children’s speech 328–31 strategies to support 331–4 students with social, emotional or behaviour difficulties 345–52 language learning difficulties, students with 325–7

595

INDEX

language skills assessment 346 of children at different ages 326 language use 324–5, 326 languages 136 leadership 77, 122–3, 448, 520 and rights 307 see also principals learning all children can learn 5–6 review of 219–20 self-determined 187–8 teaching and curriculum in inclusive education 140–9 twenty-first century 286–7 Universal Design for Learning see Universal Design for Learning usage and terminology 23–6 learning and support teachers 114–15, 186, 272 reflection 44, 123, 230, 393 learning and teaching classroom ecosystem as model for 146–9 including other personnel in 229–30 technology use 183–5 learning areas (Australian Curriculum) 136 learning context 200–4 beyond the classroom 201 learning development committee (LDC) 496, 501, 503, 508, 509, 510, 513 support process 511 learning difficulties 3, 16, 363–4 see also language development; language learning difficulties; reading difficulties learning disability 2, 3, 16 learning strategy instruction 165 learning support plan (LSP) 171 Learning Support Program (NSW) 67 learning support team (LST) model 63–4, 93, 97–9 membership and resources 99 role 99 learning–teaching environment 249–50 least restrictive environment 7–8, 53, 72 legal rights 140

596

legislation in Australia and New Zealand 54–9 international 68–72 strengths and weaknesses 59 in UK 71–2 in USA 70–1 lesson planning 547 lessons, preparation and delivery 251–2 life design 287 Life Skills courses 144 life-span diversity across the 39–41 self-determination across the 291–8 listening comprehension 362 literacy 107, 358 instruction, tiered approach using UDL principles 373–4 integrating across key learning areas 391–2 key components 364–91 see also phonemic awareness; phonics; phonological awareness; reading; spelling; vocabulary; writing literacy competence underlying difficulties 360–3 understanding and supporting 358–94 loneliness, overcoming 270 long-sightedness 360 long-term outcome goals 210–20 longsum-counting strategy 419 mainstream classes behavioural issues 245, 249 EAL/D students in 243 Indigenous students in 243 lesson preparation and delivery 251–2 positive interactions in 238, 241 special classes in 475 transition between support unit or special school 289 see also regular classes mainstream students impact of inclusive education 32 perceptions of 154 mainstreaming 18 Mana Reo 41 Māori 28 Māori language schools 334

Māori students 17, 66 language teaching 334–7 maintaining skills in their first language 334–5 marking (highlighting words or ideas) 330 material instructional level 155 mathematics 136, 556 assessment 403 differentiation 415, 424–5 extending students with advanced mathematical skills 433 vocabulary 403, 413, 424 see also basic facts; counting; multi-digit arithmetic; numeracy; problem-solving mathematics curricula 401, 403 mathematics education 402 current approaches 404–5 focus on teacher knowledge 406–7 mathematics learning difficulty (MLD) 402, 403 evidence-based practice 405–6 ‘maths talk’ 403 Melbourne declaration on educational goals for young Australians 60, 151 mental computation strategies 430 for addition and subtraction 429–30 mental health issues 93, 107, 112 and home factors 244 and social inclusion 248 mental illness, persisting stigma of 92 mentoring of staff 274 metacognition 363, 386 metacognitive approaches/ strategies 213, 265–6, 378, 379, 380, 382 metacognitive behaviour 377 min-counting strategy 418, 419 MindMatters 92 misbehaviour 244 and classroom control 247, 252–4 reasons for student misbehaviour 239–40 mobility impairment 93 modelling 328 modifications to facilities 117 monitoring during reading 378

INDEX

of student performance 178–80 moral and social-justice rights 140 more/less (numbers) 413 morphemic knowledge 387 motivation (of students) 380–2 multi-digit arithmetic 428–31 narrative example 431–2 teaching suggestions 430–1 Multi-Tiered Systems of Supports (MTSS) 154, 224, 225, 359 multiple means of action and expression 13 multiple means of engagement 12 multiple means of representation 12–13 multiplication back-up strategies 419–20 big ideas 408–9, 410 as opposite to division 424 as repeated addition 419, 424, 426–7 worded situations 422, 423 My School website 136, 139, 245, 560 myopia 360 NAPLAN 136, 138–40, 245 impact on schools, teachers and students 560 online testing 140 and students with a disability 139 testing modifications 139–40 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), researchinformed practices 404–5 National Curriculum strategy 61–2 national disability coordination officer (NDCO) program 574 National Disability Insurance Agency (NDIA) 454 National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) 58, 75, 453, 499, 575 Early Childhood Early Intervention 454 early intervention services funding 454 National Disability Insurance Scheme Act 2013 (NDIS) 58 National disability strategy for Australia 2010–2020 60 national testing modifications 139–40

value of including students with disability 139 see also NAPLAN Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability 2, 36, 55, 56, 57, 62, 97, 139, 298, 499 needs 150–8 mental health needs 244, 248 of parents 152–3 resource needs 36 of students 153–4 support needs 36 of teachers 150–1 negative reinforcement 240 negotiating inclusion 93–101, 516 New South Wales policies on students with disability and their education 143, 144 What works best: 2020 update 205, 206 New Zealand government departments responsible for providing direct services for people with a disability 575 legislation in 59 national curriculum 560 policy in 66 New Zealand curriculum 403 New Zealand Disability Strategy 575 New Zealand Ministry of Education, Communication – Mana Reo 318 New Zealand secondary schools, inclusion in 226–7 New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) 343, 344 non-engagement 245 non-standard partitioning 429 non-standard written strategies for addition and subtraction 429–30 normalisation 6, 30 Northern Territory, ‘essential learnings’ 142 Northern Territory Curriculum Framework (NTCF) 142 NSW Board of Studies, Teaching and Educational Standards 67 NSW Department of Education, documentation for completion of secondary school 569

NSW Department of Education and Communities, School Leadership Capability Framework 122 NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) 143, 144, 187, 433 number line activities 413–14 number magnitude 411 number sense 402 big ideas for 402, 407–10 numbers big ideas 407–8, 410 estimation 414 number after and number before 413 one (or two) more, one (or two) less 413 ordering 413, 415 rounding 414 which number is closer to a third number? 413–14 numeracy 107, 402, 403–7 supporting students with significant numeracy needs 433 see also addition; counting; division; multiplication; subitising; subtraction numeracy blocks, grouping 415 numeracy competence 401–35 numerical magnitude knowledge, differences in 411 NZSL (New Zealand Sign Language) 343, 344 older children with autism, supporting 340, 342–3 one-to-one correspondence (counting) 412 onset 365, 366, 368 open questions 329 optical difficulties 360, 360–1 oral language, and reading difficulties 362–3 oral reading rates 371 oral vocabulary 375 order irrelevance 411 ordering numbers 413, 415 organisational barriers to inclusion 122 overshoot strategy 429, 431 P&C 496, 498, 500, 506, 509, 510, 515, 516 parallel teaching 188

597

INDEX

parents awareness of their child’s performance against grade expectations 183 collaborating with (secondary settings) 558–9 impact of inclusive education on 32–3 influence in adolescents’ lives 534–5 inviting into the classroom 108 involvement in early years of school 481–2 involving in developing students’ self-determination skills 305 meaningful involvement in education 63–4 needs and expectations 152–3 supporting social inclusion 275 parents of children with disability attitude to inclusive placement 93 collaboration with (secondary settings) 558 home environment 244 reflection on communication and inclusion 322–3 view of teaching in a regular school 152–3 part-part-whole schema 411 partial participation 38 participation compliance 145 Partnership for 21st-Century Learning 287 partnerships (apprenticeships and traineeships) 573 Pasifika students 66 Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test 403 pedagogy focus on 508–9 inclusive approach 149 peer buddies 114, 266–7 peer-mediated instruction and intervention 549 peer-related social skills 262 peer relationships 251, 534–5 peer tutoring 108, 114, 215, 266 strengths and limitations 216 people-first language 24–5 perceptual subitising 411, 412 performance and development plans (PDP) 496 peripherals 184

598

personal future action plan 563, 564–5 personal motivation 198–9 philosophy of inclusion 20 phonemes 366, 369 phonemic analysis 366, 368 phonemic awareness 366 strategies to support 368–9 phonemic synthesis 366, 368 phonics 369–70 strategies to support 370 through spelling 370 phonological awareness 331, 365–6 strategies to support 366–8 phonological knowledge 387 phonology see speech sounds physical disability 15 physical education 556 physical setting factors 148–9 place value 428, 430 planning 95–6 collaborative 186–7 for diversity, secondary schools 541–2 effective teaching strategies 196–231 for individual inclusion 101 for instruction 37 planning process 99 for students with profound or multiple disabilities 172, 177 see also transition planning playground, ‘hands-on’ assistance 114–16 policy 53–4 at the state and territory level 62–4 in Australia and New Zealand 60–7 international 68–72 in New Zealand 66 other government policy initiatives 67–8 Policy guidelines on inclusion in education 70 political influence, in educational policy 74–5 positive and constructive feedback 220 Positive Behaviour for Learning (PBL/PB4L) 251, 276 Positive Behaviour Intervention Support (PBIS) 224, 251, 276 positive disability identity 306

positive interactions 237–78 maintaining in the wider school context 276 Positive Partnerships 93, 187 positive values, attitudes and understandings 92, 120–1 post-school community living 563 post-school options 40–1 post-school programs 40 practice 53–4 of inclusion 72–82 practising teachers, diversity and inclusion to 121 pragmatics see use of language predicting 377 prefixes 390, 391 preparation phase 94 preschool programs, inclusive and segregated 451–2 preschool settings 93 individual education programs 466–9 pre-service teachers 121, 150–1 previewing 377 primary prevention (RTI) 222–3, 250 primary schools 93 as active change agents 524–5 best practice 511–12 building a community of learning 506–7 challenges in the transition process 518 collaborative consultation 522–3 good leadership in organisational change and development 520 as holistic places of learning 503 inclusion in 489–526 successful inclusion 514, 516 see also Barawun Primary School primary teachers, reflection 81, 353, 434, 525 primary years, self-determination 292–4 principals 33, 77, 99, 120, 123 principles, policies and practice 53–4 prior knowledge, activating 377 problem-solving 296 differentiation 424–5 in mathematics 421–7 real-life situations 570 schema-based strategy instruction 422–3

INDEX

tasks 424 teaching suggestions 424–5 worded situations 421–3 productive behaviour 240 professional development and training 118 programming for inclusion 101–8, 516 programming outside of the classroom 108 prompting 329 pronunciation 369 prosody 372 psychometric tests 9 punishment 253 quality learning environment 493 quality teaching framework 67–8 Quality teaching in NSW schools 68 Queensland Certificate of Education (QCE) 568 Queensland Certificate of Individual Achievement 568 Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority, kindergarten IEP 171 Queensland Kindergarten Learning Guide (QKLG) 171 Queensland’s Productive Pedagogies 67–8 questions/questioning 329, 378 Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) 54 Raising Children Network 454 reading 156, 370 essential components 364–5 key components summary 382 student motivation 380–2 see also oral language; phonemic awareness; spelling; vocabulary; writing reading comprehension 377–9 after reading 378–9 before reading 377 during reading 378 strategies to support 179, 379–80 reading difficulties and auditory processes 362 and metacognition 363 and oral language 362–3 response to intervention 359 terminology 359 and visual processes 360–2

reading fluency 371–2 strategies to support 372–3 reading skills 556 real-life situations, problemsolving 570 reasonable adjustments 57, 100, 146 recapping 330 recasting 330 receptive language skills/ difficulties 362, 363 regular classes approaches to teaching students with additional needs in 36–9 students with a disability in 34 see also mainstream classes regular education initiative (REI) 53 reinforcement 253 relationships 494 in adolescence 534–5 Removing barriers to achievement 71–2 repeated addition 419, 424, 426–7 Repeated Reading (RR) 372 reporting 136 against the IEP 181–2 dual reporting approach 181 exclusion of students with a disability 139 for students with disability 180–3 residential schools 7, 15, 30 resources appraisal of 111–12 assistive technology 116–17 hands-on assistance in classroom and playground 114–16 human 112 needs for 36 professional development 118 school 112–13 sharing of 105–6 systemic 113 resourcing inclusion 108–18, 516 respect 494 Response Ability 92 response cost 253 response to intervention (RTI) 37, 154, 222, 224, 250–1 core concepts 224 example 222 for reading difficulties 359

for spelling 389–91 three tiers 222–4, 250 responsibility 494, 504 review of learning 219–20 revoicing 330 rhyme 365, 367–8 rights, knowledge of 307 rime 365, 366, 368 risk assessment 107–8 risk management 107–8 root words 390, 391 ‘rounding’ numbers 414 rural and remote schools 188 teacher reflection 189 same-age tutoring 215 scaffolding 213–14, 264, 548 SCERTS® model 339 schema-based strategy instruction 422–3 school budgets 112 School Certificate 569 school community, culture of inclusion 120–1 school counsellors 114 school culture 119, 120–1 School Development Plan 498, 508 school education system, and NDIS 58 school environments, features requiring collaboration and support 76–7 school leadership 77, 122–3 school learning support officers 186 school resources 112–13 school years, inclusion across 444–83 schooling early types of 29–30 models for students with a disability 29–36 movement towards inclusive schooling 30–1 schools accessibility 7–8 available support within 114–16 environmental modifications 117 inclusion in 29–36, 93 residential 7, 15, 30 separate ‘special’ schools 4 social behaviour in 93, 209–10, 223, 238–47 strategies to measure success of their inclusive practice 77–8

599

INDEX

Schoolwide Positive Behaviour Support (SWPBS) 251 science 136, 556 scope and sequence charts 89 screening, and assessment 450 secondary curriculum, inclusion across 554–6 ILP goals and program settings 555 meeting individual needs 554 teaching across subjects 555–6 secondary education documentation for completion of 569 making it meaningful 560–2 ultimate goal 560 secondary prevention (RTI) 223, 250–1 secondary schools academic demands 540 collaboration 541 collaborative teaching and teaming 556–9 developing a class profile 542–3 inclusion in 533–77 inclusion in – Canadian perspective 228–9 inclusion in – NZ perspective 226–7 issues on inclusion 533–40 planning for diversity 541–2 strategies for inclusion 540–3 strategies for teaching for diversity 544–54 transition for students into 536–9 transition from secondary schools to adult life 561–72 work experience 572–6 secondary teachers 245, 247 reflection 189, 276 secondary years, selfdetermination 294–7, 560–1, 569–72 segregated preschool programs 451, 455 segregation 4, 30, 53, 69, 92, 93 Self- Determination Inventory 301 self-advocacy 197, 306–10 Self-Advocacy and Conflict Resolution (SACR) Training 307 Self-Advocacy Strategy for Education and Transition Planning 308 self-awareness 297, 571–2

600

self-determination 265, 287–8, 300 assessment 300–1 choice-making and decisionmaking 295–6, 570 definition 569 in early childhood and primary years 292–4 involving parents in developing students’ self-determination skills 305 promoting across the life span 291–8 in secondary years 294–7, 560–1, 569–72 Self-Determined Career Design Model (SDCDM) 298 self-determined learning 287–8, 297–8 Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction (SDLMI) 297–8 Self-Directed IEP curriculum 304 self-directed learning 213–15 self-efficacy 381 self-esteem 53 self-knowledge 297, 571 self-management 266, 294 self-regulation 213, 293–4 and student-directed learning 296–7 self-related behaviours 262 semantics see vocabulary sender–receiver model 319 senior education and training (SET) plan 563, 568, 569 sensory disability 2, 3, 15–16 early schooling for students with 30 sensory needs 338–9 service delivery (early childhood intervention) 450–1 multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary models 452 Sex Discrimination Act 1984 45 shared book reading 376 short-sightedness 350 short-term instructional objectives 212–13 sign languages 16, 343, 344 simulations 306 sketch to stretch 378 skip counting 420, 426

social acceptance of students with disabilities, skills for increasing 252 social basis of inclusion, New Zealand teacher’s perspective 216–17 social behaviour in schools 93, 238–47 social communication children with autism 339–40 supporting students 351–2 social competence 31, 345 social environment (classroom) 39 social groups, facilitating 271 social inclusion 173, 247–9, 475 checklist (facilitating social groups) 271 components 248 definition 247 difficulties for students with disabilities 248 and Disability Standards for Education 249 peer buddies role 267 preparing teachers and students to support 273–5 social integration 265 activities for all students 265 social interaction 31 social justice 5, 53–4 social practices 209–10, 223 social problems, supporting students communication and language needs 345–52 social role valorisation 6 social skills 238, 262–73 activities for improving 265–70 in adolescence 535 deficits 240, 263 supporting development of 352 teaching 263–4 training programs 264, 536 types of 262 social stories 270, 271 social support model 265 software 117 sound perception, discrimination and processing 362 South Australian Department of Education and Children’s Services (DECS), Recreating the Circle of Wellbeing 274 south coast transition model (Gold Coast) 563, 572

INDEX

special classes 7, 17, 19 special education assessment 206–7 collaboration 205–6 high-leverage practices (HLPs) 205–10, 213–15, 217, 218, 219–20 and inclusion 74–5 instruction 210 policies in Australia 64 social, emotional and behavioural practices 209–10 special education facilities, exemplary practices 105 special education teacher, reflection 310 Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001 (UK) 71 special schools 4, 15–16, 18, 35 evolution of 30 special units 7 specialist support staff 76, 186 specific learning disorder with impairment in reading 359 speech 326, 362 teaching strategies to enhance 328–31 speech sounds 324, 331–2 spelling 369, 370, 386–7 forms of knowledge for 387 knowledge, stages of acquisition 387–8 strategies to support 388–91 split strategy 429, 430, 431 staff mentoring 274 other professionals 481 specialist support staff 76, 186 support teachers 114–15, 186, 272 teacher aides 186 teacher assistants 7, 66, 115, 272–3, 480–1 working cooperatively 185–9, 273 see also teachers staff training 118 Standard Australian English 142, 382 standard partitioning 429 standard written algorithms 428–9 standards Australian Disability Standards for Education 2005 56–8, 137, 144, 145–6, 152, 249

Australian Professional Standards for Teachers 61, 80, 197, 391 New South Wales, Board of Studies, Teaching and Educational Standards 67 Victorian Essential Learning Standards 67 Stanford Binet Intelligence Test 14 state and territory governments inclusive curricula 141–4 policy initiatives 62–4 responsible for services for people with a disability 575 station teaching 188 stigma of mental illness 92 story maps 379 structured computer play 272 student-directed learning 296–7 student engagement, active 215–17 student factors 147 student instructional level 155–6 student motivation 380–2 student performance, monitoring 178–80 Student Teams Achievement Divisions 214 students active involvement in ILP process 302–5 gifted and talented see gifted and talented students ‘integrated’ 20 mentoring 272 supporting 28–9 supporting social inclusion 274 understanding their learning needs 402–3 who use AAC 349–51 students for whom English is an additional language or dialect (EAL/D) 17–18, 62 behaviour issues 243 curriculum 141 curriculum adjustments 158 peer buddies and cooperative learning 267 teaching the Australian Curriculum 138 students from diverse cultural and social backgrounds 18 behaviour issues 243 students who display behaviours that challenge others, teaching strategies 347

students with a disability active participation in ILP process 302–3 adjustment of regular curriculum 157–8 and Australian Curriculum (Foundation to Year 10) 137 behaviour problems 242–3 benefits from participation in inclusive education 140–1 in classrooms 2–3 funding support 36 impact on parents 32–3 impact on students without disability 32 impact on teachers 33 inclusion in national testing 139 individual needs and instruction 154 legal right to be educated 140 models of schooling 29–36 needs and expectations 153–4 numbers of students 34–5 in regular classes 34 skill acquisition outcomes 32 skills for increasing social acceptance in classrooms 252 and social inclusion 248 social outcomes 31–2 state/territory inclusive curricula 141–4 supplementary curriculum 144–5 teaching myths 41–3 students with a physical disability 15 narrative 3–4 social inclusion 248 students with additional needs 66 approaches to teaching in regular classes 36–9 best learning outcomes 88 collaborative consultation 97 curriculum support materials 67 defining features of inclusion 76 quality teaching framework 67–8 wellbeing and inclusion 153–4 students with an intellectual disability adjustments to teaching/ learning process (example) 550–1 application of universal design to curriculum adjustments (example) 546–7 general capabilities 146

601

INDEX

ILP and transition planning (example) 567–8 transition to secondary school (example) 537–9 students with challenging behaviours 92, 93, 112 risk assessment and management plan 107–8 students with higher support needs, adjusting curriculum 177 students with language learning difficulties 325–7 students with low additional education support needs in the classroom 159–71 students with mental health needs home factors 243–4 social inclusion 248 students with profound and/ or multiple disabilities in the classroom 171–7 developing an individual plan 172–7 individual support plans 171–2 planning process 172–7 students with significant numeracy needs, supporting 433 students without disability impact of inclusive education 32 perceptions 154 subitising 411–12 activities 415 subjects (secondary), inclusive teaching 556 substantial adjustments 157 subtraction big ideas 408, 410 meaning 414 mental and non-standard written strategies for 430 worded situations 422 suffixes 389, 390, 391 summarising 379 supplementary adjustments 157, 161–3 adjustment to text - primary 162 adjustment to text - secondary 163 supplementary curriculum for students with disability 144–5 support provided within quality differentiated teaching practice 157

602

technology to support teachers 185 within schools 114–16 support cycle model 100–1 support needs 36 support process 100 support teachers see learning and support teachers supported participation 38 supportive environments 75–6, 77 Sutherland Phonological Awareness Test 366 syllables 365–6, 367 syllabus 104 syllabus topics, adjustment at year level 168 syntax see grammar synthetic phonics 370 systemic resources 113 talented students 17 task analysis 102, 218–19, 548 Taxonomy for Transition Programming 2.0 (Kohler) 563, 566 Te Kōhanga Reo 334 Te Kura Kaupapa 334 te reo Māori (Māori language) 28, 334 Te Whariki 318 teacher aides 186 teacher assistants 7, 66, 115, 272–3, 480–1 teacher factors 147 teacher instructional level 155 teacher-pleasing social skills 262 teachers assistance for in the classroom 64 Code of Conduct 80 collaboration 186–8 contribution to development of inappropriate behaviour 246–7 impact of inclusive education on 33 inclusive practice - reflection 44–5 limitations of assessment 75–6 needs and challenges 150–1 preparation and lesson delivery 251–2 pressure on for equity and excellence 151 reflection 81, 123, 189, 276, 310, 353, 393, 434, 482, 525, 576 role in inclusive education 33

rural and remote schools 188 support for social inclusion 273–5 technology to support teachers 185 voice use 334 see also learning and support teachers; primary teachers; secondary teachers teaching across subjects (secondary curriculum) 555–6 co-teaching 188–9 for diversity, ten strategies 544–54 effective strategies 196–231 methods 245 social skills 263–4 students who use AAC 349–51 students with a disability myths 41–3 students with emotional and behavioural problems 346–9 students with additional needs in regular classes 36–9 team-teaching 108, 111, 115, 120, 188 twentieth and twenty-first century 104 team approach, early childhood intervention 461–2 team-teaching 108, 111, 115, 120, 188–9, 557–8 teaming 448 technology 136 adaptive technology 184–5 alternative format texts 185 assistive technology 116–17, 185, 217, 550 information technology and computer-assisted instruction 218–20, 495 in learning and teaching 183–5 for positive relationships 271–2 to support teachers 185 telling 330 tertiary intervention (RTI) 223, 251 textbooks 155, 555–6 adjusting for use in inclusive classrooms 156 alternative format texts 185 Think-Pair-Share 214 THRASS 370 three-phase inclusion process 94–5, 509

INDEX

three Rs of inclusion 494 timetabling 246 traineeships 573 training social skills 264, 536 staff 118 transition phase 94 transition planning 291 barriers and opportunities for family involvement 559 in the ILP process 299–301 process embedded in ILPs 302 Self-Directed IEP curriculum 304 students’ active involvement in ILP process 302–5 Whose Future is it Anyway? 304–5 transition planning from school to adult life 561–72 credentialling 568–9 documentation 563–5 implementation practices 566–8 outcomes and goals beyond school 563 planning process 562–3 self-determination 569–72 work experience and transition from school 572–6 transitions 518 across environments and programs 448 context for twenty-first century 286–8 diversity 288–91 early childhood 469–74 evidence-based practices resources 291 from juvenile justice settings 289–90 from primary to secondary settings 536–7 types of 288–9 twenty-first-century learning 286–7 understanding, positive 92 UNESCO 68–9 on attitudes to inclusive education 69–70 Policy guidelines on inclusion in education 70 United Kingdom, legislation 71–2 United Nations Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities 69–70, 307

Conventions on the Rights of the Child 307 United States of America, legislation 70–1 units of work 89 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 68 Universal Design for Learning (UDL) 12–13, 17, 37, 53–4, 75, 106, 141, 154, 185, 199, 401, 545–6 aligning UDL and HLPs 222 application to curriculum adjustment (example) 548–9 incorporation in to early childhood curriculum 456 principles and practices 220–4 principles for literacy instruction 373–4 unjustifiable hardship 56–7 unmotivated behaviour 240 unproductive behaviour 238–9, 240–1 unstructured computer play 272 use of language 324–5, 326 valorisation 6 value (of a task) 380–1 values changing 54 positive 92, 120–1 verbal counting 412 Victoria Department of Education and Training’s, High Impact Teaching Strategies 205, 206 Victorian Curriculum F–10 142–3 Victorian Essential Learning Standards 67, 142 Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales 14 Vision Statement 498, 508 visual communication strategies (for children with autism) 341 visual impairment 15, 25, 93 visual knowledge 387 visual perception 360, 361 visual processes, and reading problems 360–2 visual processing 360, 361–2 visual schedule template 341 visualising 378 vocabulary 324, 326, 332, 375–6 assessment 403 developing through shared book reading 376

language exposure 375 in mathematics 403, 413, 424 strategies to support 375 vocabulary adjustment 164–5 vocabulary instruction 375 for older readers 376 vocational education and training (VET) 562, 572–3 practical experience 573 voice use (teachers) 334 voluntary service organisations 113 volunteers 114 Vulnerable Children Act 2014 (NZ) 59 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children 14 wellbeing and inclusion 153–4 What Works Clearinghouse 455 Whose Future is it Anyway? 304–5 wondering 378 Woodcock Applied Problems subtest 403 Woodcock Quantitative Concepts subtest 403 word families 332 worded situations 421–3 schema-based strategy instruction 422–3 words in sentences 367 work experience and transition from school 572–6 collaboration between agencies 574 employment organisations 573–4 ensuring future success 576 vocational education and training (VET) 562, 572–3 working with government departments 575–6 working within limited resources and time 575–6 working collaboratively 64, 185–9, 273 World declaration on education for all 68–9 World Health Organization 28, 29 writing 382–3, 548 strategies to support 383–6 strategies using AAC 384–5 writing equations 414–15 Year 6–7 Transition Program 513, 515, 516

603

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