Ifrasonic waves and its effects. Monograph 9786012478853

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AL-FARABI KAZAKH NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

S. Tuleukhanov M.A.-K. Mohaseb N. Ablaikhanova Y. Shvetsova

INFRASONIC WAVES AND ITS EFFECTS

Almaty «Kazakh University» 2013 

UDC 57 BBK 28.0 I 67 Recommended for the Academic Council of the Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology and RISO KazNU

Reviewers: Doctor of Biological Sciences, Profrssor K.A. Saparov Doctor of Biological Sciences, T.G. Gocharova

I 67 Infrasonic waves and its effects / S.T. Tuleuhanov, Mona Abdel Khalek Mohaseb, N.T. Ablaikhanova, E.V. Shvetsova. – Almaty: Kazak Umiversiteti, 2013 – 68 p. ISBN 978-601-247-885-3 The monograph is written for students, undergraduates and doctoral students studying in the field 5B060700 (6M060700, 6D060700) - Biology, for the same feeders and researchers of universities in Kazakhstan. It is known that infrasound waves spread easily in the atmosphere and causes nerve strain and various diseases, including damage to the heart - vascular system. In this paper we discuss the characteristics of the impact of infrasound on biophysical and physiological and immunological and morphological markers to study the mechanisms of protection of the functional state of the organism, that is certainly a priority topic in modern biology and biophysics. It is shown that the functional state of animals depends on the nature and power of the infrasonic radiation. There are positive reviews, recommending to publish this book from Saparov K.A, Ph.D., professor and Goncharova, T. G., Ph.D.

UDC 57 BBK 28.0

ISBN 978-601-247-885-3 

© Tuleukhanov S., Mohaseb M.A.-K., Ablaikhanova N., Shvetsova Y., 2013 © KazNU al-Farabi, 2013

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1.1 What is sound? ........................................................................................................ 5 1.2 What is acoustics? ................................................................................................... 7 1.3 Acoustic spectrum ................................................................................................... 9 1.4 Acoustic wave types ................................................................................................ 10 1.5 Acoustic waveforms ................................................................................................ 11 CHAPTER 2 2.1 Physics of low frequency noise ............................................................................... 15 2.2 Acoustic Terminologies .......................................................................................... 15 2.2.1 Sound pressure............................................................................................. 15 2.2.2 Decibel (dB) ................................................................................................ 16 2.2.3 Sound power level (SWL) ........................................................................... 16 2.2.4 Low frequency noise and infrasound .......................................................... 17 2.2.5 Frequency and wavelength .......................................................................... 17 2.2.6 Frequency Weightings ................................................................................. 18 2.2.6.1 A-Weighting .................................................................................... 18 2.2.6.2 C-Weighting..................................................................................... 18 2.2.6.3 G-Weighting .................................................................................... 19 2.2.7 Measurement parameters ............................................................................. 19 2.2.8 Sound Exposure Level (SEL) ...................................................................... 19 2.2.9 Averaging .................................................................................................... 19 2.2.10 Low frequency noise and stress ................................................................. 20 2.2.11 Low frequency noise and cortisol secretion .............................................. 20 CHAPTER 3 Infrasound 3.1 Definition of Infrasound .......................................................................................... 22 3.2 Sources and Exposure ............................................................................................. 22 3.3 Natural Sources ....................................................................................................... 23 3.4 Vechiles ................................................................................................................... 23 3.5 Therapeutic Devices ................................................................................................ 24 3.6 Industrial Sources .................................................................................................... 24 3.7 Nonlethal Weapons ................................................................................................. 25 3.8 Other Sources .......................................................................................................... 25 3.9 Acoustic wave Propagation ..................................................................................... 26 3.10 Resonance and control .......................................................................................... 26 3.11 Measurements........................................................................................................ 27 3.12 Averaging .............................................................................................................. 27 3.13 Regulations and Criteria ........................................................................................ 27 3.14 Audibility of infrasound and low-frequency noise ............................................... 28 3 

3.15 Natural infrasound ................................................................................................. 29 3.16 Alternative receptors ............................................................................................. 30 3.17 Reception through the skin.................................................................................... 30 3.18 Unusual perception ................................................................................................ 31 3.19 Public perceptions ................................................................................................. 32 3.20 Development of enhanced susceptibility .............................................................. 33 3.21 Objective effects .................................................................................................... 34 3.21.1 Aural pain .................................................................................................. 34 3.21.2 Body Vibrations......................................................................................... 34 3.21.3 Whole body exposure ................................................................................ 35 CHAPTER 4 4.1 Biological effects of Infrasound .............................................................................. 39 4.2 General Toxicological Data .................................................................................... 41 4.2.1 Human Studies............................................................................................. 41 4.2.2 Experimental................................................................................................ 41 4.2.3 Animal Studies: Acute Exposure Duration ................................................. 47 4.2.3.1 Studies in Rats ................................................................................. 47 4.2.3.2 Studies in Mice ................................................................................ 49 4.2.3.3 Studies in Guinea Pigs ..................................................................... 50 4.2.3.4 Studies in Chinchillas ...................................................................... 50 4.2.3.5 Studies in Rabbits ............................................................................ 51 4.2.3.6 Studies in Monkeys.......................................................................... 51 4.2.3.7 Studies in Dogs and Primates .......................................................... 51 4.2.4 Animal Studies: Short-Term Exposure Duration ........................................ 52 4.2.4.1 Studies in Rats ................................................................................. 52 4.2.4.2 Studies in Mice ................................................................................ 56 4.2.4.3 Studies in Guinea Pigs. .................................................................... 56 4.2.4.4 Studies in Rabbits ............................................................................ 56 4.2.4.5 Studies in Monkeys.......................................................................... 57 4.2.4.6 Reproductive and Developmental Effects ....................................... 57 4.2.4.7Carcinogenicity ................................................................................. 57 4.2.4.8 Genotoxicity..................................................................................... 57 4.2.4.9 Immunotoxicity................................................................................ 57 4.2.4.10 Biochemical Effects ....................................................................... 58 4.2.4.11 Cellular studies .............................................................................. 58 4.2.4.12 Morphological effects .................................................................... 58 4.2.4.13 Other studies .................................................................................. 59



CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION Sound of any kind is an omnipresent companion during all our life. Early in the morning the alarm clock ends our sleep with a more or less enticing sound, and from thereon we perceive sounds of different kind throughout our day. In the densely populated areas where many of us are living most sound is produced by man, either intentionally or as an inevitable side effect of human activity. Each of us produces many sorts of sound: we talk with other people, we switch on the radio, the television or the stereo system, and we drive a car or use noise producing tools or machines at our work. Even in the country side we rarely find absolute quietness. In free air we hear the twittering of birds or the murmuring of the wind in the trees, or, if we are at the seaside, the sounds of the surf. Complete silence is very rare; it is so strange that we find it rather unpleasant or even unbearable. On the other hand, sound can be very annoying or may even damage our health. The former is by no means a matter just of the strength or the loudness of the sound. Although the faint noise of a dripping water tap is almost un measurable we may fly into a rage when we hear it at night. Very loud sounds, on the other hand, can be harmful to our hearing, that is, when exposed to intense sound our hearing organ can suffer temporary or even permanent damages leading to complete deafness. Even sound of medium intensity may lead to damage of the vegetative nerve system, manifesting itself in sleep irregularities, nervousness, elevated blood pressure, etc. It is a remarkable fact that we cannot protect ourselves to any significant degree against sound in a natural way. We can close our eyes when we do not want to see anything; when falling asleep we do this involuntarily. In contrast, we do not stop receiving sounds, even during sleep we hear without becoming aware of this. Apparently, nature has given a particular warning function to sound. In the same direction points the fact that our visual field is quite limited whereas we perceive sound arriving from all directions, independently from the orientation of our head. So we cannot see a danger, for instance a motor vehicle, approaching from behind but we can hear it. 1.1 What is sound? What is the physical nature of sound? At first we can state that the generation, Propagation and perception of sound are connected with mechanical vibrations or oscillations. In some cases we can convince ourselves immediately of this fact, for instance, by touching our larynx when speaking or singing. Likewise, the vibrations of noise producing machines can often be felt with the hand, if the vibration stops no sound is heard. The vibration of the strings of a musical instrument can be seen with the naked eye, and in ancient times it was observed that the perceived pitch of a tone is related to 5 

the length of the string and hence to the number of oscillations per second or as we say nowadays: on the frequency of the vibration. However, in most cases these vibrations are so weak that it is impossible to see or feel them immediately. This is true, for instance, when sound penetrates a wall; in this case the vibrations can only be observed by means of special measuring devices. Many sounds have a ‘tonal’ quality, that is, a certain pitch can be ascribed to them. Such sounds form the basic elements of music. Besides them, there are other sounds which although having a more general character such as ‘bright’ or ‘muffled’, do not have a distinct pitch. Imagine, as an example, a bang or the noise of an air stream. Such types of sounds can also be related to vibrations as we shall see later on. Let us now consider the generation of sound by a vibrating body, for instance, by the corpus of a stringed musical instrument, the membrane of a loudspeaker or by some part of a machine in operation. In Figure (1.1) an element of its surface is sketched as a solid line. When it moves from the left side to the right as shown in the upper part of the figure, it cannot displace all the air in front of it but it will press some of it together. When moving in reverse direction the body will suck in some air, again not by moving the whole column of air but by expanding some of it (see middle figure). Now any density change of the air is associated with a change in air pressure. Hence the compressed air tends to transfer the pressure increase to the neighboring air volume. Likewise, a decompressed air volume exerts under pressure to its vicinity. Generally, all pressure disturbances induced by the body’s movement will travel into the resting air. Finally, we assume the surface of the body to move back and forth or, in other words, to oscillate. Then the alternating compressions and expansions of the air will detach from the body and travel into the medium (see below). The result is a sound wave. Gradually, it will reach larger and more remote areas, similar to a water wave issuing from a stone thrown into a pond. This is why we use the term ‘sound waves’ thus expressing the propagation of a state or process. The region filled with one or several sound waves is often referred to as ‘sound field’. Follow the vibrations of the body which emits the wave. Thus a sound wave may be conceived as a pressure disturbance or a sequence of disturbances on the one hand or equally well as a large number of vibrating air particles. The same holds, of course, for waves in other gases or liquids. In hearing sounds the reverse process takes place in a way when a sound wave hits the head of a listener a tiny part of it enters the ear channel. At its end it impinges on the eardrum which is set into vibrations by the pressure fluctuation. These oscillations undergo further processing by the middle ear and the inner ear and are finally led to the brain. Thus we can state that the propagation of sound is tied to the presence of a suitable medium, for instance air; in the empty space there is no sound. Furthermore, it is important to realise that the transfer of oscillations from one volume element to a neighboring one cannot take place instantly but requires some time since masses must be accelerated which implies some delay. For this reason sound waves propagate with a finite velocity. Each of us knows from experience that in a thunderstorm the thunder arrives usually several seconds later than the flash of the lightning which caused it. The speed at which sound waves travel is called the sound speed or the sound velocity. It depends on the kind and state of the medium which carries the sound wave. At this point it may be appropriate to compare sound waves with another kind of wave which 6 

dominates our everyday life, the electromagnetic waves without them no broadcasting, no television, no telecommunication over large distances and no mobile telephone would exist. Light, too, consists of electromagnetic waves. Like sound waves they travel with a finite although much higher velocity. In contrast to sound waves, however, they are not tied to a material medium but can propagate in the empty space on account of their different nature. Likewise their formal description differs substantially from that of sound waves. While in the latter one the relevant physical quantity, namely, the pressure, is a scalar, the field quantities in electromagnetic waves, namely, the electric and the magnetic field strength, have vector character. From this point of view the formal description of sound waves is less complicated than that of electromagnetic waves, at least if we disregard sound in solids. Despite all these differences there are many formal parallels and analogies between acoustical and electromagnetic waves. This is because the differential equation underlying both sorts of waves, the wave equation, has the same structure. Such parallels exist also between mechanical and electrical oscillations; many concepts such as the impedance or the energy are formally defined in the same way.

Figure 1.1 - Radiation of sound waves from a moving body

1.2 What is acoustics? Acoustics is the science of sound and deals with the origin of sound and its propagation, either in free space, or in pipes and channels, or in closed spaces. It is the basis of many fundamental phenomena and also of numerous practical applications. Some of them will be briefly touched upon here. A first subdivision of the field can be based on the different media in which sound can propagate. In our everyday life sound waves are in air, or, somewhat more generally, in gases. From this we distinguish sound in liquids which has its most important application in underwater techniques, and, furthermore, sound in solid bodies. This subdivision intersects with another one based on the sound frequency. Again, sound waves with frequencies accessible to our hearing are in the foreground of interest. The frequency range of human hearing is roughly from 16 Hz to about 20 000 Hz. Here Hz is the unit of frequency, called Hertz (1 Hz means one 7 

period per second). These figures should not be taken too seriously; at low frequencies the limit between hearing and feeling is rather diffuse, and the upper limit shows wide individual differences and shifts with increasing age towards lower frequencies. Below the range of audible sounds there is the infrasonic range. Sounds with very low frequencies can arise, for instance, from building vibrations or by industrial processes where large quantities of gas are moved. Very intense infrasound has quite unpleasant effects on human beings which may be associated with nausea; in extreme situations health damage can be caused by infrasound. A general lower-frequency limit of sound does not exist. Sound waves with frequencies above the upper limit of hearing, that is, 20 000 Hz, roughly speaking, are known as ultrasound. Furthermore, sound with frequencies exceeding 1 Gigahertz (=109 Hz) is sometimes referred to as hyper sound. At low frequencies there is indeed an upper frequency limit of all acoustic phenomena. This is due to the fact that all matter has a discrete structure since it is made up of atoms, molecules or ions. This upper limiting frequency depends on the kind of medium and is of the order 10 Terahertz = 1013 Hz. The first task of acoustics is to formulate the physical laws governing sound when it propagates in free space. Equally interesting is the way in which its propagation is altered by obstacles of any kind, either by extended surfaces or by bodies of limited extension. Furthermore, sound can be conducted through channels of various sorts; it can travel in solid structures such as the walls and floors of a building and can be transmitted through windows and doors. In this context we have to deal with undesired sounds which are generally called noise although there is no clear-cut distinction between noise and other sounds. Since noise is an increasing problem in our society the techniques of noise control occupy broad space in practical acoustics. On the other hand, sound in the form of speech is the most important and the simplest way to communicate with each other since every healthy person can produce and understand speech. Another equally important and mainly pleasant manifestation of sound is music which in all human cultures plays an outstanding role, probably of ritual origin. Today it serves mainly for enjoyment of a performance art or just entertainment. The acoustical aspects of music are dealt with in a particular discipline named musical acoustics, which on the one hand examines the production of tones with musical instruments, and on the other the perception of music by listeners. At this point musical acoustics blends with psychoacoustics the goal of which is the systematic investigation of the way in which sounds of any kind are processed and perceived by our hearing. It yields not only valuable insights into the performance of the human hearing organ, but also the yardstick for the subjective judgment of sound, for instance, for the assessment of telephone quality, or the tolerability of a certain noise situation. A good deal of the sound which we perceive is produced by loudspeakers and other electroacoustic sound sources. By loudspeakers we are informed and entertained, and quite often, however, annoyed too. In any case the sound supply of large audiences in sports arenas, open-air performances, large convention halls, etc. would be impossible without electroacoustic reinforcement systems. Another important example of electroacoustic transmission is the telephone, and also ultrasound which has become an 8 

indispensable tool in medical diagnosis is produced by electroacoustic sources. Finally, we want to recall the possibility of storing sound events which are volatile by their very nature, and to revive them at any time and place. All of these problems form the subject of a particular field called electro acoustics. As already mentioned the velocity of sound depends on the kind of the wave medium. This holds even more for the attenuation which sound waves undergo in the course of propagation. Reversely, valuable insights into the physical nature and internal structure of all kinds of matter can be derived from experimental data on sound propagation collected in different frequency ranges. This brief review is far from exhaustive, as several other branches of acoustics have not even been mentioned. Nevertheless, it may give an idea of the great variety of acoustical phenomena and applications of sound. Moreover, it shows that acoustics is an interdisciplinary science being interconnected with many other fields – with physics, mechanical and electrical engineering, medicine, psychology, biology, architecture and building construction, music, etc. – a fact which makes the boundaries of acoustics somewhat unclear but contributes to the particular appeal of this science. 1.3 Acoustic spectrum We have many perceptions of the nature of sound. The idea of pitch refers to our perception of frequency, that is, the number of times a second that air vibrates in producing sound that we hear. Voices are classified according to pitch in which the lowest frequency is a bass voice and the highest frequency is a soprano voice. This description of frequency, however, is limited to the frequency range, or spectrum, over which human beings can hear sounds. There are sound frequencies below and above what human beings can hear. The acoustic spectrum is shown in Fig. 1.2a. The lowest frequency classification in the acoustic spectrum is infrasound that has a frequency range less than about 20Hz. Audible sound is what human beings hear and has an approximate frequency range between 20Hz and 20 kHz. The ultrasound frequency range starts at a frequency of about 20 kHz. Examples of devices that emit frequencies at the lower frequency end of the ultrasonic spectrum are a dog whistle and industrial ultrasonic cleaners. The frequency designations of the infrasound-audio boundary and the audioultrasound boundary are a bit arbitrary because the frequency range over which human beings hear sounds is different between people and additionally changes as a function of age. Most medical ultrasound equipment operates in the ultrasonic frequency range between 1 and 15MHz (Fig.1.2 b). Therapeutic (physical therapy, high-frequency focused ultrasound and ablation) applications operate around 1 MHz. For most diagnostic applications in abdominal, obstetrical and gynecological ultrasound, and in echocardiography, the frequency range is generally between 2.5 and 7.5 MHz. For superficial body parts, such as the thyroid and the eye, and peripheral vascular applications where ultrasound does not have to penetrate very deeply into the body, higher ultrasonic frequencies in the range of 7.5–15MHz can be used because ultrasonic attenuation increases with increasing frequency. 9 

Figure 1.2 - (a) Acoustic spectrum and (b) medical ultrasound spectrum

1.4 Acoustic wave types The classification of sound waves is based on the type of motion that is induced in the medium by the propagating sound wave. For purposes of ultrasonic physics, the lowest level of organization within a fluid (gas and liquid) is called a particle (Pierce, 1981; Kinsler et al., 1982). The particle is represented in Fig. 1.3 as dots and can be thought of as a volume of material. Each of these dots consists of millions of molecules and yet each has dimensions of a fraction of an ultrasonic wavelength When an ultrasonic wave is propagated within material, the type of wave is classified in terms of the direction the ultrasonic energy is traveling relative to the direction the particle is moving. A longitudinal wave occurs when the particles move back and forth (that is, left to right and back—horizontally in Fig. 1.3 a relative to the direction of the wave energy that is also moving horizontally. Propagated longitudinal waves travel through all kinds of materials: gases, liquids and solids. In the case of shear waves, the particles move at right angles to the direction of the wave propagation as shown in Fig.1.3 b In this figure, the particles are moving vertically up and down while the wave energy is moving horizontally. Shear waves exist only in solid materials, not in fluids. Shear waves do not exist in soft tissues because soft tissues are approximated as a liquid. Shear waves do, however, travel in harder biological materials such as bone. 10 

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(c) Figure 1.3 - Representations of longitudinal and shear waves: (a) longitudinal wave representation, (b) shear wave representation and (c) sine wave representation

The physical and thus ultrasonic properties of tissue are influenced by and composed of water, ions, macromolecules and cells and are a consequence of the chemical structures of fibrous and non-fibrous components. Tissues are divided into various kinds, including epithelial, muscular, connective, nervous, blood, etc. Each of these tissue types has different physical properties. Common to all tissues is a large amount of water. Selected physical properties of pure water at 37 C (98.6 F) are listed in Table1- (Nyborg, 1975). The physical properties of tissue depend strongly upon water because water makes up almost three-quarters of the entire mass of the human body. The water concentration varies from tissue to tissue with vitreous humor quite high at around 99%, liver at 70%, skin at 60%, cartilage at 30% and adipose as low as 10%. 1.5 Acoustic waveforms The nomenclature of acoustic waveforms is used to define and quantify the ultrasonic wave that interacts with biological materials. Ultrasound travels in waves that emanate from a source. The high crests and low troughs represent specific amplitude values of the wave and correspond to peak compressional and peak rare factional values. The distance from one crest to the next, or from one trough to the next, has a particular distance associated with it and is called the wavelength and denoted by l in Fig. 1.4 a. 11 

Selected physical properties of pure water at 37C
Compressibility (Pa-1) Bulk modulus (Pa) Density (kg/m3) Speed (m/s)

Table 1

4.4×10-10 2.3×109 990 1527

The time that it takes for one cycle to occur is called the period (Fig. 4.1b). The period (T) is the reciprocal of frequency (f=1/T). The horizontal axis can illustrate either distance (Fig. 4.1a) or time (Fig. 4.1b). This is an important concept in diagnostic ultrasonic instrumentation. Distance information can be converted to time values, and time converted to distance information. Ultrasonic instruments are constantly performing these conversions in order to display sonographic images. The space (or distance) over which one cycle travels is called the wavelength and the time which one cycle occupies is called the period, that is, wavelength is ‘‘distance/cycle’’ and period is ‘‘time/cycle.’’ Speed is the constant that relates wavelength (l) to period (T=1/f): c = f . For medical applications, the propagation speed, c, in tissue is typically assumed to be constant at 1540 m/s.

Figure 1.4 - Schematic representations of an acoustic waveform: (a) amplitude vs. distance and (b) amplitude vs. time

There are two basic generation modes of ultrasound used in medical ultrasound (Fig. 5.1). Generation mode means the way in which the ultrasonic wave is ‘‘shaped’’ when it is transmitted from the ultrasonic transducer, that is, the waveform’s temporal characteristics. One generation mode is to continuously excite the ultrasonic transducer with an electrical sine wave at constant amplitude. This produces a continuous ultrasonic wave at the same frequency as that of the electrical frequency and is termed continuous wave ultrasound (CW mode or CW ultrasound), as shown in Fig. 5.1a. Another generation mode is to turn on the ultrasound for a short time duration and turn it off for a much longer time duration and then to repeat this process. This generation mode is accomplished by exciting or shocking the ultrasonic transducer with very short electrical signals, waiting for some time and then repeating the electrical shocking. The ultrasonic waves that are generated are termed pulse wave ultrasound 12 

(PW mode or PW ultrasound), as shown in Fig. 5.1b. If the number of cycles per pulse is N, then the pulse duration () is (1)

The ratio of the pulse duration to the pulse repetition period (PRP) is called the duty factor (DF). The DF is the fractional amount of time that the pulse is activated, and given by (2)

Where PRF is the pulse repetition frequency. For example, if the pulse duration is 1 s and the pulse repetition period is 1ms (PRF =1 kHz), then the duty factor is 0.001, or 0.1%.

Figure 1.5 - Schematic representations of continuous wave and pulsed wave ultrasound waveforms: (a) continuous wave representation and (b) pulsed wave representation

13 

References 1. Heinrich Kuttruff «Acoustics» published in the USA and Canada by Taylor & Francis 270 Madison Ave, NewYork, NY 10016,2007 2. William D. O’Brien Jr Ultrasound–biophysics mechanisms Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology 93 (2007) 212–255. 3. Pierce, A.D., 1981. Acoustics: An Introduction to Its Physical Principles and Applications. Mc-Graw Hill, New York, NY (A 1989 edition is published by the Acoustical Society of America through the American Institute of Physics, Woodbury, NY). 4. Kinsler, L.E., Frey, A.R., Coopens, A.B., Sanders, J.V., 1982. Fundamentals of Acoustics, third ed. Wiley, New York, NY 5. Nyborg, W.L., 1975. Intermediate Biophysical Mechanics. Cummings Publishing Co., Menlo Park, CA.



CHAPTER 2

2.1 Physics of low frequency noise Noise and sound are physically the same, differences arising in their acoustic quality as perceived by listeners. This leads to a definition of noise as undesired sound, whilst physically both noise and sound are similar acoustic waves, carried on oscillating particles in the air. Sound is detected by the ear in a mechanical process, which converts the sound waves to vibrations within the ear

Figure 2.1 - the response chain

Figure (2.1) is a simplified diagram of the process, which leads to perception and response. Electrical signals, stimulated by the vibrations in the ear, are transmitted to the brain, in which perception occurs and the sensation of sound is developed. Response is the reaction to perception and is very variable between people, depending on many personal and situational factors, conditioned by both previous experiences and current expectations. 2.2 Acoustic Terminologies 2.2.1 Sound Pressure Sound consists of pressure fluctuations through an elastic medium. When that medium is air, and the pressure fluctuations fall on the ear, the sensation of hearing is produced. Sound is a form of energy and is transmitted by the interaction of air molecules one against another. When sound propagates from a source, it sets up pressure variations in the surrounding air. These variations are very small when compared to atmospheric pressure, which is approximately 100kPa (kilopascals, or 105 pascals). The audible range of sound pressure variations is wide, ranging from 20 micropascals (20 Pa) at the threshold of hearing to 100 pascals (100Pa) at the threshold of pain. It can be 15 

seen that the ratios involved are large. For example, from the threshold of hearing to the threshold of pain the pressure ratio is about 5 million to one. (George Bellhouse 2004) 2.2.2 Decibel (dB) A decibel is the logarithm of the ratio between two values of some characteristic quantity such as power, pressure or intensity, with a multiplying constant to give convenient numerical factors. The expression is normally denoted by the term dB. Logarithms are useful for compressing a wide range of quantities, such as sound pressure, into a smaller range. For example: The logarithm to the base 10 of 10 is 1 and this is normally stated as log1010 = 1 or more often as log10 = 1 Similarly, log100 = 2 And, log1000 = 3 and so, the ratio of 1000 to 1 is compressed into a ratio of 3 to 1. This approach is advantageous for handling sound levels, where the ratio of the highest to the lowest sound which we are likely to encounter can be as high as 5,000,000:1. A useful development, many years ago, was also to take the ratios with respect to the quietest sound we can hear. This is the threshold of hearing at about 1,000Hz, which is taken as 20Pa (2x10-5 Pa) of pressure for the average person. When the word “level” is added to the word that describes a physical quantity, decibels are implied. Thus, "sound level" is a decibel quantity and is related to the sound pressure by the expression: ( Leventhall 2003). Sound Pressure Level in dB = 10 Log (p/p0) Where p is the sound pressure and p0 is the reference sound pressure of 20 micropascals. When the sound pressure level increases by 3dB the intensity of the sound is doubled. Sound pressure level is often shortened to SPL. (George Bellhouse 2004). 2.2.3 Sound Power Level (SWL) It is important to differentiate between the terms “Sound Power Level” and “Sound Pressure Level” since they are completely different quantities. Sound power is the quantity of sound that is generated and released at the source of sound. The Sound Pressure Level at some location away from the source is the result of that radiation of sound and depends on the surrounding environment and the distance from the source. The relationship between these parameters is: Sound Pressure Level (dB) = Sound Power level – 20 x Log(r) – 11 dB. Where r is the distance in metres of the receiving point from the source of sound and Sound Power Level is in dB re 10–12 watts. This relationship represents the “inverse square law” by which the sound pressure level decreases by 6dB per doubling of distance from the source. The above relationship applies to the condition where the source radiates in all directions. Where the source is close to the ground the sound that is radiated downwards is now reflected by the ground and radiated into the hemisphere above the ground. The result is that the sound pressure level at any point from the source will be 3dB higher 16 

than in the spherical radiation case. Therefore for hemispherical radiation: (George Bellhouse 2004). Sound Pressure Level (dB) = Sound Power level – 20 x Log(r) – 8 dB. This relationship applies to all frequencies of sound – including infrasound. For example, if a wind turbine generator has a sound power level of 100dBA (an Aweighted level). At a distance of 400 metres from the turbine the sound pressure level will theoretically be: Sound Pressure Level in dB = 100 – 10 x Log (400) – 11 = 100 – 52 – 11 = 37dBA. The sound pressure level at this distance will also be further reduced by effects such as ground absorption and molecular absorption together with other effects. 2.2.4 Low frequency noise and infrasound The frequency range of human hearing is normally taken to be a range of 20 to 20,000Hz, but there are variations including the fact that as we age our ability to hear high frequency sounds diminishes. Infrasound is normally taken to be below 20Hz. However, frequencies below 20Hz are also. Audible in humans, illustrating that there is some lack of clarity in the interpretations of infrasonic and audible noise. Some large mammals can also hear infrasound and may also use it to communicate. (George Bellhouse 2004). 2.2.5 Frequency and Wavelength The frequency of a sound is the number of oscillations which occur per second and normally referred to in Hertz (Hz), for example, 100Hz. Sound travels in air at about 340ms-1 (metres per second), and this velocity varies slightly with temperature. Since each compression travels at about 340ms-1, after one second the first compression is 340m away from the source. If the frequency of oscillation is, say 10Hz, then there will be 10 compressions in the distance of 340m, which has been travelled in one second, or 34m between each compression. This distance is called the wavelength of the sound, leading to the relationship: Velocity = wavelength x frequency written in symbols as c =  x f. where c is the velocity of sound in metres per second,  the wavelength in metres and f the frequency in Hertz. The equation gives the relation between frequency and wavelength as in the Table 2 below. Table 2

Frequency and wavelengths of low frequency sound Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (m)

1 340

10 34

25 13.6

50 6.8

100 3.4

150 2.27

200 1.7

In the frequency region 25Hz to 150Hz, wavelengths are of similar size to room dimensions, which can lead to resonances in rooms. (Leventhall 2003). 17 

2.2.6 Frequency Weightings 2.2.6.1 A-Weighting Weighted frequency response is designed to approximate to the inverse of the equal loudness curve that passes through 1,000 Hz at 40dB (the 40 phon(1) contour). It is recognized internationally as the frequency-weighting to be used when assessing both environmental and occupational noise. The A-weighting curve is illustrated in the figure below. Sound levels measured using A-weighting are denoted by the symbol dB A (sometimes also referred to as dB (A), the “A” denoting that the A-weighting characteristic has been used. It can be seen that when using A-weighting for a given sound pressure level the response of the instrument falls as the frequency falls. For example, a tone of 1,000 Hz at a sound pressure level of 90dB will give an indication on the meter of 90dB (90 minus 0dB) and a 250Hz tone at the same sound pressure level will give an indication of 81.4dB (90 minus 8.6dB). For the same level of input, low frequencies will not have the same effect on the meter as the higher frequencies. 2.2.6.2 C-Weighting The C-weighted frequency response is designed to approximate to the inverse of the equal loudness curve that passes through 1,000 Hz at 100dB (the 100 phon contour). It is recognized internationally as an alternative frequency-weighting to be used for particular purposes. The C weighting curve is also illustrated in the figure above. Levels measured using C-weighting are denoted by the symbol dBC (sometimes dB(C), the “C” denoting that the C-weighting characteristic has been used. NOTE: When no frequency-weighting is applied in the measurements, the levels are denoted by the symbol dB, or sometimes dB (Lin) – the measurements are un weighted. The C-weighting characteristic gives the meter a flat response characteristic over a wide range of frequencies, from approximately 50 Hz to 4,000 Hz. The response falls at the higher and lower frequencies. C-weighting may be used together with A-weighting to assess the broad frequency content of a particular sound, particularly whether low frequencies are present at a significant level. (George Bellhouse 2004).

Figure 2.1 - Frequency-Weighting Curve 18 

2.2.6.3 G-Weighting The G weighting, specifically designed for infrasound, falls off rapidly above 20Hz, whilst below 20Hz it follows assumed hearing contours with a slope of 12dB per octave down to 2Hz. This slope is intended to give a subjective assessment to noise in the infrasonic range. A G-weighted level of 95 - 100dBG is close to the perception level. Gweighted levels below 85-90dBG are not normally significant for human perception. However, too much reliance on the G-weighting, which is of limited application, may divert attention from problems at higher frequencies, say, in the 30Hz to 80Hz range. 2.2.7 Measurement Parameters A number of different parameters are used in the measurement of sound or noise. These include: Leq The term equivalent continuous sound level, usually referred to as Leq, is the level of the steady continuous noise that contains the same sound energy as the noise under consideration whose level varies with time, over some time interval, T.The term is often also referred to as LAeq or LAeq,T or LAeq,10m or indeed many other variants. For example, the term LAeq, 10m means that A-weighting was used and the measurement period was 10 minutes (LAeq, 10m). The use of a C-weighting or a Gweighting would necessitate the use of “C” or “G” instead of “A” in the expression. (George Bellhouse 2004). 2.2.8 Sound Exposure Level (SEL) The sound exposure level is a special kind of Leq measurement. It is normally used for transient events and similar situations. An example of its use is for the measurement of aircraft fly-overs where the sound level rises and falls as the aircraft approaches and recedes. The SEL is measured by measuring the Leq for the duration of the event and then compressing this value into a one second period. In effect it is the level of sound present of one second that is equivalent to the actual time varying levels of sound actually present for the duration of the measurement. It is a convenient method of determining the sound energy content of an event so that a number of such events can then be combined to determine an average level of sound. LAmax The maximum A-weighted sound pressure level is the highest level of sound present over the measurement period. It is normally used in the case of short duration and transient sound and 9 is a measure of how high the sound was in level for a short period of time. The averaging time of this measurement parameter is normally of the order of 1/8 of a second. (George Bellhouse 2004) 2.2.9 Averaging Sound level meters give a numerical representation of the noise. However, this is obtained by averaging over a period of time that, for fluctuating noises, is generally longer than the period of the fluctuations, leading to a loss of information on the fluctuations. The widespread use of the equivalent level discards important information on the quality of the noise, its spectral properties and corresponding perceived sound character. (Leventhall 2003). 19 

2.2.10 Low frequency noise and stress Stresses may be grouped into three broad types: cataclysmic stress, personal stress and background stress. Cataclysmic stress includes widespread and devastating physical events. Personal stress includes bereavements and similar personal tragedies. Cataclysmic and personal stresses are evident occurrences, which are met with sympathy and support, whilst their impacts normally reduce with time. Background stresses are persistent events, which may become routine elements of our life. Constant low frequency noise has been classified as a background stressor (Benton, 1997b; Benton and Leventhall, 1994). Whilst it is acceptable, under the effects of cataclysmic and personal stress, to withdraw from coping with normal daily demands, this is not permitted for low level background stresses. Inadequate reserves of coping ability then leads to the development of stress symptoms. In this way, chronic psychophysiological damage may result from long-term exposure to low-level low frequency noise. Changes in behavior also follow from long-term exposure to low frequency noise. Those exposed may adopt protective strategies, such as sleeping in their garage if the noise is less disturbing there. Or they may sleep elsewhere, returning to their own homes only during the day. Others tense into the noise and, over time, may undergo character changes, particularly in relation to social orientation, consistent with their failure to recruit support and consent that they do have a genuine noise problem. Their families and the investigating EHO may also become part of their problem. The claim that their "lives have been ruined" by the noise is not an exaggeration, although their reaction to the noise might have been modifiable at an earlier stage. 2.2.11 Low frequency noise and cortisol secretion It is difficult to measure stress directly, but cortisol secretion has been used as a stress indicator (Ising and Ising, 2002; Persson-Waye et al., 2002; Persson-Waye et al., 2003). Under normal circumstances, cortisol levels follow a distinct circadian pattern in which the diurnal variation of cortisol is to drop to very low levels during the early morning sleep period, rising towards the awakening time. The rise continues until about 30 minutes after awakening, followed by a fall until midday and further fluctuations. Stress disrupts the normal cortisol pattern. Ising and Ising (2002) discuss how noise, perceived as a threat, stimulates release of cortisol. This also occurs during sleep, thus increasing the level of night cortisol, which may interrupt recreative and other qualities of sleep. Measurements were made of the effect on children who, because of traffic changes, had become exposed to a high level of night lorry noise. There were two groups of subjects, exposed to high and low noise levels. The indoor noise spectrum for high levels typically peaked at around 60Hz, at 65dB, with a difference of maximum LC and LA of 26dB. The difference of average levels was 25dB, thus indicating a low frequency noise problem. Children exposed to the higher noise levels in the sample had significantly more problems with concentration, memory and sleep and also had higher cortisol secretions. Perrson Waye et al (2003) studied the effect on sleep quality and wakening of traffic noise (35dB LAeq, 50dBLAmax) and low frequency noise (40dBLAeq). The low 20 

frequency noise peaked at 50Hz with a level of 70dB. In addition to cortisol determinations from saliva samples, the subjects completed questionnaires on their quality of sleep, relaxation and social inclinations. The main findings of the study were that levels of the cortisol awakening response were depressed after exposure to low frequency noise and that this was associated with tiredness and a negative mood. In a laboratory study of noise sensitive subjects performing work tasks, it was found that enhanced salivary cortisol levels were produced by exposure to low frequency noise (Persson-Waye et al., 2002). A finding was that subjects who were sensitive to low frequency noise generally maintained higher cortisol levels and also had impaired performance. A hypothesis from the study is that changes in cortisol levels, such as produced by low frequency noise, may have a negative influence on health, heightened by chronic noise exposure. EEG recording has been used to study sleep disturbance by low frequency noise (Inaba and Okada, 1988). Subjects in a sleep laboratory were exposed to levels up to 105dB at 10Hz and 20Hz, up to 100dB at 40Hz and up to 90dB at 63Hz. The effects were assessed by the "sleep efficiency index", which is the ratio of total sleep time to time in bed. Sleep times were determined from continuous EEG recordings. There was little effect for sound levels under 85dB, but reactions for the highest sound levels were significantly greater at 40Hz and 63Hz than for 10Hz and 20Hz. References 1. George Bellhouse 2004. Low frequency noise and infrasound from wind turbine generators a literature review prepared for: Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority. 2. Leventhall, H.G., Benton, S., Pelmear, P., 2003. A review of published research on low frequency noise and its effects. Prepared for Defra http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/noise/research/ lowfrequency/pdf/lowfreqnoise.pdf. 3. Benton, S. (1997b): Low frequency noise and the impact upon an individuals quality of life: Case study reports. Jnl Low Freq Noise Vibn 16, 203-208. 4. Benton, S., and Leventhall, H. G. (1994): The role of "background stressors" in the Formation of annoyance and stress responses. Jnl Low Freq Noise Vibn 13, 95- 102. 5. Ising, H., and Ising, M. (2002): Chronic cortisol increases in the first half of the night caused by road traffic noise. Noise and Health 4, 13-21. 6. Ising, H. 1980. Psychological, ergonomical, and physiological effects of long-term exposure to infrasound and audiosound. Noise Vib. Bull. [volume and number not provided]:168-174. 7. Persson-Waye, K., and Bengtsson, J. (2002): Assessments of low frequency noise complaints - a follow up 14 years later. 10th International Meeting Low Frequency Noise and VIbration and its Control. York UK (Editor: H G Leventhall), 103-110. 8. Persson-Waye, K., Clow, A., Edwards, S., Hucklebridge, F., and Rylander, R. (2003): Effects of nighttime low frequency noise on the cortisol response to awakening and subjective sleep quality. Life Sciences 72, 863-875.



CHAPTER 3

INFRASOUND 3.1 Definition of infrasound A definition of infrasound is Acoustic oscillations whose frequency is below the low frequency limit of audible sound (about 16 Hz). (British-Standards, 1995) (IEC, 1994). Unfortunately, this definition is misleading, as sound remains audible at frequencies well below 16 Hz. For example, measurements of hearing threshold have been made down to 4Hz for exposure in an acoustic chamber (Watanabe and Møller, 1990) and down to 1.5 Hz for earphone listening (Yeowart et al., 1967). The limit of 16 Hz, or more commonly considered as 20 Hz, arises from the lower frequency limit for which the standardized equal loudness hearing contours have been measured, not from the lower limit of hearing. Fig 1 shows equal loudness contours and the threshold of hearing (ISO:226, 2003). At 1000 Hz the contours span a range of 100 dB, but at 20 Hz the range has reduced to about 50 dB, as the low-frequency contours are grouped more closely together. This change of grouping continues below 20 Hz and leads to a greater rate of growth in loudness with increasing level for frequencies in the ‘‘infrasound’’ region. Hearing sensation does not suddenly cease at 20 Hz when the frequency is reduced, but continues from 20 Hz down to very low frequencies of several hertz, such that it is not possible to define an inaudible infrasound range and an audible audio range as separate regions, unless the infrasound range is limited to naturally occurring infrasound of very low frequencies. The range from about 10–100 Hz can be considered as the low-frequency region, with possible extensions by an octave at each end of this range. 3.2 Sources and Exposure Infrasound like all sound is ubiquitous in modern life; e.g., it is generated by motor vehicles, aircraft, watercraft, trains, hydroelectric power stations, compressors, and industrial equipment [Winiarski, M. 1983]. Intense infrasound exposure is generally accompanied by exposure to intense sounds above 20 Hz [Johnson, D.L. 1976]. In fact, infrasonic acoustic energy does not usually occur in the absence of sounds within the normal audible range due to the processes in which such sounds are generated [Berger, E.H. 1996]. Ear plugs and ear muffs may not offer sufficient [Westin, J.B. 1975]. Protective equipment usually does not stop penetration of infrasound [United Steelworkers of America. 2000]. Ear muffs may even amplify infrasonic frequencies [Berger, E.H. 1996].

22 

Figure 3.1 - Equal loudness contours and hearing threshold ISO 226

Machines, natural sources storms, earthquakes, hurricanes, etc. generate infrasound. While going by car at the speed of 100 km per hour, the strong inaudible sound at the frequency of 16 Hz is generated. Therefore, it is possible to state that long travels are very tiring. It is difficult to hide away from some infrasound properties, since according to its wave structure it has the quality to go round the occurring barriers and propagates far away [D. Guzas, R. Virsilas., 2009]. 3.3 Natural Sources Infrasound is generated by thunder, earthquakes, large waterfalls, ocean waves (< 1 Hz), wind (up to 135 dB at 100 km/h; up to 110 dB at 25 km/h), fluctuations in atmospheric pressure (< 1 Hz at 100 dB), and volcanoes [SRC. 1980]. Running generates infrasound at frequencies below 2 Hz at levels up to 90 dB; swimming also generates infrasound below 2 Hz, but the pressure is more intense (up to 140 dB). 3.4 Vehicles Riding in automobiles exposes drivers and passengers to 1 to 20 Hz at up to 120 dB. Exposures while riding in helicopters, other aircraft, submarines, and rockets range from 1 to 20 Hz at 120 to 145 dB. In a free field, diesel engines generate frequencies of 10 to 20 Hz at sound pressure levels up to 110 dB. Jet engines, helicopters, and large rockets generate frequencies of 1 to 20 Hz at 115 to 150 dB [SRC. 1980]. In a Finnish survey [Janhunen, H.K. 1984], infrasound levels exceeding 120 dB were found in cars and railway engines. The usual range in vehicles with closed windows was 90 to 110 dB. Infrasound sound pressure levels in aircraft cockpits and cabins ranged from 80 to 100 23 

dB. Ships and aircraft sonic booms are other vehicular sources [Berger, E.H. 1996]. In Japan, Okada (1990) measured infrasound at 83 dB at 20 m from a running truck and 100 dB at 20 m from a running railroad carriage. Thus, persons may be subjected frequently to the annoyance of infrasound exposure if they reside in the vicinity of heavily trafficked areas, railways, airports, or rocket launch sites. Drivers, pilots, and other transportation workers are among those occupations with considerable exposure. 3.5 Therapeutic Devices Several Russian and European publications report on therapeutic applications of infrasound. For examples Infrasound pneumomassage at 4 Hz (daily 10minute sessions for 10 days) stabilized the progression of myopia in school children [Sidorenko, E.I., et al, 1997]. Infrasound phonopheresis (frequency and sound pressure level not provided) of antibacterial drugs in the treatment of patients with bacterial keratitis was as effective as local instillation of the same drugs [Sidorenko, E.I.,et al, 1999]. Thermovibration massage at 10 Hz was a useful adjunct in combined treatment of patients with chronic cholecystitis and opisthorchiasis, improving motor-evacuation function of the biliary system [Poddubnaya et al, 1999]. InfraMed, a medical equipment company in the Netherlands, advertised an infrasound device called the SonoMat that may be used to break up arterial blockages [InfraMed, 2001]. Vibrotherapy sources used in medicine generate audible as well as infrasound frequencies [Naoun, A., 1974]. At least two hand-held vibrotherapy devices are currently advertised to the public. The Infratronic QGM Quantum device, developed out of scientific research in Beijing, China, is said to focus chi or life energy into patients' bodies and stimulate[s] relaxation and healing. It operates at 8 to 14 Hz, 70 dB, and is said to be "recognized by FDA as a 510k Therapeutic Massager” [CHI Institute. 1998, Angel Healing Center, 2001]. The second device is the Nostrafon Infrasound Wave Massager from Novafon, which is said to provide a 2.25-in. deep massage using mixedfrequency sound waves [Back Be Nimble. 2001]. Such vibrotherapy devices are used for treating horses [Timberline Farms. 1999] and athletes [CHI Institute. 2001]. [The Chi infrasound device is said to calm race horses by stimulating production of alpha brain waves [Brunker, M. 2001] The HydroSonic Relaxation System delivers infrasound and other low-frequency sound to the body by water conduction through a heated water mattress. The treatments can be applied through clothing and casts and the low-frequency waves can be programmed to penetrate surface muscles and internal organs to massage deep tissue. Typical treatments last about 30 minutes. The frequencies are generated by a compact disc and amplified. Users are said to include physicians, trainers, physical therapists, chiropractors, and spas [HydroSonic Systems, 2001]. 3.6 Industrial Sources Infrasound exposure is not uncommon in the vicinity of operating heavy machinery. In a Finnish survey of industrial work sites, infrasound pressure levels 24 

usually ranged from 80 to 100 dB, significantly higher than in the vicinity of the workplace. Highest infrasound levels were produced by blowers, pumps, oil burners, air compressors, drying towers, and heavy rotating machinery. The highest level (127 dB) was measured 100 m from a crusher at a mine [Janhunen, H.K. 1984] 3.7 Nonlethal Weapons The U.S. Army has an infrasound weapons program, and infrasound is being considered for riot control and other police actions. The use of infrasound-generating nonlethal weapons is based on the assumption that high-power infrasound will incapacitate those subjected to it with nausea and other gastrointestinal disturbances. Transmission of infrasound energy through the air is not as efficient as transmission through mechanical vibrations at infrasound frequencies. One argument against the feasibility of the use of infrasound in nonlethal weapons is that infrasound's wavelengths (17 m and above) are so long that they spread out too rapidly to be focused [Hecht.J, 1999]. A device that can aim parametric infrasound without affecting the user could generate infrasound by mixing two ultrasonic acoustic waves [Swanson, D.C, 1999]. Such a method has been tested in Great Britain. Other infrasound-generation devices may have been used for riot control in Northern Ireland [Altmann, J. 1999]. Some examples of infrasonic weaponry that some people have been “quietly” talking about are: Sophar”: non-lethal high power acoustic radiator used for riot suppression [J. R. Jauchem, 2007]. “Squawk box”: supposedly build and tested in Ireland by the British army, but existence denied by the ministry of defense. The main idea is to create a 2 Hz frequency using the combination of two high tones (16 KHz and 16.002 KHz) [J. R. Jauchem, 2007], [J. Altmann, 1999]. “Infrasound room”: a building can work as ahelmoltz resonator if infrasound is played through the ventilation ducts [R. Vinokur, 2004]. “Vortex ring generators”: they use several impact pulses near the resonant frequency of the human body via a standard grenade launcher previously converted into a vortex generator [R. Vinokur, 2004]. “Curdler”: annoying shrieking sound below the threshold of pain played at different intervals is believed to create a sound barrier and demolish enemy structures [J. Altmann, 1999], [Acoustic Weapons, 2007]. “High power beam” created by an explosive-driven pulser or a piston by forcing air into tubes. Researched by ARDEC (Army Armament Research, Development and Engineering Centre) [J. Altmann, 1999]. “Device propelling a baseball-sized acoustic pulse of about 10 Hz over hundred of metres, scalable up to lethal levels” [J. Altmann, 1999]. Acoustic blaster [R. Vinokur, 2004]. 3.8 Other Sources Other sources include explosions, bridge vibration, and air heating and cooling equipment [Berger, E.H. 1996]. Infrasound sound pressure levels of predominantly single frequencies (i.e. tones) were low under a bridge, inside an automobile, and beside a cooling tower. Sound pressure levels were also low beside a refrigerator and inside a 25 

computer room. A washing machine in the spin cycle (dehydration process) emitted infrasound at 81 dB. Wooden houses have higher sound pressure levels (highest level > 100 dB) than concrete structures [Okada, S. 1990]. 3.9 Acoustic wave Propagation Acoustic waves, in contrast to electromagnetic radiation, require a physical medium to support their propagation. The particles of the medium oscillate about their equilibrium position, and at the pattern of changing particle displacement with time may be used to depict wave propagation Fig (3.2) for waves in the fluids the direction of this particle displacement is the same as the direction in which the wave propagate, giving rise to a longitudinal wave. But this isn’t always true and, in general, the displacement has both magnitude and direction. Elastic solids can also support shear waves. In an isotropic medium, particle displacement in a shear wave is perpendicular to the propagation direction, so waves in solids can be transverse as well as longitudinal. Hard tissues such as bone can support shear waves, but for soft tissues, which tend to have a very small shear modulus, only longitudinal waves are of significance [Health protection agency, 2010]. The attenuation of sound in air increases with the square of the frequency of the sound and is very low at low frequencies. Other attenuating factors, such as absorption by the ground and shielding by barriers, are also low at low frequencies. The net result is that the very low frequencies of infrasound are not attenuated during propagation as much as higher frequencies, although the reduction in intensity due to spreading out from the source still applies. This is a reduction of 6dB for each doubling of distance. Wind and temperature also affect the propagation [Leventhall G, 2003]. 3.10 Resonance and control Resonance occurs in enclosed, or partially open, spaces. When the wavelength of a sound is twice the longest dimensions of a room, the condition for lowest frequency resonance occurs. From c = X f, if a room is 5m long, the lowest resonance is at 34Hz, which is above the infrasonic range. However, a room with an open door or window can act as a Helmholtz resonator. This is the effect which is similar to that obtained when blowing across the top of an empty bottle. The resonance frequency is lower for greater volumes, with the result that Helmholtz resonances in the range of about 5Hz to 10Hz are possible in rooms with a suitable door, window or ventilation opening. Infrasound is difficult to stop or absorb. Attenuation by an enclosure requires extremely heavy walls, whilst absorption requires a thickness of absorbing material up to about a quarter wavelengths thick, which could be several meters [Leventhall G, 2003].

26 

3.11 Measurements

Figure 3.2- The G-weighting curve. There is a Linear Weighting, also known as Zweighting, which has a flat frequency response from 10Hz to 20 kHz. More detail of the noise, in particular the presence of tones, can be found from a third octave or narrow band analysis. 3.12 Averaging Sound level meters give a numerical representation of the noise. However, this is obtained by averaging over a period of time that, for fluctuating noises, is generally longer than the period of the fluctuations, leading to a loss of information on the fluctuations. The widespread use of the equivalent level discards important information on the quality of the noise, its spectral properties and corresponding perceived sound character (Leventhall G, 2003). 3.13 Regulations and Criteria A search of several Code of Federal Regulations titles and recent reviews indicated that there are no international regulations for permissible exposure limits for infrasound exposure. OSHA, (2001) provides limits based on length of exposure to sound pressure levels of 90 to 115 dB A slow responses (eight hours down to 15 minutes or less). The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) recommends that except for impulsive sound with durations of less than two seconds, one-third octave levels for frequencies between 1 and 80 Hz should not exceed a SPL ceiling limit of 145 dB and the overall un weighted SPL should not exceed a SPL ceiling limit of 150 dB; no time limits are specified for these recommended levels [ACGIH, 2001]. Under its occupational guidelines for infrasound exposure, the New Zealand 27 

Occupational Safety and Health Service recommended using guidance for safe infrasound exposure given by [von Gierke and Nixon, 1976 and Woodson 1981]. NASA, 1995 established criteria for noise exposure applicable to space craft and space stations. The infrasonic, long-term annoyance noise exposure requirements stated that the infrasound sound pressure level in natural and induced environments SHALL be less than 120 dB in the frequency range 1 to 16 Hz for 24-hour exposure. [WHO ,1980] and [U.S. EPA ,1974] did not give any guidance for an upper limit to infrasound exposure. 3.14 Audibility of infrasound and low-frequency noise Hearing thresholds in the infrasonic and low-frequency region are shown in Fig 3.1. The solid line above 20 Hz is the low-frequency end of the ISO standard threshold (ISO:226, 2003). The dashed curve, 4–125 Hz, is from Watanabe and Møller (Watanabe and Møller, 1990). There is good correspondence between the two threshold measurements in the overlap region, although the low-frequency thresholds were obtained for a much smaller sample than the ISO standard thresholds. Both thresholds were obtained using otologically normal young people. Numerical values of the threshold are given in Table 3.1, which shows perception down to 4Hz for sufficient stimulus levels, whilst other work has demonstrated hearing at lower frequencies than 4Hz (Yeowart et al., 1967). However, there is a reduction in slope of the hearing threshold below about 15 Hz from approximately 20 dB/octave above 15 Hz to about 12 dB/octave below. (Yeowart et al., 1967). The common assumption that ‘‘infrasound’’ is inaudible is incorrect, arising from an unfortunate choice of descriptor.

Figure 3.3 - Hearing threshold levels in the infrasonic and low-frequency range 28 

Table 3

Threshold levels Freq (Hz) Level (DB)

4

8

107 100

10

12.5

16

20

25

31.5

40

50

63

80

100 125 160 200

97

92

88

79

69

60

51

44

38

32

27

22

18

14

3.15 Natural infrasound We are enveloped in naturally occurring infrasound, which is in the range from about 0.01–2 Hz and is at inaudible levels. The lower limit of one cycle in a 100 s separates infrasound, as a propagating wave, from all but the fastest fluctuations in barometric pressure. There are many natural sources of infrasound, including meteors, volcanic eruptions, ocean waves, wind and any effect which leads to slow oscillations of the air. Manmade sources include explosions, large combustion processes, slow speed fans and machinery. Fig 3.4 from an undated internet paper by Bedard (2000), compares the frequency ranges and levels of natural infrasound with the hearing threshold. Much natural infrasound is lower in frequency than 1Hz and below the hearing threshold. The indication ‘‘running’’ near the center of Fig 3.5 shows the frequency and level of infrasound which is experienced during running, due to changes in the height of the head. Similarly, a child on a swing experiences infrasound at a level of around 110 dB and frequency 0.5 Hz, depending on the suspended length and change in height during the swing.

Figure 3.4 - Natural infrasound 29 

3.16 Alternative receptors Public concerns on inaudible infrasound possibly arise from confusion of the work on subjective effects, which has been carried out at high, audible levels (Mohr et al., 1965) with the popular mindset that infrasound is inaudible. The question arises of whether there is a hierarchy of receptors of which the ear is the most sensitive, except at the lower frequencies, when other receptors may come into prominence. Several vibration and contact detectors reside in the skin, covering different frequency ranges (Johnson, 2001). The Pacinian corpuscles are the most sensitive, with a threshold displacement of about 0.002mm at around 200 Hz. Their sensitivity into lower frequencies reduces at approximately 50 dB per decade from the maximum sensitivity. The threshold displacement of 0.002mm at 200 Hz is similar to the particle displacement in air of a 200 Hz sound wave of 94 dB (1 Pa) pressure, which is a very loud sound. Since the particle displacement in a sound wave of fixed pressure doubles as the frequency is halved (20 dB per decade) it is unlikely that inaudible sound waves will excite subcutaneous receptors. 3.17 Reception through the skin The skin contains multiple sensors which respond to touch, pressure, temperature, pain etc. The Merkel cell, Meissners corpuscles and Pancinian corpuscles respond to vibration as indicated in Figure 3.5 reproduced from Jones (Jones, undated).

Figure 3.5 - Threshold sensitivity of receptors in the skin

There is the question: are these more or less sensitive receivers than the ear at very low frequencies? The high displacement thresholds shown in Figure 3.6 indicate that, to a normally hearing person, perception through the ear will take precedence. This is borne out by experiments with normally hearing and profoundly deaf persons (Yamada et al., 30 

1983). The threshold of sensation of the deaf subjects was 40- 50dB above the hearing threshold of those with normal hearing up to 63 Hz and greater at higher frequencies. For example about 100dB greater at 1 kHz, at which level perception was by the subject’s residual hearing. Deaf subjects felt sensations mainly in the chest. 3.18 Unusual perception The evidence is that the ear is the most sensitive receptor for infrasound and lowfrequency sound, that if you cannot hear a sound you cannot perceive it in other ways and it does not affect you. However, unusual sensitivity is sometimes reported, for example by Feldmann and Pitten (2004). Here a family complained of disturbance at night, and consequent effects on health, allegedly caused by noise from a boiler house. Measured levels were higher at times of disturbance, but well below the median threshold. For example, at 10 Hz where the threshold is 97 dB, a measured level of 35 dB caused disturbance, whilst a level of 15 dB did not. Separate laboratory measurements of the complainants’ low-frequency thresholds showed these to be close to the median, leaving the precise mode of detection still unexplained, although it was noted that the higher levels, and consequent annoyance, were associated with windy conditions. The complainants descriptions of the noise and its effects on them included ‘‘very low frequency, hum, drone, intermittent pulsating, pain in the legs and in the area of the stomach.’’ These are similar to the effects which arise in the many unresolved ‘‘Hum’’ complaints, referred to below. The levels measured in this boiler house investigation were similar to the levels at low frequencies which occur generally in the ambient sound environment. The World Health Organization has recognised that the general assessment measures for environmental noise are deficient for evaluation of disturbance from noises with large low-frequency components (Berglund et al., 2000). But, of course, audibility and measurement are essential for assessment. Unwanted noises, including infrasound and low-frequency noise, do have stress related effects on hearers, as shown in ‘‘The Hum’’, a noise of unknown origin, not normally detectable by sensitive measuring equipment, but causing considerable problems to a small number of people, for whom it leads to a stressful, poor quality of life. The Hum is heard in a number of developed countries and remains an acoustic mystery, such that its origin may not be acoustic, although the sensation which it produces is that of a sound (Leventhall et al., 2003). Perception of electromagnetic radiation has been popularly suggested as the source of the Hum. This is without scientific foundation, but grasped at as a fall-back when measurements have failed to show a causative noise, and is also driven by Hum sufferers’ strong psychological urge to discover the origin of their problem. Electro sensitivity normally manifests as skin problems, along with other symptoms which are similar to those of Hum complainants, except that, in reported investigations of electro sensitivity, low-frequency noise is not cited as an associated problem (Hillert, 2001; Irvine, 2005; Seitz et al., 2005). However Hillert (Hillert, 2001) does state that those who exhibit electro sensitivity are more likely to be sensitive to unwanted sounds and other environmental stressors. There 31 

is no evidence that electromagnetic radiation produces a false sensation of infrasound and low-frequency noise, but much conjecture, although it is known that high peak levels of pulsed electromagnetic radiation do lead to auditory effects, such as clicks and buzzes (Elder and Chou, 2003). 3.19 Public perceptions This section briefly traces how the Public has been misled by the media about infrasound, resulting in needless fears and anxieties. Early work on low-frequency noise and its subjective effects was stimulated by the American space programme. Launch vehicles produce high noise levels with maximum energy in the low-frequency region. Furthermore, as the vehicle accelerates, the crew compartment is subjected to boundary layer turbulence noise for about 2 min after lift-off. Experiments were carried out in low-frequency noise chambers on short-term subjective tolerance to bands of noise at very high levels of 140–150 dB, in the frequency range up to 100 Hz (Mohr et al., 1965). It was concluded that the subjects, who were experienced in noise exposure and who were wearing ear protection, could tolerate both broadband and discrete frequency noise in the range 1–100 Hz at sound pressure levels up to 150 dB. Later work suggests that, for 24 h exposure, levels of 120–130 dB are tolerable below 20 Hz. These limits were set to prevent direct physiological damage, not for comfort (Von Gierke and Nixon, 1976; Westin, 1975). The American work did not attract media attention, but in the late 1960s two papers from France led to much publicity and speculative exaggerations. (Gavreau, 1968; Gavreau et al., 1966). Although the papers carry ‘‘infrasound’’ in their titles, there is very little on frequencies below 20 Hz. Some rather casual and irresponsible experiments of the ‘‘try it and see’’ variety were carried out on exposure of the laboratory staff, primarily using high-intensity pneumatic sources at frequencies generally at the upper end of the low frequency range, or above. For example, 196 Hz at 160 dB sound level and 340 Hz at 155 dB sound level. A high intensity whistle at 2600 Hz is also included in the ‘‘infrasound’’ papers. It is not unexpected that the exposures were subjectively unpleasant. Exposure levels were not given for frequencies of 37 and 7 Hz, although the 7Hz caused disturbance. Unfortunately, these papers by Gavreau were seized upon by the press and presented to claim that infrasound was dangerous. For example ‘‘the silent killer all around us’’, London Evening News, 25 May 1974. When work by other investigators detected fairly low levels of infrasound in, for example, road vehicles, the press was delighted. For example ‘‘the silent sound menaces drivers’’—Daily Mirror, 19 October 1969. ‘‘Danger in unheard car sounds’’ The Observer, 21 April 1974. The most deplorable example, in a book which claimed to have checked its sources, was in ‘‘Supernature’’ by Lyall Watson (published by Coronet, 1973). In this it is claimed that the technician who gave one of Gavreau’s high-power sources its trial run ‘‘fell down dead on the spot’’ and that two infrasonic generators ‘‘focused on a point even five miles away produce a resonance that can knock a building down as effectively 32 

as a major earthquake.’’ These statements are, of course, totally incorrect but are clear contributors to some of the unfounded concerns which the public feels about infrasound. Unfortunately, they have been read by many people, as ‘‘Supernature’’ has gone into a number of reprints. Similarly, statements that infrasound can be felt but not heard are misleading. Infrasound, and its companion low-frequency noise, now occupy a special position in the national psyche of a number of countries, where they lie in wait for an activating trigger to re-generate concerns of effects on health. Earlier triggers have been defence establishments and gas pipelines. A current trigger is wind turbines. However, there are genuine problems arising from low-level audible noise, particularly in the low-frequency region, where the loudness contours are close together (Fig 1) and there is a more rapid rise in loudness sensation with increase of level. The normal variations in hearing threshold may lead to only one member of a family detecting a noise, with consequent additional distress for the hearer. As low-frequency noise has little propagation attenuation, other than geometrical spreading, the source might be distant and difficult to locate, leading to an intractable problem and adding further to the mystique which is associated with these frequencies. 3.20 Development of enhanced susceptibility It is known that different regions of the brain are responsible for different functions. The brain also possesses "plasticity", in the sense that parts within the same region may change their function. (Schnupp and Kacelnick, 2002). For example, extensive training in a frequency discrimination task leads to improved discrimination ability and an expansion of the cortical area responsive to the frequencies used during training. Schnupp and Kacelnick quote supporting work on animals as follows: Guinea pigs, trained to associate presentation of a particular pure tone with an unpleasant, but mild, electric shock to the paw, learned to avoid the shock by withdrawing their paw when presented with the tone. Subsequent electro -physiological examination indicated that neurons, originally tuned to frequencies on either side of the conditioning frequency, had shifted their tuning curves towards that frequency. The shift of frequency tuning meant that more cells in the cortex were available to signal the presence of the conditioned stimulus and that this signal is sensed clearly and unambiguously. Guinea pigs, trained to associate presentation of a particular pure tone with an unpleasant, but mild, electric shock to the paw, learned to avoid the shock by withdrawing their paw when presented with the tone. Subsequent electro -physiological examination indicated that neurons, originally tuned to frequencies on either side of the conditioning frequency, had shifted their tuning curves towards that frequency. The shift of frequency tuning meant that more cells in the cortex were available to signal the presence of the conditioned stimulus and that this signal is sensed clearly and unambiguously. Owl monkeys, trained through a reward and denial regime to discriminate a target 33 

frequency from different frequencies, were shown to have a shift in neural tuning curves and a sharpening of frequency tuning for the target. In humans, there is considerable plasticity in the brain during its early development, requiring appropriate stimuli for proper growth. Plastic adaptation is slower in the adult brain. Two examples of plastic adaptation are: London taxi drivers have been shown, through magnetic resonance I maging, to have an enlarged posterior hippocampus compared with control subjects who did not drive taxis. (Maguire et al., 2000). Taxi driver’s anterior hippocampal regions were, however, smaller than controls. Posterior hippocampal volume correlated positively with time spent as a taxi driver, whilst anterior hippocampal volume correlated negatively. The conclusion is that, in order to learn the thousands of routes required for their work, that part of the brain associated with spatial navigation, the posterior hippocampus, enlarged at the expense of neighbouring regions. There has been a similar finding for skilled musicians (Pantev et al., 1998). Cortical reorganisation was greater the younger the age at which learning Began The significance of these findings for low frequency noise sufferers is: • There is clear evidence that the brain is able to adapt to stimuli. • If sufferers spend a great deal of time listening to, and listening for, their particular noise, it is possible that they may develop enhanced susceptibility to this noise. • Enhanced susceptibility is therefore a potential factor in low frequency noise problems. 3.21 Objective effects 3.21.1 Aural pain This is not a hearing sensation, but arises from displacements of the middle ear system beyond its comfortable limits. Persons with both hearing ability and hearing loss, and with normal middle ears, exhibit aural pain at similar stimulus level, which is at about 165 dB at 2 Hz, reducing to 145 dB at 20 Hz. Static pressure produces pain at 175–180 dB, whilst eardrum rupture occurs at 185–190 dB. (von Gierke and Nixon, 1976). A pressure of 5104 Pa, which is about half atmospheric pressure, is equivalent to 188 dB. It appears that low frequency noise will produce TTS in some subjects after short exposure, but that the recovery is rapid and complete. Work has not been carried out on the effects of very long exposures to high levels of low frequency noise. The levels experienced in exposure to environmental low frequency noise are considerably lower than the levels used in the hearing loss experiments described above. 3.21.2 Body Vibrations It is possible that body organs resonate within the low frequency range. Complainants of low frequency noise sometimes report a feeling of vibrations through their body. 34 

3.21.3 Whole body exposure Work has been carried out on body vibrations produced by whole body exposure to low frequency noise. (Brown, 1976; Kyriakides, 1977; Leventhall et al., 1977; Takahashi et al., 2002; Takahashi and Maeda, 2002). The vibratory response of the

Figure 3.6 - Example of male chest vibration at 107dB

body to acoustic stimulation 26 is different from its response to mechanical vibration through the feet or seat. Low frequency acoustic stimulation acts over the whole body surface. The work by Brown, Kyriakides and Leventhall was carried out in a small chamber, in which it was possible to maintain a constant excitation level of noise over the frequency range from 3Hz to 100Hz at up to 107dB. Resonance was detected by an accelerometer mounted on a small plate on an elastic belt, which held the accelerometer in contact with the body. For chest resonance measurements, the accelerometer was positioned over the sternum. Other measurement sites were at the front of the stomach and on the shin muscles. The output of the accelerometer was recorded during a frequency sweep from 3Hz to 100Hz at 107dB. The most prominent effect was a chest resonance, occurring in the range from about 30Hz to 80Hz, depending on stature and gender, but mostly near the centre region of this range. The vibration was clearly felt by the subjects and modulated their voices, producing a croaky effect. Repeating the measurements with the subjects breathing a heliumoxygen mixture resulted in the same chest resonance frequency, although voices acquired the typical higher pitch of helium speech. This isolates the resonance to a structural source, the rib cage, rather than within body cavities, such as 35 

the lungs. A chest resonance is shown in Figure 3.6 for a male subject and excitation at 107dB. The maximum acceleration is 0.05g. There were smaller effects at other body locations. References 1. British-Standards, 1995. BS4727-3 Electrotechnical, power, telecommunication, electronics and lighting. Part 3: terms particular to telecommunications and electronics. Group 08: acoustics and electroacoustics. 2. IEC, 1994. 60050-801:1994 International electrotechnical vocabulary—chapter 801: acoustics and electroacoustics. 3. Watanabe, T., Møller, H., 1990. Low frequency hearing thresholds in pressure field and free field. J. Low Frequency Noise Vibrat. 9, 106–115. 4. Yeowart, N.S., Bryan, M.E., Tempest, W., 1967. The monaural MAP threshold of hearing at frequencies from 1.5 to 100 c/s. J. Sound Vibrat. 6, 335–342 5. ISO:226, 2003. Acoustics—normal equal-loudness contours. 6. Winiarski, M. 1983. The danger of silent noise. Arbetsmiljo (6):31-34. 7. Johnson, D.L. 1976. Infrasound: Its Sources and Its Effects on Man. AMRL-TR-76-17. Aerospace Medical Research Lab. Wright-Patterson AFB, OH. NTIS report no. AD-A032 401/2. NTIS record 1977(01):10899. 8. Berger, E.H. 1996. Protection from infrasonic and ultrasonic noise exposure. Aearo Company, EARLog® 14 (14th in a comprehensive series of technical monographs covering topics related to hearing and hearing protection). Available at http://www.aearo.com/html/industrial/earlog14.htm. 9. Westin, J.B. 1975. Infrasound: A short review of effects on man. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 46(9):1135-1140. 10. United Steelworkers of America. 2000. National Health, Safety & Environment. Conference 2000. Noise: From Awareness to Action. p. 9. Available at http://www.uswa.ca/eng/hs&e/NOISE.pdf. Last accessed on September 16, 2001. 11. D. Guzas, R. Virsilas ,2009. Infrasound hazards for the environment and the ways of protection” ISSN 1392-2114 ULTRAGARSAS (ULTRASOUND), Vol. 64, No. 3, P 34-37. 12. SRC (Syracuse Research Corporation). 1980. Infrasonics. In: Information Profiles on Potential Occupational Hazards. Vol. III. Industrial Processes. NTIS order no. PB81- 147852. pp. 324-333. 13. Janhunen, H.K. 1984. Infrasound at working places in Finland. In: Combined Effects of Occupational Exposures. Proceedings of the Fourth Finnish-Soviet Joint Symposium. Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland. pp. 134-139. 14. Okada, A., and R. Inaba. 1990. Comparative study of the effects of infrasound and lowfrequency sound with those of audible sound on sleep. Environ. Int. 16(4-6):483-490 15. Sidorenko, E.I., V.V. Filatov, and Yu. M. Alimova. 1999. Clinical assessment of infrasonic phonophoresis efficacy in the treatment of bacterial keratitis. Vestn. Oftalmol. 115(2):31-32. 16. Sidorenko, E.I., S.A. Obrubov, and A.R. Tumasian. 1997. Experience of clinical use of infrasound pneumomassage in the treatment of progressive myopia in school children. Vestn. Oftalmol. 113(3):18-20. 17. Poddubnaya, O.A., E.F. Levitskii, and E.I. Beloborodova. 1999. The effect of thermalvibration massage on the function of the hepatobiliary system in patients with chronic cholecystitis and opisthorchiasis. Vopr. Kurortol. Fizioter. Fiz. Kult. (6):19-21. 18. InfraMed. undated. Profiel (Dutch). Available at http://www.inframed.nl/profiel/profiel.html. Last accessed on August 27, 2001. 19. Naoun, A., and B. Legras. 1974. Infrasound and vibrotherapy. Feuill. Electroradiol.14 (84):3-12. 20. CHI Institute. 1998. CHI Institute Infratronic. Available at http://www.chinahealthways. com/infratronic.html. Last accessed on August 29, 2001. 36 

21. Angel Healing Center (The). undated. Infratronic QGM Quantum: The power of chi at your finger tips. Available at Last accessed on August 27, 2001. 22. Back Be Nimble. 2001. Nostrafon – The infrasound (sub-sonic) wave massager from Novafon. Available at http://backbenimble.com/new/pages/novafon/index.htm?cont=1 Last accessed on August 27, 2001. 23. Timberline Farms. 1999. Equine infrasonic therapy services. Available at http://www. timberlinefarms.com/equine_infrasonic_therapy_servic.htm. Last accessed on August 29, 2001. 24. CHI Institute. 2001. Infrasound profiles: An interview with Dr. Ronald J. Riegel, DVM and certified human neurophysiologist. CHI Newsletter. CHI Institute. Available at http://www. chinahealthways.com/newsletters/104/104_A.html. Last accessed on September 16, 2001. 25. Brunker, M. 2001. Seeking the alternative therapy edge: More trainers use acupuncture, other treatments on their horses. MSNBC news story. Available at http://www.msnbc.com/news/567829.asp. Last accessed on September 16, 2001 26. HydroSonic Systems. undated. HydroSonic relaxation table. Available at http://www. hydrosonic. com/hydroson.htm. Last accessed on September 16, 2001 27. Hecht. J. 1999. Not a sound idea. New Sci. March 20, 1999. Available at http://trauma.cofa.unsw.edu.au/Infrasound/NewScientist01.html. Last accessed on September 16, 2001. 28. Swanson, D.C. Non-lethal acoustic weapons: Facts, fiction, and the future. Abstract of presentation at the NTAR 1999 Symposium. Available at http://www.unh.edu/orps/nonlethality/pub/ abstracts/1999/swanson.html. Last accessed on September 16, 2001. 29. Altmann, J. 1999. Acoustic Weapons. 83-page review available at the web site of the College of Fine Arts, University of New South Wales. pp. 3-8, 14, 16-22, 37-40, 43, 49-51, 55¬58, 61. 30. Jauchem JR and Cook MC (2007). High-intensity acoustics for military non-lethal applications: a Iack of useful systems. Military Med, 172(2), 182-9. 31. R. Vinokur, "Acoustic Noise as a Non-Lethal Weapon, “Sound and Vibration, 2004. 32. Health protection agency 2010 health effects of exposure to ultrasound and infrasound: Report of independent advisory group on Non ionizing radiation Available at www.defera.gov.uk. 33. Leventhall G, pelmear P and Benton S (2003). A Review of Published Research on Low Frequency Noise and its Effects .Report for the department for environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Available at www.defera.gov.uk( accessed February 2009). 34. OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration). 2001. 29 CFR 1926.52 Occupational noise exposure. Available at http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/multidb.cgi. Last accessed on September 16, 2001. 35. ACGIH. 2001. Infrasound and Low-Frequency Sound. In: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values for Physical Agents. ACGIH® Worldwide. Cincinnati, OH. pp 1-15. 36. Von Gierke and Nixon, 1976, cited by NZ OSHS, 1996. 37. Woodson, 1981, cited by NZ OSHS, 1996. 38. NASA (National Air and Space Administration). 1995. Section 5, Natural and induced environments. SSP 50005B. p. 5-5 (section 5.4.3.2.1.5). Available at http://procure.msfc.nasa.gov/jsc/ documents/RFIBJ2PP1I/ssp50005rb5.pdf. Last accessed September 16, 2001. 39. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1974. Information on Levels of Environmental Noise Requisite to Protect Public Health and Welfare with an Adequate Margin of Safety. U.S. EPA Office of Noise Abatement and Control. p. 28. Available at http://www.nonoise.or/library/levels74/levels74.htm. Last accessed on September 6, 2001. 40. WHO (World Health Organization). 1980. Environmental Health Criteria 12. Noise. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. pp. 46-47. 41. Bedard, A.J., 2000. Infrasonic and near infrasonic atmosphere sounding and imaging (No date). www.etl.noaa.gov/et1/infrasound/ infrasonic.html. 42. Bedard, A.J., George, T.M., 2000. Atmospheric infrasound. Phys. Today 53 (3), 32–37. 43. Mohr, G.C., Cole, J.N., Guild, E., Gierke, H.E.V., 1965. Effects of low frequency and infrasonic noise on man. Aerospace Med. 36, 817–824. 44. Yamada, S., Ikuji, M., Fujikata, S., Watanabe, T., Kosaka, T., 1983. Body sensations of 37 

low frequency noise of ordinary persons and profoundly deaf persons. J. Low Frequency Noise Vibrat. 2, 32–36. 45. Feldman J and Pitten FA (2004). Effects of low frequency noise on man- acase study Noise health, 7, and 23-8. 46. Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., Schwela, D., Goh, K.-T., 2000. Guidlines for Community Noise. World Health Organisation. 47. Hillert, L., 2001. Hypersensitivity to electricity; symptoms, risk factors and therapeutic interventions. Report, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm http://diss.kib.ki.se/2001/91-7349-0164/thesis.pdf . 48. Irvine, N., 2005. Definition, epidemiology and managment of electrical sensitivity. Health Protection Agency Report HPA—RPD—010. 49. Seitz, H., Stinner, D., Eikmann, T., Herr, C., Roosli, M., 2005. Electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS) and subjective health complaints associated with electromagnetic fields of mobile phone communication—a litewrature review published between 2000 and 2004. Sci. Total Environ. 349, 45–65. 50. Elder, J.A., Chou, C.K., 2003. Auditory response to pulsed radiofrequency energy. Bioelectromagn. Suppl. 6, S162–S173. 51. Westin, J.B., 1975. Infrasound: a short review of effects on man. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 46, 1135–1140. 52. Gavreau, V., 1968. Infrasound. Sci. J. 4, 33–37. 53. Gavreau, V., Condat, R., Saul, H., 1966. Infra-sons: generateur, detecteurs, proprietes physique, effets biologiques. Acustica 17, 1–10. 54. Schnupp, J. W. H., and Kacelnick, O. (2002): Cortical plasticity: Learning from cortical reorganisation. Current Biology 12, 144-146. 55. Maguire, E. A., Gadian, D. G., Johnsrude, I. S., Good, C. D., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., and Frith, C. D. (2000): Navigation related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proc Nat Acad Sci 97, 4398 – 4403. 56. Pantev, C., Oostenveld, R., A, E., Ross, B., Roberts, L. E., and Hoke, M. (1998): Increased auditory cortical response in musicians. Nature April 23 392 (6678), 811-814. 57. Brown, F. D. (1976): Acoustically induced chest vibrations. MSc Chelsea College, University of London. 58. Kyriakides, K., and Leventhall, H. G. (1977): Some effects of infrasound on task performance. J Sound Vibration 50, 369-388. 59. Leventhall, H. G., Brown, F. D., and Kyriakides, K. (1977): Somatic responses to low frequency noise. Proc ICA, Madrid, 1977. 60. Takahashi, Y., and Maeda, S. (2002): Measurement of human body surface vibration induced by complex low frequency noise. 10th International Meeting Low Frequency Noise and Vibration and its Control. York UK (Editor: H G Leventhall), 135-142. 61. Kyriakides, K., and Leventhall, H. G. (1977): Some effects of infrasound on taskperformance. J Sound Vibration 50, 369-388.



CHAPTER 4

4.1 Biological effects of Infrasound Research into the possible biological effects of infrasound was stimulated by the American space program and there were concerns about the safety of astronauts during launch when intense levels of infrasound and low frequency noise were generated. The proposition that exposure to infrasound may induce adverse effects on health has a long history, and remain highly controversial [Leventhal et al, 2007]. However, few volunteer or observation studies appear to have investigated these possibilities [Leventhal et al, 2003]. It has been proposed that specific weather conditions, possibly associated with changes in levels of natural infrasound, may affect behavior and health [Moos, 1963], although these suggestions have not been substantiated. In addition, there are reports that chronic exposure to unwanted, low frequency acoustic sources in the environment may also induce nonspecific symptoms of stress, including headaches, nausea and loss of sleep [Leventhal et al 2003, 2008] but it cannot be excluded that these effects occur due to audible noise. Harding and Colleagues have investigated the various effects of noise on cochlear function in animals. Recently reported that exposure to infrasound had minimal effects alone but increased the damaging effects associated with intense audible noise [Harding et al, 2007]. Negative impacts of infrasound are perceived as subjective feelings of tiredness, sleepiness and lowering of psychomotor activity, disturbed body equilibrium and physiological functions, These subjective feelings are corroborated by changes in the central nervous system, characteristic of the reduced waking state, particularly dangerous for machine operators ,Empirical investigations reveal the occurrence of the driving response effect, where by the fundamental frequency of the exciting signal or its harmonic becomes the dominating frequency of bioelectric activity of the brain [Zbigniew DAMIJAN1, Jerzy WICIAK2.,2005]. Infrasound affects people biologically, when its frequency (7-8 Hz) coincides with the alpha rhythms of the brain (flows of certain frequency). The frequency of sounds of 18-19 Hz coincides with the resonance frequency of eyes; therefore it may cause optical illusions. This may be very dangerous when driving the means of transport and the like. When conducting research of the impact of infrasound on the environment, it was established that infrasound waves may cause the feeling of fear and anxiety. Infrasound of 120 dB (and stronger) is very dangerous to the human organism; in addition, infrasound waves may ruin or damage the constructions of buildings. At the present moment, the infrasound weapon of mass destruction has been created, the operation of which is based on the inducement and use of powerful infrasound vibrations (frequency of 16 Hz). Infrasound waves affect the central nervous and digestive system, cause pain of the head and internal organs, and interfere with the rhythm of respiration. Giddiness, 39 

vomiting, loss of consciousness, and blindness may become manifest. Infrasound also has an effect on human consciousness (the individual fails to control his actions), arouses the feeling of horror, which sometimes is the cause of death [D. Guzas, R. Virsilas., 2009]. The impact of infrasound on the individual and other environmental organisms has been studied insufficiently, but in most cases it is negative. It is identified that some lowfrequency sounds or infrasound are of negative action: sound at the frequency of 37 Hz causes cardiac, pulmonary and stomach disorders; due to frequently heard 16 Hz frequency the activity of the stomach gets disturbed. It is notable that we can feel very low and high sounds, beyond the limit of hearing, with all the body, like mechanical vibrations, heat and the like. Sounds, with the frequency lower than 16 Hz, are harmful to the individual, causing the unjustified fear, anxiety, fatigue, "sea" disease symptoms, and may be harmful to eyesight and become the cause of the serious health disorders. Especially dangerous is infrasound at the frequency of 7 Hz, since this sound, generating frequencies, close to characteristic frequencies of the organs of our body, may disturb the heart or brain activity [D. Guzas, R. Virsilas., 2009]. Altmann in his studies explores the relationship of vibration of the human body with infrasound, by the simple principle of resonance. Also the difference in dimension of the large waves compared to human bodies makes him explore the idea of pressure “At low frequencies where the body dimensions are smaller than the wavelength (2m for frequencies below 170 (Hz), the same momentary pressure applies everywhere, and the tissue behaves as a viscoelastic fluid with much lower compressibility than air” [J. Altmann., 1999]. Infrasound is a source of physical changes in humans. Due to the resonant frequencies of several organs, changes in the performance of them can be experienced with the presence of this phenomenon. Caution is recommended for people dealing with these low frequencies, even though no international standard has been written [Diana, C.F., 2007]. Low frequency sound can have far reaching biological consequences which scientists are just beginning to understand. In view of this the precautionary principle demands that at least further increase of low frequency should be limited. Relatively simple methods are available [Martin van den Berg, 2005]. Recent interest in the potential adverse human health effects of infrasound (generally inaudible sound with a frequency of 1000 Hz. Therefore, levels of continuous infrasound for short periods are believed to be "safe" if below 150 dB, while exposures up to 24 hours are believed to be "safe" if at or below 118 dB Impulse-type infrasound was judged to be definitely safe below 150 dB and possibly safe at higher levels [Johnson, D.L. 1982]. When male volunteers were exposed to simulated industrial infrasound of 5 and 10 Hz and levels of 100 and 135 dB for 15 minutes, feeling of fatigue, apathy, and depression, pressure in the ears, loss of concentration, drowsiness, and vibration of internal organs were reported. In addition, effects were found in the central nervous system, the cardiovascular system, and the respiratory system. Synchronization phenomena were enhanced in the left hemisphere. Visual motor responses to stimuli were prolonged, and the strength of effector response was reduced. Heart rate was increased during the initial minutes of exposure. Depression of the encephalic hemodynamics with decreased venous flow from the skull cavity and was observed. Heart muscle contraction strength was reduced. Respiration rate was significantly reduced after the first minute of exposure [Karpova, N.I., et al 1970] Exposure to 6 and 16 Hz at levels 10 dB above the hearing threshold was associated with a reduction in wakefulness [Landstrom, U., M. Bystrom. 1984]. The effects of long-term exposure to infrasound were studied in 40 active Swiss air force pilots who were exposed to a frequency of 14 or 16 Hz at 125 dB Somatic and psychic functions were affected in the following ways: blood pressure was decreased causing deterioration of blood suffusion of vital organs; heart rate and blood pressure were increased during psychological tests; alertness was decreased; the electrical resistance of the skin was decreased more quickly versus unexposed individuals; and hearing threshold and time perception were altered [Lidstrom, I.M. et al. 1978]. Five noise-experienced Air Force officers (4 males, 1 female; 24 to 46 years old) were exposed for up to two minutes to high-intensity broad-band, narrow-band, and pure-tone low-frequency noise (sources: turbojet engine, Thermal Structures Tunnel, RTD Low-Frequency Siren, AMRL High-Intensity Noise Chamber, and NASA-LRC 45 

Low-Frequency Noise Facility) to assess human tolerance to the noises produced during the launching of space crafts. Exposures to low-frequency noise up to 150 dB were observed to be within human tolerance limits. General symptoms reported by the officers exposed to infrasound were minor chest wall and body hair vibration and changes in respiratory action; visual acuity, spatial orientation, and hand coordination were subjectively normal [Mohr G.C. et al., 1965]. Sixteen subjects exposed for three hours to inaudible infrasound and audible infrasound reported annoyance and a feeling of pressure on the ear at 24 hours. None of the studies identified involved exposures of sufficient duration to qualify as sub chronic or chronic studies. 4.2.4.1 Studies in Rats Rats and guinea pigs (5 test animals, 2 controls per group) were exposed to infrasound (4 to 16 Hz) at 90 to 145 dB for 3 h/day for 45 days; and tissues were collected on days 5, 10, 15, 25, and 45 for path morphological examination. A single exposure to 4 to 10 Hz at 120 to 125 dB led to short-term arterial constriction and capillary dilatation in the myocardium. Prolonged exposure led to nuclear deformation, mitochondrial damage, and other pathologies. Effects were most marked after 10- to 15Hz exposures at 135 to 145 dB. Regenerative changes were observed within 40 days after exposure [Alekseev, S.V.,et al. 1985]. Infrasound exposure damaged the nuclear apparatus, intracellular membrane, and mitochondria of rat hepatocytes in vivo. Infrasound (2, 4, 8, or 16 Hz) at 90 to 140 dB for 3 h/day for 40 days induced histopathological and morphological changes in hepatocytes from rats sacrificed on days 5 to 40. Infrasound (8 Hz) at 120 to 140 dB induced pathological changes in hepatocytes from the glandular parenchyma and sinusoids. Changes included the following: x loss of contact between damaged cells x rounded appearance of damaged cells x deformed nuclei x chromatin redistribution to the nuclear membrane x increased cytoplasmic RNA content x RNA became strongly basophilic x diffusive reactive changes at 120 dB such as mitochondrial swelling, a marked increase in x matrix density, and deformation of the cristae x appearance of myelin-type bodies by day 25 x appearance of lipid granules by day 40 Infrasound of 8 and 16 Hz frequencies at 140 dB induced the most damage: x strongly deformed nuclei x zones of lysis of the endoplasmic reticulum in the cytoplasm followed by vacuole formation x Lipid granules in the cytoplasm with osmophilic inclusions Alekseev, [Alekseev S.V., et al, 1987]. Exposure of Sprague-Dawley rats (about 30/group) with cecal crush injuries to highintensity, low-frequency sound (values not given in the abstract) reduced adhesion formation from the 83% incidence in the control rats to 23% in the group exposed to infrasound for the full 12 days. Efficacy of the prophylactic effect, which was attributed to the induced micro motion of the abdominal organs, increased with increasing duration. The induced motion apparently inhibited formation of spanning fibers. The rats did not exhibit any side effects from the infrasound treatment. [Colasante, D.A.,et al. 1981]. 52 

Prolonged exposure (up to 60 days) of rats to 8 Hz at 100 dB led to significant biochemical and morphological changes in the blood and tissues. Dosing the rats with even small doses of imidazoles (ethimizole and T-5) provided a marked protective effect, acting on the antioxidant status of the body. In the experiments, male rats of no specific strain (10/group) were exposed to 8 Hz at 100 dB for 3 h/day for 2 months with and without dosing with ethimizole or T-5, which were also tested alone. The authors reported variable effects of the imidazoles on infrasound-induced changes in erythrocyte concentrations of catalase, malonic acid dialdehyde, and glutathione reductase and the plasma concentrations of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and ceruloplamsin. Infrasound exposure induced tissue changes (destructive and atrophic changes of a focal character without marked gross disturbances in the lungs, liver, and kidneys as well as foci of proliferation of stromal elements) that were moderated by the imidazoles. Only insignificant peribronchial infiltration was noted after dosing. Dystrophic changes in the liver, heart, kidneys, adrenals, and testicles were lowered to a minimum [Dadali, V.A.,et al,1992]. Male rats (20/group) exposed 2 h/day for 4 months to 8 Hz at 90 dB (group 2), 115 dB (group 3), and 135 dB (group 4) showed the following changes: x Groups 2-4 showed increasing activities of -ketoglutarate dehydrogenase with increasing sound pressure. x Group 4 showed a significant decrease in succinate dehydrogenase, with the other groups showing a decreasing trend. x The myocardial content of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and ADP showed a tendency to decrease; group 4 showed significant decreases in both. x The AMP content in the myocardium showed significant increases in groups 3 and 4. x Plasma corticosterone increases were significant in groups 3 and 4. x Changes in the myocardial ultrastructure included changes in the fine structure of the endothelium and myocytes organellas and reduction in the capillary length in the microcirculatory bed. x Pathology was marked at 115 and 135 dB, with 90 dB being the threshold level. x No significant changes were noted in alkaline phosphatase in the myocardium or epinephrine content in the adrenals. [Gabovich, R.D.,et al 1979a]. Combined exposure to ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) electromagnetic fields and infrasound potentiated the effects induced by each separately. Rats were exposed to UHF at 100 mW/cm2, to infrasound (8 Hz) at 110 dB, or to both for 2 h/day for 10 weeks. Parameters studied were measured before exposure and at weeks 2, 6, and 10. All exposures delayed body-weight gain, with the delay from combined exposure being statistically significant. The following effects were observed after exposure to infrasound with and without UHF exposure: x Increased working capacity at 2 weeks but decreased after 6 weeks, especially in rats subjected to the combined treatment. x Increased oxygen requirements at 6 weeks, which returned to normal by 10 weeks. x Increased summation sub threshold parameters (while UHF alone caused decreases) 53 

All treatments significantly increased unconditioned reflexes by week 6, but only rats exposed to infrasound plus UHF showed increases at week 10. All treatments induced significant changes in immunological parameters as shown by decreases in basophil stability and development of autoallergic processes [Gabovich, R.D.,et al 1979b]. Rats and guinea pigs (10 animals per group) were exposed to 8 Hz at 120 dB for 3 h/day for 1, 5, 10, 15, 25, or 40 days. Concentrations of oxidation-reduction enzymes were measured in the myocardium. Pathological changes in myocardial cells, disturbances of the microcirculation, and mitochondrial destruction in endothelial cells of the capillaries increased in severity with increasing length of exposure. Ischemic foci formed in the myocardium. Changes were reversible after exposure ceased [Gordeladze, A.S.,et al. 1986]. An electrified grid positioned in front of a preferred food source was 98 to 99% effective in deterring rats from reaching the food. When a rail over the grid to the food was vibrated infrasonically, only one of the 12 rats learned to use the rail to get to the food. However, infrasound did not prevent the rats from walking on the rail. The frequency and sound pressure level were not given in the abstract [McKillop, I.G.,et al. 1994]. Rats were exposed to noise of frequencies 4, 31.5, or 53 Hz at 110 dB for 0.5 h, 3 h, or 3 h/day for 40 days. Infrasound exposure caused graver changes than exposure to sound at 31.5 or 5 3 Hz. Changes observed after exposure to this acoustic factor included reduced activity of alkaline phosphatase in the stria vascularis vessels and their impaired permeability. Impaired labyrinthine hemodynamics led to neurosensory hearing impairment [Nekhoroshev, A.S. 1985]. Rats and guinea pigs exposed to infrasound (8 or 16 Hz) at 120 to 140 dB for 3 h/day for 1 to 40 days showed morphological and physiological changes in the myocardium:After a single 3-hour exposure at these levels, capillaries widened and arterial diameters decreased, which disturbed blood flow. Cardiomyocytes showed intracellular cytolysis The activities of the redox (oxidation-reduction) enzymes succinate dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase increased or decreased, changes being more pronounced at days 5 and 10.After 15 or 25 days of exposure, --granular dystrophy disappeared, sarcoplasm became edematous and structures disappeared in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the Z-band region showed myofibrillar fragmentation, --redox enzymes were markedly reduced, and DNA and RNA changes were evident. Changes were still evident at 40 days, but signs of cellular regeneration were observed and myofibrils reappeared] [Nekhoroshev, A.S., and V.V. Glinchikov. 1991]. Morphological and histochemical changes were studied in the hepatocytes of rats and guinea pigs exposed to infrasound (2, 4, 8, or 16 Hz) at 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, or 140 dB for 3 h/day for 5 to 40 days. Hepatocytes showed increased functional activity, but exposures for 25 and 40 days induced irreversible changes. Changes were more pronounced at 8 and 16 Hz than at 2 and 4 Hz. Exposures impaired cell organoids and nuclear chromatin. Single exposures did not induce any changes in the hepatocytes and small blood vessels [Nekhoroshev, A.S., and V.V. Glinchikov. 1992a]. Rats and guinea pigs (3 per sex per dose level) exposed to 8 Hz at 120 and 140 dB 54 

for 3 hours or 3 h/day for 5, 10, 15, 25, or 40 days showed changes in the heart, neurons, and auditory cortex increasing in severity with increasing length of exposure. The presence of hemorrhagic changes was attributed mostly to the mechanical action rather than to the acoustic action of infrasound. Changes in the brain may be more important than in the ears [Nekhoroshev, A.S., and V.V.Glinchikov. 1992b]. Rats (30/group) were exposed 2 h/day for 4 months to 8 Hz at 90 dB (group 2), 115 dB (group 3), and 135 dB (group 4). The experiment was conducted under the same conditions as that used by Gabovich et al. (1979a) except that the latter used 20 rats per group. Eight of the 25 series of measurements reported here were also reported by Gabovich et al. (1979a) and are not repeated in this annotation. Findings among the additional parameters included the following, which were usually significant in groups 3 and 4: x An increase in glycolytic activity in the brain x Increases in cholinesterase and acetylcholinesterase activities in the brain and of acetycholinesterase in the blood (not significant in group 3) x Decreases of -ketoglutarate and succinate dehydrogenase in hepatocyte mitochondria x Increase in the degree of basophilic degranulation x Decrease in working capacity x An increase in gas exchange (not significant in group 4) [Shutenko, O.I., et al. 1979]. Rats exposed to 8 Hz for 4 months at 90, 115, or 135 dB exhibited statistically significant changes in copper, molybdenum, iron, and/or manganese concentrations in liver, spleen, brain, skeletal muscle, and/or femur compared to concentrations in the tissues of controls. Practically all tissues showed significant changes in all the elements for exposures at 135 dB Changes included both elevations and depressions in concentrations. The trends were consistent with increasing sound pressure except for some tissue copper values [Shvaiko, I.I., et al. 1984]. Male rats (10/group) exposed to infrasound (8 Hz) at 100 and 140 dB for 3 h/day for 5, 10, 15, or 25 days showed constriction of all parts of the conjunctival vascular bed within 5 days. The decrease in the lumen of the capillaries was accompanied by swelling of the cytoplasm and the nuclei of the endotheliocytes. The capillaries, precapillaries, and arterioles became crimped. Morphological changes were reported in the vessels after exposure for 10, 15, and 25 days. After 25 days, increased permeability of the blood vessels led to swelling of tissues and surrounding capillaries and to perivascular leukocyte infiltration. Significant aggregates of formed elements of the blood were observed in the large vessels [Svidovyi, V.I., and O.I. Kuklina. 1985]. In studies of male rats (10/group) exposed to low-frequency noise or infrasound for 3 h/day for 5, 10, 15, or 25 days, changes in erythrocyte membrane permeability and enzyme concentrations depended primarily on the frequency and less on the intensity. The most sensitive index of injury was the increase in alanine aminotransferase activity in the serum. The increase in erythrocyte membrane permeability coincided with the increase of alanine aminotransferase, but the latter persisted longer. The alanine aminotransferase activity of liver tissue was lowered by the 15th day with 8 Hz at 140 55 

dB and by the 15th to 25th day with 16 Hz at 130 dB. In the heart, exposure to 8 Hz at 140 dB lowered alanine aminotransferase activity by the 15th day yet increased the activity by the 25th day. When exposed to 8 Hz at 100 dB, alanine aminotransferase activity of the liver fell by the 15th day and became normalized by the 25th day [Svidovyi, V.I., et al. 1985]. 4.2.4.2 Studies in Mice Histopathological and histomorphological changes were determined in the lungs of male albino mice exposed to infrasound (2, 4, 8, or 16 Hz) at 90 to 120 dB for 3 h/day for up to 40 days. Sectioned lungs were examined from selected mice sacrificed daily the following pathologies were reported after prolonged exposures: Exposure to 8 Hz at 120 dB caused filling of acini with erythrocytes and thickening of interalveolar septa. Exposure to 8 and 16 Hz at 140 dB ruptured blood vessel walls, partially destroyed acini, and induced hypertrophy of type-II cells. Type-II pneumocytes were activated in alveoli that were comparatively undamaged. [Svidovyi, VI. and V.V. Glinchikov. 1987]. 4.2.4.3 Studies in Guinea Pigs Guinea pigs (6 males/group) were exposed to infrasound (4 Hz) at 110 dB once for 0.5 hour or 3 hours or for 3 h/day for 40 days. After a single exposure, the vascular network of the tympanic membranes became more prominent than in the controls. The alkaline phosphatase activity increased chiefly in the endothelial and adventitious cells and also in the vessel walls of those guinea pigs exposed for 40 days [Anichin, V.F., and A.S. Nekhoroshev. 1985]. Guinea pigs exposed to infrasound (8 or 16 Hz) at 90 to 120 dB for 3 h/day for 5, 10, 15, or 25 days showed morphological changes in receptor cells of all three semicircular canals and in hair cells of the spiral organ. Changes in the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria included swelling and shortening of the cristae. Recovery occurred after cessation of exposure [Nekhoroshev, A.S., and V.V. Glinchikov. 1990]. The exposure of guinea pigs to8 Hz infrasound at 135 dB for 90 minutes resulted in reduced amplitudes of DPOAE and ultrastructural changes to the inner ear [Feng et al, 2001]. 4.2.4.4 Studies in Rabbits The activities of cytochrome oxidase and succinate dehydrogenase were measured in mitochondria of the myocardiocytes of rabbits exposed to infrasound (10 Hz) at 100 to 110 dB for 6 h/day for 24 days. Early rapid elevations of enzyme activities occurred in some regions compared to controls followed by depressed activities in all regions studied after about 6 days. Pathological changes caused by disturbances of the energy supply for the contractile activity of the heart were most expressed in regions with a high concentration of contractile function [Safonov, M.Yu. 1978]. 56 

4.2.4.5 Studies in Monkeys Short-term exposure of rhesus monkeys to high intensity infrasound was reported by [Sherry et al, 2008] to induce significant decrements in the performance of an overtrained, continuous compensatory tracking task. Using accustom- made test system, five adult males were exposed to 10 Hz at 160 dB for 75-509 s whilst held in a primate chair. The chair was randomly rotated in pitch, and the task required the animals to manipulate a joystick to negate these perturbations and maintain their balance. Deviations in pitch above asset threshold produced a mild electric shock. Compared with unexposed baseline values, infrasound resulted in large excursion in the position of the chair and a concomitant increase in the numbers of shocks delivered, with performance quickly returning to baseline values after cessation of exposure. Neither longer exposure nor repeated exposures appeared to cause greater deficits in performance, although the experimental design was not optimal to test this. No effects were seen on cochlear or hearing function as assessed by tympanometry, DPOAE or auditory brain stem responses either immediately after exposure or 24 hours later. No mechanism could be offered to explain the disruption in behavior. Finally, infrasonically induced phonophoresis has been described in the rabbit eye [Filatov, 2001, 2005] following acute, repeated exposure to intense infrasound (173dB at 4 Hz). 4.2.4.6 Reproductive and Developmental Effects Dadali et al. 1992 indicated that infrasound exposure caused dystrophic changes in the testicles of rats. Testes of rats or mouse were found sensitive to infrasound [Wei et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2000]. The mechanical energy of infrasound was absorbed and turned into biochemical energy in testicular tissues, which disturbed transcription of some key genes for testosterone biosynthesis and then induced the decrease of serum concentration which reduced sexual behavior subsequently [Zhuang et al., 2007]. 4.2.4.7 Carcinogenicity None of the identified human or animal studies were relevant to potential carcinogenicity or anticarcinogenicity. 4.2.4.8 Genotoxicity According to the indexing of the MEDLINE and TOXLINE records, endpoints studied included aneuploidy, chromosomal aberrations, mitotic index, and, possibly, sister chromatid exchange, in bone marrow cells of male rats [Svidovyi, V.I., and L.V. Kitaeva. 1998]. 4.2.4.9 Immunotoxicity Dosing guinea pigs with an antigen that induced anaphylactic shock killed 80 to 100% of the animals within 3 minutes. Guinea pigs that were exposed for 10 minutes to infrasound of 10 Hz at 155-160 dB immediately before exposure to the antigen showed reduced fatalities since only 50 to 60% of the guinea pigs died. The experiment used 230 guinea pigs [Batanov, G.V. 1995]. 57 

These experiments with rats and rabbits studied the combined effects of microwaves (9.3 g Hz and 0.1 gHz at 200 and 1530 μW/cm2), infrasound (8 Hz, 115 dB), and gamma irradiation (5.5 Gy) on cell and humoral immunity and on autoimmune processes. Microwave treatment protected against the biological effects of gamma radiation whereas infrasound plus microwave treatment enhanced the effects [Grigor'ev, Yu.G. et al, 1983]. There appears to be an association between sleep and the immune response [Thompson, 1996]. Thus, it would follow that further study is required on the immune responses of people exposed to noise during sleep, especially those exposed to intermittent transportation noise. For example, nocturnal noise has been indicated as a health risk [Altena & Beersman, 1993] because of the disturbance to the distribution of sleep stages resulting in direct immunosuppressive effects (specifically inhibition of eosinophils and basophils which usually proliferate during sleep) [Thompson, 1996]. The Caerphilly and Speedwell Study [1990] found an increased concentration of leucocytes in the blood of persons exposed to high levels of traffic noise [Health Council of the Netherlands, 1996]. Although no studies have reported a causal relationship between noise and compromised immunity, increased concentration of leucocytes in blood might lead to increased prevalence of diseases such as influenza. 4.2.4.10 Biochemical Effects Noise-induced biochemical changes (specific hormones and metal ions such as magnesium) have been found in persons exposed to very high environmental or occupational noise, suggesting noise acts as a stressor. Several studies also show biochemical changes indicating an increased risk of ischaemic disease. However, limited data on the causal relationship is currently available [Health Council of the Netherlands, 1996]. 4.2.4.11 Cellular studies Very few studies appear to have investigated the effects of infrasound in vitro. Yount et al [2004] reported that infrasound did not affect the colony forming ability of a human glioma cell line, SF210, either alone or in combination with 2 Gy of x- rays. However, there was a highly significant decrease in the number of colonies when infrasound was applied with 5- fluorouracil, a chemotherapy agent. In these pilot experiments, cell cultures were exposed to 8-14 Hz at 72- 79dB for ten minutes eight times a day for two days using aqigong device that is used in traditional Chinese medicine. Wang et al [2005] reported that the appearance of the surface of L929 cells became smooth following exposure to 16 Hz at 130 dB for two hours each day for three days. 4.2.4.12 Morphological effects The morphological effects of exposure of low frequency noise, including infrasound, on rats have been studied by (Castelo Branco and Colleagues 2007). Exposure-related effects, characterized by the abnormal growth of extracellular elastin and collagen, have been reported in various tissues, including larger blood and lymphatic vessels (Martins dos Santos et al, 2002, 2004) and especially in the respiratory system 58 

(De Sousa Pereira et al, 1999: Grande et al, 1999: Castelo Branco et al, 2003a, 2004a, b], where a fusing of the microvilli of the brush cells of the bronchial epithelium has been observed. The latter appears to be transient and reversible, and any changes gradually disappear within days following termination of infrasound. Exposure induced degenerative lesion and functional changes have been observed in the gastric epithelium (da Fonseca et al, 2006) and the parotid gland [Oliveira et al 2007). In addition, effects on the ciliated cells of the tracheal epithelium were observed following in utero and postnatal exposure of rats (Oliveira et al 2002: Castelo Branco2003b).Animals in these studies usually consisting of a small treatment group of between five and twenty rats) were exposed to low frequency noise at frequencies of 0-500 Hz at above 90 dB (Aweighted values are less meaningful here due to the spectral characteristics of the noise) for periods of about one to three months or longer, with exposures lasting eight hours per day, five days per week .However, the highest levels were from frequencies above 100 Hz, and the actual intensity of infrasound in the noise is uncertain. Castelo Branco and Colleagues suggest that low frequency noise generates a mechanical signal that particularly affects the cytoskeleton. This results in changes to the cell signaling pathway and so produces the observed morphological and functional changes, resulting in an increase in the structural integrity of exposed tissues. Empirical evidence for these suggestions is lacking. A few studies appear to provide some general support for these results. For example, Nekharoshev and Glinchikov[1990,1992] reported morphological and pathological changes in the ears. Cardiovascular system, liver and other organs typically following exposure to 4-16 Hz at up to 140 dB for up to four months: see Haneke et al [ 2001] and Leventhall et al [2003] for a description and review of these and other relevant studies. 4.2.4.13 Other studies According to the index terms, infrasound induced pathological changes in the brain, lungs, liver, and, probably, the ears (sense organs) of mice [Shcheglov, A.G., and E.M. Baranov. 1972]. According to the indexing terms of the BIOSIS record, the endpoints of concern after rats were exposed to infrasound included brain cells, ischemia, and capillary resistance (Svidovyi, V.I., and V.V. Glinchikov. 1991). According to the indexing terms of the MEDLINE record, succinate dehydrogenase activity was measured in the myocardium and brain tissues of rats [Svidovyi, V.I., and A.G. Shleikin. 1987]. Rat whole blood samples stabilized with 1.34% sodium oxalate were exposed to infrasound (2, 4, 8, and 16 Hz) at 110, 120, 130, and 120 dB, respectively, for 3 hours. At 16 Hz and 120 dB, ATPase activity decreased while activity was increased by exposure to infrasound at 2 Hz. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) increases depended on the frequency. No SOD increases were observed at 2 Hz. [Svidovyi, V.I., et al, 1987]. It has been reported that infrasound could decrease the optical density of DNA aquatic solution, and the mechanism was the increase of hydrogenous bonds (between bases) formation,which can serve as a target for biological action of infrasound [Stepanian et al., 2000]. 59 

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Scientific edition

Tuleukhanov Sultan Mohaseb Mona A. Ablaikhanova Nurzhanyat Shvetsova Yelena INFRASONIC WAVES AND ITS EFFECTS Managing editor G.S.Bekberdieva Computer making up T.E.Saparova Cover design R.E.Skakov IB  6262 Sign for print 18.03.13. Format 60x84 1/16. Offset paper. Digital printing. Volume 4.25 Edition 50 exmp. Order  84. Publishing house of Kazakh National University Al-Faraby. 050040, Al-Farabi av, 71. KazNU. Printing in printing house «Kazakh University».