Illustrated History of Chinese Art 9819752914, 9789819752911

Table of contents :
Introduction
Contents
List of€Figures
1 Prehistoric Arts
1.1 Overview
1.2 Painted Pottery
1.2.1 Banpo Pottery
1.2.2 Miaodigou Pottery
1.2.3 Majiayao Pottery
1.2.4 Banshan Pottery
1.2.5 Machang Pottery
1.3 Black Pottery
1.4 Geometrically Stamped Pottery and€Pottery Sculpture
1.5 Jade Carving
2 Pre-Qin Arts
2.1 Overview
2.2 Bronze
2.2.1 Bronzes in€the€Shang Dynasty
2.2.2 Bronzes in€the€Western Zhou Dynasty
2.2.3 Bronzes in€the€Spring and€Autumn Period and€the€Warring States Period
2.3 Others
2.3.1 Ceramic
2.3.2 Lacquerware
2.3.3 Jade Carving and€Others
2.3.4 Silk Paintings of€the€Warring States Period
3 Arts of€the€Qin and€Han Dynasties
3.1 Overview
3.2 Painting
3.2.1 Silk Painting in€the€Western Han Dynasty
3.2.2 Mural in€Han Dynasty Tombs
3.3 Portrait Stone and€Portrait Brick
3.3.1 Portrait Stones
3.3.2 Portrait Bricks
3.4 Sculpture
3.4.1 Terracotta Warriors of€Shihuangdi of€the€Qin Dynasty
3.4.2 Stone Sculptures at€the€Tomb of€Huo Qubing
3.4.3 Stone Mythical Beasts
3.4.4 Terracotta Figurines of€the€Han Dynasty
3.4.5 Bronze Sculptures
3.5 Brick and€Tile of€the€Qin and€Han Dynasties
3.6 Crafts
3.6.1 Ceramics
3.6.2 Bronzes
3.6.3 Lacquerwares
3.6.4 Jade Carvings and€Wood Carvings
4 Arts of€the€Three Kingdoms, the€Jin Dynasty, the€Southern and€Northern Dynasties
4.1 Overview
4.2 Painting
4.2.1 Professional Painters
4.2.2 Unearthed Works
4.2.3 Articles on€Painting
4.3 Buddhist Art
4.3.1 Emergence and€Development of€Buddhism
4.3.2 Buddhist Art in€India
4.3.3 The Development of€Buddhist Art in€China
4.4 Ceramic
5 Arts of€the€Sui and€Tang Dynasties
5.1 Overview
5.2 Painting
5.2.1 Figure Paintings
5.2.2 Landscape Paintings
5.2.3 Paintings of€Flowers, Birds, and€Horses
5.2.4 Theories of€Painting
5.3 Buddhist Art
5.3.1 Buddhist Architectures
5.3.2 Buddhist Statues
5.3.3 Buddhist Paintings
5.4 Craft
5.4.1 Ceramics
5.4.2 Metal Works
5.4.3 Lacquerwares
6 Arts of€the€Five Dynasties, the€Northern Song and€the€Southern Song Dynasties
6.1 Overview
6.1.1 The Five Dynasties Period
6.1.2 The Song Dynasty
6.1.3 Characteristics of€Arts During the€Five Dynasties and€the€Song Dynasty
6.2 Painting of€the€Five Dynasties
6.2.1 Figure Paintings in€the€Five Dynasties
6.2.2 Landscape Paintings in€the€Five Dynasties
6.2.3 Flower-and-Bird Paintings in€the€Five Dynasties
6.3 Paintings of€the€Song Dynasty
6.3.1 Figure Paintings in€the€Song Dynasty
6.3.2 Landscape Paintings in€the€Song Dynasty
6.3.3 Flower-and-Bird Paintings in€the€Song Dynasty
6.3.4 Zen Paintings
6.3.5 Woodblock Prints
6.4 Ceramic
6.4.1 Five Major Kilns in€the€Song Dynasty
6.4.2 Other Famous Kilns in€the€Song Dynasty
7 Arts of€the€Yuan Dynasty
7.1 Overview
7.2 Painting
7.2.1 Paintings in€the€Early Yuan Dynasty
7.2.2 “The Four Masters of€the€Yuan Dynasty”
7.2.3 “Four Gentlemen” Paintings and€Others
7.3 Mural
7.4 Ceramic
8 Arts of€the€Ming Dynasty
8.1 Overview
8.2 Painting
8.2.1 Court Paintings and€the€Zhejiang School of€Painting in€the€Early Ming Dynasty
8.2.2 The Wu School of€Painting in€the€Middle Ming Dynasty
8.2.3 Paintings in€the€Late Ming Dynasty
8.2.4 Dong Qichang’s Division of€Southern and€Northern Masters
8.2.5 Woodblock Prints and€New Year Pictures
8.3 Craft
8.3.1 Ceramics
8.3.2 Metal Crafts
8.3.3 Furnitures
9 Arts of€the€Qing Dynasty
9.1 Overview
9.2 Painting
9.2.1 Paintings in€the€Early Qing Dynasty
9.2.2 Paintings in€the€Middle of€the€Qing Dynasty
9.2.3 Paintings of€the€Late Qing Dynasty
9.2.4 Woodblock Prints and€New Year Pictures
9.3 Craft
9.3.1 Ceramics
9.3.2 Other Crafts
10 Arts from€the€Late 19th to€Early 20th Century
10.1 Overview
10.2 Paintings (Chinese Traditional Paintings)
10.2.1 The Shanghai School
10.2.2 The Lingnan School
10.2.3 Painters in€Other Regions
10.3 Art Publications
10.3.1 Lithographed Pictorials
10.3.2 Caricatures and€Cartoons
10.3.3 Calendar Paintings
10.4 New Thoughts and€Modern Art Education
Tables
References

Citation preview

Ting Chen

Illustrated History of Chinese Art

Illustrated History of Chinese Art

Ting Chen

Illustrated History of Chinese Art

Ting Chen Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai, China

ISBN 978-981-97-5291-1 ISBN 978-981-97-5292-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8 Jointly published with Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the print book from: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. © Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore If disposing of this product, please recycle the paper.

Introduction

Chinese art is an important part of Chinese civilization, boasting of a long history, fine traditions, and glorious achievements. This book is an English reader of Chinese art history, aimed at foreign students in China and overseas readers who are interested in Chinese art. The content structure design is in accordance with regular classroom teaching. Each chapter covers one specific period in Chinese art history, endeavoring to capture the representative artistic and stylistic features and provide a preliminary analysis of the social, political, religious, and cultural factors underlying the artistic phenomena. It aims to provide readers with a clearer and fuller picture of the development of Chinese art. Another feature of this book is the combination of pictures and texts. It highlights representative art works in the form of illustrations, and engages in discussions of their styles, themes and the embedded artistic principles. The image part is annotated in detail, including: title, form, size, era, author, collection (or unearthed), introduction to the work, introduction to the author, etc., which is also convenient for citation and reference in academic research in related fields. The art category involved is mainly painting, and others are also referred to. The content of each period has its own emphasis. For example, the prehistoric period is dominated by painted pottery; in the pre-Qin period, bronze-ware is mainly introduced; the Qin and Han Dynasties emphasize on sculpture; Buddhist murals and statues are major topics in the Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties; the Sui and Tang Dynasties focus on Buddhist art and figure painting. After the Song Dynasty, scroll painting is prevalent, including landscape painting, figure painting, and flower and bird painting. The Yuan Dynasty is characterized mainly by landscape paintings. There are multitudinous painting schools in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and they are described respectively according to the development and evolution of the painting schools. At the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, the focus is on the representative painting schools and painters who integrated tradition and created new styles that have made the contribution of reform of Chinese traditional painting. On the early modernization process of Chinese art, the more radical art movements before and after the May 4th Movement, and Chinese

v

vi

Introduction

art after 1949, due to the length of the book, the complexity of relevant content, and the challenges of academic writing, this part will not be further explored in this book. I would specially like to thank my dear friends George Frantz and Chi Xiaohong, who have given me great help and support during the writing and revision process of this book. The illustrations in this book are taken from Zhongguo Meishu Quanji (Complete Collection of Chinese Art), Zhongguo Meishushi Tushuo (Chinese Fine Arts History Illustration) and other reference books and materials, as well as the websites of relevant museums. They are listed in the reference section and I would like to express my gratitude here!

Contents

1

Prehistoric Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Painted Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Banpo Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Miaodigou Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Majiayao Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.4 Banshan Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.5 Machang Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Black Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Geometrically Stamped Pottery and Pottery Sculpture . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Jade Carving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 3 3 6 8 10 12 13 15 20

2

Pre-Qin Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Bronzes in the Shang Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Bronzes in the Western Zhou Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Bronzes in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Ceramic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Lacquerware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Jade Carving and Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.4 Silk Paintings of the Warring States Period . . . . . . . . . . .

23 23 24 25 33

Arts of the Qin and Han Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Silk Painting in the Western Han Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Mural in Han Dynasty Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Portrait Stone and Portrait Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Portrait Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61 61 62 62 64 65 66

3

38 47 47 48 53 57

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3.3.2 Portrait Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Terracotta Warriors of Shihuangdi of the Qin Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Stone Sculptures at the Tomb of Huo Qubing . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Stone Mythical Beasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.4 Terracotta Figurines of the Han Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.5 Bronze Sculptures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brick and Tile of the Qin and Han Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2 Bronzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.3 Lacquerwares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.4 Jade Carvings and Wood Carvings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73 74 78 78 80 83 86 86 87 89 91

Arts of the Three Kingdoms, the Jin Dynasty, the Southern and Northern Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Professional Painters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Unearthed Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Articles on Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Buddhist Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Emergence and Development of Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Buddhist Art in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 The Development of Buddhist Art in China . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Ceramic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95 95 97 97 101 108 110 110 111 116 136

Arts of the Sui and Tang Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Figure Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Landscape Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Paintings of Flowers, Birds, and Horses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 Theories of Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Buddhist Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Buddhist Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Buddhist Statues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Buddhist Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Craft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Metal Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 Lacquerwares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

145 145 146 146 169 175 180 181 181 183 190 201 202 208 217

3.4

3.5 3.6

4

5

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Contents

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Arts of the Five Dynasties, the Northern Song and the Southern Song Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 The Five Dynasties Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 The Song Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Characteristics of Arts During the Five Dynasties and the Song Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Painting of the Five Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Figure Paintings in the Five Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Landscape Paintings in the Five Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Flower-and-Bird Paintings in the Five Dynasties . . . . . . 6.3 Paintings of the Song Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Figure Paintings in the Song Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Landscape Paintings in the Song Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Flower-and-Bird Paintings in the Song Dynasty . . . . . . . 6.3.4 Zen Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.5 Woodblock Prints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Ceramic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Five Major Kilns in the Song Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 Other Famous Kilns in the Song Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . .

221 222 222 224 233 235 238 249 269 284 294 297 298 306

7

Arts of the Yuan Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Paintings in the Early Yuan Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 “The Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty” . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 “Four Gentlemen” Paintings and Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Mural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Ceramic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

313 313 314 314 320 328 334 336

8

Arts of the Ming Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Court Paintings and the Zhejiang School of Painting in the Early Ming Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.2 The Wu School of Painting in the Middle Ming Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.3 Paintings in the Late Ming Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.4 Dong Qichang’s Division of Southern and Northern Masters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.5 Woodblock Prints and New Year Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Craft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.1 Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.2 Metal Crafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.3 Furnitures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

341 341 342

219 219 219 220

342 348 360 386 387 392 392 397 399

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Contents

Arts of the Qing Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.1 Paintings in the Early Qing Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.2 Paintings in the Middle of the Qing Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.3 Paintings of the Late Qing Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.4 Woodblock Prints and New Year Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Craft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.1 Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.2 Other Crafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

405 405 406 407 426 436 439 449 450 454

10 Arts from the Late 19th to Early 20th Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Paintings (Chinese Traditional Paintings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.1 The Shanghai School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.2 The Lingnan School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.3 Painters in Other Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Art Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.1 Lithographed Pictorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.2 Caricatures and Cartoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.3 Calendar Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 New Thoughts and Modern Art Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

461 461 462 462 478 481 493 494 494 495 497

Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.3

Fig. 1.4

Fig. 1.5

Fig. 1.6

Fig. 1.7

Pottery Basin Painted with Fish (Banpo pottery. 17 cm in height and 28 cm in diameter. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed from Banpo site, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pottery Basin Painted with Human Face and Fish (Banpo pottery. 16.5 cm in height and 39.5 cm in diameter. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed from the Banpo site, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . Painted Boat-Shaped Pot (Banpo pottery. 15.6 cm in height and 24.8 cm in length. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Beishouling, Baoji, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basin Painted with Flower Petals (Miaodigou pottery. 18 cm in height. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Hongdong, Shanxi Province. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Urn Painted with Stork, Fish, and Tone Axe (Miaodigou pottery. 47 cm in height, 32.7 cm in diameter of caliber and 20.1 cm in diameter of bottom. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Yan Village, Linru County, Henan Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Painted Bottle with the Mouth Taking the Shape of a Human Head (Miaodigou pottery. 32.3 cm in height, 4 cm in diameter of caliber and 6.8 cm in diameter of bottom. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Dadi Wan, Qin’an County, Gansu Province. Gansu Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Painted Pottery Jar with Spiral Design (Majiayao pottery. 50 cm in height, 18.4 cm in diameter of caliber and 15.9 cm in diameter of bottom. The Neolithic Age. Acquired in Yongjing County, Gansu Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4

5

6

7

7

8

9 xi

xii

Fig. 1.8

Fig. 1.9

Fig. 1.10

Fig. 1.11

Fig. 1.12

Fig. 1.13

Fig. 1.14

Fig. 1.15

Fig. 1.16

Fig. 1.17

List of Figures

Pottery Basin Painted with Dancers (Majiayao pottery. 14.1 cm in height and 28 cm in diameter. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Shangsunjiazhai, Datong County, Qinghai Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Painted Pottery Bowl (Majiayao pottery. 10.5 cm in height and 28 cm in diameter. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Shuidichenjia, Jishishan County, Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu Province. The Museum of Lin Xia Hui Autonomous Prefecture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pottery Pot Painted with Swirl Pattern (Banshan pottery. 37 cm in height and 10 cm in diameter of caliber. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Gansu Province. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pottery Pot Painted with Gourd Pattern (Banshan pottery. 46.7 cm in height, 12.2 cm in diameter of caliber and 19.8 cm in diameter of bottom. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Lanzhou, Gansu Province. Gansu Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pottery Pot Painted with a Frog-Like Pattern (Machang pottery. 42 cm in height and 13.1 cm in diameter of caliber. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Liuwan Village, Qinghai Province. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . Pot with Embossed Humanoid Pattern (Machang pottery. 33.4 cm in height and 9.2 cm in diameter of caliber. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Liuwan, Ledu Couty, Qinghai Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . Eggshell Black Pottery Cup (Black pottery. 17 cm in height and 11.9 cm in diameter of caliber. Longshan culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed from Yaoguanzhuang site, Weifang City, Shandong Province. Shandong Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hollow Double-Layer Jar (Pottery. 15.5 cm in height and 8.1 cm in diameter of caliber. Songze culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed from the ruins of Siqian Village, Qingpu County, Shanghai. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . Pig-Shaped Pottery (Pottery sculpture. 4.2 cm in height and 6.7 cm in length. Hemudu culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Hemudu, Yuyao, Zhejiang Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Red Color Zoomorphic Pot (Pottery. 21.8 cm in height, 22.3 cm in length and 14.5 cm in width. Dawenkou culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Dawenkou site, Tai’an City, Shandong Province. Shandong Museum) . . . . . . . .

10

10

11

11

12

13

14

15

16

16

List of Figures

Fig. 1.18

Fig. 1.19

Fig. 1.20

Fig. 1.21

Fig. 1.22

Fig. 1.23

Fig. 1.24

Fig. 2.1

Fig. 2.2

Fig. 2.3

xiii

Eagle-Shaped Pottery Ding (鼎, a wine vessel) (Pottery. 35.8 cm in height. The Neolithic Age. Yangshao culture. Unearthed in Huaxian County, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . White Pottery Gui ( 兦 Gui pitcher, a food utensil) (Pottery. 29.3 cm in height. Longshan culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Weifang, Shandong Province. Shandong Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waterfowl-Shaped Pot (Pottery. 11.7 cm in height and 32.4 cm in length. Liangzhu culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Wujiang, Jiangsu Province. Nanjing Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pottery Human Face (Pottery sculpture. 15.3 cm in height and 14.6 cm in width. Yangshao culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Chaijiaping, Tianshui, Gansu Province. Gansu Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Color Pottery Sculpture of Human Head (Pottery sculpture. 22.5 cm in height with the face 16.5 cm in width. Hongshan culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Niuheliang, Jianping County, Liaoning Province. Liaoning Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cylindrical Jade Cong (琮) with Animal Faces (Jade carving. 8.9 cm in height with the hole 3.8–5 cm in diameter. Liangzhu culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Yuhang, Zhejiang Province. Zhejiang Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jade Beast Jue ( ⧖ ) (Jade carving. 15.7 cm in height, 10.4 cm in width and 4.3 cm in thickness. Hongshan culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Jianping, Liaoning. Liaoning Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Jue (爵, a wine vessel) (Bronze ware. 26.5 cm in height and 31.5 cm in length. Erlitou culture. Unearthed in Erlitou, Yanshi County, Henan Province. Erlitou Site Museum of the Xia Capital) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hou’muwu Bronze Ding (鼎 cauldron) (Bronze ware. 133 cm in height, 112 cm in length and 79.2 cm in width. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Anyang City, Henan Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Square Ding with Ju-clan Emblem (Bronze ware. 23 cm in height, 16 cm in length and 14.2 cm in width of mouth. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Xiaotun site, Changqing County, Shandong Province. Shandong Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

17

18

19

19

21

21

27

28

29

xiv

Fig. 2.4

Fig. 2.5

Fig. 2.6

Fig. 2.7

Fig. 2.8

Fig. 2.9

Fig. 2.10

Fig. 2.11

Fig. 2.12

Fig. 2.13

List of Figures

Da He Bronze Ding with Human Faces (Bronze ware. 38.5 cm in height, 29.8 cm in length and 23.7 cm in width. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Ningxiang, Hunan Province. Hunan Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze You (卣, a wine vessel) in the Tiger-Eating-Human Shape (Bronze ware. 35.7 cm in height. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Ningxiang, Hunan. Sen-oku Hakukokan Museum, Kyoto, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lidded Ritual Bronze He (盉 ewer) with Dragons (Bronze ware. 18.5 cm in height. The Late Shang Dynasty. Probably unearthed in Anyang, Henan Province. The Freer Gallery of Art, USA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Square Bronze Zun with Four Rams (Bronze ware. 58.3 cm in height. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Ningxiang, Hunan Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fu Hao Owl-Shaped Bronze Zun (Bronze ware. 45.9 cm in height. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Fu Hao, Anyang, Henan Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Yue (钺, battle axe) with Beast Face (Bronze ware. 31.7 cm in height and 35.8 cm in width. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Yidu (present-day Qingzhou), Shandong Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Gong” Bronze You (Bronze ware. 23.5 cm in height and 12.9 cm in diameter of caliber. The Early Western Zhou Dynasty. Unearthed in Tunxi, Anhui Province. Anhui Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Fu (簠, a food vessel) Decorated with Straight Lines (Bronze ware. 36.3 cm in height and 55.8 cm in width. The Early Western Zhou Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Xu (盨, a food vessel) (Bronze ware. 21 cm in height, 16.6 cm in width and 21.8 cm in length of caliber. The Late Western Zhou Dynasty. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Mao Gong” Ding (Bronze ware. 53.8 cm in height and 47 cm in diameter of caliber. The Late Western Zhou Dynasty. Unearthed in Qishan, Shaanxi Province. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

31

31

32

33

33

35

35

36

37

List of Figures

Fig. 2.14

Fig. 2.15

Fig. 2.16

Fig. 2.17

Fig. 2.18

Fig. 2.19

Fig. 2.20

Fig. 2.21

Fig. 2.22

xv

Bronze Ring-Patterned Dou (豆, a food vessel) (Bronze ware. 16.2 cm in height and 24 cm in diameter of caliber. The Late Western Zhou Dynasty. Unearthed in Qishan, Shaanxi Province. Qishan Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lotus-Crane Square Bronze Pot (Bronze ware. 122 cm in height and 54 cm in width. The Middle Spring and Autumn Period. Unearthed in Xinzheng, Henan Province. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Dragon-Patterned Square Dou with Red Copper Embedding (Bronze ware. 30.5 cm in height, 17 cm in width and 17.3 cm in length. The Late Spring and Autumn Period. Unearthed in Gushi county, Henan Province. Henan Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Dou Inlaid with Gold (Bronze ware. 19.2 cm in height and 17 cm in diameter of caliber. The Early Warring States Period. Unearthed in Changzhi, Shanxi Province. Shanxi Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Jar with an Eagle Head (Bronze ware. 56.5 cm in height and 12.2 cm in diameter of caliber. The Early Warring States Period. Unearthed in Zhucheng, Shandong Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Dui (敦, a food vessel) with Inlaid Geometric Pattern (Bronze ware. 25.6 cm in height and 18.6 cm in diameter. The Late Warring States Period. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Jar with Scenes of Feasting, Fishing, Hunting, and Fighting (Bronze ware. 40.3 cm in height and 13.2 cm in diameter of caliber. The Warring States Period. Unearthed in Chengdu, Sichuan Province. Sichuan Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Zun-Pan (尊盘, wine vessel and plate) from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (Bronze ware. The Zun is 33.1 cm in height, and the Pan is 24 cm in height. The Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Sui County, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bian Zhong (编钟 chime-bells) from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (Bronze ware. Chime set 265 cm in height and 748 cm in length. The Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Sui County, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum) . . . . .

37

39

40

40

41

42

43

43

44

xvi

Fig. 2.23

Fig. 2.24

Fig. 2.25

Fig. 2.26

Fig. 2.27

Fig. 2.28

Fig. 2.29

Fig. 2.30

Fig. 2.31

Fig. 2.32

List of Figures

Winged Bronze Animal Inlaid with Gold and Silver (Bronze ware. 24 cm in height and 40 cm in length. The Middle and Late Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of King of Zhongshan State, Pingshan County, Hebei Province. Hebei Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fifteen-Cupped Bronze Lamp (Bronze ware. 82.9 cm in height. The Middle and Late Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of King of Zhongshan State, Pingshan County, Hebei Province. Hebei Museum) . . . . . . . . . . Square Bronze Table with Dragons and Phoenixes (Bronze ware. 36.2 cm in height, 47.5 cm in length and 47 cm in width. The Middle and Late Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of King of Zhongshan State, Pingshan County, Hebei Province. Hebei Museum) . . . . . . . . . . Horse-Head-Shaped Bronze Chariot Ornament Inlaid with Gold and Silver (Bronze ware. 8.8 cm in height and 13.7 cm in length. The Middle and Late Warring States Period. Unearthed in Hui County, Henan Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Primitive Porcelain Zun (Ceramic. 14 cm in height and 6 cm in diameter of caliber. The Western Zhou Dynasty. Unearthed from Tunxi, Anhui Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Painted Lacquered Ear Cup (Lacquerware. 6 cm in height and 18.3 cm in length. The Middle Warring States Period. Unearthed in Jiangling, Hubei Province. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lacquered Box in the Shape of a Mandarin Duck (Lacquerware. 20 cm in length. The Early Warring States Period. Unearthed in Sui County, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lacquered Screen Carved with Animals (Lacquerware. 15 cm in height and 51.8 cm in length. The Middle Warring States Period. Unearthed in Jiangling, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Painted Bodiless Lacquerware with the Picture of Characters Travelling in Carriage (Lacquerware. 10.8 cm in height and 28 cm in diameter. The Late Warring States Period. Unearthed in Jingmen, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inner Coffin with Designs Painted on Black Lacquer (Lacquerware. 132 cm in height, 249 cm in length and 127 cm in width. The Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Sui County, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . .

45

46

47

47

48

49

50

50

51

51

List of Figures

Fig. 2.33

Fig. 2.34

Fig. 2.35

Fig. 2.36

Fig. 2.37

Fig. 2.38

Fig. 2.39

Fig. 2.40

Fig. 3.1

Fig. 3.2

xvii

Suspended Drum with a Tiger-Shaped Base and a Phoenix Rack (Lacquerware. 135.9 cm in height and 134 cm in width. The Middle and Late Warring States Period. Unearthed in Jiuliandun, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jade Phoenix Pendant (Jade carving. 13.8 cm in height, 3.2 cm in width and 0.8 cm in thickness. The Shang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Fu Hao, Anyang, Henan Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jade Figure (Jade carving. 7 cm in height and 3.5 cm in width. The Shang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Fu Hao, Anyang, Henan Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jade Pendant of Dragon-Phoenix Design (Jade carving. 48 cm in length, 8.3 cm in width and 0.5 cm in thickness. The Early Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Sui County, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wooden Figurine with a Sword (Wood carving. 52.3 cm in height. The Warring States Period. Unearthed in Changsha, Hunan Province. Hunan Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . Ivory Cup with a Kui Pattern (Ivory carving. 30.5 cm in height. The Shang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Fu Hao, Anyang, Henan Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Silk Painting with a Female Figure, Dragon, and Phoenix Patterns (Silk painting. 31.2 cm in height and 23.2 cm in width. The Warring States Period. Unearthed in Changsha, Hunan Province. Hunan Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Silk Painting with a Figure Driving a Dragon (Silk painting. 37.5 cm in height and 28 cm in width. The Warring States Period. Unearthed in Changsha, Hunan Province. Hunan Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T-shaped Painting on Silk from Han Dynasty Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui (Silk painting. 205 cm in length. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed from Han Dynasty Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan Province. Hunan Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mural of Servants Clearing the Way (Tomb mural. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Tomb No. 1 in Wangdu, Hebei Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

53

54

55

55

56

58

59

63

64

xviii

Fig. 3.3

Fig. 3.4

Fig. 3.5

Fig. 3.6

Fig. 3.7

Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9

Fig. 3.10

Fig. 3.11

Fig. 3.12

Fig. 3.13

Fig. 3.14

List of Figures

Doormen (Tomb mural. 105 cm in height and 50 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb in Yingchengzi, Jinxian County, Liaoning Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portrait Stone of the Wu Liang Shrine (the West Wall) (Portrait stone. 183 cm in height and 140 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. The Wu’s Temple, Jiaxiang, Shandong Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jing Ke’s Assassination of Ying Zheng (the King of Qin) (Portrait stone. 73 cm in height and 63 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. The Wu’s Temple, Jiaxiang, Shandong Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Music and Dance (Partial-Dragon Dance) (Portrait stone. 50 cm in height and 236 cm in length. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Yinan, Shandong Province. Yinan County Beizhai Han Portrait Stone Tomb Museum) . . . . The Sun and Constellations (Portrait stone. 82 cm in height and 167 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Yingzhuang, Nanyang, Henan Province. Nanyang Stonecarved Art Museum in Han Dynasty) . . . . . . . . . Hunter Drawing a Bow (Portrait brick. The Western Han Dynasty. Luoyang, Henan Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hunting and Harvesting (Portrait brick. 39.6 cm in height, 45.6 cm in width and 6 cm in thickness. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Dayi, Sichuan Province. Sichuan Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Garden Brick (Portrait brick. 40 cm in height, 46.4 cm in width and 6.3 cm in thickness. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed from Yangzishan, Chengdu, Sichuan Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Salt Production (Portrait brick. 36.6 cm in height and 46.6 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Qionglai, Sichuan Province. Sichuan Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kneeling Archer (Terracotta sculpture. 120 cm in height. The Qin Dynasty. Lintong, Shaanxi Province. The Terracotta Army Pits No.1 on the east side of the Mausoleum of Shihuangdi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Head of a Qin Terracotta Warrior (Terracotta. The Qin Dynasty. Lintong, Shaanxi Province. The Terracotta Army Pits No.1 on the east side of the Mausoleum of Shihuangdi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horse Stepping on a Hun Soldier (Stone sculpture. 168 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Xingping County, Shaanxi Province. Maoling Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

67

68

69

70 70

71

71

72

74

75

76

List of Figures

Fig. 3.15

Fig. 3.16

Fig. 3.17

Fig. 3.18

Fig. 3.19

Fig. 3.20

Fig. 3.21

Fig. 3.22

Fig. 3.23

Fig. 3.24 Fig. 3.25

Fig. 3.26

Fig. 3.27

xix

Stone Horse (Stone sculpture. 150 cm in height and 240 cm in length. The Western Han Dynasty. Xingping County, Shaanxi Province. Maoling Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stone Tiger (Stone sculpture. 200 cm in length and 80 cm in width. The Western Han Dynasty. Xingping County, Shaanxi Province. Maoling Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stone Toad (Stone sculpture. 156 cm in length, 107 cm in width and 70 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Xingping County, Shaanxi Province. Maoling Museum) . . . . . . Stone Bixie (辟邪) (Stone sculpture. 109 cm in height and 166 cm in length. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed from Sunqitun, Luoyang, Henan Province. Luoyang Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Terracotta Female Dancer (Terracotta sculpture. 50 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Baijiakou, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Terracotta Acrobat (Terracotta sculpture. 67 cm in length and 47.5 cm in width. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed from Western Han Tomb No. 11 at Wuyingshan, Jinan, Shandong Province. Jinan Museum) . . . Terracotta Storyteller Beating a Drum (Terracotta sculpture. 56 cm in height. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Chengdu, Sichuan Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Chariot and Horse (Bronze sculpture. 106.2 cm in height. The Qin Dynasty. Lintong, Shaanxi Province. Emperor Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum Site Museum) . . . . . . . . . . Galloping Horse Treading on a Flying Swallow (Bronze sculpture. 34.5 cm in height, 45 cm in length and 13.1 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Wuwei, Gansu Province. Gansu Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gaoyi Watch Tower (Stone tower. 599 cm in height. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Ya’an, Sichuan Province) . . . . . . . . . Wadang with a Double-Headed Beast Pattern (Tile end. 14.5 cm in diameter. The Qin State of the Late Warring States Period. Unearthed from Fengxiang, Shaanxi Province. Shaanxi History Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wadang from the Mausoleum of Shihuangdi (Tile end. 40 cm in diameter. The Qin Dynasty. Unearthed from the field of Mausoleum of Shihuangdi, Lintong, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wadang Inscribed with Words Meaning “Long Life without End” (Tile end. 18.9 cm in diameter. The Western Han Dynasty. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

77

77

78

79

80

81

81

82 84

85

85

86

xx

Fig. 3.28

Fig. 3.29

Fig. 3.30

Fig. 3.31

Fig. 3.32

Fig. 3.33

Fig. 3.34

Fig. 3.35

Fig. 3.36

Fig. 4.1

Fig. 4.2

Fig. 4.3

List of Figures

Wadang with Four Gods (Tile end. 15.8–19.3 cm in diameter. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed from Shaanxi. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Green-Glazed Pottery “Waterside Pavilion” (Glazed pottery. 54.5 cm in height. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Green-Glazed Pot with Relief Hunting Patterns (Glazed pottery. 25 cm in height, 9.8 cm in diameter of caliber and 10.2 cm in diameter of bottom. The Eastern Han Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gilded Human-Shaped Bronze Lamp (Bronze ware. 48 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Mancheng, Hebei Province. Hebei Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buffalo-Shaped Bronze Jar Lamp (Bronze ware. 46.2 cm in height and 36.4 cm in length. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Hanjiang, Jiangsu Province. Nanjing Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Hill Censer Inlaid with Gold (Bronze. 26 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Mancheng, Hebei Province. Hebei Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lacquered Ding with Cloud Patterns (Lacquerware. 28 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan Province. Hunan Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Winged Man Riding on a Horse (Jade carving. 7 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Xianyang, Shaanxi Province. Xianyang Museum) . . . . . . . . . Wooden Monkey (Wood carving. 11.5 cm in height. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Wuwei, Gansu Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Admonitions Scroll (A copy of the Tang Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on Silk. 25 cm in height and 349 cm in length. The Eastern Jin. Gu Kaizhi. British Museum, UK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Legend of the Women, the Picture of Benevolence and Wisdom (A copy of the Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 25.8 cm in height and 417.8 cm in length. The Eastern Jin. Gu Kaizhi. The Palace Museum) . . . Rhapsody on the Goddess of Luo River (洛神赋) (A copy of the Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 27.1 cm in height and 572.8 cm in length. The Eastern Jin. Gu Kaizhi. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

93

94

98

99

100

List of Figures

Fig. 4.4

Fig. 4.5

Fig. 4.6

Fig. 4.7

Fig. 4.8

Fig. 4.9

Fig. 4.10 Fig. 4.11

Fig. 4.12 Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.14 Fig. 4.15 Fig. 4.16 Fig. 4.17 Fig. 4.18

xxi

Brick Painting in Brick Chamber Tombs of the Wei and Jin Dynasties (Brick painting. Each piece 17 cm in height and 36 cm in width. The Wei and Jin Dynasties. Unearthed from tombs of the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Jiayuguan, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Painting of Landlord’s Manor (Color on paper. 47 cm in length and 105.5 cm in width. The Jin Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of the Jin Dynasty, Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Xinjiang Museum) . . . . . . . . . . Legend of Women and Ancient Sages (Screen painting. Each section 80 cm in height and 20 cm in width. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Unearthed from Sima Jinlong tomb, Datong, Shanxi Province. Datong Museum) . . . . . . . . . . Murals of Lou Rui’s Tomb (Tomb mural. 150–170 cm in height, more than 200 m2 . The Northern Qi Dynasty. Unearthed from Lou Rui’s tomb, Wangguo Village, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seven Sages in the Bamboo Grove and Rong Qiqi Brick Relief (Brick relief. One section 78 cm in height and 242.5 cm in length, another section 78 cm in height and 241.5 cm in length. The Southern Dynasty. Unearthed from Xishanqiao, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province. Nanjing Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stone Carving Filial Son Picture Coffin (Stone carving. 62.5 cm in height and 223.5 cm in length. The Late Northern Wei Dynasty. Unearthed from Mangshan tomb complex of the royal family of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Luoyang, Henan Province. Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, USA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Bodhisattva (Stone sculpture. 2nd–3rd Century AD. Peshawar Museum, Pakistan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buddhas of Bamiyan (Eastern Buddha) (Stone sculpture. 37 meters high. 6th-7th Century AD. Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standing Buddha (Stone sculpture. 81 cm in height. 2nd Century AD. Matura Museum, India) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kizil Grottoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mogao Grottoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bingling Temple and Grottoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maijishan Grottoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yungang Grottoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Longmen Grottoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

102

103

104

105

106

107 112

114 115 117 118 119 120 120 121

xxii

Fig. 4.19

Fig. 4.20

Fig. 4.21

Fig. 4.22

Fig. 4.23

Fig. 4.24

Fig. 4.25

Fig. 4.26

Fig. 4.27

Fig. 4.28

Fig. 4.29

Fig. 4.30

Fig. 4.31

List of Figures

Cross Legged Maitreya (Painted sculpture. 334 cm in height. The Northern Liang in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period. Cave 275, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seated Buddha (Stone sculpture. 1440 cm in height. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 20, Yungang Grottoes, Datong, Shanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Binyang (Central) Cave (Binyang Cave. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang, Henan Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Bodhisattva (Painted sculpture. 122 cm in height. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 127, Maijishan Grottoes, Tianshui, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bodhisattva and Disciple (Painted sculpture. Bodhisattva 123 cm in height, disciple 122 cm in height. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 121, Maijishan grottoes, Tianshui, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attendant (Painted sculpture. 114 cm in height. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 123, Maijishan Grottoes, Tianshui, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bodhisattva (Stone sculpture. 136 cm in height. The Northern Qi Dynasty. Unearthed from Longxing Temple, Qingzhou, Shandong Province. Qingzhou Museum) . . . . . . . . . Rabbit King Jataka Tale (Grotto mural. The Northern Dynasty. Cave 14, Kizil Grottoes, Xinjiang Autonomous Region) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Deer King Jataka Tale (Grotto mural. 96 cm in height and 385 cm in width. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 257, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Prince Sarina Jataka Tale (Grotto mural. 165 cm in height and 172 cm in width. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 254, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . King Shibi Jataka Tale (Grotto mural. 80 cm in height and 125 cm in width. The Northern Liang in the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Cave 275, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dharma Preaching Mural (Grotto mural. The Western Wei Dynasty. Cave 249, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hunting Picture (Grotto mural. 232 cm in height and 570 cm in width. The Western Wei Dynasty. Cave 249, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

123

124

125

126

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

List of Figures

Fig. 4.32 Fig. 4.33

Fig. 4.34

Fig. 4.35

Fig. 4.36

Fig. 4.37

Fig. 4.38

Fig. 4.39

Fig. 5.1

Fig. 5.2

Fig. 5.3

xxiii

Cave 285, Mogao Grottoes (Cave 285. The Western Wei Dynasty. Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . Story of Five Hundred Robbers Become Buddhas (Grotto mural. The Western Wei Dynasty. Cave 285, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tung Wang Kung (东王公 the King of the East, God of the Immortals) Mural (Grotto mural. 125 cm in height and 200 cm in width. The Western Wei Dynasty. Cave 296, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . The Prince Sarina Jataka Tale (Grotto mural. 190 cm in height and 420 cm in width. The Northern Zhou Dynasty. Cave 428, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flying Apsaras (Grotto mural. 30 cm in height and 255 cm in width. The Northern Zhou Dynasty. Cave 290, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dharma Preaching Painting (Grotto mural. The Northern Zhou Dynasty. Cave 26, Maijishan Grottoes, Tianshui, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Large Lotus Celadon Pot (Celadon. 63.6 cm in height, 19.4 cm in diameter of caliber and 20.2 cm in diameter of bottom. The Northern Qi Dynasty. Unearthed from the tombs of the Northern Dynasty, Jing County, Hebei Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Green-Glazed Porcelain Granary (Glazed porcelain. 46.4 cm in height, 11.3 cm in diameter of caliber and 13.5 cm in diameter of bottom. The Kingdom of Wu of the Three Kingdoms Period. Unearthed from the tomb of the Three Kingdoms, Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emperor Taizong Receiving the Tibetan Envoy (A copy of the Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 38.5 cm in height and 129 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Yan Liben. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Thirteen Emperors (A copy made before the Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 51.3 cm in height and 531 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Yan Liben. Museum of Fine Arts Boston, USA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vimalakīrti (Grotto mural. 75 cm in height and 74 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 103, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

135

136

137

138

139

140

142

143

147

148

150

xxiv

Fig. 5.4

Fig. 5.5

Fig. 5.6

Fig. 5.7

Fig. 5.8

Fig. 5.9

Fig. 5.10

Fig. 5.11

Fig. 5.12

List of Figures

Birth of Gautama Buddha (Attributed to Wu Daozi, may be painted by Wu school painter of the Five Dynasties or early Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Line drawing on paper. 35.5 cm in height and 338.1 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Wu Daozi. Osaka City Museum of Fine Arts, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lady Guoguo’s Spring Excursion (A copy of the Northern Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 51.8 cm in height and 148 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Zhang Xuan. Liaoning Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Court Ladies Preparing Newly-Woven Silk (It is believed a copy by Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 37.1 cm in height and 145 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Zhang Xuan. Museum of Fine Arts Boston, USA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ladies Swinging Fans (Attributed to Zhou Fang, may be painted by Zhou Fang school painter of later generation) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 33.7 cm in height and 204.8 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Zhou Fang. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Court Ladies Wearing Flowered Headdresses (May be painted by Zhou Fang school painter of later generation) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 46 cm in height and 180 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Zhou Fang school. Liaoning Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Palace Ladies Tuning the Lute (Attributed to Zhou Fang, a copy of the Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 27.94 cm in height and 75.25 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Zhou Fang. Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, USA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Palace Concert (A copy of the Northern Song Dynasty) (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 48.7 cm in height and 69.5 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Anonymous. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ride Picture (A copy of the Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 22.7 cm in height and 94.8 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Anonymous. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ladies (Tomb mural. 177 cm in height and 198 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Princess Yongtai, the Qianling Mausoleum, Qian County, Shaanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

151

153

154

156

157

157

158

160

161

List of Figures

Fig. 5.13

Fig. 5.14

Fig. 5.15

Fig. 5.16

Fig. 5.17

Fig. 5.18

Fig. 5.19

Fig. 5.20

Fig. 5.21

Fig. 5.22

xxv

Going Hunting (Tomb mural. About 1200 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Crown Prince Zhanghuai, Qianling Mausoleum, Qian County, Shaanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meeting Guests (Tomb mural. 184 cm in height and 242 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Crown Prince Zhanghuai, Qianling Mausoleum, Qian County, Shaanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bird Watching and Catching Cicadas (Tomb mural. 168 cm in height and 175 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Tomb of Crown Prince Zhanghuai, Qianling Mausoleum, Qian County, Shaanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Picture of Music and Dance (Screen. Ink and color on silk. 51.5 cm in height and 25 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from Astana-karakhoja Ancient Tombs No. 230 in Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Xinjiang Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two Court Ladies (A fragment of the picture of “Lady Playing Chess”) (Screen. Ink and color on silk. The Tang Dynasty. Residual part 61.4 cm in height and 65.5 cm in width. Unearthed from Astana-karakhoja Ancient Tombs No. 187 in Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Xinjiang Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beauty in Foreign Costumes (Screen. Ink and color on silk. 15.7 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from Astana-karakhoja Ancient Tombs in Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Private Collection in Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horse Herding (Screen. Ink and color on silk. 53.5 cm in height and 22.3 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from Tomb 188 in Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Xinjiang Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soul-Guiding Bodhisattva (Scroll. Ink and color on silk. 80.5 cm in height and 53.8 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Found in the Buddhist Sutra Cave, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province. British Museum, UK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standing Woman with a Feather Headdress (Screen. Ink and color on paper. 135.9 cm in height and 56.2 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Shosoin, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spring Excursion (May be a copy of the Song Dynasty) (Scroll. Ink and color on silk. 43 cm in height and 80.5 cm in length. The Sui Dynasty. Zhan Ziqian. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

162

163

164

165

166

166

167

168

170

172

xxvi

Fig. 5.23

Fig. 5.24

Fig. 5.25

Fig. 5.26

Fig. 5.27

Fig. 5.28

Fig. 5.29

Fig. 5.30 Fig. 5.31

Fig. 5.32

Fig. 5.33

Fig. 5.34

Fig. 5.35

List of Figures

Sailing Boats and Pavilions (A copy of the Song Dynasty) (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 101.9 cm in height and 54.7 cm in width. Perhaps originally a screen painting. The Tang Dynasty. Li Sixun. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emperor Xuanzong’s Journey to Sichuan (Attributed to Li Zhaodao, a copy of the Yuan Dynasty) (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 55.9 cm in height and 81 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Li Zhaodao. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Landscape Screen Painting (Tomb mural. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Li Daojian, Fuping, Shaanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Night-Shining White: A Royal Horse (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 30.8 cm in height and 34 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Han Gan. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, USA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horse Herding (A copy of the Song Dynasty) (Ink and color on silk. 27.5 cm in height and 34.1 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Han Gan. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Five Oxen (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 20.8 cm long and 139.8 cm wide. The Tang Dynasty. Han Huang. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Six Screens (Tomb mural. 150 cm in height and 375 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from Astana-karakhoja Ancient Tombs No. 217 in Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Main Hall of Foguang Temple (Buddhist temple. The Tang Dynasty. Mount Wutai, Shanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pagoda of Ci’en Temple (Big Wild Goose Pagoda, Dayanta) (Buddhist pagoda. The Tang Dynasty. Xi’an, Shaanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pagoda of Jianfu Temple (Small Wild Goose Pagoda, Xiaoyanta) (Buddhist pagoda. The Tang Dynasty. Xi’an, Shaanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sculptures of Fengxian Temple (Stone sculpture. The Tang Dynasty. Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang, Henan Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bodhisattva Statue (Painted sculpture. 185 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 45, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statue of Ananda, Disciple of Buddha (Painted sculpture. 176 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 45, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

173

174

175

177

178

179

179 182

183

184

186

187

188

List of Figures

Fig. 5.36

Fig. 5.37

Fig. 5.38

Fig. 5.39

Fig. 5.40

Fig. 5.41 Fig. 5.42

Fig. 5.43

Fig. 5.44

Fig. 5.45 Fig. 5.46

Fig. 5.47 Fig. 5.48

Fig. 5.49

xxvii

Remains of a Standing Bodhisattva (Stone sculpture. Residual part 110 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from site of Daming Palace, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Xi’an Beilin Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bodhisattva Statue (Stone sculpture. 90 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 10, Bingling Temple, Yongjing County, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pensive Bodhisattva (Stone sculpture. 115 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 14, Tianlong Mountain Grottoes, Shanxi Province. Tokyo National Museum, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . Illustrations to the West Paradise (Grotto mural. 194 cm in height and 150 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 172, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . Head Shaving (Part of Maitreya Pure Land) (Grotto mural. 47 cm in height and 74 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 445, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parinirvana (Grotto mural. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 158, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Raudraksa’s Battle with Sariputra (Grotto mural. 365 cm in height and 300 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 196, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . The Groom and the Horse (Part of a Pure Land Sutra painting) (Grotto mural. 33 cm in height and 77 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 431, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Music and Dance (Part of Contemplation on Buddha Amitayus) (Grotto mural. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 112, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Flying Apsaras (Grotto mural. The Tang Dynasty. Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Excursion of Zhang Yichao (Grotto mural. 130 cm in height and 830 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 156, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . Caisson Pattern (Grotto Mural. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 320, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . . . . Auspicious Goddess (Hārītī) (Temple mural. The Tang Dynasty, Kingdom of Khotan. Unearthed from an abandoned temple in Dandan Uiliq in Hetian County, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. The original mural no longer exists) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portrait of King of Kucha Tottika and His Queen (Grotto mural. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 205, Kizil Grottoes, Xinjiang Autonomous Region) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

189

190

191

193

193 194

195

196

196 198

199 200

201

202

xxviii

Fig. 5.50

Fig. 5.51

Fig. 5.52

Fig. 5.53

Fig. 5.54

Fig. 5.55

Fig. 5.56

Fig. 5.57

Fig. 5.58

Fig. 5.59

List of Figures

Frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra (The Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sutra) (Print on paper. 24.4 cm in height and 28 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Found in the Buddhist Sutra Cave, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province. British Museum, UK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Double Bottle with Double Dragon-Shaped Handles (White porcelain. 19 cm in height and 4.6 cm in diameter of caliber. The Sui Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Li Jingxun, Liangjiazhuang, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Celadon Ewer with a Phoenix-Headed Cover and Dragon-Shaped Handle (Celadon. 41.3 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed in Henan Province. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . White-Glazed Bottle with a Pair of Dragon-Shaped Handles (White porcelain. 42.7 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Celadon Cloud-Patterned Jar with Brown and Green Dots Paint (Glazed porcelain. 29.8 cm in height, 16.3 cm in diameter of caliber and 19.5 cm in diameter of bottom. The Tang Dynasty. The Changsha kiln. Unearthed from the ruins of the city of the Tang Dynasty, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province. Yangzhou Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Celadon Pot with Brown Spots and Applied Patterns with “何” (He) Inscription (Glazed porcelain. The Changsha Kiln. 23.9 cm in height and 10.5 cm in diameter of caliber. The Tang Dynasty. National Museum of China) . . . . Tri-Colored Lady Figurine (Tri-colored glazed pottery. 36.7 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tri-Colored Camel Figurines Carrying Music (Tri-colored glazed pottery. The camel 58.4 cm in height and 43.4 cm in length, the statue 25.1 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Octagonal Golden Cup with Musicians and Dancers (Gold and silver ware. 6.1 cm in height and 6 cm in diameter of caliber. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from Hejia Village, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Shaanxi History Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pure Gold Bowl with Carved Patterns (Gold and silver ware. 5.5 cm in height, 13.7 cm in diameter of caliber and 6.8 cm in diameter of bottom. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from the cellar in Hejia Village, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Shaanxi History Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

203

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

List of Figures

Fig. 5.60

Fig. 5.61

Fig. 5.62

Fig. 5.63

Fig. 5.64

Fig. 5.65

Fig. 6.1

Fig. 6.2

Fig. 6.3

Fig. 6.4

xxix

Silver Pot with a Cup-in-Mouth Dancing Horse Pattern (Gold and silver ware. The Tang Dynasty. 14.8 cm in height. Unearthed from the cellar in Hejia Village, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Shaanxi History Museum) . . . . . . . . . Bronze Mirror with Flower Petal Edging and Silver Back (Bronze mirror. 21 cm in diameter. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Shaanxi History Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bronze Mirror with Inlaid Shell Flowers and Birds and Characters (Bronze mirror. 23.9 cm in diameter. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed in Luoyang, Henan Province. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flat Octagonal Mirror with Mother-of-Pearl Flowers and Birds on the Back (Bronze mirror. 32.8 cm in diameter and 0.7 cm in thickness. The Tang Dynasty. Shosoin, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Red Sandalwood Moon-Shaped “Ruan” (Guitar) Inlaid with Shell (Lacquerware musical instrument. 100.4 cm in length and 3.65 cm in thickness. The Tang Dynasty. Shosoin, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Five-Stringed “Biwa” Lute of Red Sandalwood with Mother-of-Pearl Inlay (Lacquerware musical instrument. 108.1 cm in length and 30.9 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Shosoin, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Playing Chess Before a Double Screen (A copy of the Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 40.3 cm in height and 70.5 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Zhou Wenju. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Literary Gathering (Should be the second half of “Scholars of the Liuli Hall” Painted by Zhou Wenju, Attributed to Zhou Wenju) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 37.4 cm in height and 58.5 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Zhou Wenju. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Night Revels of Han Xizai (A copy of the Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 28.7 cm in height and 335.5 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Gu Hongzhong. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scroll of Mount Lu (Attributed to Jing Hao, may be painted by Jin Hao school painter of the Northern Song Dynasty) (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 185.8 cm in height and 106.8 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Jing Hao. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

214

215

216

216

217

218

223

224

225

227

xxx

Fig. 6.5

Fig. 6.6

Fig. 6.7

Fig. 6.8

Fig. 6.9

Fig. 6.10

Fig. 6.11

Fig. 6.12

Fig. 6.13

Fig. 6.14

Fig. 6.15

List of Figures

Travelers in the Mountains (Attributed to Guan Tong, may be painted by Guan Tong school painter) (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 140.5 cm in height and 57.5 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Guan Tong. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Rivers Xiao and Xiang (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 50 cm in height and 141.4 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Dong Yuan. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summer Mountains (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 49.4 cm in height and 313.2 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Dong Yuan. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pines in the Soughing Valley (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 200 cm in height and 77.6 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Ju Ran. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . Early Snow on the River (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 25.9 cm in height and 376.5 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Zhao Gan. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Picture of Learned Senior (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 134.5 cm in height and 52.5 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Wei Xian. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birds, Insects and Turtles (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 41.5 cm in height and 70.8 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Huang Quan. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Snowy Bamboos (Attributed to Xu Xi, may be a painting similar to Xu Xi style painted in the early Northern Song Dynasty) (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 151.1 cm in height and 99.2 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Xu Xi. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Herd of Deer in a Maple Grove (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 118.5 cm in height and 64.6 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Anonymous. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Procession of Immortals Paying Homage to the Primordial (Attributed to Wu Zongyuan) (Handscroll. Line drawing on silk. 57.8 cm in height and 789.5 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Wu Zongyuan. Privately owned by Wang Jiqian in the USA. Now stolen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Five Horses (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 29.5 cm in height and 225 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Gonglin. Privately Owned in Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

228

229

229

230

231

232

234

235

236

239

241

List of Figures

Fig. 6.16

Fig. 6.17

Fig. 6.18

Fig. 6.19

Fig. 6.20

Fig. 6.21

Fig. 6.22

Fig. 6.23

Fig. 6.24

Fig. 6.25

Fig. 6.26

xxxi

Imperial Horses at Pasture After Wei Yan (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 42.6 cm in height and 429.8 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Gonglin. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Undressed Armor (Attributed to Li Gonglin, a painting similar to Li Gonglin style painted by later generation) (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 32.2 cm in height and 223.8 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Gonglin. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Life Along the Bian River at the Qingming Festival (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 24.8 cm in height and 528 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Zhang Zeduan. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spinning (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 26.1 cm in height and 69.2 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Wang Juzheng. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Children at Play in an Autumn Garden (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 197.5 cm in height and 108.7 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Su Hanchen. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Itinerant Peddler (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 25.5 cm in height and 70.4 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Song. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Skeleton Puppet Play (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 27 cm in height and 26.3 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Li Song. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wintry Forest (An imitation made in the Ming Dynasty) (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 137.8 cm in height and 69.2 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Li Cheng. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reading the Memorial Stele (Attributed to Li Cheng, a copy by later generation [of the Yuan Dynasty]) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 126.3 cm in height and 104.9 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Li Cheng, Wang Xiao. Osaka City Museum of Fine Arts, Japan) . . . . . . . . Travelers among Mountains and Streams (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 206.3 cm in height and 103.3 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Fan Kuan. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wintry Trees After Snow (Attributed to Fan Kuan) (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 193.5 cm in height and 160.3 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Fan Kuan. Tianjin Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

242

243

245

246

247

248

249

251

252

254

255

xxxii

Fig. 6.27

Fig. 6.28

Fig. 6.29

Fig. 6.30

Fig. 6.31

Fig. 6.32

Fig. 6.33

Fig. 6.34

Fig. 6.35

Fig. 6.36

Fig. 6.37

Fig. 6.38

Fig. 6.39

List of Figures

Early Spring (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 158.3 cm in height and 108.1 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Guo Xi. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . Spectacular Views of the Rivers Xiao and Xiang (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 19.8 cm in height and 289 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Mi Youren. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thousand Miles of Mountains and Rivers (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 51.5 cm in height and 1191.5 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Wang Ximeng. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Golden Halls in the Pine Forest (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 27.7 cm in height and 136 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Zhao Bosu. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . Gathering Wild Herbs (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 27.2 cm in height and 90.5 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Tang. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wind in Pines among Myriad Valleys (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 188.7 cm in height and 139.8 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Li Tang. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fishing on the Clear Creek (Handscroll. Ink on silk. 25.2 cm in height and 144.1 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Tang. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Four-Scenes Landscape—Winter Scene (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. Each section 40 cm in height and 69 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Liu Songnian. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Singing and Dancing in the Field (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 192.5 cm in height and 111 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Ma Yuan. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . Plum, Rock, Creek and Wild Ducks (Album. Ink and color on silk. 26.7 cm in height and 28.6 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Ma Yuan. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . Water Pictures—“Backflow of the Yellow River”; “Echoes of Autumn” (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. Each section 26.8 cm in height and 41.6 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Ma Yuan. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Twelve Views of Landscape (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 28 cm in height and 230.8 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Xia Gui. Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, USA) . . . . . Residence in the Misty Woods (Round fan. Ink on silk. 25 cm in height and 26 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Xia Gui. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

List of Figures

Fig. 6.40

Fig. 6.41

Fig. 6.42

Fig. 6.43

Fig. 6.44

Fig. 6.45

Fig. 6.46

Fig. 6.47

Fig. 6.48

Fig. 6.49

Fig. 6.50

Fig. 6.51

Fig. 6.52

Fig. 6.53

xxxiii

Blue Magpie and Thorny Shrubs (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 97 cm in height and 53.6 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Huang Jucai. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magpies and a Hare (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 193.7 cm in height and 103.4 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Cui Bai. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . Sparrows (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 25.5 cm in height and 101.4 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Cui Bai. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Auspicious Cranes (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 51 cm in height and 138 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Zhao Ji. Liaoning Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birds on the Willow (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 34 cm in height and 223 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Zhao Ji. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monkey Picking Fruit (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 25 cm in height and 25.6 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pea Flowers and a Dragonfly (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 27 cm in height and 23 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fish Playing with Algae (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 24.5 cm in height and 25.5 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Old Lotus and Crab (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 23.9 cm in height and 24.7 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corn Poppy Flowers (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 25.5 cm in height and 26.2 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lotus Flower (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 23.8 cm in height and 25 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birds Come When Fruits Are Ripe (Album. Ink and color on silk. 26.9 cm in height and 27.2 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Lin Chun. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plums and Bamboos in the Snow (Handscroll. Ink on silk. 29.6 cm in height and 122 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Xu Yugong. Liaoning Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . Bamboo in Monochrome Ink (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 131.6 cm in height and 105.4 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Wen Tong. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

270

271

272

273

274

274

275

276

276

277

278

279

280

281

xxxiv

Fig. 6.54

Fig. 6.55

Fig. 6.56

Fig. 6.57

Fig. 6.58

Fig. 6.59

Fig. 6.60

Fig. 6.61

Fig. 6.62

Fig. 6.63

Fig. 6.64

Fig. 6.65

List of Figures

Pine, Bamboo and Plum (Three Friends in Cold Winter) (Round fan. Ink on silk. 24.3 cm in height and 23.3 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Zhao Mengjian. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dead Tree and Strange Rock (Hand scroll. Ink on paper. 26.5 cm in height and 50.5 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Su Shi. Privately Owned in Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coral Brush Holder (Ink on paper. 27 cm in height and 24.8 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Mi Fu. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portrait of Arhat (Attributed to Guan Xiu, a copy of the Northern Song Dynasty) (Hanging scroll. Color on silk. Each one 92.2 cm in height and 45.4 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Guan Xiu. Japanese Imperial Household Agency, Sannomaru Shozokan (The Museum of the Imperial Collections), Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Second Zen Patriarch in Contemplation (Attributed to Shi Ke) (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 35.3 cm in height and 64.4 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Shi Ke. Tokyo National Museum, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Story of the Eight High Monks (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 26.6 cm in height and 64 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Liang Kai. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . The Sixth Patriarch Cutting the Bamboo (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 72.7 cm in height and 31.5 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Liang Kai. Tokyo National Museum, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Picture of a Fairy with Splashed Ink (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 48.7 cm in height and 27.7 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Liang Kai. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Li Bai in Stroll (Attributed to Liang Kai) (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 81.1 cm in height and 30.5 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Liang Kai. Tokyo National Museum, Japan) . . . Autumn Willow and Two Birds (Round fan. Ink on silk. 24.7 cm in height and 25.7 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Liang Kai. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pine and Crested Bird (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 78.5 cm in height and 39 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Fachang. Collection in Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water-Moon Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin in Chinese) (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 172.4 cm in height and 98.8 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Fachang. Daitoku-Ji, Kyoto, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

282

283

283

285

287

288

289

290

291

292

293

294

List of Figures

Fig. 6.66

Fig. 6.67

Fig. 6.68

Fig. 6.69

Fig. 6.70

Fig. 6.71

Fig. 6.72

Fig. 6.73

Fig. 6.74

Fig. 6.75

Fig. 6.76

Fig. 6.77

Fig. 6.78

Fig. 6.79

xxxv

Six Persimmons (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 38.1 cm in height and 36.2 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Fachang. Ryōko-In, Daitoku-Ji, Kyoto, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mountain Residence Scene (Scroll, ink on paper. 33.1 cm in height and 82.8 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Yujian. Idemitsu Museum of Arts, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Four Beauties (Woodblock print. 40 cm in height and 22 cm in width. The Jin Dynasty. The original version is collected in the State Hermitage Museum, Russia) . . . . . . . . . . Ceramic Plate with Printed Cloud and Dragon Pattern (Ceramic. The Ding kiln. 4.7 cm in height and 23 cm in diameter. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . White Baby-Shaped Ceramic Pillow (Ceramic. The Ding kiln. 18.3 cm in height, 30 cm in length and 18.3 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . Celadon Plate (Celadon. The Ru kiln. 2.9 cm in height and 17 cm in diameter. The Song Dynasty. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Petal-Shaped Brush Washer (Celadon. The Imperial kiln. 4.8 cm in height and 18.7 cm in diameter. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Celadon-Glazed Red-Spotted Bottle (Ceramic. The Jun kiln. 29 cm in height and 13 cm in diameter. The Song Dynasty. The British Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fish Pattern Ear Incense Burner (Celadon. The Ge kiln. 9 cm in height, 11.8 cm in diameter of caliber and 9.6 cm in diameter of bottom. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Celadon Incense Burner (Celadon. The Longquan kiln. 12.4 cm in height and 14.5 cm in diameter of caliber. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Celadon Vase with Peony and Day Lily Patterns (Celadon. The Yaozhou kiln. 48.4 cm in height, 7.5 cm in diameter of caliber and 11 cm in diameter of bottom. The Song Dynasty. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . White Ceramic Pillow with Black Peony Pattern (Ceramic. The Cizhou kiln. The Song Dynasty. Seikado Bunko Art Museum, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blue-White Glazed Vase (Celadon. The Jingdezhen kiln. 26.6 cm in height, 5 cm in diameter of caliber and 8.5 cm in diameter of bottom. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inaba Tenmoku (Tianmu Tea Bowl) (Ceramic. The Jian kiln. 6.8 cm in height and 12 cm in diameter. The Song Dynasty. Seikado Bunko Art Museum, Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

295

296

297

299

300

301

302

304

305

305

307

308

309

310

xxxvi

Fig. 6.80

Fig. 7.1

Fig. 7.2

Fig. 7.3

Fig. 7.4

Fig. 7.5

Fig. 7.6

Fig. 7.7

Fig. 7.8

Fig. 7.9

Fig. 7.10

Fig. 7.11

Fig. 7.12

List of Figures

Black-Glazed Tea Bowl with Leaf Pattern (Ceramic. The Jizhou kiln. 5.2 cm in height, 14.5 cm in diameter of caliber and 3.4 cm in diameter of bottom. Unearthed in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. The Song Dynasty. Jiangxi Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eight Flowers (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 29.4 cm in length and 333.9 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Qian Xuan. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dwelling in the Floating Jade Mountains (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 29.6 cm in height and 98.7 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Qian Xuan. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dwelling in the Mountains (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 26.4 cm in height and 114.9 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Qian Xuan. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . Autumn Colors on the Que and Hua Mountains (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 28.4 cm in height and 93.2 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Zhao Mengfu. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elegant Rocks and Sparse Trees (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 27.5 cm in height and 62.8 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Zhao Mengfu. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 33 cm in height and 636.9 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Huang Gongwang. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nine Peaks in Snow (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 117 cm in height and 55.5 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Huang Gongwang. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fisherman (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 84.7 cm in height and 29.7 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Wu Zhen. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bamboo, Old Tree, and Rock (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 53 cm in height and 69.8 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Wu Zhen. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Six Gentlemen (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 61.9 cm in height and 33.3 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Ni Zan. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forest Chamber Grotto at Chu-ch’u (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 68.7 cm in height and 42.5 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Wang Meng. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 140.6 cm in height and 42.2 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Wang Meng. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . .

311

316

317

317

319

319

321

322

323

324

325

326

327

List of Figures

Fig. 7.13

Fig. 7.14

Fig. 7.15

Fig. 7.16

Fig. 7.17

Fig. 7.18

Fig. 7.19

Fig. 7.20

Fig. 7.21

Fig. 7.22

Fig. 7.23

Fig. 7.24

xxxvii

Bamboos and Stones (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 163.5 cm in height and 102.5 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Li Kan. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Four Nobles (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 35.6 cm in height and 359.8 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Li Kan. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bamboos and Stones (Hanging Scroll. Ink on silk. 184 cm in height and 102 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Gu An. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ink Bamboo of Qingbi Pavilion (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 132.8 cm in height and 58.5 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Ke Jiusi. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ink Plum Blossom (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 31.9 cm in height and 50.9 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Wang Mian. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) (Handscroll. Ink The Painting of “Hunlun” ( on paper. The Yuan Dynasty. Zhu Derun. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Portrait of Yang Zhuxi (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 27.7 cm in height and 86.8 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Wang Yi, Ni Zan. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . Chaoyuan Mural (Temple mural. The Yuan Dynasty. Ma Junxiang, etc. Sanqing Hall, Yongle Palace, Ruicheng County, Shanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jade Lady (Temple mural. The Yuan Dynasty. Ma Junxiang, etc. Sanqing Hall, Yongle Palace, Ruicheng Country, Shanxi Province) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Thousand-armed and Thousand-eyed Avalokiteśvara (Grotto mural. Buddhist tantra images. 203 cm in height and 223 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Cave 3, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) . . . . . . . Blue-and-White Porcelain Plate with Two Mandarin Ducks Surrounded by Lotus Flowers (Porcelain. The Jingdezhen kiln. 7.3 cm in height and 46.4 cm in diameter. The Yuan Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blue-and-White Plum Vase with the Picture of “Xiao He Chasing Han Xin Under the Moon” (Porcelain. The Jingdezhen kiln. 44.1 cm in height, 5.5 cm in diameter of caliber and 13 cm in diameter of bottom. The Yuan Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Wang Muying in Jiangning, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province. Nanjing Museum Administration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

329

330

330

331

332

333

333

335

336

337

338

339

xxxviii

Fig. 7.25

Fig. 8.1

Fig. 8.2

Fig. 8.3

Fig. 8.4

Fig. 8.5

Fig. 8.6

Fig. 8.7

Fig. 8.8

Fig. 8.9

Fig. 8.10

Fig. 8.11

Fig. 8.12

List of Figures

Underglaze Red “Yuhuchun” (玉壶春) Vase with Pine, Bamboo and Plum Patterns (Porcelain. 33 cm in height, 8.8 cm in diameter of caliber and 11.3 cm in diameter of bottom. The Yuan Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . Verdant Mountains in the Spring (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 141.3 cm in height and 53.4 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Dai Jin. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Six Patriarchs of Zen (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 33.8 cm in height and 219.5 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Dai Jin. Liaoning Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pleasure of Fishing (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 270.8 cm in height and 174.4 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Wu Wei. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drunken Woodsman (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 101 cm in height and 34 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Wu Wei. Changzhou Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Birds (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 152 cm in height and 56.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Lin Liang. Tianjin Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lofty Mount Lu (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 193.8 cm in height and 98.1 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Shen Zhou. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . Magnolia and Cabbage (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper [divided into two parts, one color and the other ink]. Each section 35.2 cm in height and 59.7 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Shen Zhou. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Farewell upon a Spring River (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 28 cm in height and 159.2 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Shen Zhou. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . The Goddesses of the Xiang River (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 100.3 cm in height and 35.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Wen Zhengming. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Zhenshang Studio (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 36 cm in height and 107.8 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Wen Zhengming. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . Lady with Fan in the Autumn Breeze (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 77.1 cm in height and 39.3 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Tang Yin. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . Rosy Setting Sun and Lone Mallard (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 189.1 cm in height and 105.4 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Tang Yin. Shanghai Museum) . . .

340

344

345

346

347

349

351

352

353

354

355

356

357

List of Figures

Fig. 8.13

Fig. 8.14

Fig. 8.15

Fig. 8.16

Fig. 8.17

Fig. 8.18

Fig. 8.19

Fig. 8.20

Fig. 8.21

Fig. 8.22

Fig. 8.23

Fig. 8.24

Fig. 8.25

xxxix

Bird on a Branch (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 121 cm in height and 26.7 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Tang Yin. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Court Ladies in the Shu Palace (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 124.7 cm in height and 63.6 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Tang Yin. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fairyland of Peach Blossoms (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 175 cm in height and 66.7 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Qiu Ying. Tianjin Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . Album of Characters and Stories (Album. Ink and color on silk. Each section 41.4 cm in height and 33.8 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Qiu Ying. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Okra and Rocks (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 68.5 cm in height and 34 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Chun. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pine, Rock, and Daylilies (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 153.2 cm in height and 67.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Chun. Nanjing Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grape in Ink (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 165.7 cm in height and 64.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Xu Wei. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous Plants (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 46.6 cm in height and 622.2 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Xu Wei. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drinking in the Garden (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 156.2 cm in height and 107 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Hongshou. Tianjin Museum) . . . . . . . . . . Ladies (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 110.5 cm in height and 4.8 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Hongshou. Liaoning Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On Miscellaneous Subjects (Album. Ink and color on silk. Each section 30.2 cm in height and 25.1 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Hongshou. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lotus and Rocks (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 151 cm in height and 62 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Hongshou. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Margin Illustrations (Woodblock print. Each section 18 cm in height and 9.4 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Painted by Chen Hongshou. There are two editions carved respectively by Huang Junbei and Huang Zhaochu. National Library of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

358

359

361

362

364

365

366

367

368

369

370

371

372

xl

Fig. 8.26

Fig. 8.27

Fig. 8.28

Fig. 8.29

Fig. 8.30

Fig. 8.31

Fig. 8.32

Fig. 8.33

Fig. 8.34

Fig. 8.35

Fig. 8.36

Fig. 8.37

List of Figures

Woodblock Illustrations of Romance of the West Chamber (Woodblock print. Each page 26.2 cm in height and 17.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Painted by Chen Hongshou, carved by Xiang Nanzhou. Original edition is collected in National Library of China, Zhejiang Provincial Museum, etc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hidden in the Clouds (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 189 cm in height and 50.6 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Cui Zizhong. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portrait of Wang Shimin (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 64 cm in height and 42.3 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Zeng Jing. Tianjin Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portraits (Album. Ink and color on paper. Each section 45.4 cm in height and 26.4 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Anonymous. Nanjing Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eight Scenes of Autumn (Album. Ink and color on paper. Each section 53.8 cm in height and 31.7 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Dong Qichang. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . Zhou Jin Hall (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 41 cm in height and 180 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Dong Qichang. Jilin Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mount Qingbian (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 225 cm in height and 67.6 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Dong Qichang. Cleveland Museum of Art, USA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Big Tree in the Roaring Wind (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 115.4 cm in height and 50.3 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Xiang Shengmo. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . White Clouds and Red Trees (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 189.4 cm in height and 48 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Lan Ying. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . Wandering to the Forest (Album. Ink and color on paper. 23 cm in height and 31 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Wen Congjian. The Capital Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On the Mountain Roads (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 31.8 cm in height and 862.2 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Wu Bin. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Huancui Hall Garden Scenery (Woodblock Print. 24 cm in height and 1486 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Carved by Huang Yingzu. Original edition was collected by Fu Xihua (1907–1970). Now does not exist) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

373

374

376

377

379

380

381

382

383

384

385

387

List of Figures

Fig. 8.38

Fig. 8.39

Fig. 8.40

Fig. 8.41

Fig. 8.42

Fig. 8.43

Fig. 8.44 Fig. 8.45

Fig. 8.46

Fig. 8.47 Fig. 8.48

Fig. 8.49

xli

T’ien-kung K’ai-wu (天工开物) Illustration (Woodblock print. 21.7 cm in height and 14.3 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. First edition by Song Yingxing, sponsored by Tu Boju. The three original editions are collected separatively by National Library of China, Seikado Bunko, Tokyo, Japan and Bibliotheque Nationalea Paris, France) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ten Bamboo Studio Letter Paper Collection (Woodblock print. Each section 21 cm in height and 14 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Edited by Hu Zhengyan. Original edition is collected in Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong (Woodblock print. New Year pictures. 92.8 cm in height and 61.5 cm in width each. The Ming Dynasty. Private Collection in China) . . . . . . . Blue-and-White Cup with Lotus Flower Pattern (Porcelain. 5.4 cm in height, 9.1 cm in diameter of caliber and 3.9 cm in diameter of bottom. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blue-and-White Dish with Bird on Loquat (Porcelain. 9.2 cm in height and 51.2 cm in diameter. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underglaze Red Stem Bowl with Triple Fish (Porcelain. 8.8 cm in height, 9.9 cm in diameter of caliber and 4.5 cm in diameter of bottom. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Dou Cai” Chicken Cup (Porcelain. 3.3 cm in height. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lidded Jar with “Wu Cai” Carp and Weed (Porcelain. 46 cm in height, 19.8 cm in diameter of caliber and 24.8 cm in diameter of bottom. The Ming Dynasty. National Museum of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case with “Wu Cai” Dragon and Phoenix Patterns (Porcelain. 8.9 cm in height and 29.9 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cloisonné Enamel Garlic Bottle (Cloisonné enamel. 33.5 cm in height. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . Cloisonné Enamel Flower Holder (Cloisonné enamel. 14.5 cm in height, 7.9 cm in diameter of caliber and 4.1 cm in diameter of foot. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Folding Armchair with Curved Rest (Furniture. 112 cm in height, seat 58 cm in height, 70 cm in length and 46.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . .

388

390

391

394

395

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Fig. 8.50

Fig. 9.1

Fig. 9.2

Fig. 9.3

Fig. 9.4

Fig. 9.5

Fig. 9.6

Fig. 9.7

Fig. 9.8

Fig. 9.9

Fig. 9.10

Fig. 9.11

Fig. 9.12

List of Figures

Yellow Rosewood Throne Inlaid with Nanmu (Furniture. 102 cm in height, seat 50 cm in height, 107 cm in length and 73 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. The Imperial Mountain Summer Resort) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Landscapes after Song and Yuan Masters (Album. Ink and color on paper. Each section 23.5 cm in height and 30.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wang Shimin. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Landscapes after Song and Yuan Masters (Album. Ink on paper. Each section 27 cm in height and 18.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wang Jian. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Streams and Forests in the Mountains (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 95.6 cm in height and 54.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wang Yuanqi. Nanjing Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Scenery of Chu Mountain where the Rain is about to Come—Landscape after Ju Ran (Scroll. Color on silk. 92.5 in height and 46.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wang Hui. Tianjin Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spring Lake (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 123.5 cm in height and 62.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wu Li. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lotus (From an Album of Flowers, Landscapes, and Vegetables) (Album leaf. Ink and color on paper. 26.8 cm in height and 59.3 cm in length. The Qing Dynasty. Yun Ge. Princeton University Art Museum, USA) . . . . . . . . . . . Peonies (Album. Ink and color on paper. 28.5 cm in height and 43 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Yun Ge. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lotus and Ducks (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 171 cm in height and 47 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Zhu Da. Tianjin Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peacocks (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 169.5 cm in height and 72 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Zhu Da. Liu Haisu Art Museum, Shanghai) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Autumn in Huaiyang (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 89 cm in height and 57 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Shitao. Nanjing Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mountain Waterfalls (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 103 cm in height and 42.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Shitao. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Searching for Extraordinary Peeks (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 42.8 cm in height and 285.5 cm in length. The Qing Dynasty. Shitao. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

403

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413

414

415

416

418

419

419

List of Figures

Fig. 9.13

Fig. 9.14

Fig. 9.15

Fig. 9.16

Fig. 9.17

Fig. 9.18

Fig. 9.19

Fig. 9.20

Fig. 9.21

Fig. 9.22

Fig. 9.23

Fig. 9.24

Fig. 9.25

Fig. 9.26

xliii

Plum and Bamboo (Scroll. Ink on paper. 34.2 cm in height and 194.4 cm in length. The Qing Dynasty. Shitao. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Green and Soaring Mountains (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 85 cm in height and 40.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Kuncan. Nanjing Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pine and Rock on Mt Huangshan (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper 198.7 cm in height and 81 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Hongren. Shanghai Museum) . . . Nine Dragons Pond (Album. Ink and color on paper. 33.9 cm in height and 44.1 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Mei Qing. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Landscapes after Ancient Masters (Album. Ink and color on paper. Each leaf 24.8 cm in height and 29.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Mei Qing. Marie-Hélène and Guy Weill, USA/Metropolitan Museum of Art, USA) . . . . Endless Stream and Terraced Mountains (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 27.4 cm in height. The Qing Dynasty. Gong Xian. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Woods with Red and Yellow Leaves (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper, 99.5 cm in height and 64.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Gong Xian. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ladies (Album. Ink and color on silk. 30.2 cm in height and 21.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Jiao Bingzhen. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two Rabbits under a Phoenix Tree (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 176.2 cm in height and 96 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Leng Mei. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . Imperial Hound (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 246 cm in height and 133 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Giuseppe Castiglione. Shenyang Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . Orchids and Stones (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 187 cm in height and 110.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Zheng Xie. Tianjin Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pine in Wind (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 159.5 cm in height and 59.2 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Li Fangying. Nantong Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-portrait (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 131.3 cm in height and 59.1 cm in width. Jin Nong. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Picking Water-Chestnuts (Album. Ink and color on paper. 26.2 cm in height and 35 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Jin Nong. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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xliv

Fig. 9.27

Fig. 9.28

Fig. 9.29

Fig. 9.30

Fig. 9.31

Fig. 9.32

Fig. 9.33

Fig. 9.34

Fig. 9.35

Fig. 9.36

Fig. 9.37

List of Figures

Plum Blossoms (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 77 cm in height and 23.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wang Shishen. Tianjin Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birds and Flowers (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 216.5 cm in height and 131 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Hua Yan. Tianjin Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zhong Kui (钟馗) (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 101 cm in height and 115.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Huang Shen. Yangzhou Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . Drunken Zhong Kui (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 57 cm in height and 39 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Luo Pin. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dream of the Red Chamber (Woodblock print. 22.5 cm in height and 15 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Painted by Gai Qi. National Library of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lady with a Fan in Autumn Breeze (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 149.8 cm in height and 44.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Fei Danxu. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Landscapes of Taiping Prefecture (Woodblock print. Each section [full frame spread] 27 cm in height and 38.6 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Painted by Xiao Yuncong, carved by Tang Shang. [Zheng Zhenduo collection version] National Library of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Farming and Weaving (Court copperplate etching version) (Woodblock print. Each section 34.7 cm in height and 27.7cm in width, the painting frame 24.4 cm in height and 24.4 cm in widht. The Qing Dynasty. Painted by Jiao Bingzhen, carved by Zhu Gui and Mei Yufeng. Original edition is collected in Capital Library of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grand Pageant for the Imperial Birthday (Woodblock print. Each section 23.4 cm in height and 17 cm in width [with frame]. The Qing Dynasty. Painted by Song Junye and Leng Mei, carved by Zhu Gui and Mei Yufeng. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mustard Seed Garden Manual of Painting (Woodblock print. Each section 22.2 cm in height and 18.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Edited by Wang Gai. Original edition is collected in National Library of China) . . . . Fu Shou Kang Ning (Good Fortune, Longevity, Good Health and Peace) (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 34 cm in height and 59 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Yangliuqing, Tianjin. Crafts Museum of CAA) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

435

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439

440

441

442

443

444

445

List of Figures

Fig. 9.38

Fig. 9.39

Fig. 9.40

Fig. 9.41

Fig. 9.42

Fig. 9.43

Fig. 9.44

Fig. 9.45 Fig. 9.46

Fig. 9.47

Fig. 9.48

Fig. 9.49

Fig. 9.50 Fig. 9.51

xlv

Shanghai Railway Station (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 27.7 cm in height and 48.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Taohuawu, Suzhou. Chinese National Academy of Arts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Busy Women (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 21 cm in height and 32 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Yangjiabu, Weifang, Shandong) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Kitchen God (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 34 cm in height and 28 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Weifang, Shandong) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changbanpo (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 28 cm in height and 46.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Pingdu, Shangdong) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spring Ox and Cowherd (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 29 cm in height and 22 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Xinjiang, Shanxi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vase Decorated with Flowers and Birds (Porcelain. 44 cm in height, 22.4 cm in diameter of caliber and 14.2 cm in diameter of bottom. The Qing Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jingdezhen Kiln “Fen Cai” Bat and Peach Pattern Vase (Porcelain. 39.5 cm in height, 10 cm in diameter of caliber and 12.3 cm in diameter of bottom. The Qing Dynasty. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Fen Cai” 100 Deer Porcelain Vessel (Porcelain. The Qing Dynasty. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . “Fen Cai” Vase with Revolving Interior and Hollowed Belly (Porcelain. 40.2 cm in height, 19.2 cm in diameter of caliber and 21.1 cm in diameter of bottom. The Qing Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Enamel Figure Vase (Porcelain. 18.8 cm in height, 4.25 cm in diameter of caliber and 7.5 cm in diameter of foot. The Qing Dynasty. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cloisonné Enamel Revolving Vase (Cloisonné enamel. 33.5 cm in height, 9.8 cm in diameter of caliber and 10.4 cm in diameter of foot. The Qing Dynasty. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jadeite Cabbage (Jade carving. 18.7 cm in length, 9.1 cm in width and 5.07 cm in thickness. The Qing Dynasty. National Palace Museum, Taipei) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Afu (阿福) (Clay sculpture. 24 cm in height. The Qing Dynasty. Wuxi Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dielianhua (Butterfly’s Dream of a Flower) (Paper-cut. 43.3 cm in height. The Qing Dynasty. Huang County, Shandong Province. Shandong Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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451

452 453

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457 458

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xlvi

Fig. 10.1

Fig. 10.2

Fig. 10.3

Fig. 10.4

Fig. 10.5

Fig. 10.6

Fig. 10.7 Fig. 10.8

Fig. 10.9

Fig. 10.10

Fig. 10.11

Fig. 10.12

Fig. 10.13

List of Figures

“Jianxia Zhuan” (Character Illustrations of Martial Art Heroes) (Woodblock print. Each section 17.6 cm in height and 11.2 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Xiong) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lady with a Fan in the Yao Palace (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 85.2 cm in height and 33.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Xiong. Nanjing Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . Four Sheets of Flowers and Birds (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. Each section 140 cm in height and 37.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Xun. Guangzhou Art Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portrait of a Shabby Official (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 164.2 cm in height and 77.6 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Yi. Zhejiang Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nvwa Refining Rocks to Patch the Sky (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 118 cm in height and 66 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Yi. Xu Beihong Memorial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cattle Herding (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 133 cm in height and 63.2 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Yi. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fruits and Vegetables (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Yi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ink Lotus (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 179 cm in height and 96.1 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wu Changshuo. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peaches (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 139 cm in height and 33.9 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wu Changshuo. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gourds (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 120.5 cm in height and 44.7 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wu Changshuo. Shanghai People’s Fine Arts Publishing House) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Five-colored Peonies (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 175.6 cm in height and 90.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Zhao Zhiqian. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . The Jishu (积书, stack of books) Cliff (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 69.5 cm in height and 39 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Zhao Zhiqian. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Pine and the Crane (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 184.5 cm in height and 98.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Xugu. Suzhou Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

464

465

466

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468

470 471

472

473

474

476

477

478

List of Figures

Fig. 10.14

Fig. 10.15

Fig. 10.16

Fig. 10.17

Fig. 10.18

Fig. 10.19

Fig. 10.20

Fig. 10.21

Fig. 10.22

Fig. 10.23

Fig. 10.24

Fig. 10.25

Fig. 10.26

xlvii

Goldfish (Album. Ink and color on paper. 34.7 cm in height and 40.6 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Xugu. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peonies (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 132.6 cm in height and 75 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Jv Lian. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Autumn Leaves and an Eagle (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 168 cm in height and 78 cm in width. Republic of China. Gao Jianfu. Guangdong Museum) . . . . . . . . Viewing Paintings at an Exhibition (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 87.7 cm in height and 46.6 cm in width. Republic of China. Chen Shizeng. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peach and Rabbit (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 103.8 cm in height and 34.7 cm in width. Qi Baishi. The Palace Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Chorus of Frogs Comes from the Mountain Spring Ten Miles Away (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 127.5 cm in height and 33 cm in width. 1951. Qi Baishi. National Museum of Modern Chinese Literature) . . . . . . . . . . . Ink Landscape (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 76.2 cm in height and 40 cm in width. Republic of China. Huang Binhong. Zhejiang Provincial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Red Whisk Girl (Hanging scroll. Color on paper. 125 cm in height and 75 cm in width. Republic of China. Zhang Daqian. Private collection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Playing with Parrot (Hanging scroll. Color on paper, 134.5 cm in height and 65 cm in width. Republic of China. Private collection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Rock and a Chicken (Scroll. Ink and color on paper. 68 cm in height and 136.5 cm in length. Republic of China. Pan Tianshou. Pan Tianshou Memorial Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . Mountain Spirit (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 163.6 cm in height and 82.8 cm in width. Republic of China. Fu Baoshi. Nanjing Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Machines Building the Road (From Wu Youru Painting Collection 《 [ 吴友如画宝》, Wu Youru Hua Bao]: Collection from Dianshizhai Pictorial, etc.) (Lithograph. 20 cm in height and 25.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Painted by Wu Youru. Shanghai Museum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cigarette Advertising Calendar Painting (Calendar painting. Lithograph. Republic of China. Painted by Hang Zhiying) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 1

Prehistoric Arts

1.1 Overview As in other civilizations of the world, Chinese prehistoric arts bear a close relation with the development of production tools, the way of life, and the religion of the primitive people. From the Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age, art was mainly embodied in stone tool and pottery making. (1) Stone tool The stone tools used in the Paleolithic Age were very roughly made. Neolithic stone tools were polished and drilled so that ropes could be threaded and handles could be fixed, which not only improved their functionality but also reflected the aesthetic consciousness of primitive people. While making stone tools, they happened to find some special stones with fine texture and pleasing colors. After processing, these stones gained decorative and emotional values. That was how the craft of jade making began. As stone processing techniques improved, jade and stone tool crafts were gradually separated, and jade making became an independent craft which gave more and more Chinese cultural and religious meaning. (2) Pottery making Pottery making was a defining cultural phenomenon of the Neolithic Age and a key achievement of the clan society. Until then, when processing natural objects, people had only changed their external shape. Pottery making, however, changed the chemical properties of the materials through the use of fire. Pottery played a significant role in the improvement of human life. It has not only made life easier by creating more utensils, but also strengthened the stability of settlement. The major Neolithic cultures In China, such as Hemudu culture, Yangshao culture, Dawenkou culture, and Longshan culture, developed different styles of pot making, which marked the beginning of Chinese prehistoric art. At first, pottery was totally handmade and very rough. Their burning was insufficient, the color was uneven, the thickness varied, and the texture was crunchy. © Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 T. Chen, Illustrated History of Chinese Art, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8_1

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1 Prehistoric Arts

And often enough, their shape was rough with very few decorative patterns. Later, pottery wheel was used. It was slow wheel at first, which was then replaced by fast wheel. Pottery shape improved and diversified, and the production process became sophisticated. Neolithic pottery can be divided into terracotta (red clay) pottery, gray pottery, black pottery, and white pottery by texture, while by the style of decoration, they can be divided into plain pottery, engraved pottery, printed pottery (stamped pottery), pottery sculpture, and color-painted pottery. Among them, the most artistic were painted pottery of the middle Neolithic period and black pottery of the late Neolithic period. (3) Others In addition to stone tools and pottery, primitive arts also include tooth and bone carving, dyeing-weaving, and weaving. Bone tools appeared very early. Bone needles and bone awls were found at the Upper Cave site. Dyeing-weaving just began when bone tools were in widespread use. At the same time, natural materials such as bamboo, rattan, willow, and grass were weaved to make daily necessities. Natural material weaving predated pottery, but due to easy corrosion, it is now impossible to find remains of such natural objects, but traces of mats have been found on pottery (Table 1.1). Table 1.1 Brief list of cultural sites of the neolithic age Times

Sites Upper reaches Middle Lower of Yellow River reaches of reaches of Yellow River Yellow River

Early period −7000

Dadiwan (Gansu)

Middle period −6000 Late period −5000

Majiayao (Gansu) – Majiayao – Banshan – Machang Qijia (Gansu)

Middle reaches of Yangtze River

Peiligang (Henan)

Cishan (Hebei)

Yangshao (Henan) – Banpo – Miaodigou

Dawenkou (Shandong)

Daxi (Hubei)

Longshan (Shandong)

Qujialing (Hubei)

Lower reaches of Yangtze River

Northern China

Hemudu (Zhejiang) Hongshan (Liaoning)

Liangzhu (Zhejiang)

1.2 Painted Pottery

3

1.2 Painted Pottery Painted pottery was first unearthed in Yangshao Village, Mianchi County of Henan Province, therefore, the painted pottery culture was once referred to as the Yangshao culture. The earliest painted pottery discovered in China so far was unearthed from the Dadiwan Phase I cultural site in the Weihe River Basin in eastern Gansu Province, dating back to 8000 years ago. And the middle reaches of the Yellow River is the area where China’s painted pottery was first produced. Painted pottery is a reddish-brown pottery with decorative patterns painted in black and red. It was made through clay pinching or squeezing. Clay was first squeezed into round shapes. After the surface was polished, a decorative pattern was drawn on it with hematite pigment or manganide pigment, and then it was burnt in a kiln. After burning, a beautiful black or crimson pattern showed up. This kind of faience was specially valued for the color and decoration. Except for the middle and upper reaches of the Yellow River, like Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Ningxia, southern Hebei, eastern Gansu, southern Inner Mongolia, northwest Hubei, and western Shandong, “prehistoric cultures containing painted pottery have also been discovered from the northeast to Liaoning, from the northwest to Xinjiang, and in major river basins in the southeast and southwest. The painted pottery of these cultural types either inherited and developed, or influenced and blended with each other. The closer to the late Neolithic Age, the wider the scope of mutual influence, forming a huge system of diverse development and interweaving.”1 Among them, however, Yangshao culture encompassing Henan, Shaanxi and Shanxi and Majiayao culture of Qinghai and Gansu have contributed the most important types of painted pottery. Main types of prehistoric painted pottery According to time sequence of production and artistic characteristics, painted pottery can be roughly divided into the following types: Banpo, Miaodigou, Majiayao, Banshan, and Machang.

1.2.1 Banpo Pottery Banpo culture belongs to the early Yangshao culture, dating back to 6000 years ago. Banpo pottery was first discovered in Banpo Village, in an eastern suburb of Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Then, this type of painted pottery was found in many other areas in the Weihe River Basin of Shaanxi and the surrounding areas.

1

Zhang PC (2006.7) Huangtu Shangxia - Meishu Kaogu Wencui (Above and Below the Loess Excerpts from Art Archeology). Shandong Pictorial Publishing House, p 3.

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Fig. 1.1 Pottery Basin Painted with Fish (Banpo pottery. 17 cm in height and 28 cm in diameter. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed from Banpo site, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China)

Common types of Banpo pottery are round basins with rolled lips. The most common decorative pattern is fish, which mostly appear on the inner wall of the basins. Fish patterns have two types: single fish and complex fish (the pattern consists of two or more connected fish shapes). At first, they were mostly realistic singlefish patterns, and later complex-fish patterns were more common. Still later, they became geometric, stylized, and abstract patterns. Banpo pottery has another decorative pattern: human face. The human face, mostly round, is often combined with a fish pattern and is also decorated on the inner wall of round basins. In addition to fish and human face, there are also frog, bird, and deer patterns. Those decorative patterns normally were made by straight lines and straight triangles, while curves were rarely used in Banpo pottery. This pot was painted with three fish in black color on the outer wall. The fish are connected tail to head to form a continuous pattern. The fish look vivid, with round eyes, big mouths, bare teeth, and raised fins. It is the early realistic style of Banpo decoration (Fig. 1.1). This is a magnum opus of Banpo painted pottery. On the inner wall of the basin were painted two opposite sets of human face plus fish in black color. The human face is round, the eyes are squinted, the eyebrows are blackened, and there is a triangular bun on the head, while the two ears area replaced by two fish compounding with the human face on both sides. The unique combination of human face and fish has brought many explanations. Some people suggested this was a diving fisherman with the head appeared out of water, while the fishes were swimming beside him. Others, however, believed this image is imaginative, reflecting the totem worship of the primitive people. Humans and fish are two aspects of a certain kind of community. They set off each other and give meanings to each other, thus reflecting the belief of Banpo people that fish is their ancestor (Fig. 1.2).

1.2 Painted Pottery

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Fig. 1.2 Pottery Basin Painted with Human Face and Fish (Banpo pottery. 16.5 cm in height and 39.5 cm in diameter. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed from the Banpo site, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China)

This pot has a unique shape. It should be a kettle. The belly of the pot is painted with a black oblique lattice on both sides which looks like a fish net. It somehow reflects the fishing life of the Banpo ancestor. The smooth stripe of the net pattern indicates that a brush like tool should have been used with a relatively mature technique. The unusual shape and decoration make the pot a rare treasure and a unique work of painted pottery (Fig. 1.3).

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Fig. 1.3 Painted Boat-Shaped Pot (Banpo pottery. 15.6 cm in height and 24.8 cm in length. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Beishouling, Baoji, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China)

1.2.2 Miaodigou Pottery About 6000–5000 years ago, Miaodigou pottery was developed on the basis of Banpo pottery. While its distribution is wider, the masterpieces were discovered in the lower layer of Miaodigou in Shan County, Henan Province, hence the name. This type of painted pottery is most typical with a large mouth, a protruding belly, and a small flat base. The decorative pattern is mostly painted on the outer surface of the pot. The most representative pattern is bird pattern. It was a realistic single pattern at the beginning, and later developed into deformed bird patterns. Variations of deformed side, front and flying bird patterns further evolved into abstract elements like dots, hooks, arcs, triangles, and curves forming a complicated bond. The alternation of black and white to form continuous patterns is its special decorative pattern. It has a curled belly. On the red background, black painted leaves and dots form a continuous pattern with the alternation of black and white. In other words, either black or white serves as the foreground and background. It is a unique characteristic of Miaodigou pottery (Fig. 1.4). This urn is rather big and was probably used as a coffin. A tall stork is painted in white on the exterior in the middle, a fish is held in its mouth, and a carefully decorated stone axe is erected on the right. This urn is the biggest painted pottery in the prehistoric period and the pattern is a magnum opus of prehistoric painting. The pattern is simple and clear, it was believed reflecting the annexation and integration of tribes in the late primitive society which worshipped fish and stork as totems (Fig. 1.5).

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Fig. 1.4 Basin Painted with Flower Petals (Miaodigou pottery. 18 cm in height. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Hongdong, Shanxi Province. The Palace Museum)

Fig. 1.5 Urn Painted with Stork, Fish, and Tone Axe (Miaodigou pottery. 47 cm in height, 32.7 cm in diameter of caliber and 20.1 cm in diameter of bottom. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Yan Village, Linru County, Henan Province. National Museum of China)

The mouth of the bottle is a three-dimensional human head, with wellproportioned facial features, well-combed hair, and a pretty look. The bottle has an elegant outline. The body is painted with three circles of Miaodigou style curved triangles and slashes to form a continuous pattern. Plus the head-shaped mouth, the bottle looks like a girl dressed in beautiful clothes. Cleverly conceived, it was the earliest masterpiece of earthen figure sculpture (Fig. 1.6).

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Fig. 1.6 Painted Bottle with the Mouth Taking the Shape of a Human Head (Miaodigou pottery. 32.3 cm in height, 4 cm in diameter of caliber and 6.8 cm in diameter of bottom. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Dadi Wan, Qin’an County, Gansu Province. Gansu Provincial Museum)

1.2.3 Majiayao Pottery Majiayao culture, dating back 5000–4000 years, is mainly distributed in central Gansu and northeastern Qinghai. The unearthed painted pottery of Majiaoyao culture has a huge amount, various shapes, colorful patterns and exquisite patterns, reaching the pinnacle of Chinese painted pottery art. Majiayao culture painted pottery can be divided into three continuously developed types: Majiayao, Banshan and Machang. Majiayao pottery came later than Banpo pottery and Miaodigou pottery, and was an evolution of Miaodigou pottery. They were mainly small-mouthed pots and jars. The decorative patterns are sophisticated, while the color is simple and bright. Most of them used a lacquered black color and the patterns were painted on a delicate and smooth orange-yellow background. The typical pattern was composed of powerful arcs. Parallel, bent, and crossed lines, concentric circles, linear vortices, dots, curves, and spirals were combined to form beautiful, smooth, and dynamic patterns. The patterns were often decorated all over

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Fig. 1.7 Painted Pottery Jar with Spiral Design (Majiayao pottery. 50 cm in height, 18.4 cm in diameter of caliber and 15.9 cm in diameter of bottom. The Neolithic Age. Acquired in Yongjing County, Gansu Province. National Museum of China)

utensils to make them look gorgeous. In addition, there were often paintings on the inner walls of some wide-mouth pots. It is fine clay terracotta, tall, wide at the top but narrow at the flat bottom, with semicircular ears on both sides of the belly. The decoration is divided into three sections from the mouth, the shoulder, to the belly, consisting of swirls and ripples painted black. The shape is gorgeous and spectacular, while the decoration is magnificent and skillful, showing a high level of fine art (Fig. 1.7). On the interior vertical wall, three groups of dancing figures, each group consisting of five dancers, were painted between the line on the top and the lines in the lower part. The dancers hold each others’ hands and face the same direction. There are ornaments on their heads and behind them. The four circles at the feet of the dancers may indicate that they were dancing by the lake. The exterior of the basin was painted with three lines, which simulate three ropes tightly binding the basin. The figures are simple and yet vivid. It is a rare piece of art and the earliest figure painting in China (Fig. 1.8). The bowl is covered with black patterns on the inner and outer walls and the mouth edge. The patterns on the inner wall are the most characteristic. There are concentric circles and arc triangles, three sets of motion curves were painted in the middle of the circles, and both ends of each line have a dot. This interesting design makes the whole picture dynamic and powerful (Fig. 1.9).

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Fig. 1.8 Pottery Basin Painted with Dancers (Majiayao pottery. 14.1 cm in height and 28 cm in diameter. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Shangsunjiazhai, Datong County, Qinghai Province. National Museum of China)

Fig. 1.9 Painted Pottery Bowl (Majiayao pottery. 10.5 cm in height and 28 cm in diameter. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Shuidichenjia, Jishishan County, Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu Province. The Museum of Lin Xia Hui Autonomous Prefecture)

1.2.4 Banshan Pottery Banshan pottery was first discovered in the Banshan area of Ningding County, Gansu Province. They are mainly pots and jars with short necks and wide shoulders. The body is roughly spherical, and the neck has “blind” ears (without a hole), corresponding to the ears on both sides of the belly. The height is in the right proportion to the belly, and the shape is very pleasing. Banshan pottery was often decorated with jagged lines in black or black-red, which is a prominent style of this type of pottery. The major patterns are mostly gourd-shaped grids, diamond lattices, and circular grids, which were mostly painted on the upper belly forming continuous patterns belts. The main pattern is surrounded by loose geometric patterns, showing a meaningful combination of the void and solid. Banshan pottery is characterized by dense, rich patterns and full shapes. In addition, Banshan pottery also embodies a perfect full perspective design, which can form a perfect pattern either viewed from

1.2 Painted Pottery

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Fig. 1.10 Pottery Pot Painted with Swirl Pattern (Banshan pottery. 37 cm in height and 10 cm in diameter of caliber. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Gansu Province. The Palace Museum)

above or from side. It is the most exquisite decoration on painted pottery, indicating it was the heyday of painted pottery. Most of the Banshan type pottery has the main color of red and black. And the decorations are mostly applied to the abdomen and often cover the abdomen. This pot is painted in black and red. The neck is painted with net and zigzag patterns, and the belly is decorated with continuous swirl pattern. The wall of the vessel is well polished, smooth and bright (Fig. 1.10). The pot has a straight neck, oblique shoulders and a round belly. Black and red color are applied on the yellow background. A mesh is painted in black on the neck. The shoulders and the belly are painted with six gourd shape net patterns with black and red color. The main patterns are separated by zigzag patterns, which is a style unique to Banshan painted pottery. (Fig. 1.11). Fig. 1.11 Pottery Pot Painted with Gourd Pattern (Banshan pottery. 46.7 cm in height, 12.2 cm in diameter of caliber and 19.8 cm in diameter of bottom. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Lanzhou, Gansu Province. Gansu Provincial Museum)

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1.2.5 Machang Pottery It is so named because this type of painted pottery was discovered in Machangyan of Ledu County, Qinghai Province. Machang pottery had developed on the basis of Banshan painted pottery, but its distribution extends westward until the western end of the Hexi Corridor. The typical vessel of this period was a small-mouthed binaural jar. It is taller than Banshan pottery, and wider at the shoulders than the belly. It is mostly decorated in both black and red, while there are also simply black ones. Some Machang pottery also has a red or white “coat” pre-painted as the background. Most decorative patterns of Machang pottery feature broken lines and frets. The humanoid pattern (or frog-like pattern) is the most characteristic. The four major circle patterns developed from the late Banshan circle pattern are also the main patterns of Machang pottery. The use of straight lines gives Machang painted pottery a simple and strong style. It is red clay terracotta with a thin trumpet mouth, a small bottom and round belly. Deformed frog pattern is painted with strong and thick black lines, which is the main decoration. The pattern lines are smooth and rich in change, and consistent with the shape of the pot. The frog-like pattern is one of the common decorative patterns on Machang type painted pottery (Fig. 1.12). The decoration on this Machang pot is very special. Its body was painted with black circles and frogs, but there is a thinly embossed nude human figure. Although it is very rough, this image still appears energetic, even exuding a certain majesty. It is the earliest human portrait in relief discovered so far in China, so it is worthy of examination. (Fig. 1.13). Fig. 1.12 Pottery Pot Painted with a Frog-Like Pattern (Machang pottery. 42 cm in height and 13.1 cm in diameter of caliber. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Liuwan Village, Qinghai Province. The Palace Museum)

1.3 Black Pottery

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Fig. 1.13 Pot with Embossed Humanoid Pattern (Machang pottery. 33.4 cm in height and 9.2 cm in diameter of caliber. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Liuwan, Ledu Couty, Qinghai Province. National Museum of China)

The relics described above clearly show that prehistoric Chinese painted pottery originated in the middle reaches of the Yellow River, while the craft had become more sophisticated with the passage of time and the regional distribution had expanded gradually. The decorative patterns were mainly animals at first, then gradually shifted to plants and geometric patterns, and became more and more abstract. In addition to the above types, the famous prehistoric Chinese painted pottery also came from Qijia culture and Xindian culture which emerged after Majiayao culture, while Dawenkou culture, Daxi culture and Qujialing culture in the lower reaches of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River Basin have also been found to produce distinctive painted pottery.

1.3 Black Pottery In the late Neolithic period, when painted pottery declined, another culture emerged in the lower reaches of the Yellow River and the eastern coast of China. It was characterized by black pottery, and was named after Longshan Town, Licheng District of Jinan city, Shandong Province, where this black pottery was first discovered.

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Black pottery is a plain type of pottery burned with very advanced level of firing control, and the greenware was made on wheel. Its bright black color was produced by the slow injection of water from the top of the kiln at the end of firing, which caused heavy smoke and drove carbon molecules into the pottery. In addition to the bright black color, lightness is another major feature of black pottery. Unlike painted pottery, which was decorated after the greenware was ready, the decoration of black pottery was often done in the process of kneading and firing. Decoration was completed when the process was finished. Also unlike painted pottery which is often richly decorated, black pottery presents simple and rustic beauty. In some cases, however, patterns were carved out using a technique called Openwork. In addition, during the greenware making process, uneven single or double lines (or bow-strings) were often created in relief on the pottery, producing a unique and subtle feeling of rhythm. It is fine clay black pottery, a typical “eggshell” cup with amazing craftsmanship. The top is an open cup, the handle is bamboo-shaped, which created a unique outlook. It is fully black with well-polished bright surface which makes it light and beautiful. It is obvious that the pottery-making craft had reached a very high level by that time (Fig. 1.14). Fig. 1.14 Eggshell Black Pottery Cup (Black pottery. 17 cm in height and 11.9 cm in diameter of caliber. Longshan culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed from Yaoguanzhuang site, Weifang City, Shandong Province. Shandong Museum)

1.4 Geometrically Stamped Pottery and Pottery Sculpture

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Fig. 1.15 Hollow Double-Layer Jar (Pottery. 15.5 cm in height and 8.1 cm in diameter of caliber. Songze culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed from the ruins of Siqian Village, Qingpu County, Shanghai. Shanghai Museum)

The clay jar has two layers: the inner layer is a jar-shaped container while the outer layer is a carved-out decorative pattern typical of Songze culture, a pattern composed of triangles and circles. The mouth and foot are decorated with flower petal-shaped patterns, so the jar resembles a budding flower. This is the only pottery openwork discovered so far dating back more than 5000 years. (Fig. 1.15).

1.4 Geometrically Stamped Pottery and Pottery Sculpture In the late Neolithic period, after painted pottery and black pottery, a new type of pottery called “geometrically stamped pottery” emerged in a vast area south of the Yangtze River, or southeastern China. It existed until the Zhou and Han Dynasties. This type of pottery is featured by the geometric pattern that was stamped on the pottery when the greenware was still wet. The art of pottery sculpture appeared simultaneously with the pottery making craft. Embracing both practicality and aesthetics, pottery sculpture is something between a practical craft and artistic sculpture. Hand molded, the pig seems to be walking away in a hurry. The shape is rather accurate and vivid, with muscles loose and sagging at the belly (Fig. 1.16). Many beast-shaped objects have been unearthed at the site of Dawenkou culture. They look like dogs and pigs. Works of terracotta and black pottery, they are all artistically designed and beautiful. This beast has roughly the shape as the threelegged pitcher. It is a vivid craft with its head held high, standing upright on all fours, and a tubular mouth on the back (Fig. 1.17).

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Fig. 1.16 Pig-Shaped Pottery (Pottery sculpture. 4.2 cm in height and 6.7 cm in length. Hemudu culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Hemudu, Yuyao, Zhejiang Province. National Museum of China)

Fig. 1.17 Red Color Zoomorphic Pot (Pottery. 21.8 cm in height, 22.3 cm in length and 14.5 cm in width. Dawenkou culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Dawenkou site, Tai’an City, Shandong Province. Shandong Museum)

It is a black pottery taking the shape of an eagle: the body is used as the container, and two legs and tail can be seen as three legs. The eagle’s head is high, its beak is sharp, and its eyes are bright. It looks fierce and aggressive. This style, which combines artistic animal modeling and utilitarian design, had a profound influence on the shaping of future utensils (Fig. 1.18). It is a white pottery featuring delicate quality and white color. This type of pottery first appeared in the neolithic Dawenkou culture, and the vessels were mostly pitchers. This pitcher has a long and stout neck, and the mouth points upward. It has three sack shaped legs under its belly, a cable-like handle on the back. The shape is unique. Although it is not any specific animal, it reminds people of a dog barking with a cocked tail, and gives a sense of exaltation and strength (Fig. 1.19).

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Fig. 1.18 Eagle-Shaped Pottery Ding (鼎, a wine vessel) (Pottery. 35.8 cm in height. The Neolithic Age. Yangshao culture. Unearthed in Huaxian County, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China)

Fig. 1.19 White Pottery Gui ( 兦 Gui pitcher, a food utensil) (Pottery. 29.3 cm in height. Longshan culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Weifang, Shandong Province. Shandong Museum)

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Fig. 1.20 Waterfowl-Shaped Pot (Pottery. 11.7 cm in height and 32.4 cm in length. Liangzhu culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Wujiang, Jiangsu Province. Nanjing Museum)

The pot takes the shape of a round waterfowl, with a flat pointed mouth, round eyes, and a vertical line engraved in the middle, looking like a very vivid sculpture. The tail of the waterfowl is the mouth of pot and is slightly upturned to make water injection easy. In addition to two regular feet, there is an additional wide flat foot under the belly to give a stronger support (Fig. 1.20). It is sand-clay terracotta, with a light and thin brown coat on the surface (a decoration method in the late Yangshao culture), most of which has fallen off. This human face might be a broken part of the top of a pottery. The forehead is narrow and flat, with raised bangs. The eyebrows are curved and slender, the eyes are hollow oblong holes, the nose is narrow and straight, and the mouth is hollow and open, as if it is uttering words. Both earlobes have piercings. The eyes slightly look upward, and the cheekbones are large and protruding, showing the characteristics of the Mongolian. This special work of pottery shows other details of facial features, including eyelids, the tip, and sides of nose, a thin upper lip, and a relatively thick lower lip. The surface is pressed and polished to make it compact and strong (Fig. 1.21). About the size of a real human head, this sculpture head is 22.5 cm in height, in which the face is 16.5 cm wide with the ears are 23.5 cm wide. The top and the left ear are damaged, and the lower lip has fallen off. The positions and proportion of facial features are rather realistic. The eyes are inlaid with round pale green jade pieces which are polished to gain a crystal luster, so the eyes are sharp. The mouth is long, with the corners slightly raised. The pottery is full of mystery. It might be the head of a goddess statue (Fig. 1.22).

1.4 Geometrically Stamped Pottery and Pottery Sculpture

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Fig. 1.21 Pottery Human Face (Pottery sculpture. 15.3 cm in height and 14.6 cm in width. Yangshao culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Chaijiaping, Tianshui, Gansu Province. Gansu Provincial Museum)

Fig. 1.22 Color Pottery Sculpture of Human Head (Pottery sculpture. 22.5 cm in height with the face 16.5 cm in width. Hongshan culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Niuheliang, Jianping County, Liaoning Province. Liaoning Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology)

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1.5 Jade Carving With the development of stone tools, China’s ancestors accumulated a rich understanding of the texture of stone, the “beautiful stones” were more cherished and were separated from the rest to be called as jade. After carefully crafting, they were given aesthetic and religious significance. The jade crafts created in China’s prehistoric period are very unique, and no similar art remains have been found in other ancient civilizations. Various jade articles represented special ideologies as early as the Liangzhu culture of Neolithic period. After entering civilized era, a set of jade etiquette system was formed together with the social hierarchy, political rituals and religious activities of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. In the long history of development that followed, the religious and ceremonial connotations in jade gradually faded, while the aesthetic and appreciation functions were added. Therefore, jade has a significant position and special aesthetic value in the religious, political and cultural life of Chinese society. The jade wares of the Liangzhu culture in the late Neolithic Age are the most glorious examples of the prehistoric jade crafts. Together with the jade wares unearthed from the Hongshan culture, Qijia culture, and Longshan culture of the same period, they created the earliest jade age in China. Liangzhu culture developed in regions around Lake Taihu, now Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shanghai. Jade ware is the core of Liangzhu culture and came in many forms: Huang (璜), Bi (璧), Huan (环), Cong (琮), etc. The jade cong is a representative utensil of the time. Many jade works called “Cong” have been unearthed from the Liangzhu tombs. A cong is a cylinder with a round hole inside while the outside is rectangular. It was used for offering sacrifices. This piece of Cong has four sides, and two sections vertically with eight animal faces carved at the four corners. The animal faces are relatively abstract and symbolic composed of round eyes and a wide mouth. The surface of this Cong is decorated with divine emblem pattern, using relief and line carving techniques. The pattern seems to be a composite image of a man and an animal face, which may be a god worshipped by the Liangzhu people. With exaggerated eyes, a thick and short nose, horns and a beard, this image is majestic and mysterious. The work reflects the outstanding artistic creativity and superb jade carving skills of late Neolithic craftsmen. Both in form and function, Liangzhu jade wares are directly connected with PreQin jade wares, and their patterns are also related to the beast patterns on the later bronze wares (Fig. 1.23). This beast has a fat head, round eyes, protruding snout, slightly open mouth, and a pair of fangs exposed. The body of the beast is flat and smooth, connected from head to tail to form a round shape with a large round hole in the middle, and a small round hole on the back near the neck. The holes were drilled from both sides and can be tied by rope. As for the shape of the animal carved, some people think it is

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Fig. 1.23 Cylindrical Jade Cong (琮) with Animal Faces (Jade carving. 8.9 cm in height with the hole 3.8–5 cm in diameter. Liangzhu culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Yuhang, Zhejiang Province. Zhejiang Provincial Museum)

a dragon, while others call it a pig. This kind of jade animal Jue was only found in the Hongshan culture and has obvious regional characteristics (Fig. 1.24).

Fig. 1.24 Jade Beast Jue ( ⧖ ) (Jade carving. 15.7 cm in height, 10.4 cm in width and 4.3 cm in thickness. Hongshan culture. The Neolithic Age. Unearthed in Jianping, Liaoning. Liaoning Provincial Museum)

Chapter 2

Pre-Qin Arts

2.1 Overview The Pre-Qin Age refers to the long period from the initiation of the Chinese civilization in the late Neolithic Period to the establishment of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC, including three slave dynasties: Xia, Shang, and Zhou (from Western Zhou Dynasty, Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period). During this era, bronzes occupied a prominent place in plastic arts. So, this period is also known as the “Bronze Age”. (1) The Xia Dynasty The Xia Dynasty was the first dynasty in Chinese history. There was a culture between Longshan culture and Shang culture in the late Neolithic period called “Erlitou culture”. It existed in an area encompassing presentday western Henan, the south bank of the middle reaches of the Yellow River, and the lower reaches of the Fen River in Shanxi. Scholars generally believe that this was probably the Xia culture. Ding (鼎cauldron) is the most typical pottery of Erlitou culture, as it has the largest number. Its characteristics show obvious traces of transition: in the early days, it retained the characteristics of Longshan culture, while in the late stages, it was close to Shang culture. Early bronze wares were also found for this period. (2) The Shang Dynasty The Xia Dynasty was overthrown by the Shang tribe, and replaced by the Shang Dynasty. In the archeological study of the Shang culture, the Ruins of Yin in Anyang City, Henan Province, have been the most famous target. Yin is widely considered the capital of the Shang Dynasty in its later period. Before Yin became its capital, the Shang Dynasty had seven capital cities. It wasn’t until King Pangeng settled in the new capital city of Yin that the dynasty was stabilized. Historically, the Shang

© Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 T. Chen, Illustrated History of Chinese Art, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8_2

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Dynasty is popularly called “Early Shang Dynasty” before its capital moved to Yin, while the period after that is called Late Shang Dynasty, or Yin Shang. Handicrafts were rather developed in the Shang Dynasty, with a very clear division of labor and fine crafts, including those of bronze, pottery, and carving, in which bronze-casting had reached a fairy high level of maturity. (3) The Zhou Dynasty The Shang Dynasty was finally overthrown by the Zhou tribe, who founded the Zhou Dynasty. The capital city of the Zhou Dynasty was Haojing (present-day southwest of Xi’an City, Shaanxi Province). King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty claimed himself to be “Son of Heaven”, and divided the country into many princely or vassal states. In 771 BC, Haojing was captured by a minority tribe called Xirong, and King Ping of Zhou Dynasty moved to Luoyang. Hence, the dynasty was called Western Zhou before this change, and later it was called Eastern Zhou (consisting of two periods: Spring and Autumn, and Warring States). The social and political system of the Zhou Dynasty was characterized by enfeoffment, hereditary succession, and strict feudal hierarchy. Such system had a strong impact on the culture and art of the Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou Dynasty attached importance to the specialization of crafts and the division of labor, so craftsmanship developed very fast. Crafts in Western Zhou were still represented by bronze, but ceramics, jade and lacquerware grew and gained momentum. After King Ping moved eastward to Luoyang, the Zhou Dynasty entered the “Spring and Autumn Period”. By that time, the royal family of the Zhou Dynasty had lost its authority, although they still enjoyed their titles and privileges. Each princely state developed its own power, so the country was torn apart, and wars broke out frequently. After lengthened wars of annexation, seven major powers, namely the states of Qi, Chu, Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, and Qin, remained in the Warring States Period. During this period, the states carried out reforms in order to seek development and increase their power. In the field of philosophy and ideology, there were “Hundred Schools” of thought (百家争鸣), so to speak, who fought to get their voices heard and their doctrines adopted by the rulers during the periods of Spring and Autumn and Warring States. At the same time, driven by the improvement of production methods and the advancement of metallurgical technology, crafts developed rapidly, and the most noteworthy achievements were made in bronze and lacquerware. The crafts of each state shared some common characteristics but developed something unique of their own.

2.2 Bronze Bronze refers to an alloy of copper and tin. It has many physical and chemical advantages: low melting point, high hardness, few steam vents, and bright gloss. The production of ancient bronzes had many steps, mainly including ore smelting, mold

2.2 Bronze

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making, casting, and decoration. The main production methods were the pottery mold carving1 and the Lost-wax casting (失蜡法, wax molding).2 Bronze-casting was a major craft of ancient China after painted pottery and black pottery. It occupies an important position not only in the history of China but also in the world. It is generally believed the bronze making craft in China budded in the period from the late Xia Dynasty to the early Shang Dynasty, prospered during the Shang Dynasty and the Zhou Dynasty (Western Zhou), and declined gradually during the long period from the periods of Spring and Autumn and Warring States to the Han Dynasty. Therefore, when people mention bronze wares, they mainly refer to bronzes of the Shang and the Zhou Dynasties.

2.2.1 Bronzes in the Shang Dynasty Bronzes from the early Shang Dynasty were mostly direct imitations of pottery. The decorative patterns feature thick lines and are relatively simple in structure. Most of them are monomorphic, while common patterns are those of mythological beasts like Taotie (饕餮, a gluttonous beast), Kui (夔, one-legged beast), and dragon, as well as tiger and humans. Bronzes in the late Shang Dynasty had thicker walls, and the decorative patterns were more refined and sophisticated. They had multiple layers of patterns, which were lined with fret patterns to form a contrast between the foreground and the background patterns.

2.2.1.1

Shapes

Bronzes of the Shang Dynasty had various shapes to serve different purposes. Depending on the purpose of use, bronzes can be broadly divided into cookers, tableware, drinking vessels, water containers, weapons, musical instruments, and other utensils. Since Shang people loved drinking alcohol and often held grand ceremonies, wine vessels were in great demand and had been made in a variety of shapes.

1 Pottery mold carving (clay molding): A clay mold was made first that was fashioned according to the vessel’s shape and the surface of the mold could be carved, inscribed, or scratched to create various patterns. After being dried, the mold was covered with slabs of clay made of filtered fine mud to form pressed patterns on the surface. This formed the outer mold. There was a core mold inside the outer mold, and ropes and thick clay were used to consolidate the connection between the core and outer molds, after which molten bronze was poured into the space between them to form the shape. 2 Lost-wax carving (wax molding): Wax was used as the material to shape models. Its interior and exterior surfaces were wrapped by clay. Molten bronze was flowed into the cavity where wax formed the shape of the vessel. This method could produce a variety of elaborate and openwork shapes and decorations.

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Artistic Characteristics of Decoration

(1) Decorative patterns Decoration of bronzes in the Shang Dynasty was predominated by creature patterns. Animal patterns are divided into two categories: one consists of strange and deformed imaginary animals, popularly called monster patterns, such as Taotie, Kui, Qiu (虬, dragon with horns), dragon and phoenix, and the other consists of real animals that can be found in real world, such as elephants, rhinoceros, bears, cows, sheep, deer, pigs, etc. The main animal patterns: Taotie: It is the most common pattern decorating bronzes of the Shang Dynasty. The pattern is an animal face with big eyes, a nose, and two horns. This pattern was mostly decorated in prominent parts of bronzes. Scholars hold different views regarding this pattern. Some call it an “animal mask motif”; some believe it is a sheep head made up of two chickens, and the combination of chicken (鸡, sounds as “ji”) and sheep (羊, sounds as “yang”) means “good luck” (吉祥, “ji xiang”) in China in a homophonic manner; some argue it is meant to “repel evil and exorcise ghosts”; some think it serves an admonition not to be greedy; some think it is “a symbol of might, bravery, and impartiality”; and others see it as a “sacrifice to gods”.3 This pattern is often religious. Kui: Kui is a beast that resembles a dragon. In some cases, two images of Kui were put opposite each other to form a Taotie pattern, while in some other decorations, Kui was only used as supplement to Taotie. Usually, a Kui shows a side face and has only one leg. Kui is interpreted based on ancient documents. Crafts historian Tian Zibing believes that it is an ancient reptile animal that should have two legs, but when the ancients drew side profiles of animals, four legs were usually reduced to two legs, and two legs usually appear as one, so it is not surprising that a Kui decorated on a bronze has only one leg. There are many variations to the image of Kui which are meant to adapt to the needs for decorating different parts of bronzes. Dragon: Dragon has the longest history as a decorative pattern from ancient China, and the mature image was first seen on bronzes. It has two large horns on its head and scales on its curved body. Phoenix: Like dragon, phoenix is a Chinese pattern combining the characteristics of various birds. Frets: In bronze decorations, frets often work as background pattern to make contrast to highlight the main or foreground patterns such as Taotie. Circular frets were also called “cloud patterns”, and square frets “thunder patterns”, so frets are also known as “cloud-and-thunder patterns”. 3 Reference from: Tian ZB (2003.4) Zhongguo Gongyi Meishushi (Chinese Arts and Crafts History). Orient Publishing Center, p 49.

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(2) Artistic characteristics Patterns decorated on Shang Dynasty bronzes are mainly individual patterns and designed in a symmetrical way, like the most common pattern as Taotie. The symmetrical animal faces can create a strong solemn and majestic atmosphere that echoes the message of heavy bronzes. The Taotie pattern was often highlighted as the main pattern on the background consisting of frets, which reflects the sophistication of bronze making techniques at that time. This process involved the addition of mud pieces to the mold wall before carving to produce a bas-relief effect, including both the main pattern and the background pattern, and in some cases, lines were engraved on the main pattern to make the pattern more expressive. As the rulers of the Shang Dynasty were extremely superstitious, decorative patterns in the Shang Dynasty often contained religious or superstitious elements. The rulers of the Shang Dynasty were also martial and cruel, believing in torture and martyrdom, so art and craft works in that period were often majestic, mysterious, and sacred. Bronzes of the Shang Dynasty might thus produce a mysterious and solemn feeling, and their religious significance outweighed their aesthetic values. This is the earliest and most complete bronze wine vessel for that era ever discovered. It is small and thin, but has a well-proportioned shape to maintain a strong sense of balance. With a flat waistband, three thin legs, long spout and tail, and simple decorations, it is typical of the style of early bronzes (Fig. 2.1). Ding, literally a cauldron, was a vessel for cooking meat. Generally, it is round and has three legs and two ears (handles). There are also four-legged square ones. The shape evolved from pottery vessels. In ancient times, a Ding was a symbol of power Fig. 2.1 Bronze Jue (爵, a wine vessel) (Bronze ware. 26.5 cm in height and 31.5 cm in length. Erlitou culture. Unearthed in Erlitou, Yanshi County, Henan Province. Erlitou Site Museum of the Xia Capital)

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and nobility. The king (Son of the Heaven) used nine dings, Qing (卿, ministers) were entitled to use seven, Dafu (大夫, grand masters) used five, and low-ranking officials might use one to three, while ordinary people could not use any. Any transgression of the aforementioned rule would be deemed a severe crime. This Ding is the largest bronze ware ever discovered in China. It is 133 cm tall, 112 cm long, 79.2 cm wide, weighing 832.84 kg, with erect ears, columnar feet, foliated edges, Taotie patterns on the belly, and three characters Hou’muwu (后母 戊) were inscribed on the inner wall of the belly. It was a ceremonial utensil that King of the Shang Dynasty to offer sacrifices to his mother. When this Ding was made, bronze making was in its heyday, and many large and heavy bronze works were made at that time (Fig. 2.2). This Ding has upright handles, square lips, a low belly, and cylinder feet. The lower edge of the mouth is foliated, there are Taotie patterns on the belly, the four corners are also foliated, and the feet are decorated with cloud pattern and hanging leaf pattern. The square body arcs slightly, which makes the bronze ware fuller and thicker. The rugged pattern and jagged edge enhance the sense of majesty and solemnness (Fig. 2.3). It has upright handles, cylinder feet, and human faces embossed on all sides of the belly. The faces are square with a high nose, wide mouth, high cheekbones, and a solemn look. The feet of the Ding were embossed with Taotie patterns, edges on Fig. 2.2 Hou’muwu Bronze Ding (鼎 cauldron) (Bronze ware. 133 cm in height, 112 cm in length and 79.2 cm in width. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Anyang City, Henan Province. National Museum of China)

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Fig. 2.3 Square Ding with Ju-clan Emblem (Bronze ware. 23 cm in height, 16 cm in length and 14.2 cm in width of mouth. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Xiaotun site, Changqing County, Shandong Province. Shandong Museum)

all sides are foliated, and two characters “Da He” were inscribed inside the belly. There are different interpretations of the human faces. Some scholars believe that they are faces of the Huangdi (黄帝Yellow Emperor), because there is a saying “the Huangdi on four sides” in ancient times (Fig. 2.4). Many bronze wine vessels of this shape have been unearthed. This is one of the first two. The shape is a seated tiger that holds a man between two claws, and with its mouth wide open, it seems to be ready to eat the man. The tiger’s body was decorated with the patterns of snakes, squares, and nipples; the surface is rough and the outlook is grotesque, mysterious and horrible. During the Yin Shang period, people were fanatical about ghosts, so bronzes of this period took weird shapes and were decorated with grotesque patterns (Fig. 2.5). This bronze water container has a large mouth, a wide belly, circled feet, and a tubular spout in front of the shoulders. Its shape and decorative pattern are very strange. The lid is an embossed human head with long dragon horns, and both ears happen to be the handles of the lid. The body was decorated with a dragon whose body is connected to the horns on the lid. The image of the dragon coincides with the shape of the vessel, achieving both practical and aesthetic purposes. The shape is mythic, indicating people’s fear of nature which gave rise to their worship of gods and mythological beasts (Fig. 2.6).

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Fig. 2.4 Da He Bronze Ding with Human Faces (Bronze ware. 38.5 cm in height, 29.8 cm in length and 23.7 cm in width. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Ningxiang, Hunan Province. Hunan Museum)

This is the biggest square bronze vessel of the Shang Dynasty ever discovered. A horned ram was cast on each of the four corners. The rams are realistic and vivid. Their forelimbs have embossed patterns on the sides. They have gorgeous patterns decorated on their body, and their necks were also decorated with finely carved patterns, including those of Taotie, cloud and thunder patterns. Their shoulders were decorated with four embossed dragons. The overall shape of the vessel is exquisite, the decorative patterns are delicate, and the casting is excellent. Round carvings, reliefs and lines were used together to give the vessel a perfect shape. The dragons and ram heads were cast separately and then put together, but the whole vessel is perfectly integrated, reflecting the superb design and smelting technology during the heyday of bronze making (Fig. 2.7). Two vessels of this kind were unearthed, and the other one is kept at Henan Museum. It was shaped as an owl with a high crown, round eyes, a prominent beak, strong legs, sharp claws on the ground, and a drooping tail serves as the third leg to form a stable structure. With its chest lifted and its wings stretched, the owl stands straight and tall. The owl was covered with bird and animal patterns: its wings were decorated with Pan dragon pattern, its beak with cicada pattern, its chest with Taotie pattern, its neck with a combined bird-animal pattern, the handle on the lid is in the shape of a bird and a dragon, the back is with a big handle in the shape of a beast mask and underneath the handle was embossed with an owl head. The vessel has

2.2 Bronze Fig. 2.5 Bronze You (卣, a wine vessel) in the Tiger-Eating-Human Shape (Bronze ware. 35.7 cm in height. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Ningxiang, Hunan. Sen-oku Hakukokan Museum, Kyoto, Japan)

Fig. 2.6 Lidded Ritual Bronze He (盉 ewer) with Dragons (Bronze ware. 18.5 cm in height. The Late Shang Dynasty. Probably unearthed in Anyang, Henan Province. The Freer Gallery of Art, USA)

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Fig. 2.7 Square Bronze Zun with Four Rams (Bronze ware. 58.3 cm in height. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Ningxiang, Hunan Province. National Museum of China)

many and various patterns, which are unified and coordinated to make the vessel luxurious and majestic. There is a two-character inscription “Fu Hao” inside of the mouth. It was probably a ceremonial vessel that Fu Hao, a female general and concubine of King Wuding of Shang Dynasty, used to offer sacrifices (Fig. 2.8). This large battle axe was decorated with the pattern of an angry man with bared teeth and round eyes. It was made by both hollowing out and embossing methods. With a majestic and scary appearance, the decoration is well in line with the purpose of this axe. Also unearthed from the same tomb were the remains of many victims. From this, it can be inferred that the tomb owner was probably a high-ranking aristocrat or patriarch, and that the axe might have been used as a symbol of power and strength. (Fig. 2.9).

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Fig. 2.8 Fu Hao Owl-Shaped Bronze Zun (Bronze ware. 45.9 cm in height. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Fu Hao, Anyang, Henan Province. National Museum of China)

Fig. 2.9 Bronze Yue (钺, battle axe) with Beast Face (Bronze ware. 31.7 cm in height and 35.8 cm in width. The Late Shang Dynasty. Unearthed in Yidu (present-day Qingzhou), Shandong Province. National Museum of China)

2.2.2 Bronzes in the Western Zhou Dynasty The bronzes of the early Western Zhou Dynasty, followed the Shang Dynasty, had tough shapes and complex decorations. Later, it gradually formed its own style, the outline turned softer, and the decorative style gradually became simple and sparse. In addition, although the types of bronze vessels in the Western Zhou Dynasty were

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not as many as those in the Shang Dynasty, their number greatly exceeded that in the Shang Dynasty.

2.2.2.1

Shapes

Alcohol was banned in the Zhou Dynasty, as it was believed at that time that the fall of the Shang Dynasty was due to the debauchery of the rulers who annoyed the Heaven. As a result, drinking utensils in the Zhou Dynasty were not as sophisticated as those in the Shang Dynasty, but the variety of tableware increased. Influenced by the system of Li (礼, rites) and Yue (乐, music) implemented in the Zhou Dynasty (This system of rites and music stands for a social hierarchical system.), bronze musical instruments also prospered at that time.

2.2.2.2

Artistic Characteristics of Decoration

The Taotie pattern, the main pattern used in the Shang Dynasty, took a back seat in the Zhou Dynasty. It was replaced by the Qiequ (窃曲, a wave shape) pattern, the ribbon pattern, the ring pattern, the bird pattern, the vertical scale pattern, and the tile pattern. Unlike the patterns used in the Shang Dynasty which featured straight lines, these patterns largely took an S-shape and kept some straight lines. Therefore, these patterns show a style featuring the combination of circles, straight lines, and squares.4 Also, unlike the patterns in the Shang Dynasty which were symmetrical, the typical patterns in the Zhou Dynasty were repeated (parallel) stripes (continuous patterns). Such patterns in most cases are formed by the repetition of one motif, showing a sense of order and rhythm. In addition to being simpler in terms of decoration, another striking characteristic of bronzes in the Zhou Dynasty is the longer inscriptions. From the contents of the inscriptions, it can be inferred that bronzes in the Zhou Dynasty were mainly used in offering sacrifices to ancestors, praising the deceased kings of the Zhou Dynasty, and giving awards, as well as for exchanges, weddings, and lawsuits. The making and usage of bronzes in the Zhou Dynasty showed the social hierarchy and strengthened the ruler’s domination by Li (rites). Decorations were often based on a fixed style, reflecting a strong sense of order, while the overall artistic style of the then bronzes was featured by simplicity and fluency. This You is a delicate artwork. The lifting handle was decorated with Kui patterns, and the handles on both sides take the shape of animal heads. The lid, decorated with phoenix patterns, has a horn on both sides. The neck was decorated with Kui patterns, with small animal heads between them. The belly is swelling and decorated with symmetrical phoenix patterns whose heads are intertwined. The foot takes the 4 Reference from: Tian ZB (2003.4) Zhongguo Gongyi Meishushi (Chinese Arts and Crafts History). Orient Publishing Center, p 72.

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Fig. 2.10 “Gong” Bronze You (Bronze ware. 23.5 cm in height and 12.9 cm in diameter of caliber. The Early Western Zhou Dynasty. Unearthed in Tunxi, Anhui Province. Anhui Museum)

shape of a circle and was decorated with two string patterns. Ten characters were inscribed on it: “公作宝尊彝，其孙子永用” (literal meaning: “Master made this wine vessel for the permanent use by his descendants.”5 ) (Fig. 2.10). The mouth of the vessel is rectangular with rounded angles. There are rectangular handles on the lid, which were decorated with Kui patterns. The lid was decorated Fig. 2.11 Bronze Fu (簠, a food vessel) Decorated with Straight Lines (Bronze ware. 36.3 cm in height and 55.8 cm in width. The Early Western Zhou Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

5

Anhui Museum website: https://www.ahm.cn/.

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with the patterns of straight lines, sandwiched with Kui patterns. The body and the foot of the vessel was decorated with the same patterns as the lid and handle, forming top–bottom symmetry in shapes and patterns. This is the only bronze Fu made in the early Western Zhou Dynasty unearthed so far (Fig. 2.11). The whole body of this vessel is decorated with tile patterns. There are four rectangular buttons on the lid and the lid can be flipped over to become a container. The mouth of the vessel is rectangular, with rounded corners and attached ears. The four corners of the circle extend downward to form the foot of the same shape as the buttons on the lid (Fig. 2.12). This Ding is a deep one with upright ears and hoofed feet. The rim of the mouth was decorated with ring patterns and a stripe of string patterns at the bottom. The inscription takes 32 lines, with a total of 497 characters. This is the longest inscription that has been ever found on a bronze ware (Fig. 2.13). This Dou is a shallow plate with a straight wall and a tall foot. The wall was decorated with ring patterns, with a cord-shaped edge below. The foot was decorated with hollowed-out Kui patterns (Fig. 2.14).

Fig. 2.12 Bronze Xu (盨, a food vessel) (Bronze ware. 21 cm in height, 16.6 cm in width and 21.8 cm in length of caliber. The Late Western Zhou Dynasty. Shanghai Museum)

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Fig. 2.13 “Mao Gong” Ding (Bronze ware. 53.8 cm in height and 47 cm in diameter of caliber. The Late Western Zhou Dynasty. Unearthed in Qishan, Shaanxi Province. National Palace Museum, Taipei) Fig. 2.14 Bronze Ring-Patterned Dou (豆, a food vessel) (Bronze ware. 16.2 cm in height and 24 cm in diameter of caliber. The Late Western Zhou Dynasty. Unearthed in Qishan, Shaanxi Province. Qishan Museum)

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2.2.3 Bronzes in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods, bronzes lost their sacrificial and ceremonial value, and became practical utensils in daily life. They were more diversified in style, revealing locality and uniqueness. Their style of decoration was gradually diverted from the mystical, religious, and ritual system. The traditional animal patterns such as various dragon patterns became simplified, abstract, and geometric. Take the Pan Chi (蟠螭, a snake or dragon-like animal but without horns) pattern as an example. This pattern features the repetition of intertwined and interlocked patterns spanning over the bronzes in a same way. In addition, some decorative patterns reflect real life scenarios, such as banquets, hunting, picking mulberry leaves, wars, and pavilions, which is a major shift in China’s art of decoration. The artistic style in the Spring and Autumn Period was relatively simple, while it was more sophisticated in the Warring States Period. Plenty of decorative techniques were used during this period, including welding, stamping, line engraving, mosaic, inlaying with gold and silver, gilding, and Lostwax techniques. Thanks to the spread of new techniques, bronzes made during this period were more diverse and exquisite, making bronze craftsmanship reached the highest level in history. Later, bronze wares gradually lost their predominance and entered its final period in the Warring States Period due to the development of iron making, the improvement of ceramic making and the rise of lacquerware. There were two vessels of this kind unearthed in this site. One is kept at the Palace Museum and the other at Henan Museum. The pot has a circular foot and a lid. The body of the pot was decorated with a tortuous dragon pattern, with large hollow dragon-shaped ears on both sides, and its feet take the shape of two beasts. The lid was embellished with two-tiered lotus petals and a centered crane which seemed to be singing and prepared to fly. This pot shows that the bronze culture during the Spring and Autumn Period was in transition. The style was no longer strange and solemn, but fresh and lively. The theme shifted from ghost and deity worship to respect for nature and human life, reflecting the innovative spirit during the social changes of the Spring and Autumn Period (Fig. 2.15). There is a ring stud on each corner of the top of the square lid, and ring ears on both sides of the lid and the body. Red bronze dragon patterns were inlaid all over the vessel. This square Dou in golden and red colors is lustrous, rust-free, bright, and beautiful (Fig. 2.16). Bronze Dou made in this period generally has a lid, with a handle on the top. When turned over, the lid could be used as a plate, which is a smart design. The Dou has a swelling belly, taking an exquisite shape of a sphere. The gold inlaid on the ring handles on both sides, the lid, and the body of this Dou were decorated with

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Fig. 2.15 Lotus-Crane Square Bronze Pot (Bronze ware. 122 cm in height and 54 cm in width. The Middle Spring and Autumn Period. Unearthed in Xinzheng, Henan Province. The Palace Museum)

Kui patterns, and the gold inlaid on the foot in leaf patterns. The gold inlaid on the Dou added an ornate touch (Fig. 2.17). Jars in the Spring and Autumn Period took various beautiful shapes, with lotus petals as the main decoration. Jars in the Warring States Period are usually fattest in the middle of the belly, and on both sides are the ears with rings and patterns of beast faces. Such style of jars became the main trend in the Han Dynasty. There are also jars with a chain as the handle to make them portable. This jar is made in the early Warring States Period. The lid and the mouth take the shape of the head of an eagle, whose beak could be opened. The rings on the lid could be put on the handle. The jar has a small mouth, a thin neck, and a swelling belly, all of which were decorated with tile patterns, and a string pattern goes around its waist. Jar of this shape is rarely seen. Though the top, whose shape is an eagle’s head, is the only vivid part, its lifelike appearance adds much artistic appeal to this jar (Fig. 2.18). This is a new type of bronze vessel created during the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods. Consisting of two semicircles that form a sphere, it has

40 Fig. 2.16 Bronze Dragon-Patterned Square Dou with Red Copper Embedding (Bronze ware. 30.5 cm in height, 17 cm in width and 17.3 cm in length. The Late Spring and Autumn Period. Unearthed in Gushi county, Henan Province. Henan Museum)

Fig. 2.17 Bronze Dou Inlaid with Gold (Bronze ware. 19.2 cm in height and 17 cm in diameter of caliber. The Early Warring States Period. Unearthed in Changzhi, Shanxi Province. Shanxi Museum)

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Fig. 2.18 Bronze Jar with an Eagle Head (Bronze ware. 56.5 cm in height and 12.2 cm in diameter of caliber. The Early Warring States Period. Unearthed in Zhucheng, Shandong Province. National Museum of China)

a very exquisite shape. There are three feet and two ring ears on both the lid and the bottom. The lid can be reversed and used as a utensil. Red copper and silver lines were inlaid all over the vessel to form exquisite geometric cloud pattern and create a contrasting effect (Fig. 2.19). There are two pieces of the same kind, one unearthed at Baihuatan of Chengdu, Sichuan Province and now kept at Sichuan Museum, and the other one in the Palace Museum. This jar is characterized by a flaring mouth, sloping shoulders, a swollen belly, and a short ring foot. On its shoulders are two ring-shaped ears hanging down from the animal mouths. The surface is embedded with motifs, which are divided vertically into three sections by triangular cloud patterns. The upper part depicts people picking mulberry leaves and attending an archery contest. The middle part depicts the scenes of feasting to music and bird hunting with corded arrows. The lower part includes a land combat and a naval battle. These drawings show aspects

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Fig. 2.19 Bronze Dui (敦, a food vessel) with Inlaid Geometric Pattern (Bronze ware. 25.6 cm in height and 18.6 cm in diameter. The Late Warring States Period. Shanghai Museum)

of social life in the Warring States Period and indicate that all states at that time attached importance to both agriculture and wars. Besides, they display new patterns that were created during the renewal period of bronze making and reflect a shift of theme from myth and religion to real-life activities, which coincided with the social transformation from slavery to feudalism. This is an excellent decorative painting with concise silhouette. Overall, it is very dynamic, and the layering of paintings is found in later stone relief and frescoes (Fig. 2.20). This vessel is one of the key relics unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng. This is a bronze artifact combining a Zun and a Pan (plate). Its design is exquisite and innovative, and it is engraved with exuberant and flamboyant patterns, which are similar to those on lacquer wares also discovered in this area. Various characteristics of Chu (楚, a powerful vassal state in the south) culture can be found on this object: mysterious and grotesque elements like drawings on silk paintings, and sumptuous and flamboyant elements like verses of Chu. The upper rim of this artifact is decorated with complex openwork patterns which are created by Lost-wax casting, the advanced technique for making bronze wares at that time (Fig. 2.21).

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Fig. 2.20 Bronze Jar with Scenes of Feasting, Fishing, Hunting, and Fighting (Bronze ware. 40.3 cm in height and 13.2 cm in diameter of caliber. The Warring States Period. Unearthed in Chengdu, Sichuan Province. Sichuan Museum)

Fig. 2.21 Bronze Zun-Pan (尊盘, wine vessel and plate) from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (Bronze ware. The Zun is 33.1 cm in height, and the Pan is 24 cm in height. The Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Sui County, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum)

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Fig. 2.22 Bian Zhong (编钟 chime-bells) from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (Bronze ware. Chime set 265 cm in height and 748 cm in length. The Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Sui County, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum)

This is a set of bronze percussion instruments dating back to the Warring States Period. Hanging on a curving wooden rack of which both ends are wrapped by copper sheathings with carvings, the 65 pieces of chime bells of different sizes weighing 2500 kg in total are arranged in eight groups and three layers. The upper layer is supported by rounded pieces of wood, while the middle and lower layers are each supported by three bronze warriors with swords with their heads and hands. Each bell has inlaid golden inscriptions which mark the notes on the musical scale. The instrument set is majestic and all the bells are exquisite. The middle bells can still produce melodious and clearly audible sounds, and the bells in the lower layer could harmonize powerfully, suggesting the grand performances in the ancient palace where the bells were played together with drums (Fig. 2.22). The Zhongshan State, with its capital located in the present-day Pingshan of Hebei Province, was founded by the Xianyu people of the White Di tribe during the Warring States Period, and lasted more than three hundred years. This object was unearthed from the tomb of the King of Zhongshan. The mythical animal resembles a lion crossed with a tiger and has wings like a dragon. Its gesture is highly dynamic, showing in full its flexibility and agility. It holds up its head and roars into the sky, creating a sense of solemnity. In the Han Dynasty and later, tomb guarding beasts, such as Tianlu (天禄) who could drive away evil, all assumed this style. During the Warring States Period, bronze-making craftsmanship was highly developed, and the technique of gold and silver inlay that began in the Spring and Autumn Period further advanced and made solid-colored bronzes look even more opulent. The gold and silver inlaying method was carving patterns on the surface of bronze wares where gold, silver, and jade were inlaid, and then the surface was ground smooth (Fig. 2.23).

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Fig. 2.23 Winged Bronze Animal Inlaid with Gold and Silver (Bronze ware. 24 cm in height and 40 cm in length. The Middle and Late Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of King of Zhongshan State, Pingshan County, Hebei Province. Hebei Museum)

This bronze lamp was unearthed from the tomb of the King of Zhongshan in 1977. The lamp post is 82.9 cm tall and has eight sections of different sizes. There is a circular lamp holder, and 15 branches extend on all sides above the holder, each supporting a candle lamp, looking like a big tree. When all the lamps are lit, they create a splendid sight of “a tree of light with silver flowers” (火树银花, a description for the scene of bright lights). Little monkeys are frolicking on the lamp post, birds are chirping, two people hold food in their hands under the tree, seeming to throw food upward, and two little monkeys, hanging upside down on branches with one arm, stretch the other for the food. The scene is vivid and interesting, showing the keen observation and casting skills of ancient artists and craftsmen (Fig. 2.24). The four edges of the table, which originally supported a lacquered wooden board, were inlaid with gold and silver that make cloud patterns. Four dragons and four phoenixes were intertwined to form the pedestal, which was decorated with embedded gold and silver patterns. Below the pedestal is a circular base, the round edge of which was inlaid with gold and silver cloud patterns. The base bears four crouching deer, whose bodies were also decorated with gold and silver patterns. There is an inscription of 14 characters. This table has a rare shape, and the workmanship is sophisticated and gorgeous. Viewed from front, the phoenixes extend their wings horizontally, which is different from phoenix patterns commonly decorated on bronzes, and it can be inferred that it was a special style of the Zhongshan State (Fig. 2.25). This is an ornament on the shaft of an ancient chariot. It looks like a horse head and is carved round. The body is hollow with an open bottom to mount on the front end of a shaft. While the animal seems to look directly forward, its thick eyebrows were inlaid gold and the eyelashes were made of golden filaments. Its neck and head were designed in line with the dynamics of the head and were decorated with curling patterns, lozenge patterns, scale patterns, parallel curved stream patterns and so on, all of which were inlaid with gold and silver. This object was exquisitely made

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Fig. 2.24 Fifteen-Cupped Bronze Lamp (Bronze ware. 82.9 cm in height. The Middle and Late Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of King of Zhongshan State, Pingshan County, Hebei Province. Hebei Museum)

and is one of the masterpieces of bronze wares inlaid with gold and/or silver in the Warring States Period (Fig. 2.26).

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Fig. 2.25 Square Bronze Table with Dragons and Phoenixes (Bronze ware. 36.2 cm in height, 47.5 cm in length and 47 cm in width. The Middle and Late Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of King of Zhongshan State, Pingshan County, Hebei Province. Hebei Museum)

Fig. 2.26 Horse-Head-Shaped Bronze Chariot Ornament Inlaid with Gold and Silver (Bronze ware. 8.8 cm in height and 13.7 cm in length. The Middle and Late Warring States Period. Unearthed in Hui County, Henan Province. National Museum of China)

2.3 Others 2.3.1 Ceramic While bronze making was highly developed in the Pre-Qin period, bronzes could not completely replace various daily necessities. Moreover, due to the high cost, only aristocrats could afford bronze vessels, while slaves still used pottery. During

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Fig. 2.27 Primitive Porcelain Zun (Ceramic. 14 cm in height and 6 cm in diameter of caliber. The Western Zhou Dynasty. Unearthed from Tunxi, Anhui Province. National Museum of China)

the Shang and Zhou dynasties, pottery was roughly divided into gray pottery, white pottery, glazed pottery, and primitive porcelain. During the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods, with the development of handicrafts and the expansion of towns, both official and private pottery production bloomed. In addition to gray pottery, there were printed pottery, primitive porcelain, painted pottery, ceramic sculpture, and eaves tile as well. This is the most typical of all primitive porcelains unearthed from two Western Zhou tombs in Tunxi, Anhui Province in 1959. It has the same shape as the bronze vessels of Western Zhou. It features a trumpet-shaped mouth, a girded neck, a swollen belly with its maximum diameter close to its bottom, and round feet. The thin layer of ginger glaze creates a feel of fluidity. Its original porcelain body is exposed at its round foot. Grid patterns and oblique wave patterns are engraved around the vessel body, and are intervened by bow-string patterns. This exquisite work embodies solemnity and majesty (Fig. 2.27).

2.3.2 Lacquerware China is the first country to use lacquer. Although no complete lacquerware has been unearthed from any Shang Dynasty site, some fragments of lacquer vessels

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have been found. They were rendered in red lacquer with black patterns, and the decorative patterns are similar to those on bronze vessels. Lacquerwares of the Zhou Dynasty were unearthed from Western Zhou tombs. Besides vermilion and black colors, the white pigment has also been found in the tombs. Mussel bubbles were used as inlays. By the Warring States Period, sumac trees had been planted in large quantities and the lacquerware craftsmanship boomed, with the Chu State in the south being the most developed in this technique. Lacquered wares are lightweight and suitable for daily use. On the other hand, they are lustrous and beautiful, and can be used as decorations in most scenes to achieve a satisfactory artistic effect. It is anti-corrosive and moisture-proof. These characteristics distinguished lacquered wares from bronzes. Therefore, as lacquerware craftsmanship advanced, bronzes gradually gave way to lacquered wares. Lacquered wares had many varieties in the Warring States Period: daily necessities including Yu Shang (羽觞, also known as “ear cups”), dou, plates, pots, boxes, tables, cases, beds, etc.; weapons including shields; musical instruments including lacquered Se (瑟, Chinese ancient plucked zither), bell and drum stands, etc. The decorative motifs include animal patterns, cloud patterns, geometric patterns and others that depict daily-life scenes. The decorative patterns are delicate, vivid, fresh, and lively. They are generally in black and red, mostly covered by red patterns on a black lacquer layer. The combination of black and red colors creates a bright contrast, showing gorgeousness in simplicity. The rim of the cup is oval, the sides are arced, while the base is flat. There are symmetrical concave handles on two sides. It is crafted using a thick wooden substrate. The interior is coated with vermilion lacquer, while the exterior is coated with black lacquer. Its patterns are painted with vermilion and white lacquer (Fig. 2.28). This box takes the shape of a mandarin duck in a crouching posture. It is made of wood with a hollow belly. The box is covered with a layer of black lacquer and painted with scale patterns in red. On the left side of its belly, there are figures beating Fig. 2.28 Painted Lacquered Ear Cup (Lacquerware. 6 cm in height and 18.3 cm in length. The Middle Warring States Period. Unearthed in Jiangling, Hubei Province. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 2.29 Lacquered Box in the Shape of a Mandarin Duck (Lacquerware. 20 cm in length. The Early Warring States Period. Unearthed in Sui County, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum)

Bian Zhong, while its right side is painted with a figure beating a drum and dancing. In terms of practical usage, it’s also an exquisite device. There is a small lid with a knob on its back, which can be opened to let in water. Its neck and body are mortised, and the joint can be rotated and unplugged, after which the mortise can be used as a water outlet (Fig. 2.29). This lacquerware is made of wood, with both ends on the ground and the middle part suspended. The base is carved with snakes and pythons in relief. The rectangular frame above the base is carved with 51 animals. It is covered with black lacquer and painted with vermilion, celadon, gold and silver colors. The decorative patterns on this lacquered screen are very beautiful, with realistic animals arranged in a clever composition. It is considered one of the finest of Warring States lacquerware (Fig. 2.30).

Fig. 2.30 Lacquered Screen Carved with Animals (Lacquerware. 15 cm in height and 51.8 cm in length. The Middle Warring States Period. Unearthed in Jiangling, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum)

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This round-shaped box is a bodiless lacquerware. It has a flat bottom and vertical sidewall. The body and the lid are tightly fitted. Its interior is coated with vermilion lacquer, while the exterior is in black lacquer and painted with red, yellow, blue, and brown pigments on top of the lacquer. The lid is decorated with a phoenix pattern. The interior sidewall is painted with geometric cloud patterns, while the exterior near the bottom is also painted with a set of patterns. The most outstanding part of the decoration is on the sidewall where shows characters travelling in carriage. It is 87.4 cm long and 5.2 cm wide when unfolded. The artist ingeniously used five

Fig. 2.31 Painted Bodiless Lacquerware with the Picture of Characters Travelling in Carriage (Lacquerware. 10.8 cm in height and 28 cm in diameter. The Late Warring States Period. Unearthed in Jingmen, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum)

Fig. 2.32 Inner Coffin with Designs Painted on Black Lacquer (Lacquerware. 132 cm in height, 249 cm in length and 127 cm in width. The Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Sui County, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum)

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willow trees swaying in the wind to subtly divide the picture into five segments, which strengthened the plot of the story. The characters in the picture are elegant and natural, the use of color is vivid and energetic. Those motifs enhance each other, making the lacquer box brilliant, elegant, and dignified. It is a treasure of lacquered paintings (Fig. 2.31). This is another lacquerware treasure unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng. On both sides of the lacquered inner coffin, magical pictures are painted, depicting a ritual event where Fangxiangshi, a Chinese ritual exorcist who carried a lance, led mythical animals to exorcise devils and diseases. The coffin has a vermilion background with black patterns painted bright and conspicuous. The figures are peculiar, full of fanciful imagination. The picture represents the highest level of lacquer painting during the Warring States Period. It displays animals that have

Fig. 2.33 Suspended Drum with a Tiger-Shaped Base and a Phoenix Rack (Lacquerware. 135.9 cm in height and 134 cm in width. The Middle and Late Warring States Period. Unearthed in Jiuliandun, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum)

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human heads and bird bodies with scales and feathers. The vivid picture featuring smooth lines shows great imagination (Fig. 2.32). There are two identical tigers at the bottom crouching back to back. On each tiger’s back stands a bird raising its head and opening its beak. Their tails are connected by mortise and tenon. In the middle, a drum is fixed by two ribbons with copper rings which are tied to the crests of birds, another two spots of the edge of the drum are held by two small tigers standing on the back of the birds. It has a stable base and an elegant shape. This rack is of great decorative value. (Fig. 2.33).

2.3.3 Jade Carving and Others Sculptures in the Pre-Qin period mainly include small carving craft of stone, jade, and bone. Among them, jade carving is the most representative. In the Shang Dynasty, great achievements were made in jade carving, with great variety and exquisiteness. Fig. 2.34 Jade Phoenix Pendant (Jade carving. 13.8 cm in height, 3.2 cm in width and 0.8 cm in thickness. The Shang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Fu Hao, Anyang, Henan Province. National Museum of China)

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Jade wares served more as ornaments than practical tools. In the Zhou Dynasty, jade wares were used for ritual purposes and served as burial object to indicate the social class and position of the deceased. In the Spring and Autumn Period, jade lost its practical purpose and was mainly crafted into decorative pendants. In the Neolithic period, jade carving was already advanced. In the Shang Dynasty, jade was more often used as an ornament for the nobility class to show their social status, and jade wares were created in various shapes during this period. This piece of pendant is made of yellowish-brown jade. The crest of the phoenix is connected at the top; its short wings spread slightly, its long tail is bifurcated, and its body is flat, forming a curve. A small pierced protuberance on each side of its body is used for suspension. The Fu Hao tomb has produced more than 600 pieces of jade artifacts, all of which have elaborate designs and are exquisitely crafted (Fig. 2.34). This jade is yellowish brown. It shows a figure kneeling and sitting on the ground and resting his hands on his thighs. His long-braided hair coils on the top of his head. He has a broad nose and long eyebrows, and looks directly forward. His long gown with crossed collars and narrow sleeves is pulled in at the waist with a broad sash and a Bi Xi (蔽膝, a long piece of cloth, hanging over his front). A broad handle protrudes from the left side on his back, with its ends scrolling into cloud shapes. This figure might be a slave owner (Fig. 2.35).

Fig. 2.35 Jade Figure (Jade carving. 7 cm in height and 3.5 cm in width. The Shang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Fu Hao, Anyang, Henan Province. National Museum of China)

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Fig. 2.36 Jade Pendant of Dragon-Phoenix Design (Jade carving. 48 cm in length, 8.3 cm in width and 0.5 cm in thickness. The Early Warring States Period. Unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Sui County, Hubei Province. Hubei Provincial Museum) Fig. 2.37 Wooden Figurine with a Sword (Wood carving. 52.3 cm in height. The Warring States Period. Unearthed in Changsha, Hunan Province. Hunan Museum)

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The jade pendant, a chain, is blue and made of five pieces joined into one. It consists of 16 parts, linked by detachable rings. The decorative motifs are rendered in openwork carving and low relief. The main patterns are dragons, snakes, and birds, while there are also silkworm patterns interspersed with bow-string pattern, cloud patterns, rope patterns and others on the jade chain. The chain can be separated and joined into one by slotting a tenon. This jade chain represents the sophistication of jade craftsmanship in the Warring States Period. It is the most complex and intricately ornamented piece among the assemblages dating back to the Warring States Period (Fig. 2.36). It is a warrior figurine wearing a battle robe and armed with a sword. The trunk was carved from a single piece of wood, with both arms carved separately and mounted to the trunk. The facial features are carved in low relief. This warrior holds the sword in his left hand and a sheath in his right hand. He leans forward, with Fig. 2.38 Ivory Cup with a Kui Pattern (Ivory carving. 30.5 cm in height. The Shang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Fu Hao, Anyang, Henan Province. National Museum of China)

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knees bent slightly, indicating readiness for battle. The sculpture technique is simple and crude but vividly expressive (Fig. 2.37). This beige object is made of the root segment of an ivory. It resembles a bronze wine vessel in shape and has a handle in a serpentine shape with its head upraised and tail downwards. Two symmetrical small rounded tenons are slotted in the small aperture on the cup body. The cup is decorated with Taotie patterns, where the eyes, eyebrows, nose are inlaid with turquoise. Besides, narrow stripes embedded with turquoise, triangular patterns and Kui dragon patterns embellish the ivory cup. It is exquisite, gentle, and elegant (Fig. 2.38).

2.3.4 Silk Paintings of the Warring States Period Unearthed from an ancient tomb of the State of Chu in Changsha, two silk paintings, one with a female figure, dragon and phoenix patterns and the other with a figure driving a dragon, are the earliest real paintings ever found (the earlier paintings were decorations on bronze vessels or lacquer wares) and best represent the artistic level of paintings in the Warring States Period. Discovered in 1949 from an ancient tomb of the State of Chu at Changsha, this silk painting is regarded as the oldest painting in China and one of the earliest fabric paintings in the world. In the lower right part of this painting stands a woman with a slender waist wearing a long dress which trails on the ground and has wide sleeves. The upper left part shows a Kui dragon ready to soar and a phoenix unfolding its wings. This picture serves as a prayer for the dragon and phoenix to guide the tomb owner’s soul to Heaven, a simple Taoist philosophy in the Chu culture. This is painted with a brush on a silk fabric called Bo (帛). Although the painting is still naive and crude, the lines are simple and smooth. The woman’s sleeves and lips are tinted with a vermilion color, lending vitality and liveliness to the picture. It can be seen from this painting that the basic composition of drawings with lines and the traditional style of Chinese paintings had formed more than 2000 years ago (Fig. 2.39).

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Fig. 2.39 Silk Painting with a Female Figure, Dragon, and Phoenix Patterns (Silk painting. 31.2 cm in height and 23.2 cm in width. The Warring States Period. Unearthed in Changsha, Hunan Province. Hunan Museum)

In the middle of the painting, a man with a beard stands sideways. The man, wearing a tall crown and a long sword hanging at his waist, holds the reins in his hand and rides a boat-like dragon forward. The flowing ribbons on his clothes, his crown and the canopy over the carriage indicate how fast the dragon flies. An egret stands on the dragon’s tail, and a carp is below the dragon’s body, a symbol of good luck as well as a sign of rivers. The theme of this painting is also related to the soul ascending to Heaven. This piece is a sister painting to the silk painting with a female figure together with dragon and phoenix patterns, but the lines in this painting are more fluent and mature, indicating a higher level of painting in the Warring States Period (Fig. 2.40).

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Fig. 2.40 Silk Painting with a Figure Driving a Dragon (Silk painting. 37.5 cm in height and 28 cm in width. The Warring States Period. Unearthed in Changsha, Hunan Province. Hunan Museum)

Chapter 3

Arts of the Qin and Han Dynasties

3.1 Overview (1) History The Qin Dynasty lasted from 221 to 206 BC. The first emperor of Qin, known as Shihuangdi (literally the First Emperor), instituted a centralized and systematic bureaucracy, after annexing other states and unified China. He divided the country into provinces and prefectures governed by appointed officials. This administrative structure has served as a model for government in China to the present day. Shihuangdi sought to standardize numerous aspects of Chinese life, including weights and measures, coinage, and the writing system. Lasting from 206 BC to 220 AD, the Han Dynasty continued the bureaucratic and cultural systems of the Qin Dynasty, but learned the lessons of the short-lived Qin Dynasty, implementing a series of new policies to develop its economy and ease tensions. The Han Dynasty also scored significant military successes. It resisted the invasion of the nomadic Huns, expanded its territory, and strengthened people-topeople exchanges between China and foreign countries. On the side of culture and philosophy, rejecting the other schools of thought and respecting only Confucianism, the rulers strengthened the feudal system. The more than 400 years history of Han Dynasty was divided into two periods: the Western Han Dynasty and the Eastern Han Dynasty. The capital of the Western Han Dynasty was Chang’an (present day Xi’an, Shaanxi Province). In the 8th year, Wang Mang, a relative of the Han Dynasty imperial family, usurped the throne and established Xin Mang, hence ended the Western Han Dynasty. It was not until the 25th year, the Han clan Liu Xiu reestablished the Han Dynasty and set up the capital in Luoyang, which was known as the Eastern Han Dynasty in history. The escalation of social tensions towards the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty led to the Yellow Turban Uprising, and China once again fell apart.

© Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 T. Chen, Illustrated History of Chinese Art, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8_3

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(2) Culture and Art The rulers of both the Qin and Han Dynasties attached importance to plastic arts as means to show off their power and honor heroes, and made great achievements in building palaces and creating large sculptures. Meanwhile, because during and after the late Western Han Dynasty, the ruling class advocated feudal ethics such as loyalty, filial piety, chastity, and righteousness. In this context, people tended to bury their deceased parents generously, so tomb murals, portrait stones, portrait bricks, and funerary figurines became very popular. On these funerary arts, mythological themes still prevailed, such as Taoist gods like Tung Wang Kung (东王公 the King of the East, God of the Immortals), His Wang Mu (西王母the Queen Mother of the West), the four mythical beasts: Blue Dragon, White Tiger, Red Phoenix, and Black Tortoise, as well as various dragons, phoenix, and other rare birds and animals. On the other hand, there were also many paintings based on real life, such as banquets, dances, and scenes of hunting, battle, and work. In this sense, realistic art had developed significantly in both scope and depth. In short, arts in the Qin and Han Dynasties were vibrant. These dynasties were an extremely important period for the formation of the Chinese character and style of art: a bold combination of romanticism and realism.

3.2 Painting The discovery of silk paintings and murals from Han Dynasty tombs provides very important physical clues and evidence for understanding and studying the development of painting during this period.

3.2.1 Silk Painting in the Western Han Dynasty The silk paintings unearthed from the Han Dynasty tombs at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan Province are the earliest Fine-brush Heavy-color (工笔重彩) Chinese paintings discovered so far, and proved that paintings had reached a very high level in the Western Han Dynasty. This is the most exquisite and complete silk painting from ancient China that has been discovered so far. It is also known as Fei Yi (非衣 non-cloth), because it was a banner held in the funeral procession and then placed on the surface of the inner coffin after entering the tomb. The theme of the painting is ascension to the heaven. The picture is divided from top to bottom into three parts: Heaven, Earth, and Underworld. In the Heaven, the sun and moon shine together, the Gate of Heaven faces south, Houyi (后羿) is shooting the sun, Chang’e (嫦娥) is flying to the moon, and there is Fuxi (伏羲) who has a human head and the body of a

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snake. It is clearly based on the myths and legends from more ancient times. The part of Earth is a depiction of the tomb owner’s life. Under the canopy, an old woman with a cane stands showing her side. The image and clothing are consistent with the well-preserved corpse of the tomb owner when it is first unearthed from the tomb. A patterned curtain and a streamer embellished with jade hang under a huge circular jade and a snake dragon. A long table was lined up with pots, which contained sacrificial offerings to the tomb owner after her death. The Underworld runs from the little giant who supports the ground with both hands to the very end. There are monsters such as the big blue fish and the red snake. The painting is substantial, imaginative, and romantic, showing the earthly life and spiritual pursuits of people at that time. The composition is complex, symmetrical, and yet full of variations, the colors are gorgeous yet harmonious, and the outline is refined and smooth. It has a high artistic value (Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1 T-shaped Painting on Silk from Han Dynasty Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui (Silk painting. 205 cm in length. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed from Han Dynasty Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan Province. Hunan Museum)

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3.2.2 Mural in Han Dynasty Tombs Murals in Han Dynasty tombs present a wide range of themes vividly, covering all aspects of social life in the Han Dynasty. They are also very artistic and expressive, applying many and various techniques. The Eastern Han Dynasty tomb in Wangdu is the tomb of a high-ranking official. The mural depicts a host of officials who were subordinates of the tomb owner to show his power. This mural painting shows servants who went ahead to clear the way for aristocrats during excursions. They bent forward with their hands folded before them, showing their respect and subservience to their lord. The mural bears the title Servants Clearing the Way. The proportions of the picture are accurate, the expressions of the figures are vivid, the lines are smooth, and the density is appropriate. It can be said that coffin chamber murals in tombs of the Han Dynasty shaped the style of Chinese figure paintings in later dynasties (Fig. 3.2).

Fig. 3.2 Mural of Servants Clearing the Way (Tomb mural. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Tomb No. 1 in Wangdu, Hebei Province)

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Fig. 3.3 Doormen (Tomb mural. 105 cm in height and 50 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb in Yingchengzi, Jinxian County, Liaoning Province)

Doormen first appeared in tomb chamber murals in the Eastern Han Dynasty. Two doormen were painted on both sides of the inner door of the tomb. One was holding a knife, and the other was holding a halberd. The knife holder looked very angry and powerful, while the halberd holder was more docile and introverted, creating a contrast between quietness and motion, and making the picture vivid. The lines are free and powerful, and the craftsmen must be very passionate when they painted. This mural painting shows the artistic excellence of unknown folk craftsmen more than 2,000 years ago. (Fig. 3.3).

3.3 Portrait Stone and Portrait Brick Portrait stones and portrait bricks (reliefs) were building materials on which various figures were carved. Popular in the Han Dynasty, especially in Eastern Han Dynasty, portraits on stones and bricks were something between paintings and carvings. The figures were mainly ancient sages, righteous men, filial sons, women of chastity, figures from historical stories, and the tomb owners in daily activities when they were alive. There were also mythical birds and animals. The figures were mostly presented in silhouettes, showing the dynamic and typical characteristics of the people, so that the patterns are very decorative.

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3.3.1 Portrait Stones Portrait stones were stones carved with decorative paintings used as building blocks in temples or tombs. They were flat carvings that show a plot, and were most popular in Shandong, Henan, north Shaanxi and Sichuan. Take Shandong for example, Early examples of the Eastern Han were found in Xiaotangshan where carvings were made with incised lines which were beautiful yet rustic. Later, the Wu’s Temple (or the Wu Family Shrines) became the focus, where carvings were made by the cut-out method (to produce shallow relief), simple and substantial. The last stage was exemplified by the Yinan region, where the carving method combined cut-out and line incision, which created layers and grand pictures. Portraits were often mythical, legendary, and historical figures, which not only show the remarkable art of stone carving in the Han Dynasty, but also reflect the social life and thought in this period. The Wu’s Temple is located in the northwest of Wuzhaishan Village, Jiaxiang County, Shandong Province, and includes four stone shrines, of which the Wu Liang Shrine is the most famous. This shrine has one stone chamber with an overhanging gable roof facing north. The walls contain five portrait stones, on which there are exquisite paintings depicting social activities, historical, mythical, and legendary figures. The carving method combines low relief and incised lines to produce a basically realistic yet exaggerating and eye-catching picture. This is the portrait stone on the west wall of the Wu Liang Shrine. The picture has five layers divided by a patterned belt or bar: the top layer depicts Hsi Wang Mu (西王母 Queen Mother of the West) and various spirits; the second layer depicts mythical emperors such as Fuxi (伏羲), Nvwa (女娲), Shennong (神农), Huangdi ( 黄帝 Yellow Emperor), Yao (尧), Shun (舜), and Yu (禹); the third layer tells stories of filial sons such as Zeng Shen and his Mother, and Laolaizi and his Mother; the fourth layer shows historical stories such as Jing Ke’s Assassination of Ying Zheng, the King of Qin; and the fifth layer shows a row of horses and carts. Most of the characters and stories have captions written in official script (Fig. 3.4). The famous story “Jing Ke’s Assassination of the King of Qin” appears multiple times in the Wu’s Temple. This one is in the left stone chamber of the Wu’s Temple and is better maintained. This is a breath-taking scene: Jing Ke pulled out a dagger and threw it, but the dagger hit the column. The King of Qin tried to escape, and the ministers were all scared and fell on the ground. Jing Ke was then captured by the attending warriors and remained noble and unbending. The climax of this story is clearly detailed: the depiction of the environment is clear and concise, and the relationship between the characters is very well demonstrated (Fig. 3.5). Portrait stones of the Eastern Han Dynasty are meticulous and show many details of real life. It can be said that they constitute an illustrated encyclopedia of social life in the Eastern Han Dynasty. Music and dance were an important aspect of life in the

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Fig. 3.4 Portrait Stone of the Wu Liang Shrine (the West Wall) (Portrait stone. 183 cm in height and 140 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. The Wu’s Temple, Jiaxiang, Shandong Province)

Han Dynasty, taking a variety of forms. Dragon Dance was one of them. Still popular today, Dragon Dance might have started at that time or even earlier (Fig. 3.6).

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Fig. 3.5 Jing Ke’s Assassination of Ying Zheng (the King of Qin) (Portrait stone. 73 cm in height and 63 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. The Wu’s Temple, Jiaxiang, Shandong Province)

Different from the portrait stones in Shandong, the portrait stones in Nanyang, Henan Province, adopted the method of bas-relief of the portrait setting off with the background space decorated with lines, which created a rough, bold and simple style. Ancient Chinese believed that the sun was carried by a black bird, a three-legged crow. Most paintings of the sun found in Nanyang, Henan Province were based on this belief. This picture features auspicious clouds and beautiful stars, so it is very

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Fig. 3.6 Music and Dance (Partial-Dragon Dance) (Portrait stone. 50 cm in height and 236 cm in length. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Yinan, Shandong Province. Yinan County Beizhai Han Portrait Stone Tomb Museum)

decorative. Cloud patterns are a major characteristic of paintings on Han Dynasty portrait stones found in Nanyang. They created a sense of space and enhance the decorative effect of the portrait. The dots, large and small, in this painting represent stars, and are very decorative (Fig. 3.7).

3.3.2 Portrait Bricks Portrait bricks were made by two methods: stamping and engraving. Portrait bricks of the Eastern Han Dynasty unearthed in Chengdu, Sichuan Province show the highest level of art. The themes are mostly aspects of real life and have strong local colors. It is a hollow brick made with a male mould and incised with lines. In the picture, a hunter wears a trimmed top and shorts. He takes a lunge (half kneeling) posture, turns his upper body aside and pulled his bow, staring at the deer. The posture and expressions are very vivid and powerful. The figure is simply outlined, without much modification, so it feels simple and free. The lines are concise and powerful, and the image is vivid (Fig. 3.8). The Eastern Han Dynasty was the heyday of portrait bricks when the art was most advanced in Sichuan. Most unearthed portrait bricks in Sichuan depict aspects of real life. The composition is vivid and complete, the style is fresh, the portrayal is meticulous and exquisite, and the pictures have strong local colors. This brick with

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Fig. 3.7 The Sun and Constellations (Portrait stone. 82 cm in height and 167 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Yingzhuang, Nanyang, Henan Province. Nanyang Stonecarved Art Museum in Han Dynasty)

Fig. 3.8 Hunter Drawing a Bow (Portrait brick. The Western Han Dynasty. Luoyang, Henan Province)

scenes of hunting and harvesting is one of the best examples. It is a solid square brick stamped with patterns. The picture is divided into two parts: the top 2/3 depicts two kneeling archers taking aim at a flock of birds in flight, fish swimming calmly in the water, and the birds scattering in the sky in panic; the lower 1/3 is the harvesting scene, with the figures well-spaced and taking various postures, making the picture

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Fig. 3.9 Hunting and Harvesting (Portrait brick. 39.6 cm in height, 45.6 cm in width and 6 cm in thickness. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Dayi, Sichuan Province. Sichuan Museum)

Fig. 3.10 Garden Brick (Portrait brick. 40 cm in height, 46.4 cm in width and 6.3 cm in thickness. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed from Yangzishan, Chengdu, Sichuan Province. National Museum of China)

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beautiful and rhythmic, while the vertical lines depicting the crops and slanted lines for sickles connect the two parts and the two groups of characters (Fig. 3.9). The portrait stone is an overhead view of a four-part courtyard, surrounded by long corridors. The courtyard is divided into several small courtyards by vertical and horizontal partition walls. There are two roosters fighting with their necks raised in the front yard on the left. There are two cranes dancing facing each other with spread wings in the backyard. There are two people, probably guest and host, sitting opposite each other with bowls and ear cups between on the table. A servant is sweeping at the yard of the high building on the right, and a puppy is following behind. The high building is a watchtower with military defense function. The picture on this brick is the epitome of the wealthy residences of officials and gentry in the Han Dynasty (Fig. 3.10). The brick shows mountains in the background with symbolic relief triangles. On the left is a salt well, with a tall shafted structure above the well. The structure is divided into two layers, and four laborers are taking up salt with a pully. There is a furnace on the right under the bamboo roof in the lower right corner, and another laborer is working beside the furnace. The picture also shows woodcutters

Fig. 3.11 Salt Production (Portrait brick. 36.6 cm in height and 46.6 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Qionglai, Sichuan Province. Sichuan Museum)

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and hunters in the mountains. This brick shows the process of salt production in Sichuan during the Han Dynasty clearly and completely (Fig. 3.11).

3.4 Sculpture Sculpture in the Qin and Han Dynasties is best known for the Terracotta Warriors of Shihuangdi of the Qin Dynasty, the stone sculptures at Huo Qubing’s tomb, and a large amount of pottery figurines buried with the dead. It is the first peak in the history of Chinese sculpture.

3.4.1 Terracotta Warriors of Shihuangdi of the Qin Dynasty In 1974–1976, the Terracotta Army Pits No. 1–3 were excavated on the east side of the Mausoleum of Shihuangdi in Lintong, Shaanxi Province. A huge amount of terracotta warriors, horses, and chariots, among others, were unearthed. According to their density, it is estimated that there are about 6,000 pieces in Pit 1, 1,000 in Pit 2, and 68 in Pit 3. The terracotta warriors are almost as high as and slightly larger than real people. They are generally around 180 cm tall. They are well proportioned and have realistic shapes, vivid expressions, distinctive personality, and tight composition. They were produced through the combination of molding and shaping, showing amazing sculptural skills. All the terracotta warriors are arranged like an army. The repetition of many upright and static individuals creates a powerful atmosphere, symbolizing the forces defending the Mausoleum of Shihuangdi and the military might with which the State of Qin annexed six other states and unified China. The relics of terracotta army were extremely impressive and were hailed as the “eighth wonder” of the world. This kneeling terracotta soldier is one of the hundred archers in Pit No. 2 of the Terracotta Army. This terracotta soldier wears a war robe covered with armor, kneeling with his right leg and squatting with the other leg. He faces the left side, with hands bending on the right side of the body as if he is drawing a bow. When this terracotta figure was unearthed, there were ruins of a decayed wooden bow and clusters of copper arrows around it. The vivid shape and the match between the figure and the remaining objects reflect the artistic idea behind the Qin terracotta warriors, which is to be as close to reality as possible (Fig. 3.12). Most of the Qin terracotta figures are monotonously shaped with upright and static postures, but their heads take different forms, with distinctive facial expressions, which is an evidence of sculpture reaching a high level in the Qin Dynasty. Common head shapes are categorized according to their resemblance with Chinese characters, including 国, 由, 申, 甲 and 风. In terms of facial features, the depiction of eyes,

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Fig. 3.12 Kneeling Archer (Terracotta sculpture. 120 cm in height. The Qin Dynasty. Lintong, Shaanxi Province. The Terracotta Army Pits No.1 on the east side of the Mausoleum of Shihuangdi)

eyebrows, whiskers, jaw, and mouth varies, from which we can tell the soldiers’ ages, experience, and even the region they come from (Fig. 3.13).

3.4.2 Stone Sculptures at the Tomb of Huo Qubing Huo Qubing was a general with genius and brilliant military achievements in the Han Dynasty during the reign of Emperor Wu. He was sent to fight the Huns six times and made great successes. Unfortunately, he died at the age of 24. To mourn his loss and commemorate his work, Emperor Wu ordered to bury the deceased general next to his own mausoleum, and ordered to make the grave resemble his battlefield Qilian Mountains. The emperor also ordered to make a group of life-size stone sculptures of wild animals commonly seen in the Qilian Mountains to be placed around the tomb. The sculptures are simple, rough, and rustic but they show unstoppable power, reflecting the strong momentum and military power of the Han empire.

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Fig. 3.13 Head of a Qin Terracotta Warrior (Terracotta. The Qin Dynasty. Lintong, Shaanxi Province. The Terracotta Army Pits No.1 on the east side of the Mausoleum of Shihuangdi)

Based on the natural shape of granite, the sculptures feature a combination of round carving, relief, and line incision, and are moderately processed to highlight the major characteristics of the subject matters. Omitting the minor details, the sculptures reflect how the craftsmen valued the inner over outer similarity. These sculptures are simple and solemn, from which the texture and mass of the stones can be seen clearly. The stone sculptures at the tomb of Huo Qubing include 14 pieces of granite sculptures of standing, prancing, and crouching horses, crouching cows and tigers, and wild boars, as well as two stones bearing inscriptions. Among them, the Standing Horse, also known as the “Horse Stepping on a Hun Soldier”, is the central piece and the most eye-catching of all. This war horse symbolizes the general who has defeated his enemy and brought the enemy chief under his feet. The triumphant general seems to have everything in hand and shows a powerful momentum, which forms a sharp contrast to the enemy desperately struggling. The details are also artistic and charming. For instance, although in the last moment of his life, the enemy chief still holds a short knife, which has rich implications (Fig. 3.14). The prancing horse expresses the momentary gesture of moving upon being frightened. It is about to gallop but not yet fully leaping, like an arrow on a string. The

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Fig. 3.14 Horse Stepping on a Hun Soldier (Stone sculpture. 168 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Xingping County, Shaanxi Province. Maoling Museum)

curvature of the horse’s neck and the tight texture of the muscles are full of tension, as if mobilizing the strength of the whole body, the hind hooves sticking to the ground are elastic, accumulating an explosive momentum of leaping into the air. This majestic, energetic, agile and nimble stone horse reminds people of the courageous, powerful and heroic spirit of a young general (Fig. 3.15). Fig. 3.15 Stone Horse (Stone sculpture. 150 cm in height and 240 cm in length. The Western Han Dynasty. Xingping County, Shaanxi Province. Maoling Museum)

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The stone scupture of Huo Qubing’s tomb have reached a very mature level in terms of artistic conception, expression methods and carving techniques. The material selection itself has become an important part of the modeling conception in artistic creation. This work is a perfect example. The sculptor used an undulating irregular stone to vividly express the fierce and unruly tiger nature. The tiger’s head, neck and chest are connected together, as if to accumulate strength and make a move in one fell swoop. The tiger’s tail is rolled up on its back, and the markings on the tiger’s body, which are not deliberately carved, naturally blend into the rough texture of the stone, making it appear vivid and simple (Fig. 3.16). On a dark rock with a bumpy surface, eyes, nose, mouth, teeth, etc., were slightly carved and a vivid toad emerges from the stone (Fig. 3.17). Fig. 3.16 Stone Tiger (Stone sculpture. 200 cm in length and 80 cm in width. The Western Han Dynasty. Xingping County, Shaanxi Province. Maoling Museum)

Fig. 3.17 Stone Toad (Stone sculpture. 156 cm in length, 107 cm in width and 70 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Xingping County, Shaanxi Province. Maoling Museum)

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Fig. 3.18 Stone Bixie (辟 邪) (Stone sculpture. 109 cm in height and 166 cm in length. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed from Sunqitun, Luoyang, Henan Province. Luoyang Museum)

3.4.3 Stone Mythical Beasts Tomb guardian beasts, Chinese mythical beasts, mainly include Bixie (辟邪), Tianlu (天禄), and Qilin (麒麟). They usually stand symmetrically on both sides of the tomb passage, serving to guard people in the region as well as the decreased. The mythical beast of Bixie is one of the deified animals from the remote ancient times. It has the body of a tiger or leopard, its head is like a lion, and it has wings like a bird. It is vigorous and powerful. This stone Bixie is about 122 cm tall and 165 cm long, and a whole boulder was apparently used to make this beast. Its body is long, with a tail hanging down to the ground. It is raising up its head and howling towards the sky, stretching its healthy and strong figure, giving an awesome impression (Fig. 3.18).

3.4.4 Terracotta Figurines of the Han Dynasty Terracotta figurines in the Han Dynasty feature different to those of the Qin Dynasty. Their artistic characteristics are simple but vivid and accurate. Most of the figures were based on images of people from all walks of life, reflecting the real world truthfully. Sculptures in the Western Han Dynasty, ranging from carved stone monuments to terracotta figurines, are all simplistically shaped but are majestic and powerful. This figurine of a female dancer in a long dress with sleeves hanging down is dancing

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Fig. 3.19 Terracotta Female Dancer (Terracotta sculpture. 50 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Baijiakou, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China)

gently and gracefully, while her facial features and other parts are not detailed. Most of the Western Han Dynasty aristocrats came from the former State of Chu, so terracotta figurines of court ladies are all shaped with a thin waist, because ladies with a thin waist were considered beautiful by the Chu aristocrats (Fig. 3.19). There are 22 figurines on the rectangular ceramic platform (one was missing when it was unearthed). On the back is a band, some playing the Sheng (笙) and Sse (瑟), and some ringing bell and beating drum. There are two dancers in red and white in the middle, waving long sleeves and dancing face to face. There are four acrobatic and jujitsu performers beside playing different tricks, some standing on their heads and some bending down. There are seven spectators standing with hands folded on both sides. The musicians are serious; the dancers and acrobats are smiling; the audiences are joyful. The atmosphere is warm and cheerful. The style of this pottery sculpture is simple and refined, and the colors are eye-catching yet soft. Except for the aesthetic value, this relic also has provided important information for the study of ancient Chinese acrobatic performances (Fig. 3.20). Terracotta figures in the Eastern Han Dynasty feature a wider range of themes than its predecessors, covering all aspects of social life. Besides, the images are more vivid. The figure vividly reproduces the exuberant expression of the folk artist when

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Fig. 3.20 Terracotta Acrobat (Terracotta sculpture. 67 cm in length and 47.5 cm in width. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed from Western Han Tomb No. 11 at Wuyingshan, Jinan, Shandong Province. Jinan Museum)

he tells stories to drum beats. At the climax of the story, he cannot help waving hands with lively and funny facial expressions, which may make the audience joyful. It is fair to say that this terracotta figure is one of the masterpieces in the Chinese history of sculpture (Fig. 3.21).

3.4.5 Bronze Sculptures In terms of ingenious design and excellent technique, the bronzes of the Qin and Han Dynasty surpassed those of the Pre-Qin Dynasty. (The practical bronze utensils will be introduced in the later paragraph). This is one of the two painted bronze chariots unearthed in a funeral pit on the west side of the Mausoleum of Shihuangdi of the Qin Dynasty. With two wheels and a single shaft, the chariot is pulled by four horses. There is a bronze officer statue on the chariot, holding a bridle. The chariot has doors and windows, and an oval cover on the top. There are paintings and engraved characters all over the chariots. The chariots and horses are about half the size of real ones. According to research, they were intended for Shihuangdi’s soul to travel and were manufactured in the style of the chariots he had once used. This bronze chariot was extremely well made. After restoration, the doors, windows, and the shafts can still work well, showing the exact craftsmanship. It is not only an outstanding work of art, but it is of great value for studying ancient vehicles (Fig. 3.22).

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Fig. 3.21 Terracotta Storyteller Beating a Drum (Terracotta sculpture. 56 cm in height. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Chengdu, Sichuan Province. National Museum of China)

Fig. 3.22 Bronze Chariot and Horse (Bronze sculpture. 106.2 cm in height. The Qin Dynasty. Lintong, Shaanxi Province. Emperor Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum Site Museum)

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In 1969, a batch of bronze chariots with horses were unearthed from the tomb of a general of the Eastern Han period in Wuwei County, Gansu Province. This bronze galloping horse, popularly known as the “Galloping Horse Treading on a Flying Swallow”, is in front of all others. With its head held high and three legs kicking up, the horse steps on a bird spreading its wings. Sleekly shaped and beautifully made, it is praised as a wonder of bronze sculpture, and has become an icon of Chinese tourism. The work was ingeniously conceived, with the fast-moving bird used to show the extraordinary speed of the horse. Seen from one side, the sculpture is a triangle up down, and the gravity is supported by one leg of the horse. Being at the same time dynamic and stable, it embodies the principle of moment balance. It shows the great wisdom and high level of craftsmanship in ancient China (Fig. 3.23).

Fig. 3.23 Galloping Horse Treading on a Flying Swallow (Bronze sculpture. 34.5 cm in height, 45 cm in length and 13.1 cm in width. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Wuwei, Gansu Province. Gansu Provincial Museum)

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3.5 Brick and Tile of the Qin and Han Dynasties As legends and records indicate, buildings in the Qin and Han Dynasties were large in scale and mature in art. However, it is a pity that most of them have been destroyed by the wars in later dynasties or by natural forces. Only the remaining stone towers from the Eastern Han period provide valuable physical clues for studying architecture in the Han Dynasty. This is the most beautiful Han Dynasty tower in existence today. It was built in the Eastern Han period. It is carved with stone and imitated wooden structures. The tower consists of the base, the main body, the eaves, and the top cover. The body includes pillars, beams, and bucket arches, and the eaves are engraved with figures, chariots, horses, birds, and beasts. This stone watch tower shows how exquisite wooden architecture of the Han Dynasty would be (Fig. 3.24). Wadang (瓦 瓦当), the sagging end of roof tiles (tile end), found at the ruins and other building components also have revealed to us the architectural achievements and the artistic style of these dynasties. Usually decorated with various patterns, Wadang is one of the important Chinese architectural decorations in the Qin and Han Dynasties. The Wadang unearthed of the Warring States period are normally half round in shape and have similar decorative patterns to the bronzes of the time. In the Qin Dynasty, the shape became round and most of patterns were animals and cloud patterns. Towards the end of the Western Han Dynasty, tile ends featuring four mythical beasts Blue Dragon, White Tiger, Red Phoenix, and Black Tortoise appeared. Their images were healthy and powerful, while the Chinese characters with auspicious meanings were also popular in the Han Dynasties, which were more solemn and elegant decorations. In the Qin State and early Qin Dynasty, most Wadang were decorated with beast patterns. This piece was printed with a beast with twin heads, one left and one right, sharing one neck, forming a strange image (Fig. 3.25). This giant Wadang decorated with a phoenix pattern is 50 cm in diameter. It is semi-circular, with the bottom cut flat. In the middle there is a symmetrical phoenix pattern, which is magnificent and highly decorative. This Wadang might have been used in the construction of the Mausoleum of Shihuangdi (Fig. 3.26). Since the Qin Dynasty, Wadang had been made in circular shapes. In addition to beast and other patterns, auspicious words were also inscribed on Wadang as decorations. People in the Han Dynasty continued to make Wadang in circular shapes, but most of the decorations were auspicious words. This piece features lesser seal script, and the calligraphy is compact and powerful (Fig. 3.27).

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Fig. 3.24 Gaoyi Watch Tower (Stone tower. 599 cm in height. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Ya’an, Sichuan Province)

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Fig. 3.25 Wadang with a Double-Headed Beast Pattern (Tile end. 14.5 cm in diameter. The Qin State of the Late Warring States Period. Unearthed from Fengxiang, Shaanxi Province. Shaanxi History Museum)

Fig. 3.26 Wadang from the Mausoleum of Shihuangdi (Tile end. 40 cm in diameter. The Qin Dynasty. Unearthed from the field of Mausoleum of Shihuangdi, Lintong, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China)

From the end of the Western Han Dynasty to Wang Mang’s New Dynasty, the four mythical beasts: Blue Dragon, White Tiger, Red Phoenix, and Black Tortoise was popular that stood for all gods of heaven and earth. The images of these four beasts are lively and very decorative. This piece of Wadang also features the bright colors of white and vermilion, forming a harmonious picture with the splendid architecture (Fig. 3.28).

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Fig. 3.27 Wadang Inscribed with Words Meaning “Long Life without End” (Tile end. 18.9 cm in diameter. The Western Han Dynasty. Shanghai Museum)

3.6 Crafts 3.6.1 Ceramics The appearance of low-temperature lead-glazed pottery in the late Western Han Dynasty was one of the major achievements in ceramic making during the Han Dynasty. By the middle and late Eastern Han Dynasty, primitive porcelain had evolved into the porcelain we use today. Celadon fragments unearthed from the Eastern Han Dynasty kiln site in Shangyu, Zhejiang province have proved to reach porcelain standards after chemical analysis and physical determination. This pavilion was built in the center of a round pond. Figures of birds are molded on the roof ridges and cornices, and the pool is surrounded by figurines of people, horses, and geese. The pavilion has two floors. Inside the railing on the upper floor, there are soldiers drawing bows at four corners. There are people dancing, playing musical instruments, and clapping and singing in the pavilion. The pavilion is finely structured, and embodies real life in a vivid and profound way (Fig. 3.29). This pot carries a hunting pattern belt on the shoulder, the embossed hunter draws a bow while riding on the horse. There are tigers, sheep, deer, horses, and other animals and birds in the mountains. The body of the pot is glazed green and has an exquisite shape (Fig. 3.30).

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Fig. 3.28 Wadang with Four Gods (Tile end. 15.8–19.3 cm in diameter. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed from Shaanxi. Shanghai Museum)

3.6.2 Bronzes As the Bronze Age was drawing to an end in the Qin and Han Dynasties, bronze wares made in this period were mainly practical utensils, such as bronze mirrors and bronze lanterns. In 1986, a great many precious relics, including the famous golden wired jade clothes, were unearthed from the tombs of Liu Sheng, a royal family member and prince of the Han Dynasty, and his wife Dou Wan in Mancheng City, Hebei Province. This lamp was unearthed from Dou Wan’s tomb. It was also named as “Bronze Lamp of Changxin Palace”. The Changxin Palace is the name of the place where the prince’s grandmother lived. This object is gilded and depicts a palace maid sitting on her knees with a lamp in her hands. The palace maid looks very calm. Her arm

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Fig. 3.29 Green-Glazed Pottery “Waterside Pavilion” (Glazed pottery. 54.5 cm in height. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China)

serves as the lamp’s chimney, and the smoke goes through the sleeves into the body. The lamp plate can be turned to change the direction of light, showing the ingenuity of the lamp designer. There were lamps of various shapes during the Warring States period, but the lamps in the Han Dynasty were simpler (Fig. 3.31). The lamp base is shaped like a strong buffalo. The buffalo bows its head, its horns nearly reach the ground, and its tail is tilted into a spiral shape. A lamp holder is attached to the back of the buffalo. On the top of the buffalo body is a round hole

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Fig. 3.30 Green-Glazed Pot with Relief Hunting Patterns (Glazed pottery. 25 cm in height, 9.8 cm in diameter of caliber and 10.2 cm in diameter of bottom. The Eastern Han Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

where a lamp panel with a short handle is placed. The lampshade can be turned and a smoke pipe connects with it. When the lamp is lit, the smoke emitted from the lamp panel will be absorbed into the lamp shade and thus disappear. Such a smart design is similar with that of “Gilded Human-shaped Bronze Lamp”. Patterns of silver clouds are carved all over the lamp (Fig. 3.32). The upper part and the lid of the censer resembles layers of mountains, with people and beasts looming inside, and are inlaid with cloud patterns in gold. The base is decorated with hollow dragon patterns and the rim with gold cloud patterns. The censer, like sacred mountains, embodies the existence of immortals. The elaborate workmanship of this censer is awesome (Fig. 3.33).

3.6.3 Lacquerwares Lacquerware in the Han Dynasty was largely popular in the south, especially in Hunan and Sichuan. Most of them were produced by royal workshops. In the Han Dynasty, lacquerware replaced bronzes. They served practical purposes and were also highly appreciated by aristocrats for their rich colors and

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Fig. 3.31 Gilded Human-Shaped Bronze Lamp (Bronze ware. 48 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Mancheng, Hebei Province. Hebei Museum)

patterns that could show off their wealth. At that time, the lacquerware manufacture was prosperous, with Sichuan and Hunan at the center. Lacquered utensils and lacquered coffins unearthed from the Han Dynasty tomb at Mawangdui, Changsha, featured varied colors and unrestrained lines, showing a sense of motion. The cloud patterns painted on this lacquered tripod are complex, emitting a unique artistic charm and the strong romantic air of southern Chu culture (Fig. 3.34).

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Fig. 3.32 Buffalo-Shaped Bronze Jar Lamp (Bronze ware. 46.2 cm in height and 36.4 cm in length. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Hanjiang, Jiangsu Province. Nanjing Museum)

3.6.4 Jade Carvings and Wood Carvings The technique of jade carving has great improved in the Han Dynasty. The wooden carving shares the same artistic characteristics as stone sculpture, which is simple, rough, yet vivid and vigorous. An immortal with a high nose and sharp jaw, and wings on his shoulders and hip rides on a horse, holding a rein in his left hand and a lawn grass in the right. The horse opens its mouth and bares its teeth, looking ahead while holding its head high,

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Fig. 3.33 Bronze Hill Censer Inlaid with Gold (Bronze. 26 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Mancheng, Hebei Province. Hebei Museum)

as if it is neighing and galloping forward. This jade carving reflects the people’s pursuit of immortality and life after death in the Han Dynasty. Solemn, concise, exquisite, crystal white and clear, the jade is a magnum opus of jade carving in the Western Han Dynasty (Fig. 3.35). This wooden monkey was only roughly carved. The craftsman focused on the face, especially the eyes, while the limbs and other parts of the body were basically ignored. Sharp contrasts between rough and detailed parts and between square and round parts produce an overall feeling of power. This wooden monkey is simple, rough, and even abstract, but it is also very modern in the contemporary sense (Fig. 3.36).

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Fig. 3.34 Lacquered Ding with Cloud Patterns (Lacquerware. 28 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan Province. Hunan Provincial Museum) Fig. 3.35 A Winged Man Riding on a Horse (Jade carving. 7 cm in height. The Western Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Xianyang, Shaanxi Province. Xianyang Museum)

94 Fig. 3.36 Wooden Monkey (Wood carving. 11.5 cm in height. The Eastern Han Dynasty. Unearthed in Wuwei, Gansu Province. National Museum of China)

3 Arts of the Qin and Han Dynasties

Chapter 4

Arts of the Three Kingdoms, the Jin Dynasty, the Southern and Northern Dynasties

4.1 Overview (1) History Illustration of the Three Kingdoms, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties

The 360-year history of the Three Kingdoms, the two Jin Dynasties and the Southern and Northern Dynasties represented a long period of chaos and turbulence in Chinese history. Historians also call this period the Six Dynasties. Following the Three Kingdoms period, the Western Jin Dynasty (266–316 AD) rose to power and established its capital at Luoyang, and later at Chang’an (present-day Xi’an, Shaanxi Province). The Western Jin Dynasty collapsed with the fall of Chang’an in 316 AD, forcing survivors to flee south of the Yangtze River to Jiankang (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu Province) where they established the Eastern Jin Dynasty. The Eastern Jin Dynasty established its capital at Jiankang, and ruled from 316 AD until 420 AD. By around 250 AD, the Xianbei people had taken control of much of Northern China and in 316 AD captured the Western Jin capital of Chang’an, forcing them south. In 398 AD, Tuoba Gui established the Northern Wei Dynasty, making © Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 T. Chen, Illustrated History of Chinese Art, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8_4

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Pingcheng (present day Datong, Shanxi Province) the capital, and started the era known collectively as the Northern Dynasty period, which was marked by the sinicization of the Xianbei, begun under the Emperor Xiaowen (471–499 AD). Han Chinese administrators were recruited to assist in government operations, and Chinese surnames were adopted by the royal family, court officials and many influential citizens in accordance with Chinese fashion. The Xianbei adopted Buddhism and became major patrons of that religion, while also gaining an appreciation for Chinese art. At roughly the same time as the Northern Dynasty era, in the south of China the Southern Dynasty era saw four successive dynasties based in Jiankang: the Liu-Song (420–479 AD), the Xiao-Qi (479–502 AD), the Xiao-Liang (502–557 AD), and the Southern Chen (557–589 AD), rise and fall. They ruled over much of China south of the Yangtze River. Although this period was one of political turmoil, with the four dynasties collectively lasting only 170 years, it was a time when Chinese art and culture flourished. In 581, Yang Jian took control of the collapsing Northern Zhou and much of northern China as the first Sui emperor. With the fall of the Southern Chen Dynasty, less than a decade, Yang Jian succeeded in unifying all of China. (2) Philosophy and culture It was a time of great turmoil, but the Six Dynasties period was also a critical period in the formation of China as a nation. The multiple wars and divisions stimulated the migration of various nationalities to different areas of the country and increased opportunities for the integration of various nationalities. These migrations and exchanges between ethnic minorities enriched the inherent cultural tradition of the Central Plains. The migrations caused by the frequent wars in the north also resulted in the transfer of skilled workers and technology to the south, which promoted the exploration and economic development of the south. The southward migration of the Jin Dynasty brought with it large numbers of the literati and gentry (also known as Scholar-bureaucrats) who helped spreading the advanced cultural ideas of the Central Plains to the south. The relative stability of the economy and society in the south also provided a better environment for cultural development with the capital of Jiankang as the center. Buddhism boomed, and Buddhist art became a feature of the times, adding new content and modeling elements to ancient Chinese art. In the field of philosophy, the development of Xuanxue (玄学)1 promoted the development of logical speculation and an atmosphere of free theoretical exploration, which directly and indirectly affected the creation of literature and art. Taoist thoughts that originated in the pre-Qin period, and first appeared in the Eastern Han Dynasty, were shaped 1 The so-called Xuanxue/Metaphysics of the Wei and Jin Dynasties is the concept of exploring the origin, ontology and other levels of all things. It was the mainstream thought of the Scholarbureaucrats in the Wei and Jin Dynasties. The individual consciousness developed by the Scholarbureaucrats of the time lead to independent spirit and free will, advocated to explore and express the true inner feelings. This caused these social elites to turn to philosophy of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Laozi, Zhuangzi and Zhouyi/ Book of Changes are called the “Three Xuan”.

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and developed into a complete religious form in the third and fourth centuries under the influence of Buddhism. With its mix of folklore, natural belief and Xuanxue thinking, Taoism started to become another influential ideology. As they grew in popularity, Xuanxue and Taoism, and their advocacy for free talk, and a laissez faire, detached mindset, also influenced the art of the time. The actions and thoughts of the gentry had also made their great contribution to art. Literati and scholars engaged in painting influenced the evolution of art style. New schools of professional painters formed and the first generation of scroll paintings and theories in the art of painting emerged. In an unstable and divided political climate, under the impact of Buddhism, Western culture and Xuanxue, the cultural spirit evolved from being a simple and honest style of the Han Dynasty period to being broad, fresh and elegant. It developed into a system of values similar to nihilism emphasizing detachment and ethereality. This system of value was directly reflected in many different art mediums at that time. The purpose of art also evolved during the North and South Dynasties periods, from a tool for education and strengthening social customs during the Han Dynasty, to education, aesthetic enjoyment, and self-expression of the literati class.

4.2 Painting 4.2.1 Professional Painters As an art creation, scroll painting became an independent art form. The term scroll painting comes from the form: mostly a long horizontal or vertical scroll. The content or subject of the painting is typically classified as figure painting, landscape painting, or flower-and-bird painting. In the period of the Wei, Jin, the Northern and Southern Dynasties, figure painting first matured as an art element, and landscape, flower-andbird first appeared in paintings. At this time, the painting form was mainly a long horizontal format. There are a few notable painters from this era. Cao Buxing who lived during the Eastern Wu kingdom of the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD), is the first influential painter recorded in Chinese history. He is an early Buddhist, the religion having arrived in the Kingdom of Wu from India via the southeast coast of China, during the Three Kingdoms period. Wei Xie, who lived during the Western Jin era (266–316 AD) is highly influential in guiding the development of “Rhythmic Vitality/Rhythmic Movement”「气韵生动 」 painting style of the Six Dynasties period. Gu Kaizhi is an early theorist of painting, and is considered the greatest painter of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (346–407 AD). He believed that the beauty or ugliness of figure’s form in painting was not the most important thing. Instead, it was most

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Fig. 4.1 Admonitions Scroll (A copy of the Tang Dynasty2 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on Silk. 25 cm in height and 349 cm in length. The Eastern Jin. Gu Kaizhi. British Museum, UK)

important that a painter depicted the psychological and spiritual features of the object they were painting. The image is created with lines. The soft lines are a continuous and natural form to reflect the sense of rhythm. Gu Kaizhi has developed the “high ancient floating silk line strokes” (高古游丝描) which has been formed since the Warring States period into a perfect state, to create an image with a style of elegance. One dignified and beautiful female official, with a high bun and a long skirt, was writing intensely to prepare her advice to the king; another woman who was traveling with the king was desperate to block the black bear who rushed to the king, showing her spirit of self-sacrifice… Those plots are from the book of Zhang Hua to remonstrate Queen Jia in his time. The whole painting is made up of 12 scenes (now there are 9 scenes left), and each scene has a script written beside. It is an illustration like painting, with a strong educational meaning. The painting has no background, and focuses on depicting characters, especially their dynamic movement and the eye contact. This volume is a copy from the Tang Dynasty, which mostly closely imitates the style characteristics of Gu Kaizhi’s works (Fig. 4.1). This picture is based on the biography of ancient chaste women, and represents a traditional theme common since the Han Dynasty. The content is to describe “wise” women, setting up a model to promote feudal ethics, in which women were always bound by various feudal ethics, such as “the three obediences and the four virtues,” 「 三从四德」 and “husband governs wife,” being subservient to men and lacking the right of freedom and equality. The whole painting is divided into eight sections, made of 28 people, with names above, and description for each section. In its organization, the relationship between the characters in the painting is mainly handled through their dynamic postures. The line is closer to “iron wire strokes” (铁线描) than the 2

Xue YN, Luo SP (ed) (2010.6) Compiled by Chinese Art History Teaching and Research Section in Central Academy of Fine Arts. Zhongguo Meishu Jianshi (A Brief History of Chinese Art). China Youth Publishing Group, p 93.

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Fig. 4.2 Legend of the Women, the Picture of Benevolence and Wisdom (A copy of the Song Dynasty4 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 25.8 cm in height and 417.8 cm in length. The Eastern Jin. Gu Kaizhi. The Palace Museum)

other two Gu’s paintings. The lines are rigid and condensed. The people’s clothing and the horses are all dyed by a “Halo Dyeing” method (晕染),3 and they are all dyed with a certain distance from the line, forming a special decorative interest (Fig. 4.2). Cao Zhi, the son of the mighty king Cao Cao of the Three Kingdoms period, is a typical gentry literati of the times. In one of his literary works, he created a dream of affection between a human and a goddess with beautiful and moving words and poetic rhythm. There are several copies of this painting, the one in Palace Museum is the oldest. The picture unfolds in the form of series story painting. There are trees decorated on the scroll to provide a natural environment and poetic atmosphere as the background of the story. Cao Zhi and his attendants walk on the shore of Luo River. Suddenly, a beautiful woman Luo Shen (洛神) appears on the water surface. “Ele”), “she seems to come, seems to leave, gant and graceful” (“ seems so close, seems so far” (“似来又去, 若即若离”). Pleased by her gentleness and beauty, the poet’s heart is vibrating hard and can’t be calm. Luo Shen is finally carried by six dragon fish carriage, and disappears on the Luo River; Cao Zhi tries to catch her up in a boat, pursue hard day and night, however he cannot catch up to her. The emotional atmosphere of the picture is very sentimental, which well reflects the love between human and goddess described in the rhapsody. It is impossible however to consummate the love of man and goddess, and Cao Zhi must finally let go of his love. The poem is full of beautiful romantic color and lyric atmosphere. The artist expressed the beauty and affection of Luo Shen by the way of the elegant modeling and the depiction of flowing clouds and flowing water, and the beautiful silk stroke like lines of the spring silkworm. Although landscape in the background is still in a crude state: “human characters are bigger than the mountains, water is not wide spreading, trees are like stretching arms and fingers” (人大于山, 水不 3 4

A three-dimensional painting method to create illusion of thickness and depth. The Palace Museum website: https://www.dpm.org.cn/collection/paint/228747

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Fig. 4.3 Rhapsody on the Goddess of Luo River (洛神赋) (A copy of the Song Dynasty5 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 27.1 cm in height and 572.8 cm in length. The Eastern Jin. Gu Kaizhi. The Palace Museum)

容泛, 树木如伸臂布指), it’s more flat decoration than natural depiction, the background landscape still plays an important role in rendering the expression of artistic conception (Fig. 4.3). Lu Tanwei is an active painter during the brief Liu-Song Dynasty (420–479 AD). He is an important figure in the art world then, and known for creating the “Elegant and Slender” figure style 「秀骨清像」 of painting. His work is a vivid summary of the images of scholars during the Six Dynasties, who advocated study of Xuanxue and Idle Talk (清谈, impractical discussion) during those times. It became a popular painting style, and also had an impact on the art of sculpture. Zhang Senyao during the Xiao-Liang Dynasty (502–557 AD) absorbed the Tian Zhu (天竺, Ancient India) and “Halo Dyeing” painting styles, utilized free shadow expression to create the “Zhang School Model” (张家样) of painting, which is not like the ancient Chinese plane line painting tradition. He was commissioned to decorate the walls of Buddhist temples in Nanjing, by the emperor Liang Wudi,6 a devout patron 5

The Palace Museum website: https://www.dpm.org.cn/collection/paint/234597 Liang Emperor Wudi advocated Buddhism and during his reign, he ordered to build many Buddhist temples, which helped Buddhism religion and arts spreading in the south. 6

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of Buddhism who during his reign commissioned many temples. All of Zhang’s work is lost, but his style became one of the most influential styles of painting in ancient temples.

4.2.2 Unearthed Works More than 600 pieces have been retrieved from those ancient tombs of Wei and Jin Dynasties in Jiayuguan area. The painting themes include travel, banquets, cooking, grazing, hunting, farming and other life pictures. The art form is one brick one painting with the background in white and red circle at the border. The picture is outlined in ink, slightly added red and ochre. It is made in freehand style, simple and vigorous, reflects the Eastern Han Dynasty murals tradition. This one is a hunting picture: a man riding a horse and looking backwards as he is shooting a bow, with the deer fleeing with an arrow already embedded in its flesh. The other is an agrarian scene: a man working in the field with a plow pulled by two cows (Fig. 4.4). This is the earliest paper painting in China known so far. This work is comprised of six sheets of paper. They show scenes from the life of the tomb owner. In the middle of the painting the owner is depicted sitting on the couch with a fan, and a maid stands with her hands arched. There is a big tree beside it, and a phoenix perching on the tree. To the right, there is a house, inside is a kitchen with stoves, cauldrons, wooden tables, meat, etc. A maid is preparing meals for the host. At the bottom left, a horse stands upright with its head held high, a saddle with a canopy on it is already prepared. The servant is waiting for their master to go out. In the sky, on the right side is the sun, and inside the sun is Jinwu (金乌, the sun bird), on the left side is the moon, toad is in the middle, with the Big Dipper and Little Bear. Under the sun, there are woods, farmland, farm tools, etc., representing the rural landscape. The figures, environment and props in the painting are childish style, flat and symbolic, but they all reflect real life, vividly. The color is only ochre and blue. The lines are casual and easy to handle. The painting style is simple and rough, which is close to Jiayuguan brick painting. It shows the close relationship between Gaochang area and inland painting at that time (Fig. 4.5). There are five lacquer paintings on wooden screens unearthed from Sima Jinlong tomb. The surface of the board is painted with red lacquer. The inscription and the title of the pictures are written in black characters on the yellow square, which is rare in the Northern Wei Dynasty. Each lacquer painting is divided into four layers. The contents include stories of virtuous women such as Ban Jieyu, Sun Shuao’s mother, Wei Ling’s wife, filial sons such as Shun and Li Chong, and ancient sages, etc. This screen painting conveys the same theme as Gu Kaizhi’s painting of ancient virtuous women. The bottom picture of this screen is about Ban Jieyu, the concubine of emperor Cheng of the Han Dynasty, who refused to take the chariot with him in order to maintain the hierarchy of feudal ethics. In the painting, Emperor Cheng

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Fig. 4.4 Brick Painting in Brick Chamber Tombs of the Wei and Jin Dynasties (Brick painting. Each piece 17 cm in height and 36 cm in width. The Wei and Jin Dynasties. Unearthed from tombs of the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Jiayuguan, Gansu Province)

turns around on the chariot and waves to Ban Jieyu, who is walking on foot. Ban Jieyu is graceful and slim, with a long skirt on the ground and a belt floating. The line drawing is continuous and rhythmic. This is a typical image in the paintings of the Six Dynasties, which is very similar to the image in Gu Kaizhi’s works. In addition, the composition of this painting is almost the same as that of Gu’s painting. It can be seen that the cultural exchanges occurring between the north and the south at that time had made the style of painting tend to be consistent. At the same time, it can also help confirm the painting age of Gu Kaizhi’s works that have been handed down (Fig. 4.6). This mural is located in the tomb of Lou Rui, the king of Dong’an during the Northern Qi Dynasty and a relative of the king of the Northern Qi Dynasty. The mural

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Fig. 4.5 The Painting of Landlord’s Manor (Color on paper. 47 cm in length and 105.5 cm in width. The Jin Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of the Jin Dynasty, Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Xinjiang Museum)

is large scale, displaying a complete composition and mature production techniques. In the first section of the painting 8 main riders are depicted. Among them in the middle is the master in red robe on a red horse. He has a dignified manner and looks ahead. The followers are closely following. One of the leading riders has reined in the horse and is looking back. The horse is hissing with the neck stretching long. The two attendants are also looking back nervously, as if there was something abnormal occurring behind them. In a later part of the painting, there are two people and one of them is riding a horse with a whip and running it forward quickly. The horse’s head is raised, its eyes are startled, and its front hooves are raised up, while its hind legs squat down, and the rider is looking down to see what is causing his horse to behave in such a manner. The suspense of several people looking back in the previous section is clear. The rich and vivid detail description not only makes the picture full of life, but also makes the picture echo back and forth, tying it together. The whole picture is painted with bold lines and harmonious colors. The characters are dynamic and full of change, the characters with long oval faces and high and round foreheads show the typical feature of the Northern people. The depiction of horses is particularly powerful, especially the eyes and the postures of the animals. According to the research, it may be based on the work of Yang Zihua, the great painter of the Northern Dynasties. It is an outstanding representative of the painting art of the Northern Dynasty (Fig. 4.7). Stone and Brick Relieve The brick relief involves creating impressions in bricks prior to firing in a kiln. It was developed during the Han Dynasty, however, during the Southern Dynasties period (420–589 AD) the process evolved from impressions on a single brick to much larger bas relief impressions covering many bricks. These brick paintings are composed of many bricks embedded on the wall. That is to say, after the painter made the model

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Fig. 4.6 Legend of Women and Ancient Sages (Screen painting. Each section 80 cm in height and 20 cm in width. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Unearthed from Sima Jinlong tomb, Datong, Shanxi Province. Datong Museum)

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Fig. 4.7 Murals of Lou Rui’s Tomb (Tomb mural. 150–170 cm in height, more than 200 m2 . The Northern Qi Dynasty. Unearthed from Lou Rui’s tomb, Wangguo Village, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province)

(powder version), the bricklayer made the parting according to the drawing, and after the parting was completed, the brick was fired in kiln. After that, insert the brick into the wall according to the correct position and fix it. The artistic style is thin and elegant. The brick relief fully adopted the characteristics of line paintings. Its image and line style are very close to Gu Kaizhi paintings. This specific example of brick relief art was found in Nanjing, Danyang and other places. A total of 4–5 have been found, and the most refined and complete one is that of tomb brick paintings of Xishanqiao in Nanjing. Seven Sages are Ruan Ji, Ji Kang, Shan Tao, Xiang Xiu, Wang Rong, Ruan Xian, and Liu Ling. They are the celebrated scholars of Wei and Jin Dynasties. They were cynical, did not want to cooperate with the rulers, advocated Xuanxue and Idle Talk, despised the Confucian ethics, and followed Laozi and Zhuangzi. They were wild and uninhibited, led a free life in mountain and forest, and were addicted to alcohol. Rong Qiqi is the Spring and Autumn period hermit who often appeared together with the Seven Sages in art work. Those eight characters are broad-minded and aloof, represent the style of Wei and Jin Dynasties, which is called “Wei Jin Demeanor” (「魏晋风度」, 「林下风流」: a loose, romantic, casual and elegant demeanor), and have always been regarded as models of ideal personality by scholars. It was

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Fig. 4.8 Seven Sages in the Bamboo Grove and Rong Qiqi Brick Relief (Brick relief. One section 78 cm in height and 242.5 cm in length, another section 78 cm in height and 241.5 cm in length. The Southern Dynasty. Unearthed from Xishanqiao, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province. Nanjing Museum)

also a common theme in art works at that time. And using bamboo to symbolize “a man of noble character” (君子) also can be seen started from this. The artistic style of this brick relief is that: without relying on describing more plots and actions, only using simplified lines to depict the external features to reveal the inner spiritual temperament. The composition of the picture is horizontal. All eight people sit on the ground. Beside each of them is a double branch tree with the same root. It not only explains the environment, but also divides the picture. The characters are all typical of Elegant and Slim Figures with loose robes, and their different personalities and temperament are mainly reflected through their most characteristic posture and props. For example, Wang Rong sits with his head up and knees bent, barefoot, one hand leaning on a small table, the other hand playing with Ruyi (如意7 ), and looks a bit drunk. Liu Ling holds the ear cup in one hand and dips it in the other hand. He is staring into the cup, which vividly and interestingly draws a picture of his addiction to alcohol. Others, such as Ji Kang who plays the zither and Ruan Xian who plays the lute. The lines are simple and smooth, the trees are varied, and the picture is very decorative (Fig. 4.8). There are three stories on each side. And the background of rocks and trees on the picture not only separates three groups of different stories, but also skillfully organizes the pictures in a unified environment. 7

Ruyi: Symbols representing merit, happiness and auspiciousness. The craft looks similar to Ganoderma lucidum and is usually made of jade or gold.

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Dong Yong’s story is on the left side of the first group. In the middle of the picture is a leaf tree in the blowing wind. On the left side of the tree, Dong Yong in short dress is in the forest hoeing, behind him in the chariot is his master; on the right side, Dong Yong is resting by the hoe, a beautiful woman with her clothes floating with the wind, dropping from the clouds. This is the seventh fairy Goddess coming from the heaven. Behind them, a Wutong tree (Chinese parasol) is swaying, a willow flicking, clouds floating, streams flowing, flowers blooming on the ground, and deer playing. The sad story of a filial son selling himself as slave turns to be full of poetic flavor. In terms of technique, the blank formed by reducing the outline of the figure and the change of density of lines creates a rich effect, making the scenery complex and delicate, and strengthening the sense of space. The lines are fine and dense. The border pattern, clothing pattern, flowing clouds, trees and stones are combined harmoniously to form a gorgeous decorative effect (Fig. 4.9).

Fig. 4.9 Stone Carving Filial Son Picture Coffin (Stone carving. 62.5 cm in height and 223.5 cm in length. The Late Northern Wei Dynasty. Unearthed from Mangshan tomb complex of the royal family of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Luoyang, Henan Province. Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, USA)

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4.2.3 Articles on Painting The development of art criticism and theories was closely related to the energy demonstrated in the creation of art during this time. The development of Xuanxue and the philosophical dialogues stimulated people to expand their views of life and the world, and open their minds to new ideas and concepts. Xuanxue and character appreciation had a direct impact on literature and art. Gu Kaizhi’s On Painting 《 ( ( 古画品录》) are the 论画》) and Xie He’s Ancient Painters’ Classified Record 《 earliest theoretical monographs in the history of painting in China. Gu and Xie challenged the traditional Confucian point of view, that art in the society must first serve the purpose of morality and instruction. In their new way of thinking about culture and art, the value of poetry and art was not in education or morals. Its value was in the beauty that it conveyed and pleasure it gave. (1) A Narration of Painting Yuntai Mountain 《 ( 画云台山记》), Gu Kaizhi This is a series of notes elaborating on Gu Kaizhi’s thoughts on painting. He clearly put forward the challenges of painting different objects. He observed that special attention should be paid to the “vividness” of figure painting. The emergence of the “Six Principles” (六法) and the pursuit of “Rhythmic Vitality/Rhythmic Movement” 「气韵生动」in painting have for more than a thousand years been directly or indirectly related to his theory. (2) Ancient Painters’ Classified Record 《 ( 古画品录》), Xie He This monograph, written by the Southern Qi painter and art theorist Xie He in the mid-sixth century, is the first theoretical treatise to comment on paintings and artists. In it, he introduced the social function and evaluation standard of painting known as the “Six Principles.” These “Six Principles” (「气韵生动」, 「骨法用笔」, 「应物 象形」, 「随类赋彩」, 「经营位置」, 「传移模写」) are still today considered the key to understanding Chinese art criticism from ancient times onward. Rhythmic Movement 「气韵生动」: The highest criterion of artistic expression is to vividly reflect the character’s mental state and personality. Forceful Brush Stokes 「骨法用笔」: The precise and accurate description of the appearance of the characters and to reflect their characteristics, using the brush to construct the structure. Life-Like Image 「应物象形」: As the basis of the art of painting when describing shape, we should be loyal to the original. Characteristic Coloring 「随类赋彩」: As the basis of painting art, when color is applied, it should be loyal to the object. Careful Arrangement 「经营位置」: Composition, as the foundation of painting art, should be properly arranged when placing elements.

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Imitation and Copying of Models 「传移模写」: In the copying and reproduction of paintings, in order to inherit the good tradition the artist should often imitate ancient masterpieces.8 (3) Two essays on landscape painting – The scholar Zong Bing’s Preface to Landscape Painting 《 ( 山水画序》) written during the Liu Song Dynasty (420–479 AD) was deeply influenced by his study of Xuanxue, Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. Zong Bing believed that mountains and rivers embody “Tao” (道) with their shapes, so through the act of drawing images of mountains and rivers, one can comprehend the essence of Tao. When painting the landscape, the object that you (the artist) are facing should arouse in your inner repercussions and creative passion. This theory fully shows Zong’s aesthetic consciousness (the relationship between the landscape and the artist, e.g., ME). The creation of landscape painting is attributed to “Shensi” 「神思, Spiritual activities」, that is, the artist’s act of imagination is more intrinsic in the painting practice. Undoubtedly, this appreciation of the creation of sentiment and artistic conception is closely related to the later generations’ pursuit of “embodying feelings in scenery” 「寓情于景」 and “feelings mingled with scenery” 「情景交融」. – Wang Wei in his Depiction of Painting 《 ( 叙画》) advocated that painting should reflect the “Eight Trigrams” (八卦), of Taoist cosmology, that represent the fundamental principles of reality. They are seen as a range of eight interrelated concepts, which together are the symbolic mode of all things in the universe. They represent the eight variations of nature: Heaven/Sky; Lake/Marsh; Fire; Thunder; Wind; Water; Mountain and Ground. Therefore, landscape painting should be a symbolic language and the task of painters is to express a general truth beyond the scope of time and space, rather than the natural landscape that is viewed at a specific time through a specific perspective. Painters must pursue the truth underlying the surface.

8 In Michael Sullivan’s The Arts of China, University of California Press, 2018–8, P102, with reference to Arthur Waley, An Introduction to the Study of Chinese Painging, Alexander Soper, “The First Two Laws of Hsieh Ho”, and Shio Sakanishi, The Spirit of the Brush, the “Six Principles” were rendered as: 1. Qiyun shengdong: “Spirit Harmony—Life’s Motion” (Arthur Waley); “animation through spirit consonance” (Alexander Soper); 2. Gufa yongbi: “bone-means use brush” (Waley); “structural method in the use of the brush” (Soper); 3. Yingwu xiangxing: “fidelity to the object in portraying forms” (Soper); 4. Suilei fucai: “conformity to kind in applying colors” (Soper); 5. Jinying weizhi: “properplanning in placing [of elements]” (Soper); 6. Chuanyi muxie: “that by copying, the ancient models should be perpetuated” (Sakanishi).

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4.3 Buddhist Art 4.3.1 Emergence and Development of Buddhism Sakyamuni, the Buddha, (567 BC) also known as Siddhartha Guatama, was a tribal prince of Sakya, a small border country in Nepal. He was expected to assume the throne as king to succeed his father, but as a teenager, he felt that the world was changeable and uncertain, and thought deeply about the way to extricate himself and others from the sufferings of life. At the age of 29 (another version is 19) he left his palace life, gave up his fine garments and jewelry and became a monk in order to find the causes of this human suffering, and the means to overcome it. After years of years of study, self-deprivation, and deep meditation, he became an enlightened one, or Buddha, and began to preach the truth to the public. The core idea that Sakyamuni preached was to overcome the desires and distractions of earthly living (the 4 Maras) and to strive for constructive actions in current life that lead to the three spiritual goals of: rebirths or reincarnations, liberation from want and desire, and finally enlightenment and liberation from Samsara, the cycle of birth, living, death and reincarnation. Buddhism took root in the central Ganges Valley of India, and after the death of Sakyamuni about 485 BC, slowly spread through the Ganges River basin for two hundred years. It was not until the reign of King Asoka (268–232 BC) of the Maurya Dynasty during the third century BC that Buddhism ushered in its first great development. Asoka became a devout follower of Buddhism, and promoted its spread as the state religion of India. As a result, Buddhism was embraced by the population and spread across India. One place which have played a key role for Buddhism development is Gandhara ( ). The ancient kingdom of Gandhara, “Land of Fragrance” (gand = fragrance, hara = land), was located in present day eastern Afghanistan, the Peshawar region of Pakistan and the Kashmir Highlands. The kingdom existed some 1800 years, between the sixth century BC to the eleventh Century AD. Straddling the Indus River valley and the Hindu Kush mountains and Kyber Pass, Gandhara was a place for cultural exchange and fermentation, and was particularly known for a combination of two cultures: Greek and Buddhist. Take Gandhara’s main city Taxila as example: In 326 BC during his invasion of the Indus Valley, Taxila fell Alexander the Great. Greek historians described the city as “wealthy, prosperous, and well governed”.9 The Greeks however were driven out of the Indus Valley by Chandragupta Maurya in later fourth century BC. Under the reign of Asoka, Chandragupta’s grandson, the city of Taxila became an important center of Buddhist teaching and thought. The civilization brought the best monastic university in the world and turned the city into a hub for learning. Between the first century AD and third centuries AD, Gandhara was part of the Kushan Empire (贵霜) that covered much of present day Afghanistan, Pakistan 9

From John Marshall, Taxila: Structural remains—Volume 1. Cambridge University Press, 1951.

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and northwest India, and also western Xinjiang in China. Although not originally Buddhists, the Kushan embraced the religion and became important benefactors, supported its expansion north and east into China, and the development of Buddhist art. During this time the Mahayana school of Buddhism, which emphasized the promotion and dissemination of Buddhism, and advocated that all people could achieve transcendence through faith and spiritual practice, was also established.

4.3.2 Buddhist Art in India 4.3.2.1

The Buddhist art of Gandhara (Greek Buddhist art) (Fig. 4.10)

(1) The emergence of Gandhara Buddhist Art Although Sakyamuni had founded Buddhism in the fifth century BC and sixth century BC, Buddhist art had only begun to emerge in the third century BC during the reign of King Asoka of the Maurya Dynasty. However, during this time, although Buddhism had spread throughout India, and Buddhist temples and pagodas had been built, Buddhist art still reflected the character of early Buddhist art in India. No figures of the Buddha himself has been created, and there were only artistic symbols in the form of the bodhi tree, the pedestal, the Falun (turning wheel) and footprints (symbols of Buddha’s presence on earth and the spiritual path he left to be followed). Statuary of the Buddha did not emerge until much later. The most significant event in the evolution of Buddhist art occurred in the first century AD in Gandhara under the Kushan (the ruler empire of Gandhara area during first–third century AD) empire. The location of Gandhara astride the key trade routes of Central Asia, making it the hub of transportation in East, West, South and North Asia, and a conduit for frequent economic and cultural exchanges with many nations. As early as the fourth century BC, The Greeks under Alexander the Great had reached in the Indus River Basin, bringing Greek culture and art to Gandhara. The kingdom was ruled by Greece and the Hellenized Great Xia (大夏 Bactria) in the second century BC and third century BC. Therefore, Greek culture took roots and greatly influenced life and art in the region. After that, the region was influenced by Buddhism due to the great promotion by the two kings: Asoka of the Maurya Dynasty and the emperor Kaniska of the Kushan empire. And during about first century AD, the depiction of the Buddha himself, in statue form emerged in Gandhara. Early statures reflected a mix of Hellenistic art, Persia art, and also the integration of native central Asian steppe style, and Indian local carving style. (2) Mahayana school of Buddhism The appearance of Buddhist statue and the flourishment of Buddhist art is also related to the rise of the Mahayana school of Buddhism. Sakyamuni himself was against idolatry. In the 500 years after nirvana, his disciples and believers mainly respected his teaching method of pursuing self-liberation,

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Fig. 4.10 The Bodhisattva (Stone sculpture. 2nd–3rd Century AD. Peshawar Museum, Pakistan)

focusing on spiritual practice such as meditation. There was no production of statues depicting the Buddha, and the Buddhist art style was more symbolic than representational. This early form of Buddhism was later called Hinayana Buddhism, and this branch emphasizes self-cultivation and self-liberation. After the first century AD, the Mahayana school of Buddhism rose to prominence. Mahayana is corresponding translation of the Sanskrit “big carriage.” In Buddhism, the carriage is used as a metaphorical vehicle that transports sentient beings to eternal life to extricate from the suffering samsara. The Mahayana school from its origins has been open to a much broader group of people and cultures and so permits more flexibility in interpretation of dogma and the form of practice Buddhists may choose. It also encourages its followers to become bodhisattvas, persons who are dedicated

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to the salvation of all sentient beings. Mahayana Buddhism regards Buddha and Bodhisattva as “the deified superman” or “the personified God”, which is just in line with the “Anthropomorphic theory” of Greek and Roman culture popular in Gandhara area, that is, “God and man are in the same shape”.10 The Kushan era is in the stage of the evolution of Indian Buddhism to Mahayana. So, since first century AD, Gandhara artists began to break the tradition of early Indian Buddhist carving, and directly carved the human figure of Buddha by imitating the Greek and Roman statues, creating the Hellenistic style of Gandhara Buddha. (3) The characteristics of Gandhara Buddhist Art Gandhara Buddha is very similar to the ancient Greek gods. The figure, face shape, hair and clothes of the Buddha all have the characteristics of the Greeks. However, the head of the Buddha has a halo, which shows its sanctity, compassion and solemnity, as well as the Indian Buddhist spirit. It can be said that Gandhara Buddha is an integration of the realistic human body of Hellenistic art and the symbol of Indian Buddhism. The most attractive pieces of Gandhara’s art are the images of Bodhisattvas. In art the Bodhisattvas’ attire and appearance are the perfect embodiment of the national characteristics and artistic techniques of Gandhara at that time. They are not yet separated from the materialistic, pleasure-oriented life, but rather look like the aristocrats from the highest social classes, the flashy princes. Compared with the Buddha who has realized the truth, Bodhisattvas are closer to the secular world and more approachable. Generally, the upper part of the body of Bodhisattvas is naked, the lower part of the body is wearing a skirt, and the feet are decorated with beaded shoes, with whiskers on the lips, long hair on the top of the head, and luxurious beaded decoration and crown ornaments. This is the noble decoration in the Ganges valley.11 (4) The decline of Gandahara Buddhist Art and its influence After the third century AD, Gandhara art declined with the fall of the Kushan Empire, although it gradually migrated to Afghanistan (East) and Central Asia. The Buddhist art in Afghanistan flourished until the sixth century AD, which is the post Gandhara art, namely Bamiyan art (Fig. 4.1112 ). Bamiyan’s art that directly inherited Gandhara’s art, was also influenced by Indian Mathura’s art, and more importantly, completed the localization of Central Asian art. Gandhara art also spreaded to Xinjiang and Gansu by way of the “Silk Road” northwest land route from Central Asia, which had a great impact on the Buddhist 10

Reference from: Wang Y “Preface: Gandhara Art”, Ullah Khan MW (2020.1) Jiantuoluo—Laizi Bajisitan de Fojiao Wenming (Gandhara). China International Communication Center. 11 Reference from: Ullah Khan MW (2020.1) Jiantuoluo—Laizi Bajisitan de Fojiao Wenming (Gandhara). China International Communication Center, p 92. 12 Buddhas of Bamiyan (Eastern Buddha). The two standing Buddha statues were carved in the sixth–seventh century on the cliffs in the Bamiyan Valley in Afghanistan. The one in the west, commonly known as “Western Buddha”, is 53 m high, and the other, the “Eastern Buddha”, is 37 m high. These two Buddha statues were blown up by the Taliban on March 12, 2001.

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Fig. 4.11 Buddhas of Bamiyan (Eastern Buddha) (Stone sculpture. 37 meters high. 6th-7th Century AD. Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan)

art in Northwest China and gradually to the North China. Later, it affected the northern Central Plains from Northwest China. The “Tanyao Five Grottoes Buddha Statues” ) in the early Yungang period of the fifth century AD is the representative ( of this influence.

4.3.2.2

The Buddhist art in Matura (Fig. 4.12)

Matura, located in the south of New Delhi, India, is the eastern capital of the Kushan empire. Prosperous both in economy and religion since ancient time. The art of Mathura was influenced by Gandhara in the northwest, and Buddha statues also appeared in the first century AD. While in the southeast, the Buddhist art was also influenced by the traditional Indian art, which is rich in Indian local style, especially the plump and beautiful human body, the thin and transparent, stick-to-body like clothes with rhythmic line. The statuary of Matura transformed the realistic Greek

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Buddha of Gandhara into the highly decorative Indian Buddha, with the feature of South Asian race. Gandhara and Matura are the two capitals of the Kushan Empire. They had convenient transportation and influenced each other, also developed simultaneously, pushing Indian Buddhist art to a climax. The art of Mathura had a direct impact on the Gupta Dynasty (fourth–sixth century AD) art. Both the Buddha statues of Matura (first–third century AD) and Gupta (fourth–sixth century AD) evolved in the Ganges River basin, and so the styles followed the river trade route eastward down the river to the sea via Calcutta. They were introduced through trade to the southeast coast of China by way of Southeast Fig. 4.12 Standing Buddha (Stone sculpture. 81 cm in height. 2nd Century AD. Matura Museum, India)

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Asia and the southeast sea route. Therefore, the influence of Mathura was stronger in Nanjing, the capital of the Southern Dynasty, and along the coasts of Shandong and Jiangsu.13

4.3.3 The Development of Buddhist Art in China 4.3.3.1

Overview

Gandhara art from Central Asia was introduced into Xinjiang and Gansu, affecting the northern and Central Plains of the mainland. The art of Matura, from the eastern capital of Kushan, went out to sea along the Ganges River, bypassed Southeast Asia, and arrived at Nanjing, the capital of the Six Dynasties, along the southeast sea road, which influenced the Buddha statues in Nanjing and other regions of the Southern Dynasty, and its influence lasted until the Sui and early Tang Dynasty. The rhythm of the line, decorative characteristics, Asian features, etc. characteristic of Matura art had more appeal to southern Chinese of the southern dynasties. It was very much consistent with the pursuit of “Rhythmic Vitality” by literati bureaucrat and very suited to their aesthetic tastes. The four great masters of the Six Dynasties (Cao Buxing, Gu Kaizhi, Lu Tanwei, Zhang Sengyou) were all active in Nanjing. It is believed that they were all influenced by Indian South Asian Buddha statues and had made their contribution for transforming them into a more Sinicized style more in line with the tastes and aesthetic ideals of Chinese literati. The accumulation of traditional culture in the Central Plains of northern China and the culture vitality of southern culture center for the Six Dynasties is strong, and the absorbing and transformation ability of culture and art are also very strong. It soon transformed Indian Buddhist art that arrived in China from the East and the West. Through continuous nationalization and localization, Sinicized Buddha image gradually displaced the exotic features of foreign Buddhist art.

4.3.3.2

Buddhist Grotto Arts

Grotto temples flourished in China from the fourth century onward. Carved usually into sandstone cliffs, they often had wooden or wood imitation structures built in front of the grottoes, and some of the grottoes were integrated to temples. Today, in most cases only the remains of the grottoes are preserved. Spreading from west to east from the fourth century AD to the eighth century AD, Chinese Buddhist grottoes are distributed in the Central Plains, the north, the northwest and the southwest regions of China, as well as in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. There are 13

Reference from: Zhu CS. “Zhiyi ‘Cao Yi Chu Shui’” (Questioning “Cao Yi Chu Shui”). Zhuang Shi magazine website “Classic articles collection”: http://izhsh.com.cn/history/4/2575.html

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Fig. 4.13 Kizil Grottoes

less grottoes in the southern regions of the country, due to different geological and climate conditions. (1) Famous grottoes Kizil Grottoes (Fig. 4.13) The Kizil Grottoes, also known as the “Kizil Caves of the Thousand Buddhas” are among the earliest major Buddhist cave complexes in China. Their creation occurred between the third century AD and eighth centuries AD. They are located in Kuqa, Xinjiang (formerly known as Kucha 龟兹) and consist of some 236 cave temples carved into a cliff. The complex stretches about 2 km from east to west. The surrounding area was a commercial hub of the Silk Road and center of Buddhism at that time. The caves are a significant artifact of Central Asian art, and play important roles in the transmission of Buddhism from India to China in the Silk Road. Of the 236 caves in Kizil Grottoes, more than 70 are well preserved. There are dozens of Jataka Tales paintings within the complex. Jataka is a story of karma in the past life as described by Sakyamuni, and advocates the ascetic practice of bearing humiliation and sacrificing oneself for others. Jataka tales were popular in ancient mural paintings. In Kizil, each story is depicted in a single individual form, and this mural style has a certain influence on the early Dunhuang Cave murals.

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Fig. 4.14 Mogao Grottoes

Mogao Grottoes (Fig. 4.14) The Mogao Grottoes complex is located near Dunhuang, in the westernmost part of the Hexi Corridor in Gansu. The complex consists of almost 500 caves carved out of the sedimentary rock. It is also located along the Silk Road leading to the Xinjiang and Central Asia since ancient times. The cave walls and ceilings are covered with over 47,000 m2 of murals that depict stories of the Buddha, record everyday scenes of life, portraits, Buddhist sutras and ornamental designs. Beginning in 366 AD and continuing through 11 dynasties (the Northern Dynasty, the Sui Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty, the Song Dynasty, the Xixia Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty) the carving of caves and creation of murals continued for 1000 years. The custom of opening grottoes and making statues reached its peak during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD). During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Central Plains was in chaos, and the people lived in misery. Buddhism advocated the idea of reincarnation in the bitter sea, tolerating humiliation in the current world, and striving for Buddhahood after many samsara. Therefore, as with the Kizil Grottoes, Jataka Tales paintings were popular murals in the Mogao Grottoes.

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Fig. 4.15 Bingling Temple and Grottoes

Bingling Temple and Grottoes (Fig. 4.15) Located about 75 km southwest of Lanzhou on the Yellow River in eastern Gansu Province, Bingling Temple is home to nearly 200 caves. Along with the caves the site contains 694 stone statues, 82 clay sculptures, and some 900 square meters of murals. Although smaller and in an isolated area in the mountains off the Silk Road, the quality and richness of the stone carvings at Bingling surpass those in the more well-known Mogao Grottoes. Because the carvings span the Western Jin, Northern Wei, and Northern Zhou to the Sui, through the Tang, Song and Yuan Dynasties, the evolution of styles of Buddhist sculpture and painting is very evident in the Bingling Grottoes. The peak of carving was during the Tang Dynasty, when about 2/3 of the caves were created. Maijishan Grottoes (Fig. 4.16) The Maijishan Grottoes, southeast of Tianshui, Gansu province, are carved into the oddly shaped peak of Maijishan mountain. The mountain’s shape has a strong resemblance to pile sheaves of wheat (Maiji 麦积), hence its name. More than 220 caves are carved into the cliffs that form the mountain peak. Maijishan is known for some 10,632 clay sculptures and more than 1300 square meters of mural paintings. The grottoes at Maijishan mountain were first built around 380 AD, with the development continuing into the Tang Dynasty. Because the mountain is relatively remote and the caves were carved out of a high steep cliff toward the top of the mountain, the site has not experienced the degree of destruction that many ancient sites have experienced. It is thus one of the best-preserved examples of Buddhist cave art.

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Fig. 4.16 Maijishan Grottoes

Yungang Grottoes (Fig. 4.17)

Fig. 4.17 Yungang Grottoes

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Begun in 460 AD and consisting of 252 caves and niches covering 18,000 m2 and containing 51,000 statues, the Yungang Grottoes represent an outstanding achievement of Buddhist cave art in China. The famous “Tanyao Five Grottoes” were excavated during the Northern Wei Dynasty, under the direction of Emperor Xiaowen, who advocated for Sinicization of art and culture. The cave art of the Yungang Grottoes represents a successful combination of Buddhist religious symbolic art from Central Asia with the style of the Southern Dynasty that has produced a distinctive Chinese character and flavor. In the sixth century AD, the Buddha statues became more and more southern dynasties style, more elegant, with the mysterious smile. Longmen Grottoes (Fig. 4.18)

Fig. 4.18 Longmen Grottoes

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The Longmen Grottoes, located south of the ancient capital of Luoyang were begun in 494 AD under the Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave carving and statuary carving continued into the Tang Dynasty, with the most intense period of production lasting until the mid-eighth century AD. The grottoes extend over a 1 km stretch of limestone cliffs along the Yi River. It is comprised of over 2300 caves and niches that house almost 110,000 Buddhist stone statues. In addition, there are more than 60 stupas and some 2800 inscriptions carved on steles within the complex. The three chambers of the “Binyang Caves” (宾阳洞) are among the most famous of the grottoes at Longmen in the Northern Wei Dynasty. The central cave is believed to have been commissioned by the Northern Wei Emperor Xuanwu in honor of his father, and carved at the end of the fifth century. The cave contains detailed reliefs and a statue of Buddha seated on a “lion throne”. This carving can reflect the change of statue style after the Northern Wei Dynasty moved the political center from Pingcheng in north to Luoyang in south. The sculptural styles discovered in the Longmen Grottoes caves are considered to be the most representative examples of cave temples art in China, and the two sculptural art styles reflected in the statues and murals at Longmen, the “Central China Style” and the “Great Tang Style” that evolved later, greatly influenced art within China, and also influenced sculptural style in other Asian countries. (2) Buddhist statues This statue is of a Maitreya Buddha, a type of holy person, a bodhisattva who will appear on earth sometime in the future, achieve complete enlightenment, and become a Buddha like Sakyamuni himself. It is located in one of the earliest caves in the Mogao Grottoes. The shape and color of this Buddha statue are rough and simple, with halo around head, a crown on the top, naked upper body, a skirt on the bottom, triangular wings beside the seat, and a pair of lions. The style of Cross legged Maitreya statue has distinct characteristics of the Northern Liang Dynasty period (397–439 AD) (Fig. 4.19). Yungang Grottoes are located at the south foot of Wuzhou mountain, 16 km west of Datong City. There are 53 grottoes in Yungang Grottoes. It is one of the three largest Grottoes in China and a world-famous art treasure. It was built in the period when Pingcheng (present day Datong, Shanxi Province) was the capital of the Northern Wei Dynasty (398–494 AD). Most of the caves were excavated before Emperor Xiaowen of Wei moved his capital to Luoyang. The so-called “Tanyao Five Grottoes” (Cave 16–20) are located at the western end of the cliff face. They are the early grottoes that the emperor ordered the eminent monk Tan Yao to preside over. These grottoes are domed. Each of the five is carved to house a very large Buddha statue, each of which also symbolizes one of the five emperors in Northern Wei. Therefore, their faces are similar to those of the Tuoba Xianbei people. This Buddha, sitting on his knees, is a symbol of the founder of Northern Wei Dynasty, Tuoba Gui. The statue is 14 m high. During an earthquake the cave roof collapsed, exposing the statue to the open air. Therefore, this Buddha is the most prominent open-air Buddha in Yungang. It has a plump face, two long ears touching shoulders, two eyes with spirit,

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Fig. 4.19 Cross Legged Maitreya (Painted sculpture. 334 cm in height. The Northern Liang in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period. Cave 275, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

back halo light was carved in round shape with relief and flying Apsaras decorated. The carving is exquisite, which fully reflects the vigorous and firm style of Yungang Grottoes (Fig. 4.20). The cave is 11.1 m in depth and 9.3 m in height. On the main wall of the cave, an 8.42-m-high Buddha sitting in the center with two Arhats and two Bodhisattvas standing beside. The Buddha features plump face and heavy crown clothes. On the left and right walls, there are standing statues of one Buddha and two Bodhisattvas on each side, with gorgeous relief backlight behind them. The top of the cave is in the shape of a dome, with double petals of big lotus carved in the center. The walls and the ground are also decorated with rich patterns. The Binyang cave is notable not only because of its scale, but also because of its rich content, complete and unified layout, and exquisite carvings. It can be considered the most outstanding works of the late Northern Wei Dynasty period (386–534 AD) in the Longmen Grottoes (Fig. 4.21). The majority of the painted sculptures of Maijishan Grottoes still retain their original appearance dating back to the Northern Dynasty period. Maijishan Grottoes can be regarded as the most important treasure of colored sculptures in China.

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Fig. 4.20 Seated Buddha (Stone sculpture. 1440 cm in height. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 20, Yungang Grottoes, Datong, Shanxi Province)

Except for a few works before the Northern Wei Dynasty which have kept the characteristics of the Gandhara style, the statues are of the styles that emerged after the implementation of the policy of Sinicization of emperor Xiaowen: the characters are beautiful and elegant, with thin faces, tall bodies, and slightly upturned mouths with a kind and mysterious smile, calm and quiet facial expressions, and are clothed in soft loose clothing. This so-called “Elegant Slender” 「秀骨清像」 style is based on the image, life and aesthetic standards of the Scholar-bureaucrats in the Wei, Jin and Southern Dynasty. The technique is realistic and delicate (Fig. 4.22). This is one of Maijishan’s representative works of the Northern Wei Dynasty. The painted Bodhisattva is 123 cm high, the disciple is 122 cm high. The statue reflects the typical style of the times. The Bodhisattva has a slender figure and a pretty face, which makes him amiable and gentle. The disciple’s head tilted slightly toward the Bodhisattva, his eyes seemed half open, his hands folded in front of his chest, showing the expression of listening attentively and meditating. The ingenious combination of the two adds a flavor of human feeling and delight of life to the original pure religious theme (Fig. 4.23). This painted sculpture in Maijishan Grottoes is 114 cm high. It is of a young ethnic Han man standing and dressed in Hu (western minority) clothing. He has a plump

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Fig. 4.21 Binyang (Central) Cave (Binyang Cave. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang, Henan Province)

face, handsome appearance, proportional body, looks naive and bright, simple and honest (Fig. 4.24).

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Fig. 4.22 The Bodhisattva (Painted sculpture. 122 cm in height. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 127, Maijishan Grottoes, Tianshui, Gansu Province)

Fig. 4.23 Bodhisattva and Disciple (Painted sculpture. Bodhisattva 123 cm in height, disciple 122 cm in height. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 121, Maijishan grottoes, Tianshui, Gansu Province)

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Fig. 4.24 Attendant (Painted sculpture. 114 cm in height. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 123, Maijishan Grottoes, Tianshui, Gansu Province)

These Buddhist statues in Longxing Temple were discovered in 1996 in Qingzhou, Shandong province. A big amount of fragments of Buddha statues were found in a pit about 9 m from east to west, 7 m from north to south and 3.5 m from the surface. They include some 144 Buddha heads, 46 Bodhisattva heads, 36 broken heads, 10 other heads, and more than 200 damaged statues, most of which are carved of limestone. The periods represented by this collection includes the Northern Wei Dynasty, the Eastern Wei Dynasty, the Northern Qi Dynasty, the Sui Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty and the Northern Song Dynasty. The causes of destruction and burial are still under study, but the cache may have been buried during the reign of the emperor Huizong of the Northern Song Dynasty, and adherent to Taoism and anti-Buddhist, or in the early Jin Dynasty. These statues have superb carving techniques, smooth lines, delicate facial depictions, well preserved gold and color paintings, rich and colorful art forms. It is a precious treasure of Buddhist sculpture, and represents Buddhist art of Shandong (Fig. 4.25).

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Fig. 4.25 Bodhisattva (Stone sculpture. 136 cm in height. The Northern Qi Dynasty. Unearthed from Longxing Temple, Qingzhou, Shandong Province. Qingzhou Museum)

(3) Grotto murals The grotto murals of Kizil Grottoes and Mogao Grottoes are the most famous. Jataka tales are a major subject of the many murals in the period of the Six Dynasties. They are stories that are part of sacred Buddhist literature, that teach how to live a moral life through stories about the different incarnations of Sakyamuni, sometimes as a person, sometimes as an animal or other creatures, as he progressed toward enlightenment and became the Buddha. In the Kizil Grottos the Jataka tales are often painted on a diamond square on the domed ceiling: this is the most characteristic art style of the ethnic groups in the western regions of China. Each grid is painted with strong colors such as blue, green and earth red. In the middle of each grid is a Jataka tale in the form of a single painting. The grid is decorated with patterns. The story is also interspersed with the content of grazing and hunting of grassland

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Fig. 4.26 Rabbit King Jataka Tale (Grotto mural. The Northern Dynasty. Cave 14, Kizil Grottoes, Xinjiang Autonomous Region)

people, and sometime there are even pictures of the romantic and imaginative plot of love between man and God. The mural on the right rhombus depicts the story of the Rabbit King. In the story, an ascetic devotes himself to the life of solitude, meditation and fasting, and forgetting to eat and sleep, he finds himself on the verge of starvation. Knowing this story, the Rabbit King jumped into the fire to cook himself to feed the ascetic. The absurd plot is full of Buddhist sermons of self-sacrifice to do good. Rough lines, flat color, it is a typical “Kucha Style” of mural painting. The bearded image of the ascetic is a vivid portrayal of the indigenous people of the region (Fig. 4.26). This Jataka tale comes from the nine-color deer Sutra and dates to the Northern Wei Dynasty. In the story, a drowning man was rescued by the nine-color deer, and the drowning man was grateful and vowed not to reveal the deer’s whereabouts to others. Soon however, the queen dreamed of the beautiful nine-color deer, and wanted to take its skin for a bed cover, and urged the king to order its capture. The king offered a great reward to anybody who told where the deer lived. Out of greed, the man whose life was saved by the deer broke his vow and guided the king and his army to the deer. In front of the king, the nine-color deer confronted the man he had saved for being ungrateful and breaking his vow of secrecy. The king felt regret, and let the nine-color deer go free. The dishonest man received his punishment by dying from sores that appeared all over his body. In the center of the picture, the nine colors deer, the king and the drowning man confront each other face to face, forming a climax, and the retribution of good and evil is fully reflected. The painting is in the form of horizontal scroll, and the characters are arranged horizontally, the landscape is interspersed around the painting. The dynamic and vivid depiction of the characters is excellent, such as the head of the deer king, which is positioned upright to show dignity, while the drowning man is mean with wretched appearance. And the landscape is still in a state of naivety. The strong contrast between the earth red and the green created gorgeous effect, well reflecting the atmosphere of this beautiful legend. The face,

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Fig. 4.27 The Deer King Jataka Tale (Grotto mural. 96 cm in height and 385 cm in width. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 257, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

body and limbs of the characters have a concave convex three-dimensional effect, with obvious imported influence at the beginning of the introduction of Buddhism in China (Fig. 4.27). In a former life as the Bodhisattva Sarina, Sakyamuni traveled with his two brothers. On the way, he saw a mother tiger and seven young tigers dying of hunger. He took pity on the animals, and decided to feed the tiger and her cubs with himself. Then, he stabbed his chest with sharp objects, jumped down the cliff and lay in the group of tigers, allowing them to eat meat and lick blood. Just in a moment, only bones and blood are left on the ground. His two brothers hurried back to tell their parents. When they came back, they caressed the corpse and cried, and later built a pagoda to bury it. This is the famous story of “Giving up the Body to Feed the Tiger” 「舍身饲虎」. The author skillfully organized the story plots in a square picture, the protagonist appears repeatedly, and the composition is complex and compact. The works do not describe the expression of extreme pain when Sarina was mauled by the tiger, but rather intend to depict his peace and serenity. This not only shows the noble spirit of heroic sacrifice to do a good deed, but also preaches Buddhism’s idea of the good life in next reincarnation in exchange for the suffering of this life. The picture is dark brown as the base, and the gray, black, white, green and other colors constitute a cool tone, making the grim scene more attractive and powerful. The contents are extremely gloomy and intense, reflecting the current situation of frequent wars and precarious life of the people of the time (Fig. 4.28). Cave 275 is one of the earliest carved grottoes in existence in China, dating from the Sixteen Kingdoms period. The mural depicted the Jataka tale that recounts another incarnation of Buddha. In ancient times, there was a king, Shibi, who was merciful. When Śakro devānām indrah (帝释天) heard of his good name, he and his companion turned into an eagle and a pigeon to test him. The pigeon was chased by the eagle and fled to the king’s side. In order to save the pigeon’s life, Shibi the king cut off his flesh and offered it to the eagle in exchange for the life of the pigeon. However, once Shiba weighed the meat, he saw that it was not as heavy as the pigeon, so at

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Fig. 4.28 The Prince Sarina Jataka Tale (Grotto mural. 165 cm in height and 172 cm in width. The Northern Wei Dynasty. Cave 254, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

the end he sat down on the scale to exchange for the pigeon and swore to become a Buddha. At this time, the earth shook, the eagle and pigeon disappeared, and the king recovered as he was before. The mural shows the main plots of the King Shibi Jataka, such as cutting the flesh and lifting to weigh the body. King Shibi has a manner of self-confidence. The base color of the whole mural is earth red together with stone green, black, white and other colors, to create a strong color effect. The human body is depicted with the “Halo Dyeing” method to enrich the sense of volume. Due to the age of the mural, some colors are oxidized into thick black lines, which create in the mural artwork a more rough and strong feeling (Fig. 4.29). This mural, dating from the Northern Wei Dynasty, represents a common theme in Dunhuang murals. The general form is Sakyamuni sitting or standing in the middle, with Bodhisattvas and disciples painted on both sides and flying Apsaras above. In this case the statue is one of a standing Buddha. The Buddha stands on the lotus seat with one foot and stretches forward slightly with the other foot. This is based on the posture of Sakyamuni on parade. Both hands make a “seal of fearlessness” (施 无畏印) and a “seal of wish” (施愿印), which shows Buddha’s great compassion for all living beings and his determination to give them their wishes. The Buddha is dressed in a skirt, with a cape on the left side, a head halo light and a back halo light on the back, a flame pattern on the outside of the back light and a canopy on the top. The composition of the picture is basically symmetrical, with two Bodhisattvas on the left and right at the bottom, dynamic and graceful. There are two groups of flying Apsaras on the top, one group in white with black belts, one group of red with blue belts, and the curve of the skirt ribbon is strong and unrestrained, which

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Fig. 4.29 King Shibi Jataka Tale (Grotto mural. 80 cm in height and 125 cm in width. The Northern Liang in the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Cave 275, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

makes the picture rich in contrasts and full of vitality. The shape is vigorous, full of strength, with distinct concave and convex color, and the line drawing is free and smooth, showing the early form of Buddhist painting blending the East and the West (Fig. 4.30). This is a mural painted on one of the four slopes of the ceiling of Cave 249, that dates from the Western Wei Dynasty. With smooth and unrestrained lines, harmonious and beautiful colors, the figures and beasts on the picture are full of movement, which gives a sense of excitement. Some parts of the picture are not finished, the draft of ochre red line can be seen, which revealed the steps and methods of ancient painting (Fig. 4.31). This is one of the most magnificent and outstanding caves in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes, dating from the Western Wei Dynasty. The cave is square in shape, with a ceiling in the shape of an inverted funnel. There are eight meditation grottoes, four on each side, and three niches on the front. The Buddha statue is in the main niche, and is flanked by Bodhisattvas on both sides. The south wall is painted with stories of “500 Robbers Becoming Buddhas”, the north wall is painted with portraits of supporting people, and the top of the four slopes is painted with caisson and heaven. The whole cave is painted with warm ochre yellow and light background color, and

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Fig. 4.30 Dharma Preaching Mural (Grotto mural. The Western Wei Dynasty. Cave 249, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

on it are painted with gods, Buddhas, human beings, animals and patterns in light green and purple red, forming a magnificent and wonderful art palace (Fig. 4.32). This is a Buddhist sermon to persuade people to turn from evil to good. According to the tale, in the past, 500 robbers were captured by officers, and were punished by having their eyes dug out. They were then exiled to the mountains, where they wondered aimlessly and cried bitterly over their fate. The Buddha blew medicine into the eyes of the robbers and with his magic power, their eyes suddenly became clear and they could see again. The robbers repented for their evil deeds and turned from their evil life, converted to Buddhism and lived good lives. The main plot of the story is arranged on the whole wall from left to right. The panoramic composition with the nature of comic strip is adopted. On the light ochre background, there are stone green and other colors, and the picture is bright (Fig. 4.33). This mural represents the image of the Tung Wang Kung sitting in a four Dragon driving carriage painted on the Ceiling of Cave 296. Next to him is the Hsi Wang Mu (西王母 Queen Mother of the West) in a three Phoenix driving car. The two gods have guides in front of them and followers behind them. The procession is vast and powerful. Both the East King and the West Queen are mythical images in Chinese

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Fig. 4.31 Hunting Picture (Grotto mural. 232 cm in height and 570 cm in width. The Western Wei Dynasty. Cave 249, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

folklore. They entered the Buddhist grottoes through the hands of painters, from which we can see the integration of Chinese and foreign cultures (Fig. 4.34). There are many paintings of this theme in Dunhuang. This one, made in Northern Zhou Dynasty (557–581 AD), is different to the panoramic painting mentioned above. This painting is in the form of three-layer continuous painting. From the right of the upper layer, three princes made farewell to the king and went travelling, shooting and hunting in the forest. From the left of the middle level, three princes were hunting in the mountains. They saw hungry tigers, and Sarina fed himself to tigers. From the right of the lower level, the two brothers were grieved when they saw the remains. They galloped to return to the palace to report to the king, then they collected the remains together, and set up the pagoda for burial. This form is often used in traditional Chinese painting. The three layers are naturally separated by rocks, and in horizontal position; all plots are also connected with the rocks in the picture to form a wavy line through the whole picture, with a sense of undulation and unification (Fig. 4.35). The mural style of Mogao Grottoes at the time of the North Zhou Dynasty not only inherits the excellent national tradition of the Han and Wei Dynasties, but also has the artistic style of India and western regions. The figure painting method is “Halo Dyeing”, with strong three-dimensional muscle sense, high light on face and limb,

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Fig. 4.32 Cave 285, Mogao Grottoes (Cave 285. The Western Wei Dynasty. Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

strong shape, thick color and strong style. The wall is painted on the stone green ground to express the blue sky (Fig. 4.36). Although the time of the Northern Zhou Dynasty was short, its economy and culture were well developed, and its Buddhist art was in the ascendant. At the Maijishan Grottoes there are murals from the Northern Zhou Dynasty period. They reflect a gradual change in figure modeling from the “Elegant and Slender” style during the Northern Wei Dynasty, to more rounded and plumper. The new painting techniques reflect the blending of regional styles of painting into a national style, with more delicate techniques, more changes in composition, and more natural and real scenery. In short, the period after the Wei and Jin was an important period for the evolution of Buddhist art, promoting the rise of the new styles of the Sui and Tang Dynasties, and the development of a national style of Buddhist art in China (Fig. 4.37).

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Fig. 4.33 Story of Five Hundred Robbers Become Buddhas (Grotto mural. The Western Wei Dynasty. Cave 285, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

4.4 Ceramic (1) The early development of porcelain in China By 1700 BC, during the Shang Dynasty (ca. 1760–1122 BC), Chinese craftsmen had mastered the production of bronze through the smelting of copper and tin. This was not only an advancement in material sciences, but also in the organization of society: agriculture in China had also advanced to the point where there was surplus production of food which in turn freed others to engage in production: mining and smelting bronze, and manipulating the metal into a vast array of forms and uses. It also permitted the rise of other crafts and pursuits, such as weaving, pottery, construction, trade and commerce. The importance of bronze and the crafting of the metal reached its peak during the late Shang Dynasty, but maintained its importance through the Zhou Dynasty, the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods. From the Warring States Period to the Han Dynasty, however, dominance of bronze and bronzebased craftsmanship was coming to an end. Among other materials and technologies, the lacquerware craft rose. By the Three Kingdoms Period, the Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, China’s technology had entered the era of porcelain. Primitive porcelain appeared in China during the Shang Dynasty. By the late Han Dynasty, its

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Fig. 4.34 Tung Wang Kung (东王公 the King of the East, God of the Immortals) Mural (Grotto mural. 125 cm in height and 200 cm in width. The Western Wei Dynasty. Cave 296, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

manufacturing technology was close to mature stage. By the Six Dynasties, porcelain products had become prevalent in the lives of the Chinese. As a household material, porcelain exhibits many practical advantages, such as: strength, durability, smooth clean surfaces, washability, and resistance to acidic and alkaline for foods stored in porcelain containers. It also has high aesthetic quality, such as delicate and smooth surfaces translucence, and elegant jade-like color and texture. The earliest type of porcelain was celadon porcelain. Archeological studies proved that the emergence of mature celadon was closely related to the improvement of the ‘Dragon Kiln’ technology in which celadon wares were produced. The advantage of this Dragon Kiln technology was its capacity to generate the much higher temperatures necessary during firing, and the ability of operators to increase and decrease kiln temperatures rapidly. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the center of celadon porcelain production was the Shangyu area of Zhejiang. The dragon kilns of Shangyu could reach a maturing temperature of over 1200 °C. This produced a light green color glaze free from cracks. The thinner parts of the porcelain pieces featured a translucent character as well. The coloring of porcelain is due to the composition of glaze and the firing

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Fig. 4.35 The Prince Sarina Jataka Tale (Grotto mural. 190 cm in height and 420 cm in width. The Northern Zhou Dynasty. Cave 428, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

temperatures within the kiln. If the glaze contains iron oxide, it will be yellow in the oxidation flame and cyan in the reduction flame. In the Six Dynasties, two systems of production in the north and the south have been basically formed. Zhejiang was still the major center for producing celadon porcelain. Although there are less kiln sites of the Northern Dynasty discovered, the increasing numbers of celadons unearthed from the tombs of the Northern Dynasty in recent archaeological excavations showed the porcelain craft from the north also has reached a high level.

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Fig. 4.36 Flying Apsaras (Grotto mural. 30 cm in height and 255 cm in width. The Northern Zhou Dynasty. Cave 290, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

(2) The characteristics of celadon in the Six Dynasties – The Shape The most representative styles in ceramic in the Six Dynasties are the chickenheaded pot in the south, and the lotus pot in the north. The distinguishing feature of the chicken-headed pot style is a pouring spout in the form of a chicken head. The pouring spout/head is located on one side of the shoulder, and a handle is placed on the other side. This style also features other animals, such as a sheep’s head, tiger’s head or ox’s head, but those styles are rare. The height of this style of pot later evolved into a taller, thinner and longer shape. The lotus pot style is the most aesthetically valuable celadon porcelain style from the Six Dynasties period. The upper and lower petals of the lotus are used as the primary decorative motif. Also known as the “upside-down lotus pot”. The lotus style pots exhibited the popularity of Buddhism in northern China. – The Patterns The most characteristic design motifs of the times were “lotus pattern” and “honeysuckle pattern”.

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Fig. 4.37 Dharma Preaching Painting (Grotto mural. The Northern Zhou Dynasty. Cave 26, Maijishan Grottoes, Tianshui, Gansu Province)

From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Northern Wei Dynasty, it was popular to use lotus pattern as decoration, which, together with the Buddhist religion, reached its peak at this time. In addition to porcelain, the lotus pattern was also widely used in other crafts such as bronze, gold and silver crafts, brick and stone, stone carving, caisson, etc. Variations in the designs of the lotus pattern did exist.14 14

In fact, the use of the lotus motif in decoration in China has a long history, one of the early examples is the “Lotus-Crane Square Bronze Pot” from the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods.

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The Honeysuckle pattern, commonly known as rolled grass, is thought by some to represent the change of honeysuckle branches and leaves. Others believe it is the evolution of lotus leaves. The pattern of the Honeysuckle motif in the Six Dynasties period was thin and stylized. It also has many variations of the style. The “lotus pattern” and “honeysuckle pattern” motifs were not only used on ceramic, it also appeared in other crafts, like metal ware, brick, stone carving, column foundation, etc. The popularity of the “lotus pattern” and “honeysuckle pattern” motifs in the Six Dynasties indicates the transition of craft decoration from animal patterns to plant patterns. It also indicates the expansion of people’s aesthetic vision at that time. Public values gradually evolved beyond the confine of religious significance and superstition, and instead turned to natural world: flowers and plants became objects of appreciation. People began to appreciate the pure beauty of natural flowers and plants, so as to create a fresh and natural aesthetic trend. This kind of utensil is tall and unique in the Northern and Southern Dynasties. It is obviously influenced by Buddhist art. It is decorated with multi-layer overlapping upside-down lotus petals and complicated ribbon pattern. The neck and shoulders are decorated with flying Apsaras, Baoxiang flower pattern and other patterns. It is an important representative work in the history of China’s ceramics (Fig. 4.38). This granary is a type of funerary ware which is often unearthed in the tombs of the Three Kingdoms Period and the Western Jin Dynasty. The body is made of two cans, and there are many kinds of ornaments on it. On the upper front, there are three tiers of building structures, and animals on the top and bottom. There are dancers sitting on the ground on the other three sides. At the top, there are four jars full of birds with flapping wings. There are dogs, deer, turtles, fish, animals and people holding spears to stab pigs on the bottom jar. There are also auspicious words engraved, including the words “Yong’an three years” (永安三年时, 260 AD) used to record the year. It has a green glaze, and expresses the theme of the prosperity of the person buried in the tomb. The design is ingenious, the manufacture is fine, and the absolute age can be tested. It is extremely precious (Fig. 4.39).

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Fig. 4.38 Large Lotus Celadon Pot (Celadon. 63.6 cm in height, 19.4 cm in diameter of caliber and 20.2 cm in diameter of bottom. The Northern Qi Dynasty. Unearthed from the tombs of the Northern Dynasty, Jing County, Hebei Province. National Museum of China)

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Fig. 4.39 Green-Glazed Porcelain Granary (Glazed porcelain. 46.4 cm in height, 11.3 cm in diameter of caliber and 13.5 cm in diameter of bottom. The Kingdom of Wu of the Three Kingdoms Period. Unearthed from the tomb of the Three Kingdoms, Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province. The Palace Museum)

Chapter 5

Arts of the Sui and Tang Dynasties

5.1 Overview China was unified in the Sui and Tang Dynasties after 300 years of division and fragmentation in the Northern and Southern Dynasties. The Sui Dynasty lasted from 581 to 618 AD, with its capital seated in Daxing (present-day Xi’an). Although it was a short period, social production developed greatly in the Sui Dynasty after the unification of the country. Emperor Yang dug the Grand Canal which connected the north and the south, laying the foundation for the economic and cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty lasted from 618 to 907 AD, with its capital seated in Chang’an (present-day Xi’an) and for some time in Luoyang. In its history of about 300 years, Tang Dynasty experienced two highly developed periods: the Zhenguan period and the Kaiyuan period. For over 100 years from the early Tang Dynasty, the economy and culture developed strongly. The Tang Dynasty can be divided into four periods: the Early Tang (under the reign of Li Yuan, or Emperor Gaozu, and Li Shimin, or Emperor Taizong); the High Tang (under the reign of Emperor GaoZong, Empress Wu Zetian, and Emperor Xuanzong before the An Lushan Rebellion in the middle of the eighth century AD which was a turning point towards decline); the Middle Tang; and the Late Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was an era of frequent economic and cultural exchanges with foreign countries, and a dynasty of inclusiveness and openness to different cultures. It not only had close ties with neighboring countries such as Japan, Korea, and India, but also had connections with countries in Central Asia, Western Asia, and Europe. Chang’an was not only the political and cultural center of China, but also an international business and cultural center. Yangzhou was another hub city. When the An Lushan Rebellion occurred, the Central Plains dynasty was weakened and unable to effectively control the Western Regions, and the land-borne Silk Road was interrupted. But at the same time, sea transportation and trade began to flourish,

© Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 T. Chen, Illustrated History of Chinese Art, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8_5

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Guangzhou and ports in southern China became the main windows to the outside world. The Tang Dynasty was an era full of curiosity and tolerance for religion. All religions coexisted in peace, including Buddhism, Zoroastrianism (Mazdayasna), Manichaeism, Nestorianism, and Islamism. Emperor Taizong personally favored Taoism; however, in order to facilitate governance and strengthen the administration system, he supported Confucianism, and in order to address popular interests, he also helped promote Buddhism. Arts of the Tang Dynasty reveal vitality, naturalism, optimism, self-confidence, and dignity (unlike religious mysticism and mystical nihilism expressed in the art of the previous Six Dynasties). The style is mostly fresh and lively, and characters are rich and plump. This style can be seen in various art categories such as paintings, sculptures, crafts, and decorations in the Tang Dynasty.

5.2 Painting Although the Sui Dynasty did not last long, paintings during this period show signs to pay closer attention to real life than the Northern and Southern Dynasties. The Tang Dynasty was a period when Chinese painting highly matured. Portraits and paintings to show the social activities of the royal aristocracy were in high demand, Buddhist mural paintings were also popular, which led to the boom of figure paintings (especially paintings of ladies), royal art, and temple frescoes. Although these works mainly depict the lives of the royal family and aristocrats, they have a wide range of themes and shown a strong compositional ability. Their grandeur reflects the social and cultural prosperity of the Tang Dynasty.

5.2.1 Figure Paintings 5.2.1.1

Famous Painters and Their Works

The Tang Dynasty is the heyday of Fine-brush and Heavy-color figure painting. There are very few scroll works left over by famous painters of this period and many of them were copies by the later generations, but tomb murals and temple frescoes discovered through archaeological excavations have shown the style of paintings during the Early and High Tang periods, especially figure painting. Yan Liben (601–673 AD), a painter in the early Tang Dynasty, was once a Prime Minister. He was a highly valued court painter, most famous for his historical paintings and portraits with political implications.

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This is an outstanding historical painting, which truthfully records the history of friendly ties between the Han and Tibetan people over a thousand years ago. During the Zhenguan years, Emperor Taizong married his daughter Princess Wencheng to Songtsen Gampo, the ruler of Tibet. The picture shows the scene where the Tibetan envoy Lon Tongtsen went to Chang’an to pick up Princess Wencheng and was received by Emperor Taizong. On the right, Emperor Taizong sits on a sedan surrounded by nine maids of whom one holds the canopy, two hold fans, and the rest lift the sedan. On the left are three people: the person in front is a protocol officer, the last person is an attendant or interpreter, and the middle one who is thin and wears ethnic clothing and holds the emperor in awe is Lon Tongtsen. The emperor looks composed, peaceful, confident, and cordial. After all, he is the monarch of a great nation. Lon Tongtsen is shrewd, wise, respectful but not humble. They all behave just right, showing the painter’s profound understanding of both politics and painting. The serious and solemn ceremony becomes lively due to the graceful posture of the maids. It faithfully depicts one of the most important historical events more than 1,000 years ago. At the same time, the successful depiction of characters in image and personality represents the achievements of portrait painting at that time. The

Fig. 5.1 Emperor Taizong Receiving the Tibetan Envoy (A copy of the Song Dynasty1 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 38.5 cm in height and 129 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Yan Liben. The Palace Museum) 1

Xue YN and Luo SP (ed.), Compiled by Chinese Art History Teaching and Research Section in Central Academy of Fine Arts (2010.6) Zhongguo Meishu Jianshi (A Brief History of Chinese Art). China Youth Publishing Group, p 106. Po SN (2013.9) Zhongguo Huihuashi [Zhencangban] (A History of Chinese Painting [Limited Edition]). Shanghai People’s Fine Arts Publishing House, p 134. Some scholars such as Ding Xiyuan also hold different opinions and believe that this painting is the authentic work of Yan Liben: Ding XY (2013) “Zailun ‘Bunian Tu’ wei Yan Liben Zhenji” (Further discussion on whether “Bunian Tu” is the authentic work of Yan Liben). Palace Museum J 168.

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vigorous lines are deeply colored, and the movement of characters are restrained while their facial features are emphasized (Fig. 5.1). This painting depicts 13 emperors from Emperor Zhao of the Western Han Dynasty to Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty. Each section focuses on characters, without much reference to the plot or background. They reveal the personal traits, even including the mentality, temperament, and personality of each emperor. Among them, the image of Emperor Wu of Jin (Sima Yan) is particularly successful. He has a square face, big ears, sharp eyes, deep eyebrows, and closed lips. He also has a great stature, showing exuberant spirit and the majesty of a talented monarch. However, Chen Shubao, the last emperor of the fallen Dynasty of Chen, was treated with frivolity and disdain. Others, such as the mediation of Liu Bei, the ruler of the Kingdom of Shu, the grievances of Sun Quan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Wu, the aggressiveness of Cao Pi, the ruler of the Kingdom of Wei, and the absurdity and tyranny of Yang Fig. 5.2 The Thirteen Emperors (A copy made before the Song Dynasty2 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 51.3 cm in height and 531 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Yan Liben. Museum of Fine Arts Boston, USA)

2

There’s another opinion which believes that this painting was painted by Lang Yuling of the Early Tang Dynasty. Reference from: Xue YN and Luo SP (ed.), Compiled by Chinese Art History Teaching and Research Section in Central Academy of Fine Arts (2010.6) Zhongguo Meishu Jianshi (A Brief History of Chinese Art). China Youth Publishing Group, pp 106–107.

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Guang, Emperor Yang of Sui, have all been fully and vividly demonstrated. As can be seen from this, figure painting reached a new height in the early Tang Dynasty. The brushwork is rigid and powerful, with “iron wire strokes” (铁线描). The face and clothes are smudged, and the colors are calm and steady (Fig. 5.2). Yuchi Yiseng (year of birth and death unknown, active in 7−8th Century AD) was a Khotan3 painter living at about the same time as Yan Liben. He was good at drawing Buddha statues and foreign figures using Halo Dyeing technique to create a threedimensional effect, an exotic style. He had played a great role in the absorption of Western painting styles in the Tang Dynasty. Wu Daozi (ca. 685–758 AD), also known as Daoxuan, was a native of Yu County, Henan Province. He was good at painting Taoist and Buddhist figures and depicting them with lines. He is one of the most famous painters in ancient China, and was hailed as a “sage of Chinese painting”. The achievement in painting was first manifested in religious paintings. According to records, he had painted over 300 mural paintings in Luoyang and Chang’an, but none of them have been preserved so far (the anonymous “Vimalakirti” in the eighth century AD found in Cave 103 of the Mogao Grottoes reflects Wu Daozi’s painting style at the time). He paid attention to the unity of picture and atmosphere. His characters are dynamic, which had a profound influence on the paintings of future generations. His style was called “Wu Dai Dang Feng”「吴带 当风」, which means “clothes in his paintings are like flying”, which is contrary to “Cao Yi Chu Shui”「曹衣出水」, a style popular in the Northern and Southern Dynasties meaning that “clothes appear stick to the skin seem as if the figures have just been pulled out of water”. It was based on the Vimalakīrti Sutra. Vimalakīrti was once a wealthy and generous Lay Buhhist who had profound knowledge of Buddhism. He often pretended that he was ill. When people came to ask about his illness, he would lecture on Dharma, and in this aspect, he could even compete with Serifa and Manjushri. This was the first Sinicized Buddhist painting. Buddhist painting was popular among painters in the Wei and Jin Dynasties. In the paintings of Gu Kaizhi of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Vimalakirti was a scholar-official. This painting shows the image of an old Chinese man who was talkative and good-natured, a favorite of folk painters. He had strong eyebrows, sharp eyes, holding a duster in his hand, and leaned slightly. He was engaging in a heated debate with Manjushri who might be on the opposite side. The top of the picture there are celestial ladies scattering flowers, and the bottom has the audience listening to his Dharma. Except for a small amount of vandyke red and stone green, the mural is basically light in color, and emphasizes the expressive force 3

The Kingdom of Khotan (232 BC - 1006 AD) was an ancient Buddhist kingdom in the Western Regions and one of the four garrisons under the command of Anxi Protectorate in the Tang Dynasty. The inhabitants were the Scythians. Another version of the story is that they were a mixed-race tribe of Tibetans and Indians.

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Fig. 5.3 Vimalakīrti (Grotto mural. 75 cm in height and 74 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 103, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

of lines to highlight freedom, vigor, and vitality, which is quite close to “Wu Dai Dang Feng”, the style of Wu Daozi (Fig. 5.3). This is a Song Dynasty copy, basically reproducing the style of Wu Daozi’s paintings. This picture is the middle to back sections of a long roll. The middle section depicts the heavenly king sending his son down to earth, and the latter part depicts the miracle of Sakya’s birth. Wu Daozi’s painting was relatively simple and unbridled, which is the so-called “sparse style”. The lines were called “orchid leaf strokes” (兰 叶描) and his strokes were full of changes and vigor. He painted with round strokes to show their “flying clothes”. As a result, his style was highly praised and appreciated. Wu Daozi used light and simple colors, which is his personal style. Wu Daozi devoted his career to religious painting. He had painted 300 temple murals which have regrettably disappeared with the buildings. Only records of his painting style and experience and various legends were known to later generations. According to records, the hell he painted, although the characters were not scary, was so gloomy that it made people shudder, and he could draw an over ten-feet

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Fig. 5.4 Birth of Gautama Buddha (Attributed to Wu Daozi, may be painted by Wu school painter of the Five Dynasties or early Song Dynasty4 ) (Handscroll. Line drawing on paper. 35.5 cm in height and 338.1 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Wu Daozi. Osaka City Museum of Fine Arts, Japan)

Buddha from his toes, and show great details of even the skin. In a word, his painting skills were superb, and his paintings were moving (Fig. 5.4). Zhang Xuan (eighth century AD) was a painter of the High Tang period, of whom no original works have been preserved up to date. Zhang Xuan was good at drawing nobility ladies. His portrayals are characterized by round faces and plump bodies. His lines are vigorous, and his colors are bright. He created a new style of lady paintings

4

Po SN (2013.9) Zhongguo Huihuashi [Zhencangban] (A History of Chinese Painting [Limited Edition]). Shanghai People’s Fine Arts Publishing House, pp 146–147.

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in the High Tang period, which was inherited and further developed by Zhou Fang, producing far-reaching impacts. This painting is based on the experience of Lady Guoguo, Concubine Yang’s sister, going outing in spring during the Tianbao years of the Tang Dynasty, depicting the luxurious life of the nobility class of the Tang Dynasty on the eve of the An Lushan Rebellion. The picture shows a female official in men’s clothing leading the way, followed by two riders, which forms a prelude to the main character. The sisters, Lady Guoguo and Lady Qinguo, are riding on steeds side by side. Their hair is done in high buns which hang down. Their plump faces are elegant. They are followed by three people also riding on steeds, including a middle-aged woman who seems to be a nanny holding a young girl in front of her on the saddle, showing a cautious expression. The eight riders in this tour are well-arranged and dynamic. Although there is no background in the painting, people can feel the warmth of spring through the expressions and costumes of the characters and the gentle pace of the horses. The characters’ facial expressions are exquisite, especially those of Lady Guoguo. The painter deliberately did not apply makeup on her face. As a verse says, “With light makeup, she is fitted to face the lord” (“淡扫蛾眉朝至尊”), since she shows her natural beauty and uninhibited character. The success of this work is that it does not rely on the background, and the arrangement of the characters, the horses’ running and the use of colors can create the pleasant atmosphere of spring (Fig. 5.5). This is a unique painting of ladies. The painting depicts a scene of ladies working on newly-woven silk at the royal court during the Tang Dynasty. Newly-woven silk is a kind of silk fabric that must be boiled, bleached, and pounded with a mortar and pestle to make it soft. The painting is divided into three sections, the first section depicts ladies pounding the silk, the second weaving, and the third straightening and ironing the silk. The painting shows no ground or background. The characters are arranged in a patchwork of heights and distances. Through a subtle depiction of movement, the connections between each segment are natural and vivid. The 12 figures in the painting show different labor gestures, but they are all plump, beautiful, and graceful, just like a song with a slow rhythm and a beautiful melody. The details are vivid and interesting, such as the girl who instigates the fire looking back, and the children who watch playfully looking at the silk, all of which are fun. The clothes are delicately depicted, the colors are strong, and the lines are simple, which is Zhang Xuan’s style. This scroll is said to be a copy painted by Zhao Ji, or Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty (Fig. 5.6). Zhou Fang (ca. eighth century AD) was active from the High Tang to the Middle Tang periods, and no original works of his have passed down. He was dedicated to depicting the life of the aristocracy. The ladies he painted are characterized by plump

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Fig. 5.5 Lady Guoguo’s Spring Excursion (A copy of the Northern Song Dynasty5 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 51.8 cm in height and 148 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Zhang Xuan. Liaoning Provincial Museum)

figures, graceful clothing, and soft colors. He was the most representative painter of ladies in the Tang Dynasty. The painting depicts the life of imperial concubines, profoundly revealing the grievances of the characters. The image of “fanning in autumn” (秋风纨扇) is recurrent in Chinese poetry and painting, and is meant to show the grievance of women in the imperial court who fell out of favor and were abandoned. The painting 5 Liaoning Provincial Museum website: https://www.lnmuseum.com.cn/#/collect/detail?id=210 10302862117A000061&pageType=1

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Fig. 5.6 Court Ladies Preparing Newly-Woven Silk (It is believed a copy by Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty6 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 37.1 cm in height and 145 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Zhang Xuan. Museum of Fine Arts Boston, USA)

scroll indicates it is autumn with a sycamore. Each of the concubines and maids holds a fan in their hands, some sit alone and contemplate, some rely on sycamore and mutter in sadness, some carry the Guqin (古琴, a seven-stringed plucked instrument in some ways similar to the zither) without playing it, some look in the mirror but do not wear any makeup, and some are embroidering but absent-minded. Although they are gorgeously dressed, they cannot hide their sadness and grievances. The faces in the painting show low eyebrows and dark lips, apparently sad. Most figure paintings in this period are solemn and quiet, and rarely show any big emotional changes. There is no background in the picture, and there is no close connection between the

6

Museum of Fine Arts Boston website: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/28127/court-ladies-pre paring-newly-woven-silk?ctx=43c59850-008a-4db8-ad70-b915a550c79b&idx=5. Connoisseurs mostly believe that it was painted by a painter from the Huizong Court Painting Academy rather than by Emperor Huizong himself. Reference from: Po SN (2013.9) Zhongguo Huihuashi [Zhencangban] (A History of Chinese Painting [Limited Edition]). Shanghai People’s Fine Arts Publishing House, p 150.

5.2 Painting

Fig. 5.6 (continued)

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Fig. 5.7 Ladies Swinging Fans (Attributed to Zhou Fang, may be painted by Zhou Fang school painter of later generation7 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 33.7 cm in height and 204.8 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Zhou Fang. The Palace Museum)

characters, but as emotions are consistent and objects such as sycamore, fan, and mirror are appropriately arranged, the picture shows a perfect unity (Fig. 5.7). In late spring, next to the rockery, magnolia flowers are in full bloom, and the courtyard in the imperial palace is silent and dull, except for the dancing white cranes and the jolly puppies. The concubines were bored: some are holding butterflies they had just caught, some are teasing puppies, some are fussing with their dresses, and some are strolling gracefully. They are all plump and fair, with flowers and hairpins in their towering buns, beautiful and dignified. Flowing and rhythmic lines, gorgeous colors, rich patterns, and exquisite details create a magnificent atmosphere and pleasing aesthetics (Fig. 5.8). The aristocratic women are the main subjects of Zhou Fang’s paintings. They always appeared with plump face, graceful appearance, leisurely manner with the 7

It is believed to be painted by a master of Zhou Fang school of later generation. Xue YN and Luo SP (ed.), Compiled by Chinese Art History Teaching and Research Section in Central Academy of Fine Arts (2010.6) Zhongguo Meishu Jianshi (A Brief History of Chinese Art). China Youth Publishing Group, p 112.

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Fig. 5.8 Court Ladies Wearing Flowered Headdresses (May be painted by Zhou Fang school painter of later generation8 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 46 cm in height and 180 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Zhou Fang school. Liaoning Provincial Museum)

Fig. 5.9 Palace Ladies Tuning the Lute (Attributed to Zhou Fang, a copy of the Song Dynasty9 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 27.94 cm in height and 75.25 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Zhou Fang. Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, USA)

clothes of simple pleats and rich colors. This painting shows Zhou Fang’s typical rich and gorgeous style (Fig. 5.9). 8

Po SN (2013.9) Zhongguo Huihuashi [Zhencangban] (A History of Chinese Painting [Limited Edition]). Shanghai People’s Fine Arts Publishing House, p 155. 9 Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art website: https://art.nelson-atkins.org/objects/18637/palace-ladiestuning-the-lute

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Fig. 5.10 A Palace Concert (A copy of the Northern Song Dynasty10 ) (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 48.7 cm in height and 69.5 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Anonymous. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

In the center of the painting, there are 10 court beauties sitting around a large table, with two maids standing beside them. They are either playing the Guqin, the lute, the Sheng flute, or tapping the bamboo board. There are several others lazily holding bowls of tea and snacks, or casually shaking their fans. One of them turns to face the outside of the painting, as if greeting the characters outside the painting. Pots and dishes are lined up in a circle on the table. This is a portrayal of the leisure life of palace ladies. The picture is filled with soft and melodious music and a lazy and leisurely mood. Even the puppy lying under the table lazily seems to be intoxicated by the music. The figures on the painting have a plump shape, the hairstyle, clothing and cosmetic style are all in the fashion of the Late Tang Dynasty. The table that occupies an important position in the painting is painted small in front and large in back, so that the main figures sitting in the further distance are even larger than the persons sitting closely, making the main characters of picture more prominent. Two embroidery stools are cleverly left vacant by the table in front of the picture, which not only avoids excessive back images and blocks the main characters, but also leaves a voice-over for imagination (Fig. 5.10). 10 Compiled by Complete Collection of Chinese Art Editorial Committee (1988) Zhongguo Meishu Quanji: Huihua Bian-Liangsong Huihua (Complete Collection of Chinese Art: Painting Part-Paintings of the Song Dynasty I). Cultural Relics Press, 2006 reprint, image description p 8.

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In the early spring, a group of people are marching on a country road at a brisk pace with play tools in hand. The characters all wear soft turbans, round-necked robes, belts, and boots, which are casual and elegant. Their mounts are fat and strong. It should be the outing and leisure parade of dignitaries. The first group of figures appear from the back, which not only hints at the depth of the space, but also enriches the field of vision in the picture. The man raised his head and looked into the distance, seeming to be intoxicated by the beautiful scenery around him. The two followers leaned forward and walked humbly, the perspective structure of the horse’s back was accurate. The second and third riders are the protagonists of the picture. They are both riding horses and moving slowly and dignified. The last two horses are chasing after each other with full energy; especially the last horse, with its head slightly sideways, neck stretched forward, tail raised, four hooves kicking, seems vigorous and powerful. The very wonderfully depicted feeling of running made a subtle contrast with the two horses in front who are relaxing and slow to create an elegant rhythm, which is full of artistic appeal. The painter uses delicate and smooth lines and light application of thin dyeing to create a leisure mood. The soft and flowing color of the silk clothes and the volume and weight of the horse are all expressed in subtle ways. Although the author has not left his name, the artistic level of this painting is comparable to Zhang Xuan’s “Lady Guoguo’s Spring Excursion” (Fig. 5.11).

5.2.1.2

Tomb Murals

Mural paintings reached their peak in the Tang Dynasty in the eighth century AD. Important murals were unearthed from the tombs of Princess Yongtai (Li Xianhui) and Prince Zhanghuai (Li Xian) in Shannxi and the Tang Dynasty tombs in Xinjiang, which are great representatives of this period. In addition, the archaeological excavations of Tang tombs and Buddhist grottoes and the screen paintings preserved in Shosoin in Japan have further demonstrated to the world the height of figure painting in the Tang Dynasty. Lavish burials were fashionable in the Tang Dynasty, so aristocrats competed to build elaborate tombs with exquisite murals painted inside, with the hope to continue enjoying their luxurious life after death. This mural contains many details, such as ceremonial banners, pavilions, ladies, hunting, polo games, and various other social activities. It is an example of the splendid art of painting in the Tang Dynasty. Li Xianhui is Empress Wu Zetian’s granddaughter. After her death, she was posthumously honored as Princess Yongtai. This painting shows many images. The first is a maid with her arms crossed. Seven others hold jade plates, candlesticks, food boxes, fans, high-foot cups, Ruyi, dust whisks, etc. The last one is in men’s clothing and holds a package in her hand. The characters have clear faces, slender bodies, and elegant postures. They are typical images of women in the Early Tang Dynasty. The composition is rhythmic and dynamic. The characters seem to move forward slowly and look around. The

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Fig. 5.11 Ride Picture (A copy of the Song Dynasty) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 22.7 cm in height and 94.8 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Anonymous. The Palace Museum)

lines are something like “iron wire strokes” and “orchid leaf strokes”. They are upright and smooth, but not slippery, showing excellent skills. The light lines in the first outlining and the thick lines in the double outlining are vivid and free. It is an excellent example of tomb murals of the Tang Dynasty (Fig. 5.12). The painting is huge, with a total length of about 1200 cm. In a relatively monotonous motion, it presents a smooth and unrestrained picture. Li Xian was Empress Wu Zetian’s second son. He was once the heir apparent to the throne, but was later deposed. He was relegated as Crown Prince Zhanghuai after his death. On the 12 m long wall, a vast hunting team consisting of more than 50 horse-riding figures and camels is shown on the background of green mountains and trees. The scene is grand and impressive. The hunting team is led by several riders, followed by a rider with a bear flag and dozens of riders surrounding a figure dressed in purple and gray robes and riding a tall white horse, who is believed to be Crown Prince Li Xian, the tomb owner. They are followed by dozens of riders: some with falcons on their arms, some with cheetahs and lynxes on their backs, others with arrows and flags on their backs, and several loaded camels followed in

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Fig. 5.12 Ladies (Tomb mural. 177 cm in height and 198 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Princess Yongtai, the Qianling Mausoleum, Qian County, Shaanxi Province)

the rear. Such a variety of horses and characters are arranged in good order, and the scene is extremely sporty and rhythmic, which shows the painter’s superb ability to control complex images. The rulers of the Tang dynasty liked hunting, and this painting reflects this fashion. There have been many paintings depicting such scenes, but few have shown such grandeur (Fig. 5.13). This picture shows three officials of the Bureau of Receptions of the Tang Dynasty and three foreign envoys or delegate from an ethnic minority group. The three officials wear cage-shaped hats and red robes with black edges. They might be discussing the reception protocol. Among the guests, the first person with a bald head, thick eyebrows, a high nose, and dark eyes, wearing a purple robe with a lapel strap and black boots, hands crossing on his chest, might be a messenger from the Eastern Roman Empire. The second guest, wearing a belted feather crown and a white robe with red trim, and a white belt on his waist, with his hands wrapped in his sleeves, might be a Goryeo (Korean) envoy. The last one, wearing a leather hat, leather pants with belt, leather boots, and a gray coat, might be a northern ethnic minority. The picture vividly and truthfully reflects the frequent contacts and cultural exchanges

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Fig. 5.13 Going Hunting (Tomb mural. About 1200 cm in length. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Crown Prince Zhanghuai, Qianling Mausoleum, Qian County, Shaanxi Province)

between China and foreign countries. Foreign envoys often came to Chang’an, the capital of the Tang Dynasty, which was a cosmopolitan city at the time. The characters in the painting have distinctive characteristics which are shown meticulously, and the solemn atmosphere with a bit of anxiety is very well depicted (Fig. 5.14). There are three young palace ladies under the tree. One holds a shawl in her hand and looks up at the birds, one is focusing on the cicadas on the tree and raises her right hand trying to catch them, and the other has her hands folded on her chest in deep thought. This picture depicts a small scene of palace life in the Tang Dynasty. These girls entered the palace at a very young age, the narrow world, monotonous life, and strict palace rules stifled their youthful aspirations. However, they are still childish, lively and active, and are still looking for fun in life. The characters in the painting are beautiful, with graceful postures, the lines of the painting are smooth and fluent, the colors are simple and elegant, all together created a vivid and interesting picture (Fig. 5.15).

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Fig. 5.14 Meeting Guests (Tomb mural. 184 cm in height and 242 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Crown Prince Zhanghuai, Qianling Mausoleum, Qian County, Shaanxi Province)

5.2.1.3

Unearthed Works and Others

The painting shows a woman with a high bun on her head, heavy makeup on her face, red diamond-shaped flowers on her forehead, crooked eyebrows and cheeks, yellow and blue curly grass pattern white wool, red dress, high-headed blue shoes, a light shawl on her left hand. She seems to raise herself, as if about to swing. The upper right corner of the picture is a phoenix spreading its wings and flying, making the picture more dynamic. The woman is graceful and light. The painting is exquisite overall, the brushwork is simple and calm, and the color is thick and strong, which is the mainstream style of the Early Tang Dynasty. This indicates the close cultural and artistic exchanges between various ethnic groups in the Western Regions and the Tang Dynasty. A total of 6 screens had been unearthed from this tomb. In a series, 2 dancers and 4 musicians were painted, one on each screen, standing opposite to each other (Fig. 5.16). This fragment of painting should be the left part of the restored painting of “Lady Playing Chess” discovered in the same site. It depicts a court lady and her attendant

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Fig. 5.15 Bird Watching and Catching Cicadas (Tomb mural. 168 cm in height and 175 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Tomb of Crown Prince Zhanghuai, Qianling Mausoleum, Qian County, Shaanxi Province)

maid watching chess play.11 This is a popular theme and mode of lady paintings in the Tang Dynasty (Fig. 5.17). This fragment of silk painting was obtained in Astana-karakhoja by the Japanese “Otani Expedition”. It should be part of a screen painting. The woman on the painting is a typical Tang beauty with plump face, dignified manner and exquisite makeup. She is wearing gorgeous western ethnic costumes, which reflects the popular fashion at that time. The painting also shows the superb level of painting of ladies in the Early Tang Dynasty. According to the analysis in the article of the scholar Liu Wensuo: “Tomb Screens and Screen-style Murals in Xizhou in the Tang Dynasty (唐代西州 的屏风画)”, this painting should be a fragment of “Picture of Music and Dance” unearthed in Tomb No. 230 (Fig. 5.18).

11

Reference from: Liu WS (2018) “Tangdai Xizhou de Pingfenghua” (Screen paintings of Xizhou in the Tang dynasty). Xinjiang Art 2018(5), pp 113–125.

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Fig. 5.16 Picture of Music and Dance (Screen. Ink and color on silk. 51.5 cm in height and 25 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from Astana-karakhoja Ancient Tombs No. 230 in Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Xinjiang Museum)

Eight screens had been unearthed from this tomb, all depicting horse herding scenes and each showing one person and one horse. Some are near the creek, some are under a tree, some stand still while some stroll slowly. It is believed to have been painted by Xianfei (仙妃 literally meaning “fairy concubine”), a concubine and the owner of the tomb. In this picture, a groom in white clothes and black boots

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Fig. 5.17 Two Court Ladies (A fragment of the picture of “Lady Playing Chess”) (Screen. Ink and color on silk. The Tang Dynasty. Residual part 61.4 cm in height and 65.5 cm in width. Unearthed from Astana-karakhoja Ancient Tombs No. 187 in Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Xinjiang Museum) Fig. 5.18 Beauty in Foreign Costumes (Screen. Ink and color on silk. 15.7 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from Astana-karakhoja Ancient Tombs in Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Private Collection in Japan)

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is walking a horse slowly under the green trees. The ground is green grass, the sky is wreathed with white clouds, and birds are flying in the sky. The picture is filled with a warm atmosphere of spring. The painting is outlined with smooth and simple lines which are rendered accurately and vividly to show the horse’s strength, posture, and tameness (Fig. 5.19). Buddhism flourished in the Tang Dynasty, and there were eight major sects. Among them, Zen and Pure Land (sukhavati) were the most popular sects. In particular, the Pure Land sect insisted on the rapid attainment of Dharma, saying that believers only had to think of Buddha and Bodhisattva names. After their death, Bodhisattva would come and lead them to Elysium in the West. It developed rapidly because it did not require in-depth study of Buddhism or rigorous practice, and was very popular with the public. As a result, the depiction of Bodhisattva leading souls to the West also became a popular theme of Buddhist painting at that time. This picture was one of the masterpieces. Bodhisattva wears a corolla on his head and a rooster on his chest. He has an elegant posture, a beautiful appearance, an incense burner in his Fig. 5.19 Horse Herding (Screen. Ink and color on silk. 53.5 cm in height and 22.3 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from Tomb 188 in Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Xinjiang Museum)

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right hand, and a lotus branch and a soul-guiding flag in his left hand, stepping on a lotus flower, seeming to descend from the sky on the auspicious clouds, and looking back at the souls he is leading. Deep in the picture, a lady dressed in red with a high bun follows Bodhisattva. In the upper left corner of the painting, colorful clouds surround the palace pavilions. This is the pure land of the West! The lines shaping the clouds of happiness, the auspicious light, and streamers of banners are fluent. Together with the movement of Bodhisattva, they form an upward trend, reflecting the theme of going to the West (the Heaven) (Fig. 5.20). A six-panel screen with a court lady standing or sitting under a tree in each one is preserved in Shosoin. Those ladies all characterized with plump cheeks, chubby body, and thick eyebrows which are the aesthetic preferences in the High Tang period. The face and hands are clean and tender, and clothes and headwear were once covered with colorful feathers, after which it was named, and have now peeled off. Fig. 5.20 Soul-Guiding Bodhisattva (Scroll. Ink and color on silk. 80.5 cm in height and 53.8 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Found in the Buddhist Sutra Cave, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province. British Museum, UK)

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The treasures enshrined by Emperor Jinmu’s widow at Todaiji Temple in Nara in 752 AD were collected in Shosoin, including furniture, musical instruments, painted or inlaid with floral and animal patterns such as rhinoceros, tortoiseshell, gold, and silver. There were also glass wares, bronze mirrors, silk fabrics, maps, paintings, and calligraphy. Most of them came from China and are the best-preserved Tang Dynasty crafts (Fig. 5.21).

5.2.2 Landscape Paintings Landscape painting became the major genre of painting after the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and two new styles appeared: Blue-green, and Ink. Blue-green landscape painting pioneered by Zhan Ziqian grew remarkably under Li Sixun and his son Li Zhaodao, which later was regarded as the beginning of Northern Master School. Then the “Broken-ink” (破墨) method championed by Wang Wei appeared in the High Tang period, thus preparing the ground for the maturity of landscape painting in the Late Tang period and the Five Dynasties, and developed into Southern Masters School.12 Zhan Ziqian (year of birth and death unknown) was a native of Bohai (present day Xinyang, Shandong Province), and had experienced the three dynasties of the Northern Qi, Northern Zhou, and Sui in his life. He was good at painting Taoist and Buddhist figures, horses, buildings, and landscape. Even though it was remade in the Song Dynasty based on a copy of the Late Tang Dynasty, this painting still shows Zhan Ziqian’s painting style. The painting depicts a scene of aristocrats going outing on sunny spring day. The picture takes a bird’s-eye view. The lake is rippling with blue waves, the mountain paths wind through valleys and lush forests, and wild flowers and green willows are all over the mountains. People either boat in the lake, or stop and watch, and revel in the beauty of spring. Since the early Eastern Jin Dynasty, landscape painting had become completely independent and stopped serving as a background of figure painting in which “humans characters are ‘bigger’ than the mountains and water never ripples” (人大于山，水不容泛). First, the problem of spatial proportions was resolved, and a painting can depict a boundless world. Secondly, painters became committed to 12

The division between Northern and Southern Masters by Dong Qichang, a Ming Dynasty scholar and artist, was meant to claim that literati paintings were superior to professional paintings and court paintings. This division had also influenced China’s thinking about landscape painting for more than 400 years. By this method of division, Blue-green landscape paintings of the Sui and Tang Dynasties were the earliest court landscape paintings, and their influence reached the paintings of the Northern Song Court Academy and even professional paintings later; while Wang Wei’s Ink landscape was the beginning of literati landscape painting, influencing literati painters and amateur painters in the Southern Song Dynasty and later.

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Fig. 5.21 Standing Woman with a Feather Headdress (Screen. Ink and color on paper. 135.9 cm in height and 56.2 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Shosoin, Japan)

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Fig. 5.21 (continued)

“convey feelings through painting”. In terms of painting technique, using the realistic method of meticulous fine-brush figure painting, outlines are drawn with thin lines, and then the space is filled and colored. The colors are mainly Blue-green, and sometimes red and white. The water is painted in reticulated patterns, and the characters and trees in blossom are directly stippled with powder. Such paintings are rich and harmonious. In some way, this painting initiated the style of Blue-green landscape. By this time, landscape painting had matured and emerged from its nascent stage since the Six Dynasties. The painting really depicts a boundless scenery, and conveys personal feelings through painting (Fig. 5.22). Li Sixun (651−718 AD), a member of the royal family of the Tang Dynasty, was given the rank of General in the early Kaiyuan years, so he was called “Old General Li” in the painting history. He is revered as the pioneer and a master of Gold and Blue-green landscape painting. The river is wide, the smoke is magnificent, and several boats are tracing upstream; on the shore are long pines and beautiful mountains, the pavilion is half hidden among peach trees and bamboos; several tourists are moving between the flowers and trees along the winding mountain road on horseback or on foot. The painter used thin lines to outline the mountain rocks, and water was drawn with mesh lines, which creates something like a boundless expanse of blue water. The painting is complete, the portrayal is clear and detailed, the mountains and rocks are colored

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Fig. 5.22 Spring Excursion (May be a copy of the Song Dynasty13 ) (Scroll. Ink and color on silk. 43 cm in height and 80.5 cm in length. The Sui Dynasty. Zhan Ziqian. The Palace Museum)

blue and green with golden outlines. The painting is brilliant and magnificent with a high aesthetic value. Based on Zhan Ziqian’s style, improvements are shown in this painting regarding the techniques of painting tree and stone, coloring, and dyeing, as well as the atmosphere. This painting is believed originally painted by Li Sixun, and should be the remain of a set of screen painting (Fig. 5.23). Li Zhaodao (year of birth and death unknown), was a son of Li Sixun, and once served as Secretary to the heir apparent. He was popularly known as “Younger General Li”. This painting reflects the situation when Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty fled Chang’an and took refuge in Sichuan, and depicts how the crowd’s trekked on roads to Sichuan during the An Lushan Rebellion. This painting is believed to be originally painted by Li Zhaodao. There are several copies, including a hanging scroll. This one may be a copy of the Yuan Dynasty after an original painting of the Tang Dynasty, and is the closest to the original work. The mountains are steep and precipitous, and are surrounded by white clouds, while roads are winding through the mountains. A group of soldiers turn out of the forest on the right, cross a small bridge, and come to a flat piece of land. Some people take a rest, and others continue to walk into the mountains on the left and disappear on the distant boardwalk. The person wearing a red robe standing by the bridge in the lower right corner of the front 13

Xue YN and Luo SP (ed.), Compiled by Chinese Art History Teaching and Research Section in Central Academy of Fine Arts (2010.6) Zhongguo Meishu Jianshi (A Brief History of Chinese Art). China Youth Publishing Group, p 113. Fu XN (1978) “Guanyu ‘Zhan Ziqian Youchun Tu’ Niandai de Tantao” (A discussion on the age of “Zhan Ziqian Spring Excursion”). Cultural Relics 1978(11), pp 40–53.

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Fig. 5.23 Sailing Boats and Pavilions (A copy of the Song Dynasty14 ) (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 101.9 cm in height and 54.7 cm in width. Perhaps originally a screen painting. The Tang Dynasty. Li Sixun. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

must be Emperor Xuanzong. He seems to be a bit hesitant. The picture is carefully painted with fine strokes, clearly depicting the complex scenes and characters, and applying bright blue and green colors. It is elegant and decorative. It is a typical style of Li Zhaodao and his father (Fig. 5.24): Wang Wei (701−761 AD), courtesy name Mojie (meaning vimalakīrti), poet and painter, retreated to his country villa in Wangchuan in his later years where he enjoyed himself with music, poetry, and painting. Based on the theory15 proposed in the Northern and Southern Dynasties: artistic creations are possible because of “thinking or imagination”, which emphasized the relationship between the artist’s intellectual and emotional activities and depiction of the object. Wang Wei successfully created a spontaneous and novel aesthetic style by fusing poetry into painting. Su Shi, the great literati of the Song Dynasty, highly appreciated his works, saying: “When 14

Xue YN and Luo SP (ed.), Compiled by Chinese Art History Teaching and Research Section in Central Academy of Fine Arts (2010.6) Zhongguo Meishu Jianshi (A Brief History of Chinese Art). China Youth Publishing Group, p 114. 15 Zong Bing attributed the creation of landscape painting to “spiritual activities” in his Preface to Landscape Painting, which were reinterpreted by later generations as “integrating emotion with scenes”. Wang Wei’s essay, “Depiction of Painting” also points out that landscape painting should be a symbolic language, rather than pure reproduction of what is seen.

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Fig. 5.24 Emperor Xuanzong’s Journey to Sichuan (Attributed to Li Zhaodao, a copy of the Yuan Dynasty16 ) (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 55.9 cm in height and 81 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Li Zhaodao. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

reading Wang Wei’s poems, one can conjure up a picture. When viewing Wang Wei’s paintings, one can experience a poetic sentiment.” He was one of the first to use the technique of “Broken-ink” (破墨), which greatly improved the artistic feeling of landscape painting and made a significant contribution to the progress of landscape painting. He created many works based on the scenery of Wangchuan, but no authentic paintings have been passed down.17 The six-panel “Landscape Screen Painting” mural unearthed from the Tang Dynasty Li Daojian’s tomb in Xinzhuang Village in 2016 is the earliest Tang Dynasty landscape painting discovered so far. The mural shows the true appearance of Tang Dynasty landscape painting and is of great significance to the study of early Chinese landscape painting. Each screen depicts a high mountain in the center, with clouds 16

Xue YN and Luo SP (ed.), Compiled by Chinese Art History Teaching and Research Section in Central Academy of Fine Arts (2010.6) Zhongguo Meishu Jianshi (A Brief History of Chinese Art). China Youth Publishing Group, p 114. 17 Wang Wei’s high status as a painter is also related to his personality, as literati painters after the Song Dynasty believed that “paintings reflect the painter”「画如其人」. Wang Wei was a perfect scholar, so he was an ideal painter. To put it more clearly, the quality of painting not only lies in the brush and ink, but also reflects the character of the painter. Reference from: Sullivan M (2006.12) Yishu Zhongguo (The Arts of China). Hunan Education Publishing House, p 121.

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Fig. 5.25 Landscape Screen Painting (Tomb mural. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Li Daojian, Fuping, Shaanxi Province)

lingering on the top of the mountain, and rivers flowing zigzag into the distance in the valley. The lines in the paintings are smooth, accurate and delicate, and the outlines of different mountains are depicted with different brushstrokes. The whole group of paintings have strong momentum and reflects the grandeur of landscape paintings of the Tang Dynasty (Fig. 5.25).

5.2.3 Paintings of Flowers, Birds, and Horses Flower-and-bird paintings became an independent genre and matured, showing the expansion of the scope of painting. Horse painting was highly valued in the Tang Dynasty. It changed from a genre used in earlier ages to reflect the spirit of bravery

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and martial arts to be a symbol of status and wealth. There were painters specializing in Horse painting in the Tang Dynasty. Han Gan (ca. 724−785 AD), a native of Chang’an, was good at painting portraits, and was particularly famous for painting horses. In the Tang Dynasty, there were many beautiful horses in Chang’an contributed from all over the world. They were used by aristocrats for sightseeing and entertainment, and were also the frequent objects of painting. Han Gan was one of the most famous horse painters. When he was young, Han Gan was sponsored by Wang Wei to study painting. Later, he was summoned to the royal palace to work as a court painter by Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty. “Night-Shining White” was the name of a horse of Li Longji, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. In the painting, this horse is tied to a wooden stake. It neighs with its head held high and feet raised, and seems to want to break free. The horse’s fiery and untamed temper is vividly expressed. At the same time, it has achieved unprecedented accuracy in details and proportions. Han Gan once told Emperor Xuanzong, “The horses in Your Majesty’s stable are all my teachers.” From this, it can be inferred that the painter attached importance to learning from nature. Due to the in-depth and careful observation of horses, the horses in his works are so vivid and unique. In terms of techniques, the artist used strong and elastic wire strokes, and managed to produce a three-dimensional effect and show the vigor and strength of the horse. It is a highly artistic painting (Fig. 5.26). There are two horses in this painting, one black and the other white, one in the front and the other in the back. The front dark horse is fitted with a red brocade saddle with golden patterns, while the herder holds a reins whip in his hand and rides on the white horse slowly. The brushwork is meticulous, the man and saddled horses are painted rigorous in structure, and the horses are fleshy but tough. The colors of black, white, and red show a strong contrast, creating a gorgeous and calm feeling. The painter showed more maturity in this painting than other works. Most of the horses painted by Han Gan are stocky. There have been mixed reviews about this. As Du Fu, the great poet of the Tang Dynasy, wrote in his poem A Song of Painting: “But picturing the flesh, he fails to draw the bone, so even the finest horses are deprived of their spirit.” (“干惟画肉不画骨，忍使骅骝气凋丧”) He was obviously critical of Han’s painting style, while others believed that horses were fleshy because the royal family carefully raised them.18 But in general, Han Gan had achieved a great success in painting horses so he had a huge impact on Li Gonglin in the Song Dynasty and Zhao Mengfu in the Yuan Dynasty.

18

In this regard, Shi Shouqian’s article, “A Different Interpretation of ‘Han Gan only Paints Flesh but Not Bones’ (‘干惟画肉不画骨’别解)” puts forward different views and has a wonderful discussion: Shi SQ (2018.8) Fengge yu Shibian - Zhongguo Huihua Shilun (Style in Transformation Studies on the History). Peking University Press.

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Fig. 5.26 Night-Shining White: A Royal Horse (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 30.8 cm in height and 34 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Han Gan. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, USA)

This painting has the inscription “Authentic Work of Han Gan” written by Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty. It has kept the characteristics of the Tang Dynasty horse painting, in which the figures and horses are strong and muscular. It should be a copy of a master in the late Northern Song Dynasty (Fig. 5.27). Han Huang (723–787 AD), courtesy name Taichong, was a native of Chang’an, and once served as a Chancellor of the court. It is the most ancient paper work preserved in the world. The painting depicts five bulls, four of which show the side, either grazing, running with their heads high, looking back and licking their tongues, or moving slowly forward. Only the one in the center faces the viewer, this presentation of depth and space was rare in earlier Chinese paintings. The painter grasped the accuracy of the perspective and painted in great detail. The 5 bulls are different in appearance and dynamics, with accurate shapes and vivid looks. The brushwork is heavy, simple, and coarse, and the outline

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Fig. 5.27 Horse Herding (A copy of the Song Dynasty19 ) (Ink and color on silk. 27.5 cm in height and 34.1 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Han Gan. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

is loose and varied; the color is light but not thin, soft and calm, and very brilliantly shows the bulls’ body, muscles, and fur, and their calm, stubborn, and hard-working spirit. The style is simple and profound, worthy of its name as a “rare treasure” that shows a “great spirit”. In the Tang Dynasty, horse painting was highly developed, while bulls were also valued due to the customs of China. Han Huang and his student Dai Song were most famous for painting bulls (Fig. 5.28). This is a six-panel screen style mural of flowers and birds. Each painting is separated by red border, and each depicts a single plant, a lying or standing bird, together with colorful clouds and rocks. The figures are all outlined with ink and filled with color, mixed with the techniques of plain coloring and blending. The whole setting is full of decoration and has changes in unity. (Fig. 5.29).

19

National Palace Museum, Taipei website: https://theme.npm.edu.tw/selection/Article.aspx?sNo= 04009118#inline_content_intro

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Fig. 5.28 Five Oxen (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 20.8 cm long and 139.8 cm wide. The Tang Dynasty. Han Huang. The Palace Museum)

Fig. 5.29 Six Screens (Tomb mural. 150 cm in height and 375 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from Astana-karakhoja Ancient Tombs No. 217 in Turpan, Xinjiang Autonomous Region)

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5.2.4 Theories of Painting Zhang Zao (late eighth century AD) has made great theoretical contributions and played an extremely important role in the development of Chinese painting. He has proposed the famous law for creating landscape painting: “learning from outside and getting the heart from inside”「外师造化，中得心源」. He advocated the unity of objective objects and subjective emotions, approached to be based on the external nature and draw clues from personal feelings is an example of painters’ artistic pursuit and understanding of landscape painting. Zhang Yanyuan (815–874 AD) is the author of Famous Paintings Through the Ages 《 ( 历代名画记》) (written in 853–859 AD), the earliest painting history book in the world. In Famous Paintings Through the Ages, Zhang Yanyuan collected the writings of his predecessors and made his own comments. About half of the book is dedicated to biographies of more than 370 painters and description their works from ancient legends to the contemporary age, providing valuable information for the study of painting history by later generations. Zhang Yanyuan had managed to collect some long-lost books and essays, such as Gu Kaizhi’s On Painting, so they could be passed down. The book is roughly divided into three parts: comments on the history of painting and theoretical understanding; documents, descriptions, identification, and collection of paintings; and biographies and works of painters. The book first defines the purpose of painting is to promote education; to help improve human relations; and to help people interpret the world; through careful observation to capture the details of the objects in order to study the profound enlightenment from gods and supernatural beings; and to be able to grasp and judge the seasonal changes. Painters should use natural principles and natural techniques, instead of fabricating or painting according to narration. The book further elaborates on the “Six Principles” of Xie He, emphasizing “Rhythmic Movement” and “Forceful Brush Strokes”, and insisting on pursuing “spirit resonance”. In terms of painting reviews, he listed some levels like nature, spirit, subtlety, vitality, delicacy, clarifying the requirements for the creation of paintings and the criteria for evaluating works. The book also focuses on other aspects of painting, such as the learning of painting, the evolution of styles, and the characteristics of the society.

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5.3 Buddhist Art 5.3.1 Buddhist Architectures It is the largest existing wooden Buddhist building of the Tang Dynasty, and a representative architecture built in the Late Tang Dynasty. It reflects the unity of structure and art. It is one of the oldest wooden buildings in China. Mount Wutai was an important base of the Huayan Sect of Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty. Foguang Temple was one of the top ten temples on Mount Wutai at that time, which can be seen in the Dunhuang mural painting “Map of Mount Wutai” (cave 61, Mogao Grottoes, the Five Dynasties). In 1937, according to this map, Liang Sicheng and his wife discovered this peerless wooden building of the Tang Dynasty on Mount Wutai. Nestled in the mountain, the main hall of the temple has 7 rooms wide and 4 rooms deep, with a single-eave hipped roof and a total area of 677 square meters. The hall is supported by 22 eave columns and 14 hypostyle columns. The beams and columns are made of thick materials and the bracket system is majestic. Brackets are layered. Together they are 2 m high, almost half the height of the column, so the eaves of the hall can extend 4 m from the wall. The hall is well-proportioned with an elegant appearance and a solemn style, which fully reflects the historical architectural style of the Tang Dynasty. There are also painted sculptures, mural paintings, and ink marks from the Tang Dynasty in the hall (Fig. 5.30). The Big Wild Goose Pagoda is located in the Ci’en Temple in Xi’an, also known as the Ci’en Temple Pagoda. It is the Buddhist scripture pagoda of the eminent monk Xuanzang in the Tang Dynasty. It was first built in 652 AD, currently 7 floors with a height of 64.5 m. The Big Wild Goose Pagoda is a direct replica of the architectural form of the wooden building in the Han Dynasty. It is square in plan and has many imitation wood structures. The overall shape of the pagoda is simple and quaint, with moderate proportions and magnificent momentum (Fig. 5.31). Jianfu Temple Pagoda, also known as the Small Wild Goose Pagoda, was built between 707 and 710 AD. It was the pagoda of Jianfu Temple, a famous royal temple in Chang’an City in the Tang Dynasty. The tower is tall and has an underground palace. It is an important place for Jianfu Temple to preserve Buddha relics. It was originally composed of fifteen levels, currently 13 levels with the height of 43.4 m. It is a representative building among Dense-eaves Brick Pagodas in the Tang Dynasty. The shape is derived from the Shikhara Stone Tower in India, with towering and beautiful appearance (Fig. 5.32).

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Fig. 5.30 Main Hall of Foguang Temple (Buddhist temple. The Tang Dynasty. Mount Wutai, Shanxi Province)

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Fig. 5.31 Pagoda of Ci’en Temple (Big Wild Goose Pagoda, Dayanta) (Buddhist pagoda. The Tang Dynasty. Xi’an, Shaanxi Province)

5.3.2 Buddhist Statues The period from the Sui Dynasty to the High Tang period was the last peak of building grottoes and sculptures on scale in the history of China. The combination of plump images and rhythmic lines forms a unique Chinese style of Buddha statue carving. Sculptures of Longmen Grottoes Longmen Grottoes was once the center of massive religious activities in the Tang Dynasty. The most important stone sculptures of Longmen Grottoes of the Tang

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Fig. 5.32 Pagoda of Jianfu Temple (Small Wild Goose Pagoda, Xiaoyanta) (Buddhist pagoda. The Tang Dynasty. Xi’an, Shaanxi Province)

Dynasty were those in Fengxian Temple, which may have been built by Emperor Gaozong to pay tribute to Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty. Fengxian Temple is in the southern part of West Hill, Longmen Grottoes. The carving project began in 672 AD and took three years and nine months to complete. It was originally covered by a wide corridor, but now it has become an open-air grotto. The grotto is 30 m wide, 35 m in depth, and 40 m high. There are nine figures typical of Buddhist statues in the Tang Dynasty: Locana Buddha, two disciples of Locana Buddha: Kasyapa and Ananda, two Bodhisattvas, two Guardian Kings, and two Buddha’s Warriors, who together form a solemn Buddhist Heaven. Locana

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Buddha20 is dressed in an ancient robe, sitting cross-legged on the eight-square lotus base. His hands are now broken. The statue is 17.14 m high, of which the head is 4 m high. With a plump and charming face, slightly droopy eyelids, raised eyebrows, cocked mouth, the statue looks gentle and affectionate. It not only gives a warm and kind feeling, but also indicates that the Buddha is looking down at people with compassion and generosity, which embodies a rich spiritual connotation. The texture of the complexion and clothes is delicate, and the use of technique is exquisite. Statue carving in the Tang Dynasty was realistic. Buddhas were carved according to real human images. It is believed that this face resembles Empress Wu Zetian. This statue is undoubtedly one of the best Buddha statues of the Tang Dynasty and showcases the great carving achievements in the Tang Dynasty (Fig. 5.33). Statues in Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang The painted sculptures of the Mogao Grottoes show a very high level of art and skill in the Tang Dynasty. Whether in expressing the characters’ inner activities, personality traits, or reflecting real social life, folk art craftsmen have shown their rich imagination and high skills. In their works, the images of Buddha and Bodhisattva have lost their divinity and become mortal people, showing various sentiments, thus reflecting the close connection between religious art and real life. Due to the sandstone condition in Mogao Grottoes, the statues were not carved stone, but painted clay sculptures. Together with mural paintings, they create a strong atmosphere. There are numerous painted sculptures in Mogao Grottoes which are beautiful in shape and brilliant in color. They were perfectly crafted. This Bodhisattva statue is one of the painted sculptures in Cave 45 of Mogao Grottoes and is a masterpiece of the High Tang period. The Bodhisattva statue is well proportioned with a plump face, a graceful posture, a snug dress, and a vivid look, which has a strong artistic appeal. After Buddhist art was brought into China, Bodhisattva gradually became female. Craftsmen in the Tang Dynasty used beauties as models, and their Bodhisattva statues reflect a worldly aesthetic concept. However, tadpole-shaped beards were painted in mineral green on these dignified and beautiful faces, cleverly suggesting that this was not a female mortal, but a Bodhisattva of the Divine Realm (Fig. 5.34). This sculpture, whose body is of the same height as a real person, is one of the outstanding painted sculptures from the Tang Dynasty found in Mogao Grottoes. The body of the statue leans back slightly, the crotch twists to the left, the hands are freely crossed in front of the abdomen, and the dress is loose and gorgeous, showing the chic and leisurely style of this smart and intelligent young disciple of the Buddha. This painted sculpture was engraved with perfect skills in modeling, painting, and depiction of facial expressions (Fig. 5.35).

20

The Buddha has three kayas, so he has three names. Vairocana is the name of the Dharmakaya of Sakyamuni; Locana is the name of the Sambhogakaya of Sakyamuni; and Sakyamuni is the name of Nirmanakaya. “Locana” means illuminating all things in the sutra.

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Fig. 5.33 Sculptures of Fengxian Temple (Stone sculpture. The Tang Dynasty. Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang, Henan Province)

Although this sculpture has lost its head and arms, it still can be seen that the figure is plump and moderate in proportion, and has a delicate “S” shape and a beautiful posture. His upper body is half-naked in an outfit that fits like a second skin, and the jade-like stone makes the skin texture soft and delicate, vibrant and dynamic (Fig. 5.36).

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Fig. 5.34 Bodhisattva Statue (Painted sculpture. 185 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 45, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

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Fig. 5.35 Statue of Ananda, Disciple of Buddha (Painted sculpture. 176 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 45, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

This Bodhisattva has a high bun and a plump face, and his posture is graceful. The cassock that bares the right shoulder is close to the body, and the skin of the bare chest and arms is firm and plump, full of youthful vitality. He folds his hands in front of his chest, as if he is praying, looking gentle and devout. The carving is realistic, and it is one of the most representative statues of the late Tang Dynasty (Fig. 5.37).

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Fig. 5.36 Remains of a Standing Bodhisattva (Stone sculpture. Residual part 110 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from site of Daming Palace, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Xi’an Beilin Museum)

Tianlong Mountain Grottoes have a total of 21 caves. They were first carved in the Northern Qi Dynasty, but most of the caves were carved during the Sui and Tang Dynasties. The Bodhisattva statue in this picture is one of the most exquisite stone sculptures in the Tang Dynasty. The statue broke through the constraints of stylized Buddhism statues. For example, it looks more like a real human that sits leisurely. Against the thin, yarn-like skirt and ribbon, the skin looks very elastic, showing

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Fig. 5.37 Bodhisattva Statue (Stone sculpture. 90 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 10, Bingling Temple, Yongjing County, Gansu Province)

the craftsmen’s superb skills and realistic techniques. The statue is an outstanding representative of the realistic art of the Tang Dynasty (Fig. 5.38).

5.3.3 Buddhist Paintings The Sui Dynasty revived Buddha Dharma and restored temples. Many painters participated in the painting of murals, renewing the tradition of painting since the Northern and Southern Dynasties.

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Fig. 5.38 Pensive Bodhisattva (Stone sculpture. 115 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 14, Tianlong Mountain Grottoes, Shanxi Province. Tokyo National Museum, Japan)

Religious arts in the Tang Dynasty were clearly secularized. First, through exploration and improvement of skill, Buddhist figure paintings were accepted by a wider audience; second, as regards their themes, the gradual increase of realistic elements also indicates the importance painters attached to real life. The Buddha statues created according to the classics resemble figures in real life of the time. The Bodhisattva and celestial women have plump bodies, beautiful appearance, and charming postures. This change can be obviously seen from the Dunhuang murals. In terms of modeling, Wu Daozi’s style and Zhou Fang’s style emerged and gradually became popular. They were new art styles that combine China’s Central Plains with exotic factors, and was even more popular among people. Mural Paintings of Mogao Grottoes The mural paintings of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang made during the Sui and Tang Dynasties have a wide range of themes and show grand scenes with magnificent and elegant colors. In all aspects including character modelling, drawing skills, and coloring, they reached an unprecedented level.

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Buddhism advocated rebirth in the Pure Land during the early Tang Dynasty: no matter what kind of persons they were, they could be reborn in a pure land as long as they believed in Buddhism wholeheartedly. That was much simpler to practice than previous generations who advocated mortification and ascetic practices; at the same time, people were affluent in the Tang Dynasty, and the luxurious lives of aristocrats also showed ordinary people an illusory world where they could live a prosperous after-life. As a result, the popular topic of mural paintings has changed from the Jataka story of previous period into the Pure Land Sutra. Among them, the Illustrations to the West Paradise was particularly popular. The Pure Land promised people a life without physical and mental worries, but with endless peace and joy. Scenes of the Pure Land in the murals show figures singing and dancing. There are many characters and elaborate buildings, and very often the entire cave creates an illusion of the “Ultimate Bliss”. The Tang Dynasty was the heyday of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang. Numerous sutra paintings (figurative representations of Buddhist classics) appeared which show magnificent scenes, rigorous structures, and rich colors, with Illustrations to the West Paradise being the most popular. In this sutra painting, Amitabha21 sits on the central lotus throne, with Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva and Mahasthamaprapta Bodhisattva on his sides, surrounded by arhats, dharmpalas, warriors, and many attendant Bodhisattvas. There is a group of dancers in front of the Buddha, with a band on both sides. There are dancers in the middle, flying flowers above, and boys frolicking in front of the stage; there is also a Qibao (七宝, seven treasures) Pond filled with Eight Merit Water, green lotus in blossom, and ducks playing in the water. Pavilions, curving corridors, gold and silver paving and shining glaze render the whole painting solemn, majestic, and spectacular. The outstanding folk craftsmen gave full play to their creativity, combining imagination with reality. Although the painting depicts a religious occasion, it is a portrayal of the luxurious life of a real aristocrat, as well as a wonderful afterlife that ordinary people aspired to. In the Tang Dynasty, Buddhist paintings were completely nationalized and secularized. Buddha, Bodhisattva, and celestial woman were beautiful and moving figures, typical images of noble ladies in the Tang Dynasty. The composition is the traditional Chinese panoramic style, indicating an unprecedented ability to control complex scenes. The lines are unrestrained, and the colors are magnificent, which shows excellent painting skills (Fig. 5.39). This picture shows a group of aristocratic ladies being tonsured (having their hair cut off) as nuns, reflecting the popularity of Buddhism at that time. The characters are vividly portrayed in their movements and have intricate relationships. For example, the maid watches the shaved hair of her hostess and shows a look of regret. The surrounding characters look around and whisper to each other, expressing a complex mood of love and doubt, which is extremely realistic (Fig. 5.40). 21

Amitabha is the Buddha of Eternal Life. He is shown in the Western Pure Land. His most important enlightenment technique is the visualization of the surrounding world as a paradise.

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Fig. 5.39 Illustrations to the West Paradise (Grotto mural. 194 cm in height and 150 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 172, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

Fig. 5.40 Head Shaving (Part of Maitreya Pure Land) (Grotto mural. 47 cm in height and 74 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 445, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

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Inside this cave, there are scenes of Buddha disciples and princes of countries mourning around the 15-m-long painted sculpture of Reclining Buddha which symbolizes Shakya Nirvana. Some wail and cry, some sob and grieve, some are in agony and beat their breast, and some even cut their stomachs and ears, and make all kinds of extreme actions. The imagination is rich, and the depiction is exaggerated but extremely vivid. In stark contrast to this is the tranquility and serenity of Shakyamuni who reached the highest spiritual level after his death. The characters painted came from different countries and races, including men, women and children, princes, and civilians, with different clothing and skin tones. The painters used various techniques such as sketching and rendering, line drawing, and strong coloring, and their expressions varied and were vivid. As a result, it also shows the popularity of Buddhism all over the world (Fig. 5.41). The story is about the six battles between six main sects except for Buddhism led by Raudraksa deployed by the king on one side and Sariputra assigned by Shakya on the other. In the end, Raudraksa was forced to admit defeat and take the tonsure to convert to Buddhism. In the painting, a strong wind blows, sand flies about, and stones hurtle through the air. This is the sixth battle between Raudraksa and Sariputra. The party led by Raudraksa was swept away by the raging wind, frightened and embarrassed. Even the throne was blown to totter by the God of Wind sent by Sariputra. His

Fig. 5.41 Parinirvana (Grotto mural. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 158, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

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Fig. 5.42 Raudraksa’s Battle with Sariputra (Grotto mural. 365 cm in height and 300 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 196, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

disciples lifted the tottering ladder in a hurry. The 4 witches in front of the seat were blown by the wind, swirling. They tried to keep out the wind with their long sleeves fluttering, like performing a wind dance, which is depicted vividly, in stark contrast to which Sariputra sits firmly on the Lotus throne, and looks confident and calm. The different expressions of characters in the fierce conflict are fully demonstrated. The picture is magnificent and moving. Other plots scatter in the painting, and the details are vivid and attractive (Fig. 5.42). The themes of Buddhist sutra paintings are highly diverse. They show everything from social activities such as hunting, contests, music and dance, dramas, banquets, farming, harvesting, breeding, slaughter, boating, practicing medicine, and war, from which one can get a glimpse of the living conditions of people at different social levels at that time. This is a part of the panoramic painting. The sleepy groom, holding the reins tightly, bends over his knees and sits on the ground, as if he has fallen asleep. The horse stands beside the master, seemingly tired. The environment is empty, reproducing the atmosphere of the Northwest desert. The posture of the figure is realistic and vivid, the horse is strong and fleshy, the lines are powerful and fluent, the color is simple, and the whole picture is full of vigor (Fig. 5.43). This is a dancing figure in Contemplation on Buddha Amitayus. Her right leg bends to her chest, and dances gracefully on the other leg. Her body is bent sideways, holds a “Biwa” lute, raises it behind her neck, and plays with her backhand. The ribbon on her body flips and floats with the wind, and the dance is beautiful, chic and novel. Toes and movements are also deliberately depicted, expressive and fun. This is the famous heavenly musician playing “Biwa” lute on her back. It later became the theme of the mammoth dance drama “Flower Rains along the Silk Road”, and has become a household name. Dunhuang is not only a treasure of Buddhist art, but also provides inexhaustible materials for cultural and artistic creations, including dance, music, folklore and so on (Fig. 5.44).

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Fig. 5.43 The Groom and the Horse (Part of a Pure Land Sutra painting) (Grotto mural. 33 cm in height and 77 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 431, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province) Fig. 5.44 Music and Dance (Part of Contemplation on Buddha Amitayus) (Grotto mural. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 112, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

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The Flying Apsaras is also known as Gods of Incense or Gods of Music. They fly in the air with various musical instruments and flowers to praise and support the Buddha. The Flying Apsaras is one of the most creative, distinctive, and representative images in Dunhuang mural paintings. Different from “angels” in Western religious paintings that rely on real wings to fly, or the fairy people in traditional Chinese mythology, they ascend to the sky by riding dragons and cranes. Their flight is all based on the lightness and their movements are shown by the fluttering of dress streamers with the wind. There are as many as four or five thousand beautiful Flying Apsaras in Mogao Grottoes, appearing on various occasions. The two Flying Apsaras in Figure 2 are found in the upper left of the painting of Buddha kyamuni preaching the law in Cave 320. One bends her legs and stretches her arm to rise upward, and another turns her body back and scatters flowers downward. They prance up and down, echo with each other, and are lively and cheerful. The streamers flowing in the wind have smooth, changing, and powerful lines, creating a strong sense of movement and a beautiful rhythm (Fig. 5.45). This is one of the largest donor (person who contributed money to build caves and temples to promote Buddhism) portraits in Dunhuang. It is also a masterpiece painting of contemporary figures in the Tang Dynasty. Zhang Yichao was highly recognized by the Tang Dynasty as a military governor of Guazhou, Shazhou and other eleven prefectures for recovering Hexi in the late Tang Dynasty. He was the actual ruler of the northwest region at that time. The cave was sponsored by the Zhang family to extol their achievements and show off their power. Under the four walls of sutra paintings, there is a long scroll depicting an excursion of Zhang Yichao and his wife Lady Song. In the painting, Zhang Yichao, wearing a red robe, is riding on a tall white horse. There are rows of cavalry in front, musicians, and dancers in the middle, followed by martial riders and hunting riders, and running hounds and yellow sheep. The picture is grand and magnificent, which fully shows the majesty of this general and hero. The complex scene is arranged with good order and shows a sense of rhythm, and the plots and movements are delicately depicted. Several strips of green and earthy yellow, of varying width and length, are interspersed with sparse trees, accurately reproducing the atmosphere of the oasis in the Northwest desert (Fig. 5.46). Caisson is a decoration symbolizing the sky in ancient Chinese palace buildings. From the Northern Wei Dynasty to the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the ceilings of most of the Mogao Grottoes were in the shape of an overturned bucket. The caisson patterns are very exquisite, usually with lotus flower as the center and surrounded by honeysuckle patterns and other decorations. Each cave has its own unique style and is rich and colorful. The caissons of the Tang Dynasty are magnificent and have lively patterns (Fig. 5.47). A beautiful naked woman lowers her head and looks down at the child snuggling beside her, shyly stroking her breasts with her slender right hand. There are different explanations about this picture by different researchers. Some said the picture shows

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Fig. 5.45 The Flying Apsaras (Grotto mural. The Tang Dynasty. Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

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Fig. 5.46 Excursion of Zhang Yichao (Grotto mural. 130 cm in height and 830 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 156, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

the legend of the founding of the Kingdom of Khotan. According to the Chronicles of the Western Regions of the Tang Dynasty, King of Khotan had no children and prayed to the Heaven. A baby was “born” (cut) out of the forehead of the statue of the God and the milk gushed out from the ground to nurture the baby. Therefore, King of Khotan claimed to be a descendant of the Heaven. The genius artist showed this complex and difficult plot very clearly, warmly, and beautifully. The body of the celestial woman shows a beautiful “S” shaped curve. It was apparently created by a “three-step method” commonly used by ancient Indian artists to shape the female body. It is outlined with “iron wire strokes” and slightly dyed with colors, reminiscent of the style of the famous Khotan painter Yuchi Yiseng (Fig. 5.48). There are a great many non-Han Buddhist mural paintings in Kizil Grottoes. While most of them involve Buddha, there are also many donor portraits, which is very distinctive. These donors were supposed to be portraits of the Kucha people at that time, and some had surnames written in the Kucha script. This painting was sponsored by King Tottika. In the painting, King Tottika is in the middle. He holds an incense burner in his right hand, a dagger in his left hand, dressed in a long coat, with a light on the back of his head. The queen on the right wears a round leather hat with her long hair down, a long mopping floral dress, and a long floral belt in her hands, and a light on the back of her head. On the left are two monks. In the painting,

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Fig. 5.47 Caisson Pattern (Grotto Mural. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 320, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

the proportions of the human body are appropriate, the dynamics accurate, the lines smooth, and the face is rendered in such a way that it creates a three-dimensional sense (Fig. 5.49). In the middle of the picture, Sakyamuni is seated with his legs crossed in a yogic posture (a sitting posture of Buddha whose legs are crossed at the ankle with the soles of both feet visible) on the altar under the pipul tree, passing on his dharma to those kneeling in front of him. In front of him is an altar, with 2 Guardian Kings (Caturmahārājakayikas) standing next to it, a pair of golden lions on the left and right respectively, and he is surrounded by Bodhisattva, monks, and believers. There are Flying Asparas attending above, and a queue of emperors, attendants listen to the dharma on the lower right side. The floor is tiled and painted with flowers and plants. The composition of the picture is very full and rigorous. The characters show distinctive characteristics. The lines are complex, but closely and clearly organized, so they are meticulous and smooth, implying a vigorous and free engraving method.

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Fig. 5.48 Auspicious Goddess (Hārītī) (Temple mural. The Tang Dynasty, Kingdom of Khotan. Unearthed from an abandoned temple in Dandan Uiliq in Hetian County, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. The original mural no longer exists)

This is a new painting art that emerged in the Tang Dynasty: printmaking. It is an evolution based on portraits carved on stone and brick since the Qin and Han Dynasties. At the same time, it also paved the way for prints and New Year paintings that will continue to develop in the future. The inscription at the back of the scroll records the exact time when it was published: this picture was printed in 868 AD, the earliest print made in the world. The accurate timing marked on it makes it even more precious (Fig. 5.50).

5.4 Craft The Tang Dynasty was an era of unification, growth, self-confidence, and openness. Compared to the previous dynasties, people in the Tang Dynasty were self-conscious, beginning to care for themselves and made things around them tools in their activities. Contrary to the mysterious, rigorous, and majestic atmosphere of the past, craft decoration in the Tang Dynasty focuses more on real life and nature, and shows

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Fig. 5.49 Portrait of King of Kucha Tottika and His Queen (Grotto mural. The Tang Dynasty. Cave 205, Kizil Grottoes, Xinjiang Autonomous Region)

freedom, relaxation, and taste. At the same time, crafts in the Tang Dynasty drew extensively on traditional and foreign crafts. Crafts were highly developed in the Tang Dynasty, and decorative arts entered into a golden age of maturity. Their style was generally fresh, lively, and sophisticated, and their influence can be seen in decorations on various craft works nowadays.

5.4.1 Ceramics 5.4.1.1

Ceramics in the Sui Dynasty

Compared with ceramics in the Six Dynasties, ceramics in the Sui Dynasty had a greater variety. They gradually replaced metals and lacquerware and became people’s major daily necessities. In addition to the traditional celadon that continued to be produced in various parts of the Sui Dynasty, white porcelain was also produced on

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Fig. 5.50 Frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra (The Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sutra) (Print on paper. 24.4 cm in height and 28 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Found in the Buddhist Sutra Cave, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province. British Museum, UK)

a massive scale. This is an outstanding achievement that created conditions for the development of decorated ceramic in the future.22

5.4.1.2

Ceramics in the Tang Dynasty

Ceramics in the Tang Dynasty developed greatly, and many famous centers of porcelain making appeared with varied artistic characteristics, reflecting the prosperity of porcelain making. Celadon was still the most common variety. It had matured and sophisticated modeling and decoration techniques, and some exotic shapes had appeared. The main center of production was Yuezhou which is home to the famous Yue kiln. White porcelain is simple and generous, smooth, and non-patterned, most famously

22

The exact time when white porcelain was created is not yet possible to verify, but it appeared no later than the Six Dynasties.

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produced by Xing kiln. It was beautiful and very popular in the Tang Dynasty. Tricolored glazed pottery of the Tang Dynasty is a low-temperature lead-glazed pottery. It is called Tri-colored glazed pottery because yellow, green, and brown colors were often used to form colorful glazes such as flowers, spots, and geometric patterns on ceramic wares. The Changsha kiln also rose in this period which produced underglaze decoration. Underglaze decoration means that the color or decoration is applied to a plain porcelain body before it is glazed. This is of great significance in the history of ceramic decoration, especially in the history of porcelain painting. It has a white body with white glaze, a deep rim, a large lower part, two bellies each with a thick dragon handle, and the dragon’s head extending to the edge of the rim. The shape is unique (Fig. 5.51). The phoenix head consists of the rim and the lid. Its crest is towering and its eyes slightly flared. One end of the lid is combined with the mouth of the pot into its upper and lower beaks. The handle is modeled into a dragon shape, whose head extends towards the rim, the fore limbs caress the shoulder, and the hind limbs grasp the flaring base. The rim, neck, belly, and shin are divided into different decorative sections by strings, respectively decorated with beads, honeysuckle, lotus petals, flowing clouds, figures, grapes, treasure, and fairy flowers, etc. The ewer is dignified in shape and ornate in decoration. It is an excellent celadon of the early Tang Dynasty (Fig. 5.52). Bottles with a pair of dragon-shaped handles were popular in the Tang Dynasty. In addition to white glaze bottles, there were also three-color bottles, which are very similar in shape. The shape of this vessel is based on previous chicken-headed pots and share some characteristics of foreign bottles. It is decorated with a pair of dragon-shaped handles instead of a chicken head, which becomes the most prominent part of the whole vessel, reflecting the mature craft of ceramic making in the Tang Dynasty (Fig. 5.53). This vessel is exquisite and large, the porcelain body is beige, and under the celadon paint glaze is painted brown and green dots to form the cloud patterns and lotus patterns. It is an excellent product of the Changsha Kiln. Based on the brown underglaze from the Three Kingdoms period, the Changsha Kiln has developed a new underglaze decoration process, which further developed in the Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties (Fig. 5.54). Applied patterns in the ceramic making process of the Changsha Kiln was unique. First, printed patterned molds were pasted on a semi-dry knob or spout, then brown plaque glaze was applied on the patterns, and then a layer of transparent celadon was applied to make the patterns more eye-catching. In the picture, there is a big lion with a little lion on the spout of the pot, and a plant pattern under the knob. The character “何” appeared in those three patterns should be the name of the producer (Fig. 5.55).

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Fig. 5.51 Double Bottle with Double Dragon-Shaped Handles (White porcelain. 19 cm in height and 4.6 cm in diameter of caliber. The Sui Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Li Jingxun, Liangjiazhuang, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China)

Tri-colored glazed pottery was popular during the Kaiyuan and Tianbao years of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, and is unique in the history of ceramics. This figurine is covered with thick glaze of the color of yellow, white, and green. The three colors flow, mix, spread and drip during the burning process, creating a bright and mottled natural effect. The Tri-colored pottery of the Tang Dynasty has various themes and rich shapes, among which the ladies, horses, camels, etc. are the most outstanding. This female figurine is in a sitting position, with a plump figure and

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Fig. 5.52 Celadon Ewer with a Phoenix-Headed Cover and Dragon-Shaped Handle (Celadon. 41.3 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed in Henan Province. The Palace Museum)

graceful appearance. It is a typical image of court beauties in the High Tang period (Fig. 5.56). This figurine vividly depicted a music and dance troupe composed of foreign/ minority and Han people rode camels to arrive in Chang’an via the Silk Road. They were performing on the street. Among them, four musicians were sitting on both sides, playing “Biwa” lute, drum, cymbal and other western instruments, a bearded foreign man in the middle dances to the sound of music. This scenario was probably commonplace at the time (Fig. 5.57).

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Fig. 5.53 White-Glazed Bottle with a Pair of Dragon-Shaped Handles (White porcelain. 42.7 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 5.54 Celadon Cloud-Patterned Jar with Brown and Green Dots Paint (Glazed porcelain. 29.8 cm in height, 16.3 cm in diameter of caliber and 19.5 cm in diameter of bottom. The Tang Dynasty. The Changsha kiln. Unearthed from the ruins of the city of the Tang Dynasty, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province. Yangzhou Museum)

5.4.2 Metal Works Metal works in the Tang Dynasty mainly included gold and silver wares and bronze mirrors, which were well known for their high artistic achievements.

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Fig. 5.55 Celadon Pot with Brown Spots and Applied Patterns with “何” (He) Inscription (Glazed porcelain. The Changsha Kiln. 23.9 cm in height and 10.5 cm in diameter of caliber. The Tang Dynasty. National Museum of China)

5.4.2.1

Gold and Silver Wares

Among the metal works of the Tang Dynasty, gold and silver wares were highly developed. The majority were accessories, followed by drink and food utensils. The gilding method is most common, which creates brilliance. Hammering and carving techniques were also used. The golden cup is octagonal, and each face is decorated with a figurine in high relief who is singing and dancing, or holding objects, and whose look is natural and vivid. The characters were separated and surrounded by beads, and the handle is shaped as a beaded circle. The head of an elderly is embossed on both sides of the finger pad. The figure has a high nose, deep eyes, and a long drooping beard, which is a Persian characteristic (Fig. 5.58). The bowl has round lips, a large mouth, a bulging belly, a flat bottom, and an outreaching round foot. Two layers of lotus petals are hammered out on the wall of the bowl. The upper layer is carved with flowers in branch and birds and animals such as mandarin ducks, parrots, deer, foxes, and treasure and fairy flowers are engraved on the lower layer. Below the rim is carved with flying birds and floating clouds, and near the bottom, it is decorated with a five-petal flower. The outer wall of the round foot is carved with diamond patterns, the edge is decorated with a circle of beads, and the outsole is engraved with a bird, surrounded by five groups of wrapped twigs

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Fig. 5.56 Tri-Colored Lady Figurine (Tri-colored glazed pottery. 36.7 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Shanghai Museum)

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Fig. 5.57 Tri-Colored Camel Figurines Carrying Music (Tri-colored glazed pottery. The camel 58.4 cm in height and 43.4 cm in length, the statue 25.1 cm in height. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. National Museum of China)

and grass patterns, all with caviar patterns on the ground. This bowl is exquisitely crafted and decorated, and is a rare treasure (Fig. 5.59). The images of horses on Tang Dynasty artworks are colorful and lively, including war horses and royal horses, but this one is a very rare dancing horse. It is recorded that Emperor Xuanzong once watched horses dancing with drinking cups in their

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Fig. 5.58 Octagonal Golden Cup with Musicians and Dancers (Gold and silver ware. 6.1 cm in height and 6 cm in diameter of caliber. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from Hejia Village, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Shaanxi History Museum)

mouths for fun. The shape of this pot is similar to leather pots of the northern nomadic people of the same period. The body is flat and round. The mouth has a gilt lotusshaped cover. The pot also has a bow-shaped lifting beam and a flat round foot. The dancing horse pattern is hammered on both sides of the pot’s belly: the horse’s mane tail is neatly combed, its body is tied with a ribbon, and it’s titling a cup in the mouth, kneeling on the back legs, with the front legs erect, presenting a dancing posture. The patterns are all gilded (Fig. 5.60).

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Fig. 5.59 Pure Gold Bowl with Carved Patterns (Gold and silver ware. 5.5 cm in height, 13.7 cm in diameter of caliber and 6.8 cm in diameter of bottom. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed from the cellar in Hejia Village, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Shaanxi History Museum)

5.4.2.2

Bronze Mirrors

On the one hand, the prosperity of bronze mirror making in the Tang Dynasty was because many daily necessities had been changed from bronzes to ceramics, copper production had declined, and metal craft concentrated on bronze mirror making. On the other hand, there was a fashion of using bronze mirrors as gifts in the Tang Dynasty.23 In addition to the traditional round shape, mirrors in the Tang Dynasty also included fancy shapes such as rhombus and sunflower shapes. Compared with the styles of the Han and Wei Dynasties, the decoration is freer with lively and varied patterns. Some have obvious foreign cultural elements, such as “seabird and grape pattern”, as well as “two phoenixes tilting ribbon pattern” related to the “Mirror Festival”. In addition, there were also flower-and-bird patterns, animal patterns, characters, stories, and myths and legends. Decoration techniques were sophisticated and various, including gilding, gold and silver inlaying, gold and silver intercalation, inlaid mother-of-pearl, enamel coating, and lacquering. The mirror has flower petal edging and a silver shell on the back. The button is shaped like a lion, and there are apes playing between the branches, and the outer 23

Legend has it that during the High Tang period Emperor Xuanzong celebrated his birthday on August 5. On this day, ministers presented gifts including bronze mirrors to the emperor, so the birthday celebration was also known as the “Mirror Festival” (千秋镜节).

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Fig. 5.60 Silver Pot with a Cup-in-Mouth Dancing Horse Pattern (Gold and silver ware. The Tang Dynasty. 14.8 cm in height. Unearthed from the cellar in Hejia Village, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Shaanxi History Museum)

edge is decorated with foliage and birds. Composite mirrors consisting of the two metals disappeared for a time after the Warring States period. This new composite mirror is a masterpiece in the Tang Dynasty. It is a rare discovery (Fig. 5.61). The inlay of shell on a bronze mirror was an innovation of bronze mirror making at that time. Exquisitely decorated and inlaid like a painting, this bronze mirror is a valuable work of art. The shell images on the mirror back show two elderly people sitting by flowers, drinking, and playing music. There are birds flying between the

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Fig. 5.61 Bronze Mirror with Flower Petal Edging and Silver Back (Bronze mirror. 21 cm in diameter. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. Shaanxi History Museum)

flowers, a cat in the shade, a maid standing on the right, and a crane dancing in middle front (Fig. 5.62). The shape of the flat mother-of-pearl octagonal mirror imitates an eight-petal flower. The mirror surface is made of white copper and the back is decorated with mother-of-pearl techniques. The flower and bird pattern are inlaid with red amber and shells, and fine pieces of turquoise and lapis lazuli are inlaid between the gaps. The surface is smooth after grinding. The production process of the entire mirror is extremely complicated, luxurious and gorgeous (Fig. 5.63).

216 Fig. 5.62 Bronze Mirror with Inlaid Shell Flowers and Birds and Characters (Bronze mirror. 23.9 cm in diameter. The Tang Dynasty. Unearthed in Luoyang, Henan Province. National Museum of China)

Fig. 5.63 Flat Octagonal Mirror with Mother-of-Pearl Flowers and Birds on the Back (Bronze mirror. 32.8 cm in diameter and 0.7 cm in thickness. The Tang Dynasty. Shosoin, Japan)

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Fig. 5.64 Red Sandalwood Moon-Shaped “Ruan” (Guitar) Inlaid with Shell (Lacquerware musical instrument. 100.4 cm in length and 3.65 cm in thickness. The Tang Dynasty. Shosoin, Japan)

5.4.3 Lacquerwares Lacquerware became an ornate decoration in the Tang Dynasty. Common lacquerware making techniques include: gold and silver intercalation (金银平脱),24 and shell and lacquer carving.25 It has a thin neck, a round body, four strings and fourteen columns. The back of the body, neck, and pegs are all made of sandalwood. The front is made of fraxinus mandshurica or fraxinus spaethiana. And there are a pair of parrots holding beads in mouth decorated on the back adorned with mother-of-pearl, tortoise shell, and amber. The pick guard is made of leather and painted. The amber back is decorated with mother-of-pearl and tortoise shell trim (Fig. 5.64). This is the only five-stringed Chinese “Biwa” lute in the world. The back of the body, neck, and pegs are all made of red sandalwood; the front is made of fraxinus mandshurica or fraxinus spaethiana. Flower patterns are designed with conch shell and tortoise shell inlay. On this surviving five-stringed lute, the mother-of-pearl inlay technique of the Tang Dynasty was brought to its extreme (Fig. 5.65).

24

Thin gold or thin silver sheets cut into patterns and pasted on lacquerware according to decorative patterns, then painted in two or three layers, and finally polished to reveal the gold and silver pattern. 25 A new technique invented in the Tang Dynasty. Dozens of layers of paint were applied on the body, and then carving was carried out after a certain thickness was formed. This method is now also known as “red-tipping” (剔红).

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(a)

(b)

Fig. 5.65 Five-Stringed “Biwa” Lute of Red Sandalwood with Mother-of-Pearl Inlay (Lacquerware musical instrument. 108.1 cm in length and 30.9 cm in width. The Tang Dynasty. Shosoin, Japan)

Chapter 6

Arts of the Five Dynasties, the Northern Song and the Southern Song Dynasties

6.1 Overview The regime structure of this period:

6.1.1 The Five Dynasties Period The Five Dynasties Period (907-979 AD) includes the Five Dynasties (907-960AD) and the Ten Kingdoms (902-979 AD). In April 907 AD, Zhu Huang, a general in Huang Chao Rebellion, ousted the last emperor of the Tang Dynasty and established the Later Liang Dynasty in central China. He made Dongjing (present-day Kaifeng, Henan Province) the capital. This marked the beginning of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. This period lasted for more than half a century and was divisive again in the history of China. The Five Dynasties (Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou) in succession controlled the north in the Yellow River Basin, while the Ten Kingdoms (Wu, Southern Tang, Former Shu, Later Shu, Wu Yue, Nanping, Min, Chu, Southern Han, and Northern Han) seated in the south.

© Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 T. Chen, Illustrated History of Chinese Art, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8_6

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6.1.2 The Song Dynasty The Song Dynasty includes the Northern Song (960-1126 AD) and the Southern Song (1127-1279 AD).

6.1.2.1

Fragile Peace

In the first lunar month of 960 AD, the then general of the Later Zhou Zhao Kuangyin launched the Chenqiao Mutiny and forced the Emperor Gong of the Later Zhou to abdicate. He then became the first emperor of the Northern Song Dynasty, which marked the end of the Five Dynasties Period. Zhao Kuangyin, later known as Emperor Taizu of the Song Dynasty, swept the remaining “royal houses” (warlords) and reunited China, but as the Khitan (the Liao Dynasty) was so powerful, the Song Dynasty was forced to coexist and maintain an uneasy peace with it. Although he united China, Zhao Kuangyin only took control of the south. The Song Dynasty had never eliminated the threats from its northern rivals (the Khitan, the Jurchen Tungus, the Mongols, and the Tangut) and the ethnic minorities from the Southwest China and Southeast Asian nations. The Song Dynasty had to make massive annual payments for a fragile peace. In 1127 AD, the Song Dynasty was defeated by the Jin (Jurchen kingdom), almost the entire royal family, including two emperors, was captured and the capital was occupied. The rest of royal family moved to south and established capital in Lin’an (present-day Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province), thus started the history of the Southern Song Dynasty (the previous dynasty was then called the Northern Song Dynasty). At the same time, the north once again fell into a situation where multiple ethnic minority regimes coexisted or annexed each other. Until 1279 AD, the mighty Mongolian cavalry came down annexing all the regimes and then Jin and the Southern Song Dynasty, finally ending this era.

6.1.2.2

Philosophical Thinking

Unlike the Han Dynasty which had a vast territory or the Tang Dynasty who enjoyed unprecedented openness, the Song Dynasty, with a much smaller territory and at peace with itself but facing so many threats from its neighbors, approached the world with a new curiosity and deeper reverence, which gave its arts an inward-looking tone. “It rediscovered the world of senses and imagination which prevailed in the Six Dynasties but had been lost under the strong light of optimism in the Tang Dynasty.”1 In the Song Dynasty, many emperors had been highly cultivated and the intellectuals who ran the government were all honored elites. The intellectuals attached great importance to synthesize and compile the classics of previous generations, making 1

Sullivan M (2006.12) Yishu Zhongguo (The Arts of China). Hunan Education Publishing House, p 131.

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Song a dynasty where previous thoughts, ideas and cultures met and interacted. “During this period, the Confucian moral principle ‘Li’ (rite) and the Taoist first cause ‘Tao’ was considered to have the same metaphysical power and thus could be integrated, while the meaning of ‘Li’ was enriched by the theories and self-cultivation methods derived from Buddhism.”2 As a result, Zen, a sect of Buddhism, thrived. Like Taoism, it emphasized quietism, self-cultivation, and the freedom of the mind from all intellectual and material restrictions, so as to reach the state of “epiphany” to be enlightened of the self-revealed truth. The combination of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism created a new systematic way for people of the Song Dynasty to investigate and understand the world, which is called Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism believes that, by investigating things through scientific yet intuitive studies, cultivated intellectuals can deepen their understanding of the world and the principles of all things. In short, the “investigation of things” is a key way to deepen one’s understanding of the world. It is similar to the approach of Renaissance of the West to understand the manifestation of God by understanding the visible world. Such beliefs of Neo-Confucianism can be found on Northern Song paintings, whose intense realism stands for a profound and subtle examination of the visible world. It is the perfect combination of philosophical insights, creativity and technical refinement that made the Song Dynasty one of the greatest eras in the Chinese history of art.

6.1.3 Characteristics of Arts During the Five Dynasties and the Song Dynasty The Five Dynasties and the Northern and Southern Song Dynasties were another peak in the Chinese history of art after the Tang Dynasty. During this period, art and techniques were more refined and the soil was fertile for artistic creation. The Song Dynasty valued intellectual over military power, so literature and art flourished. Painting also bloomed during this period in terms of technique and style, and there were several reasons: (1) The royal family’s passion for painting, and the aesthetic taste of the ruling elites encouraged the development of court painting; The Imperial Painting Academy was established and flourish. (2) Literati and scholar-officials were enthusiastic about painting, their practice and theories inspired the development of Ink-wash painting, making poetry and calligraphy common elements in painting. It’s the time when literati painting began to rise. (3) With the economic prosperity and the rise of commerce, the gentry class expanded, which created a stronger connection between arts and civilian life, 2

Sullivan M (2006.12) Yishu Zhongguo (The Arts of China). Hunan Education Publishing House, p 131.

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while diversifying the themes and styles of paintings. The genre paintings therefore greatly developed. (4) The growing maturity of landscape painting and flower-and-bird painting, which were almost as popular as figure painting. (5) Song Dynasty painters’ pursuit of “realism” and their efforts to create a “truthful” portrayal of nature, which made them masters of the realistic style in the history of Chinese traditional painting. (6) In the late Song, there was a trend of more focus on the mind and feelings than the external forms of nature, which was a result of the development of theories of painting and philosophy, as well as the influence of literati painting and its philosophical beliefs.

6.2 Painting of the Five Dynasties The art of painting in the Five Dynasties continued the traditions of the Tang Dynasty and laid a solid foundation for further development in the Song Dynasty. The Kingdoms of Southern Tang and Shu were fortunate enough to stay safe from wars, and some truly-cultivated and artistically-inclined kings or emperors built their royal painting academies, all contributing to the prosperity of the painting art.

6.2.1 Figure Paintings in the Five Dynasties Zhou Wenju (ca. tenth century AD) was a native of Jurong County, Jiankang (present day Nanjing). This painting was first documented in the Xuanhe Catalogue of Paintings 《 ( 宣和 画谱》Xuan He Hua Pu) (a book on the art of painting) made in the Song Dynasty. There have been many copies since then. It was first mounted on a screen which was kept in the Song royal court’s art collection until the twelfth century. Wang Anshi, a famous scholar and politician of the Northern Song Dynasty, had seen it in the palace and described in a poem the bewildering effect this artwork showed. After the fall of the Northern Song Dynasty, this painting was no longer in the court’s possession, and many copies showed up. Anyway, the original painting had disappeared after the Southern Song Dynasty. The piece kept in the Palace Museum is believed to be an early copy made during the Northern Song Dynasty, which faithfully represents Zhou’s style, according to the research by the Museum (Fig. 6.1). This painting depicts the gathering of four scholars to compose and recite poems. On the right side of the painting, a scholar, resting his face on his hand with a brush holding, seems to search for inspiration, with a servant boy grinding ink and waiting for orders. Beside him is another scholar who rests upon an old big pine, frowning and reflecting on his own composition. Two others on the right side sit together on a

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Fig. 6.1 Playing Chess Before a Double Screen (A copy of the Song Dynasty3 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 40.3 cm in height and 70.5 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Zhou Wenju. The Palace Museum)

stone bench, appreciating a calligraphy scroll, one of whom looks back and seems to have found enlightenment. The colors of the painting are beautiful, delivering a sense of elegance, while the drapery is painted with Zhou’s “tremulous brush strokes” ( ), showing his exquisite use of ink and brush. The figures are characterized by natural gestures and vivid face expressions, which delicately transmits their inner feelings. In style, Zhou Wenju is akin to Zhou Fang, the famous painter in the Tang Dynasty. They both focused on portraying the dynamic expressions of figures and thereby revealing their inner emotions (Fig. 6.2). Gu Hongzhong (ca. tenth century AD) excelled at figure painting, and worked as an editorial assistant (待诏) in the royal painting academy of the Kingdom of Southern Tang. Han Xizai, a senior official of the Southern Tang who was depressed about his failure to realize his political ambition, indulged in un-Confucian behaviors in parties held in his house. Gu Hongzhong, a court painter, was sent by Li Yu, the Southern Tang emperor, to spy on Han Xizai at night and made a visual record of Han’s nighttime extravagances. In this painting, Gu artfully divided the party scene into five separate yet inter-connected sections, from music listening, dance appreciating, resting, flute playing to bidding farewell, by using partitioning elements like couch beds and screens. This work is painted with rich details, in which the figures’ gestures and facial expressions are meticulously depicted. The portrayal of the protagonist, Han Xizai, is highly sophisticated, who is characterized by complex gestures and facial expressions. He was either frowning in somberness, and with a cold face; he was 3

The Palace Museum website: https://www.dpm.org.cn/collection/paint/230460

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Fig. 6.2 A Literary Gathering (Should be the second half of “Scholars of the Liuli Hall” Painted by Zhou Wenju, Attributed to Zhou Wenju4 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 37.4 cm in height and 58.5 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Zhou Wenju. The Palace Museum)

either absent-minded or thoughtful. All these features which have nothing to do with pleasures indicate that Han Xizai was coping with conflicts inside. The precise and continuous brush lines and the delicate use of colors show Gu Hongzhong’s superb mastery of painting techniques. It is also worth noting that this painting creates a forlorn atmosphere underneath the jolly surface, which contains the complicated and unspeakable worries of Han Xizai about his political career, so the artwork has a unique depth that cannot be found in other paintings which depict pleasure-seeking activities. This is one of the most recognized and iconic masterpieces in the Chinese history of painting (Fig. 6.3).

6.2.2 Landscape Paintings in the Five Dynasties Landscape paintings in the Five Dynasties, together with the works of Li Cheng and Fan Kuan in the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty, are considered to represent the first peak of classical Chinese landscape painting, while they had a 4 The title on the painting: “Han Huang’s ‘A Literary Gathering’” is wrong. It should be an authentic work from the Five Dynasties, maybe an original work by Zhou Wenju, or a copy of Zhou’s work by a master from the Five Dynasties. Reference from: The Palace Museum website: https://www.dpm. org.cn/collection/paint/234572. Xu BD (1979) “Liulitang Renwu Tu yu Wenyuan Tu de Guanxi” (The relationship between “Scholars of the Liuli Hall” and “A Literary Gathering”). Art Research 1979(2), pp 71–74.

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Fig. 6.3 The Night Revels of Han Xizai (A copy of the Song Dynasty5 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 28.7 cm in height and 335.5 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Gu Hongzhong. The Palace Museum)

realistic focus. There were two different schools, the southern school and the northern school, marked by geographic differences. Jing Hao (ca. 889–923 AD), courtesy name Haoran, literary name Hong Guzi, was a native of Qinshui (present day Shanxi Province) and had lived in the Taihang Mountains in seclusion since the last years of the Tang Dynasty. His works depict imposing mountains and lofty peaks, showing the grandeur of the country. Although he closely followed the style of the Tang Dynasty, Jing Hao had contributed important innovations to landscape painting. Jing Hao is now recalled both as a landscape painter and a landscape painting theorist. An essay attributed to him, Record of Brush Methods (笔法记》), proposed that six essential elements contributed to a good painting: “spirit” (气), “rhythm” (韵), “thought” (思), “scenery” (景), “brush stroke” (笔), and “ink” (墨). In this essay, he insisted that a landscape painter should pay equal attention to the spirit and the external form of nature. “He also brought attention to the differences between ‘resemblance’ (the copy of the outward appearance of an object) and ‘truth’ (the inner reality), suggesting that only by coordinating these two standards can the perfect integration of content and form be achieved, and only by faithfully depicting the visible forms can a painter express the deeper laws of nature… Otherwise, the painter

5

Reference from: Zhang PC (2016) “Han Xizai Yeyan Tu” Tuxiang Yanjiu (An iconographic study on “The Night Revels of Han Xizai”). Peking University Press.

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cannot fully understand how the world operates.”6 This is a theoretical explanation of why landscape paintings in the Five Dynasties and the Northern Song Dynasty put so much emphasis on reproducing the real forms of nature. This painting, employing Jing Hao’s texturing technique and taking a panoramic view, depicts the grandeur of Mount Lu with their peaks rising sharply from ground and a cottage built at the foot. The painting techniques are far more refined and sophisticated than those used in the Tang Dynasty. In this work, Jing Hao fulfilled the landscape compositional mode of “three distances” (三远).7 In this work, amid the mist, steep mountains rise with waterfalls cascading down, where trees, pavilions, cottages, and bridges, hidden or present, constitute a vast yet well-composed panorama. High distance and deep distance are highlighted in this work, and the brush techniques include “outlining” (勾), “texturing” and “rendering” ( 染). Jing Hao was a founding figure of the northern school, and his works are distinguished for depicting tall and sharp peaks touching the clouds (Fig. 6.4). Guan Tong (years of birth and death unknown), was a native of Chang’an (presentday Xi’an, Shaanxi Province), was active in the late Five Dynasties and the early Song Dynasty. He was a follower of Jing Hao. His works mostly depict the landscape of what is now Shaanxi Province, with elements like mountains in autumn, forest in winter, and village and ferry, which were his favorites. His paintings create a cold secluded atmosphere that only the landscape in the north could have. The strong expressiveness in his paintings can immerse viewers in his world. While he was a student of Jing Hao, Guan Tong developed a sketchy style that was much simpler than his teacher. His brushstrokes were unlabored but the thoughts and spirits contained in his paintings were far reaching. His style was later called “Guan’s Landscape” (关家山水). In this painting, the grand mountains vary in forms, clouds and mist drape the mountainside. The texture of the rocks is solid, creating a grand and magnificent atmosphere. Among the deep valleys and dense woods, it seems that the viewer can hear the bells of ancient temples and see the lingering smoke, while at the foot of the mountain, there are a bridge, trees, shops in an isolated village, several travelers riding donkeys are on their way in a hurry. All together generate an enchanting aesthetic quality (Fig. 6.5). 6

Sullivan M (2006.12) Yishu Zhongguo (The Arts of China). Hunan Education Publishing House, p 141. 7 “Three distances” are “high distance” (高远), “deep distance” (深远) and “level distance” (平远), a painting theory proposed by Guo Xi, which was recorded in The Lofty Message of Forest and ) compiled by his son Guo Si. “High distance” means a painter should create Streams 《林泉高致》 ( the almighty loftiness of mountains to give the viewers a feeling of looking up from its foot to the top; “deep distance” suggests that a painter should create the overlapping forms of mountains and give the viewer an angle of looking at the mountain from front through to the back; and “level distance” means that a painter should create a panorama that the viewer can look from a near mountain to the more distant.

6.2 Painting of the Five Dynasties

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Fig. 6.4 Scroll of Mount Lu (Attributed to Jing Hao, may be painted by Jin Hao school painter of the Northern Song Dynasty8 ) (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 185.8 cm in height and 106.8 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Jing Hao. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

Dong Yuan (ca. tenth century AD), courtesy name Shuda, was a native of Zhongling (present-day Jiangxi Province). In his paintings, Dong Yuan succeeded in faithfully describing the fog-enshrouded layered mountains and waterways. He was skilled in painting misty landscape with broad and level rivers and lakes, with rocks and woods dotting the layered riverbanks. These elements contribute to a lyrical ambiance. In terms of techniques, he used , “rubbing” (擦), “dotting” (点) and “rendering” (染), and it was he “texturing” and “dotted texture strokes” who developed “hemp-fiber texture strokes”

8

Po SN (2013.9) Zhongguo Huihuashi [Zhencangban] (A History of Chinese Painting [Limited Edition]). Shanghai People’s Fine Arts Publishing House, p 212.

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Fig. 6.5 Travelers in the Mountains (Attributed to Guan Tong, may be painted by Guan Tong school painter 9 ) (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 140.5 cm in height and 57.5 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Guan Tong. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

. Shen Kuo10 commented on Dong Yuan In his Dream Pool Essays 《 ( 梦 溪笔谈》) by saying, “His paintings are difficult to understand if they are examined at close-up, but when viewing from afar, everything looks vivid and appealing” (“ 近视之几不类物象, 远观则景物粲然”). He also won praises from Mi Fu, a wellestablished painter, poet, calligrapher of the Song Dynasty, who said Dong Yuan’s painting was “simple but lyrical”. Dong Yuan’s style had a great impact on painters in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. This painting depicts the breath-taking “Jiangnan” (the south of the Yangtze River) scenery. There are no oddly-shaped peaks or rocks, but it presents only a hilly area with luxuriant verdure and woods on riverbanks. The “hemp-fiber texture strokes” and ink dots create a scene of mountains stretching with a faint haze, highlighting the liveliness of forests with a simple yet lyrical aesthetic quality. In this painting, the figures in the front are brightly colored and eye-catching. Three women are standing on the right, and five musicians are waiting on the shore when a boat is approaching on the river. Far away on the left, several fishermen are working, and there is a fishing village between reeds (Fig. 6.6).

9 National Palace Museum, Taipei website: https://theme.npm.edu.tw/opendata/DigitImageSets. aspx?sNo=04014648 10 Shen Kuo (1031–1095 AD) was a scientist and politician in the Northern Song Dynasty. The book Dream Pool Essays 《 ( 梦溪笔谈》) covers a wide range of natural sciences and social sciences, and has extremely high scientific value. The part about literature and art also has some valuable insights.

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Fig. 6.6 The Rivers Xiao and Xiang11 (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 50 cm in height and 141.4 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Dong Yuan. The Palace Museum)

Fig. 6.7 Summer Mountains (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 49.4 cm in height and 313.2 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Dong Yuan. Shanghai Museum)

The composition of this painting is dense, with heavy mountains and overlapping hills, as well as trees and water plants flourishing and cattle dotting the green grass, showing a vibrant “Jiangnan” scenery. The ink is thick and heavy. Trees and rocks cluster are mixed in intensity, creating a sense of vast mountains covered with lush trees, and life surging in the calmness. In his Dream Pool Essays, Shen Kuo said: “Dong Yuan is a good painter, and is most famous for painting real mountains in ‘Jiangnan’ without any peculiar peaks. His techniques are casual, so that his paintings are difficult to understand if they are examined at close-up, but when viewing from afar, everything looks vivid and appealing.” This painting is a very good example (Fig. 6.7).

11

Rivers Xiao and Xiang are two separate rivers, the Xiao River and the Xiang River in Hunan Province. Therefore, Hunan is nicknamed Xiao-Xiang. Originated in the mythical Classic of Moun)》 , Xiao and Xiang were two daughters of Emperor Yao, E Huang and Nu tains and Seas 《山海经 ( Ying, who were both married to Emperor Shun. They died in the basins of Rivers Xiao and Xiang in Hunan and were later worshipped as goddesses because they had died for mourning their husband. Therefore, the name Xiao-Xiang has a bitter connotation. Since then, this name has lived on and become a symbol of beauty (For example, Lin Daiyu, the heroine in the Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》 ), is called the “lady of Xiao-Xiang”). Xiao-Xiang also generally refers to the area with ( dense rivers and lakes in the south of the Yangze River

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Ju Ran (ca. tenth century AD), born in Zhongling (present-day Jiangxi Province), was a Buddhist monk in the Kingdom of Southern Tang. He followed Li Yu to the capital city of the Song Dynasty Bian Jing (present-day Kaifeng, Henan Province) after the Southern Tang ended. A follower of Dong Yuan, Ju Ran used delicate and gentle brush strokes, and his paintings mostly depict pastoral scenery. This painting depicts rugged mountains with a deep valley, where pines, standing tall, sway in the soughing wind, while a sparkling river runs down the valley, creating a refreshing and transcendental ambience. The “hemp-fiber texture strokes” used moss dots for the mountaintop) were for the mountains and the “alum head” ( thought to be based on yet transcend Dong Yuan’s techniques, which became a very distinctive feature of Ju Ran’s paintings. Anyhow, as he learned from Dong Yuan, his use of ink and brush was delicate, gentle and yet firm (Fig. 6.8). Other Painters: Zhao Gan, Wei Xian, Guo Zhongshu, etc. Zhao Gan (years of birth and death unknown), native of Jiangning (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu Province). The whole scroll describes the scene of the first snowfall in the fishing villages along the Yangtze River. The sky is cold, the wind is howling, the leaves and the reeds are withered. The river banks, the small bridges and the boats are all covered with silver. The wind carried scattered snowflakes across the river, causing fine ripples. There are fishermen sailed in boats in the cold wind, setting up nets to catch fish. On the river bank, there were donkey riders cowering in their sleeves. The trees Fig. 6.8 Pines in the Soughing Valley (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 200 cm in height and 77.6 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Ju Ran. Shanghai Museum)

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Fig. 6.9 Early Snow on the River (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 25.9 cm in height and 376.5 cm in length. The Five Dynasties. Zhao Gan. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

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and stones are painted with solid texture, the water lines are painted with clear and smooth strokes, and the white powder pops up the light snow in the sky, giving people the feeling of flying snowflakes. Zhao Gan usually paints “Jiangnan” scenery and fishermen’s life (Fig. 6.9). Wei Xian (tenth century AD), was a native of Jingzhao (present-day Shaanxi Province). This picture depicts the story of Liang Hong, a hermit in the Han Dynasty, and his wife Meng Guang, who respect Confucian ethics to follow the rules of couple behavior as “husband and wife respected each other as if they were guests, the wife lifts the tray to a level with her eyebrows to show respect for her husband ” (“相敬如宾, 举案齐眉”).12 The painting shows high mountains, dense forests with bamboos and tiled houses. In the hall, Liang Hong is sitting at the desk, and Meng Guang is kneeling in lifting the tray to eyebrows to present to her husband. The entire painting uses a large area of mountains, rocks, trees and bamboos as the background to highlight the free and easy character and noble conduct of Liang Hong, as well as the virtuous character of Meng Guang. The layout of the picture is rigorous, the brushwork is solid and the colors are elegant, the mountains, rocks and trees are vast and thick, the images are vividly depicted. Wei Xian was good at painting buildings, terraces and palaces, and this might be his only work that has been handed down (Fig. 6.10). Fig. 6.10 The Picture of Learned Senior (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 134.5 cm in height and 52.5 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Wei Xian. The Palace Museum)

12

According to the traditional Chinese Confucian moral tradition, it describes a husband and wife who respect each other, and perform their respective duties.

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6.2.3 Flower-and-Bird Paintings in the Five Dynasties Flower-and-bird paintings in the Five Dynasties had made great progress based on the tradition of the Tang Dynasty. There were two iconic painters, Huang Quan, a court painter, and Xu Xi, a literati painter. As a saying goes, “while Huang’s courtly painting style was elegant and decorative, Xu Xi’s paintings were characterized by a free and wild style” (“黄家富贵, 徐熙野逸”), which summarizes the different styles of these two artists’ works. Huang Quan (903–965 AD), courtesy name Yaoshu, born in Chengdu, Sichuan, was a court painter of the Kingdom of Shu. He had served the imperial painting academy for fifty years. There was a meticulous and brightly colored ambience in his paintings. His style of flower-and-bird painting was predominant in his time, and continued to prevail for nearly a hundred years in the Northern Song Dynasty. His son, Huang Jucai, was also a famous painter and served in the imperial painting academy of the Northern Song Dynasty. There are twenty-one birds, insects and turtles in this painting. The creatures are distributed evenly, so this painting looks like an example used for teaching in the royal painting academy. They are portrayed in exact shapes with distinctive features. Huang Quan’s refined painting techniques, especially his delicate handling of colors, are impressive in this painting. His realistic techniques, or the so-called “Huang Style”, are evident. Following the tradition of the Tang Dynasty, he mainly painted rare birds and exotic flowers, while in terms of painting style, he paid close attention to colors which he enriched by using light brush lines for contour and soft colors for supplementation. This is the only painting of Huang Quan that have been handed down to date(Fig. 6.11). Xu Xi (tenth century AD), born in Zhongling, was a scholar-official in the Kingdom of Southern Tang. Without a political ambition, Xu Xi had lived a free and self-satisfying life. In his paintings, instead of detailed sketching, he favored the free use of brush and ink with a slight hint of colors, focusing on the effect of ink on silk. The elegant use of light colors broke away from the meticulous style of flower-and-bird painting with fine strokes that was popular since the Tang Dynasty.

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Fig. 6.11 Birds, Insects and Turtles (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 41.5 cm in height and 70.8 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Huang Quan. The Palace Museum)

This painting depicts snow-covered bamboos, bare woods, and rocks in winter. Some bamboos, thick and strong, stand tall and straight, while some others, which are slender, bend and cross each other over, creating an interesting visual effect and adding to the complexity of the scene. The rocks, though covered in a blanket of snow, look odd but stand like a dignified old man. The composition of this painting is novel: it is well-composed yet surprising. Xu Xi had used blending techniques to make a contrast between black ink and blank space, which highlights the snow. He had also used a small brush to draw the front side and the back side of the bamboo leaves, showing their distinctive beauty and elegance. The refined and elegant ink brush lines are eye-catching. This is one of the most impressive works of Xu Xi (Fig. 6.12). This is a colorful autumn. The dense maple forest is intertwined with red and yellow leaves. There is herd of deer in the forest, some are standing, some are lying, or running, and some are hiding in the dense forest. The leading stag looks up warily as if hearing some sound. It is quite outstanding with a majestic look. The rest of deer also follow and stare sideways. The whole picture has a tight structure, elegant and gorgeous colors. It is especially unique in the treatment of maple forest. The shape of the tree crown is distinct, and the colors are used to set off each other, which is full of decorative interest. The deer is painted with a realistic technique to provide a vivid effect (Fig. 6.13).

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Fig. 6.12 Snowy Bamboos (Attributed to Xu Xi, may be a painting similar to Xu Xi style painted in the early Northern Song Dynasty13 ) (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 151.1 cm in height and 99.2 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Xu Xi. Shanghai Museum)

6.3 Paintings of the Song Dynasty In the Song Dynasty, painting permeated all levels of society. Aristocrats, literati, scholar-officials, businessmen and ordinary citizens all loved and had demands for paintings. The development of civic arts, the literati taste and the prosperity of court painting together contributed to the diversity of painting themes and styles. Such a fertile soil had nurtured many outstanding painters who produced fabulous works, which showcase the height and depth of Song Dynasty paintings. Precise images and details can be seen in figure paintings, landscape paintings, flower-and-bird paintings, etc., showing the painter’s great interest and close observation of real life. The artists of the Song Dynasty had also made many innovations in painting. There were many extraordinary Fine-brush (工笔: a meticulous painting style) paintings, 13

Po SN (2013.9) Zhongguo Huihuashi [Zhencangban] (A History of Chinese Painting [Limited Edition]). Shanghai People’s Fine Arts Publishing House, p 233.

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Fig. 6.13 Herd of Deer in a Maple Grove (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 118.5 cm in height and 64.6 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Anonymous. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

Ink-wash (水墨) was mostly used in landscape paintings, and Freehand brush works (写意) also rose that emphasized conciseness. In terms of Painting forms, in the Song Dynasty, massive murals and high-screen paintings were still popular; hanging scrolls and hand scrolls were common; smallsize paintings on screens and album leaf painting were popular; and the sketch drafts were also valued by collectors because of their refined techniques. The prosperity of painting and connoisseurship in this period had also promoted the study of painting theories and painting history. It was represented by the book The Lofty Message of Forest and Streams 《 ( 林泉高致》Lin Quan Gao Zhi), a compilation of Guo Xi’s essays and instructions. The most distinctive art phenomenon in the Song Dynasty was the prosperity of court painting and the rise of literati painting.

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(1) Court paintings An imperial painting academy was established under the Hanlin Academy (a scholarly institution to perform literary tasks for the imperial court) in the early years of the Song Dynasty, where renowned artists and painters from the imperial painting academies of Kingdoms of Shu and Southern Tang gathered. During the reign of Emperor Huizong, the imperial painting academy was improved, leading to a heyday of court painting. In the Southern Song Dynasty, the imperial painting academy followed the traditions of the Northern Song Dynasty and continued developing. (2) Literati paintings In the Song Dynasty, literati and scholar-officials regarded painting as an important part of their elegant life. As a result, there appeared many painting collectors, connoisseurs, and painters among them. In the second half of the eleventh century, literati in Bianjing, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty, were very active in poetry, calligraphy and painting. They were first scholar-officials, poets and intellectuals, and then painters. They were highly cultivated and proficient in calligraphy, while painting was mostly a channel for them to express their emotions. As Su Shi, a pre-eminent scholar in the Northern Song Dynasty, raised the revolutionary concept that the purpose of painting was not to reproduce the external object, but to express inner feelings. i.e., the purpose of painting was not to produce the same to the viewers as they see in the material world, but to reveal the feelings and thoughts of the painter’s own. Those literati painters stood firmly against simply copying the forms as some of their precedents had done. They would rather borrow the forms of nature, like plants, rocks, mountains and water, to express their feelings, in which ink bamboo and ink plum flowers might be their favorites. At the same time, painting offered them an opportunity to play with ink and brushes. Their brushwork shows strong personal styles, just like their calligraphy. They pursued a simple brush work and were advocates of a natural style, believing that the roughness of brush strokes is also a true expression of their mind and heart that haven’t been contaminated by the outside world. Those renowned early literati painters include Li Gonglin, Su Shi, Wen Tong, Wang Shen, and Mi Fu of Northern Song Dynasty and, famous scholars such as Mi Youren, Yang Buzhi and Zhao Mengjian in the Southern Song Dynasty. The origin of literati painting could be traced back to Wang Wei, the wellestablished Tang Dynasty poet, but it became a philosophy of art in the Song Dynasty, and had been passed down since then by generations of scholar artists. “This philosophy encouraged painters to go beyond the personal experience of a specific object to practice the general principle. As such a philosophy mainstreamed among intellectuals, scientific investigation for artistic production and the realistic style of art were discouraged and phased out.”14 (At this point, the beliefs they held were different from the attention the majority painters had paid to reproduction and realism in the Northern Song Dynasty). The prosperity of literati painting in the Song Dynasty laid 14

Sullivan M (2006.12) Yishu Zhongguo (The Arts of China). Hunan Education Publishing House, p 151.

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a practical and theoretical foundation for its further development in the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties.

6.3.1 Figure Paintings in the Song Dynasty Professional painters and court painters in the Song Dynasty pursued meticulous, concise and realistic depiction while literati painters sought a freehand, expressive and rule-breaking style in their painting. However, Zen painters, such as Liang Kai, used simplified strokes that penetrated into physical paintings, but their paintings were strong in personality and had created a new form of freehand figure painting.

6.3.1.1

“Baimiao” (白 白描)15 Figure Paintings

Wu Zongyuan (?–1050 AD), courtesy name Zongzhi, was a native of Henan. As an important religious painter in the Northern Song Dynasty, Wu Zongyuan had made a large number of temple mural paintings in Luoyang, Kaifeng, and other places. In style, he was a disciple of Wu Daozi, the master painter of the Tang Dynasty. It is a beautiful “Baimiao” painting of a procession of Taoist gods, with god emperor Donghua (东华) and god emperor of the Nanji (南极) leading other gods and goddesses to pay homage to “the Primordial” (原始天尊). The vivid figures have distinctive characteristics and vary in demeanor, with the two god emperors looking graceful and opulent, some other gods looking solemn and dignified, and the goddesses looking elegant and beautiful. The spatial arrangement of the characters, varying in height, created a changing complexity, while the costumes and ritual tools they held were exquisite and diverse. The procession was orderly. The brush lines are complicated yet well-organized. The faces are radiant due to the clever spacing of lines. The clothing, ribbons, banners and flags flutter in the freeze, adding rhythm to the procession. In this painting, Wu Zongyuan imitated but with some changes of Wu Daozi’s “orchid leaf strokes” technique, drawing with sharp and smooth lines. In particular, the section where figures are playing instruments vividly features the flying clothes, giving the viewer a feeling of a gentle wind blowing. Paying-homage-to-gods paintings are a genre of Taoist mural painting that developed in the Tang Dynasty. They were typically painted walls on both sides of the statue 15

Li Gonglin preferred to use ink and paper for painting. Most of his paintings were “Baimiao”. It is a refined painting technique that is based on the “Baihua” (白画) style of the Tang Dynasty, which creates precise yet fluent outlines using ink only. (About the difference of “Baihua” and “Baimiao”, see to the article of Shi Shouqian: “Shengtang Baihua zhi Chengli yu Bimiao Nengli zhi Kuozhan” (The establishment of “Baihua” in the High Tang Dynasty and the expansion of brush painting capabilities), Shi SQ (2018.8) Fengge yu Shibian - Zhongguo Huihua Shilun (Style in Transformation Studies on the History). Peking University Press.

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of the main god of a temple. Although this is only a paper sketch draft, it’s imaginable how grand and impressive it was when it was on the wall. Also, the elegant and simple style provided Taoist and Buddhist paintings the same humanistic appeal of literati paintings (Fig. 6.14). Li Gonglin (1049–1106 AD), courtesy name Boshi, was a native of Shucheng, Anhui Province. After resignation from office, he dwelled in the Longmian Mountains, thus calling himself Longmian Jushi (居士Kulapati). He was a poet, a writer, and a connoisseur who had a rich collection of antiques, paintings and calligraphy works. His extensive knowledge and profound understanding of painting allowed him to get the essence of his predecessors and surpassed the boundary of arts of his time. He was highly respected by his peers in the Song Dynasty. His Taoist paintings have a hint of literati painting. It was he who unleashed the supreme expressiveness of this technique and brought it to a new height where it became an independent style of painting. With a simple and

Fig. 6.14 Procession of Immortals Paying Homage to the Primordial 16 (Attributed to Wu Zongyuan17 ) (Handscroll. Line drawing on silk. 57.8 cm in height and 789.5 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Wu Zongyuan. Privately owned by Wang Jiqian in the USA. Now stolen)

16

In the famous modern painter Xu Beihong’s collection, there is a painting entitled “The EightySeven Immortals” that depicts almost exactly the same scene as this painting, except that the lines of The Eighty-Seven Immortals are thinner, and less changeable, and there are no explanatory notes next to the figures as Wu Zongyuan wrote in his painting. 17 Po SN (2013.9) Zhongguo Huihuashi [Zhencangban] (A history of Chinese painting [limited edition]). Shanghai People’s Fine Arts Publishing House, p 245.

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plain beauty, it stands for the aesthetics of literati painting whose influence endured down to the Ming Dynasty. As a painter, Li Gonglin was famous for his accurate observations and meticulous depictions of horses. The painting entitled “Five Horses”, based on his sketches, depicts five rare horses that were contributed to the Tang emperor as a gift. In this painting, names, sources, ages, and sizes of the five horses were recorded beside them, just as in an introductory portrait. The lines he used were simple with control, but full of energy, highlighting the horses’ characters. The proportions, sizes, spirit, and even the texture of their skin and hair were all vividly reproduced. The grooms leading the horses show different features, postures, and clothing, which not only indicate the ethnic characteristics but also faithfully deliver the differences of their characters. It is a masterpiece of Li Gonglin that fully demonstrates his style and superb painting skills (Fig. 6.15). This is a remake of a work of Wei Yan, the famous horse painter of the Tang Dynasty. The handscroll depicts the horses in the royal horse farm. There are 1286 horses and 134 wranglers on this painting which creates a grand and majestic scene. The composition is dense, orderly, and rigorous; the description is vivid and accurate; the outline and color are meticulous, revealing Li Gonglin’s reverence for preceding masters. This exquisite imitating work stands for one of the “Six Principles”—“Imitation and copying of models” proposed by Xie He. The aim of imitation is not about originality but identification with both nature and tradition. What matters more is the quintessence of the forms of nature reproduced by mobilizing a painter’s feeling and mastery of the brush, than the specific form of the subject matters (Fig. 6.16). This picture depicts the historical story of Tang general Guo Ziyi. In order to persuade the Uighur troops who was lured by Tibet/Tubo to attack the Tang Dynasty to retreat, he personally went to the front line without wearing the armor to negotiate with the leader of Uighurs. This behavior has won the trust and respect of Uighurs and they agreed to retreat, and the Tang thereby defeated the Tibetans afterwards. On this picture, the invading Uighur army was on the right with the Tang garrison in full formation on the left, Guo Ziyi was in the middle with his entourage meeting the Uighur Khan. Guo Ziyi’s generosity and majesty, and the Uighur leader’s bravery and humility are all presented vividly and realistically. The entire composition is closely integrated with the content of the story, and is full of rhythm changes in movement, density, and weight. It seems that the historical facts have enlightenment significance for the Song Dynasty, which was overwhelmed by powerful enemies in the north and unable to solve the crisis. Perhaps Li Gonglin also looked back on the past and lamented of the current situation (Fig. 6.17).

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Fig. 6.15 Five Horses (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 29.5 cm in height and 225 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Gonglin. Privately Owned in Japan)

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Fig. 6.16 Imperial Horses at Pasture After Wei Yan (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 42.6 cm in height and 429.8 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Gonglin. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 6.17 Undressed Armor (Attributed to Li Gonglin, a painting similar to Li Gonglin style painted by later generation18 ) (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 32.2 cm in height and 223.8 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Gonglin. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

6.3.1.2

Genre Paintings

Genre painting, depicting scenes from ordinary life, is a graphic record of the progress of social and economic development. The genre paintings of the Song Dynasty are worth special mentioning. In this period, painters no longer confined themselves to reproduce aristocratic life but turned their eyes to broader fields in the urban and rural areas. Their vivid portrayals based on their keen observation have revealed to us the living conditions, thoughts, emotions, and aesthetics of ordinary people. In the Southern Song Dynasty, genre paintings that depicted civic culture and decorative paintings which served festive celebrations were very popular. And many different themes have appeared, such as “The Picture of Tilling and Weaving”, “The Picture of Itinerant Peddler”, “The Picture of Grazing Cattle” and “The Picture of Children Playing”, etc. Zhang Zeduan (years of birth and death unknown), a native of Dongwu, Shandong, once served as a court painter in the imperial painting academy and then lived on

18

National Palace Museum, Taipei website: https://theme.npm.edu.tw/opendata/DigitImageSets. aspx?sNo=04014690

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selling paintings in the market. He was an outstanding genre painter active in the later Northern Song Dynasty. This is a world-famous masterpiece of genre painting. In this handscroll, Zhang Zeduan depicted a panorama of everyday activities along the Bian River and around the southeast gate of Bianjing during the Qingming Festival 19 with his meticulous use of brush and ink. This painting consists of three sections. The first section portrays a rural scene. The second section depicts a bustling scene along the Bian River and its riverside areas that were separated by an arching “rainbow” bridge. The transportation, commerce and handicraft trades along the river were prosperous. The third section depicts a busy commerce zone with densely packed shops and the street was crowded with carts and pedestrians. With Zhang Zeduan’s clever use of “scatter perspective” (散点透视), this painting, only 24.8 cm high, has more than 550 people, 50 animals, 30 buildings, 20 boats, and 20 sedan chairs. They were complicated but orderly arranged with changes, attracting viewers’ attention. The part around the rainbow bridge in the center, with boats passing under the bridge, is the most impressive highlight of this painting. The busy downtown area is another climactic scene. There are bistros, tearooms, handicraft workshops, and various stores that sell different goods. Among the pedestrians are officials, noblewomen, merchants, peddlers, artisans, servants, Buddhist monks, Taoists, and all sorts of other people. It is not only artistically valuable but also an important historical resource as it faithfully reproduces every aspect of people’s lives at that time. Based on the painter’s careful observation, the figures, situations and scenes are both typical and poetic and can represent the real life. The scatter perspective he used enabled him to tell dramatic and interesting stories and add fascinating details to the painting on the long scroll (Fig. 6.18). Wang Juzheng (the Northern Song Dynasty, years of birth and death unknown), a native of Hedong (present-day Yongji, Shanxi Province). In the left section of the scroll, an old woman is holding a ball of strings. On the right, a younger country woman is holding a baby in one hand and spinning with the other. Two thin threads connect these two figures. The old woman, humpbacked, seems very tired, which adds a realistic tone to the vivid depiction. Beside her, a child, sitting on the ground, is playing with a frog while a black dog barks happily. Through keen observation, Wang Juzheng has vividly depicted the everyday activities of an ordinary family in the Northern Song Dynasty (Fig. 6.19).

19

There is another saying about the “Qingming” in the title: Rather than festival, the “Qingming” here refers to good politics and harmonious society.

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Fig. 6.18 Life Along the Bian River at the Qingming Festival (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 24.8 cm in height and 528 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Zhang Zeduan. The Palace Museum)

Su Hanchen (1094–1172 AD), a native of Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng, Henan Province), once served at the imperial painting academy of the Song Dynasty. He is famous for painting peddlers and children playing. In a tranquil autumn courtyard, flowers are in bloom and a rock stands tall. Two wooden stools are on the meadow where two children are playing the “spinning dates” game on the left stool. They are so absorbed in the game that their heads

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Fig. 6.19 Spinning (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 26.1 cm in height and 69.2 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Wang Juzheng. The Palace Museum)

are almost touching as they bent over to play, looking totally innocent and pure. The boy, with a fashionable hairstyle, is so focused that he doesn’t notice that his collar is slipping off his shoulders. This detail fully demonstrates the energetic and carefree characters of a small kid. On the right stool, there are toys such as a spinning board and a miniature Buddha statute, and a pair of cymbals are on the ground. It is obvious that the girl has been playing her own game until her little brother called her to join him for fun, or did he encounter troubles and need her help? The details in this painting are very interesting. As said above, in the Song Dynasty, genre painting was very popular, and many painters were specialized in painting children-playing scenes and Su Hanchen was one of the best. His style is exquisite, with meticulous figure designs, refined outlining, and rich and bright colors. This painting is his most outstanding work on the same subject matter (Fig. 6.20). Li Song (1166–1243 AD), was a native of Qiantang, was once a carpenter, and later became a painter of the imperial painting academy. He was good at painting figure, landscape, flower-and-bird, and excelled at genre painting. This painting depicts an interesting scene of daily life. On the grassy slope outside the village, a green willow tree is swaying gently with the wind. An old street peddler, with feathers, pinwheel and little flags sticking in his hair and a pellet drum in one hand, is carrying two full baskets. Just about to put down his baskets, a group of kids approach him with curious eyes. Some eagerly reach out to touch the goods, some select their favorite snacks, some drag their mother towards the peddler, and others call their brothers and sisters over. What a joyful scene of daily life! These figures can be divided into two groups. On the left is a group around the peddler and on the right are some kids pulling at their mother who holds her baby. The dynamics and postures of the figures connect the two parts and create a harmonious picture. There are also some puppies wagging their tails, barking and bouncing, adding vibrancy to this painting. The rich and vivid details create a lively atmosphere worth savoring. It is Li Song’s close observations and refined painting techniques that

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Fig. 6.20 Children at Play in an Autumn Garden (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 197.5 cm in height and 108.7 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Su Hanchen. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

create such vividness. The painting is outlined with rigid, powerful and varied brush lines, which are supplemented with a careful use of light colors. The drapery was drawn with tremulous brush lines. Although a bunch of items were painted, they were orderly arranged and were in correct shapes. The dense brush strokes and the blank background create an interesting contrast that highlight the items (Fig. 6.21). In the upper-right corner of this painting, a stone wall stands tall with a plate saying “Wuli” (五里), which indicates that here is an entrance to the village. Under the wall, a big skeleton sits and is manipulating a small skeleton puppet with strings.

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Fig. 6.21 An Itinerant Peddler (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 25.5 cm in height and 70.4 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Song. The Palace Museum)

Behind the big skeleton is a woman nursing her baby and the belongings of a street peddler taking rest there. In front of him, two children seem very curious. The younger one is crawling towards the puppet and the older one is trying to stop him. The story this painting depicted is weirdly interesting. The apparent absurdness seems to precede the modern surrealist painting. The strong contrast between life and death coincides with Zhuangzi’s idea that “death and life are mutually dependent” (齐生 死). The shape and proportions of the skeletons in the painting are accurate, which proves the progress Song Dynasty painters had made towards realism (Fig. 6.22).

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Fig. 6.22 A Skeleton Puppet Play (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 27 cm in height and 26.3 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Li Song. The Palace Museum)

6.3.2 Landscape Paintings in the Song Dynasty Landscape painting in the Song Dynasty advanced further and matured based on achievements in the Five Dynasties. Many great masters emerged who developed different styles of landscape painting, such as Ink-wash, Blue-green, and Freehand style. They continued to prioritize observation of nature, and thus contributed to some great innovations in painting skills. Among the painters of the early Song Dynasty, Li Cheng and Fan Kuan were most popularly recognized, and Li Cheng was very highly reputed. Li Cheng and Fan Kuan both belonged to the northern school. Following the Five Dynasties masters Jing Hao and Guan Tong, believing in the doctrine of realism, they had created many great works and brought the northern school to a new height. They were inspired by the landscape along both sides of the Yellow River in northern China, and created a vigorous and majestic aesthetic taste. The followers, like Xu Daoning, Zhai Yuanshen and Guo Xi all looked up to and were influenced by Li Cheng. In the same time, on the other hand, influenced by Dong Yuan, the master of the Kingdom of Southern Tang, Mi Fu and his son Mi Youren created another school that focused on the misty landscape of the “Jiangnan” (the south of the Yangtze River) area, which was known as “Mi’s Clouded Mountains” (米氏云山). In terms of composition, landscape painting of the Five Dynasties and the Northern Song Dynasty featured a panoramic view, in which painters combined the dimension of time with space, thus forming a four-dimensional pictorial expression. As a landscape painting unrolls following the time line, a story is narrated horizontally from right to left or vertically from top to bottom, which fully captures the viewers’ mind

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and soul. They most often immerse themselves into the world the painting created so much that for one second, the line between that world and the real world is blurred. As the Song Dynasty retreated to the south and became known as the Southern Song Dynasty, the cultural center also moved south and the painting style shifted from the “grand and vigorous” northern school to the “delicate and elegant” southern school. Li Tang, Liu Songnian, Ma Yuan, and Xia Gui, known as the “Four Masters of the Southern Song Dynasty”, developed new manners of landscape painting featuring weird sceneries (showing corners and presenting halves) with simple but comprehensive brush lines.

6.3.2.1

The Northern School/A Continuation of the Classical Period

Li Cheng (919–967 AD), active from the Five Dynasties to the Early Northern Song Dynasty, courtesy name Xianxi, a native of Chang’an (present-day Xi’an, Shaanxi Province), was a descendant of the Tang imperial family. His family fled to Yingqiu, Shandong Province in the Five Dynasties (hence he was also called Li Yingqiu). Li is remembered mainly for his winter landscapes and his “level distance” (平 远) composition. He was good at creating levels and empty spaces to express the complexity of the mind. Showing distant mountains in the background and sparse trees in the foreground, this painting depicts a remote, solitary and desolate world. The sparse trees that stand tall are most eye-catching. They stand proud in the cold wind, with branches reaching up to the clouds, telling a story of resilience and strength. Li Cheng was famous for painting wintry forests. In this painting, the trees are of different densities. Despite the bare branches, they still demonstrate a strong vibrancy. His brushstrokes were free and vigorous, and he created a great depth for the landscape, conjuring up a feeling that the mountains in the background are miles away from the trees in the foreground. His contemporaries praised him for “using subtle and refined brushwork to recreate a desolate atmosphere and a clear landscape” (Fig. 6.23). This is a large landscape painting drawn on a two-piece silk. This painting depicts a scholar on a donkey, reading an inscription on a stele in a rocky landscape with bold, sparse old trees in the background. The scholar is wearing a bamboo hat, looking up, apparently attracted by the inscription. Standing next to him is a boy. In the foreground, the painting reveals a corner of a rock with many holes in it. As mentioned before, Li Cheng’s landscape paintings were appraised for their “desolate atmosphere and clear landscape”. This painting exactly demonstrates his unique painting style. The composition is focused, with bare trees, stele, and figures as the key subject matters in a desolate and bleak winter atmosphere. Li Cheng drew the branches with thin brush lines and rendered them into “crab claws” shape in a crisscrossing pattern, building up a vigorous feeling. The brush strokes of the rock were soft and with some textures, painted in a sidelong manner. Such brush strokes

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Fig. 6.23 Wintry Forest (An imitation made in the Ming Dynasty20 ) (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 137.8 cm in height and 69.2 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Li Cheng. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

were referred to by later generations as “rolling-cloud texture strokes” . Through the bare trees and the stele, a gloomy atmosphere was built up, probably indicating the painter’s remembrance of his family’s glorious past. There is text inscribed on the side of the stele, saying “Wang Xiao painted the figures, Li Cheng the trees and rocks”. So, this work has always been considered to be painted by Li Cheng and Wang Xiao during the Five Dynasties. However, recent research has brought some doubt, and now it is assumed to be a copy by a later generation. But that doesn’t prevent us from feeling what Li Cheng had wanted to deliver to his viewers (Fig. 6.24). Fan Kuan (years of birth and death unknown), birth name Zhongzheng, courtesy name Zhongli, was a native of Huayuan, Shaanxi Province, and was active in the early Northern Song Dynasty. Fan Kuan insisted after copying past masters that “rather than learning from the ancient masters who learned to paint by observing nature, I should learn more from my own observation; rather than studying nature only, I should move my brush freely following my mind”. Therefore, he immersed himself in the outside world and 20

National Palace Museum, Taipei website: https://theme.npm.edu.tw/opendata/DigitImageSets. aspx?sNo=04021305; https://digitalarchive.npm.gov.tw/Painting/Content?pid=1267&Dept=P

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Fig. 6.24 Reading the Memorial Stele (Attributed to Li Cheng, a copy by later generation [of the Yuan Dynasty]21 ) (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 126.3 cm in height and 104.9 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Li Cheng, Wang Xiao22 . Osaka City Museum of Fine Arts, Japan)

21

Osaka City Museum of Fine Arts website: https://www.osaka-art-museum.jp/en/about/col lection–Art Project; https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/reading-the-memorial-stele-li-chengand-wang-xiao/yAGM6dF3XG-oqg?hl=en 22 Wang Xiao was a painter of the end of the Five Dynasties and early Song Dynasty. He was good at painting birds as well as figures. His only handed down work is “Reading the Memorial Stele” in collaboration with Li Cheng.

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traveled extensively in the mountain area. In his journeys, he observed carefully the effects of weathers and seasonal changes to the landscapes, which contributed to his unique style and differentiated him from previous masters. His landscape paintings portrayed the majesty of “heavy and bold rolling mountains” in northern China, and were praised for showing “the essence and spirit of mountains”. Li Lincan, former vice director of National Palace Museum Taipei, discovered the two characters “Fan Kuan” on this painting in 1958, and thus confirmed that the painting was an authentic work by Fan Kuan. This is a true masterpiece of Chinese landscape painting. It vividly depicts the majestic landscape in northern China, making the viewers feel like they are right before the grand mountains and near the quiet creek. As the scroll unrolls, mountains rise from the ground and are very impressive. On the mountaintop, there are old and dense trees, and a small waterfall cascades down the valley. A stream flows past the jutting rocks, which is so vividly depicted that it feels as if the water flow crashing against the rocks is audible. Several travelers are walking down the stream, hence the title. When drawing the main peak, Fan Kuan preferred to depict the front because it’s lofty and can better show the majesty of the mountains and impress the viewers. Also, he employed a strong and powerful brushstroke to show the energy of the landscape. Strong and jagged lines were used to outline the rocks, and brush dabs like rain drops were used to create the surface of the rocks, which is characteristic of Fan Kuan’s paintings. In short, his paintings deliver a strong and majestic aesthetic quality. Believing a landscape painting should reflect the real world and express the painter’s feeling, he lived successively in Mount Zhongshan and Mount Hua, immersing himself fully in nature in the Guanzhong region. It is his keen observation of and resonance with nature that enabled him to attain artistic perfection (Fig. 6.25). This painting depicts a magnificent endless snow landscape in the mountains running across Shaanxi and Gansu. The towering forest-clad mountains stand tall with snow-capped peaks with an ancient temple partly visible in the middle. Several cottages sit still at the foot of the mountains, along with winding roads, isolated bridges and a cold stream that flows quietly. The landscape this painting depicts is enveloped in a sense of coldness. Viewers may shiver even when they watch it in midsummer (Fig. 6.26). Guo Xi (years of birth and death unknown, ca. eleventh century AD), courtesy name Chunfu, was a native of Wen County, Henan Province. Landscape painters in the early Northern Song Dynasty were mostly Li Cheng’s followers who attached importance to observing nature. Such an approach to painting had brought landscape painting further based on century-old traditions. Guo Xi was an outstanding one of these. He was not only a great painter, but also an accomplished landscape painting theorist. His son Guo Si compiled his essays and instructions on landscape painting into a book called The Lofty Message of Forest and Streams 《 ( 林泉高致》). The book

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Fig. 6.25 Travelers among Mountains and Streams (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 206.3 cm in height and 103.3 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Fan Kuan. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

has six chapters: 1. Instructions on Landscape Painting (山水训), 2. The Meaning of Painting (画意), 3. Secrets of Painting (画诀), 4. Painting Topics (画题), 5. Reminders of Painting Styles (画格拾遗), and 6. Notes to Painting (画记). The first thing this book emphasized is that a landscape painting should express the spirit of nature. It suggests that painters should conduct close observation of and communicate with nature. When painting, they should observe the nature from all aspects, pay attention to the effects of weather, time and seasonal changes, and capture the specific characteristic of the object at each different moment. As it was concluded in the book about the seasonal changes in the mountains that “spring mountains should be light; summer mountains should be dark green, autumn mountains should be clear; and winter mountains should be bleak”. Guo Xi believed that everything in nature is alive, so apart from the depiction of the texture of nature, it is necessary for a painting to convey the “spirit” (气) of

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Fig. 6.26 Wintry Trees After Snow (Attributed to Fan Kuan23 ) (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 193.5 cm in height and 160.3 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Fan Kuan. Tianjin Museum)

these living things. He insisted that a painter must “enjoy the landscape, try to polish his painting skills, and travel a lot to immerse himself in nature to experience and embrace its beauty”, so as to enter a realm where the painter dips his brush in his 23

Considering the painting style is somewhat different from that of “Travelers Among Mountains and Streams”, some connoisseurs believe it is a work painted by a Fan Kuan School painter of the Song Dynasty. Reference from: Po SN (2013.9) Zhongguo Huihuashi [Zhencangban] (A History of Chinese Painting [Limited Edition]). Shanghai People’s Fine Arts Publishing House, p 260.

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own soul and paints his own “nature” into his painting. That is to say: to deliver the connections between nature and the feelings of the painters and the viewers. He also pointed out that a landscape painting should depict the ideal destination for scholar-officials, “places where there are beautiful sceneries to enjoy and gentlemen can enjoy their seclusive life”. As for painting theory, he mentioned in this book the importance of silhouette, composition and structure of landscape, as well as the use of brush and ink. He also proposed that a painter should “see the landscape from afar for its overall appearance and observe it in details for its characters” (“远观取其势, 近观取其质”) and follow the “three distances” (三远) standard to create and appreciate landscape paintings. Containing many valuable suggestions, the monograph of The Lofty Message of Forest and Streams is very important in the history of Chinese landscape painting. It is also a proof that landscape painting theory had reached a mature stage in the Song Dynasty. This is a masterpiece that best exemplifies Guo Xi’s own theory of landscape painting. The delicateness of the landscape on an early spring day is vividly depicted on this scroll. The valley is still enshrouded in chilly mist but trees are beginning to sprout leaves, with the spring water tinkling and travelers and boats busy. The world appears to wake up from the winter. The rocks, shrouded by mist, look just like wispy clouds, which creates a blurring but refreshing atmosphere. In Guo Xi’s paintings, “rolling-cloud strokes” were often used as a texturing technique to depict rocks, and layers of ink were used for rendering. The ink is light yet rich, building up a moist and wet effect (Fig. 6.27).

6.3.2.2

The “Mi’s Clouded Mountains”

Mi Youren called his painting an “ink play”, as he created the landscape of the “Jiangnan” area by featuring smoke and rain with ink dots. Before Mi Youren and his father Mi Fu, landscape painting in the Song Dynasty focused on the depiction of natural scenes like mountains and rivers. Unlike their predecessors, Mi used simple and light ink to create an ambience consisting of smoke and clouds. Without requiring any embellishment, he advocated naivety, which means “feeling overrides form”, that caters to the aesthetic interest of scholar-officials. This new style of painting not only contributed to the further growth of Ink-wash landscape painting, but also created a new school of literary painting. Mi Fu (1051–1107 AD), courtesy name Yuanzhang, was originally a native of Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, but later moved to Xiangyang, Hebei Province. He served at the academy of calligraphy and painting sponsored by Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty, and the highest official position he held was a middle ranking deputy director of the Ministry of Rites. The original painting no longer exists. But his creation and theory of literati paintings had a great influence on future generations.

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Fig. 6.27 Early Spring (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 158.3 cm in height and 108.1 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Guo Xi. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

Mi Youren (1074–1153 AD), courtesy name Yuanhui, was the eldest son of Mi Fu. During the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Song, he served as deputy director of the Ministry of Public Work and an honorable advisor of the imperial library called the Fuwen Pavilion. Known as “the younger Mi”, he was good at calligraphy, painting, and connoisseurship. He further developed and refined the “Mi’s Clouded Mountains”, an Ink-wash painting style created by his father. From lurking peaks and floating clouds down to hazy trees high above, everything is shrouded in confusion and illusion, vividly showing the special charm of the “Jiangnan” area. It contains unspeakable and magical fun of looking at the everchanging weather. The whole picture is fresh, quiet, and moist, revealing a simple, natural, and subtle beauty and full of energy. He gave up the complex traditional method of outlining, detailing and texturing, but simplified almost everything. Using a rough brush and ink splash, he focused on the effects of water and ink. He created rich layers and expressed a strange sense of rhythm through a patchwork of ink dots. He called this an “ink play”. This style was called the “Mi’s Clouded Mountains” by later generations, and the style of ink dots was called the “Mi’s Dots”. It reflected

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Fig. 6.28 Spectacular Views of the Rivers Xiao and Xiang (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 19.8 cm in height and 289 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Mi Youren. The Palace Museum)

the artistic interest of Mi Youren and the aesthetic pursuit of “plainness and naivety” (平淡天真) in literati paintings from the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty. It enriched Chinese landscape painting styles and techniques, and had a great impact on the development of freehand landscape painting in later dynasties (Fig. 6.28).

6.3.2.3

Blue-Green Landscape

Although Blue-green landscape that first emerged in the Tang Dynasty was less popular than Ink-wash landscape in the Song Dynasty, it was still appreciated by the royal family and aristocrats, and the style became more exquisite and elegant. Wang Ximeng (1096–1119 AD) was once a student at the imperial painting academy during the reign of Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty. The painting shows a magnificent view of a vibrant landscape. Very few bluegreen landscape paintings are as spectacular as this one called “Thousand Miles of Mountains and Rivers”. This painting describes daily-life sceneries such as waterborne villages, where there are markets, fishing boats, passenger boats, bridges, huts and pavilions, as well as activities like fishing competitions and tourism. This picture expresses a deep love for this land. The painting is characterized by precise strokes, strong colors, a broad view, and rich details. This picture is unique in that it reflects light in the Blue-green landscape. Through the contrast of colors, the painter shows a countryside area which is both visible and hidden, and the distance in different degree. An ochre color hops out from the blue-green background, which further enhances the charm of sunshine and gives the picture a strong power. It is said that it took the young painter half a year to complete this magnificent work. Unfortunately, he died at the age of 23. This is the only painting of his that we can find (Fig. 6.29).

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Fig. 6.29 Thousand Miles of Mountains and Rivers (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 51.5 cm in height and 1191.5 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Wang Ximeng. The Palace Museum)

Zhao Bosu (1124–1182 AD), courtesy name Xiyuan, was a member of the Song imperial family, and lived in Bianjing. He excelled at painting landscape, and like his elder brother, Zhao Boju, he was also a genius of Blue-green landscape painting. This scroll depicts the scenery of the Fenghuang Mountains outside the palace of the Southern Song Dynasty in Lin’an (present-day Hangzhou). The scroll begins with a peaceful suburban area, where the bright moon rises in the east, and then extends into the green mountains. The mountains are covered with pines, and the rocks at the foot of the slope are colored with blue, green, and gold colors, looking rather splendid. In the near view, the pines stand upright, with their branches uneven and competing to show power. Behind and above the pines, there are white clouds, and some egrets are flying through them in a line, making the picture quiet yet enchanting. From openings in the trees and clouds, magnificent golden halls can be seen as if it is in an illusory fairyland. The flowing water is drawn in detail with a mesh that crosses the picture, creating a contrast between black and white with the mountains and their soaring peaks. The landscape is quiet yet fascinating. The artist combined traditional Blue-green and ink painting techniques, combined simplicity and exquisiteness, combined line coloring and “boneless dyeing” (没骨,

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Fig. 6.30 Golden Halls in the Pine Forest 24 (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 27.7 cm in height and 136 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Zhao Bosu. The Palace Museum)

the technique of painting directly with colors and without using ink outlines is called the boneless dyeing method.) to create his own unique style Blue-green landscape painting that is light, fresh and dynamic (Fig. 6.30).

6.3.2.4

“The Four Masters of the Southern Song Dynasty”

Li Tang (ca. 1050–1130 AD), courtesy name Xigu, was a native of Heyang (presentday Mengxian County, Henan Province), and once served as a painter at the painting academy of Emperor Huizong of the Northern Song Dynasty. After the Northern Song collapsed, he fled south to Lin’an and lived on selling paintings at the age of 80. Finally, he was recruited in the painting academy of Emperor Gaozong. Li Tang was a founder of the powerful Ink-wash painting school in the Southern Song Dynasty and also excelled at painting figures. Li Tang’s landscape paintings are rigorous and simple. His paintings had remained the majestic views characteristic of the Northern Song Dynasty, while at the same time he initiated a tendency of simplification to create a new style of landscape painting in the Southern Song Dynasty. In the distant mountains, there are huge rocks that look like hard and sharp axes surrounded with old pines and vines. The old trees are painted with thick and powerful strokes, and the vines are strong and resilient. There are two brothers who sat on the ground in the mountains. They are Bo Yi and Shu Qi, aristocrats of the Shang Dynasty who refused to eat foods of the Zhou Dynasty after the fall of Shang, took refuge in the Shouyang Mountains where they lived on wild herbs. They would rather starve than give in to the Zhou Dynasty, and were praised by later generations for their loyalty. The person holding his knees in front of him and listening carefully was Bo Yi. Bo Yi’s firm look was successfully depicted, and fills viewers with awe. This is a famous historical story painting of Li Tang helping to show the character’s temperament. This painting was made in the early years of the Southern Song Dynasty, indicating the painter’s contempt for those who compromised and his concerns about the nation’s survival facing the invasion of the enemy. 24

Golden Halls: Taoists say there are golden halls in the heaven, and immortals and god-emperors live there. It also refers to palaces where earthly emperors lived

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The vigorous ink landscapes in this painting play a very good role in expressing the character’s personality and environmental atmosphere, and the depiction of the characters is an extremely successful example in ancient figure painting (Fig. 6.31). The texturing of rocks shows signs of Fan Kuan’s influence, but Li Tang paid more attention to the tailoring of the view, and the central image is more highlighted. The close-up view of the picture is a valley with rocky cliffs. The valley is full of green pines, and it feels as if one can to hear the pines and stream singing in a chorus while facing the picture. The stream seems to be very near and real. The distant mountains stand proudly, and the rocks are awesome. It’s a majestic yet secluded landscape. While this painting highlights overlapping rocks, the pine trees are well

Fig. 6.31 Gathering Wild Herbs (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 27.2 cm in height and 90.5 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Tang. The Palace Museum)

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arranged. The painter was bold with the use of brush and ink, and the heavy texture of the rocks creates an impression that the rocks are chopped by an axe (hence the ). The ink is dark and thick. All of this fully name “axe-chopping strokes” expresses the artist’s resonance with the pines swaying in the wind and the echo from valleys (Fig. 6.32). After the rain, the trees on the bank are verdant, and the stream is clear and flowing fast. A bridge across the stream leads to a mill, and the waterwheel is turning. On the right side at the foot of the slope, some rocks extrude out of the water, and some people are fishing from boats. The rocks are painted with “axe-chopping strokes”. The slope is ink-washed with lines and surfaces combined, and texturing and dyeing mixed. While the rocks are hard, clear and moisturized after the rain, the picture also creates a sense of majesty and vigor. The leaves are painted with “big mixed dots” and are very realistic. This is Li Tang’s work in his later years. It’s a typical cutaway composition, as the mountains and trees do not show their top, while the cliffs do not show their base. The style is highly abstract, the use of brush was blunt, and the

Fig. 6.32 Wind in Pines among Myriad Valleys (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 188.7 cm in height and 139.8 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Li Tang. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

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Fig. 6.33 Fishing on the Clear Creek (Handscroll. Ink on silk. 25.2 cm in height and 144.1 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Li Tang. The Palace Museum)

air is serene and elegant, unlike the majesty in his early years. These characteristics had a great influence on the formation of the painting style of the Southern Song Dynasty (Fig. 6.33). Liu Songnian (years of birth and death unknown) was a native of Qiantang (presentday Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province) and served at the imperial painting academy. He was one of the Four Masters of the Southern Song Dynasty. He excelled in landscape and figure painting. Under the influence of Li Tang, his landscape and figure paintings are reserved, elegant and strict. He was accomplished in both Ink-wash and Blue-green landscape painting, and also good at “ruler painting” (界画). The picture depicts the scenery of an aristocrat’s estate on West Lake in Hangzhou in spring, summer, autumn, and winter, in which there are human activities such as visiting friends in the spring, enjoying the cool in the open air near the lotus pond in summer, sitting idly in the early autumn, and hiking in the snow in winter. This picture is a winter scene. With white snow and upright pines, the whole estate is very quiet. There is a man riding a donkey on the bridge, holding an umbrella. Accompanied by a page, he seems to have returned from a snow outing. The ambience is solemn and quiet, the picture is exquisite with the trees and rocks painted with strong brushwork and the lines meticulous. This painting is a masterpiece of Liu Songnian. He had spent his whole life at West Lake and was very familiar with and loved the natural beauty of West Lake. When depicting the scenes, he was apparently passionate and thus able to create a poetic reality (Fig. 6.34). Ma Yuan and Xia Gui The landscape paintings of Ma Yuan and Xia Gui was also called as “Ma Yijiao” (马 一角, Ma Corners) and “Xia Banbian” (夏半边, Xia Halves) due to their particular cutaway composition style. The cutaway style was an innovation of traditional landscape painting with showing corners and presenting halves, rather than panoramas. Such cutaway scenes are highly refined and emotional, blending scenes with poetic sentiments. There are many night scenes in their paintings, which are filled with a poetic melancholy, suggesting an extremely deep and anxious social atmosphere at that time of the Southern Song Dynasty.

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Fig. 6.34 Four-Scenes Landscape—Winter Scene (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. Each section 40 cm in height and 69 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Liu Songnian. The Palace Museum)

Ma Yuan (years of birth and death unknown, ca. twelfth to thirteenth century AD), courtesy name Yaofu, literary name Qinshan, was a native of Hezhong (present-day Yongji, Shanxi Province) and served at the imperial painting academy, one of the Four Masters of the Southern Song Dynasty. His family had served as court painters for five generations, and he continued his family tradition, while learning and developing Li Tang’s style. He was particularly good at making bold cuts from landscape, showing only corners, while there are large blank areas that are purposefully kept in the paintings to highlight the beauty of nature, creating a poetic mood. In the distance, there are soaring peaks; nearby, there are sharp and stiff rocks, a quietly flowing stream, swaying willows, and plum trees and bamboos that cast shadow on the ground; and in the middle part, there are clouds floating freely and pavilions half hidden in the woods. A large blank space widens the distance between each part, maximizing the vastness of the territory. In the fields, a few farmers, who apparently are half drunken, are singing and dancing. It is a simple picture of daily life, but full of fun. This is Ma Yuan’s magnum opus. It is both an excellent landscape painting and an outstanding genre painting. Ma Yuan was the most typical academy painter and one of the Four Masters of the Southern Song Dynasty. He was known for his particular cutaway composition by presenting a corner or half of the scene, as if taking a close-up shot, while leaving a large blank area in the painting, giving viewers a space for poetic imagination. He was good at painting rocks with “axechopping strokes”, so they are powerful, and yet the overall feel is fresh and beautiful (Fig. 6.35).

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Fig. 6.35 Singing and Dancing in the Field (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 192.5 cm in height and 111 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Ma Yuan. The Palace Museum)

The rocky cliff, which is painted with “axe-chopping strokes”, occupies the left and upper sides of the picture, while the rest is largely blank. This cutting composition is strange, but the cut is very clever. However, thanks to the alternation of strong and light ink, the seemingly closed picture becomes transparent and is naturally linked to the space outside. Two plum trees extrude from the cliff. Their branches are curved yet powerful, and their blossoms are sparse yet vibrant. Several wild ducks are playing in the calm creek where they make circles of ripples, suggesting the famous poetic line of Su Shi: “Ducks know first when the spring river warms up” . The depiction of wild ducks is meticulous. Some are chasing each other, while some are whispering. A female duck is taking care of her ducklings who playfully climb onto her back. The spatial distribution of the ducks, some staying nearer and some staying afar, gives them a special emotional appeal and fun. The contrast between motion and stillness in this picture makes the secluded creek vibrant. Combination with landscape is a major characteristic of flower-and-bird paintings in the Southern Song Dynasty. The broad and rough rocks in the painting are contrasted

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Fig. 6.36 Plum, Rock, Creek and Wild Ducks (Album. Ink and color on silk. 26.7 cm in height and 28.6 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Ma Yuan. The Palace Museum)

yet harmonious with the wild ducks through rigorous plum trees and fine-brush water (Fig. 6.36). This scroll has 12 pictures of water, namely “Backflow of the Yellow River” (黄河 , “Vastness of the Yangtze River” (长江万 逆流), “Overlapping Waves” 顷), “Echoes of Autumn Water” (秋水回波), “Scenery of Lake Dongting” (洞庭风 细), and “Clouds over the Sea” (云生沧海). Based on careful observation and deep experience of water in different conditions, and after a high level of abstraction, the painter successfully depicted the changing forms of water through the use of innovative brush techniques such as dipping and ticking, slowing down and quickening up, and strong and light ink, which bring changes to the character of lines. He had not only revealed the beauty of objects, but also demonstrated the beauty of brush and ink as such. It is what Qian Du, an artist of the Qing Dynasty, expected in his book Methods of Painting 《 ( 松壶画忆》Song Hu Hua Yi), in which he said that “water takes different forms, such as lakes, rivers, seas, streams, waterfalls, and springs” and “lakes should be calm, rivers should be vast, seas should be majestic, streams should be quiet, and waterfalls should run wild”. So, Ma Yuan had created a perfect example of “living water” cited by later generations. For the “Backflow of the Yellow River”, Ma Yuan used strong yet trembling brushwork to highlight the rolling waves, fully showing the momentum of torrents in the Yellow River. In the “Echoes of Autumn Water”, the painter shows flat waves with fine strokes, stressing the gentleness and calm of the water (Fig. 6.37). Xia Gui (years of birth and death unknown, ca. 1180–1230 AD), courtesy name Yuyu, a native of Qiantang, served at the imperial painting academy, and was one of the Four Masters of the Southern Song Dynasty. He was a contemporary of Ma Yuan though he was a bit younger and shared largely the same style, hence their names

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Fig. 6.37 Water Pictures—“Backflow of the Yellow River”; “Echoes of Autumn” (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. Each section 26.8 cm in height and 41.6 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Ma Yuan. The Palace Museum)

were often put together as “Ma-Xia.” Xia Gui was coarser in brushwork, and his scenery is simpler. This scroll has four remaining scenes. Every scene is relatively separate, each with a subtitle: “Distant Mountains and Wild Geese” (遥山书雁), “Ferry Returning to the Misty Village” (烟村归渡), “Fisherman Playing the Flute in Tranquility” , “Anchoring on a Misty Bank at Dusk” (烟堤晚泊), but these scenes form a complete picture. The scroll begins with distant mountains, which were very simply drawn, reduced to a few strokes. As ink faints slightly, clouds or fog wrap the land, and a group of wild geese flew by leisurely. Then, there are trees, which were also painted simply with a few ink strokes, and a few houses scattered among them. The trees are followed by a vast space, of almost the same light color. It is misty and empty. A few fishing boats dotted the space, and the fishermen were busy rowing their boats and casting nets. Although the figures are small, they are vivid and dynamic. In the middle of the scroll, there are rocky cliffs where there are several large trees. Farther away, the embankment forms a harbor, and there are fishing boats anchored in the harbor. The slope at the end blocks viewers’ eyesight and forces them to focus on the center of the picture. The alternation and contrast between strong and light colors create a feeling of vastness and serenity, and a pleasant viewing experience.

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Xia Gui was good at discovering poetry in ordinary scenery, and was bold enough to cut out complexity, giving viewers a huge room for imagination. That’s why people say he had only cut off redundant brushwork, which increases the expressiveness of his paintings. The brushwork is simple, while the ink is bright and moist. He even liked to use worn-out brushes to draw and dye at the same time. This scroll best reflects his painting style (Fig. 6.38). While Xia Gui and Ma Yuan were both leading painters of the Southern Song Dynasty, their styles are similar and their names were often put together, there are also differences between them. In terms of technique, Xia Gui was far more natural and wilder than Ma Yuan. This is a very small picture painted on a fan, but its figures are vivid, the cutting is exquisite, and the brushwork is simple. As said above, Xia

Fig. 6.38 Twelve Views of Landscape (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 28 cm in height and 230.8 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Xia Gui. Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, USA)

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Fig. 6.39 Residence in the Misty Woods (Round fan. Ink on silk. 25 cm in height and 26 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Xia Gui. The Palace Museum)

Gui liked to use worn-out brushes, but he also liked to splash ink, so his paintings are freer and more powerful(Fig. 6.39).

6.3.3 Flower-and-Bird Paintings in the Song Dynasty There were many painters dedicated to flower-and-bird painting in the Song Dynasty, who created many exquisite works on a variety of themes. Artists in the Song Dynasty did not only deliver subtle and vivid images of flowers and birds, but also expressed their passion for life and ideals through paintings, linking natural attributes with moral character. Outstanding works were created in different styles: Fine-brush flower-and-bird paintings had scaled a new peak, while Freehand ink painting also began to rise. Literates and scholars also dedicated to this painting subject who focused more on the theme of “Four Gentlemen” (四君子) of flowers: plum blossom, orchid, bamboo, and chrysanthemum, which further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and canonized as a special category in traditional Chinese painting.

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Fine-Brush Flower-and-Bird Paintings

Huang Jucai (933–? AD), courtesy name Boluan, was a native of Chengdu. In late autumn, bamboo leaves are already yellow and falling, while rocks and spiked thorns stand on the edge of the creek, yet there are quite a few colorful birds active in this desolate landscape. The standing titmouse is the focus of this painting. It has a red mouth and dark neck, white wings, and a beautiful flowing tail. It is bending its legs and neck to drink from the stream, and its eager and cautious manner is vividly and interestingly presented. There are also several sparrows standing on the thorns behind the rocks. Some apparently want to spread their wings, and some are chirping with their head turned back. They bring life to the bleak world of late autumn. This picture was painted with “double-outline” (双勾) brushwork, and its colors are rich and elegant. The style is delicate and ornate. It is a masterpiece of Song Dynasty flower-and-bird painting, and it is the only painting of Huang Jucai available now (Fig. 6.40). Cui Bai (Eleventh century AD), courtesy name Zixi, was a native of present-day Fengyang, Anhui Province. When painting flowers and birds, Cui Bai was good at imitation and bringing out the expression and the charm of flowers, insects and birds in motion. He was also good at showing the seasonal changes and interrelationships Fig. 6.40 Blue Magpie and Thorny Shrubs (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 97 cm in height and 53.6 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Huang Jucai. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

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of flowers and birds in the natural environment. He is one of the key figures who changed the “Huang (Quan) Style” since the beginning of the Song Dynasty. The autumn day is bleak, and the old tree is bare, with the fallen leaves drifting. Two birds perch on the thorns, and their noise stirs a hare on the slope who stops to look back. The whole picture is wrapped in a restless and uneasy atmosphere. From the dynamics and feathers of the two birds to the furry body and panic eyes of the hare, all details are depicted vividly, while on the other hand the bare tree, the dry grass, and thorns are drawn with freehand. The contrast creates a strong artistic appeal (Fig. 6.41). This painting depicts a flock of sparrows active on a dead branch in mid-winter. Instead of showing the birds in a freezing and starving state, the painter boldly revealed their active forms, such as flying, leaping, resting, and peeking, echoing the unbending and energetic spirit of these creatures. The scroll is divided into three parts. At the beginning, two birds apparently have just arrived, four in the middle turn back to see them, and two at the end of the scroll remain at rest. The picture is carefully composed, with contrasts between density and looseness and between motion and stillness. The sparrows are depicted vividly using a host of brushwork techniques such as outlining, texturing, shadowing, and rendering (Fig. 6.42). Fig. 6.41 Magpies and a Hare (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 193.7 cm in height and 103.4 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Cui Bai. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

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Fig. 6.42 Sparrows (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 25.5 cm in height and 101.4 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Cui Bai. The Palace Museum)

Zhao Ji (1082–1135 AD), Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty. As an emperor, Zhao Ji was incompetent, and it was under his rule that the Northern Song Dynasty came to an end. But he loved and was dedicated to painting, and had made significant contribution to the court art in the Song Dynasty. He managed to expand the imperial painting academy, promote painting studies, and collect paintings, and on this basis, he compiled the Xuanhe Catalogue of Paintings. He was highly accomplished in poetry, calligraphy, and painting. In calligraphy, he was famous for creating the “Slender Gold style” (瘦金体) which is thin yet powerful and elegant. His paintings are also delicate, soft, and beautiful. This combination of calligraphy and painting was created by Zhao Ji when he was 30 years old. The composition is unique. The palace complex is positioned in the lower middle, balanced and symmetrical, while two-thirds of the space is dedicated

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Fig. 6.43 Auspicious Cranes (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 51 cm in height and 138 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Zhao Ji. Liaoning Provincial Museum)

to the clear blue sky. The atmosphere is gorgeous and royal. The palace only shows the roof (except for a small corner of the mansion on both ends of the painting) below the auspicious and beautiful clouds, leaving viewers with the room to imagine the majestic palace. The auspicious clouds above the palace break the level line of the building, so the picture which should have been steady and dignified becomes free and fun. There are 20 red-crowned cranes flying up and down in the clear sky, with two of them standing on the ridge of the roof of the palace. They are dynamic, echoing the cranes flying in the air. The crane is also symbol of moral nobility. They make the whole picture more noble and elegant. It is an amazing masterpiece of Zhao Ji. It not only shows the divine grandeur of a monarch, but it also creates a sense of the fairy world (Fig. 6.43). The picture highlights four birds moving between the willow branches. Some are singing and playing with each other, and some are resting on the branches. The arrival of spring brings everything back to life. The grass below grows strong while the willows sprout new leaves and branches. The birds on the willow are plump and energetic, while the thick willow roots and the tender branches form a sharp contrast. The painter uses the contrast between black and white and the alternation between density and looseness to give viewers a great visual experience. In terms of technique, the colors are light and elegant, and the “boneless dyeing” method is used in many places. The overall style is classical and simple. It is one of Zhao Ji’s masterpieces (Fig. 6.44). Other Artists’ Works In the woods, several monkeys are playing near a stream. One of them is stretching his long arm to pick fruit from a tree. His gesture is vivid and very interesting. Flowerand-bird paintings in the Song Dynasty varied in subject matter, and monkeys were one of the most popular subjects for many painters. Yi Yuanji was one of the best painters of monkeys, and many anonymous works are accredited to him. Imitation of life and nature was particularly advocated by the imperial painting academy of

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Fig. 6.44 Birds on the Willow (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 34 cm in height and 223 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Zhao Ji. Shanghai Museum)

the Song Dynasty. Lifelike and meticulous depiction became a major characteristic of flower-and-bird paintings at that time. The monkeys in the picture are rendered in pure ink. The painter draws delicate lines in addition to ink shading to show the health and fluffiness of the monkeys (Fig. 6.45). Light purple pea flowers bloom amid the green leaves, the full pods droop with heaviness, and a dragonfly flaps its wings: it may have just perched on the pea flower, or maybe it wants to fly away. Its wings are shaded with very light ink and then fine lines are drawn with white powder to show its transparent and light texture. Its wings cover part of some green branches and leaves. The whole picture is clear yet reserved. It is “wild and free” style of Xu Xi’s school (Fig. 6.46). Fig. 6.45 Monkey Picking Fruit (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 25 cm in height and 25.6 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 6.46 Pea Flowers and a Dragonfly (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 27 cm in height and 23 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. The Palace Museum)

In the form of a round fan, this painting depicts a vibrant underwater world. The tender leaves of the aquatic plants swaying in the water appear so light and colorful. The painter used no outlines or texturing strokes when depicting them, only showing their differences in the intensity of water stain. The fish are swimming leisurely and freely in this quiet environment. The intensity of ink shows the depth and proximity in the water, while the black dots are bubbles exhaled by the fish, scattered everywhere in the water. This picture shows a casual and natural charm (Fig. 6.47). This picture depicts a crab crawling on the lotus. In the autumn pond, the green lotus has disappeared that used to shine brightly in the sun. Their leaves are withering and falling in the autumn wind, while a few reeds are already dead and broken. The seed case, however, is full and still strong. With their head high, they are standing proudly in the pond. This is also when crabs are mature. A female crab climbs onto a lotus leaf, and her heavy and strong body bent the brittle stem. The moment the lotus leaf collapses, the crab catches and holds tightly to the lotus stem. It is amazing that all these subtle details are keenly captured and depicted vividly. The hardness of the crab shell, the mass and weight of the crab, and the fluff on the crab’s feet are depicted vividly with firm lines and rendered in just the right amount of ink. The

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Fig. 6.47 Fish Playing with Algae (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 24.5 cm in height and 25.5 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. The Palace Museum)

stark contrast between life and death reveals the law of nature, which is profound and thought-provoking (Fig. 6.48). Using a “boneless dyeing” method, three corn poppy blossoms are drawn, one crimson, one light purple, and one pine white. Facing the sun, the crimson flower stands out and blooms beautifully. The light purple one is surrounded by green Fig. 6.48 Old Lotus and Crab (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 23.9 cm in height and 24.7 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. Shanghai Museum)

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leaves and shows an oblique side. It is graceful and luxurious. The white one, facing the inside, is graceful and subtle. The stems and leaves are sparse, the flowers are in full bloom, and the composition is exquisite and perfect. The petals, including their directions and differences, are depicted with exquisite precision and skill. For this exquisite work, the painter might not be a famous artist, but must come from some painting academy. Flower-and-bird paintings were highly developed in the Song Dynasty, with many painters who worked on a wide range of themes. They had painted more than 200 varieties of flowers. They insisted on going into the nature and observing the flowers and birds closely. That’s why the flowers and birds in their paintings are so vivid and full of life. A variety of techniques were used, including double-outline, boneless dyeing, ink-wash, heavy color, light color, freehand, and fine-brush (Fig. 6.49). Amid the round, thick and stretched lotus leaves, a delicate and pure lotus flower is blooming and extruding out of the water. As if carrying the mist of the early morning and the blush from the sun, the flower glows with freshness all over. Through his outstanding skill and delicate depiction, the painter has brought out the beauty of the lotus in the water, especially its nobility and character of unbending integrity (Fig. 6.50). Fig. 6.49 Corn Poppy Flowers (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 25.5 cm in height and 26.2 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. Shanghai Museum)

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Fig. 6.50 Lotus Flower (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. 23.8 cm in height and 25 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Anonymous. The Palace Museum)

Lin Chun (years of birth and death unknown), was a native of Qiantang, he was a master painter of flowers and birds, as well as feathers. He once served at the imperial painting academy. A huge, ruddy and attractive apple is painted using the branch method. The holes on the leaves indicate that bugs have already come and they are the first to taste the fruit. However, their enemy have followed A bird stands tall and upright on the branches, holding its head high as if it is summoning its peers to share the tasty bugs or celebrate the harvest together. The picture reflects the meaning of life in nature. Lin Chun was good at making small paintings, following Zhao Chang’s sketching style.25 The shapes of flowers and birds he painted are accurate and vivid, while the colors are light. At his time, his style was the most popular in painting academies. However, as it is too delicate, rational and trivial, this academic style of flower-and-bird painting gradually declined (Fig. 6.51). Xu Yugong (1141–? AD), a native of Jiangxi, had never served at any official position, and was dedicated to painting plum flowers and bamboos. There are two plum branches, extending from left to right and stretching upwards. The branches are strong and the flowers are in full bloom in the snow. There are also three upright bamboos, with their branches and leaves straight. The bamboos and the plums seem to reinforce each other. The snow was depicted with ink, and 25

Zhao Chang, a painter of the Northern Song Dynasty. He is good at calligraphy and painting, especially paintings of flowers and fruits. He has his own style of “boneless” flowers and birds, which is the legacy of Xu Xi and Huang Quan. During the Northern Song Dynasty, he was as famous as Emperor Huizong Zhao Ji and was an outstanding painter in the flower-and-bird painting.

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Fig. 6.51 Birds Come When Fruits Are Ripe (Album. Ink and color on silk. 26.9 cm in height and 27.2 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Lin Chun. The Palace Museum)

the intensity changed naturally. The plum and bamboo branches are all strong and proud in the snow. Xu Yugong was said to have learned plum and bamboo paintings from Yang Wujiu,26 partly because his paintings are sparse and bleak. The painting carries an inscription by Zhao Mengjian who expressed regret that his paintings are not well known (Fig. 6.52).

6.3.3.2

Ink-Wash Bamboo-Plum Paintings

Literati painters or scholar-officials formed a unique school of painting in the middle and late Northern Song Dynasty. Their paintings were lyrical and sentimental. Instead of committing themselves to imitation, they were very free in expression and loved to paint plums and bamboos to depict the noble character and lofty aspirations.

26

Yang Wujiu, courtesy name Buzhi, was a painter of the Southern Song Dynasty. He is famous for his poetry, calligraphy and painting. He is especially good at painting plum blossoms and is regarded as the pioneer of Ink Plum Blossoms School.

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Fig. 6.52 Plums and Bamboos in the Snow (Handscroll. Ink on silk. 29.6 cm in height and 122 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Xu Yugong. Liaoning Provincial Museum)

Literati painters had given plums, orchids, bamboos and chrysanthemums a moral character, which are popularly known as the “Four Gentlemen”. Wen Tong (1018–1079 AD), courtesy name Yuke, literary name Mr. Stone Chamber (Shishi Xiansheng), was a native of Zitong, Sichuan. This painting depicts a branch of bamboo with dense twigs. The front leaves are painted in thick ink and the reverse leaves are in light ink. The differences are natural, and the brushwork is strict yet free. Wen Tong once said painting bamboos was a play for “fun”, but it’s actually not meant to be a pastime. He had loved bamboos so much that he enjoyed expressing the character of bamboos freely. He had loved bamboos for their humility, energy, and unwavering character in the face of coldness. In order to faithfully capture the style and depict the moral character of bamboos, Wen Tong built a pavilion in the middle of the bamboo grove, where he stayed day and night to observe and imitate the figures of bamboos. He insisted that “a bamboo painter should keep bamboos in his heart” (“画竹必先得成竹于胸中”), emphasizing that a painter must first capture the essence of the subject before any technique can be used. His insistence had a great influence on painters of later generations (Fig. 6.53). Zhao Mengjian (1199–1264 AD), was a member of the Song Dynasty’s imperial family. Except for painting, he was also good at calligraphy and poetry. Pine, bamboo, and plum are common subjects in Chinese painting, and were highly honored as “Three Friends in Cold Winter” in literati paintings. For their strength, resilience and pride in the tough weather, they were depicted as symbols of lofty personal characters. This picture uses the gray pine needles and black bamboos as a contrast to the white plum blossoms. The pine needles are like steel needles, while the bamboo leaves are like swords, revealing the pride of plum blossoms. The picture is clean and elegant (Fig. 6.54).

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Fig. 6.53 Bamboo in Monochrome Ink (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 131.6 cm in height and 105.4 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Wen Tong. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

6.3.3.3

Ink-Wash Freehand Literati Paintings

Su Shi (1036–1101 AD), courtesy name Zizhan, literary name Dongpo Jushi, was a native of Meishan, Sichuan Province. He was one of the four great calligraphers of the Song Dynasty. He was also a champion of literati paintings and the theory he advocated had a great influence on the development of literati paintings in the future. In the picture, there is only a strange rock, a bare tree, a few dwarf bamboos, and some grass. The rock is textured like a river mussel shell, while the bare tree grows crooked, with the ends of its branches looking like the antlers of a stag. The shape is

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Fig. 6.54 Pine, Bamboo and Plum (Three Friends in Cold Winter) (Round fan. Ink on silk. 24.3 cm in height and 23.3 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Zhao Mengjian. Shanghai Museum)

strange. The painting did not require meticulous craftsmanship; it was done in one go, with freehand brushwork. Although there are only a few strokes, a wide range of techniques were used in the painting, such as outlining, texturing strokes, dots, and rendering. The painter did not try to copy the external form of the nature, but expressed his emotions freely through the subjects. It is an example of the painter’s resistance against mere formal similarity on the ground that “direct imitation is the work of kids” (“论画与形似, 见与儿童邻”) (Fig. 6.55). Mi Fu (1051–1107 AD), the original painting no longer exists. His creation and theory of literati paintings had a great influence on future generations. Mi Fu was one of the Four Calligraphers of the Song Dynasty. He was also good at painting and appreciating ancient artifacts. This picture is attached after a letter to a friend about antique collection. It seems like part of the calligraphy while it also looks like a drawing. It is both figurative and abstract. It is a good example of the “play of ink for fun”. In the middle of the picture, the brush goes down straight on its tip, while for the crossbeam the brush goes more slowly and travels on its side, and for the base of the stand, the brush runs free. With a few strokes, the brush holder is vividly depicted. However, the picture employs largely techniques of calligraphy (Fig. 6.56).

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Fig. 6.55 Dead Tree and Strange Rock (Hand scroll. Ink on paper. 26.5 cm in height and 50.5 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Su Shi. Privately Owned in Japan)

Fig. 6.56 Coral Brush Holder (Ink on paper. 27 cm in height and 24.8 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Mi Fu. The Palace Museum)

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6.3.4 Zen Paintings “Zen paintings” are paintings in which Zen practitioners use brush and ink as tools to express Zen principles. Zen painting was popular in the Tang and Song Dynasties. Zen painters of the Song Dynasty did not pursue or imitate a specific shape, because they believed the external world formed by concrete shapes is confusing and false; instead, they wanted to depict the essence of life and the realities of their inner life. All living beings are a part of the essence of life, they believed that profound ideas could be conveyed in the most ordinary thing and the simplest form. Therefore, Zen paintings often express the pursuit of simplicity and purity like literati paintings, through the spaciousness of artistic conception to express the realm of one’s own understanding. In order to convey ideas directly, Zen painters used techniques of calligraphy in their paintings just like the literati painters. The strong and direct expression of ideologies adopted by Zen painters is similar to the approach of expressing emotions with free use of ink and brush by literati painters. However, “Zen painters would depict some key details meticulously, but treated other unimportant parts lightly and freely. This practice had drawn a lot of attention. It was an act of fantasy but had a high level of control which cannot be reached by literati painters who were too free with their brush.”27 Because Zen paintings usually were completely free from rules, many of them contain the spontaneous expression of fantasy and epiphany and cannot be copied or measured by traditional rules, the concept of “ease” (逸品), which has been mentioned from time to time in Chinese art history to describe those master pieces that do not show compliance with rules, often been applied to the Zen paintings. Guan Xiu (832–912 AD), secular family name Jiang, first name Xiu, courtesy name Deyin, was a native of Lanxi of present-day Jinhua, Zhejiang Province, and was a monk from the late Tang Dynasty to early Five Dynasties. This picture is one of the 16 Arhat portraits created by Guan Xiu. The 16 Arhats usually refer to the disciples of Sakyamuni. Guan Xiu had painted these Arhats in the form of foreign or Indian figures. Some had big eyebrows, and some had droopy ears and high noses; they were either leaning on rocks beside ancient pines, or sitting between rocks. The painter deformed the Arhats, giving them a deterrent power. Their weird and exaggerated images show Zen monks’ pain, psychological distortion, and depression at the moment before their epiphany. The Arhat in the painting is very decorative. The figure is round and smooth, while the rocks are more intricate. The atmosphere of the picture is quaint, creating a strong sense of religious mystery. As Guan Xiu once insisted, the exaggerated image had come from his dreams; in fact, these images are portrayals of people living in the lower classes of society (Fig. 6.57).

27

Sullivan M (2006.12) Yishu Zhongguo (The Arts of China). Hunan Education Publishing House, p 159.

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Fig. 6.57 Portrait of Arhat (Attributed to Guan Xiu, a copy of the Northern Song Dynasty28 ) (Hanging scroll. Color on silk. Each one 92.2 cm in height and 45.4 cm in width. The Five Dynasties. Guan Xiu. Japanese Imperial Household Agency, Sannomaru Shozokan (The Museum of the Imperial Collections), Japan)

28

Guan Xiu’s actual paintings do not exist, but a large number of copies were made, among which, this series is valued as the best. Reference from: The Museum of the Imperial Collections, Sannomaru Shozokan website: https://shozokan.nich.go.jp/en/collection/?at=detail&id=140&rec_ no=1&artpic_id=&ated=search

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Shi Ke (Mid-tenth century AD), courtesy name Zizhuan, a native of Chengdu, Sichuan, was active in the late Five Dynasties to early Song Dynasty. The two Zen masters in this picture are meditating with their eyes closed. One of them has whiskers, drooping eyebrows, and a high nose. His right hand supports his face, and his chest is bare, and he is sitting cross-legged and thoughtful with bare feet. The other, resting on a tiger, has a round, shrunken face, and shows an honest and naive manner. Even the tiger he leans on has given up its fierce nature, and is crouching obediently beside its master, as if he is also meditating. The figures in the painting are all depicted with fine lines, which are subtle and realistic, while the brushwork for the body and clothing is rough and powerful, with thick ink used freely in one go. This special painting technique, together with the artist’s subjective conception, breaks away from the traditional style, and it represents a successful attempt of ink figure painting (Fig. 6.58). Liang Kai (years of birth and death unknown), was a native of Dongping (present day Dongping County, Shandong Province), once served at the imperial painting academy. He called himself Liang Fengzi and was an easy-going person who loved to socialize with Zen monks. He was converted to Buddhism after he retired from the imperial painting academy. His freehand Lnk-wash figure paintings are mostly images of Buddhist Zen figures or scholar-officials. In his paintings, he was not only able to create exquisite and strict figure paintings with meticulous fine brush, but was also good at expressing feelings with elegant and relaxed strokes, which are an important development in terms of technique. He laid the basis for freehand figure painting in the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. The entire scroll is divided into eight parts, each dedicated to a Zen monk and told a story explained in an inscription. The stories are as follows: 1. Dharma faces the wall, and Monk Shenguang (later Huike) waits for an answer (达摩面壁, 神光参问); 2. Hongren meets an old man walking on a stick (弘忍童身, 道逢杖叟); 3. Bai Juyi ; 4. Monk Zhixian holds a broom consults a Zen master ; 5. Li Yuan and Monk and looks back at the bamboo forest ; Yuanze are in a boat, and a woman is fetching water (李源圆泽系舟, ; 7. A 6. Monk Guanxi asks a water-fetching boy for water (灌溪索饮, monk confesses in a corner of the restaurant (酒楼一角, 童子拜参); and 8. A monk ). This painting is very different from leans on a fishing cart (孤蓬芦岸, Liang Kai’s typical paintings in style. It was apparently completed when he was young. The figures are simple and vivid, calmly refined in brushwork. They are full of changes. The composition is peculiar. The figures mostly show half of their body, some showing the head and chest only at the edge of paper. This picture tells the first and third stories (Fig. 6.59). This picture depicts the sixth Zen Patriarch, Monk Hui Neng, chopping bamboo. In the same group of painting, there is also a scene in which Monk Hui Neng violently tears scriptures. Originally a woodcutter, Hui Neng was ignorant. Because of his

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Fig. 6.58 The Second Zen Patriarch in Contemplation (Attributed to Shi Ke29 ) (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 35.3 cm in height and 64.4 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Shi Ke. Tokyo National Museum, Japan)

29

The two figures of these two paintings may be Subduing the Dragon and Subduing the Tiger in the Eighteen Arhats. And the paintings may be painted by monks of Liang Kai school and Fachang school of the end of Song to early Yuan Dynasty. Reference from: Compiled by Shanghai Museum (2010.10) Masterpieces of Ancient Chinese Paintings—From the Tang to Yuan Dynasty in Japanese and Chinese Collections. Peking University Press, pp 206–207.

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Fig. 6.59 The Story of the Eight High Monks (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 26.6 cm in height and 64 cm in length. The Song Dynasty. Liang Kai. Shanghai Museum)

exceptional wisdom, he understood Buddhism very well, and was known to say: “Bodhi vrksh is not a tree, and khada darpan is not a place. There is nothing at all, so why worry about anything catching dust.” (“菩提本无树, 明镜也非台, 本 ”) Legend has it that the fifth Zen Patriarch Hong Ren picked 来无一物, him as his successor for this verse. Later, he traveled to the south and advocated the “epiphany” method, and became a real master in the history of Chinese Buddhism. This painting is based on these legends and anecdotes of Master Hui Neng. The painter drew this scene in a sketchy style with simple and free brushstrokes and rhythmic lines. Although the theme is religious, it is a true depiction of the working life of an ordinary person, and the hard work and dedication of the figure is clearly shown. This sketchy style of line drawing later became a unique “reduced strokes” ( 减笔描) method in Chinese figure painting. On the basis of Shi Ke’s style, Liang Kai painted figures with even fewer strokes and even splashed ink, which had inspired freehand figure painting in China (Fig. 6.60).

6.3 Paintings of the Song Dynasty

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Fig. 6.60 The Sixth Patriarch Cutting the Bamboo (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 72.7 cm in height and 31.5 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Liang Kai. Tokyo National Museum, Japan)

Using the free ink-splashing method, this picture depicts the immortal’s staggering drunkenness. The clothes are drawn with large patches of ink, like ink splashed on paper. With the ink flowing freely on the paper, the painting indicates the realm of epiphany. With just a few strokes, the painter randomly drew up an amazingly high forehead with reduced facial features. The image was quaint and fun. It is what an immortal is like. Liang Kai’s style of freehand painting, which pursues innovation and change, was extremely successful and started a new tradition (Fig. 6.61). Like “Picture of a Fairy with Splashed Ink”, this painting once again uses a bold painting style. There is no background in the picture, and the brushwork is concise

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Fig. 6.61 Picture of a Fairy with Splashed Ink (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 48.7 cm in height and 27.7 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Liang Kai. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

and bold. Only a few strokes are used to show the poet’s unruly personality, as well as his meditation while walking. It is vivid and amazing. With very few strokes, the picture is thought-provoking and intriguing (Fig. 6.62). Random and free strokes are used to depict several bare willows without roots and shoots. They intersect and interweave, occupying the central part of the picture. The picture resembles a “Taiji” (太极) diagram, in which the blank space is vast and cold. Two birds wail and fly around the willow, but there is no branch for them to perch. They seem very sad. The picture is concise and simple, and the brushwork is refined. Liang Kai’s flower-and-bird paintings are similar to those of Zen painters such as Fa Chang. His style is simple yet full of meaning. They are very different from literati paintings, but both had a great influence on the development of freehand flower-and-bird paintings in later generations (Fig. 6.63). Fachang (?–ca. 1281 AD), secular family name Li, dharma name Fachang, literary name Muxi, was a native of Shu (present-day Sichuan Province). He was a painter and monk of Southern Song Dynasty. He was good at painting dragons, tigers, monkeys, cranes, flowers, birds, and landscape. His Ink-wash freehand flowers and birds are

6.3 Paintings of the Song Dynasty

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Fig. 6.62 Li Bai in Stroll (Attributed to Liang Kai30 ) (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 81.1 cm in height and 30.5 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Liang Kai. Tokyo National Museum, Japan)

unique in the Song Dynasty for the free use of brush to bring out the essence of life, which was different from the meticulous works of the academy painters and literati painters. At the bottom right of the picture, an old pine is leaning. The weathered bark, the dead vines, and pine needles are slightly circled with dry brush and light ink, making everything simple and free. The lone cone hanging in the air, however, is painstakingly detailed and lifelike. A bird standing with its back to the tree looks vivid and lifelike. The bird is painted with thick ink, and the ink shows subtle changes in intensity as it permeates the paper. Fachang was free with his brush, and created a 30

Po SN (2013.9) Zhongguo Huihuashi [Zhencangban] (A History of Chinese Painting [Limited Edition]). Shanghai People’s Fine Arts Publishing House, p 323.

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Fig. 6.63 Autumn Willow and Two Birds (Round fan. Ink on silk. 24.7 cm in height and 25.7 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Liang Kai. The Palace Museum)

unique style of painting, which was often criticized as too free and not resembling the real subject in form. His style was contrary to the aesthetics of academy painters who painted flowers and birds meticulously, or literati painters who pursued elegance. It was labeled instead as “abusive and unconventional”. So, his paintings were not taken seriously at his time. But since the Ming Dynasty, this style has been revived and further developed by many painters. In this sense, he had a very big impact on later painters (Fig. 6.64). This painting, together with the paintings of ape and crane on both sides, composed a group of three. It is a masterpiece of Fachang. Light ink is used to depict the clothing pattern and face, and thick ink is used to dye the hair for the finishing touch. The white Avalokiteśvara is highlighted by the ink rendering and clouds around. Avalokiteśvara’s face is dignified, the clothing pattern is concise, and the brush work is composed and smooth. Different from the wild and unbridled works of Fa Chang, this is his most rigorous and delicate painting. As an eminent Zen monk, he probably painted the statue of Avalokiteśvara out of piety (Fig. 6.65). This painting conveys a profound meaning in the simplest form, which is a kind of meditation. There are six persimmons with different ink colors, and the rest of the painting is pure empty. The blank space leaves a big room for the viewer’s imagination. “Six Persimmons” is full of Zen meaning, with simple and transparent ink color and thick and complete shape, yet ethereal feeling. The six persimmons gather and disperse, well-proportioned but not messy. Although there are only a few strokes on the painting, they are filled with profound experiences of life and reveal simplicity, tranquility, and indifferent meditation (Fig. 6.66).

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Fig. 6.64 Pine and Crested Bird (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 78.5 cm in height and 39 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Fachang. Collection in Japan)

Yujian (ca. 1180–1270 AD), First name Ruofen, secular family name Cao, courtesy name Zhongshi, literary name Yujian. He was a native of Wuzhou (present-day Jinhua, Zhejiang Province), the abbot of Shangtianzhu Temple in Hangzhou. The artist used a large brush dipped in thick ink and water to quickly paint out the distant and near mountain peaks, and then slightly embellished the large void with houses, small bridges and two figures walking among the mountains. On the paper, inspiration bursts out, and emotions are released in an instant. In the process of rapid ink splashing, a kind of psychological and physical pleasure is obtained, and in the jumping transformation of the weight, shade, virtuality and reality of the ink, a mysterious and indescribable feeling is achieved, which is just like the “epiphany” from Zen. This is a typical Zen painting, a Zen monk’s Zen “ink play”. The Zen philosophical meaning of his paintings has transcended the painting itself (Fig. 6.67).

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Fig. 6.65 Water-Moon Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin in Chinese) (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 172.4 cm in height and 98.8 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Fachang. Daitoku-Ji, Kyoto, Japan)

6.3.5 Woodblock Prints In the Song Dynasty, commodity economy began to rise in China. The material and spiritual living of the emerging class of citizens improved remarkably. Painting became a popular art, and it became common to hang paintings in tea houses and taverns. At the same time, painting markets were commonplace. Genre paintings in the Song Dynasty were rich in subject matter and enjoyed high popularity. They

6.3 Paintings of the Song Dynasty

295

Fig. 6.66 Six Persimmons (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 38.1 cm in height and 36.2 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Fachang. Ryōko-In, Daitoku-Ji, Kyoto, Japan)

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Fig. 6.67 Mountain Residence Scene (Scroll, ink on paper. 33.1 cm in height and 82.8 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. Yujian. Idemitsu Museum of Arts, Japan)

became the prototype of Chinese New Year pictures, while woodcut prints of New Year pictures grew directly on the basis of religious “paper horses” (纸马)31 . This is a picture of four famous beautiful ladies in Chinese history: Wang Zhaojun, Zhao Feiyan, Ban Jieyu, and Luzhu. Their clothes are embroidered with flower blossoms; the background is carved jade railings and pots of peonies; there is a palindromic border on the periphery; there is a flower pattern on the bottom; and there is a line on the top saying “Printed by the Ji’s Family of Pingyang” in small characters. Exquisitely carved with smooth lines, this picture is a masterpiece of New Year pictures during the Song and Jin Dynasties (Fig. 6.68).

31

Paper horse: It is a kind of folk black and white woodblock print, which replaces the support of gods and Buddhas. When used, some places put them up everywhere to show the location of the gods and set up offerings to seek blessings; some places put the required offerings together with the god idols and then burned them. The gods represented on the paper horses are the remnants of early Chinese worship of the spirits of nature.

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Fig. 6.68 Four Beauties (Woodblock print. 40 cm in height and 22 cm in width. The Jin Dynasty. The original version is collected in the State Hermitage Museum, Russia)

6.4 Ceramic An outstanding achievement of arts and crafts in the Song Dynasty was made in ceramics. It had reached a very high level and was a peak in the history of ceramics in China. Arts in the Song Dynasty were made by and for the intellectual elite class. As a group, these intellectual elites were more cultured than intellectuals in any other era in Chinese history, and the ceramics made for them reflect their tastes. Plain but elegant glazes as well as simple and utilitarian forms combined with decorative motifs inspired by nature and daily life were popular. They stood for a perfect balance between vitality and refinement, and created a sense of classical purity in form. This is

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why ceramics made in the Song Dynasty have been highly appreciated for thousands of years. There were many varieties, with a wide range of decorative patterns, decoration methods, and colorful glazes. Their simple and elegant shapes provided proper and even perfect proportions. The major kilns of the Song Dynasty had their own characteristics and showed their unique charm. Variety of ceramics in the Song Dynasty. Ceramics in the Song Dynasty had a wider variety than the past. There were bowls, plates, dishes, cups, and pots, and there were “elegant utensils” (雅器)32 specially designed for display, which became a new variety of ceramic production in this period. Decorative patterns. The range of decoration subject matters in the Song Dynasty was broader, the religious sense of the patterns was weak, and the wish for good fortune is strengthened. Decorating method. Ceramics in the Song Dynasty pursued the beauty of external shape and enamel, and advocated serenity and elegance, so there were many ceramics wearing thick glaze, which were made by the imperial kilns. On the other hand, folk kilns fell short of official kilns in material and economic conditions, so they focused on pattern decoration, like carved patterns by the Ding kiln and the Yaozhou kiln and deep-cut patterns by the Cizhou kiln.

6.4.1 Five Major Kilns in the Song Dynasty The Ding kiln, the Ru kiln, the Imperial kiln, the Jun kiln, and the Ge kiln of the Song Dynasty are widely known as the “Five Major Kilns”.

6.4.1.1

The Ding Kiln

The Ding kiln was located in Dingzhou (today’s Quyang of Hebei Province). Ding kiln ceramics began in the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties, and reached the peak in the Northern Song Dynasty. The Ding ceramics are known for their refined texture, the milky white glaze, and the extremely thin body. Their mouth is unglazed and has a hard coarse edge (because it is covered when they were burned). Gold, silver, or copper inlays were commonly used. In the early days, Ding wares were mostly plain, but later they were decorated with carved or printed patterns such as lotus, peonies, pomegranates, flying

32

Due to the rise of archeology and the interest of the ruling class led by Zhao Ji in “beautiful stones” (花石), craftsmen in the Song Dynasty made ceramics in the shape of bronze Zun, Ding, furnace, and pot of the Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han Dynasties, as well as various flower pots and study room utensils, such as brush washers, etc.

6.4 Ceramic

299

phoenixes, clouds and dragons. Among the Five Major Kilns, it is the only one that excels in decoration. The interior of the plate is printed with a cloud and dragon pattern. The decoration is clear and exquisite. The mouth of the plate is covered with a copper ring. It was made by the Ding kiln for the imperial court (Fig. 6.69).

Fig. 6.69 Ceramic Plate with Printed Cloud and Dragon Pattern (Ceramic. The Ding kiln. 4.7 cm in height and 23 cm in diameter. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 6.70 White Baby-Shaped Ceramic Pillow (Ceramic. The Ding kiln. 18.3 cm in height, 30 cm in length and 18.3 cm in width. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

Ceramic pillows in the form of a baby were popular in the Song Dynasty. This is the only one of the baby pillows made by the Ding kiln passed down so far, which made it very precious. The baby is lying down and his back can support the sleeper’s head. His head turns to one side and the eyes are bright. The baby wears a silk robe, and the oblong bed underneath is decorated with embossed patterns on four sides. The carving is excellent (Fig. 6.70).

6.4.1.2

The Ru Kiln

The Ru kiln was located in Linru County, Henan Province. It rose after the Yue kiln in the south declined. It was a celadon kiln, as the glaze was typically light green. The finish is careful, with the inside and outside covered with glaze. For the carved patterns, it adopted the technique of the Ding kiln to cut obliquely with a knife, showing a bas-relief effect. The body material is fine, the glaze is smooth, and the glaze color is described like “a clear sky after rain”, small flakes like cicada wings (cicada-wing patterns) also can be seen. Because the wares were supported with nails when they were burnt with

6.4 Ceramic

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Fig. 6.71 Celadon Plate (Celadon. The Ru kiln. 2.9 cm in height and 17 cm in diameter. The Song Dynasty. Shanghai Museum)

glaze all over, the bottom has small nail marks like sesame seeds (sesame marks), which turn to be the unique feature of Ru kiln. The coloring of Ru kiln wares has reached a very high level of sophistication, it has a simple and elegant, calm and elegant aesthetic temperament, which was fond by the aristocrats in court, so in the late Northern Song Dynasty, the royal family ordered ceramic wares from the Ru kiln instead of Ding kiln. The celadon Ru wares made for the royal family must first be selected by the court and only the “unqualified” could be sold in the market, so not many Ru wares circulated in the market. Also due to the short history of the Ru kiln and the loss due to the wars between the Song and Jin Dynasties in the north, there are only more than 60 handed down products in the world, which have become rare treasures. This plate is covered with light green glaze. The glaze is crystal clear and reveals the finely crisscross texture, giving it a delicate and subtle beauty. The glazing has been applied over the ring foot, and there are 5 small nail marks inside the ring foot (Fig. 6.71).

6.4.1.3

The Imperial Kiln

The Imperial kiln is a type of celadon created under the influence of the Ru kiln. They were specially made for the royal family. The imperial kiln was located in the two capitals of the Song Dynasty, Bianjing of the Northern Song Dynasty and Lin’an of the Southern Song Dynasty. The Imperial kiln of the Northern Song Dynasty pursued a simple, unpretentious, indifferent and natural taste in art. Their shape was dignified, mostly were imitations

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of antique bronze and jade. And the workmanship was perfect. The ceramic had been glazed and burned many times, and finally its surface was as smooth as grease, and the crystal-clear glaze showing a light “greenish blue”. Ceramic wares made by the Imperial kiln was usually characterized by “purple-mouthed and iron-footed” ( 紫口铁足, as the glaze at the mouth dropped and became thinner and translucent to slightly show the dark color of the body material, which was made by fine clay composing rich iron. The body was bare at some part of the bottom where the color became iron-brown). The cracks in Imperial kiln were called “crab claws pattern” which were more obvious than ceramics made by the Ru kiln but sparser than those by the Ge kiln. The flakes blending with the green glaze color, just like “the breeze ruffling a pool of spring water”, created a natural charm. The Imperial kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty lasted only a short time and produced very little. At present, the handed down products have become national treasures and are extremely valuable. The Imperial kiln in Southern Song Dynasty followed the old Northern Song Dynasty tradition, and its works were extremely exquisite. It has an open mouth, a shallow belly, and shallow circular footing, and looks like an eight-petal flower. The inside, outside and bottom of the vessel were painted with blue glaze. The glaze surface is smooth, the enamel is fine and glossy, and the cracks intertwine horizontally and vertically like a net (Fig. 6.72).

Fig. 6.72 Petal-Shaped Brush Washer (Celadon. The Imperial kiln. 4.8 cm in height and 18.7 cm in diameter. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

6.4 Ceramic

6.4.1.4

303

The Jun Kiln

The Jun kiln was located in Yu County, Henan Province, which was called the Jun zhou (prefecture) in the Jin Dynasty. The Junzhou was a ceramic production center in the Central Plains. The Jun kiln emerged in the early Northern Song Dynasty and flourished in the late Northern Song Dynasty. It continued to make ceramics during the Jin and Yuan Dynasties. With its influence covering not only Henan, but also what is now Hebei Province and Shanxi Province, the Jun kiln was a big ceramic making system. The Jun kiln was original celadon kiln, but its blue glaze was a unique milky glaze, and created the special colors like “sky blue” or “moon white”. It also used copper oxide as the colorant, which added red color to the blue glaze. At the same time, since ceramics made by the Jun contained phosphorus, the glaze showed a cloudy opalescence, creating an opaque hazy effect, which made the glaze color changeable. Therefore, gorgeous colors such as begonia, red, rosy, and purple appeared on the originally simple blue wares. With this special effect, the Jun kiln is unmatched. The Jun kiln used copper oxide as a coloring agent to cause kiln transformation during the burning process, making the simple celadon glow with gorgeous colors. Moreover, since the result of each kiln transformation was unique and almost unpredictable, it often created surprising results. Some Jun ceramic was also valued for its glaze color that shows landscapes, animals and other images (Fig. 6.73).

6.4.1.5

The Longquan Kiln and the Ge Kiln

The Longquan kiln clusters were located in Longquan, Zhejiang Province today. It is a celadon system that had grown in this area, following the decline of the Yue kiln. It reached its peak during the Southern Song Dynasty. The Longquan kilns employed two different ceramic making methods, forming two different styles, which were known as the Longquan kiln and the Ge kiln. The Ge kiln is more distinctive. The body of ceramic wares made by the Ge kiln was dark brown, and the edges, including the mouth and the feet, were often brown as they were not fully covered by glaze, so, like the Imperial kiln, they also had “purple-mouthed and iron-footed”. Glaze colors were mainly light greenish blue and beige. The most prominent characteristic of wares made by the Ge kiln is that the glazed surface is cracked. The cracks were formed during the cooling process due to the difference of shrinkage rates of the glaze and the body. Cracks had originally been a defect, but they had an unexpected effect, so later cracks were artificially made to become a natural decoration. Depending on the shapes and lengths of cracks, they were given various names. The larger cracks were also called “golden lines and iron wires” (金丝铁线) as the lines were black and brown. The glaze of ceramics made by the Longquan kiln was verdant green (Greenish blue were more popular in the Northern Song Dynasty and verdant is prevail in the Southern Song). There were no cracks. At the curves of the vessel, the glaze

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6 Arts of the Five Dynasties, the Northern Song and the Southern Song …

Fig. 6.73 Celadon-Glazed Red-Spotted Bottle (Ceramic. The Jun kiln. 29 cm in height and 13 cm in diameter. The Song Dynasty. The British Museum)

was thinner and the body was almost laid bare, which is called “sticking” (出筋). Embossing techniques were commonly used to decorate patterns such as peonies and fish. The furnace has double fish ears with an elegant and exquisite shape, imitating the bronze ware of the Pre-Qin Dynasties. The glaze is light blue. There are clear cracks covering the whole body with the black lines of the large flakes and brown lines of the small ones (“golden lines and iron wires”), which is the typical characteristic of the Ge kiln (Fig. 6.74). This furnace has a light green color with a concise shape. the “sticking” effect is obvious, which makes it fresher and more elegant (Fig. 6.75).

6.4 Ceramic

305

Fig. 6.74 Fish Pattern Ear Incense Burner (Celadon. The Ge kiln. 9 cm in height, 11.8 cm in diameter of caliber and 9.6 cm in diameter of bottom. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

Fig. 6.75 Celadon Incense Burner (Celadon. The Longquan kiln. 12.4 cm in height and 14.5 cm in diameter of caliber. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

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6.4.2 Other Famous Kilns in the Song Dynasty Except for “Five Major Kilns”, folk kilns in the Song Dynasty also had their own unique characteristics. With development, some kiln clusters formed and became big ceramic production systems in the Song Dynasty.

6.4.2.1

The Yaozhou Kiln

The Yaozhou kiln was located in Huangbao Town, Tongguan (present day Tongchuan County, Shaanxi Province), and it was so named because Tongguan was once part of Yaozhou. The Yaozhou kiln was a famous celadon kiln in the north after the Ru kiln. It is the largest ceramic production center where ceramics were produced on a large scale and which had the longest history of ceramic production in northern China. The glaze color of the Yaozhou ceramic was blue with shimmering yellow, so the color was called “ginger yellow”. Their shapes were highly varied. Yaozhou wares used carving and printing as the main decorative methods, and were particularly famous for carving. It has a small mouth, slippery shoulders, and a long body, carved with peony and day lily patterns all over. The carving is deep and strong, and the lines are free and smooth. It was a standard flower pot made in the Song Dynasty, and a treasure from the Yaozhou kiln (Fig. 6.76).

6.4.2.2

The Cizhou Kiln

The production of the Cizhou kiln was centered in Pengcheng, Hebei Province, but spread to all over Hebei Province and even Henan, Shanxi Provinces, so it is appropriate to call it the “Cizhou kiln type”. A large number of ceramics from the Cizhou kiln cluster were produced for the ordinary people, the craftsmen were also from the folk, the creation was not subject to official restrictions like those imperial kilns, so the themes were rich and the forms were fresh and lively, the brushwork of the decoration patterns was free and unrestrained. It is an important folk kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty. The glazes were mainly white and black. The decoration methods included painting black patterns on white glaze, carving out white patterns on black glaze, carving patterns on pearl background, painting black patterns on green glaze, etc. The contrast of black and white was often used to create a strong visual effect. The subject matters of the decoration were closely related with daily life, sometimes also

6.4 Ceramic

307

Fig. 6.76 Celadon Vase with Peony and Day Lily Patterns (Celadon. The Yaozhou kiln. 48.4 cm in height, 7.5 cm in diameter of caliber and 11 cm in diameter of bottom. The Song Dynasty. Shanghai Museum)

use inscriptions of folk proverbs and popular poems, using the art of calligraphy to create a strong sense of life and local culture. The Cizhou kiln was loved by people in the northern region. Most of the ceramics produced were daily necessities for the people at that time. The subject matters of decoration were popular among the people. The black patterns on a white ground are the main feature. The decoration lines are smooth, bold and thick, and the contrast between black and white is strong (Fig. 6.77).

6.4.2.3

The Jingdezhen Kiln

The Jingdezhen kiln in Jiangxi Province had begun to make celadon since the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties. After the Song Dynasty moved south, craftsmen from all over China came down, bringing rich manufacturing experience, and as a result, the Jingdezhen porcelain industry flourished.

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6 Arts of the Five Dynasties, the Northern Song and the Southern Song …

Fig. 6.77 White Ceramic Pillow with Black Peony Pattern (Ceramic. The Cizhou kiln. The Song Dynasty. Seikado Bunko Art Museum, Japan)

The Jingdezhen kiln in the Song Dynasty was most known and accomplished in making “shadowy blue” (影青, a subtle bluish color showing up where the glaze is thick or where the pattern is concave) wares. The decoration methods included carving, drawing, printing, and decals. Shadowy blue celadon, also known as blue-white porcelain, has an elegant and tranquil color, which is deeply loved by literati. The shape of this vase is elegant and well-proportioned. The body is carved with smooth fine lines to create a pattern of intertwining flowers and leaves. The whole body is covered with blue-white glaze, and the glaze is bright and clear. It is an exquisite work of Jingdezhen kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty (Fig. 6.78).

6.4.2.4

The Jian Kiln

The Jian kiln was located in Shuiji Town, Jianyang, Fujian Province. The main product was black-glazed tea sets. The iron-containing components in the glaze would form beautiful brown marks on the black background due to the different firing temperatures. Some were lines as thin as hair and were called “rabbit hair”, some were feathery spots called “partridge marks”, while others were like silver stars and called “oil droplets”. It is a black glazed tea bowl with its inside surface covered with many spots surrounded by deep blue radiance. There are only three tea bowls of this kind that are known to exist. The other two pieces are owned by Ryōko-in, Daitoku-ji in Kyoto and Fujita Museum of Art in Osaka. This piece, with the most vivid luster and a

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Fig. 6.78 Blue-White Glazed Vase (Celadon. The Jingdezhen kiln. 26.6 cm in height, 5 cm in diameter of caliber and 8.5 cm in diameter of bottom. The Song Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

finely chiseled foot, was preserved for many generations by the Inaba family, hence its name “Inaba Tenmoku” (Fig. 6.79).

6.4.2.5

The Jizhou Kiln

The Jizhou kiln was located in Yonghe Town, in Ji’an of Jiangxi Province. Like the Cizhou kiln in the north, it was the major folk kiln system in the south of China.

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Fig. 6.79 Inaba Tenmoku (Tianmu Tea Bowl) (Ceramic. The Jian kiln. 6.8 cm in height and 12 cm in diameter. The Song Dynasty. Seikado Bunko Art Museum, Japan)

There were many decoration methods, in which the use of wood leaves and paper cutting were the best known. Tree leaves were applied to the ceramic body and burned together after a special treatment. The art of paper cutting was also applied on ceramics, with auspicious words such as “Health and Long Life” pasted on the ceramic body, showing a strong folk color. This is an innovation of the Jizhou kiln. This is a typical black glaze with decal from a kiln in Jizhou. The black glaze is thick and even, and a leaf was attached to the inside of the cup. The decoration method was to apply processed leaves which had been dipped in glaze to the surface of the cup, and then burn it at a high temperature to form vivid and beautiful images. This method was invented by the Jizhou kiln. It was easy to make, and the pattern was unique and lively. It fully reflects the superb craft of ceramic production in Jizhou in the Song Dynasty (Fig. 6.80).

6.4 Ceramic Fig. 6.80 Black-Glazed Tea Bowl with Leaf Pattern (Ceramic. The Jizhou kiln. 5.2 cm in height, 14.5 cm in diameter of caliber and 3.4 cm in diameter of bottom. Unearthed in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. The Song Dynasty. Jiangxi Provincial Museum)

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Chapter 7

Arts of the Yuan Dynasty

7.1 Overview The Yuan Dynasty was founded by a Mongolian tribe that once lived along the Argun River. In the late twelfth century AD, a fierce warrior named Temüjin emerged from within this tribe, and by the early thirteenth century AD, he had unified the Mongolian clans north of the Gobi Desert. Temujin later became Genghis Khan of these clans who built the Mongolian Empire based in Helin/Karakorum. Shortly afterwards, Genghis Khan launched massive military campaigns to the west and the south, annexed huge swathes of territories, and eventually built the Mongolian empire into a juggernaut that flaunted its military might throughout Eurasia. In China, the Mongols captured the kingdom of Western Xia, Jin and the Southern Song Dynasty one by one, and eventually brought the country under one Mongolian banner. After Kublai took over the Khanate, he moved his capital to Dadu/Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1267 AD, and changed the name of his empire into the Yuan Dynasty which reigned over the next 90 years. In contrast to the previous Song Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty heavily relied on its military power, which was its tradition. They imposed discriminatory ethnic policies, which left ethnic Han scholars politically disenfranchised. Thus, most Han scholars could only express their aspirations and discontents through exercising calligraphy and painting. Literati paintings, works drawn by scholar-artists, naturally prevailed in the Yuan Dynasty. In the field of craft art, the Yuan Dynasty saw many innovations in skills. Yuan Dynasty artists abandoned the intricate and exquisite style of the Song Dynasty, instead, pursued the rough, bold, and vigorous. These changes were partly caused by the artistic tastes of the non-Han ethnic ruling class. But this style was often disdained by the Han gentry, especially by intellectuals in the South, and a rift in artistic tastes grew between the ruling class and the public represented by Han scholars.

© Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 T. Chen, Illustrated History of Chinese Art, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8_7

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7.2 Painting Most Han ethnic scholars during the Yuan Dynasty were dissatisfied with the political status quo of being ruled by minority ethnic and were full of yearning for the glorious past. They began to look back to China’s past for artistic inspirations, and developed a deep nostalgia towards the bygone eras, which was evident in their artworks. When they painted, they tried to imitate the styles and sentiments of past masters, especially those of the Tang and the Northern Song Dynasties. The Yuan Dynasty, therefore, saw a first wave of Chinese artists that were not inspired by nature, but by other paintings or legacy artworks. It was a novel and revolutionary attitude, which had a profound impact on Chinese art history, as from this time on, artists began to deconstruct traditions and began to revive and transform the traditional styles. This is an in-depth development of Chinese literati painting after the Song Dynasty. The theory and trend of thought of literati painting began to profoundly affect the future artistic development of China. Because the Mongolian rulers kept most Han scholars away from government offices, the Han intelligentsia formed a whole new class of elites and stayed away from power, unlike their predecessors in the Song Dynasty who played a core role in politics. As a result, the difference in style between literati paintings and court paintings became more pronounced. There was also a further integration of poetry, calligraphy, and painting. In particular, a large number of inscriptions and seals were added on the paintings. Since painters no longer aimed for a realistic portrayal of nature, the inscriptions on their paintings can help explain the intentions of their art. The painter’s friends or even their fans, collectors could add comments and inscriptions to, somehow, had themselves part of the great paintings. Painting on paper became more prevalent, as paper became cheaper and could better reflect the artist’s command of ink and brush. This allowed the Ink-wash freehand painting, which had become the dominant style, to be more fully developed. In terms of genre, figure paintings declined during this era, while landscape paintings saw a boom. Artists attached importance to conveying their personal feelings and the expressiveness of their brushstrokes, which brought freehand landscape paintings to new heights. Flower-and-bird paintings during this era were characteristically done in ink, while paintings of the “Four Gentlemen” (plum blossom, orchid, bamboo, and chrysanthemum) were especially popular. Among them, ink bamboos were most adored, as they symbolized both the flexibility and integrity of the literati class.

7.2.1 Paintings in the Early Yuan Dynasty Zhao Mengfu was a key figure of the art circle during the early Yuan Dynasty, as his paintings captured the aesthetic interest of his contemporaries. Foregoing the delicate style of court (academic) paintings of the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhao

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Mengfu favored the painting traditions of the Jin Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty, and the Northern Song Dynasty, which attached importance to conveying sentiments and ideals through pictures. Zhao Mengfu insisted that paintings were valued which had elements of classical culture, and he advocated a marriage between calligraphy and painting. Championed by Zhao Mengfu, freehand Ink-wash paintings became the predominant style of this era, and his works and theories embodied the development of literati painting in the Yuan Dynasty. Like Zhao Mengfu, Qian Xuan was another major painter in the early Yuan Dynasty. Qian Xuan (1239–1301 AD), courtesy name Shunju, literary name Yutan, came from the same county as Zhao Mengfu, who was a close friend. During the last years of the Southern Song Dynasty, Qian Xuan attained the rank of “Jinshi” (进 士) through imperial examination. However, he refused to work for the new Yuan government, but chose to live in seclusion for the rest of his life. Qian Xuan was a versatile painter and excelled in painting figures, landscapes, and flowers and birds. Most of his works depict ancient sages and hermits or express the tastefulness of living in seclusion. Though his brushwork is simple and sometimes childish, the effect he created is refined, elegant, and unconventional. This painting depicts eight kinds of flowers using the “folded-branch method” (折枝法). Branches of apricot, begonia, sweet-scented osmanthus, narcissus, and others are juxtaposed on the scroll. Though they are independent of each other, these branches are so skillfully arranged that they echo with each other through different shapes, tones, and highlights. Their vivid forms are outlined with gentle strokes. Colors were used ingeniously to create subtle and elegant shades, as if the flowers were shrouded in moonlight, and one could almost smell their sweet scent. In a sense, the painting radiates a beauty that transcends this mundane world. For painting flowers and birds, Qian Xuan was inspired by Zhao Chang, a court painter of the Song Dynasty, so his paintings have some academic traits. Nevertheless, he managed to give his works something new and inspirational. As one of his earlier works, painted before he was 50 years old, this painting is ornate and meticulous, while his style became much simpler in his later years (Fig. 7.1). Qian Xuan had painted plenty of scrolls depicting mountains, the ideal place for intellectuals to live in seclusion, and this painting is a portrayal of the Fuyu (浮玉, floating jade) Mountains where he resided. In this painting, small islets rest in the middle of a lake, and layers of mountains are covered with woods in which there are a few half-hidden huts. A small boat parks at the dock, and a man is walking across a bridge. The artist used very innovative techniques within this painting. The bushes were depicted with pointillism, as the variation of their shades are expressed with little dots of ink. The mountains and rocks are painted with fine brush strokes, whose tones, denseness, and strength are skillfully executed. One can easily identify each object and understand the spatial relations between them. The painting presents a real secluded wonderland: the tranquil and detached world is shown with gray tones,

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Fig. 7.1 Eight Flowers (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 29.4 cm in length and 333.9 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Qian Xuan. The Palace Museum)

with the water and the sky indistinguishable. Critics believe that this painting “can only be painted by those who are indifferent to fame and forget loneliness” (Fig. 7.2). In the center of the picture are rows of rolling green hills, and the woods covering them show a tint of redness between its green leaves. There is a cottage hidden amid these hills, whose doors are half-closed. Someone can be seen resting by the desk inside the cottage. A dog is barking in the yard. A small bridge connects with the steep lakeshore, by which three tall pine trees stand. Beyond the trees there seems to be a village. A man is riding a donkey across the bridge, and a boy is carrying his satchel behind. The lake is as calm as a mirror, and blotches of blue represent the far mountains in the background. The lake and the mountains add calmness to the vastness of the view. Though its style is simple, this painting masterfully replicates the style of the Jin and Tang Dynasties, and pays obvious homage to the ancients. Qian Xuan shows the ages of the pine trees through their decrepit forms and garnishes the rocks with a smooth texture. The leaves are outlined and then colored. The hill foot is colored in deep ochre, and outlined with a thin line of gold. The top of the mountain is thinly colored with turquoise, and decorated with green dots of moss. Although this is a Blue-green landscape, it does not aim at decorative value with fine brushwork, but aims to show the serene and elegant aesthetic taste of the literati. Towards the end of the scroll, a verse is inscribed: “In the mountains I appreciate the quiet solitude. I’d close my firewood doors against the mid-day sun. Few people visit me, but it’s a good thing as I enjoy being alone and cherish no worldly ambitions. Different folks have different aspirations, and it is good that they keep them to themselves. I’d love to meet another hermit, with gladness nevertheless” (“山居唯 , 无求道自尊, , 兰艾不同根, 安得蒙 爱静, 日午掩柴门, 庄叟, 相逢与细论”). This inscription is an integral part of the painting, as it clearly expresses the artist’s pride and indifference in seclusion (Fig. 7.3).

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Fig. 7.2 Dwelling in the Floating Jade Mountains (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 29.6 cm in height and 98.7 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Qian Xuan. Shanghai Museum)

Fig. 7.3 Dwelling in the Mountains (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 26.4 cm in height and 114.9 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Qian Xuan. The Palace Museum)

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Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322 AD), courtesy name Zi’ang, literary name Songxue Daoren, was a native of Huzhou, Zhejiang Province, and once a member of the Song Dynasty’s imperial family. Zhao Mengfu’s high social status and artistic accomplishments made him a key painter of the early Yuan Dynasty. He had absorbed the strengths of masters in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and was able to integrate them to form his own style. His works and theories together reflected how literati paintings in the Yuan Dynasty built on the strengths of Song Dynasty paintings, and had exerted huge influences on his contemporaries and later-generation painters. He served in the court of Yuan Dynasty, and claimed a high status with great influence as head of the Hanlin Imperial Academy. However, he was never able to really exercise any political power due to the identity as a Han ethnic scholar and his relationship with the ruler of the Song Dynasty. Meanwhile, for the same reason, he was filled with bitterness against the Yuan government, and constantly suffered from self-blame and depression in the heart. Zhao Mengfu was well trained in both literature and music, but was best known for his accomplishments in painting and calligraphy. As a scholar-artist, Zhao Mengfu sought to create “a sense of antiquity” in his paintings by reviving the styles of the Tang Dynasty, the Five Dynasties, and the Northern Song Dynasty, and especially the long neglected poetic style of Southern Masters like Dong Yuan and Ju Ran. In his paintings, he attached importance to the expression of sentiments, and pursued a simple and fresh style, resisting the court painting style of the Song Dynasty which overemphasized form and intricate brushwork. He also emphasized the relationship between calligraphy and painting, and used calligraphy brush strokes in his paintings to enhance their expressiveness. This is one of Zhao’s best known landscape paintings, depicting the beauty of autumn in the famous Mount Que and Mount Huabuzhu in Jinan. On the right side of the scroll, the pointy and towering Mount Huabuzhu is painted in mineral ), while the green, and finely detailed with “lotus leave texture strokes” ( flatter Mount Que on the left is depicted with “hemp-fiber strokes” and colored cyanine. Between the two mountains was a shore dotted with waterfront homesteads, riverbanks covered with reeds, and a land covered with lush overgrowth. Fishermen are casting nets in the water, while water buffalos are foraging freely around. It was a picturesque pastoral sight. Zhao Mengfu followed the style of the Jin and Tang Dynasties, and his brushstrokes were inspired by Dong Yuan’s works. The tree trunks in this scroll were only depicted with “double-outlines”, and the leaves were drawn using the dotting method. Quaint yet refined, the painting creates an impression of quiet elegance and relaxed optimism. The details show the artist’s mastery of calligraphy skills. In this way, his works and theories inspired the “Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty”, and his influence on later generations was profound (Fig. 7.4). Zhao Mengfu forwarded the idea that “calligraphy and painting have the same origin” (书画同源), which was built upon Su Shi’s earlier proposition that “poetry and painting follow the same rules” (诗画一律). Therefore, he inscribed a note in this painting: “Drawing rocks is a bit like writing ‘Feibai’ (飞白 flying white: In

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Fig. 7.4 Autumn Colors on the Que and Hua Mountains (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 28.4 cm in height and 93.2 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Zhao Mengfu. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

calligraphy and painting, using a dry brush to leave white marks on the paper that gives the impression of speed and spontaneity.) cursive, the texture of trees is like squiggly seal script, and the bamboos are painted with basic calligraphy techniques. So, if someone understands this, he would agree that calligraphy and painting are in fact the same.” This requires painters to use calligraphy brushstrokes, and to forgo realism in favor of freehand abstraction. This painting is filled with juxtapositions of thick and thin, dry and wet, dense and sparce lines, which perfectly embodied Zhao Mengfu’s vision of an ideal literati painting. The hillside and the rocks were outlined using the “Feibai” calligraphic method, leaving space amid the strong-edged brush strokes which is full of imagination and power. The dried tree trunks were detailed with the center of the brush tip, using thick lines like squiggly lines of seal script of calligraphy. The bamboo leaves were painted with plump, thick lines similar to that of official script of calligraphy (Fig. 7.5).

Fig. 7.5 Elegant Rocks and Sparse Trees (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 27.5 cm in height and 62.8 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Zhao Mengfu. The Palace Museum)

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7.2.2 “The Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty” In the middle Yuan Dynasty, the leading painters were Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, Ni Zan, and Wang Meng. Collectively they were known as the “Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty”, as they had major impacts on future artists. Their works stood for the highest level of paintings in the Yuan Dynasty. The Four Masters were all born in the region of present-day Jiangsu and Zhejiang, and lived during the tumultuous period towards the late Yuan Dynasty. Although they led different lives due to their different social status, they all suffered from social injustices and cherished unfulfilled aspirations. In artistic creation, they were either directly or indirectly influenced by Zhao Mengfu. They were all literati painters, most highly renowned for painting ink landscapes as well as bamboos and rocks. They attached importance to brushwork and style in their paintings. Meanwhile they also relied on referencing real sights. These masters aimed to express their aspirations through their landscape paintings, which they explicitly verbalized in inscriptions. Their paintings mostly convey a bleak sentiment of sadness and loneliness that was the general sentiment during their time of turmoil. Their life outlook and artistic styles had a huge impact on future-generation literati paintings in the same region. Huang Gongwang (1269–1354 AD), courtesy name Zijiu, literary name Dachi Daoren, was a native of Changshu, Jiangsu Province. Huang Gongwang is a Taoist of the Quanzhen Sect. Except for painting, he was also highly talented in composing and playing music. He had mainly painted landscapes of Mount Yu in his hometown Changshu and Mount Fuchun in Zhejiang. His style fused those of a few earlier painters, such as Jing Hao and Dong Yuan. He liked to work with pure ink or light watercolors, and his paintings featured lightly-touched but solemn coloring, which was imitated by many literati painters in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. This is Huang Gongwang’s magnum opus. Because the artist picked it up only when he felt inspired, it took him more than three years to complete, and he was almost 80 years old by then. The scroll depicts the beautiful scenery around Mount Fuchun in Zhejiang Province. The undulating mountains, the cottages dotting the slopes, the mirror-like lake, and the drifting fishing boats compose a paradise for hermits just like the wonderland Tao Yuanming (the outstanding poet and essayist in the Eastern Jin Dynasty) depicted in his famous essay The Peach Colony 《 ( 桃花源 记》). Huang Gongwang had managed to develop his own style by imitating Dong Yuan and Ju Ran’s works, a combination of strong brushwork with only clear and soft detailing. Even when his lines were lightly inked, together they formed a masculine shape. He was highly skilled in using both long and short “hemp-fiber strokes” and dry brush to depict the shapes and details of mountain rocks, while he painted both the dense forests in the background and the twisted old pines up close with ink dots of various shapes and a combination of light and thick colors. The painting is free

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Fig. 7.6 Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 33 cm in height and 636.9 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Huang Gongwang. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

from overdetailing characteristic of the Song Dynasty; instead, it emanates an aura of grandness and relaxed tranquility, reflecting the painter’s own state of mind. This painting has passed through the hands of many collectors. It almost got burnt in the early Qing Dynasty when one of its owners wanted the painting to accompany him to his afterlife. Fortunately, the family of the deceased rescued the painting from the funeral pyre, and trimmed off the places that were scorched. As a result, the scroll is now divided into two halves. The first half, which is shorter, survives in Zhejiang Provincial Museum in Hangzhou, and the longer half is now kept at the National Palace Museum in Taipei (Fig. 7.6). This painting was made when the painter was 81 years old. There are very few stroke methods in the painting, and the mountain peaks are formed purely by empty outlines. There are only a few dead branches depicted among the rocks, and only a few spots of dark ink dotted on the top of the mountain. The water and sky are dyed with pure rendering technique which creates a strong contrast to the snow mountains that make the white snow on the mountain look even whiter. The outline of the mountain peak is like a silhouette, which further strengthens the image of cold cliffs and frozen ravines. The painter is very good at managing and arranging landscapes. The “alum ) are gathered in different shapes, without a sense of congestion; there head” ( are dead branches and thin trees in the blank spaces between the boulders, without any sense of monotony; a row of thatched huts are arranged in the snow-capped, desolate and steep mountains, making the scene suddenly full of life. The quiet and

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Fig. 7.7 Nine Peaks in Snow (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 117 cm in height and 55.5 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Huang Gongwang. The Palace Museum)

pure artistic conception in the painting revealed the artist’s peaceful, tranquil mood and the seclusive feeling (Fig. 7.7). Wu Zhen (1280–1354 AD), courtesy name Zhonggui, literary name Meihua Daoren, was a native of Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province. Wu Zhen was a great poet, calligrapher, and painter who lived in seclusion. Best known for painting landscapes, plum blossoms, and bamboos, he had learned Dong Yuan and Ju Ran’s styles, producing strong yet neat brushwork that expresses a sense of vastness. Although he had led an impoverished life in his retreat, his paintings show a peaceful state of mind and lofty aspirations far above materials concerns. This horizontally laid out painting depicts an extremely broad scene. Two tall pine trees stand by the river in the foreground, with another tree sticking out its branches between them. In the middle ground, there are rolling hills covered with dense foliage, and a man fishing on his boat in the stream. Wu Zhen was known for making layers and layers of light hues with wet brush, but he rarely used dry brush. The entire painting delivers a feeling of vastness, with heavy brushwork and strong ink color. As one of the Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty, Wu Zhen was known for his aloof and thrifty personality. He loved to paint hermits fishing on boats, and had painted a great many works entitled Fisherman. This painting carries an inscription, which is a verse entitled “The Fisherman’s Song”: “The wind on Lake Dongting rises, sending my boat afloat. The water is calm, and the spring evening is warm.

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Fig. 7.8 Fisherman (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 84.7 cm in height and 29.7 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Wu Zhen. The Palace Museum)

It’s a good time to fish for bass, but I’ll never fish for fame” (“洞庭湖上晚风生, 。 , 草花新。 。”). The sentence “it’s a good time to fish for bass, but I’ll never fish for fame” perfectly encapsulates Wu Zhen’s attitude towards the world and his quirky artistic personality (Fig. 7.8). Wu Zhen spent his whole life in the countryside. As a proud hermit, he rarely socialized with those who held power. He once said: “Painting is merely a hobby for the gentlemen when they’re not writing poetry or studying.” He painted whenever he felt inspired, jotting down the withered trees, bamboos, and rocks as a sort of playful exercise. His brushwork is bold and free, featuring strokes loaded with ink. Although he learned from Dong Yuan and Ju Ran, he had formed a unique personal style. His bamboo leaves were dancing with his cursive strokes, and his random brushwork followed a logic of his own. Every object in his painting is not what it looks like in the real world, but they all show the energy and free will of the artist (Fig. 7.9). Ni Zan (1301–1374 AD), courtesy name Yuanzhen, literary name Yunlin, was a native of Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. Later becoming a Taoist of the Quanzhen Sect, Ni Zan was born to a rich family in the affluent “Jiangnan” region, and socialized widely with famous southern scholars.

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Fig. 7.9 Bamboo, Old Tree, and Rock (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 53 cm in height and 69.8 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Wu Zhen. The Palace Museum)

Later when his family fortune ran dry, he went to live an unknown life in areas around Lake T’ai for more than 20 years. The landscapes he painted mainly show the beauty of these areas. The composition of his paintings is typically sparse and simple, with no figures, boats, clouds, or anything moving. There is an atmosphere of stillness, tranquility, desolation, and stagnation in the picture, as if the scene was taken from a certain moment in the past. Ni Zan used very few colors when he painted, apart from the gray tones. His brushwork is loose and simple, and his brush is dry. For these features, he was highly admired by literati painters of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Ni Zan’s paintings are characterized by an iconic “three-fold structure” (三段式), with a highly abstracted foreground, middle ground, and background that together convey an ethereal, empty, and lonely dreamscape. In this painting, the foreground takes the form of a gentle slope sparsely populated with trees, the middle ground is left intentionally blank, and the background shows faraway sandbanks and hills. Six trees stand proudly in the foreground which catch attention easily in this bleak world. They are pine, cypress, camphor, phoebe, elm, and pagoda, collectively known as “the Six Gentlemen” as they symbolize integrity for Chinese intelligentsia. As Huang Gongwang wrote in the inscription of this painting: “These six trees stand apart from each other, each being upright and integral in their own ways like six gentlemen” (“居然相对六君子, 正直特立无偏颇”). While they stand for virtues, these trees serve as an allegory to the painter’s own secluded life. Technically, Ni Zan often ) when he painted rocks and slopes, as well as used “folding-belt strokes” ( dry brush, light touches, and loose lines. He once said that “my paintings don’t aim at resemblance. I only paint to please myself” (“仆之所谓画者, 不过逸笔草草, 不 求形似, 聊以自娱耳”). His insistence on conveying the mood made him a model painter and his paintings masterpieces of a freehand genre (Fig. 7.10). Wang Meng (?–1385 AD), courtesy name Shuming, was a native of Huzhou, Zhejiang Province.

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Fig. 7.10 Six Gentlemen (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 61.9 cm in height and 33.3 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Ni Zan. Shanghai Museum)

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A grandson of Zhao Mengfu, Wang Meng once lived in seclusion in Mount Huanghe and referred to himself as Old Forester of Mt. Huanghe. Most of his landscape paintings depict mountain sights and the seclusion lives. Unlike the others of the Four Masters, his brushwork is layered and varies, the painting is rich in detail and lush in color. “Chu-ch’u” is an alternate name for Lake T’ai. This picture depicts a vibrant autumn day in the areas around Forest Chamber Grotto at Lake T’ai. The rocks extruding from the lake show exquisite textures, the hills and the boulders on shore appear in many layers, the forests between them are dotted with red leaves, and the winding paths lead to secluded homesteads. Within these huts, there are scholars reading and maidens sitting by the windows. Outside, the lake ripples and glitters under the sun, and a small raft is drifting along the shoreline. Further down, there is somebody resting within the forest. The painting shows what the artist envisioned as an ideal place of hermetic living. Though the scroll is dense, all the closely packed details and features are well arranged. The detailing is delicate and methodical, and the mountain rock textures are neatly painted with a thin-brush technique called ). Wang Meng’s brushwork can be described as fine and “ox-hair strokes” ( various, with sufficient strength. Though he used dark saturated colors, his paintings have a sense of clarity. Wang Meng had spent decades in the mountains, which may

Fig. 7.11 Forest Chamber Grotto at Chu-ch’u (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 68.7 cm in height and 42.5 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Wang Meng. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

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explain why he could combine complexity and simplicity, and employ a diverse range of techniques in his paintings (Fig. 7.11). This is a picture of the areas around Mount Qingbian northwest of Wuxing, Zhejiang Province. The scroll shows vast mountains and forests, with streams flowing deep within and several thatched huts hidden between them. Under the roof, a hermit is sitting on his bed with his arms folded around his knees. The picture conveys a quiet mood. Technically, the painting is mostly based on texture strokes, with less use of coloring. The rocks are painted with “ox-hair strokes”, and other parts use multi-layer coloring. Wang Meng first laid in a light hue of ink, and later applied a darker layer. He used a wet brush to set the hue, and then chafed the detail textures Fig. 7.12 Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 140.6 cm in height and 42.2 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Wang Meng. Shanghai Museum)

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with dry brush. He used dense but neat dots to form the vegetation at the mountain top, and a few brushstrokes to portray the lush forest (Fig. 7.12).

7.2.3 “Four Gentlemen” Paintings and Others Li Kan (1244–1320 AD), courtesy name Zhongbin, literary name Xizhai, was a native of Dadu (present day Beijing). Li Kan was most skilled in painting bamboos, and had written seven books on how to paint bamboos. This scroll depicts four sticks of bamboo growing by a lake, crisscrossing each other, some taller and some shorter. Their lush leaves spread under the fair weather, and pile up into a neat layered structure. To emphasize their vibrancy, the artist painted sprouting bamboo shoots, juxtaposing with a withered old tree and lakeside rocks. Li Kan painted these bamboos by the “double-outline method”, and his linework is meticulous. The bamboo leaves were colored in ink wash, with an additional tint of green. Even the front and the back of the bamboo leaves are colored with darker and lighter hues, forming distinct color blotches. The rocks are painted with wet brush, vividly showing how they twist and form into dynamic shapes. Unlike the neat, clear lines of the bamboos, these rocks are blended into continuous geometries, which provides a change in style and makes the painting more pleasing to the eye. Li had spent a considerable portion of his life in bamboo country, so he knew all the in-and-outs of bamboos, including their forms and life cycles. That’s why he could paint bamboos both vividly and realistically, while giving an air of integrity to these plants (Fig. 7.13). This painting is a section of a long scroll, which was cut into two halves during the mid to late Ming Dynasty. The first half of the scroll contains one Ci bamboo and one Fang (square) bamboo, and is currently kept at the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in USA. This is the second half of the scroll kept at the Palace Museum in Beijing. It features four main objects painted in ink and wash: parasol trees, bamboos, orchids, and stones, symbolizing noble character. On the right side of the picture, four bamboos stand staggered between the stones, with their leaves swaying in the wind. Beside the stones stand a shrub of orchids, with their leaves fluttering up and down. On the left, some bamboo shoots are growing between the parasol trees. These bamboos are painted straight and sturdy, while the lush parasol leaves are cleanly painted in different hues. The bamboo poles are painted in sections with light ink, their branches are painted with thick ink, and their leaves are painted with the darkest dry ink. The picture combines solemness with liveliness, and techniques are used appropriately to convey sentiments (Fig. 7.14).

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Fig. 7.13 Bamboos and Stones (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 163.5 cm in height and 102.5 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Li Kan. The Palace Museum)

Gu An (1289–1365 AD), courtesy name Dingzhi, literary name Yune Jushi, was a native of Jiangsu. The painter is good at painting bamboos, and this is his representative work. The concave and convex parts of the stone pattern in the painting are mostly rendered with light ink, providing a rich ink-wash feature and a strong three-dimensional sense. Several clumps of new bamboo sprout from the front and back of the rockery. The thin bamboo poles are crisscrossed and swaying in the wind. Thriving new leaves fill the entire painting with a hint of calligraphy stroke. The bamboo shoots gradually fall off as the new leaves grow. The painter caught the subtle transition between old and new in the nature and expressed this moment very well (Fig. 7.15).

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Fig. 7.14 Four Nobles (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 35.6 cm in height and 359.8 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Li Kan. The Palace Museum) Fig. 7.15 Bamboos and Stones (Hanging Scroll. Ink on silk. 184 cm in height and 102 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Gu An. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 7.16 Ink Bamboo of Qingbi Pavilion (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 132.8 cm in height and 58.5 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Ke Jiusi. The Palace Museum)

Ke Jiusi (1290–1343 AD), courtesy name Jingzhong, literary name Danqiusheng, was a native of Taizhou, Zhejiang Province. Ke Jiusi is good at painting ink bamboo. His style belongs to the school of Wen Tong. By integrating the calligraphy brushwork into the painting, his work looks elegant and vigorous. There are two branches of ink bamboo in the painting. The poles are painted directly with light ink, and the joints are dyed with thick ink. The brush strokes are round and powerful, with the feature of seal script. The bamboo leaves are divided into two layers of light and dark, with light as the back and dark as the face, showing a decisive calligraphy style. The strange rocks under the bamboo are abrupt, the moisty ink applied on it make it look mellow and elegant. This painting is a more direct interpretation of Zhao Mengfu’s theory that “calligraphy and painting have the same origin” (Fig. 7.16). Wang Mian (?–1359 AD), courtesy name Yuanzhang, literary name Zhushi Shanren, was a native of Zhuji, Zhejiang Province. Wang Mian is a representative figure of ink plum blossom painting in the Yuan Dynasty. He made a lot of travel when he was young, and at the end of the Yuan Dynasty, he lived in seclusion in the mountains. He planted thousands of plum trees around his house, entertained himself by painting plum blossoms, and made a living by selling paintings. The style of the plum blossoms in this painting is free and easy. The petals are dotted with light ink, different to the normal depiction method of using ink circles. In this way, no traces of the brush strokes are visible, but the flowers look plump and vibrant. The branches are thin and smooth, and the strokes are upward, showing vitality without losing the interest of brushstroke and ink. The inscription on the painting is one of his poems, which wrote out: “The trees at the head of my inkstone

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Fig. 7.17 Ink Plum Blossom (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 31.9 cm in height and 50.9 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Wang Mian. The Palace Museum)

washing pond are all blooming with faint ink marks. I don’t want anyone to praise , 个个花开 the color, leaving only the fragrance to fill the world” (“ , 只留香气满乾坤。”). The poetry is fresh and consistent 淡墨痕, with the meaning of the painting, expressing the painter’s ambition not to join the flow of filth (Fig. 7.17). Zhu Derun (1294–1365 AD), courtesy name Zemin, literary name Kongtong Shanren, was a native of Shangqiu, Henan Province. In this painting, an old pine stands on a rocky slope, with vines wrapped around the pine trunk. The painter uses thin, graceful lines to describe the swaying posture of the vines in the wind. There are not many scenes, but there is a quiet and tranquil ambience. The painter commented on the painting: “The ‘Hunlun’ painting is for praising the ‘Hunlun’. ‘Hunlun’ is neither square nor round, neither round nor square. It was born before the world, and it has no form but it exists. Not like those who were born after the world and have form but not exist. There is no way to measure , 不圆不方, 先天地生者, its value with ordinary way” (“ 无形而形存, 后天地生者有形而形亡, , 是岂有绳墨可量哉”). Although it sounds very mysterious, and the mystery and depth of the universe are far beyond the ability of a brush to express, we can still feel an intoxicating artistic conception and extremely interesting beauty of brushstroke and ink from this painting (Fig. 7.18). Wang Yi (years of birth and death unknown), courtesy name Sishan, literary name Chijuesheng, was a native of Jiande, Zhejiang Province. Wang Yi is a famous portrait

7.2 Painting

Fig. 7.18 The Painting of “Hunlun” ( Derun. Shanghai Museum)

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)1 (Handscroll. Ink on paper. The Yuan Dynasty. Zhu

Fig. 7.19 The Portrait of Yang Zhuxi2 (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 27.7 cm in height and 86.8 cm in length. The Yuan Dynasty. Wang Yi, Ni Zan. The Palace Museum)

painter in the late Yuan Dynasty. His portraits particularly emphasize the character’s temperament and character. In the painting, Yang Zhuxi, wearing turban and coarse clothes, is standing among the pines and rocks holding a stick. This portrait was painted by Wang Yi, who used “Baimiao” techniques accurately to depict the shape and vividly create the image of Yang Zhuxi. The protagonist’s honest and prudent character, integrity and sentiment that refuses to follow the crowd, are vividly displayed on the paper. Ni Zan added a small scene of bamboo and stone typical of his style on the side. It cleverly placed the person in the painting in a simple and cold environment, which was the icing on the cake for the expression of the character’s spiritual outlook (Fig. 7.19). 1

, according to the inscription, it should refer to Tao in eastern philosophy (or Logos in western philosophy). 2 Yang Zhuxi, also known as Yang Qian, literary name Zhuxi Jushi, was a native of Huating (present day Songjiang, Shanghai). He disdained joining the court to be official and lived in seclusion in

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7.3 Mural As the rulers of the Yuan Dynasty attached importance to religion, Lamaism was highly respected, and Taoism also had a prominent position. There are many exquisite pieces of Taoist and Buddhist art that have survived from this period. Murals in the Yongle Palace The Yongle Palace (the Palace of Eternal Happiness) was originally located in Yongle Town, Yongji County, Shanxi Province. In 1959, it was moved to the current site in Ruicheng County, due to the rising water level after the Sanmenxia Reservoir was completed. The Yongle Palace is said to be related to Lv Dongbin, one of the Eight Saints of Taoism and a native of Yongle County. A place for worshipping Lv Dongbin was built in Yongle Town during the Northern Song Dynasty, and after the Kingdom of Jin took over the region, the site was expanded into a Taoist temple. When the Quanzhen Sect gained power during the early Yuan Dynasty, its followers chose this temple as their headquarters, and then it became the Yongle Palace. Along the center line of this magnificent palace stands the Gate of Wuji, and the Halls of Sanqing, Chunyang, and Chongyang. These exquisite Yuan Dynasty murals are found within these four halls, amounting to a total painted area of over 800 m2 . This picture is a small section of the Chaoyuan Mural in the Sanqing Hall. There are total 280 figures including 28 constellation gods, 32 minor deities, and others in the mural. There are 8 main focal point figures, each representing one of the highest Taoist gods standing at 3 m tall. The other figures are painted around these 8 main gods, and each at least 2 m tall. While the overall picture is grand, each figure is carefully detailed with different body postures and facial expressions. Their clothes, depicted with smooth and clear lines, look flowing and powerful. The artists used smooth and powerful lines to create the vigorous image, filled in the outlines with rich colors and even applied golden powder at certain areas, which adds a sense of exquisite luxury to the quaint solemness of the blue-green murals (Fig. 7.20). The jade lady (fairy) only takes up a very small portion of the mural in the Sanqing Hall, but this picture shows how much care and effort the painter had spent when creating this image. Her charming gaze, her gently closed lips, and all her other feminine expressions show a personality unlike other mural figures, and add a tint of playfulness to her beauty (Fig. 7.21).

Jiangnan. He had a high reputation among the literati and had close contacts with Ni Zan and Wang Yi.

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Fig. 7.20 Chaoyuan Mural (Temple mural. The Yuan Dynasty. Ma Junxiang, etc. Sanqing Hall, Yongle Palace, Ruicheng County, Shanxi Province)

Murals in the Mogao Grottoes The Yuan Dynasty murals in Mogao Grottoes are the major legacies of Lamaist painting. This mural painting depicts Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin in Chinese) at its center. He is surrounded by other important Buddhist figures like Sarasvati (Biancaitian: goddess of wisdom); Vasishta (Posousian: god of wealth); Guhyapāda and Nārāyaṇa; and Apsaras. Avalokiteśvara was painted in his usual appearance described by Esoteric Buddhist texts, with “countless hands and eyes”. He wears a crown and a cloak, and stands on a huge lotus flower. He has three eyes on each of his eleven faces, and many hands sprout out of his back, each with an eye in the center of the palm. Many more hands form a circle behind him, their golden color lighting him up like a backlight, filling viewers with awe. This mural used a traditional Han painting technique called “Baimiao (clean outline) with light colors ” (白描淡彩). “iron wire strokes” were used to outline facial features and limbs, while other techniques like “orchid leaf strokes”, “folded-reed strokes” (折芦描), and “nail-head-rat-tail strokes” (钉头鼠尾描) were used to depict complicated fabric textures. These techniques add extra richness, texture quality, and layers to

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Fig. 7.21 Jade Lady (Temple mural. The Yuan Dynasty. Ma Junxiang, etc. Sanqing Hall, Yongle Palace, Ruicheng Country, Shanxi Province)

the Avalokiteśvara in Dunhuang, making the picture a lot more elaborate than usual Tantra murals (Fig. 7.22).

7.4 Ceramic The craft of ceramics further improved after the Song Dynasty, and Jingdezhen became the center of ceramic production during the Yuan Dynasty where Blue-and“You white porcelain (青花瓷 “Qing Hua”) and Underglaze Red porcelain ( Li Hong”) were popular, both representing the highest level of porcelain art in the Yuan Dynasty. (1) Blue-and-white is a style of porcelain that uses cobalt blue pigment on the body of ceramics before applying glaze and burning (underglaze color porcelain). They feature intricate designs and elegant shapes, with crisp blue images made on neat white backgrounds, and delicate brush strokes forming lively images, and are perfect for home decoration.

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Fig. 7.22 The Thousand-armed and Thousand-eyed Avalokiteśvara (Grotto mural. Buddhist tantra images. 203 cm in height and 223 cm in width. The Yuan Dynasty. Cave 3, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province)

The rise of Blue-and-white porcelain completely changed the style of Chinese pottery decoration which had been dominated by carving, engraving, imprinting, and sculpting designs onto pre-fired clay. Blue-and-white porcelain opened brand-new possibilities: painting directly on the body. Craftsmen can draw fine lines for detailing and patch color blobs for creating hues. Its ability to vividly imitate and reproduce Chinese Ink-wash paintings made it an instant hit among ceramic producers in Jingdezhen, and it soon became a major variant of Chinese colored porcelain. From the Yuan, the Ming to the Qing Dynasties, Blue-and-white porcelain had been produced in the largest quantity throughout more than 600 years, and has received close attention from collectors all around the world. The exact origin of Blue-and-white porcelain has yet to be determined: Archeological digs in the ruins of a possible Tang Dynasty city in Yangzhou produced fragments of Blue-and-white porcelain. Antiques of the early and middle ninth century archaeologically salvaged from the Batu Hitam shipwreck in Indonesia also included three undamaged pieces of Tang Dynasty Blue-and-white ceramic plates. These are the earliest and most complete examples of Tang Dynasty Blue-and-white porcelain.

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Fig. 7.23 Blue-and-White Porcelain Plate with Two Mandarin Ducks Surrounded by Lotus Flowers (Porcelain. The Jingdezhen kiln. 7.3 cm in height and 46.4 cm in diameter. The Yuan Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

(2) Underglaze Red porcelain, in the same way as Blue-and-white porcelain does, uses copper oxide to create reddish hues. The colors are also painted directly on the pottery before glazing and burning, but due to the changeable quality of copper under heat, it is hard to keep the color consistent. Therefore, the number and quality of Underglaze Red porcelain produced during the Yuan dynasty were relatively low. This plate features an inner lip, a flat bottom, and a round outer rim with mild undulations that mimic the shape of flower petals. While there are also lotus decorations on the outside, three concentric rings of ornaments are painted on the inside. The outer ring is diamond-shaped patterns, the middle ring is intertwining flower branches, and the inner ring consists of blooming lotus flowers, with the two playful mandarin ducks in the center (Fig. 7.23). The shoulders of the vase are decorated with miscellaneous treasures and lotus branches pattern. The middle part is painted with figures, pine, bamboo, grass, stones, etc. to form a complete plot picture. The lower part is decorated with deformed lotus petals. This vase is the top-grade Blue-and-white porcelain. Its shape is beautiful, the characters painted are vivid, and the scenery layout is moderate and dynamic, which reflects the painting level of the craftsmen at that time (Fig. 7.24). “Yuhuchun” Vase is a common vessel type in the Yuan Dynasty. It follows the shape of the Song Dynasty, but thicker and fuller than that of the Song Dynasty. The mouth and the circled feet of the vase are decorated with a curling branch pattern, the neck with banana leaf pattern. Between the neck and abdomen, there are deformed sea water and curling branch patterns painted in a circle. The bottom of the belly near feet are painted with a circle of deformed lotus petal pattern. The main picture composed of pine, bamboo and plum, which is the beloved topic of literati, is painted

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Fig. 7.24 Blue-and-White Plum Vase with the Picture of “Xiao He Chasing Han Xin Under the Moon” 3 (Porcelain. The Jingdezhen kiln. 44.1 cm in height, 5.5 cm in diameter of caliber and 13 cm in diameter of bottom. The Yuan Dynasty. Unearthed from the tomb of Wang Muying in Jiangning, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province. Nanjing Museum Administration)

on the abdomen, accompanied by rock, banana leaves and Ganoderma lucidum, etc. This vase is rich in decoration, the red color is pure and the patterns are clear, which made it a masterpiece of Yuan Underglaze Red porcelain (Fig. 7.25).

3 Xiao He and Han Xin are both Chinese historical figures. At the end of the Qin Dynasty, Liu Bang rebelled. Xiao He valued Han Xin’s talent and recommended him to Liu Bang three times, but Liu Bang refused to entrust with important tasks. Han Xin ran away angrily. When Xiao He heard that Han Xin had left, he was afraid of losing this unparalleled genius. Regardless of the difficulty of the road, he chased after Han Xin under the moon and finally persuaded him to turn back. The story has the meaning that people’s talents are often not appreciated by others unless they meet someone who knows them well and know how to put them in the right position.

340 Fig. 7.25 Underglaze Red “Yuhuchun” (玉壶春) Vase with Pine, Bamboo and Plum Patterns (Porcelain. 33 cm in height, 8.8 cm in diameter of caliber and 11.3 cm in diameter of bottom. The Yuan Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

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Chapter 8

Arts of the Ming Dynasty

8.1 Overview In the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD), China was getting closer to the end of its feudal society. During that period, China’s handicrafts and commerce were advanced, and capitalism emerged, with the area of cities and the urbanites expanding rapidly. Therefore, the taste of citizens had an important influence on the development of Chinese culture and art. The Ming Dynasty also promoted international exchanges: Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to make seven voyages of his Treasure Fleet around the Indian Ocean. At the same time, foreign missionaries were permitted to visit China. All these initiatives had strengthened the communication and mutual influence between Chinese culture and overseas cultures, as well as promoting great advances in science and technology. Overall, the civilization process of China during the Ming Dynasty was aligned with the world in all aspects. (1) Philosophical thinking The mainstream school of philosophy advocated by the scholars in the Ming Dynasty was still Neo-Confucianism, which was given a new structure, new texture, and new meaning based on the Neo-Confucianism of the Song Dynasty. The Song Dynasty Confucians stressed the importance of the “investigation of things” in self-cultivation and personal development, which covered not only the mind and underlying principles, but also specific phenomena and objects in the world. By the Ming Dynasty, however, study of the external world had largely given way to the study of the relationship between the mind and principles and between knowledge and action. The Ming Dynasty thinkers such as Wang Yangming even substituted a subjective approach to generalize about them, which was known as Yangmingism. Under the guidance of Yangmingism, “literati painting in the Ming Dynasty became more intuitive and conceptualized, as if their predecessors had learned what they needed from the natural world, and now they had only to ‘borrow’ their ‘mountains and waters, rocks and trees’ to be the means for the expression of their thoughts

© Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 T. Chen, Illustrated History of Chinese Art, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8_8

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and feelings.”1 Therefore, compared to the paintings in Song Dynasty, paintings in the Ming Dynasty told less about nature, but carried a heavier weight of poetic and philosophical content, or the artist meant to describe things that could not be fully expressed otherwise in the conventional language of landscape painting. To this end, painters went beyond the pictorial image, turned to pursue more obscure and inner expressions, and their inscriptions became longer and more poetic or philosophical in tone. (2) Artistic phenomenon Literati painting was still prevalent at that time. Figure painting continued to decline, landscape painting was prosperous and moved ahead in different schools, while Ink-wash flower-and-bird painting gradually matured. By the late Ming Dynasty, Dong Qichang’s division of Northern and Southern Masters (Schools) had far-reaching influence. The citizen culture and aesthetics grew gradually, which had also allowed new cultural ideas and aesthetic interests to infiltrate into literati calligraphy and painting, forming schools that were bold enough to express their individuality and originality from the late Ming Dynasty to the late Qing Dynasty. A trend of professionalization of literati painters and scholasticism of professional painters was also formed. Woodblock print, New Year picture and folk art that synchronized with citizen culture and folk literature also flourished in the Ming Dynasty. Handicrafts of the Ming Dynasty boasted a great variety and exquisite skills, especially in porcelain and furniture making. Gardens, with their unique comprehensive and literati characteristics, were the pearl of folk architecture in the Ming Dynasty, and the tradition of literati garden design continued in the Qing Dynasty.

8.2 Painting 8.2.1 Court Paintings and the Zhejiang School of Painting in the Early Ming Dynasty The Ming Dynasty emperors did not have as much taste for art as the emperors of the Song Dynasty. Under this circumstance, painters of court could not produce any lofty ideas or elegant style, so court painting gradually evolved into a stiff scholastic style. This tendency, which had begun in the Yuan Dynasty, developed further in the Ming Dynasty. The imperial painting academy was no longer the center of art as it had been in former times, and the literati chose to stay away from the court and court art. 1

Sullivan M (2006.12) Yishu Zhongguo (The Arts of China). Hunan Education Publishing House, p 189.

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Landscape paintings produced by the imperial painting academy in the Ming Dynasty mainly inherited the style of court painting in the Southern Song Dynasty, modeled after Ma Yuan and Xia Gui, partly because their techniques could be learned and reproduced. The representative artist of court painting in the Ming Dynasty was Dai Jin, who later influenced the Zhejiang school of painting, which was a loose association of professional landscape painters. Dai Jin (1388–1462 AD), courtesy name Wenjin, literary name Jing’an, was a native of Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. Dai Jin was the most famous professional painter in the Ming Dynasty. He was particularly distinguished in painting landscape and figures, and known for a wealth of changes in strokes and ink. His landscape paintings, following the tradition of the Southern Song Dynasty, modeling Ma Yuan and Xia Gui, had a wide influence among professional/court painters in the early Ming Dynasty. He had many followers, and was one of the pioneers of the Zhejiang school of painting. This painting depicts a fresh and fascinating scenery: in the misty spring, an old man is walking on crutches in the verdant mountains accompanied by a boy carrying a Guqin. There are huge pines entrenched in front of the mountains and green bushes on the hills. The painter has made an excellent use of Ink-wash strokes. For painting the mountain rocks, strong brushstrokes and soft ink coloring were creatively combined, showing hard rocks shrouded in light fog. Dai Jin had mainly learned the painting style of Li Tang and Ma Yuan of the Southern Song Dynasty. The style of the mountains and rocks in this painting was based on Ma Yuan’s characteristic clean and concise strokes, but also indicates the painting style of Guo Xi of the Northern Song Dynasty. Thus, this painting is both unrestrained and bold, but also delicate and suggestive (Fig. 8.1). This painting is based on Buddhist stories. In the painting, the rocks are tall and straight, and the streams are rushing, creating a peaceful and tranquil atmosphere. In the meantime, six Buddhist patriarchs appear in the same picture, seeming to defy the boundaries of time and space. However, it is obvious that the painting is segmented around these six patriarchs, and tells their stories separately. The elements of this picture, which are both interconnected and independent of each other, show the history of Zen Buddhism. This is a result of the painter’s learning from Li Tang and Liu Songnian in his early years. The outlines are sharp, vigorous, and yet smooth. His portrayal of people and objects is meticulous (Fig. 8.2). Wu Wei (1459–1508 AD), courtesy names Shiying and Ciweng, literary names Lufu and Xiaoxian, was a native of Wuchang, Hubei Province. Although his style was originally from Dai Jin, the brush strokes were freer. In addition to landscapes, Wu Wei was also good at painting figures and grand occasions. He was a master of the Zhejiang school after Dai Jin in the middle of the Ming Dynasty. He was once

344 Fig. 8.1 Verdant Mountains in the Spring (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 141.3 cm in height and 53.4 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Dai Jin. Shanghai Museum)

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Fig. 8.2 Six Patriarchs of Zen (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 33.8 cm in height and 219.5 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Dai Jin. Liaoning Museum)

a member of “Jinyiwei” (the Royal Guards) and highly reputed as “Number One Painter”. The mountains in this painting extend to the very far distance, seemingly painted with perspective, and the foot of the slope gets into the water, creating a zigzagging shape. Under the blue sky, there are busy fishing boats on the bluish waves. Under the tall trees near the shore, several old men sit on the boat and seem to be talking happily. The stones on the slope are drawn with thick ink, hard in texture, while the brush on tall trees is also thick and powerful, and the brushstrokes drawing the mountain (middle view) are complex and flexible, creating a strong sense of space. Compared with other works of Wu Wei, this painting is larger but gentler, vividly expressing the joy of fishing (Fig. 8.3). In the painting, a drunken man puts the firewood aside and stands below the cliff with a dead tree, arms folded over his chest and eyes squinted. The figure is vivid, and his head, hands, feet, and eyes are all in perfect harmony. When you look more carefully, you will find that the face and body of the figure are drawn with techniques of outlining and iterative-wrinkle coloring, while the clothes are drawn with thick strokes. Both the figure shape and the brushwork have reached a high level, making this picture a masterpiece of Wu Wei’s figure painting. The loneliness and loftiness of the drunken man in the painting indicate the artist’s attitude towards life (Fig. 8.4).

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Fig. 8.3 Pleasure of Fishing (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 270.8 cm in height and 174.4 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Wu Wei. The Palace Museum)

8.2 Painting Fig. 8.4 Drunken Woodsman (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 101 cm in height and 34 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Wu Wei. Changzhou Museum)

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Lin Liang (ca. 1436–1487 AD), courtesy name Yishan, was a court painter and a native of Nanhai, Guangdong Province. He had contributed to the development of freehand flower-and-bird painting. The autumn wind sweeps over the pond, lowering the reeds and lotus. However, birds come and gather in the pond with excitement and vitality. Some are chasing and playing, some are whispering, some are showing off the small fish they have just caught, while two wild geese are fighting for a lotus stem in the pond. The brushwork is unrestrained, and the ink color is natural. It is an ode to the vitality of nature (Fig. 8.5).

8.2.2 The Wu School of Painting in the Middle Ming Dynasty During the middle years of the Ming Dynasty, the Wu region (present-day Suzhou, also consisting of southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang) was famous for its cultural and material prosperity. Many scholars, collectors, and artists gathered here, who inherited the literati tradition of the Yuan Dynasty. In the middle Ming period, literati painting active in the Wu region replaced court painting and the Zhejiang school as the mainstream school. Following the tradition of literati painting from the Yuan Dynasty, the Wu school established their position in the Ming Dynasty by transforming the profound style of Yuan paintings into an easy-going one. The Wu school was championed by Shen Zhou and Wen Zhengming, as well as Wen Zhengming’s relatives and students. Most of them were scholar-artists accomplished in poetry, calligraphy, and painting. They seldom took office but lived in comfortable ways, while they dedicated themselves to poetry, calligraphy, and painting, which had echoes in their art which is tranquil, elegant, and yet popular. “The Four Masters of the Wu School” (also known as “the Four Masters of the Ming Dynasty”): Shen Zhou, Wen Zhengming, Tang Yin, and Qiu Ying. Shen Zhou (1427–1509 AD), courtesy name Qinan, literary name Shi Tianweng, was a native of Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. This painting marks the 70th birthday of Chen Kuan, Shen Zhou’s teacher. The painter praises the teacher’s lofty personality by using the Five Old Peaks of Mount Lu as symbols, which also indicate the painter’s own aspirations. It is an inspirational work based on a wide and grand scenery. The picture features stacks of stones on the mountain, as well as majestic peaks, falling water, and lush vegetation. Excitement and heroism echo in the mountains. Amid the heavy rocks, a wall of white stone soars, making the soul of the mountains. An old man stands under a giant pine, looks up and sighs. Although the character is small, it is the focus of the painting. The picture uses exquisite texturing strokes like “ox-hair” and “hemp-fiber” to achieve the fine texture amid the rugged and vast mountains, resembling Wang Meng’s style. It is one

8.2 Painting Fig. 8.5 Water Birds (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 152 cm in height and 56.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Lin Liang. Tianjin Museum)

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of the masterpieces of Shen Zhou in his middle age. Shen Zhou was recognized as the leader of the Wu school (Fig. 8.6). The Wu School broke free from the limit of subjects in traditional literati painting, and created a new genre of literati flower-and-bird paintings. One part of this scroll shows two colored magnolias, and the other part paints an ink cabbage. The former uses the “boneless dyeing” (没骨) technique, depicting with accuracy and flexibility, and the color is calm and elegant. The latter uses freehand ink brushwork, and the leaves are full and fluent. Although the techniques used are different, they share the same solemnity and gentleness. Both were drawn with details in simple brushstrokes, indicating the artist’s excellence in flower-and-bird painting as well as in landscape painting. Like the other members of the Wu School, Shen Zhou’s achievements were not limited to one single area of traditional Chinese painting (Fig. 8.7). The painting highlights its theme directly. The scenery is simple, and the composition is smooth and stable: The river running amid the lush mountains melts into the sky, the willow trees cast shade on the bank, and the boat is ready to set out. The friends bow to each other, and they are sentimental before leaving. The simple and tough strokes on the hills make the parting atmosphere heavier. The style of this painting is different from “Lofty Mount Lu”. At that time, Shen Zhou was obviously influenced by Wu Zhen, so his brushwork became mature and hard, while the ink color was full of vigor and fluent, and the composition was concise. In short, the style was rougher (Fig. 8.8). Wen Zhengming (1470–1559 AD), courtesy name Zhengzhong, literary name Hengshan Jushi, was born to an official family and a native of Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. Wen Zhengming was the main artist of the Wu school in the middle Ming Dynasty who was distinguished in calligraphy and mastered a wide range of painting skills. Wen Zhengming lived a long life, and had many students (including his children and nephews) who inherited his painting style, so his influence was felt even in the Qing Dynasty. This painting is based on Goddesses of the Xiang River 《 ( 湘君·湘夫人》) in Qu Yuan’s Nine Songs 《 ( 九歌》). The two goddesses of the Xiang River were daughters of Emperor Yao. The elder is E Huang, and the younger is Nv Ying. They were both married to Emperor Shun. This scroll was painted when Wen Zhengming turned 48. It is the only well-known figure painting in his early years. The figures are modeled after Gu Kaizhi’s “Admonitions Scroll” in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, sharing hairline strokes, fluttering sleeves, elegant figures, quaint colors, and exquisite brushwork (Fig. 8.9). This painting shows a quiet and elegant place with a thatched cottage, straight pines, lakestones, a bridge, and a bamboo garden under the lush mountains. In the picture, there are two people sitting opposite each other in the thatched cottage. They are not only appreciating paintings, but also appreciating the natural beauty. In fact,

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Fig. 8.6 Lofty Mount Lu (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 193.8 cm in height and 98.1 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Shen Zhou. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

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Fig. 8.7 Magnolia and Cabbage (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper [divided into two parts, one color and the other ink]. Each section 35.2 cm in height and 59.7 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Shen Zhou. The Palace Museum)

there are two scrolls of paintings of the same title created by Wen Zhengming, both of which were made for Hua Xia (a friend of Wen Zhengming, who was a connoisseur and collector of artworks). This handscroll was painted when Wen Zhengming was 80 years old, but the brushwork is still exquisite. The most valuable thing is that, from the hills and the thatched cottage to the figures’ eyebrows, the details are all painted meticulously, including the moss. The brushstrokes on mountains and stones indicate the artist’s connection with Dong Yuan, Ju Ran and the Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty, while Wen Zhengming’s style is more refined and elegant, which not

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Fig. 8.8 Farewell upon a Spring River (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 28 cm in height and 159.2 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Shen Zhou. The Palace Museum)

only affected his children, but also a great many Wu school painters. That’s why he was recognized as the leader of the Wu school after Shen Zhou (Fig. 8.10). “The Neo-Academic Style” Although Tang Yin and Qiu Ying are also among the Four Masters of the Wu School, their style is different to Shen Zhou and Wen Zhengming. Their style can be dated back to court painting in the Southern Song Dynasty, but combined the characteristics of both literati painting and court painting, hence it was called “the Neo-academic”. Tang Yin (1470–1523 AD) courtesy names Ziwei and Bohu, literary name Liuru Jushi, was a native of Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. He was a literati but converted into a professional painter. Tang Yin followed Zhou Chen2 in landscape painting, and learned from Ma Yuan and Xia Gui. In figure painting, his style came from paintings in the Song Dynasty, with better coloring. A young lady with a round silk fan in her hand stands gracefully, with slight sadness on her face. It seems that she is lamenting the fleeting time and the impossibility of staying forever young. She believes she is just like the fan in her hand, which was doomed to be abandoned when autumn comes. In the scenery behind her, the scattered bamboos wave in the autumn breeze, and several lakestones are built on the slope, creating a bleak atmosphere. This painting seems to reflect the painter Tang Yin’s own grievances. He had great talents, but his life was full of frustrations. Although this painting was Ink-wash, it is full and charming. It was one of Tang Yin’s best lady paintings. This new style of painting combining meticulous and freehand techniques has exerted a profound impact on later generations (Fig. 8.11). 2 Zhou Chen: a famous painter of the Ming Dynasty. He was a native of Wu. He is good at painting figures and landscapes. His painting methods are rigorous and meticulous, mainly following Li Tang School of the Song Dynasty. Tang Yin and Qiu Ying were both his students.

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Fig. 8.9 The Goddesses of the Xiang River (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 100.3 cm in height and 35.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Wen Zhengming. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 8.10 The Zhenshang Studio (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 36 cm in height and 107.8 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Wen Zhengming. Shanghai Museum)

In the painting, a scholar leans against the railing, looking at the sunset sky with the rosy clouds where a lone mallard is flying. The bleak scenery conveys mixed feelings and indicates the painter Tang Yin’s poor fate: the scholar seems to be his incarnation. All the objects in the picture combine to create a bleak atmosphere: the rocks are firm and thick, the woods cover the mountain, and the waterside pavilion at the foot of the mountain is hidden in the shade of weeping willows. The style can be traced back to painters Li Tang and Liu Songnian of the Southern Song Dynasty, while the freer style of the Yuan Dynasty is also detectable. So, Tang Yin’s painting was inclusive and yet distinctive. Although his style is a bit academic, it is very elegant with the flavor of literati painting (Fig. 8.12). The painting depicts a bird singing on a bare branch after a light rain. The brushwork is exquisite and unrestrained. The artist didn’t use much ink, but the bird is vivid. Painters like Tang Yin, Shen Zhou, and Lin Liang made great contributions to the development of freehand flower-and-bird painting brushwork in the Ming Dynasty (Fig. 8.13). This is a masterpiece of Tang Yin’s Fine-brush paintings of ladies. In this painting, there are four beautiful court maids talking to each other, who wear Taoist clothes and headwear, but also heavy makeup. It vividly depicts the voluptuous life in the court of the Kingdom of Shu. The faces of the court maids were delicately dyed with “Three Whites method” (三白法: white powder on the forehead, nose, and chin) to show the beautiful jade-like texture of their skin, while the delicate design on the Taoist clothes and headwear added to the beauty of the women. A poem by Tang Yin is inscribed on the painting, revealing his disillusionment with the decadent politics in the middle Ming Dynasty (Fig. 8.14).

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Fig. 8.11 Lady with Fan in the Autumn Breeze (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 77.1 cm in height and 39.3 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Tang Yin. Shanghai Museum)

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Fig. 8.12 Rosy Setting Sun and Lone Mallard (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 189.1 cm in height and 105.4 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Tang Yin. Shanghai Museum)

358 Fig. 8.13 Bird on a Branch (Hanging scroll. Ink on silk. 121 cm in height and 26.7 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Tang Yin. Shanghai Museum)

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Fig. 8.14 Court Ladies in the Shu Palace (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 124.7 cm in height and 63.6 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Tang Yin. The Palace Museum)

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Qiu Ying (1494–1552 AD), courtesy name Shifu, literary name Shizhou, was a native of Taicang, Jiangsu Province. He was a typical example of a craftsman becoming a literati painter. Though as a Wu School painter, Qiu Ying was famous for his elegant and delicate court style. This painting is one of Qiu Ying’s key Blue-green landscape paintings. In the picture, the pavilions are half hidden in the green mountains and under white clouds, and three hermits in white sit together in a cave. Outside the cave, there are lush pines, green bushes, and clear streams, creating a fairyland on earth. The brush strokes on mountains and rocks are delicate and blended layer upon layer. This meticulous painting style originated from the Blue-green landscape paintings of Zhao Boju and Zhao Bosu of the Song Dynasty, and had some traces of Liu Songnian of the Southern Song Dynasty (Fig. 8.15). The Huaqing Palace is exquisite and magnificent, with red pillars, carved railings, and a carved stone base. In the courtyard, crabapples and peonies are in full bloom. Some of the court maids are holding mirrors, some are playing music, some are gardening, and some are just standing idly or playing with a cat, while Concubine Yang of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty is dressing up in melodious music. Everything was meticulously depicted, and the painting is filled with dazzling colors, a typical style of Qiu Ying’s figure paintings. In this album, besides Concubine Yang, there are also figures from fables and legends, past scholars, and poetic imaginations, etc (Fig. 8.16).

8.2.3 Paintings in the Late Ming Dynasty 8.2.3.1

“Qingteng and Baiyang”

“Qingteng and Baiyang” (青 青藤白阳 Xu Wei and Chen Chun) raised freehand literati flower-and-bird painting to a new level. Chen Chun (1483–1544 AD), courtesy name Daofu, literary names Baiyang and Baiyang Shanren, was a native of Changzhou (present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu Province). Chen Chun was born to an official family. He once studied poetry, calligraphy, and painting from the master Wen Zhengming. His brushwork, often untrammeled and direct, exemplifies much of literati aesthetics. Chen Chun was equally renowned as Xu Wei, whose literary name was Qingteng Daoren, so they were called “Qingteng and Baiyang”. They were masters of freehand literati flower-andbird painting in the Ming Dynasty and highly appreciated by scholars and gentry at the time. Chen Chun’s paintings are simple, clear, and implicit. His themes are mostly flowers and trees which are common in gardens, giving an impression of leisure and

8.2 Painting Fig. 8.15 Fairyland of Peach Blossoms (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 175 cm in height and 66.7 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Qiu Ying. Tianjin Museum)

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Fig. 8.16 Album of Characters and Stories (Album. Ink and color on silk. Each section 41.4 cm in height and 33.8 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Qiu Ying. The Palace Museum)

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tranquility. In this painting, there is an okra stem that extends from the lower left corner, surrounded by eroded lakestones, miniature bamboos, and weeds. “Doubleoutline” (双勾) and “Feibai” (飞白 flying white) techniques are employed to depict the plant’s pliable but tough features (Fig. 8.17). There is a Taihu (Lake T’ai) lakestone in the middle of the painting, depicted with freehand brushwork and changing colors. The pine trees are tall and stretching, dominating the entire picture. Behind the rock there are daylilies and orchids, which form a sharp contrast with the lakestone. Some said that Chen Chun’s paintings of flowers and trees were very vivid and elegant because “he caught the features of flowers and plants” and made them lifelike through varied painting techniques (Fig. 8.18). Xu Wei (1521–1593 AD), courtesy names Wenqing and Wenchang, literary names Tianchi Shanren and Qingteng Daoshi, was a native of Shanying (present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province). Xu Wei’s freehand flower-and-bird paintings are wild and unfettered by physical likeness, which has led to transformations in the art of flower-and-bird painting. His strong and free style also influenced and inspired countless later-generation painters, such as Qi Baishi who once exclaimed in a verse: “How I wish I was born 300 years earlier so I could grind ink and prepare paper for Qingteng”. This painting is one of Xu Wei’s masterpieces. It combines his three artistic talents: painting, calligraphy, and poetry. In addition to the grapes hanging on old leafy vines, there is an inscribed verse that compares the grapes to Xu Wei’s own lost struggles in life. The artist was considered a genius in literature and arts, but he faced a great many difficulties and challenges. There are apparently strong emotions in his brush strokes which are as wild as the calligraphy of inscription, making the scroll expressive and unique (Fig. 8.19). This scroll draws a variety of plants, which are painted in a few flicks of ink and wash. The leaves and vines scatter in a disordered and unconstrained way, spreading out like a storm. After rapid strokes, the ink permeates naturally, while the color changes and fuses, highlighting the soul as the painter pursued. Xu Wei (Qingteng) and Chen Chun (Baiyang) have often been put together in comparisons, but their differences are obvious. While the latter is implicit and elegant, the former is more expressive, tending to vent his resentment directly with his brushwork (Fig. 8.20).

8.2.3.2

“South Chen and North Cui”

“South Chen and North Cui” (南 南陈北崔 Chen Hongshou [from the south] and Cui Zizhong [from the north]) have created a unique new style of painting which

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Fig. 8.17 Okra and Rocks (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 68.5 cm in height and 34 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Chun. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 8.18 Pine, Rock, and Daylilies (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 153.2 cm in height and 67.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Chun. Nanjing Museum)

366 Fig. 8.19 Grape in Ink (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 165.7 cm in height and 64.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Xu Wei. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 8.20 Miscellaneous Plants (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 46.6 cm in height and 622.2 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Xu Wei. The Palace Museum)

is exaggerated and deformed, leading their followers to pursue “clumsiness” and “ugliness” in painting. Chen Hongshou (1598–1652 AD), courtesy name Zhanghou, literary names Laolian, Laochi, and Huichi, was a native of Zhuji, Zhejiang Province. Chen Hongshou was a master of deformed figure painting in the Ming Dynasty, and was praised as “a painter hard to find in a century”. He assumed a dominant position in the history of Chinese figure painting, and has become a model for later generations until today. The painting depicts a scholar drinking under Musa basjoo trees with leisure, elegance, and contentment. There are two maids standing in front of him. The posture of the figures was appropriately exaggerated, and the details are meticulously depicted with powerful and exquisite lines. The colors are classic and beautiful, making the scroll suitable for decoration. The scenery is fresh and quaint, highlighting the artist’s special personality (Fig. 8.21). A lady holding a fan with her back arched walks forward in small steps. There are also two maids behind her, one carrying a bundle and the other carrying clothes in her arms. All the figures have plump cheeks, small eyes, and a beautiful mouth, looking affectionate. However, the body proportion is exaggerated: the short body plus the big head makes the image weird, which is the unique characteristic of Chen Hongshou’s figure painting. For the patterns on clothes, the brushstrokes are smooth and appropriate, while the layered lines change slightly, which are rigorous and interesting. His outlines are fluent, calm, and powerful. His style of coloring is beautiful and tranquil, creating an elegant atmosphere (Fig. 8.22). The album has a total of 8 paintings, including 5 landscapes, 2 figures, and 1 flower-and-bird painting. This painting depicts a pastoral scenery: the spring water is flowing over rubbles, the grass on the slope is like a velvet carpet, the miscellaneous trees are lush, and there are belt-shaped clouds hovering over the treetops. In the distance, the foothill is still vaguely recognizable. The rubbles were outlined with monochrome lines and dyed blue-green, the grass was depicted with fine brush and colored with light ochre to achieve a natural effect. The branches and leaves were

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Fig. 8.21 Drinking in the Garden (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 156.2 cm in height and 107 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Hongshou. Tianjin Museum)

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Fig. 8.22 Ladies (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 110.5 cm in height and 4.8 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Hongshou. Liaoning Provincial Museum)

outlined and colored to become more realistic. The picture is not only artistic but also decorative, which gives the work a special interest. Chen Hongshou didn’t paint many landscapes, but this one shows that he could produce great landscape paintings as well (Fig. 8.23). This is a rare Ink-wash flower-and-bird painted by Chen Hongshou with meticulous brushwork. The lakestone rocks are painted in the usual way, and the brushwork and ink colors are full of change, which indicates the influence of his teacher Lan Ying. However, the lotus leaves and stems, the water lilies and the ripples of water were depicted with his habitual skills of generalization, deformation, and exaggeration. The images are clumsy, unique, and decorative. The round lotus leaves stand

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Fig. 8.23 On Miscellaneous Subjects (Album. Ink and color on silk. Each section 30.2 cm in height and 25.1 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Hongshou. The Palace Museum)

in contrast with the angular rocks, and the ink blocks and the jagged lines create a strong contrast, which makes the painting rhythmic and organic, and produce the unique artistic appeal of this painting (Fig. 8.24). The illustrations, also known as “Yezi” (叶子 leaves), were a set of printed drinking game cards used during a banquet. Paintings on the cards were often based on Chinese drama and fiction. The Water Margin Illustrations have a reference to the Chinese classical novel The Water Margin 《 ( 水浒传》), containing 40 illustrations depicting the outlaws. The lines are sharp and rigid; the shape is clumsy and particular, but vivid and powerful. The figures showed here are Song Jiang, and Shi Jin (Fig. 8.25).

8.2 Painting Fig. 8.24 Lotus and Rocks (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 151 cm in height and 62 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Chen Hongshou. Shanghai Museum)

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Fig. 8.25 Water Margin Illustrations (Woodblock print. Each section 18 cm in height and 9.4 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Painted by Chen Hongshou. There are two editions carved respectively by Huang Junbei and Huang Zhaochu. National Library of China)

Known to many as the “Lovers’ Bible”, the Romance of the West Chamber 《 ( 西厢记》) was an opera highly and widely appreciated since the Yuan Dynasty, and this woodblock illustration is one of those painted by Chen Hongshou based on the story. Entitled “Peeking”, this painting depicts Yingying, the heroine, opening an envelope from her lover Zhang Sheng, and Hong Niang, the maid of Yingying, reading her mind. The portrayal of the characters’ expressions and gestures is very exquisite: Hong Niang, a clever maid, leans forward slightly and looked quietly behind the screen, thinking what was in the young lady’s mind, while Yingying stands in front of the screen and reads Zhang Sheng’s letter with mixed feelings. The artist deliberately put Yingying in front of the delicate flower-and-bird screen, which not only symbolizes the joy of Yingying like blooming flowers and her strong emotion like dense branches, but also forms a contrast and enhances the artistic expression. For this illustration, Chen Hongshou used his superb skills in figure painting, featuring figurative and elegant outlines, while the carver Xiang Nanzhou exactly reproduced Chen Hongshou’s style on the woodblock print (Fig. 8.26).

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Fig. 8.26 Woodblock Illustrations of Romance of the West Chamber (Woodblock print. Each page 26.2 cm in height and 17.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Painted by Chen Hongshou, carved by Xiang Nanzhou. Original edition is collected in National Library of China, Zhejiang Provincial Museum, etc.)

Cui Zizhong (1574–1644 AD), courtesy name Kaiyu, literary name Qingying, was a native of Laiyang, Shandong Province. Cui Zizhong specialized in painting figures, especially ladies. He learned from painters of the Jin and Tang Dynasties, so his paintings show a unique charm of quaintness. In this painting, the mountains are shrouded by floating clouds and covered by lush vegetation. In this remote and inaccessible forest, a fairy poet, accompanied by two boys, sits on a four-wheel cart looking up at the clouds. Though the figure is simple, the lines of the clothes are powerful and smooth. The stones are drawn with small brushes by the “waterlogging method” (渍染法), so they look like pieces of floating cloud. The haze is depicted with light, fine, and loose lines. The whole painting is quaint and elegant in color and creates a tranquil atmosphere as in a dreamy fairyland. It is different from conventional landscape painting (Fig. 8.27).

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Fig. 8.27 Hidden in the Clouds (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 189 cm in height and 50.6 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Cui Zizhong. The Palace Museum)

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The Bochen School

The Bochen School: The style of Zeng Jing was so distinctive that it became known as the Bochen style, after Zeng’s courtesy name “Bochen”. His followers and disciples were collectively known as the “Bochen school”, and they were all very good at painting vivid portraits. Zeng Jing (1568–1650 AD), courtesy name Bochen, was a native of Putian, Fujian Province. Because of his superb skills in figure paintings, many painters learned from him and formed the Bochen school. This is a portrait of Wang Shimin (a famous painter in the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty). The lines of the robe are simple and smooth, while the face is meticulously and realistically portrayed with a perfect composition of light and darkness and a clear indication of the concave and convex parts. This is the artist’s original creation by integrating Western portrait painting techniques into traditional Chinese figure painting. Some said that his painting “is like taking the portrait exactly from the mirror” (“如镜取影, 妙得精神”) (Fig. 8.28). Nanjing Museum has a set of 12 portraits of Ming Dynasties in collection. These portraits reflect the high level of portrait painting in the Ming Dynasty. The painter did not only grasp the structure and features of the figure’s face accurately and reproduce it with proper proportions, but also well express the emotions and mental state of the characters. This style is similar to the Bochen school, a realistic painting school influenced by Western painting (Fig. 8.29).

8.2.3.4

Other Schools of Painting and Famous Painters in the Ming Dynasty

Dong Qichang (1555–1636 AD), courtesy name Xuanzai, literary names Sibai and Xiangguang Jushi, posthumous title Wenmin, was a native of Huating (present-day Songjiang, Shanghai). The leading character of Huating School3 of literati paintings. This is one of the eight scenes. In the lower part of the picture, the trees are planted on a flat slope, and the leaves vary in thickness and density. The rounded mountains are separated by thick white clouds. There is nothing else in the picture, so the scene is sparse and clear. Technically, this painting integrates the characteristic of “Mi’s Clouded Mountains” and the “hemp-fiber” brushwork of Huang Gongwang. Although it is a freehand painting, the painter meticulously adds light ink layer by layer with implicit and mellow brushwork. The ink is rich and transparent, while 3

In the Shanghai area, there were several landscape painting schools that advocated literati painting and emphasized the expressiveness of brush and ink, such as the Yunjian school, the Songjiang school, the Huating school, etc. Among them, the Huating School headed by Dong Qichang was the most renowned.

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Fig. 8.28 Portrait of Wang Shimin (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 64 cm in height and 42.3 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Zeng Jing. Tianjin Museum)

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Fig. 8.29 Portraits (Album. Ink and color on paper. Each section 45.4 cm in height and 26.4 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Anonymous. Nanjing Museum)

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it is moisturized and tranquil. Therefore, the mountain top presents brightness and purity, and the trees are straight and beautiful, which fully shows the charm of autumn (Fig. 8.30). This painting was created based on an essay Notes to Zhou Jin Hall 《 ( 昼锦堂 记》) by Ouyang Xiu of the Song Dynasty, the full text of which was inscribed in the painting by Dong Qichang in cursive script. Therefore, it is an excellent combination of prose, calligraphy, and painting. The composition of the picture is ingenious and the view is broad. In the distance, there are clouds and mist, while trees scatter on the hillside in the near view. Among the lush trees, there are several cottages. There is no ink line in the whole picture, which was made of pure color. Coloring is appropriate and the layers are clear. The leaves are dotted with ink, some of which are brushed across, some are large, and some are like the combination of Chinese characters 介 and 个. Combined, they create a natural effect. The colors of this painting are mainly azurite and mineral green, with some light ochre, so they are thick and simple, but also gentle and elegant. The painting perfectly presents the early autumn view of a southern scholar’s secluded residence in the mountains. Dong Qichang’s paintings have mainly two styles: one is “dry ink”, and the other is “boneless light green and ochre”. This painting is a masterpiece of the latter style (Fig. 8.31). Although the style of this painting can date back to Dong Yuan, it is reminiscent of the scroll of Wang Meng’s “Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains”. But compared to Wang Meng’s painting, this one more strongly expresses the mystery of Mount Qingbian. In this Dong Qichang’s Mount Qingbian, while part of it is traditional, over all it is characterized by the writhing distortions of the composition, which reveals artist’s passion for pure form. Brush and ink, as the externalization of the artist’s emotions, have a more independent aesthetic value (Fig. 8.32). Xiang Shengmo (1597–1658 AD), courtesy name Kongzhang, literary name Yi’an, was a native of Xiushui (present-day Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province). In the middle of the picture stands an old tree with dense branches but no leaves. The unique composition creates a strong visual impact. The sun sets in the west, and the mountains in the distance are even darker in the twilight. Against this background, an old man in red stands with a cane under the tree, immersed in the empty and lonely atmosphere of the valley, and seems to think of someone he misses. The dense branches of the old tree are in clear gradation, while the clear difference between the skylight and the gray dome indicates the dusk in the valley and the painter’s keen observation of nature. In the upper right corner of the picture, the painter inscribes a seven-word quatrain, which expresses profound grief, loneliness, and depression after the fall of the Ming Dynasty (Fig. 8.33). Lan Ying (1585–1664 AD), courtesy name Tianshu, literary name Diesou, was a native of Qiantang, Zhejiang Province. He was an outstanding painter of the Ming Dynasty and was a representative painter of the Wulin School. He devoted his life to painting as a career, has drawn from various schools since his early years of painting

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Fig. 8.30 Eight Scenes of Autumn (Album. Ink and color on paper. Each section 53.8 cm in height and 31.7 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Dong Qichang. Shanghai Museum)

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Fig. 8.31 Zhou Jin Hall (Handscroll. Ink and color on silk. 41 cm in height and 180 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Dong Qichang. Jilin Provincial Museum)

and developed a style of both delicate and bright with fresh and elegant atmosphere. Lan Ying had a great influence in the late Ming Dynasty. His style has been followed by many painters, including famous painters such as Chen Hongshou and “the Eight Masters of Jinling”. This painting depicts the beautiful scenery of green mountains dotted with red trees and misty clouds. The colors are highly contrasting, the painting technique is meticulous, and it is rich in decorative beauty. The painting method is not only different from the “big Blue-green landscape” with outlining and coloring, but also different from the “small Blue-green landscape” with ink and wash dyeing as the mainstay and coloring as a supplement. In this painting, the rocks were not depicted with lines, but mainly with color rendering and a little bit of brush strokes. Therefore, the outlines of the rocks appeared softer and more natural, seemed to blend in with the white clouds in the mountains, providing a lively charm (Fig. 8.34). Wen Congjian (1574–1648 AD), courtesy name Yanke, literary name Zhenyan Old Man, was a native of Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. Wen Congjian was Wen Zhengming’s great-grandson. As a member of Wen family, a very unique group of painters in the entire Wu School, his painting was also basically under the influence of Wen Zhengming’s style. Qu Yuan’s Chu Ci 《 ( 楚辞》) said: “However I couldn’t reach it, I could only walk and stop and wander” (“然隐悯而不达兮, ⤜ᗉ‫ي‬㘼ᖧᖹ ”). Tao Yuanming’s The Ode of the Leisure 《 ( 闲情赋》) also says: “I walk and stop and forget to forward” (“步徙倚而忘趋”). The idle and desolate mood contained in these lines is exactly what this painting wants to express. The artist used simple strokes with dry ink to depict a few sparse trees, with withered branches and leaves, stretching out their bare branches on the slope; the two people on the slope were plainly dressed, walking and stopping, blending in with the desolate environment. The flat composition of scattering figures and trees on the painting looks innocent and childish, expressing a unique sense of fun (Fig. 8.35).

8.2 Painting Fig. 8.32 Mount Qingbian (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 225 cm in height and 67.6 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Dong Qichang. Cleveland Museum of Art, USA)

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382 Fig. 8.33 A Big Tree in the Roaring Wind (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 115.4 cm in height and 50.3 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Xiang Shengmo. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 8.34 White Clouds and Red Trees (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 189.4 cm in height and 48 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Lan Ying. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 8.35 Wandering to the Forest (Album. Ink and color on paper. 23 cm in height and 31 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Wen Congjian. The Capital Museum)

Wu Bin (years of birth and death unknown), courtesy name Wenzhong, was a native of Putian, Fujian Province. Wu Bin, as an original artist, did not seek to imitate the past in painting, and has formed his own unique artistic style. The whole painting has a complex composition, with layers of mountains, villages and streams looming in the mountains. The hills have unique shapes, sometimes steep and dangerous, sometimes rising up, which shows the artist’s unique ingenuity. The entire painting is carefully painted with dense round brushwork, revealing the artist’s rigorous creative attitude (Fig. 8.36).

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Fig. 8.36 On the Mountain Roads (Handscroll. Ink and color on paper. 31.8 cm in height and 862.2 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Wu Bin. Shanghai Museum)

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8.2.4 Dong Qichang’s Division of Southern and Northern Masters4 Dong Qichang was the most noted calligrapher and landscape painter in the late Ming Dynasty. He was also a leading theorist. He not only understood the great masters of the past and embodied in his paintings the aesthetic ideals of the great tradition, but also gave them theoretical formulation through his critical writings. He divided Chinese painting into “Northern” and “Southern” schools, which was inspired by the division of Zen Masters into Northern and Southern Masters, and traced the inheritance and analyzed the traditions of both branches. To Dong Qichang, all great literati painters were Southern Masters, from Wang Wei in the Tang Dynasty, the great masters in Five Dynasties and the Northern Song like Dong Yuan, Ju Ran, Li Cheng and Fan Kuan, through Mi Fu and the “Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty”, to his contemporaries Shen Zhou and Wen Zhengming. On the other hand, Northern Masters were all academic and court painters, from Li Sixun and his followers advocating the Blue-green style, to the four masters of the South Song Dynasty, and finally ended up as the eclectic Zhejiang School of his time. Although Dong Qichang’s summary of painting history was not completely based on historical reality, his division of Northern and Southern Masters Schools represent a just separation of two broad styles: The Northern Masters were known for their purest manifestations which are academic, eclectic, precise, and decorative, while the Southern Masters are free, calligraphic, personal, and subjective. Central to his philosophy was the belief that the great Southern tradition must be not only preserved, but creatively developed, for only in this way could it last and thrive. Some of his own paintings exemplify this belief, and the aesthetic concept he advocated had exerted a profound impact on painters of later generations. The division of Northern and Southern Masters tells the personal feelings of the scholars at that time. These scholar-artists believed that they were elites and upholders of Confucian virtues. As it was reinforced in Dong Qichang’s theory that the literati tradition is superior. Only the scholars and gentlemen could express their understanding of the working of the moral law in nature, and hence realize their own moral value through landscape paintings. Meanwhile, scholars’ extensive wide reading in poetry and other classics gave them a profound understanding of the nature of things and an elegant taste that the lower orders of professional painters could never hope to acquire. In the spontaneous play of ink and brushstroke, in their freedom to select, omit, and suggest, literati painters had at their command an almost abstract language capable of conveying the loftiest and subtlest aspirations.

4 Reference from: Michael Sullivan: “Dong Qichang yu Nanbei Huazong” (Dong Qichang and the southern and northern masters), Sullivan M (2006.12) Yishu Zhongguo (The Arts of China). Hunan Education Publishing House, pp 241–242.

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8.2.5 Woodblock Prints and New Year Pictures 8.2.5.1

Woodblock Prints Flourished as Book Industry Boomed in the Ming Dynasty

In the Ming Dynasty, due to the prosperity of folk culture and folk literature, printmaking made great development in the illustrations of literatures. The book industry centers such as Nanjing, Beijing, Jian’an in Fujian and Hangzhou in Zhejiang became prosperous places for woodblock printing. In the middle of the Ming Dynasty, Hui-style printmaking (Huizhou print) emerged and rapidly developed, the two industry giants of families of Huang (Huang Yinglin, etc.) and Wang (Wang Zhongxin, etc.) were the most outstanding. And under the influence of Huizhou print, printmaking and illustration art of Jinling (Nanjing), Wulin (Hangzhou), Suzhou and other book publishing centers also formed their own characteristics. This is the representative work of Hui-style print, painted by Qian Gong and carved by Huang Yingzu. This picture is the “Leaning on the Screen Stone” section in the long scroll. A strange stone stands in the lake, cranes soar in the distance, and the lake is covered with mist. Guests gather in the pavilion in the center of the lake, drinking wine while leaning on the railing to appreciate the strange rock. The lakestone is exquisite, the water patterns are densely woven like a net, the boundaries of the pavilion and platform are neatly painted, and the figures and cranes are well depicted. The painter’s superb line drawing technique was demonstrated by the engraver Huang Yingzu’s delicate carving skills. Reviewers praised it as “skillful, dense, precise and beautiful” (巧, 密, 精, 丽), which was a great tribute to the collaboration between the two (Fig. 8.37).

Fig. 8.37 Huancui Hall Garden Scenery (Woodblock Print. 24 cm in height and 1486 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Carved by Huang Yingzu. Original edition was collected by Fu Xihua (1907–1970). Now does not exist)

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Fig. 8.38 T’ien-kung K’ai-wu (天工开物) Illustration (Woodblock print. 21.7 cm in height and 14.3 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. First edition by Song Yingxing, sponsored by Tu Boju. The three original editions are collected separatively by National Library of China, Seikado Bunko, Tokyo, Japan and Bibliotheque Nationalea Paris, France)

The illustrations of this book describe the production practices at that time. This picture shows the scene of craftsmen hammering anchors around the furnace. Several people stand on a high platform and tighten the iron chains to fix the anchors. The craftsmen below the stage either hold long poles to help fix the anchors, or lift hammers to strike. The scene is lively and orderly, recording the process of making iron anchors in the Ming Dynasty. This illustration not only has artistic value, but also has historical value, providing an objective record for future generations to study the production conditions of the Ming Dynasty (Fig. 8.38).

8.2.5.2

Painting Manuals, Inksticks Paintings, Letter Paper Collection, and Other Categories of Print Arts Thrived

As an era of art researches, the connoisseurs, collectors and painters of the Ming Dynasty turned their eyes to traditions and the masterpieces of previous artists.

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Artists’ knowledge of previous painting styles benefited from the development of colored woodblock printing during this period. The painting manuals for learning paintings, album of inksticks paintings, scholar literati’s letter paper decoration, and printed game card pictures appeared in large numbers in the Ming Dynasty thanks to the woodblock printing technique. Those famous art works and traditional classics, as well as the popular folk image thus were thus copied, recorded and widely circulated. The Gu’s Painting Manuals 《 ( 顾氏画谱》 Gu Shi Hua Pu), 1603 edition, Shuanggui Hall in Hangzhou reproduces the works of famous artists by woodblock printing. The Cheng’s Miscellany on Inksticks 《 ( 程氏墨苑》Cheng Shi Mo Yuan), 1595 edition, an album of decorative paintings carved on inksticks, which served the need of ink makers to advertise their inksticks. Normally they were painted by famous painters and engraved by highly skilled craftsmen who were invited by the ink makers. Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Calligraphy and Painting 《 ( 十竹斋书画谱 Shi Zhu Zhai Shu Hua Pu》), 1627 edition, and Ten Bamboo Studio Letter Paper Collection 《 ( 十竹斋笺谱》Shi Zhu Zhai Jian Pu), 1644 edition, were both ancient Chinese colored prints of paintings and were the most influential of this kind in ancient China. Edited by Hu Zhengyan. Water Margin Illustrations 《 ( 水浒叶子》Shui Hu Yezi) and Antique Illustrations 《 ( 博古叶子》Bo Gu Yezi) are both drinking game cards or printed playing cards to be used at banquets. Those drinking game cards were created by Chen Hongshou in cooperation with the famous Huang’s family carvers from Anhui. They made Chen Hongshou’s exquisite and humorous figures widely known, influencing folk artists and reaching the lower class in society. Hu Zhengyan (ca. 1584–1674 AD), courtesy name Yuecong, literary name Master of Ten Bamboo, was a native of Xiuning, Anhui Province. He was a seal engraver and publisher in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. It is a sketch of traditional Chinese painting: beside the green lakestone, there are two branches of red bamboo, and the ground is full of green grass. The colors of the picture are bright and vivid. This is the brilliance of the engraving of Ten Bamboo Studio Letter Paper Collection and Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Calligraphy and Painting. It uses multi-color overprint technique to extremely faithfully restore the color gradation of the painting. Another feature of this set of manuals is that it pays great attention to the artistry of carving skills, which is various and changeable. With the efforts of Hu Zhengyan, the editor of the manual, the painters and the engravers worked together organically to create this set of manuals that not only embodies the charm of painting, but also utilizes the woodblock technique and printing effect (Fig. 8.39).

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Fig. 8.39 Ten Bamboo Studio Letter Paper Collection (Woodblock print. Each section 21 cm in height and 14 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Edited by Hu Zhengyan. Original edition is collected in Shanghai Museum)

8.2.5.3

Woodblock New Year Pictures Started to Be Popular

New Year pictures originated in the Five Dynasties and Northern Song Dynasty. In the middle and late Ming Dynasty, with the prosperity of printmaking, woodblock New

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Year pictures flourished, and workshops specializing in printing New Year pictures appeared. Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong were two famous generals who made great military exploits for Emperor Taizong Li Shimin of the Tang Dynasty. Legend has it that when Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty was sleeping at night, he heard bricks and tiles being thrown and ghosts howling, and he was very frightened. Qin Shubao and YuChi Gong then stood guard outside the palace door at night in military uniforms. As expected, peace was restored. But this was just a temporary solution, so Emperor ordered a painter to paint a full-length portrait of the two generals in military uniform and hung it at the palace gate, and the evil spirits were subsided. From then on, Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong became the incarnations of door gods. In this Ming Dynasty door god New Year painting, the two generals have round eyes and red lips, flying mustaches, golden armor and colorful robes, and bows and arrows on their waists. They are indeed powerful and majestic. The brilliant colors of bright red, green, and piles of gold and pink embody a strong and simple aesthetic, expressing the ordinary people’s simple yearning for a better life (Fig. 8.40).

Fig. 8.40 Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong (Woodblock print. New Year pictures. 92.8 cm in height and 61.5 cm in width each. The Ming Dynasty. Private Collection in China)

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8.3 Craft Crafts in the Ming Dynasty developed in an all-round way, with famous production centers built and formed for various products, such as porcelain in Jingdezhen, silk and textile in Suzhou and Hangzhou, cotton cloth in Songjiang, and printing and dyeing in Wuhu. Meanwhile, a great many craftsmen were known, as well as the craftsmanship theorist Song Yingxing, who wrote the monograph Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century: T’ien-kung K’ai-wu 《 ( 天工开物》) (1637), widely known overseas as the Encyclopedia of Chinese Crafts in the 17th Century.

8.3.1 Ceramics In the Ming Dynasty, imperial wares factory was established in Jingdezhen, specializing in the production for the court. Jingdezhen then became the ceramic center of China, leading the country by ceramic output and variety. Among the outstanding achievements of Jingdezhen in the Ming Dynasty were Blue-and-white porcelain, “Wu Cai” (五彩 Five-color: Polychrome) wares, and color glaze. Blue-and-white porcelain was mainstream and most famous during the Xuande period (during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of the Ming Dynasty). According to records, at that time, the raw material for Blue-and-white porcelain included the cobalt pigment for the blue color shipped back from Southeast Asia. The color produced by this material is deep, elegant, pure, and beautiful. “Wu Cai” wares, as this name suggests, are porcelain with red, green, yellow, brown, and purple patterns painted on the glaze. In the burning process, the body will be fired first, and then fired the second time after adding colors. The best “Wu Cai” wares were produced during the Chenghua period (during the reign of Emperor Xianzong of the Ming Dynasty), and the best in this period was a variety called “Dou Cai” (斗彩: literally translated as: Combat of color. It’s an innovative combination of underglaze blue-and-white and overglaze colors.). At that time, it was popular to draw blue-and-white outlines under the glaze, and then fill in five colors on the glaze according to the outline. The top and bottom combined to form a whole decorative pattern. In comparison, Blue-and-white porcelains look more peaceful and elegant, while “Wu Cai” porcelain are more colorful and luxurious. The art of color painting on porcelain went through the Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties, and during the Yongle (Emperor Chengzu of the Ming Dynasty) and Xuande periods of the Ming Dynasty, the technique of painting blue-and-white patterns underglaze was mature. Colorful painting on porcelain in the Ming Dynasty went chronologically from “Hong Cai” (红彩 red color) in the Hongwu period (during the reign of Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty), “Qing Hua Jia Cai” (青花加彩 underglaze blue-and-white overglazed with colors) in the Xuande period, “Dou Cai” in the Chenghua period, “Su San Cai” (素三彩: using green, yellow, and aubergine

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to color the unglazed body) in the Zhengde period (during the reign of Emperor Wuzong of the Ming Dynasty), to “Wu Cai” in the Jiajing (Emperor Shizong of the Ming Dynasty) and Wanli (Emperor Shenzong of the Ming Dynasty) periods. This evolution reflects the achievements of colored porcelain in the Ming Dynasty, which laid the foundation for the further development of colored porcelain in the Qing Dynasty. This is a rare work of Blue-and-white porcelain produced during the Yongle period (1403–1424 AD). The thick wall, the flared mouth, and the low center of gravity of the cup together create a sense of stability. The body gets thicker from the rim to the bottom. Holding it in hand, the slightly outward rim of the mouth matches the relaxed tiger’s mouth of palm and the weight of the cup can be felt in hand. Thus, it is also known as a “Ya Shou” cup (压手杯, press-hand cup). On the exterior are branches intertwined in blue-and-white, while in the center of the interior bottom was a flower with a four-character Yongle reign mark inscribed in seal script in the middle. This kind of “Ya Shou” cup is the only Blue-and-white porcelain from the Yongle imperial kiln that has been handed down or unearthed so far that is signed with a year mark, which makes it very precious. This is one of the four extant “Ya Shou” cups with the Yongle mark in the Palace Museum (Fig. 8.41). The decoration of blue-and-white patterns was already popular in the Yuan Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it became more sophisticated. The shape and decorative patterns were exquisite and varied, and techniques reached a very high level of maturity. This dish is large and regular, has the shape of a folded lotus with 16 petals. It is painted with a loquat branch with a bird on it, looking back and holding fruit in its mouth. The picture is simple but vivid, delicate and bright. It is indeed a treasure (Fig. 8.42). Underglaze Red was successfully made and popular during the Xuande period. Other than painting the copper red pigment on the biscuit beneath the transparent glaze layer, the traditional way of making Underglaze Red porcelain, the craftsman first applied a transparent glaze layer to the entire biscuit, and after firing, he removed parts of the transparent glaze (including a certain depth of the biscuit) and filled it with copper-based glaze and re-fired it at high temperatures. Through this way, different from the darker copper red made from the late Yuan Dynasty, the Underglaze Red patterns of Xuande period show the natural luster of ruby on the white body. Inside this bowl there is a six-character Xuande reign mark inscribed in regular script. Outside, the three underglaze red fish form a contrast to the white background, highlighting the theme of painting (Fig. 8.43). “Dou Cai” was a major milestone in the development of colored porcelain in the Ming Dynasty. “Dou Cai” vessels are first fired at high temperature with outlines of the target patterns painted in cobalt blue pigment beneath the transparent glaze layer, then filled in with polychrome pigments over the glaze and re-fired at low temperatures. The difference between “Dou Cai” and “Wu Cai” is that “Dou Cai”

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Fig. 8.41 Blue-and-White Cup with Lotus Flower Pattern (Porcelain. 5.4 cm in height, 9.1 cm in diameter of caliber and 3.9 cm in diameter of bottom. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 8.42 Blue-and-White Dish with Bird on Loquat (Porcelain. 9.2 cm in height and 51.2 cm in diameter. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

uses blue-and-white as the main color. The most famous “Dou Cai” was made in the Chenghua period. This cup is painted with orchids, peonies and pillar stones. There is a rooster crowing and a hen pecking at insects and feeding their chicks. The painting is exquisite, vivid and colorful. This cup was already worth 100,000 Guan (the currency of the Ming Dynasty) during the Wanli period, which shows its preciousness (Fig. 8.44). The combination of underglaze blue-and-white and overglaze colors was the most common porcelain coloring in the Ming Dynasty. Overglaze coloring appeared first in the early Ming Dynasty, but this technique was not popular until the Jiajing and Wanli periods. The carp with clearly painted scales and fins swimming amidst lotuses, duckweed, and weeds are vividly depicted in polychrome colors over the glaze while blue-and-white are applied beneath the glaze layer. This lidded jar is a masterpiece of “Wu Cai” (polychrome) porcelain with underglaze blue-and-white made in the official kilns during the Jiajing period, which reflects the superb porcelain painting

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Fig. 8.43 Underglaze Red Stem Bowl with Triple Fish (Porcelain. 8.8 cm in height, 9.9 cm in diameter of caliber and 4.5 cm in diameter of bottom. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

technology in Jingdezhen and the development of colored porcelain in the Jiajing period (Fig. 8.45). This is typical “Wu Cai” porcelain, with underglaze blue-and-white and rich overglaze colors in the Ming Dynasty. During the Wanli period (1573–1620 AD), the court had a huge demand for Jingdezhen porcelain. In addition to daily necessities, the emperor also ordered the making of exquisite works such as screens, cases, brush holders, and brush tubes. This case was made for the emperor. It is decorated with patterns inside and outside, including dragon and phoenix, and colorful clouds. The patterns are dense and numerous, but the arrangement is orderly, and the colors are gorgeous and brilliant. At the bottom, there is a six-character Wanli reign mark inscribed in blue-and-white regular script (Fig. 8.46).

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Fig. 8.44 “Dou Cai” Chicken Cup (Porcelain. 3.3 cm in height. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

8.3.2 Metal Crafts There were two famous varieties of metal crafts in the Ming Dynasty: one was Xuande censers and the other was cloisonné enamel. A Xuande censer, as its name suggests, is a small copper censer made during the Xuande period (during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of the Ming Dynasty). Since this type of censer was cast with alloys, there were more than 60 variations in color, which leads to the luxury and colorful looks through gilding and gold infiltration. Cloisonné enamel (copper padding thread weaving enamel) was and is more popularly known as “Blue of Jingtai” (景泰蓝), because it was developed in the Jingtai (Emperor of Daizong of the Ming Dynasty) period and its glaze was mostly blue. The making process is very complex and elaborate, going through many processes. It is made by welding various patterns on the copper body with copper wire, firing it with colored enamel materials, then polishing it, and sometimes, after polishing, plating the exposed copper wire with gold and silver. The technique is mainly used for making ritual vessels, furnishings, and daily utensils. It is also used for making jewelry decorations. Owing to its colors and the luster of copper body and threads, cloisonné has a strong artistic appeal. This vase is made of gilded copper. The bottle is round in shape, with a drooping belly, a slender neck, a small mouth, and a ball-like bulge under the mouth looks like a garlic, hence comes its name. A gold-plated dragon is coiled around the bottle body. The body of the bottle is covered with light blue glaze and decorated with entangled lotus flowers. There are eight large blooming flowers on the abdomen, each

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Fig. 8.45 Lidded Jar with “Wu Cai” Carp and Weed (Porcelain. 46 cm in height, 19.8 cm in diameter of caliber and 24.8 cm in diameter of bottom. The Ming Dynasty. National Museum of China)

accompanied with a different treasure pattern. It is bright, dazzling, and gorgeous (Fig. 8.47). The flower holder is made of gilded copper and made for the imperial court. The body is decorated with light blue glaze with tangled lotus patterns. The lower part of the flower was inlaid with a rectangular piece of gold-plated copper, which is flush with the enamel glaze, and engraved with a six-character Jingtai reign mark in the regular script (Fig. 8.48).

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Fig. 8.46 Case with “Wu Cai” Dragon and Phoenix Patterns (Porcelain. 8.9 cm in height and 29.9 cm in length. The Ming Dynasty. Shanghai Museum)

8.3.3 Furnitures The furniture-making craft in the Ming Dynasty reached a very high level. The style is relatively uniform, and has its unique characteristics: the model is both concise and elegant. The Ming style furniture, as it is popular now, originates from folk furniture, but it is very exquisite in workmanship and is made of high-quality hardwood such as yellow rosewood (Dalbergia odorifera), pinewood, wenge wood (millettia laurentii), and nanmu, so it is also called “Hardwood Furniture”. This furniture is well-proportioned with smooth and fluent lines. The style and decoration are simple and elegant. There is a pattern composed of interlaced dragon and cloud carved on the top of the backplane, which were the most common pattern in the Ming Dynasty furniture. In the middle of the backplane, there is an openwork Kirin (麒麟)5 pattern. The seat is a mat of woven ropes. The joints and foot stool are reinforced and decorated with iron gadgets. It can be regarded as the most basic form of the Ming style furniture (Fig. 8.49). The throne is a five-screen type: it has three screens on the back, one on the left armrest, and one on the right armrest. In the middle of the back, there is a scroll-book type of beam, and a scrolling-grass pattern on the bottom. The height of the left and 5 Kirin is an auspicious beast in ancient Chinese mythology. It is said to be very docile and kind, and will not harm living creatures. It can be called a “benevolent beast”. It is also known as the five auspicious beasts along with dragon, phoenix, turtle and Pixiu ( 䋄䊵 ).

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Fig. 8.47 Cloisonné Enamel Garlic Bottle (Cloisonné enamel. 33.5 cm in height. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

right screens decreases outwards, both of which have a thick wood frame, double grooves and boards on the inside and outside, and are then connected together with mortise-and-tenon joints. The pattern is inlaid with nanmu in four types, all of which are derived from the cloud pattern of a Ruyi. The lower part of the throne is made of thick and heavy materials with large edges and legs, and the inlay method is the same as the above. The original yellow velvet mat on the seat is woven into a lozenge pattern, which is very well preserved and fresh in color (Fig. 8.50).

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Fig. 8.48 Cloisonné Enamel Flower Holder (Cloisonné enamel. 14.5 cm in height, 7.9 cm in diameter of caliber and 4.1 cm in diameter of foot. The Ming Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 8.49 Folding Armchair with Curved Rest (Furniture. 112 cm in height, seat 58 cm in height, 70 cm in length and 46.5 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. Shanghai Museum)

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Fig. 8.50 Yellow Rosewood Throne Inlaid with Nanmu (Furniture. 102 cm in height, seat 50 cm in height, 107 cm in length and 73 cm in width. The Ming Dynasty. The Imperial Mountain Summer Resort)

Chapter 9

Arts of the Qing Dynasty

9.1 Overview In 1616 AD, the Later State of Jin was founded by the Manchurians and their army subdued and entered the Shanhaiguan Pass in 1644 AD. Later, they captured Kunming in 1682 AD, which meant the Qing Dynasty had occupied all of China. The Qing Dynasty was the last feudal dynasty of China that lasted nearly 300 years. Under the rule of the Manchurian Qing Dynasty, China’s natural economy developed unprecedentedly, but the sprouting of capitalism that began in the middle of the Ming Dynasty was hindered, and the modernization process of society that was compatible with the development of the capitalist economy was blocked. As a result, economic development began to slow down in the middle and late Qing Dynasty, new technologies and new concepts were difficult to promote, the vitality of artistic innovation was restricted, and tastes became stale and conservative. Chinese arts continued to advance during the Qing Dynasty, with an expansion in categories of arts and application of technologies. Manchu aristocrats felt an intense admiration for Chinese culture, but they failed to grasp the essence of traditional culture and clung to the most conservative or “orthodox” forms of Confucianism, and added the luxurious and flashy taste of the Manchu aristocrats, causing the art of the Qing Dynasty to lose its simplicity and elegance in general. Also, due to the Qing government’s strict cultural management and control, the entire social atmosphere became conservative. Therefore, the most characteristic achievement of the Qing Dynasty in art was not creation but synthesis and analysis. Scholar-artists buried their heads in classics and were involved in archaeological activities. They collected a huge number of books, manuscripts, paintings, porcelain, and bronzes. On the other hand, artistic innovation was limited. At the same time, the artistic creations and crafts were tainted with the interests of the Manchu rulers. Generally speaking, they were of low style and were merely decorative and cumbersome. In addition, the Western missionaries who came to China one after another since the late Ming

© Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 T. Chen, Illustrated History of Chinese Art, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8_9

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Dynasty brought modern Western technology and art, starting from the imperial court, exerted a certain influence on Chinese culture and art.

9.2 Painting The transition from the Ming to the Qing Dynasty did not disrupt the Chinese artistic tradition, for the center of the painting art in the early Qing Dynasty was still in the Jiangnan area. There were many schools of painting. While they belonged to the same broad category of literati painting and were based on tradition, they showed different attitudes towards tradition and different creative ideas. Imitation of classical works and innovation blended to promote the evolution and development of traditional painting. Most landscape painters inherited the tradition of the Ming Dynasty, among whom the “Four Wangs” represented the tendency of continuing the Huating school and even traditions of the Song and Yuan Dynasties. “The Four Monks” showed more individuality, independence and bold creativity. In the middle of the Qing Dynasty, the centers of painting activities were Beijing and Yangzhou. Beijing was the center of court painting (the imperial painting academy) where landscape paintings and flower-and-bird paintings generally followed the styles of the “Four Wangs” and Yun Shouping in the early Qing Dynasty and were rigid and stereotyped, while portraits showed some Western painting style as foreign painters were working in the court. Yangzhou was an important commercial hub in Southeastern China, and attracted a great many literati painters who were poor and painted to earn a meager living. The most representative painters were the so-called Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou who inherited the tradition of the Four Monks of the early Qing Dynasty. They drew super freehand flower-andbird paintings and made them bolder and more personal. Their paintings were more refined and popular, and more concerned about reality. In the late nineteenth century, some novel painting styles appeared in the prosperous cities in the south of the Yangtze River, showing bold innovation and adaptation to secular tastes. Subsequently, after its opening as an international port, Shanghai became a new commercial center. The city gathered a new group of sponsors who were mainly urban (commercial) upstarts, and soon Shanghai school of painting emerged and became the most important traditional Chinese painting school from the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth century (This part will be introduced in the next chapter).

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9.2.1 Paintings in the Early Qing Dynasty 9.2.1.1

“The Four Wangs”

The “Four Wangs” were the representative of landscape painters in the early Qing Dynasty who were the most prominent followers of Dong Qichang. The “Four Wangs” regarded Dong Qichang’s creative practice and the theory of “Northern and Southern Masters” as golden rules, worshipped “the Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty”. They were committed to imitating ancient and classical styles and techniques while seeking to bring some change and strived to inherit and integrate China’s traditional painting techniques. They paid more attention to the use of techniques while painting the same landscape as the ancients, pursuing the aesthetic ideal of the Yuan artists while depicting a calm and quiet emotional state, which was called the “scholarly spirit”, and reached an exquisite aesthetic taste. Since the “Four Wangs” as a school advocated the inheritance of classical styles, their works were mainstreamed and highly valued by the Manchu rulers. In a sense, they were the “orthodox”. However, their followers were not highly cultivated as them and painted lifeless and conservative works. The first generation: Wang Shimin and Wang Jian (they were both friends of Dong Qichang). They both came from the families of high official and famous scholar, and used to serve in court in the Ming Dynasty. Although they were both survivors of the fallen Ming Dynasty, they did not purposefully express the sadness over loss. Instead, they dedicated themselves into the pure academic study of painting. Wang Shimin (1592–1680 AD), courtesy name Xunzhi, literary name Yanke, was a native of Taicang, Jiangsu Province. Wang Shimin was keen on learning from classical styles. For his achievements, he was recognized as a leader of the art of painting at that time. The “Four Wangs” and the so-called “orthodox school” he led had a strong influence on the painting art of future generations. In his paintings, Wang Shimin followed Dong Qichang’s dichotomy of “Southern and Northern Masters”, and had strong faith in the Southern Masters painters like Dong Yuan, Ju Ran, and “the Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty” as orthodox literati painters, especially Huang Gongwang, for this album contains an imitation of Huang Gongwang’s works. Although he claimed to be a follower of Huang Gongwang, he had learned and integrated the styles of all schools and formed his own style. The works are mostly smooth, calm, subtle, and free. In the paintings, the top of mountains is mostly indicated with horizontal dots, and the mountains seemed to be full of moisture, which is also a bit like Mi Youren’s style. The structure is dense, connected by dry brushes, which seems to be reckless, and has some characteristics of Dong Yuan and Wang Meng’s works (Fig. 9.1). Wang Jian (1598–1677 AD), courtesy name Yuanzhao, literary name Xiangbi, was a native of Taicang, Jiangsu Province.

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Fig. 9.1 Landscapes after Song and Yuan Masters (Album. Ink and color on paper. Each section 23.5 cm in height and 30.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wang Shimin. Shanghai Museum)

Wang Jian, like Wang Shimin, had also learned and integrated classical styles of painting, and followed the so-called “orthodox” path. The difference was that Wang Jian learned from the Southern Masters, but also widely absorbed other styles of the Song and Yuan Dynasties. The other two members of the “Four Wangs”, Wang Hui and Wang Yuanqi, were both his students. In the landscape paintings of the “Four Wangs”, scenes such as jagged mountains, flourishing woods, woodmen going back home in the evening, rushing waterfalls, and cabins in the woods, had become regular symbols indicating their connection with classical masterpieces, but had nothing to do with real landscape, which made their paintings rigid. However, they had wanted to express their feelings in their paintings, as well as their artistic interests and aesthetic ideals. All these were contained in apparently rigid brushstrokes. So, in order to distinguish their paintings, one needs to examine their painting techniques. Wang Jian’s style was smooth, clear, elegant, and exquisite (Fig. 9.2).

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Fig. 9.2 Landscapes after Song and Yuan Masters (Album. Ink on paper. Each section 27 cm in height and 18.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wang Jian. Shanghai Museum)

The second generation: Wang Yuanqi (a grandson of Wang Shimin) and Wang Hui (a student of Wang Jian). They were no longer “leftovers” from the fallen Ming Dynasty. Wang Yuanqi (1642–1715 AD), courtesy name Maojing, literary name Lutai, was a native of Taicang, Jiangsu Province, a grandson of Wang Shimin. Noted for his devotion to painting, Wang Yuanqi was summoned to serve the Qing imperial court. With the favor of the emperor, he rose to the position of eminence. Later he was assigned to be the editor of Peiwenzhai Calligraphy and Painting Manuals 《 ( 佩文斋书画谱》) which collected many calligraphies and paintings, and he also had supervised the making of the painting “Grand Pageant for the Imperial Birthday (万寿盛典)” to celebrate the emperor’s sixtieth birthday. He belonged to the Loudong school, as Wang Jian and Wang Shimin did. Wang Yuanqi loved the styles of Dong Yuan, Ju Ran and “the Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty”, especially Huang Gongwang. He studied their art assiduously,

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and absorbed their merits. He was recognized for being “ripe without being too sweet, raw without being too crude, light and yet thick, and solid and yet clear” , 生而不涩, 淡而弥厚, 实而弥清”). This painting contains elements of (“ Huang Gongwang, intended as an imitation. The mountains are undulating like a flying dragon, the woods are luxuriant and dotted with huts, and there are loose trees by the streams. The ink is solid and smooth. In this painting, he was very careful about the arrangement of elements mainly to bring out the beauty of lines, ink, and dots, rather than the realism of the scenes. The brushstrokes are simple and clean, creating a feeling of sincerity (Fig. 9.3). Wang Hui (1632–1717 AD), courtesy name Shigu, literary names Gengyansanren, Qinghui Laoren, was a native of Changshu, Jiangsu Province. Wang Hui was born to a family of painters. As a young man, he earned a living by imitating classical paintings. His copies could be mistaken for the original. Later, his talent was discovered by Wang Jian and Wang Shimin, the latter gave him useful guidance, so he got opportunity for learning from both ancient and contemporary masters, and improved quickly and soon became a master himself. He was recommended to the imperial court at the age of 60 to supervise the production of a series of Fig. 9.3 Streams and Forests in the Mountains (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 95.6 cm in height and 54.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wang Yuanqi. Nanjing Museum)

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handscrolls to commemorate Emperor Kangxi’s tour of the South. This project took several years. It won Emperor Kangxi’s praise who wrote an inscription “Shanshui Qinghui” (山水清晖, literary meaning: clear and bright landscape) as a reward to him, so he called himself “Old Man Qinghui”. Wang Hui had many followers who formed the Yushan school. As one of the Four Wangs and a leader of the orthodox school in the early Qing Dynasty, Wang Hui used a wide range of traditional techniques in his paintings. He had learned the styles of ancient masters but had developed his own style. He was able to “use the brush and ink like the Yuan masters to paint mountains like the Song masters and show the air of Tang masters”. This painting depicts the unique scenery of misty clouds and mist in the mountains and the air filled with moisture before rain. The brush and ink are calm and loose, the layout is dense, and the vivid depiction of natural scenery and weather demonstrates the artist’s extraordinary attainments which was different from the regular style. The painting has been inscribed by the painter himself: “Chu Mountain is about to rain, following Ju Ran’s style” (Fig. 9.4). Fig. 9.4 The Scenery of Chu Mountain where the Rain is about to Come—Landscape after Ju Ran (Scroll. Color on silk. 92.5 in height and 46.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wang Hui. Tianjin Museum)

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Wu Li (1632–1718 AD), courtesy name Yushan, literary names Taoxi Jushi and Mojing Daoren, was a native of Changshu, Jiangsu Province. He was one of the Six Masters of the Early Qing Dynasty (the Four Wangs plus Wu Li and Yun Shouping). In his early years, Wu Li was mainly influenced by Wang Jian, one of the “Four Wangs”, and showed great beauty in his works. After that, he was influenced by the Western style of painting, and his style became more realistic. He painted this work after conversion to Christianity. In the countryside in spring, a narrow path was winding and extending into the distance. Aquatic plants were overgrown on the shore, attracting waterbirds to hunt for food. It was green everywhere and was full of life though there was no sight of any people. Willow trees which were near were larger and the trees which were far away were smaller. This was apparently painted in perspective, a Western painting skill. In his later years, he favored the style of Yuan masters again, and his style was more solid and sincere (Fig. 9.5). Yun Ge (1633–1690 AD), courtesy name Shouping, literary name Nantian, was a native of Wujin, Jiangsu Province. In the early Qing Dynasty, he organized armed forces to fight against the Manchu invaders with his father and brothers. After their defeat, he went into seclusion and concentrated on calligraphy and painting. He was recognized as one of the Fig. 9.5 Spring Lake (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 123.5 cm in height and 62.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wu Li. Shanghai Museum)

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Six Masters of the early Qing Dynasty. He was good at the “boneless dyeing” (没骨) technique in flower-and-bird painting. His style was called the Changzhou School and had a huge influence. In flower-and-bird paintings, Yun Ge inherited the “boneless dyeing” style of Xu Chongsi of the Northern Song Dynasty. Mixing light colors with light ink, the plant shapes and colors in his paintings are vivid. This is one of his masterpieces. In this painting, he painted a whole lotus leaf with continuous dots, and the weeds behind the leaves were elegantly drawn with brush, waving to create a feel of cool autumn breezes. He skillfully used water and color based on accurate modeling, and applied water in the color appropriately, creating colored water halos, which further enhanced the expressiveness of “boneless” flowers. His style was elegant, beautiful, soft, and scholastic, so he was hailed as a master of “orthodox sketching”. Because he was born in Changzhou, he was also recognized as the leader of the Changzhou school. Summing up his own painting experience, he believed that in addition to bold exploration in techniques, it was more important to capture the soul and sentiment of objects (Fig. 9.6). In this painting, peonies were painted by the “boneless” method, as the branches and leaves were not outlined with stroke, and the stems and veins were thin and elastic. The composition of this picture was full, which can better symbolize wealth and prosperity of the peonies (Fig. 9.7).

Fig. 9.6 Lotus (From an Album of Flowers, Landscapes, and Vegetables) (Album leaf. Ink and color on paper. 26.8 cm in height and 59.3 cm in length. The Qing Dynasty. Yun Ge. Princeton University Art Museum, USA)

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Fig. 9.7 Peonies (Album. Ink and color on paper. 28.5 cm in height and 43 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Yun Ge. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

9.2.1.2

“The Four Monks”

The “Four Monks” refer to Zhu Da (also known as Bada Shanren), Shitao, Kuncan, and Hongren. Unlike the “Four Wangs”, the “Four Monks” had shown strong antiManchu ruler sentiments. Soon after the fall of the Ming Dynasty, they became monks and stayed away from the court to show that they would not surrender to the Qing Dynasty. These aristocratic survivors of the Ming Dynasty had gone through dramatic ups and downs, their experience and feelings were fully manifested in the paintings. Through their painting, they strongly expressed the pain of national subjugation and the sentiment about life, also showed their unyielding vigor in the face of fate and misfortunes. They followed the tradition of literati paintings, but they were not confined to the Southern school (the tradition of the Southern Masters as advocated by Dong Qichang). They did not merely imitate classical masterpieces or learn ancient methods, but rather expressed strong individuality in their works. They attached importance to the realism of life and nature while they processed images artistically, which enriched natural beauty and artistic conception. They had integrated poetry and calligraphy into paintings, developed boldly innovative techniques combining freehand and traditional formats, and created images combining objective and subjective perceptions in aesthetics. They showed different styles which were novel and bold and very personalized.

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Zhu Da (1626–1705 AD), dharma name Chuanqing, literary names Bada Shanren, Xuege, etc., was a native of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, as a descendant of the former imperial family, he was distraught and indignant at the plight of his family, and finally escaped into the retreat of Buddhism and devoted himself to painting. His landscape paintings were bleak and poignant, and the ink was reserved and subtle. In flower-and-bird paintings, his anthropomorphic fish and birds were simple and subtle, together with the ethereal compositions, conveyed a sense of loneliness and anger. In a corner of the pond, lotus flowers were in full bloom. Under the shade of lotus leaves, two ducks stand on a stone, one with its head held high, and the other was shrinking its neck. The picture seems empty, but it is full of life and imagination. The two ducks are like other birds and fish painted by Zhu Da, with their eyes squinting upward, which shows the artist’s own spirit and personality. Zhu Da’s flower-andbird paintings had almost no direct relationship with the masters from whom he had learned. He was an innovative painter. His style was simple, eccentric, and lonely. Zheng Banqiao, the famous painter of the “Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou”, has ”) described his painting as: “There is less ink but more tears” (“ (Fig. 9.8). Fig. 9.8 Lotus and Ducks (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 171 cm in height and 47 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Zhu Da. Tianjin Museum)

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Zhu Da was seemingly insane according to his weird paintings, but expressed conscious and strong sentiments in his paintings in a highly artistic way. The rock on the top was an inverted triangle, which showed the strong personality of the artist. Under the peonies which symbolize wealth and prosperity, two silly peacocks squatted on a top-heavy stone. Besides their vivid eyes, three broken feathers often used as symbols of official ranking of the Qing Dynasty were also very special. The inscription strengthened the theme the artist wanted to express, caricaturing peacocks as those high-ranking officials who had to wait outside the palace at 11 p.m. to hear the orders of the emperor. Through combination of painting and poetry, Zhu Da showed his strong dislike of the Qing Dynasty’s flattering officials (Fig. 9.9). Shitao (1641–1707 AD), original name Zhu Ruoji, dharma name Yuanji, literary names Monk Kugua, Dadizi, etc., was a native of Quanzhou, Guangxi Province. Shitao was an offspring of the imperial family of the Ming Dynasty. After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, he sought refuge in a temple and became a monk. Fig. 9.9 Peacocks (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 169.5 cm in height and 72 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Zhu Da. Liu Haisu Art Museum, Shanghai)

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Shitao had rich imagination. The composition of his paintings is novel and natural, with much freehand, and the pictures are full of passion. His landscape paintings seemed changeable, but in fact they followed classical styles based on which he developed a new method called “one painting” or “one line” (一画). His book Monk Kugua on Painting 《 ( 苦瓜和尚画语录》) distilled his ideas of reality, nature, people, and art, including the concept of “one painting” which was the core of Shitao’s aesthetics.1 Shitao stood for one of the peaks in the history of Chinese painting. His paintings and aesthetics had a great influence on his contemporaries and future painters. He traveled a lot in mountains and on rivers to feel the beauty of nature and learn from nature, and thus he grasped the essence of nature and showed in his paintings. At the same time, he attached importance to innovation in art forms, thus creating a unique style. This picture depicted the autumn scene of mountains and waters in Huaiyang, with a free atmosphere and an open mood (Fig. 9.10). The layout of this painting was unique: a strange pine extends abruptly from the left frame of the painting, between the staggered cliffs, like a dragon flying or a phoenix dancing. Waterfalls cascaded straight down from behind dense bamboo forests, merging into rushing streams that hit the rocks with loud stirring sounds. Two people, apparently learned seniors, sat in a pavilion near the stream, enthralled by the clear sounds of the waters. In terms of form and techniques, the use of dots was prominent, with dots of various shades and sizes distributed all over the picture, creating a special sense of form (Fig. 9.11). Between the layers of mountains and forests, some people were walking up the steps, some people were residing near waters, and some people were boating on the lake to enjoy this cool and beautiful scenery. Although the painting was a representation of nature, the brushstrokes were spirited, creating a strong feel of the artist’s wild and unrestrained character while enjoying the sceneries. The picture seems to be randomly painted and clueless, but once the ink was highlighted, it shows a world both familiar and unfamiliar. In the early Qing Dynasty, most painters copied the ancient style, but Shitao was more focused on real life, believing that reality was the source of inspirations. He traveled to many famous mountains, and painted a huge number of sketches throughout his life, which culminated in a spontaneous and vibrant style. The inscription on one of his seals, “Searching for extraordinary peeks for a sketch” (搜尽奇峰打草稿), accurately reflects his artistic pursuit (Fig. 9.12).

1

Reference from: Sullivan M (2006.12) Yishu Zhongguo (The Arts of China). Hunan Education Publishing House, p 220: “Literally, ‘one painting’ refers to both a line and a painting, in which ‘one’ stands for harmony between man and nature, or uniqueness, while ‘painting’ means either the painting art or lines. Shitao’s aesthetics were not only derived from the earlier theories of Zong Bing and Xie He, but also influenced by the metaphorical tradition of Buddhism and Taoism. Of course, he had his own gifted innovations. Through the fusion of these influences, Shitao expressed his understanding of the unity of all things in nature, as well as his unfettered inspirations.”.

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Fig. 9.10 Autumn in Huaiyang (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 89 cm in height and 57 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Shitao. Nanjing Museum)

Flowers and bamboos in Shitao’s paintings were free from conventions and yet showed his own style. Light ink was used to paint plum blossoms in this painting, and the branches look like plants also resemble rocks. The painter used thick ink to draw the bamboos which were like flying dragons. The painting was staggering and strewn, but not chaotic, as the strokes were varied and traveled fast. Shitao was a pioneer of freehand ink bamboo painting and won the praise of Zheng Banqiao who was most skillful in painting bamboos in the Qing Dynasty and insisted that Shitao’s method contained “law in no law” (无法之法), so it has reached a nearly impossible level (Fig. 9.13). Kuncan (1612–1673 AD), secular family name Liu, dharma name Kuncan, courtesy name Jieqiu, literary names Shixi, Dianzhu Taoist, etc., was a native of Wuling (present-day Changde, Hunan Province), and later settled in Nanjing.

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Fig. 9.11 Mountain Waterfalls (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 103 cm in height and 42.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Shitao. Shanghai Museum)

Fig. 9.12 Searching for Extraordinary Peeks (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 42.8 cm in height and 285.5 cm in length. The Qing Dynasty. Shitao. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 9.13 Plum and Bamboo (Scroll. Ink on paper. 34.2 cm in height and 194.4 cm in length. The Qing Dynasty. Shitao. The Palace Museum)

In landscape paintings, he was influenced by Dong Qichang, Huang Gongwang, and Wang Meng. In his paintings, he often used heavy brushstrokes to depict complex mountains and rivers with rich and profound layers. The artist used the “high distance” method, making layers of mountains visible. Starting from the hill foot, a narrow and steep path winded up to the mid-point where there was cluster of buildings, built against the mountain slope. There is an idle scholar in the cottage who is apparently lost in thought amid the breezes and green woods, just as the artist himself often was. Kuncan had learned classical styles and formed his own. This painting features dots and lines, and on top of layers of light ink, thick ink is used to highlight the focus. The brushstrokes are loose but majestic, and the ocher color creates the underlying tone, slightly mixed with light floral green, so the cold silent scenes show much vitality. This also shows the positive and open-minded personality of the artist (Fig. 9.14). Hongren (1610–1663 AD), original name Jiang Tao, dharma name Hongren, courtesy name Liuqi, literary name Jianjiang, was a native of Shexian, Anhui Province. Hongren was once an official of the Ming Dynasty, after the fall of which he became a monk because he did not want to work for the Qing Dynasty. He took a detached attitude towards the misfortunes he had met. Depicted with simple and concise brushwork, his paintings mostly show a remote and secluded landscape, with strange hills and valleys, indicating the sublimity of his inner world through the sparse and dry landscape, which are quite in the style of Ni Zan. Mount Huangshan has been famous for its majestic and divine beauty since ancient times. There were many inspirational pines and rocks as well as steep peaks. It is hailed as the most beautiful mountain in China. This is Hongren’s representative painting of Mount Huangshan. The painting has very few twists and turns, and the brushstrokes are simple and precise. The rock looks like having been hacked with an ax, which shows the essence of Mt Huangshan. Hongren studied the painting style of Ni Zan, but he had gone beyond Ni Zan and formed his own unique style. He

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Fig. 9.14 Green and Soaring Mountains (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 85 cm in height and 40.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Kuncan. Nanjing Museum)

often used the “high distance” and “deep distance” methods, with the brushstrokes precise and meticulous. The mood is sterile and stubborn, and even bleak, solemn, and lofty (Fig. 9.15).

9.2.1.3

Famous Painters and Schools in Various Regions

Anhui Most painters in Anhui were dissatisfied with the Qing court and missed the fallen Ming Dynasty, the sentiment of which can be seen from their work. They learned the style of Ni Zan and got inspiration from the famous mountains of Mount Huangshan and Mount Qiyun in territory. They were also influenced by Hui-style printmakings, so the image and composition in their paintings show mostly geometrical shapes. Their style is peaceful and quiet, closely related to Shitao and Hongren’s styles. There were several local painting schools formed in this region in the early Qing Dynasty: Four masters of Xin’an school: Hongren, Cha Shibiao, Sun Yi, and Wang Zhirui; Gushu school: Xiao Yuncong; Xuancheng school: Mei Qing and others.

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Fig. 9.15 Pine and Rock on Mt Huangshan (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper 198.7 cm in height and 81 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Hongren. Shanghai Museum)

Jiangxi Jiangxi school: Luo Mu. Jiangsu Two “Xi” in Jinling (present-day Nanjing): Kuncan (literary name Shixi) and Cheng Zhengyi (literary name Qingxi Taoist). Eight Masters of Jinling: Gong Xian, Fan Qi, Gao Cen, Zou Zhe, Wu Hong, Ye Xin, Hu Yi, Xie Sun (The list has different versions, but most of them were professional painters with scholastic or official background, who followed the Northern Song Dynasty and the Wu school of the Ming Dynasty). Mei Qing (1623–1697 AD), courtesy name Yuangong, literary name Qushan, was a native of Xuancheng, Anhui province. Mei Qing was good at absorbing nutrients from nature, especially the scenery of Huangshan Mountain. He received a lot of inspiration in the process of sketching of the real landscapes. His sketching trip to Huangshan inspired his wonderful imagination. He captured the thrilling peaks of Huangshan Mountain, the unpredictable changes in the sea of clouds, and the various postures of the old pines with his brushstrokes, forming his unique distant, desolate and elegant painting style. He created

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the Xuancheng painting school based on Huangshan Mountain, and has influenced many painters. In addition, he also had close friendship with Shitao and influenced each other. The waterfall seems to be flowing down from the sky, surrounded by strange rocks like cirrus clouds. Looking at the picture, the viewers can feel the cool breeze blowing. Two men in white were sitting by the rock, seemingly discussing scriptures and Taoism. The painter is good at using different brushworks to express the different temperaments of Huangshan Mountain. He used “hemp-fiber” strokes to express the texture of the mountains and rocks, the brush and ink is dry but the breath of the painting is moist; the water was outlined with thin lines, and the strokes were fast and closely arranged, which not only expressed the rapid flow of water, but also had a decorative effect. Mei Qing attached great importance to the accumulation of natural scenery in his mind. His work was unique at the time for its personal style while remaining authentic and vivid (Fig. 9.16). This volume imitated the paintings of ancient masters of Li Cheng, Mi Fu, Mi Youren, Jing Hao, Guan Tong and Wang Meng, etc., with a total of twelve sections. This painting used slender, tight and rolling lines to paint out the rocks. The rendering is light and clear. The dry and loose ink strokes reveal moisture atmosphere. The

Fig. 9.16 Nine Dragons Pond (Album. Ink and color on paper. 33.9 cm in height and 44.1 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Mei Qing. Shanghai Museum)

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composition is taken from the real scenery of Huangshan Mountain, but exaggerated and changed, creating a poetic but strange realm, giving people a broad space for imagination (Fig. 9.17). Gong Xian (1618–1689 AD), courtesy name Qixian, literary names Banqian, Yeyi, and Chaizhangren, was a native of Kunshan, Jiangsu Province. He was the head of the “Eight Masters of Jinling”. This painting takes the form of a long scroll. With a peaceful and distant view, it organizes jungles, houses, waterfalls, flowing springs, waterside pavilions, clouds, and smokes into a meaningful picture. Heavy mountains were rehydrated and undulating, giving a sense of vastness. Using the method of accumulated ink, the artist successfully creates a prosperous and beautiful scenery which is typical in Jiangnan. In terms of techniques, the leaves are painted with ink dots, layering from light to thick, to the pale, and dripping, to fully show the hierarchy; the mountain rocks are outlined with ink lines to form blocks, and then rubbed with dry ink several times, so that the outline and the blocks are perfectly integrated. The mass and feel of reality of rocks are vividly reflected through the artistic effect of light and shadow. Water

Fig. 9.17 Landscapes after Ancient Masters (Album. Ink and color on paper. Each leaf 24.8 cm in height and 29.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Mei Qing. Marie-Hélène and Guy Weill, USA/ Metropolitan Museum of Art, USA)

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is not painted with thin hooked lines, but is expressed by means of blankness. In a word, the whole painting is vigorous, and the structure is sophisticated, making it one of Gong Xian’s masterpieces (Fig. 9.18). The painting depicts the mountains in autumn after rain, with a hut amid the woods. It is a masterpiece the artist painted in his later years. It is dense in some places and sparse elsewhere, so it looks complex but not messy, indicating that the woods are uneven. The leaves are red and yellow, and the stream is quiet and clear. It was a quiet late autumn day. The use of ink in this painting is relatively light but the brushstrokes vary. The ink is clear and flexible. It is not the same as other masterpieces of the artist which are lush and prosperous. There is an inscription on the painting: “I feel like an immortal sitting high facing the red and yellow leaves. The sky is so near and I can hear a song played by an orchestra of the woods.”

Fig. 9.18 Endless Stream and Terraced Mountains (Handscroll. Ink on paper. 27.4 cm in height. The Qing Dynasty. Gong Xian. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 9.19 Woods with Red and Yellow Leaves (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper, 99.5 cm in height and 64.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Gong Xian. Shanghai Museum)

(“木叶丹黄何处边, 楼头高坐即神仙, 9.19).

, 天末风生泛管弦”) (Fig.

9.2.2 Paintings in the Middle of the Qing Dynasty 9.2.2.1

Court Paintings

On the one hand, the court painting in the Qing Dynasty was influenced by the “orthodox” literati painting and became more scholastic. On the other hand, Western painters joined the court academy, who had brought some western technique and aesthetic taste into the court art. However, this influence was only limited to the court and did not affect the mainstream of Chinese painting. The influence of Western styles can be seen in Jiao Bingzhen and Leng Mei’s “Farming and Weaving” painted during Emperor Kangxi’s reign when many Western

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painters served at the court and works by foreign painters got popular. Those paintings often used both Chinese and Western painting methods. The most renowned Western painter was the Italian painter Giuseppe Castiglione (Lang Shining), who had made a tentative attempt to combine Chinese fine-brush painting and Western classical realism. Jiao Bingzhen (late seventeenth–early eighteenth century) was a native of Jinan, Shandong Province. With the help of Jesuits, he learned the use of perspective and used this Western method in his famous painting “Farming and Weaving”. Two small boats are passing through the green lotus leaves, and the six people in the boat are swinging and picking lotus, which is poetic and yet realistic painting. However, the characters seem a bit stiff, and the mountain rocks lack the charm of Chinese Ink-wash. The artist was a court painter. His style was deeply influenced by Western painters and favored by the emperor (Fig. 9.20). Leng Mei (years of birth and death unknown), courtesy name Jichen, literary name Jinmen Huaishi, was a native of Jiaozhou, Shandong Province. He became a court Fig. 9.20 Ladies (Album. Ink and color on silk. 30.2 cm in height and 21.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Jiao Bingzhen. The Palace Museum)

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painter in the late years of Emperor Kangxi’s reign. He was a student of Jiao Bingzhen and known for his exquisite but realistic paintings of ladies. In his paintings, the Western method of perspective was used. Sycamore, osmanthus, wild chrysanthemum, and the jade rabbit are all symbols of seasonal greetings for the Mid-Autumn Festival, so this painting seemed to have been made to celebrate the festival. The two rabbits are realistic, having smooth and textured fur and delicate and harmonious colors. The rabbit’s eyes have white lights in them, and look crystal clear. The picture is sparse in some places and dense elsewhere, showing a strong sense of space, which is clearly influenced by Western art (Fig. 9.21). Giuseppe Castiglione (1688–1766 AD), also called Lang Shining in Chinese, was a native of Milan, Italy. He came to China as a Jesuit missionary in 1715 and served as an artist at the imperial court during the reigns of Emperor Kangxi and Emperor Yongzheng. He participated in the design of the Old Summer Palace. He painted in a style that combined European and Chinese traditions. After his death, he was Fig. 9.21 Two Rabbits under a Phoenix Tree (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 176.2 cm in height and 96 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Leng Mei. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 9.22 Imperial Hound (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 246 cm in height and 133 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Giuseppe Castiglione. Shenyang Palace Museum)

honored as an Assistant Minister. He was good at painting figures in events, portraits, animals, flowers and trees, landscapes. The artist had used Chinese painting materials and Western methods to create many historical paintings to depict major events, as well as portraits, flowers, birds, and animals, which were deeply loved and appreciated by the reigning Emperors. In this painting, a Western breed dog with bright fur stands on a grassland full of wildflowers with his head held high. The highlights in his eyeballs are faintly visible, and the painting style is gorgeous and shows royal dignity. This hybrid painting method was dismissed by the literati painters of his time as artisan because Western painting was considered too realistic (Fig. 9.22).

9.2.2.2

“Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou”

During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the commodity economy developed in the city Yangzhou, many wealthy businessmen gathered there and the citizen class expanded. It soon became a commercial city of prosperous culture and active thinking. The painting market emerged and rapidly developed. Therefore, Yangzhou attracted a

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group of painters to make a living selling paintings locally. The common characteristics of those painters are: They were all frustrated scholars who were forced to make a living by selling paintings. They were dissatisfied with the status quo of painting, and pursued individual liberation and creativity. Due to their novel style of painting and strong personality, they were known as the “Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou”. The “Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou” were not exactly eight people. In fact, that was a group that generally refers to painters representing the new style of painting in Yangzhou. They created broad-stroke freehand paintings that focus on feelings and individual expressions. Their freehand paintings of flowers and birds were considered “eccentric” because they didn’t follow conventions. In Yangzhou, they influenced each other and reached a consensus, and were supported by the civic class who embraced novelty. These “professional literati painters”, to a certain extent, freed themselves from the orthodox and conservative art styles advocated by the imperial court. They had basically freed themselves from pedantry to develop a new style reflecting social changes, and pushed the freehand brush paintings to a new level. Painters of Yangzhou, rose to prominence in the eighteenth century, reflecting a shift in popular aesthetics. Besides, the supply–demand relationship also influenced the choice of painting. The “Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou” were very influential in Jiangnan area. They introduced epigraphy into painting, incorporating the aesthetics taste and interest of ancient bronzes and stone inscriptions into paintings, which had made an unprecedented breakthrough and was yet a continuation of traditions. They once again set their sights on the real world and observed life and nature instead of getting immersed in imitating the ancients. These all had brought new inspiration and vitality to traditional painting. Later, due to the shift of economic center, Yangzhou declined as a painting market, but the influences of Yangzhou painters were palpably felt in other parts of Jiangnan, reaching various painting schools, and had direct impact to the Shanghai school in the late Qing Dynasty. The Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou can be divided into three types: (1) Scholars who came to Yangzhou after losing their official positions: Zheng Xie, Li Yi, and Li Fangying. Zheng Xie (1693–1765 AD), courtesy name Kerou, literary name Banqiao, was a native of Xinghua, Jiangsu Province. He was once the magistrate of Fan County, Shandong Province, but later he retired to Yangzhou as he had offended higherranking officials, and depended on painting in Yangzhou for a living. He advocated nobleness and integrity in his paintings. He was famous for painting ink bamboos. He raised the three-step creation theory for bamboo painting: going from “bamboos in reality” to “bamboos in the mind” and then to “the bamboo in the brush”. It was an innovative principle of artistic creation at the time. Orchids, bamboos, and stones were Zheng Xie’s favorite objects. He often used different inscriptions on his works, giving the same subject different artistic conceptions or ideological connotations. His personal feelings were freely expressed. Zheng

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Fig. 9.23 Orchids and Stones (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 187 cm in height and 110.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Zheng Xie. Tianjin Museum)

Xie was a seventh-rank magistrate (a low-ranking official), but lost his job because he pleaded for the people. Then, he had immersed himself in artistic creation guided by the motto of “staying upright”. Zheng Xie also depended on painting for a meager living, so he openly priced his paintings. His paintings both showed literary temperament and served commercial purposes. His literati paintings were no longer enjoyed by a handful of scholar-artists, but were widely accepted by ordinary citizens. This painting mainly consists of orchids and stones, with some bamboos. The painting is compact structurally, and the style is simple yet elegant (Fig. 9.23). Li Fangying (1695–1755 AD), courtesy name Qiuzhong, literary name Qingjiang, was a native of Nantong, Jiangsu Province. This picture shows pine trees in a strong wind. From top to bottom, it is completed in one go and is full of dynamic momentum. It is like seeing the wind and hearing the sound of the wind. It is in the strong wind that the unyielding spirit of the pine trees is even more evident. The painter is an arrogant and uninhibited character, and he does not stick to the convention. His brushwork is ups and downs, aiming to be in line with Xu Wei and Chen Chun. He is good at painting large paintings, using ink vividly and freely, making the paintings look majestic (Fig. 9.24). (2) Literati painters who tried to keep a distance from officials: Jin Nong, Wang Shishen, and Gao Xiang.

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Fig. 9.24 Pine in Wind (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 159.5 cm in height and 59.2 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Li Fangying. Nantong Museum)

Jin Nong (1687–1764 AD), courtesy name Shoumen, literary name Dongxin, was a native of Renhe, Zhejiang Province. He had lived in Yangzhou for a long time and returned to Yangzhou from Beijing after failing the imperial examination. He painted and dealt in antiques in Yangzhou. He is considered the most eccentric among the “Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou”. This painting shows a bald old man with a luxuriant beard walking slowly. This self-portrait was painted when Jin Nong was 73 years old. In this painting, Jin Nong wears a big head and has a small body, with a thin braid at the back of his head, which makes him look clumsy but lovely. In his inscription, he cites the tradition of portrait painting and mentions that he painted his own image in order to communicate with an old friend far away. Jin Nong made an appointment with this friend: “In the future, after we are old and retire, I hope we can meet and enjoy the sight together”. Jin Nong’s aspiration is shown fully in this painting: the old man is not like any ordinary people, but shows an air of nobleness and detachment from the world. Jin Nong began to learn painting after middle age. Besides painting, he had profound knowledge and was especially good at poetry, appreciating antiques, and calligraphy. Therefore, his

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Fig. 9.25 Self-portrait (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 131.3 cm in height and 59.1 cm in width. Jin Nong. The Palace Museum)

works have a unique perspective and charm, using simple lines and an ingenious layout structure (Fig. 9.25). This painting depicts people picking water-chestnuts in the Jiangnan western area. The girls row boats in the lake, singing and laughing while picking water-chestnuts. The scene is picturesque and attractive. Jin Nong painted the distant mountains in emerald green, the beach in dark brown, and the girls’ clothes in red. The picture is fresh in color and simple in brushwork. The layout is novel and unique. The artist left a large blank space in the sky and inscribed a poem by Zhao Mengfu about picking water-chestnuts in his unique calligraphy, which enriches the picture, strengthens the color contrast, and leads viewers to focus more on the boats located between waterchestnuts and the water. Jin Nong’s calligraphy is unique and known as “lacquer calligraphy” (漆书) (Fig. 9.26). Wang Shishen (1686–1759 AD), courtesy name Jinren, literary name Chaolin, was a native of Shexian County, Anhui Province. Painting plum blossoms in ink is suitable for capturing the essence of plum blossoms. It has always been a first choice of literati painters. The artist painted the branches with ink and drew the petals with lines and dots with thick ink, showing the unique charm of plum blossoms. Wang Shishen was highly reputed for painting plum blossoms, which are light and elegant. After the age of 54, his eyes were blinded one after another, but he felt “happy for never seeing vulgar people again”, and tried to

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Fig. 9.26 Picking Water-Chestnuts (Album. Ink and color on paper. 26.2 cm in height and 35 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Jin Nong. The Palace Museum)

write and paint. He also claimed that “my skill is even better than when I was not blind”, fully showing his tenacious and unyielding spirit (Fig. 9.27). (3) Professional painters with scholastic cultivation: Hua Yan, Huang Shen, and Luo Pin. Hua Yan (1682–1756 AD), courtesy name Qiu Yue, literary name Xinluo Shanren, was a native of Shanghang, Fujian Province. This painting shows the beauty of spring in the mountains. In this painting, the stream is gurgling, the bamboo shoots and leaves are growing, the plums are blooming brilliantly, and two birds are cheering on the branches, causing a golden pheasant with gorgeous colors to look up, as if to indicate that birds also like plum blossoms. This painting is interesting and meaningful. Hua Yan was good at painting figures, landscapes, and flowers and birds, and his skills in painting flowers and birds were superb. He was also good at calligraphy and attached importance to sketching. The typical composition of his paintings was novel, and the images were lively and vivid. He used casual lines and bright colors, so his pictures were very interesting and natural, with a soft and leisurely charm. In a word, his style of painting has a great influence on flower-and-bird paintings after the mid Qing Dynasty (Fig. 9.28).

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Fig. 9.27 Plum Blossoms (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 77 cm in height and 23.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wang Shishen. Tianjin Museum)

Huang Shen (1687–1770 AD), courtesy name Gong Shou, literary name Ying Piao, was a native of Ninghua, Fujian Province. In this painting, Zhong Kui sat alone, leaning on an old tree, and looking ahead with vigilant eyes. A quiet atmosphere with a bit of tension can be felt in this painting. Among the “Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou”, Huang Shen was the best at drawing figures. The people in his paintings were mainly characters of fairy tales and folklore, as well as scholars and officials. He also drew people living in the lower classes of society, such as fishermen, woodcutters, and beggars. His paintings showed the social reality in the last feudal society of China. Huang Shen painted in the style of calligraphic cursive script. He painted boldly, which sometimes made his paintings crude (Fig. 9.29). Luo Pin (1733–1799 AD), courtesy name Dunfu, literary name Liangfeng, was a native of Shexian County, Anhui Province. Zhong Kui was drunk and sleepy, his belt was untied, and one of his boots fell off. He was about to cross the bridge with the help of two demons. The tense expressions of the four demons are in sharp contrast to Zhong Kui’s drunkenness, which is very funny. The clothing style of the characters is exaggerated and prominent; the leaves

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Fig. 9.28 Birds and Flowers (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 216.5 cm in height and 131 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Hua Yan. Tianjin Museum)

and flowers of plants are drawn in a “boneless dyeing” style. The artist, Luo Pin was a student of Jin Nong, and liked to paint ghosts. The images in his paintings were clumsy and did not follow the Chinese classical convention. In addition, his paintings often reveal his resentment against social ills (Fig. 9.30).

9.2.3 Paintings of the Late Qing Dynasty After the nineteenth century, several new schools of painting appeared in the affluent Jiangnan region, which reflected the new trends of art and led to the formation of the modern Shanghai style. With the rise of epigraphy, some artists famous for calligraphy and seal carving also used their academic findings and scholastic discipline in painting, like Huang Yi, Xi Gang. They merged epigraphy into paintings, absorbed nutrients from the art of inscription engraving and seal carving, and had a profound influence on some painters of the Shanghai School of Painting. There were also painters of lady figures who were adapted to worldly aesthetics, such as Gai Qi and Fei Danxu. They were both painters of female figure paintings,

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Fig. 9.29 Zhong Kui (钟馗)2 (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 101 cm in height and 115.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Huang Shen. Yangzhou Museum)

while Fei Danxu was especially good at portrait painting. Both were heavily influenced by Hua Yan’s style of painting. In their paintings, the figures look weak and the use of ink is light, which were clearly influenced by the popular concept of feminine beauty at that time. Gai Qi (1773–1828 AD), courtesy name Boyun, literary name Qixiang, was a native of Huating (present-day Songjiang, Shanghai), was good at painting ladies, bamboos, and stones. Gai Qi’s characters were painted with smooth lines and are subtle and expressive. In particular, the images of ladies created are weak and thin, with unique style, which became a popular trend in figure paintings in the late Qing Dynasty. He began to paint the atlas of Dream of the Red Chamber in 1815, and it was not until his death that the first edition was released in the form of Illustrated Ode to Dream of the 2

Zhong Kui is a Taoist deity who specializes in fighting ghosts and exorcising evil spirits. Most of their images are powerful and courageous, tiger-backed and bear waisted, with angry eyes and big curly beard. Chinese folk often hang a statue of picture of Zhongkui to ward off evil spirits and eliminate disasters.

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Fig. 9.30 Drunken Zhong Kui (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 57 cm in height and 39 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Luo Pin. The Palace Museum)

Red Chamber in 1879. Illustrated Ode to Dream of the Red Chamber depicts fifty illustrations for the fiction. It is recognized as a masterpiece of figure painting of Dream of the Red Chamber and was very popular among people of the time (Fig. 9.31). Fei Danxu (1801–1850 AD), courtesy name Zitiao, literary name Xiaolou, was a native of Wucheng (present-day Huzhou, Zhejiang Province). He was a professional painter. For many years, he had been dependent on bureaucrats and scholars who loved to collect paintings. On the left side, there is a tall willow and a large rock. Ink and water blend to create a scene which is both virtual and real. The lady can lean on the willow and the rock. It is in the autumn, and the bare branches with leaves all fallen are wavering in the wind. The blank space allows for imagination. The lady is graceful, holding a fan and looking into the distance, as if in great sadness. The whole picture appears silent and cold. Fei Danxu also used the skills of calligraphy in this painting, so the brush strokes are fluent, and the clothing of the lady is simple and appropriate, which demonstrates the artist’s superb painting skills. Fei Danxu once sold paintings

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Fig. 9.31 Dream of the Red Chamber (Woodblock print. 22.5 cm in height and 15 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Painted by Gai Qi. National Library of China)

in Jiangsu and Zhejiang for a living. He was good at painting figures and flowers, and was particularly good at painting beautiful ladies. When he painted ladies, his brushes were fluent, and the colors he used were plain and light. The figures in his paintings were slim and beautiful, but slightly weak and even morbid (Fig. 9.32).

9.2.4 Woodblock Prints and New Year Pictures In ancient China, like many other crafts, woodblock printing was more like an auxiliary means of painting. Therefore, the goal of printing was to perfectly reproduce the ink and color effects of original paper-based painting, rather than develop and enhance its own characteristics. But this phenomenon had changed in the Qing Dynasty. Carrying on the printmaking tradition from the Ming Dynasty, woodblock prints flourished in the early Qing Dynasty. In addition to the Anhui school, Beijing prints were also famous.

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Fig. 9.32 Lady with a Fan in Autumn Breeze (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 149.8 cm in height and 44.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Fei Danxu. Shanghai Museum)

9.2.4.1

Hui-Style Prints

Painted by Xiao Yuncong and carved by Tang Shang, Tang Yi, etc. in 1648, this work is a unique series of landscape prints depicting the sceneries of Taiping Prefecture in Anhui. The paintings are based on the sketching of the real landscapes, using the brushwork of famous artists since the Song and Yuan Dynasties, combined with painter’s own ideas. The carving is intricate and complex, showing a breakthrough in printmaking in Anhui. (Fig. 9.33).

9.2.4.2

Imperial Prints

Unlike simplistic folk print and elegant literati print, the imperial print has a deliberate realistic style which caters for the taste of the Qing Dynasty emperors and Manchu aristocrats. The representative works of this type include “Farming and Weaving”, “Grand Pageant for the Imperial Birthday”, and “Tour to the South”. It was painted by Jiao Bingzhen, and carved by Zhu Gui and Mei Yufeng, and was first printed in 1696. Later, many different versions appeared with different printing techniques. “Farming and Weaving” took rural production in Jiangnan as its theme, and systematically depicted the specific operational processes of grain production from soaking seeds to storing grains in granary, and sericulture production from bathing silkworms to cutting silk fabric. It can be originally traced back to the

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Fig. 9.33 Landscapes of Taiping Prefecture (Woodblock print. Each section [full frame spread] 27 cm in height and 38.6 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Painted by Xiao Yuncong, carved by Tang Shang. [Zheng Zhenduo collection version] National Library of China)

Southern Song Dynasty. The customs in “Farming and Weaving Pictures” painted by Jiao Bingzhen changed to the Qing Dynasty. There are 23 farming pictures and 23 weaving pictures in total. Each picture is accompanied by a seven-character poem inscribed by Emperor Kangxi to express his sympathy and gratitude for the farmer and the weaver women. The painting is exquisite and delicate, and the Western focus perspective was also used in the paintings. It reflects the Western influence on court painting at that time (Fig. 9.34). It was painted by Song Junye and Leng Mei, and carved by Zhu Gui and Mei Yufeng, and printed in 1717. The total length is nearly 50 m, which is a rare giant structure among prints. The long picture is cut into short ones and arranged sequentially, with a total of 146 pages. The picture is magnificent, the composition is rigorous, the characters are dense, and the scenery is complex. The picture has great realism, with some details visible and meaningful, showing a historical picture with a relaxed atmosphere. The print shows the heyday of the Qing Dynasty, and is intended to whitewash peace and praise virtues, but it also provides a rare image material for investigating the Qing Dynasty celebrations and citizen customs. (Fig. 9.35).

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Fig. 9.34 Farming and Weaving (Court copperplate etching version) (Woodblock print. Each section 34.7 cm in height and 27.7cm in width, the painting frame 24.4 cm in height and 24.4 cm in widht. The Qing Dynasty. Painted by Jiao Bingzhen, carved by Zhu Gui and Mei Yufeng. Original edition is collected in Capital Library of China)

9.2.4.3

Painting Manuals

In 1679, the first version of the Mustard Seed Garden Manual of Painting 《 ( 芥 子园画传》Jie Zi Yuan Hua Pu) was printed, using woodblock overprint technique. This Manual of Painting has three parts which are dedicated to landscape painting, the painting of plum blossoms, orchid, bamboo and chrysanthemum, and the painting of flower-and-bird. The editor-in-chief was Wang Gai. This manual was so named because it was engraved in the dramatist Li Yu’s villa called “Mustard Seed Garden” in Nanjing. The manual of painting shows great excellence in painting, engraving,

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Fig. 9.35 Grand Pageant for the Imperial Birthday (Woodblock print. Each section 23.4 cm in height and 17 cm in width [with frame]. The Qing Dynasty. Painted by Song Junye and Leng Mei, carved by Zhu Gui and Mei Yufeng. The Palace Museum)

and printing. It is a great collection of Chinese painting modes and skills, and has long served as a textbook on Chinese painting with great influence. In addition, it is a book of poetry and artistic criticism. This painting shows blooming lotus flowers and flower buds, and the dark green lotus leaves roll naturally. The picture has beautiful lines and elegant colors (Fig. 9.36).

9.2.4.4

New Year Pictures

The development of civic culture and citizens’ aesthetic awareness has driven the development of folk New Year pictures. In the late Ming Dynasty, workshops for printing New Year pictures appeared. By the early Qing Dynasty, such workshops grew and proliferated, and many production centers were formed throughout China. These centers boasted strong production capacity, huge markets for New Year paintings and distinctive regional characteristics. The most famous were Yangliuqing in Tianjin, Taohuawu in Suzhou, and Yangjiabu in Weifang. It was only after Western lithographs were introduced into China in the late Qing Dynasty that the printing of New Year pictures declined. Yangliuqing in Tianjin Yangliuqing is in the west of Tianjin. It had convenient transportation access and highly developed commerce, so it became a major New Year picture production center in northern China. New Year pictures in Yangliuqin feature a wide range of themes, including Buddha statues, folk customs, historical legends, opera stories,

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Fig. 9.36 Mustard Seed Garden Manual of Painting (Woodblock print. Each section 22.2 cm in height and 18.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Edited by Wang Gai. Original edition is collected in National Library of China)

dolls, landscape, and flowers. The painting style was influenced by the imperial court paintings, highlighting fine lines, bright colors, and delicate drawing. This New Year painting uses bats and peaches as symbols for good fortune, longevity, good health, and peace, showing people’s desire for a better life. (Fig. 9.37). Taohuawu in Suzhou The engine of the train gives out a thick smoke, which is like a cloud suspending in the sky. Visual contrasts can be seen everywhere in the painting: Qing Dynasty soldiers and foreign policemen, people pulling carts and others driving luxurious carriages, people wearing long gowns and mandarin coats and holding fans and others wearing western dresses and western hats. All of this indicates the impact and merger of Chinese and Western cultures in Shanghai after it became a semicolony in the late Qing Dynasty. New Year pictures of Taohuawu in Suzhou were mostly based on drama and historical stories, and focused on the bustling city and the life of the local people, and the painting style was simple, elegant, vivid, and strong. (Fig. 9.38).

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Fig. 9.37 Fu Shou Kang Ning (Good Fortune, Longevity, Good Health and Peace) (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 34 cm in height and 59 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Yangliuqing, Tianjin. Crafts Museum of CAA)

Fig. 9.38 Shanghai Railway Station3 (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 27.7 cm in height and 48.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Taohuawu, Suzhou. Chinese National Academy of Arts)

3 This painting is also seen in Xiaojiaochang in Shanghai. Some scholars believe that this Taohuawu New Year picture was copied from the latter, and many of the images in the Xiaojiaochang New Year pictures came from lithographic pictorials that were popular in Shanghai at the time.

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Fig. 9.39 Busy Women (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 21 cm in height and 32 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Yangjiabu, Weifang, Shandong)

Yangjiabu in Weifang It is a small horizontal scroll and most often posted on the wall above a Kang (炕, a heatable brick bed), so it is also known as the “painting of the Kang”. The painting depicts the main activities of local women: spinning, weaving, making clothes, educating children, and serving parents, demonstrating the traditional virtues of Chinese women (Fig. 9.39). In the old days, people thought the Kitchen God was responsible for the family’s fortunes. December 23rd on the Chinese lunar calendar is the day when the Kitchen God goes up to the Heaven to report the human affair to the Jade Emperor. Therefore, on this day, every family would prepare generous offerings to entertain the Kitchen God to pray for good fortunes in the coming year. There are two levels in this painting. The upper level is the Kitchen God and his two wives, and the lower level is a human family, a family of six who are well dressed and happy. Incense is burning on the offering table. The offerings are abundant, and the New Year atmosphere is perfect. There are eight immortals on both sides of the picture, with a pattern of Two Dragons Playing with a Ball on the upper end and a table of 24 solar terms in the middle, which is roughly equivalent to the calendar for farmers in the old days (Fig. 9.40).

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Fig. 9.40 The Kitchen God (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 34 cm in height and 28 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Weifang, Shandong)

New Year Pictures in Other Regions The painting is based on the story of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms 《 ( 三国演义》). During the Three Kingdoms, Cao Cao attacked Liu Bei. After Liu Bei burned Cao Cao’s army in Xinye County, he lost a major battle and retreated to an area called Changbanpo. He was separated from his subordinates and family. Zhao Yun rushed into Cao Cao’s camp to rescue Liu Bei’s wife and his subordinates. Later, Liu’s wife, unable to walk due to injuries, entrusted her son Adou to Zhao Yun and threw herself into a well. Zhao Yun carried Adou in his arms and broke out of the siege, and handed Adou over to Liu Bei. The picture shows the long and complex plot clearly, with lively scenes, multiple characters, eye-catching subjects, and bright colors. It is a good decoration. In the center of the picture, Zhao Yun is bravely fighting enemies from all sides. New Year pictures of historical stories, like operas on similar themes, are deeply loved by the Chinese folk (Fig. 9.41). It is a painting on the Chinese agricultural calendar. The picture is printed with an ox and a Grain God to tell the right time for various farming activities. If the Grain God is in front of the ox, it means that the start of the spring is in the middle

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Fig. 9.41 Changbanpo (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 28 cm in height and 46.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Pingdu, Shangdong)

, the 12th month of the year in the Chinese calendar), and as the of the Layue ( spring comes early, it is advisable to start farming early. If the Grain God stands behind the ox, the start of spring is in the middle of the Zhengyue (正月, the first month of the year in the Chinese calendar), and farming should not start early. If the Grain God has one bare foot and wears a shoe on the other, the climate would be good throughout the year. If the Grain God wears shoes on both feet, it would be a year of high rainfall. In addition, according to the sexagenary cycle (干支) of the Chinese calendar, if the ĭthird day is Rén (壬) and the ninth day is Bĭng ( 丙), which means “three Rén and nine Bĭng” (sounds like三人九饼: three people and nine cakes), people could believe in the good harvest of grains. That’s why three people holding nine cakes are drawn at the bottom. This New Year painting is printed with woodblock, and the picture is easily understandable. The popular colors and simple characters effectively convey the message that farming must be done at the right time to ensure a good harvest (Fig. 9.42).

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Fig. 9.42 Spring Ox and Cowherd (Woodblock print. New Year picture. 29 cm in height and 22 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Xinjiang, Shanxi)

9.3 Craft The Qing rulers were active in promoting Chinese culture, so the traditional culture continued to develop and improve in the art and craft. However, the aesthetic preferences of the Manchu aristocracy heavily influenced arts, and technique was mistaken for art, which had a bad impact on Chinese crafts for hundreds of years. While it was popular in Europe to learn from oriental culture, since the mid-Qing Dynasty, China had also been strongly influenced by European culture, especially Baroque and Rococo arts of France, which added new elements to traditional Chinese decorative arts. The characteristics of crafts in the Qing Dynasty are: first, variety increased and expanded; second, a variety of materials and techniques were used; third, production skills were excellent, but the style is generally not artistic but cumbersome and vulgar.

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9.3.1 Ceramics Porcelain production in the Qing Dynasty was still centered around Jingdezhen, with excellence in painting and colored glaze. Famous coloring methods included “Gu Cai” (古彩, hard/ancient coloring), “Fen Cai” (粉彩, soft/powder coloring), ). Colored glazes were very advanced and diverse. and enamel coloring ( According to documents from the period under Emperor Qianlong’s reign, there were 57 types of colored glazes. “Gu Cai”: It was popular during the reign of Emperor Kangxi in the Qing Dynasty, so it was also popularly known as “Kangxi Wu Cai”. It had entered into use during the Xuande period in the Qing Dynasty and was once prevalent in the Chenghua period of the Ming Dynasty, so it was also called “ancient coloring”. This coloring method creates straight lines, bright colors, a sense of transparency, and the color is not easy to fall off. That’s why it was also called “hard coloring”. “Fen Cai”: It was first used during Emperor Kangxi’s reign in the Qing Dynasty, and was most popular during Emperor Yongzheng’s reign. Its raw material contains lead powder (lead oxide), so the color is soft, and the lines are graceful and elegant. So, it was known as “soft coloring” or “powder coloring”. Enamel coloring: It was famous during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, and is officially called “enamel porcelain”. It first used Western materials, and later its materials were domestically produced. Enamel painting is fine and precise, and has a three-dimensional effect. Vases were popular during Emperor Kangxi’s reign, and were of varying sizes and shapes. This “Wu Cai” vase has beautiful outlines. A lotus pond links the upper and lower parts of the body, with budding or blooming lotus flowers and lotus seeds in bright red and green. The lotus flowers stand upright, and the lotus unstained by sludge are swaying and fluttering, with birds flying in between. This polychrome vase is decorated with gold and looks brilliant, like an exquisite treasure (Fig. 9.43). “Fen Cai” was created in the late Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty and was developed from “Wu Cai”. Because most of the color materials used were imported from the Western country, it is also called “foreign color”. Compared with “Wu Cai”, “Fen Cai” has more gradational changes in shades of colors, giving a gentle and soft feeling. This bottle is extremely well-made. It has a dignified and beautiful shape, with fine texture and shiny glaze. The white outer wall is painted with a pair of peach branches decorated with peach blossoms buds, eight ripe peaches are painted on the branches, whose shape is round and full. A pair of flying bats are painted between the peach branches. This decorative pattern that combines bats and peaches was very popular in the Qing Dynasty, taking the auspicious meaning of “good fortune and longevity”. There is a blue and white regular script inscription of Yongzheng reign mark on the bottom of the bottle (Fig. 9.44).

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Fig. 9.43 Vase Decorated with Flowers and Birds (Porcelain. 44 cm in height, 22.4 cm in diameter of caliber and 14.2 cm in diameter of bottom. The Qing Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

“Fen Cai”, also known as “soft coloring” porcelain, which was popular during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, developed further during the reign of Emperor Qianlong when the amount of production exceeded the previous period. But “soft coloring” porcelain made during the Qianlong period was inferior to those made during the Yongzheng period in style which looked clean, soft, and elegant. Porcelain made during this period had more ornate and intricate decorative patterns. The double ears of the vase are painted with alum red. The body is painted with a hundred realistic deer with different looks. It is one of the finest “soft coloring” porcelain works during the Qianlong period. In the foot ring there is a Blue-and-white Qianlong reign mark inscribed in seal script (Fig. 9.45). The revolving vase has an intricate and exquisite shape and has high ornamental value. The inner vase is connected with the neck of the outer one and placed inside the belly. The bottom is bonded and closed with the vessel seat. Each section is fired separately and then combined. The belly is hollowed and is decorated with flowers.

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Fig. 9.44 Jingdezhen Kiln “Fen Cai” Bat and Peach Pattern Vase (Porcelain. 39.5 cm in height, 10 cm in diameter of caliber and 12.3 cm in diameter of bottom. The Qing Dynasty. Shanghai Museum)

Because the vase neck can rotate, the pattern on the inner vase can be seen. It looks like a revolving lantern. The Heavenly Stems (天干) are written on the neck, and the Earthly Branches (地支) are written on the upper part which connects with the neck. When rotating the two vases, the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches can match.4 The body and neck are all decorated in purple, the ground of the belly is painted with yellow glaze, the mouth and bottom are covered with green glaze, and the neck has golden decorative double ears. The vase is beautiful and elegant. It is a special work of craft of the period under Emperor Qianlong’s reign (Fig. 9.46). Enamel coloring was first produced during the reign of Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty, and was most outstanding during the Qianlong reign period. The output was very small and it was a monopoly of the court. It is to paint the enamel color used on copper utensils on the porcelain body. Because the finest porcelain bodies selected 4 Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, also called the sexagenary cycle, originated from the observation of celestial phenomena in ancient China. The ten Heavenly Stems and the twelve Earthly Branches match each other in turn to form sixty basic units. The two cooperate with each other in a fixed order to form the Stem and Branch Epoch Method. This invention had a profound impact and was widely used in ancient Chinese calendars, arithmetic, calculations, naming and other aspects.

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Fig. 9.45 “Fen Cai” 100 Deer Porcelain Vessel (Porcelain. The Qing Dynasty. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

from Jingdezhen were sent to Beijing and painted by court painters, they were particularly delicate and exquisite, and were commonly known as “Gu Yuexuan” (古月 轩) products(Fig. 9.47).

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Fig. 9.46 “Fen Cai” Vase with Revolving Interior and Hollowed Belly (Porcelain. 40.2 cm in height, 19.2 cm in diameter of caliber and 21.1 cm in diameter of bottom. The Qing Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

9.3.2 Other Crafts There were many other crafts in the Qing Dynasty. In metalwork, in addition to the continued development of cloisonné enamel, there were also innovations, such as Chinese painted enamel. Its decoration does not require filigree, but patterns are directly painted on the surface after enamel is applied.

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Furniture craftsmanship was divided into the Beijing school, the Suzhou school, the Guangzhou school, and the Shanghai school. The Suzhou school continued the tradition of the Ming Dynasty, while the Guangzhou school and the imperial furniture emphasized intricate decoration, using various techniques such as embossing and hollowing. Often enough, the decoration is too cumbersome and destroys the overall sense of unity and harmony of the furniture. Carvings in the Qing Dynasty varied and were exquisite, including jade carvings, wood carvings, bamboo carvings, tooth carvings, stone carvings, and color clay sculptures. Jade carvings benefited from the abundant access to raw materials owing to enhanced exchanges between Xinjiang and the rest of China, which expanded the variety of jade wares; wood carvings used rosewood and boxwood, and the most famous were Dongyang wood carvings and Chaozhou wood carvings; bamboo carvings had the Jiading school and the Jinling school, each boasting distinctive artistic characteristics; tooth carvings included tooth carvings in Beijing and ivory carvings in Guangzhou; stone carvings included Duanyan (inkstones made in Duanzhou of Guangzhou) and Sheyan (inkstones made in She County of Anhui); and color clay Fig. 9.47 Enamel Figure Vase (Porcelain. 18.8 cm in height, 4.25 cm in diameter of caliber and 7.5 cm in diameter of foot. The Qing Dynasty. Shanghai Museum)

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sculptures mainly included “Clay Figure Zhang” (clay sculptures from Tianjin) and Huishan Clay Figurine from Wuxi, Jiangsu. They were famous at home and abroad, and some were exported. The vase has a copper and gold-plated surface. The neck is connected to the inner vase, so the belly can rotate. The ground color of the body is light blue glaze, and the body is decorated with hooked lines. Four big holes are cut in the belly where copper is set, gold is plated and hollowed out dragons are carved. The upper and lower parts of the belly are decorated with lotus petals, which are cloisonne enamel (Fig. 9.48). Among the handicrafts, jade carvings and ivory carvings were mostly made for the royal family and nobles because of their expensive materials and time-consuming processing. This jade craft, carved in the shape of a cabbage, is lifelike and delicate. Although it imitates an everyday vegetable, it still strongly reflects the complex and luxurious characteristics of Qing Dynasty court art (Fig. 9.49).

Fig. 9.48 Cloisonné Enamel Revolving Vase (Cloisonné enamel. 33.5 cm in height, 9.8 cm in diameter of caliber and 10.4 cm in diameter of foot. The Qing Dynasty. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 9.49 Jadeite Cabbage (Jade carving. 18.7 cm in length, 9.1 cm in width and 5.07 cm in thickness. The Qing Dynasty. National Palace Museum, Taipei)

Afu is a representative product of Wuxi Huishan clay figurines. According to folk legend, in ancient times, Huishan was infested with venomous snakes and beasts. Later, a pair of human-shaped giant beasts named Shahaier descended from the sky. They were brave, strong and powerful. When the beasts saw them, they all bowed their heads and ears and surrendered. From then on, this area recovered peace again. In order to commemorate Shahaier’s achievements and pray for good fortune from evil spirits, the local people created two clay figurines in the image of strong children holding blue lions, and named them “Afu”. This big Afu has a hollow body, made with a double-piece mold, and was produced during the Qianlong period (Fig. 9.50).

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Fig. 9.50 Afu (阿福) (Clay sculpture. 24 cm in height. The Qing Dynasty. Wuxi Museum)

It is a custom in Jiaodong that girls learn paper-cutting, embroidery, and sewing before getting married, so the local paper-cutting craft has been well developed. When cutting this kind of fine window grilles, except for the draft pattern on the top, only two or three layers of thin red paper are placed on the bottom, so the pattern is delicate and not out of shape. This work is from the late Qing Dynasty. It is in the form of a lantern with fringed thorns, which increases the shades of color and makes the paper-cut look richer and more gorgeous (Fig. 9.51).

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Fig. 9.51 Dielianhua (Butterfly’s Dream of a Flower) (Paper-cut. 43.3 cm in height. The Qing Dynasty. Huang County, Shandong Province. Shandong Museum)

Chapter 10

Arts from the Late 19th to Early 20th Century

10.1 Overview Xinhai Revolution (Chinese bourgeois-democratic revolution) broke out in 1911. The revolutionaries finally overthrew the Manchu Qing government. The last emperor Xuantong announced his abdication, and the Republic of China was established. During the transitional period from the last years of the Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China, Chinese art was directly or indirectly influenced by the major social changes. There was a continuation of old traditions while new trends emerged. The growth of modern cities and the prosperity of commerce in the coastal regions contributed to the emergence of a new market for paintings. While traditional scholarofficials decreased, the civic class grew, and the relationship between supply and demand of painting and people’s aesthetic interests changed. As a result, literati painting got closer to folk art, and traditional Chinese painting turned to suit both aristocratic and popular tastes. The Shanghai school of painting was a case in point. Under the influence of the Shanghai school and the emerging fusion of Chinese and Western trends, a group of exploratory, bold, innovative artists emerged in Beijing, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and other places, who have made outstanding contributions to the modernization of Chinese traditional painting and the early modernization process of Chinese art. While China determined to learn from the West to realize modernization, new art schools were established using Western methods and models. The Qing government and the government of Republic of China both sent students abroad to study Western art, which promoted the introduction and popularity of Western art in China, and brought an impact on traditional Chinese art. Artists turned to study foreign culture and art, actively exploring changes in painting. The young artists who studied in Japan and France made various contributions to the advance of Chinese painting (Chinese traditional painting) and the modernization of Chinese arts, after they were influenced by various revolutionary literary and artistic thoughts.

© Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 T. Chen, Illustrated History of Chinese Art, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8_10

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Development in science and technology, especially the renewal of printing, the rise of journalism, and the formation of a new social class and modern urban lifestyles transformed traditional art and the way it was disseminated, expanding the popularity of art, and making news pictorials, illustrated cartoons, and commercial advertisements possible and gradually popular.

10.2 Paintings (Chinese Traditional Paintings1 ) 10.2.1 The Shanghai School After the opening of Shanghai as an international port, a new painting market quickly formed, attracting many painters from Jiangsu and Zhejiang and more importantly fueling the rise of the Shanghai school (海派). Painters of the Shanghai school were good at combining literati painting which integrates poetry and calligraphy with folk art, drawing inspirations from inscriptions on ancient bronzes and stone tablets, depicting objects popular with the people, and combining freehand ink painting with strong colors to form a new style that caters to both high-level and ordinary audiences. The Shanghai school has played an important role in the development of modern Chinese painting. The growth of Shanghai school can be divided into two periods: The first period started with the “Three Xiongs” (Zhang Xiong, Zhu Xiong, and Ren Xiong), and peaked with Ren Yi (Ren Bonian). Ren Xiong, Ren Xun, and Ren Yi were collectively known as the “Three Rens”. The second period was represented by the prominence of Wu Changshuo who has influenced numerous important modern Chinese painters. There were also Zhao Zhiqian and Monk Xugu who were regarded as painters of the Shanghai school.

10.2.1.1

“Three Rens” of the Shanghai school

Ren Xiong and Ren Xun Ren Xiong (1823−1857 AD), courtesy name Weichang, was also known by his literary name Xiangpu. Ren Xun (1835−1893 AD), courtesy names Fuchang and Shunju. They were natives of Xiaoshan, Zhejiang Province. Born to a poor farming family, Ren Xiong and Ren Xun, the two brothers, later moved to Suzhou and 1 The term “Chinese traditional painting”, also known as a proper noun “Chinese Painting”, appeared after Western paintings were mass introduced to China. It was used to specifically refer to ink paintings that use traditional Chinese painting techniques and materials and are based on traditional Chinese aesthetics to distinguish them from European paintings. The paintings introduced in this chapter refer specifically to this genre in order to be consistent with the previous chapters.

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Shanghai where they made a living by selling paintings. Ren Xiong was strongly influenced by Chen Hongshou, but had developed his own style. Ren Xun was influenced by Ren Xiong but showed slight individual differences. The two brothers focused on painting figures, but were also good at painting flowers, birds, and landscapes. Their paintings are elegant, simple, refined, and precise, with strong touches, vigorous strokes, and high decorative value. Strongly influenced by Chen Hongshou, Ren Xiong’s paintings are elegant and simple. He made great contributions to the development of woodblock prints in the Qing Dynasty. There are four series of prints of his passed down, which are “Liexian Jiu Pai” (drinking game cards with illustrations of Taoist immortals), “Yuyue Xianxian Zhuan” (portraits of ancient sages in the Yuyue area), “Jianxia Zhuan” (character illustrations of martial art heroes), and “Gaoshi Zhuan” (portraits of noble characters), all engraved by Cai Zhaochu. The album “Jianxia Zhuan” was painted by Ren Xiong, carved by Cai Zhaochu. It shows 35 swordsmen, immortals, and knights in history, with a total of 33 pictures, and this picture is “The Old Swordsman in Lanling”. The seven daggers in the painting were being tossed in the hands of the old swordsman, and the wide robe and large sleeves moved as the daggers flying around, which is very impressive. The character is self-possessed, showing his confidence with skills. Lines of the clothes are rounded and fluent with syncopated cadence in brush strokes (Fig. 10.1). This painting embodies the aesthetic characteristics of Chinese lady figure paintings: arched eyebrows, eyes slanting a bit upwardly, cherry mouth, oval face, an elegant posture, and a quiet atmosphere. The lady is holding a red-handled folding fan. The painter had gone very far into depicting the tree branches, parrots, and rockery in the fan as he had into painting the figure. The illusory scenery enhances the artistic feel of the painting. The character is painted in bright colors with strong strokes, making the painting highly decorative. His was influenced by Chen Hongshou but developed a distinctive style (Fig. 10.2). After learning from Chen Hongshou, Ren Xun gradually developed his own style. He often painted scenes with thin and hard wire-like lines and strong colors, making the pictures intense and decorative. The painting on the left shows a chicken standing on a rock with peonies next to it, while the painting on the right shows a pond with lotus flowers in full blossom and mandarin ducks playing in the water (Fig. 10.3). Ren Yi (1840−1895 AD), courtesy name Xiaolou but later changed to Bonian, was a native of Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province. Since his childhood, Ren Yi had learned from his father, and in his early youth, he studied painting with Ren Xun in Ningbo, and then followed him to move to Suzhou. Later, he went to Shanghai and settled there. Ren Yi was good at painting figures, flowers, birds, landscapes, and particularly portraits. Ren Yi was influenced by Chen Hongshou and by the Western style, too. He

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Fig. 10.1 “Jianxia Zhuan” (Character Illustrations of Martial Art Heroes) (Woodblock print. Each section 17.6 cm in height and 11.2 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Xiong)

had a strong ability of modeling and was thus able to surpass the past and contemporary painters. He often used freehand brushwork in flower and bird paintings, which gave pictures a lot of vitality. In his paintings, he always used expressive lines and bright colors in an innovative structure. As he turned to line-drawing with traditional ink and brush, his paintings suited both refined and ordinary tastes. When he painted for a living in Shanghai, he had gained a great reputation and was later considered one of the representatives of the Shanghai school. The style of Ren Yi at the end of the Qing Dynasty reflected the aesthetic demand of the civic class for paintings after dramatic changes in the Chinese society. In that

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Fig. 10.2 Lady with a Fan in the Yao Palace (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on silk. 85.2 cm in height and 33.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Xiong. Nanjing Museum)

transitional period, literati painting and folk art were combined to satisfy popular tastes. This portrait, painted in 1888, was one of the most wonderful portraits made by Ren Yi for painter Wu Changshuo. The very delicate depiction of the face shows the aloofness of the character, which is incongruous with his social status and clothing, and suggests the character’s shabbiness. In terms of technique, the painter blended freehand and meticulous brushwork. When depicting the official uniform, he used

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Fig. 10.3 Four Sheets of Flowers and Birds (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. Each section 140 cm in height and 37.5 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Xun. Guangzhou Art Museum)

washes of ink, ignoring the cumbersome details, forming a strong contrast with the technique for depicting the character’s face. This leads the viewer to focus more on the face while appreciating the shift of painting techniques (Fig. 10.4).

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Fig. 10.4 Portrait of a Shabby Official (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 164.2 cm in height and 77.6 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Yi. Zhejiang Provincial Museum)

This painting was made in the same year as the “Portrait of a Shabby Official”, a productive period in which Ren Yi’s painting skills matured. In this painting, Nvwa sits by a pile of boulders. Apart from the feminine beauty of her face and hair, the entire painting presents mainly two jagged and lofty rocks, but the outline of Nvwa’s

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Fig. 10.5 Nvwa2 Refining Rocks to Patch the Sky (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 118 cm in height and 66 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Yi. Xu Beihong Memorial Museum)

clothes is harder than the rocks. The patterns on the clothing are very distinctive among all that Ren Yi painted. Perhaps Ren Yi intended to equate Nvwa with the stones that she used to mend the sky. When she refines stones, she is sacrificing herself (Fig. 10.5). As the sun is going down from over the withered trees and birds are going back to their nest, a boy is driving his bull home. The back of the bull is strong and uplifted, 2

Nvwa (女娲), the goddess of creation in ancient Chinese mythology. Legend has it that Nvwa used loess to imitate herself and created human beings. There are also legends that a great disaster occurred in nature, and the sky collapsed. Nvwa refined five-color stones to repair the sky and level the earth again to save the world.

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like a mountain peak, and the boy looks up at the flock of birds and pondering. Ren Yi was good at painting figures in a wide range of settings. He was able to capture the key features of all objects, and use smooth and powerful lines without too much hesitation. His figure painting was the best of his time (Fig. 10.6). This picture depicts vegetables of winter such as cabbage, radish, and bamboo shoots. It is thought to be a sketch made by the painter to reflect the season. This is a work painted in the later years of Ren Yi, so the style is simple and light in color. The objects are organized casually. Although there are only a few brush strokes, the painting brings out the freshness of the fruits and vegetables, vividly showing the daily life and living conditions of ordinary people (Fig. 10.7).

10.2.1.2

Other painters of Shanghai school

Wu Changshuo (1844−1927 AD), original name Wu Junqing, courtesy name Changshuo, was a native of Anji Country, Zhejiang Province. Wu Changshuo grew up in a scholar family, so he was well educated since childhood. At the age of 29, he went to Hangzhou, Suzhou, and finally settled in Shanghai. At the age of 53, he served as magistrate of Andong County in Jiangsu Province, but resigned after only one month. Therefore, he called himself “One-month Magistrate of Andong”. He was also the first president of the Xiling Seal Art Society (a society of Hangzhou-based seal carving artists). Wu Changshuo was accomplished in all arts: poetry, calligraphy, painting, and seal-carving. He took a unique path of artistic creating: starting with carving seals, then going to the calligraphy and poetry, and finally achieving success in painting. He once said: “The best thing in my life is that I fuse calligraphy with painting.” His seal carving was magnificent and majestic, and at the same time meticulous and graceful. In learning calligraphy, Wu Changshuo began with the regular script and then focused on the official script, and after his middle age, he shifted to Shiguwen (inscriptions on drum-shaped stone blocks of the Warring States period). His brush strokes were powerful, free from the constraints of traditional calligraphy. In his paintings, boulders, inscriptions, seals, and flowers echo and enhance each other, making the picture organic and harmonious. His use of ink, both thick and light, dry and wet, is appropriate to show the temperament and vitality of the objects. His use of color is bold, and the strong and bright colors create strong contrast to make pictures more vivid and yet scholastic. He further developed the tradition of freehand painting based on the achievements of Xu Wei, the “Four Monks” and the “Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou” and formed a unique style of his own. Chinese painters have always loved to paint lotus. Some paid great attention to details, and some painted freehand lotus to express their emotions. This ink lotus by Wu Changshuo is of the latter kind. In this painting, Wu Changshuo drew the lotus leaves in splash ink. The ink was clear, bright, and varied in concentration.

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Fig. 10.6 Cattle Herding (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 133 cm in height and 63.2 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Yi. The Palace Museum)

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Fig. 10.7 Fruits and Vegetables (Round fan. Ink and color on silk. The Qing Dynasty. Ren Yi)

The lotus flowers were sketched with lines, which are not flirtatious or delicate. As the painter once said: “I would love to paint with calligraphic techniques, though it may seem a bit idiosyncratic”, and “I can paint the dim autumn by using ink only, so I would rather focus on the inner meaning than their outer forms.” Wu Changshuo was another representative of the Shanghai school after Ren Yi. He was a master of the literati art tradition combining poetry, calligraphy, painting, and seal engraving. He was good at painting with calligraphic techniques, which made his paintings more majestic and powerful. His freehand painting had a great influence on other modern Chinese painters (Fig. 10.8). Wu Changshuo used his calligraphic skills in his paintings, which therefore show a strong power. Such a power is not only expressed in the brushwork and lines, but also in the ink and colors. This painting was meant to celebrate a friend’s birthday with auspicious symbols. The color of fruits is bright and fused with ink, fully reflecting the sophisticated style of Wu Changshuo’s painting in his mature age (Fig. 10.9). In this painting, three ocher-yellow gourds are hiding among the ink leaves. The warm and cold colors indicate the differences between the ripe and unripe, and the intensity of ink distinguishes the stems and leaves. The vines intertwined, hanging down from the top, and the magenta pumpkins make the painting more vivid. Ink and

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Fig. 10.8 Ink Lotus (Hanging scroll. Ink on paper. 179 cm in height and 96.1 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wu Changshuo. Shanghai Museum)

color enhance each other, creating a melody of ups and downs in the painting. The inscription in the lower left corner reads “according to the real object”, which is part of a Chinese proverb “drawing a gourd according to the real object” (“依样 画葫”). The omission of “drawing a gourd” which is witty and shows the painter’s literati temperament (Fig. 10.10). Zhao Zhiqian (1829−1884 AD), courtesy name Yifu, was a native of Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province and was mainly active in Zhejiang and Jiangxi. Zhao Zhiqian was knowledgeable and talented in poetry, calligraphy, painting, and seal engraving, and able to integrate them all, which is a great contribution to the development of

10.2 Paintings (Chinese Traditional Paintings) Fig. 10.9 Peaches (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 139 cm in height and 33.9 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wu Changshuo. Shanghai Museum)

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474 Fig. 10.10 Gourds (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 120.5 cm in height and 44.7 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Wu Changshuo. Shanghai People’s Fine Arts Publishing House)

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Chinese painting. In his paintings and calligraphy works, viewers may detect clues of inscriptions on ancient bronzes and stone tablets. For seal carving, as he said, he was “using a chisel like a brush and treating a stone like the paper”. His innovative paintings had caused the shift from the delicate and soft style which had been popular for a long time to the upright and strong freehand style of flower painting in the late Qing Dynasty. He also absorbed merits of folk art in color, creating brightly colored paintings. He had enriched the characteristics of traditional Chinese painting through his unique creation. Later generations of the Shanghai school painters such as Ren Yi and Wu Changshuo were all influenced by Zhao Zhiqian, so he has been regarded by some as the founder of the Shanghai school. Brightly colored, this painting shows peonies in five colors: red, purple, yellow, white, and vermilion, ostentatiously showing the exceptional beauty of peonies. The painter’s brushwork was varied. His brushwork for depicting the branches is as strong as writing a seal script, but flowers and leaves are smooth and rounded. For the huge rocks, his use of ink is rich and variable, making the viewer feel the same vigor as those peonies, which benefits a lot from his calligraphic skills. His freestyle brushwork and bright colors had inspired Wu Changshuo and Qi Baishi (Fig. 10.11). This painting depicts a rocky cliff. The river below is swift and whirling, and a cluster of verdant pines grow on the cliff. There is a cave on the mountainside with horizontal and vertical stones in it. From a distance, the whole picture looks like a library stacked with books. Zhao Zhiqian used texturing strokes to depict the mountains and rocks, which is as sophisticated as Wang Meng and Shitao’s styles. Since the rocks in the painting are shaped like skeletons, his texturing technique was nicknamed “skeleton texture strokes”. In this painting, calligraphy and seal carving were successfully integrated to create a strong and vigorous style (Fig. 10.12). Monk Xugu (1824−1896 AD), original name Zhu Huairen, courtesy name Xugu, literary names Juanhe and Ziyang Shanmin, was a native of Xin’an County, Anhui Province. He once served as an official in the Qing government, and later became a monk. He once lived in Yangzhou, and moved to Shanghai where he made a living by painting. He was good at drawing animals, flowers, vegetables, and fruits, and was particularly famous for drawing goldfish and squirrels. Monk Xugu was one of the leading painters of the Shanghai school. He was influenced by earlier masters like Monk Hongren and Hua Yan, but developed his own style. He generally painted in simple ways, using strong and sharp strokes in short and straight lines to create a bleak and chilly atmosphere. He liked to paint by hollow strokes, as if done with a half-dry brush, and by light colors, showing his strong artistic character. His works were majestic but full of details, the images were rather exaggerated and full of vitality, so critics would say his paintings have “an inner beauty” The artist puts objects that symbolize longevity, such as pine, crane, and chrysanthemum in the same picture to celebrate his friend’s birthday. This kind of theme has helped make the Shanghai school popular. The artist drew the chrysanthemums

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Fig. 10.11 Five-colored Peonies (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 175.6 cm in height and 90.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Zhao Zhiqian. The Palace Museum)

with light ink but strong strokes, along with a few touches of yellow representing the vines. He used the “boneless dyeing” method and depicted the leaves by washes of ink and color. The pine branches were drawn in light ink with some breaks, and seemed coherent, while the pine needles were depicted in ink and the vermilion color, adding the mood of autumn. The crane with one foot stretching forward and the other standing straight shows extraordinary vigor. The vermilion crest, intensely black tail feathers, and the white back contrast strongly with the details painted in ink around the bird (Fig. 10.13).

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Fig. 10.12 The Jishu (积 书, stack of books) Cliff (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 69.5 cm in height and 39 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Zhao Zhiqian. Shanghai Museum)

Goldfish and squirrels were Monk Xugu’s favorite themes. Although he was a monk, his passion for life can still be felt in his paintings. His goldfish paintings are somewhat different from other painters’. The goldfish in this painting seem to be swimming towards the viewers, creating an impression as if they are literally watching fish by the pond. The shape of the goldfish is generally square, and the

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Fig. 10.13 The Pine and the Crane (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 184.5 cm in height and 98.3 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Xugu. Suzhou Museum)

subtly highlights in their eyes suggesting the fish and birds with white eyes in Zhu Da’s paintings (Fig. 10.14).

10.2.2 The Lingnan School During the late Qing Dynasty, the distinctive Lingnan school emerged in Guangdong. The Lingnan school developed on the basis of the “Two Jvs” in the late Qing Dynasty.

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Fig. 10.14 Goldfish (Album. Ink and color on paper. 34.7 cm in height and 40.6 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Xugu. Shanghai Museum)

They focused on sketching and color, and absorbed foreign painting styles and techniques from the Eastern (Japan) and the Western (Europe), to express the contemporary ideology, transcending traditional restrictions. The main painters include Gao Jianfu, Gao Qifeng, Chen Shuren (Two Gaos and One Chen). The “Two Gaos and One Chen” all studied Japanese painting in Japan, and participated in the 1911 Revolution. They were all members of the Tongmenghui (同盟 会, the United League of China) and advocated integrating Western and traditional Chinese elements in art. They also trained a great many students who inherited and carried forward the tradition of the Lingnan school engaging in the reformation of Chinese traditional painting.

10.2.2.1

Two Jvs (Jv Chao and Jv Lian)

Jv Chao and Jv Lian were cousins. Jv Chao (1811–1865 AD), courtesy name Meisheng, was also called Meichao, a literary pseudonym. Jv Lian (1828–1904 AD), courtesy name Shigang, pseudonym Guquan, was born in Geshan town of Panyu, Guangdong Province. They valued nature in their paintings, and attached importance to sketching from life. So, they planted flowers, designed bonsai, and raised birds,

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insects, and fish for the purpose of sketching. Their works are rich in colors, neat and orderly in brushstrokes, with a subtle life interest beyond the painting itself. This painting shows a cluster of peonies, red, yellow, pink, and purple, blooming among rocks. There is a pair of white-headed birds, and bees and butterflies dancing above them, in a joyful and festive atmosphere. This painting may be a gift for a wedding, expressing the painter’s good will. In terms of sketching, Jv Lian was influenced by Yun Nantian and noted for neat brushwork and beautiful colors. At the same time, he pioneered new techniques, the so-called “Zhuangshui” (撞水) and “Zhuangfen” (撞粉) techniques, adding powder or water when the color is not dry in painting “boneless” objects. It was a bit like Western watercolor painting, and known as a characteristic of his and his cousin’s paintings. Other artists of the Lingnan school, such as Gao Jianfu and Chen Shuren, followed Jv Lian in their early years (Fig. 10.15). Fig. 10.15 Peonies (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 132.6 cm in height and 75 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Jv Lian. The Palace Museum)

10.2 Paintings (Chinese Traditional Paintings)

10.2.2.2

481

The “Two Gaos” and “One Chen”

Gao Jianfu (1879–1951 AD) was a native of Yuangang town in Panyu, Guangdong Province. When he was a teenager, Gao Jianfu learned painting from Jv Lian. Later, Gao Jianfu met a French missionary and learned the western sketching method. Later, encouraged by his Japanese artist friend Yamamoto Baigai, Gao Jianfu went to study in Japan in the winter of 1906. In Japan, he learned Nihonga (“Japanese painting”), and tried to refer to the path of Japanese painting, to reform traditional Chinese painting by absorbing western painting techniques to enrich traditional Chinese painting. In Japan, he participated in the Tongmenghui, and chaired the League in Guangdong Province. After returning to China, he was active in the revolutionary movement in Guangdong, Hong Kong, and Macau. In the early years of the Republic of China, he founded the Aesthetic Bookstore in Shanghai and published a journal entitled Zhenxiang Pictorial 《 ( 真相画报》The True Record Pictorial). Later, he devoted himself to teaching art, cultivating the younger generations of the traditional Chinese paintings. It is late autumn and leaves are turning red. On the big tree trunk painted in light ink, there is an eagle peeping below painted with thick ink. The ferocious and sharp eyes, hard and powerful beak, and sharp claws of the eagle are concise and evocative; the feathers on the whole body are carefully depicted with varied brushwork and ink colors, making it look delicate and realistic. The sharp contrasts between thick and light ink and between color and ink make the picture vivid and awesome (Fig. 10.16). Gao Qifeng (1888−1933 AD), Gao Jianfu’s younger brother, also participated in artistic and revolutionary activities with Gao Jianfu. Chen Shuren (1884−1948 AD) studied traditional Chinese painting under Jv Lian since the age of 17. He went abroad to study in Japan in 1906 and graduated from the Painting Department of Kyoto Art School and the Literature Department of Rikkyo University with a Bachelor’s degree. At the age of 19, he met Sun Yat-sen, joined the Tongmenghui, and later engaged in the revolutionary movement. Most of his paintings were based on the sketches of real objects, which were fresh and poetic.

10.2.3 Painters in Other Regions Painters who went to Beijing after the 1911 Revolution brought with them the style and techniques of the Shanghai school, especially the style of Wu Changshuo. The most outstanding characters were Chen Shizeng and Qi Baishi. The painters in

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Fig. 10.16 Autumn Leaves and an Eagle (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 168 cm in height and 78 cm in width. Republic of China. Gao Jianfu. Guangdong Museum)

Zhejiang and other regions in early 20th century also had varying degrees of relationship with the Shanghai school of painting, there were Huang Binhong, Pan Tianshou, Zhang Daqian, etc. Chen Shizeng (1876−1923 AD), original name Chen Hengke, literary name Huaitang, was a native of Yining, Jiangxi Province. Chen Shizeng was from a scholar

10.2 Paintings (Chinese Traditional Paintings)

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family and got early education at home. Later, he went to study and graduated from the Mining School of Jiangnan Army Academy. In 1902, he went to Japan and was successively educated at the Hongwen Academy and the Nature History Department of Tokyo Advanced Normal College. During those times, he developed a close relationship with Lu Xun and Li Shutong. In 1910, he returned to China and lived in Shanghai, where he was acquainted with Wu Changshuo and learned from him, thus developing a strong interest in painting. In 1915, he served as a teacher of traditional Chinese painting at the National Higher Normal School in Beijing. In 1917, he met Qi Baishi in Beijing, and the two became sworn friends. He was also one of the founders of the Chinese Painting Research Association, an organization with the purpose of “studying ancient methods and gaining new knowledge”. As a theorist, he also wrote several monographs on traditional painting, including The Value of Literati Painting which was the most influential, which expounded his point of view that: There is no question of who is superior or inferior in Chinese or Western painting. The Chinese painting should consolidate its own roots and integrate the Western elements to develop the traditional ones, building on the past and opening up the future. He proposed that moral quality, scholarship, literary talent, and emotion were the four essential factors behind the greatness of literati painting. In 1917, there was a flood in the region around Beijing, and a group of artists held an exhibition at the Central Park to raise funds for disaster relief. Chen Shizeng faithfully recorded the scene he saw at the exhibition: people from all walks of life gathered in a warm atmosphere, with the crowd well-arranged. The painter omitted lines but used large patches of ink to shape the figures. Only some short and thin lines were used for facial expressions and other details. He also used the calligraphic technique of “Feibai” to show the bright parts of the surface of objects. The omission of lines and the showing of light are very different from traditional Chinese painting, which reveals Chen Shizeng’s mastery of Western painting skills and reflects his creative efforts to combine Chinese and Western painting methods (Fig. 10.17). Qi Baishi (1864−1957 AD), original name Qi Chunzhi or Qi Huang, was a native of Xiangtan County, Hunan Province. He was a woodcarver in his early youth, so he was called “Woodcarver Zhi (from Chunzhi)” by his neighbors. Due to the turbulent warring situation, Qi Baishi took refuge in Beijing in 1917 and was supported by Chen Shizeng. In painting, since he was once a woodcarver, he used many carving techniques, and because he mainly reproduced natural scenes such as mountains and rivers in his early years as a painter, his works were very different from the traditional paintings. He integrated the styles of Xu Wei, Zhu Da, and Shitao, absorbed strengths from Zhao Zhiqian, Wu Changshuo, and Chen Shizeng, and finally developed his own style. With the help from Chen Shizeng in Beijing, he achieved a leap forward in art in his later years. Qi Baishi always painted objects that he had seen with his eyes, showed his true feelings, and incorporated poetry into painting. His works were wonderful because he maintained similarities and differences between his paintings

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Fig. 10.17 Viewing Paintings at an Exhibition (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 87.7 cm in height and 46.6 cm in width. Republic of China. Chen Shizeng. The Palace Museum)

and real objects, and his paintings are full of energy and emotion, unlike traditional literati paintings. Qi Baishi’s paintings cover a wide range of subjects. Among animal paintings, shrimps and crabs are the most popular. There are few paintings with rabbits as the theme. This painting is divided into two parts. The upper part depicts a branch of a peach tree with three plump peaches hanging on it, which look juicy and vibrant. There are one black and one white rabbit eating grass under the peach branch. The rabbits’ eyes are depicted in a simple and vivid expressive way, reflecting the artist’s in-depth observation of life. In traditional Chinese culture, peaches have the meaning of longevity, and the legendary Jade Rabbit in the moon palace is dedicated to pounding longevity medicine, so this painting has the auspicious meaning of longevity (Fig. 10.18).

10.2 Paintings (Chinese Traditional Paintings)

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Fig. 10.18 Peach and Rabbit (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 103.8 cm in height and 34.7 cm in width. Qi Baishi. The Palace Museum)

In 1951, the famous writer Lao She chose the poem “The Chorus of Frogs Comes from the Mountain Spring Ten Miles Away” written by Zha Chubai, a scholar during the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty, and asked Qi Baishi to paint with the artistic conception of this poem. He also proactively provided the concept of the painting, and Qi Baishi then fulfilled the art composition, successfully transforming poetry and sound feelings into interesting and energetic visual picture, completing this wonderfully conceived masterpiece, and the painter was already 87 years old at the time.

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The artist used thick ink to paint the mountains on both sides of the picture. A rapid mountain spring flows in the mountain stream, and six small tadpoles are swimming in the water. Two distant mountain tops are dotted with green. The mother frog does not appear on the picture, while her voice spread ten miles away to this side of the mountain stream. This is the ingenious conception of this painting, which is full of literary interest and poetic artistic conception, and fully embodies the characteristics of Chinese literati paintings that integrate poetry and painting (Fig. 10.19). Huang Binhong (1865–1955 AD), original name Huang Zhi, courtesy name Pucun, was a native of She County, Anhui Province, but was born in Jinhua, Zhejiang Province. After he was listed as “wanted” for organizing an association against the Qing government, he fled to Shanghai. He lived in Shanghai for 30 years, where he worked as a newspaper editor and an art teacher. In 1937, he moved to Beijing and taught at the Beiping Art School. In 1948, he went back south to settle in Hangzhou and taught at the Hangzhou National Academy of Arts. Huang Binhong was very knowledgeable and took a unique analytical approach to classical Chinese painting theories. He proposed that “after reading ten thousand volumes of books, people must travel ten thousand miles to experience the nature and expand his horizon.” His achievements were recognized in landscape painting. He traveled all over the country and recorded marvels along the way, so that his creations were based on his own sketches and personal feelings, far beyond the mere imitation of his predecessors. After the age of 80, his brushwork reached perfection. The ink color became “dark, dense, thick and heavy”, with a brightness in black, creating a unique style of landscape painting. As a native Anhui painter, he revived Anhui school landscape painting and pushed it to a new peak. This is one of Huang Binhong’s many ink landscapes, reflecting the artist’s tireless exploration of form within a single theme. Huang Binhong’s endeavor in landscape painting has further developed the tradition of literati painting and his works have shown breakthroughs in the pursuit of form in Chinese painting. In his painting, the objective things and traditional brush and ink elements have transformed into a language of formal exploration and rhythm creation. In the shifting structural layout and rich brushstroke and ink changes, an impressionism-like Chinese ink landscape painting has been created. His vibrant ink dot brush methods and dark-thick images have shaped a unique picture (Fig. 10.20). Zhang Daqian (1899−1983 AD), original name Zhang Zhengquan, courtesy name Daqian, was a native of Neijiang County, Sichuan Province. In 1917, he went to Japan to study dyeing and weaving in Kyoto. After returning to Shanghai in 1919, he studied literature under Zeng Xi and learned calligraphy from Li Ruiqing. In 1932, his family settled in Suzhou. He returned to Sichuan after the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression broke out. In 1940, he went to Dunhuang, Gansu Province, to study and imitate the murals for two years, and later he held several art exhibitions with his copied works in various places, and achieved great success. After World War II, he held art exhibitions around the world and gained international fame. Zhang

10.2 Paintings (Chinese Traditional Paintings) Fig. 10.19 The Chorus of Frogs Comes from the Mountain Spring Ten Miles Away (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 127.5 cm in height and 33 cm in width. 1951. Qi Baishi. National Museum of Modern Chinese Literature)

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Fig. 10.20 Ink Landscape (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 76.2 cm in height and 40 cm in width. Republic of China. Huang Binhong. Zhejiang Provincial Museum)

Daqian traveled around the world after leaving mainland China in 1949, and finally settled in Taipei after 1976. Zhang Daqian had exceptional attainments in painting, and was a rare generalist in modern Chinese painting. Because he was as famous as Qi Baishi in poetry, calligraphy and painting, he and Qi Baishi were called “Southern

10.2 Paintings (Chinese Traditional Paintings)

489

Zhang and Northern Qi”. In his later years, he applied the technique of splashing ink and color in his paintings, creating a unique style of his own. Zhang Daqian has outstanding painting ability and is good at learning. He also had the courage to break through and try new things, thus constantly trying to change his style, forming different painting peaks in different periods. The rich and gorgeous colors in the Dunhuang grottoes murals of the Tang Dynasty had a huge impact on Zhang Daqian’s painting creation. During the two years of copying Dunhuang murals, he deeply studied the rich shapes and bold colors of the Tang Dynasty murals, paying tribute to the tradition and ancients in an alternative way, and incorporate them into his future painting creations. This work is one of them. The Red Whisk Girl was created in 1944 after returning from Dunhuang. It depicted the famous heroine of the Sui and Tang Dynasties in Chinese legends. The painting is vibrant and the color is strong and bold, it changed the slender and frail style that had been popular in paintings of beautiful ladies since the Ming and Qing Dynasties (Fig. 10.21). In the painting, Concubine Yang wearing a huge phoenix ornament on her head and walked slowly, suddenly a flying white parrot flapping the wings and landed on her shoulder. She turned her head to look back and shrugged her shoulders in surprise. The beautiful lady is accurately shaped, graceful and dignified, standing sideways with slender willow eyes, looking at each other with the parrot on the shoulder. The picture shows a dynamic expression that is rare in Chinese figure paintings. The delicate fine brushwork depicts a lifelike parrot with feathers clearly visible and dynamic movement. The character’s charming face, luxurious clothing, and the pure white parrot on the shoulder form a harmonious echo. The use of lines, shapes and colors in the entire painting are rich, plump and strong like Dunhuang murals, emphasizing the realistic modeling ability of lines, which is deeply inspired by the Tang Dynasty paintings and full of artistic appeal (Fig. 10.22). Pan Tianshou (1897−1971 AD), courtesy name Dayi, literary name Shouzhe, was a native of Ninghai County, Zhejiang Province. At the age of 19, Pan Tianshou was admitted to the First Normal School of Zhejiang and studied under Jing Hengyi, Li Shutong, and Xia Mianzun. After 1923, he taught traditional Chinese painting and the history of Chinese painting in the Chinese Painting Department of Shanghai Fine Arts School. In 1928, he became chief professor of Chinese painting at the Hangzhou National Academy of Arts. In 1944, he became president of the academy. Later, he served as deputy dean of the East China Branch of the Central Academy of Fine Arts and dean of Zhejiang Academy of Fine Arts. Pan Tianshou had outstanding traditional painting skills. He was a master in the use of brush and ink, noted for using strong and controlled brushwork, as well as dry and thick ink. In painting, he paid special attention to the layout and organization which is rigorous and surprisingly successful. In addition to artistic creation, Pan Tianshou was also an outstanding art educator. He had been engaged in art education for a long time and had made

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Fig. 10.21 Red Whisk Girl (Hanging scroll. Color on paper. 125 cm in height and 75 cm in width. Republic of China. Zhang Daqian. Private collection)

great contributions to the development of modern Chinese painting and calligraphy education. This is one of many “Zhimo” (指墨, literally “finger-ink painting”, painted with fingers instead of brushes) paintings created by Pan Tianshou. The composition is

10.2 Paintings (Chinese Traditional Paintings)

491

Fig. 10.22 Playing with Parrot (Hanging scroll. Color on paper, 134.5 cm in height and 65 cm in width. Republic of China. Private collection)

typical. The rock, chicken, grass, thin bamboos, and the inscriptions are all rigorously and clearly arranged. The square rock is rough and vivid, and elements such as chicken, grass, and inscriptions in the picture echo the rock, giving the picture a static balance. The lines are sluggish with blocks of ink, which reinforces the contrast in space (Fig. 10.23). Fu Baoshi (1904−1965 AD), original given name Changsheng or Ruilin, was a native of Xinyu County, but was born in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. He learned seal carving, calligraphy, and painting by himself in his early time, and was inspired by the painting and theory of Shitao, hence he changed his name as Baoshi (literal meaning: hold the stone). In 1933, he went abroad to study in Japan, entering the Tokyo Imperial School of Fine Arts (today’s Musashino Art University) to study

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Fig. 10.23 A Rock and a Chicken (Scroll. Ink and color on paper. 68 cm in height and 136.5 cm in length. Republic of China. Pan Tianshou. Pan Tianshou Memorial Museum)

oriental art history, craft and painting. In 1935, he returned to China to teach in the art department of the National Central University. His paintings feature skillful use of dots and inking methods, creating a new technique encompassing many elements of traditional methods, like water, ink, and color. He was able to create an old, elegant style through his integration of poetic atmosphere and painting techniques. At the same time, Fu Baoshi had also made important contributions to the study of art history and art education, his important works on painting theory include Chinese Art Chronology, Research on the History of Ancient Chinese Landscape Painting, etc. The Mountain Spirit, an ode from the shamanistic Nine Songs 《 ( 九歌》) of Chuci 《 ( 楚辞》), attributed to Qu Yuan (343−278 BC), was a major source of inspiration for Fu Baoshi’s figure paintings. This one was painted in 1946 and collected in Nanjing Museum. The painting was based on a sad and beautiful tale. A beautiful and affectionate mountain spirit waited eagerly for her beloved after a previous rendezvous in the deep mountains, but he never showed up again, so she was despondent and puzzled. Using the mountain spirit’s inner monologue, Qu Yuan intertwined fantasy with reality, and created a misty and romantic atmosphere, as well as a beautiful, honest, and love-sick goddess. Fu Baoshi transformed poetry and other genres of literature into paintings based on his mastery of overall literary works and narrative details. Fu Baoshi poetically depicted the goddess in a white flowing robe with long fluttering sashes in the style of master painter Gu Kaizhi, and tapped the potentials of ink and wash, using the calligraphic method of “Feibai” to create a scene of misty rain, with intertwined light and shadow, and using ink dot and dyeing techniques to create dark clouds tumbling and chaos like a surge of vitality (Fig. 10.24).

10.3 Art Publications

493

Fig. 10.24 Mountain Spirit (Hanging scroll. Ink and color on paper. 163.6 cm in height and 82.8 cm in width. Republic of China. Fu Baoshi. Nanjing Museum)

10.3 Art Publications In the late 19th century, the import of lithography from Europe fueled the development of China’s modern printing industry. As the traditional woodblock printing industry based on handicraft workshops was replaced by the emerging printing industry, the image form, communication mode and cultural function of printing art had also undergone qualitative changes. Art publications began to appear in different forms in the fields of journalism and business, and became popular for the public. This process initially started in Shanghai. China’s first pictorial Yinghuan Pictorial 《 ( 瀛 寰画报》) was published in 1877 in Shanghai. Later in 1884, Dianshizhai Pictorial 《 ( 点石斋画报》) was founded in Shanghai, which was the product of a combination of pictorial painting and news report. At this time, “Manhua” (漫画cartoons) gradually developed with satire, humor, farce, and other elements added into news events. “Manhuas” were then printed on newspapers and circulated to the general

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audience. With the development of commerce, the combination of advertisements and drawings grew into a special art form called “calendar paintings”. It became a very popular commercial advertising painting, loved by ordinary citizens, and had become a popular folk painting replacing New Year paintings in the city.

10.3.1 Lithographed Pictorials The most famous lithograph pictorial is the Dianshizhai Pictorial, which was founded in 1884. The chief painter Wu Youru (ca. 1850−1910 AD), original given name Jiayou, was a native of Wu County, Jiangsu Province. In his early years, he painted Lunar New Year pictures in Taohuawu of Suzhou, and later settled in Shanghai. Later, Wu Youru Art Studio was established, and its members were all active painters in the pictorial printing industry. The drawings published on pictorials were mostly direct representations of social life, with the most pages dedicated to political and social events. This direct link of art with social life and representation of current facts is a brand-new phenomenon in the history of Chinese painting. In addition to the Dianshizhai Pictorial, Wu Youru was also an active contributor to other famous pictorials including the Feiyingge Pictorial 《 ( 飞影阁画报》). The import of lithography from Europe in the late 19th century led to the birth of pictorial newspapers. The Dianshizhai Pictorial was the most famous lithographic pictorial newspaper in China at the time. It was founded in the 10th year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty (1884). The pictorial was published 3 times a month and lasted for more than 10 years, until the Sino-Japanese War in 1894. Its contents were mostly illustrations of current news and social activities, exposing the corruption of the Qing government and the aggressive acts of imperialists. The pictorial played a role in enlightening the people, but also involved superstitions. Drawings published in this pictorial adopted Western perspective, with compact composition and smooth and simple lines, which had exerted impacts on New Year pictures, cartoons, and illustrations. The main painter of the Dianshizhai Pictorial was Wu Youru who later set up an art studio with more than a dozen members. This picture shows how imported machines were used to build roads in the Shanghai foreign settlement (Fig. 10.25).

10.3.2 Caricatures and Cartoons The import of lithography and the publication of newspapers had helped spread caricatures and cartoons. Especially during the surging revolutionary movements, newspapers and magazines run by the revolutionary activists, such as the Tong( menghui’s The Minbao Magazine 《 ( 明报》), the Guangfuhui’s Subao Magazine 《 ( 民呼》) and Minyu Magazine 《 ( 民 苏报》), and Yu Youren’s Minhu Magazine 《

10.3 Art Publications

495

吁》), contained satirical paintings to criticize official corruption and social ills. In 1925, when Feng Zikai published his drawings in the Literary Weekly 《 ( 文学周报 》), he used the name “Manhua” (漫画cartoons), after which paintings with satire and humor were called “Manhua”. Famous cartoonists included Zhang Yuguang, He Jianshi, Qian Binghe, and Ma Xingchi. They drew outlines with brush and used single-line modeling, which was convenient for print making and printing at that time. Later, Shen Bochen, Huang Wennong, Feng Zikai, Zhang Guangyu, Ding Qi and other masters joined them, making more innovative and diverse creations.

10.3.3 Calendar Paintings With the rapid development of the commodity economy, the demand for commercial advertising was increasing. Calendar paintings were commercial paintings produced in Shanghai from the late 19th century to the early 20th century. It was a combination of brush rub and watercolor painting, and with the help of lithography technology, it could be mass produced and widely disseminated. Lithography and improved

Fig. 10.25 Machines Building the Road (From Wu Youru Painting Collection 《 [ 吴友如画宝》, Wu Youru Hua Bao]: Collection from Dianshizhai Pictorial, etc.) (Lithograph. 20 cm in height and 25.8 cm in width. The Qing Dynasty. Painted by Wu Youru. Shanghai Museum)

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printing techniques brought a shock to traditional woodblock New Year pictures which were then replaced by calendar paintings. Calendar paintings that replaced New Year prints were also known as New Year calendar pictures. Famous calendar painters were: Zhou Muqiao, Zheng Mantuo, and Hang Zhiying. Calendar Painting was a unique commercial art in China. It was a wonderful combination of New Year pictures, wall calendars and advertisements. They attracted consumers with exquisite pictures, practical Luner-western calendars and free gift strategies, and then promoted the product information attached to the pictures. It had achieved the purpose of commercial advertising. Later, calendars no longer appeared on the picture, but the name of “Calendar Painting” remained. Calendar paintings basically adopted the model of “beauty pictures” plus product advertisements. The main pictures were of all kinds of beauties from ancient and modern times, especially the modern girls and movie stars who represented fashion and trends by urban culture at that time. The techniques of brush rub and watercolor and lithography print helped to achieve realistic effects. Surrounding the “beauty” was the name of the Fig. 10.26 Cigarette Advertising Calendar Painting (Calendar painting. Lithograph. Republic of China. Painted by Hang Zhiying)

10.4 New Thoughts and Modern Art Education

497

company or product promoted in the advertisement, as well as calendar and product images and logos. Sometimes the product icons are continuously “woven” into an “outer frame” around the “beauty”. This picture shows the advertising calendar of cigarettes painted by Hang Zhiying (Fig. 10.26).

10.4 New Thoughts and Modern Art Education During the late Qing Dynasty, the Chinese society underwent great changes, and innovation was pursued in various fields. In the field of fine art, thinkers, politicians, artists, and educators proposed plans to “improve” Chinese painting, and explored the path towards modernizing Chinese art and education in both theory and practice. The modernization of Chinese painting proceeded in two ways: 1. learning from Western painting and gaining new understandings; and 2. understanding social needs and developing realistic creative methods accordingly. About art innovation, reformists such as Kang Youwei insisted on studying Western painting and then integrating Chinese and Western painting to form a new style. In other words, he proposed to improve traditional Chinese painting by borrowing external skills. Cai Yuanpei, on the other hand, emphasized the social aspect of art and artists, insisting on the role of artistic activities in education and national development. He proposed to “replace religion with aesthetic education.” The “May Fourth Movement” centered on aesthetic education, and a “New Art Movement” emerged that renewed the understanding of art and artists in many important aspects such as the social function of art, the personality of artists, and realism in art creation. In terms of art education, schools that emerged in the late Qing Dynasty included art education as a subject or even a discipline, and the teaching of Chinese painting shifted from “master-student system” to the modern “school-based education system”. Later, owing to Cai Yuanpei’s insistence on inclusion and more broadly the “New Art Movement”, Chinese and Western arts were taught side by side in schools, and the conflict between Chinese and Western arts in school education was basically resolved. During this period, new art schools sprung up in various places in the country: in 1906, Liangjiang Normal School and Beiyang Normal School opened painting and crafts courses based on Western models; in 1911, Zhou Xiang founded China’s first private art school—China-western Art School (later renamed as China Art School) in Shanghai; in 1912, Shanghai Academy of Drawing and Painting (the predecessor of Shanghai Fine Arts School) was founded by Wu Shiguang, Liu Haisu and others; in 1918, the National Beijing School of Fine Arts was established; in 1928, Hangzhou National Academy of Arts was founded. In order to learn more from the West, in addition to promoting new art education locally, both the late Qing government and the government of the Republic of China sent many students to study abroad. Among them, art students mostly went to Japan and France. After returning to China, these students played a main role in teaching art and in advancing the “New Art Movement”, and even in the development of modern

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Chinese art. They help build a bridge for art exchanges between the East and the West. These locally trained artists and overseas students became the most outstanding generation of eclectic and innovative modern artists at the beginning of the 20th century of China. Through their own practice and teaching activities, they have promoted the modernization of Chinese art, and made China an active member of the global art movement of early 20th century. Modern art has thus played an important part in China’s social and cultural modernization. (The Chinese art modernization movement in the first half of the 20th century will not be discussed in more detail in this book).

Tables

Overview of the Development of Chinese Painting (Main authors and works) Era/category Mural Tomb mural and unearthed works (including: silk painting, portrait stone, portrait brick, lacquer ware decoration, etc.)

Scroll Temple Mural, Grotto Mural

Figure painting

Landscape painting

Flower-and-bird painting

Prehistorical Painted pottery period Pre-Qin period

Silk painting: Silk Painting with a Female Figure, Dragon, and Phoenix Patterns; Silk Painting with a Figure Driving a Dragon

The Qin, Han dynasties

Silk painting: T-shape Painting on Silk from Han Dynasty Tomb No.1 at Mawangdui Tomb mural; Portrait stone: Portrait Stone of the Wu Liang Shrine; Portrait brick: Hunting and Harvesting (continued)

© Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 2024 T. Chen, Illustrated History of Chinese Art, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5292-8

499

500

Tables

(continued) Era/category Mural

Scroll

Tomb mural and unearthed works (including: silk painting, portrait stone, portrait brick, lacquer ware decoration, etc.)

Temple Mural, Grotto Mural

Figure painting

The six dynasties period

Unearthed works: Brick Painting in Brick Chamber Tombs of the Wei and Jin Dynasties; Murals of Lou Rui’s Tomb; Seven Sages in the Bamboo Grove and Rong Qiqi Brick Relief; Legend of Women and Ancient Sages Screen Painting from Sima Jinlong Tomb

Mogao grottoes mural: The Deer King Jataka Tale; The Prince of Sarina Jataka Tale

Gu Kaizhi: Admonitions Scroll; Legend of the Women, the Picture of Benevolence and Wisdom; Rhapsody on the Goddess of Luo River

The Sui, Tang Dynasties

Mural in the tombs of Princess Yongtai, Prince Zhanghuai: Ladies; Going Hunting; Meeting Guests; Screen paintings from Astana-karakhoja ancient tombs: Picture of Music and Dance; Two Court Ladies; Horse Herding; Screen paintings from Shosoin: Standing Woman with a Feather Headdress

Mogao grottoes mural: Illustrations to the West Paradise; Raudraksa’s Battle with Sariputra; Vimalakirti

Yan Liben: Emperor Taizong Receiving the Tibetan Envoy; The Thirteen Emperors; Wu Daozi: Born of Gautama Buddha; Zhang Xuan: Lady Guoguo’s Spring Excursion; Court Ladies Preparing Newly-Woven Silk; Zhou Fang: Ladies Swinging Fans; Palace Ladies Tuning the Lute

Landscape painting

Flower-and-bird painting

Zhan Ziqian: Spring Excursion; Li Sixun: Sailing Boats and Pavilions; Li Zhaodao: Emperor Xuanzong’s Journey to Sichuan

Han Gan: Night-Shining White: A Royal Horse; Horse Herding; Han Huang: Five Oxen

(continued)

Tables

501

(continued) Era/category Mural Tomb mural and unearthed works (including: silk painting, portrait stone, portrait brick, lacquer ware decoration, etc.) The five dynasties, Song dynasty

Scroll Temple Mural, Grotto Mural

Figure painting

Landscape painting

Flower-and-bird painting

(The five dynasties) Zhou Wenju: Playing Chess Before a Double Screen; A Literary Gathering; Gu Hongzhong: The Night Revels of Han Xizai; Guan Xiu: Portrait of Arhat (The Song Dynasty) Wu Zongyuan: Procession of Immortals Paying Homage to the Primordial; Li Gonglin: Five Horses; Zhang Zeduan: Life along the Bian River at the Qingming Festival; Wang Juzheng: Spinning; Su Hancheng: Children at Play in an Autumn Garden; Li Tang: Gathering Wild Herbs; Li Song: An Itinerant Peddler; A Skeleton Puppet Play; Shi Ke: The Second Zen Patriarch in Contemplation; Liang Kai: The Sixth Patriarch Cutting the Bamboo; Picture of a Fairy with Splashed Ink

(The five dynasties) Jin Hao: Scroll of Mount Lu; Guan Tong: Travelers in the Mountains; Dong Yuan: The Rivers Xiao and Xiang; Summer Mountains; Ju Ran: Pines in the Soughing Valley (The song dynasty) Li Cheng: Wintry Forest; Reading the Memorial Stele; Fan Kuan: Travelers among Mountains and Streams; Wintry Trees after Snow; Guo Xi: Early Spring; Mi Youren: Spectacular Views of the Rivers Xiao and Xiang; Wang Ximeng: Thousand Miles of Mountains and Rivers; Li Tang: Wind in Pines among a Myriad Valleys; Liu Songnian: Four-Scenes Landscape–Winter Scene; Ma Yuan: Singing and Dancing in the Field; Xia Gui: Twelve Views of landscape

(The five dynasties) Huang Quan: Birds, Insects and Turtles; Xu Xi: Snowy Bamboos (The song dynasty) Huang Jucai: Blue Magpie and Thorny Shrubs; Cui Bai: Magpies and a Hare; Zhao Ji: Auspicious Cranes; Birds on the Willow; Lin Chun: Birds Come when Fruits Are Ripe; Wen Tong: Bamboo in Monochrome Ink; Zhao Mengjian: Three Friends in Cold Winter; Su Shi: Dead Tree and Strange Rock; Mi Fu: Coral Brush Holder; Fachang: Pine and Crested Bird; Six Persimmons

(continued)

502

Tables

(continued) Era/category Mural Tomb mural and unearthed works (including: silk painting, portrait stone, portrait brick, lacquer ware decoration, etc.) The Yuan dynasty

The Ming dynasty

Scroll Temple Mural, Grotto Mural

Figure painting

Murals in the Wang Yi: The Yongle Palace: Portrait of Yang Chaoyuan Zhuxi Mural; Mogao grottoes mural: The Thousand-armed and Thousand-eyed Avalokiteśvara

Tang Yin: Lady with Fan in the Autumn Breeze; Court Ladies in the Shu Palace; Chen Hongshou: Drinking in the Garden; Water Margin Illustrations; Woodblock Illustrations of Romance of the West Chamber; Cui Zizhong: Hidden in the Clouds; Zeng Jing: Portrait of Wang Shimin

Landscape painting

Flower-and-bird painting

Qian Xuan: Dwelling in the Floating Jade Mountains; Dwelling in the Mountains; Zhao Mengfu: Autumn Colors on the Que and Hua Mountains; Huang Gongwang: Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains; Wu Zhen: Fisherman; Ni Zan: Six Gentlemen; Wang Meng: Forest Chamber Grotto at Chu-ch’u; Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains

Qian Xuan: Eight Flowers; Zhao Mengfu: Elegant Rocks and Sparse Trees

Dai Jin: Verdant Mountains in the Spring; Wu Wei: Pleasure of Fishing; Shen Zhou: Lofty Mount Lu; Wen Zhengming: The Zhenshang Studio; Tang Yin: Rosy Setting Sun and Lone Mallard; Qiu Ying: Fairyland of Peach Blossoms; Dong Qichang: Eight Scenes of Autumn; Zhou Jin Hall

Lin Liang: Water Birds; Chen Chun: Okra and Rocks; Xu Wei: Grape in Ink

(continued)

Tables

503

(continued) Era/category Mural Tomb mural and unearthed works (including: silk painting, portrait stone, portrait brick, lacquer ware decoration, etc.)

Scroll Temple Mural, Grotto Mural

Figure painting

Landscape painting

Flower-and-bird painting

The Qing dynasty

Jiao Bingzhen: Ladies; Jin Nong: Self-portrait; Huang Shen: Zhong Kui; Gai Qi: Dream of the Red Chamber; Fei Danxu: Lady with a Fan in Autumn Breeze

Wang Shimin: Landscapes after Song and Yuan Masters; Wang Jian: Landscapes after Song and Yuan Masters; Wang Yuanqi: Streams and Forests in the Mountains; Wang Hui: Landscape after Ju Ran; Wu Li: Spring Lake; Shitao: Mountain Waterfalls; Searching for Extraordinary Peeks; Kuncan: Green and Soaring Mountains; Hongren: Pine and Rock on Mt Huangshan; Gong Xian: Endless Stream and Terraced Mountains

Yun Ge: Lotus; Zhu Da: Lotus and Ducks; Peacocks; Leng Mei: Two Rabbits under a Phoenix Tree; Giuseppe Castiglione (Lang Shining): Imperial Bound; Zheng Xie: Orchids and Stones; Li Fangying: Pine in Wind; Wang Shishen: Plum Blossoms; Hua Yan: Birds and Flowers

Late 19th to early 20th century

Ren Xiong: Character Illustrations of Martial Art Heroes; Lady with a Fan in the Yao Palace; Ren Yi: Portrait of a Shabby Official; Chen Shizeng: Viewing Paintings at an Exhibition; Zhang Daqian: Red Whisk Girl; Fu Baoshi: Mountain Spirit

Huang Binhong: Ink Landscape

Wu Changshuo: Ink lotus; Zhao Zhiqian: Five-colored Peonies; The Jishu Cliff; Xugu: Goldfish; Ju Lian: Peonies; Gao Jianfu: Autumn Leaves and an Eagle; Qi Baishi: Peach and Rabbit; Pan Tianshou: A Rock and a Chicken

504

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Overview of the Development of Ancient Chinese Ceramics Era

Overview

Neolithic period

Pottery was invented and widely used, represented by painted pottery and black pottery.

The Shang, Zhou dynasties

Primitive porcelain appeared.

The Han dynasty

Primitive porcelain had evolved into the real porcelain in the Eastern Han dynasty.

The six dynasties

Celadon has developed greatly and matured.

The Sui, Pottery: Tri-colored glazed pottery has unique characteristics. Tang, Five Porcelain: Celadon was represented by Yue kiln in the south; White porcelain was dynasties represented by Xing kiln in the north; Changsha kiln is characterized by underglaze color. The Song dynasty

A peak in the history of ceramics in China. Five major kilns: The Ding kiln, the Ru kiln, the Imperial kiln, the Jun kiln, and the Ge kiln. Famous folk kilns: The Yaozhou kiln, the Cizhou kiln, the Jingdezhen kiln, the Jian kiln, the Jizhou kiln.

The Yuan dynasty

Jingdezhen became the center of ceramic production. Blue-and-white porcelain and underglaze red porcelain were popular. Blue-and-white porcelain began to be exported overseas in large quantities.

The Ming, In the Ming dynasty, Jingdezhen set up the imperial porcelain factory; in the Qing Qing Dynasty, Jingdezhen continued to innovate on the basis of tradition and produced dynasties famous products, becoming a famous “porcelain capital”. The main achievements of ceramic craft in the Ming dynasty were Blue and White porcelain and “Wu Cai” wares. The porcelain production in the Qing dynasty reached its peak during the reigns of Emperor Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong. Famous types included “Gu Cai”, “Fen Cai”, and enamel coloring. Colored glazes were also very advanced and diverse.

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