Human Skeletal Remains from Chalcolithic Nevasa: Osteobiographic Analysis 9781841717371, 9781407329253

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Foreword
Epigraph
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Introduction
2. The Chalcolithic Culture and Archaeological Context of Nevasa
3. Preservation and Skeletal Inventory
4. Morphometry and Demographic Assessment
5. Skeletal and Dental Pathological Lesions and Anomalies
6. Summary Comments
Bibliography

Citation preview

SOUTH ASIAN ARCHAEOLOGY SERIES EDITED BY ALOK K. KANUNGO

No 4

Human Skeletal Remains from Chalcolithic Nevasa Osteobiographic Analysis

Veena Mushrif-Tripathy & S. R. Walimbe

BAR International Series 14 7 6 2006

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1476 South Asian Archaeological Series 4 Human Skeletal Remains from Chalcolithic Nevasa © The authors individually and the Publisher 2006 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841717371 paperback ISBN 9781407329253 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841717371 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2006. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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Foreword Alok Kumar Kanungo Series Editor, South Asian Archaeology Series International Series of British Reports

The International Series of British Archaeological Reports, with its 1500 titles to the present time, is undoubtedly one of the most important places of publication in the discipline of Archaeology. But it is a pity that works on the archaeology of South Asia have been less represented in the series than their interest and value deserves. The archaeological record of South Asia ( comprising India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Maldives) is extremely rich. This wealth begins in the Lower Palaeolithic period and includes, for example, the Harappan Civilization, one of the oldest in the world ( covering a very large area and having many unique features -­ the most ancient known town planning, its architecture and high standards of civic hygiene, its art, iconography, paleography, numismatics and international trade). South Asia also has a large number of earlier, contemporary, and later Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures. Moreover, what makes South Asia particularly significant for the study of past human behaviour is the survival of many traditional modes of life, like hunting-gathering, pastoralism, shifting cultivation, fishing, and fowling, the study of which throws valuable light on the reconstruction of past cultures. In the region there are a large number of government and semi-government institutions devoted to archaeological teaching and/or research in archaeology and a large and professionally trained body of researchers. Of course, a number of universities and other institutions, in the area do have their own publication programmes and there are also reputed private publishing houses. However, British Archaeological Reports, a series of 30 years standing, has an international reputation and distribution system. In order to take advantage of the latter - to bring archaeological researches in South Asia to the notice of scholars in the western academic world - the South Asian Archaeology Series has been instituted within the International Series of British Archaeological Reports. This series (which it is hoped to associate with an institution of organization in the area) aims at publishing original research works of international interest in all branches of archaeology of South Asia. Those wishing to submit books for inclusion in the South Asian Archaeology Series should contact the South Asian Archaeology Series Editor, who will mediate with the BAR Editors and publishers of BAR, in Oxford. The subject has to be appropriate and of the correct academic standard (curriculum vitae are requested and books may be referred); instructions for formatting will be given, as necessary. Dr. Alok Kumar Kanungo Department of Archaeology Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute Pune 411006 INDIA email: [email protected]

My careful fingers lift your earthen pall,

The countless years accumulated motes, And there it lies, your skeleton, asprawl Better in its abandon, there has lain Since some faint soul dissolved and let it fall A thing unheeded at its own cave door. And now I must return to you again Women, whose ancient clock of.flesh I wear To mark with questing, scientific brain My own forgotten bones cast down and bare

Jacquetta Hawkes

111

lV

Acknowledgements

The contents of this book constitute the revised version of the doctoral dissertation of the first author, submitted to Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Pune in the year 2002. We thank the authorities of Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Pune for allowing us to undertake this research on the Nevasa skeletal series and use infra-structural facilities. We express our sincere gratitude to all staff members of the Archaeology Department and library of the Deccan College for the co-operation and assistance offered by them during the course of this research. We are indebted to Ms. Gwen Robins for the academic suggestions she offered. This research would not have been possible without help and support of many of our friends and colleagues. Specifically we wish to acknowledge the support of Mr. Sunil Jadhav for his assistance for the photographic work. The first author is indebted to Utpala, Reshma, Vaishali for their encouragement during her studies. She also express deep gratitude to her parents 'Aai' and 'Baba' and brother 'Dadu' for their constant support. Her close friends Swati Rajwade and Sidhartha Das also deserve mention. We thank Mis British Archaeological Reports for having agreed to publish this monograph. Special thanks are due to Dr. Alok Kumar Kanungo for pursuing this publication. Words are inadequate to express our sincere gratitude to Nirmalendu Tripath, Soham (son) and Madhuri Walimbe for their moral support, appreciation and patience.

V

Vl

CONTENTS Ack.now ledgements List of Tables List of Figures

V

ix - X xi -xii

1- 7

1. INTRODUCTION I. HUMAN SKELETAL EVIDENCE IN THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT Mesolithic hunter-gatherers Harappan urban dwellers N eoli thic-Chalcolithic agro-pastorals Iron- Age Megalithic inhabitations II. CHANGING RESEARCH ORIENTATIONS

3 3 4 5

6

2. CHALCOLITHIC CULTURE AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT OF NEV ASA

8 - 21 I. INTRODUCTION

8

II. DECCAN CHALCOLITHIC

9

Structural evidences and settlement pattern Material culture Religion Food habits Human burials Nature of human skeletal evidence Bhima river Valley Godavari river Valley Tapi river Valley Decline of the culture III. ARCHAEOLOGICAL

CONTEXT OF NEV ASA

10

11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15

17

Structures Material culture Burials and skeletal remains

18 18

3. PRESERVATION AND SKELETAL INVENTORY

22-44

4. MORPHOMETRY AND DEMOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT

45 - 110

I. MORPHOMETRY: CRANIAL AND POST-CRANIAL ELEMENTS Methodology Observations Comparison

45 45 46

62 68

II. DENTITION

68 68

Metric analysis Methodology

vii

Observations Morphology Methodology Observations

80 82 82 85

III. CRANIO-FACIAL MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES: EVOLUTIONARY

87

PERSPECTIVE IV. AGE DETERMINATION

93

Methodology Observations

93

94

V. SEX DETERMINATION

106

Methodology Observations

106 106

5. SKELETAL AND DENTAL PATHOLOGICAL LESIONS AND ANOMALIES 109 - 152 I. INTRODUCTION

109

II. DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES

110

Age and sex ratio Retarded skeletal growth

110 112

III. SKELETAL PATHOLOGY

113

Maxillary sinusitis Trauma Porotic hyperostosis Harris lines Scurvy Occupational stress indicators Vertebral pathology Periostosis Misc. bone changes

113 115 117 118 119 120 122 124 127

IV.DENTAL PATHOLOGY

127

Enamel hypoplasia Dental caries Periapical abscess Attrition Antemortem tooth loss Non-eruption of third molar

128 139 142 142 146 146

V. INTERPRETATIONS

146

Palaeopathology and the Chalcolithic decline

150

153 - 156

6. SUMMERY COMMENTS

157 - 161

BILIOGRAPHY

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Distribution of burial types from Inamgaon Table 2.2: Human burials recovered from the Deccan Chalcolithic sites. Table 3.1: Numbering system for the Nevasa skeletons, as adopted in the present study. Table 3.2: Inventory ofNevasa skeletal series. Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

4.1: 4.2: 4.3: 4.4: 4.5: 4.6:

Cranial measurements and indices: Nevasa adult skeletal series Long bone measurements for adult specimens form Nevasa Stature estimation for the Nevasa adult specimens Long bone measurements of sub-adults from Nevasa Comparative craniometric data for selected protohistoric male populations Comparative cranial indices for selected protohistoric male populations 4.7: Comparative craniometric data for selected protohistoric female populations 4.8: Comparative cranial indices for selected protohistoric female populations. 4.9: Basis odontometric data for deciduous and permanent teeth from Nevasa 4.9.a Dental crown measurements and indices: dil 4.9.b: Dental crown measurements and indices: di2 4.9.c: Dental crown measurements and indices: de 4.9.d: Dental crown measurements and indices: dml 4.9.e: Dental crown measurements and indices: dm2 4.9.f : Dental crown measurements and indices: 11 4.9.g: Dental crown measurements and indices : 12 4.9.h: Dental crown measurements and indices: C 4.9.i: Dental crown measurements and indices: Pml 4.9.j: Dental crown measurements and indices: Pm2 4.9.k: Dental crown measurements and indices: Ml 4.9.1: Dental crown measurements and indices : M2 4.9.m: Dental crown measurements and indices: M3 4.10: Dental crown measurements and indices: Mean values, deciduous teeth 4.11 : Dental crown measurements and indices : Mean values , permanent teeth 4.12: Incisor Breadth Index 4.13 : Molarization Index

Table 4.14: Step Index for M3 Table 4.15: Step Index for M2 Table 4.16: Dental indices of 'ethnic' significance in some archaeological population of the continent Table 4.17 : Shoveling on maxillary permanent incisors Table 4.18 : The occlusal morphological pattern of maxillary molars Table 4.19 : The occlusal morphological pattern of mandibular molars Table 4.20: Values ofTCA and MCA for Nevasa permanent teeth Table 4.21: Total Crown Area (TCA) and Molar Crown Area (MCA) in different cultural levels (pool values in mm 2) in the Indian sub-continent Table 4.22: Comparative craniometric data for selected non-agricultural and agricultural male populations Table 4.23: Calcification and eruption sequence for deciduous teeth Table 4.24: Calcification and eruption sequence for permanent teeth Table 4.25: Age estimation and sex determination for the Nevasa human skeletal series Table 5.1: Age-wise distribution of the Nevasa human skeletal series Table 5.2: Sex-wise distribution of the Chalcolithic adult skeletal series

lX

Table 5.3: Incidence of the Harris lines Table 5.4: Enamel defects observed on the Nevasa dental series Table 5.5: Age-wise occurrence of enamel hypoplasia Table 5.6: Tooth-wise occurrence of enamel hypoplasia Table 5.7: Tooth-wise prevalence of caries Table 5.8: Attrition pattern : NVS(VM) 73 Table 5.9: Attrition pattern: NVS(VM) 75 Table 5.10: Summery of pathological lesions and anomalies

X

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.1: Map showing approximate location of the sites mentioned in the text. Fig. 2.1: Fig. 2.2: Fig. 2.3: Fig. 2.4: Fig. 2.5: Fig. 2.6: Fig. 2.7: Fig. 2.8: Fig. 2.9:

Map showing approx. location of the excavated Deccan Chalcolithic sites. General view of the Chalcolithic mound atNevasa. Excavation ofNevasa in progress. Single um burial fromNevasa. Twin-um burial fromNevasa. Three-um burial fromNevasa. Multiple burial fromNevasa. Extended adult burial fromNevasa. Offerings in the burial pit.

Fig. 3.1: Adult burialNVS(VM) 73 in situ. Fig. 3.2: Extended sub-adult burialNVS(VM) 30 in situ. Fig. 4.1: Normafronta/is:NVS(VM) 72. Fig. 4.2: Normafrontalis: NVS(VM) 73. Fig. 4.3: Norma verticalis: NVS(VM) 72. Fig. 4.4: Norma verticalis: NVS(VM) 73 Fig. 4.5: Norma lateralis: NVS(VM) 71. Fig. 4.6: Norma lateralis: NVS(VM) 72. Fig. 4.7: Norma lateralis: NVS(VM) 73. Fig. 4.8: Norma occipita/is:NVS(VM) 72. Fig. 4.9: Norma occipitalis: NVS(VM) 73. Fig. 4.10: R. Humerus: NVS(VM) 73.Note the mussel markings. (Left side bone is given for comparison) Fig. 4.11: R. Radius: NVS(VM) 73.Note the elevation on the shaft. Fig. 4.12: Normafrontalis : NVS(VM) 75. Fig. 4.13: Norma lateralis : NVS(VM) 75. Fig. 4.14: Norma Verticalis: NVS(VM) 75. Fig. 4.15: R. first rib:NVS(VM) 75.Note the mussel markings. (Left side is given for comparison). Fig. 4.16: Right and left patella:NVS(VM) 75. Note the difference in size. Fig. 4.17: Right and left fibular proximal ends: NVS(VM) 75.Note the size difference Fig. 4.18: Norma occipitalis: NVS(VM) 75. Fig. 4.19: Carabelli's cusp on maxillary right and left M l s: NVS(VM) 30. Fig. 4.20: Parastyle on the maxillary RM2: NVS(VM) 71. Fig.4.21: Drawing explaining the cranio-facial morphological changes during the agricultural transition. Fig. 4.22: Maxilla: NVS(VM) 1. Fig. 4.23: Mandible: NVS(VM) 1. Fig. 4.24: Normafrontalis: NVS(VM) 2. Fig. 4.25: Mandible: NVS(VM) 2. Fig. 4.26: Normafronta/is: NVS(VM) 3. Fig. 4.27: Norma lateralis:NVS(VM) 4. Fig. 4.28: Maxilla:NVS(VM) 4. Fig. 4.29: Mandible:NVS(VM) 4. Fig. 4.30: Mandible:NVS(VM) 30. Fig. 4.31: Normafrontalis: NVS(VM) 36.Note the preservation status. Fig. 4.32: Mandible:NVS(VM) 37. Fig. 4.33: Mandible:NVS(VM) 38. Fig. 4.34: Maxilla:NVS(VM) 40. Fig. 4.35: Maxilla:NVS(VM) 41. Fig. 4.36: Cranium:NVS(VM) 44. Note the preservation status. Fig. 4.37: Mandible:NVS(VM) 54. Fig. 4.38: Mandible: NVS(VM) 61.

Xi

Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

5.1: Graph showing age-wise distribution of the Nevasa skeletal series. 5.2: Maxillary sinusitis: NVS(VM) 71. 5.3: Green-stick fracture on the right ulna: NVS(VM) 36. 5.4: Healed fracture on the left coracoid process: NVS(VM) 72 (lateral view). 5.5: Healed fracture on the left coracoid process: NVS(VM) 72 (dorsal view). 5.6: Healed fracture on the left ulna: NVS(VM) 73 (medial view). 5.7: Healed fracture on the left ulna: NVS(VM) 73 (lateral view). 5.8: Possible lesion of porotic hyperostosis on the orbital roof: NVS(VM) 4. 5.9: 'Holes' inside the cranial vault: NVS(VM) 4. 5.10: Possible case of scurvy on the maxillary fragment: NVS(VM) 4. 5.11: Bending of the radial shaft: NVS(VM) 71. Normal bone from same side is given for comparison. Fig. 5.12: New bone formation on left fibula: NVS(VM) 73. Fig. 5.13: Pseudopathology (?) on the vertebral column: NVS(VM) 30, dorsal view. Fig. 5.14: Pseudopathology (?) on the vertebral column: NVS(VM) 30, lateral view. Fig . 5.15 : ' Schmorl ' s nodes ' on the 10th and 11th thoracic vertebrae: NVS(VM) 75. Fig. 5.16: Osteoporosis on the vertebrae: NVS(VM) 75. Fig. 5.17: Bone infection seen on the left ulna: NVS(VM) 11. Fig. 5.18: Bone remolding on the mid-shaft ofright radius: NVS(VM) 17. Fig. 5.19: Radial mid-shaft fragments with 'holes': NVS(VM) 20. Fig. 5.20: Periostosis on the right humerus: NVS(VM) 33. Fig. 5.21: Ridge and porosity on the left femoral proximal end: NVS(VM) 41. Fig. 5.22: Periostosis on the entire shaft of right tibia: NVS(VM) 50. Fig. 5.23: Porosity on the sternal and vertebral ends ofribs: NVS(VM) 54. Fig. 5.24: Porosity on the proximal end of left radius: NVS(VM) 57. Fig. 5.25: 'Scratches' on the rib fragments: NVS(VM) 11. Fig. 5.26 : Localized enamel hypoplasia: NVS(VM) 40. Fig. 5.27: Linear enamel hypoplasia: NVS(VM) 75. Fig. 5.28: Localized EH: NVS(VM) 4. Fig. 5.29: Enamel erosion on molar: NVS(VM) 14. Fig. 5.30: Enamel vertical groove on RI2: NVS(VM) 30 Fig. 5.31: Enamel vertical groove on RI2: NVS(VM) 30 Fig. 5.32: Localized EH: NVS(VM) 31. Fig. 5.33: Localized EH: NVS(VM)37. Fig. 5.34: Linear enamel hypoplasia maxillary Lil: NVS(VM) 43. Fig. 5.35: Linear enamel hypoplasia maxillary LI2: NVS(VM) 43. Fig. 5.36: Localized EH: NVS(VM) 49. Fig. 5.37: Problems in enamel mineralization of Lil and LC: NVS(VM) 51. Fig. 5.38: Linear enamel hypoplasia on maxillary Ml: NVS(VM) 63. Fig. 5.39: Linear enamel hypoplasia on mandibular M 1: NVS(VM) 63. Fig. 5.40: Multiple linear hypoplasia: NYS(VM) 71. Fig .5.41: Graph showing month-wise prevalence of enamel disturbances in Nevasa Fig. 5.42: Caries on maxillary RLdmls: NVS(VM) 56. Fig. 5.43: Caries on mandibular Ldml: NYS(VM) 56. Fig. 5.44: Caries on mandibular Ldml: NVS(VM) 62. Fig. 5.45: Caries on mandibular Rdm2: NVS(VM) 62. Fig. 5.46: Caries on mandibular Ldm2: NVS(VM) 62. Fig. 5.47: Caries on RPm2: NVS(VM) 72. Fig. 5.48: Mandible: NVS(VM) 72. Fig. 5.49: Mandible: NVS(VM) 73. Fig . 5.50: Caries on maxillary RPml , RPm2 and RMI: NVS(VM) 75. Fig. 5.51: Periapical abscess near canine region: NVS(VM) 73. Fig. 5.52: Maxilla: NYS(VM) 71. Fig . 5.53: Mandible: NVS(VM) 71. Fig . 5.54: Maxilla: NVS(VM) 73. Fig . 5.55: Mandible: NYS(VM) 75. Fig. 5.56: Maxilla: NVS(VM) 75. Fig 5.57: Model explaining stress indicators in agricultural population. (Modified after Larsen 1984 and Tavares 1998.).

Xll

1 INTRODUCTION ''A comparative analysis of the biological anthropology of extinct and /or living populations is not simply a roster of 'racial traits' or hypotheses of possible genetic affinities; rather it is more importantly a consideration of palaeodemographic factors of mortality and morbidity, fertility and fecundity, nutrition and disease, as these dynamics of population change are influenced by past and present ecologicalframeworks" (Kennedy 1982:31).

The study of human remains recovered from archaeological sites facilitates the interpretation of lifetime events such as migrations, diet, disease, physiological stress, injury and violent death, physical activity, and the demographic history of once-living populations (Larsen 1997). But there is often a lack of good number of skeletal evidence to represent a population, and it becomes difficult to generate meaningful information from the available scanty and fragmentary remains. The challenge of reconstructing life of extinct human beings from their skeletal remains is the domain of the anthropologists. By applying their knowledge of skeletal biology to palaeodemographic questions they contribute to archaeological investigations of extinct populations and help solve medicallegal problems in forensic perspectives as well (Ubelaker 1978). The recent literature refers to this science as "osteobiography" (derived from the Greek osteon - bone, Greek bio - life, mode of life, Greek graphia from graphein - to write), meaning a study of skeletons to extract information on the life histories of their occupants. Osteobiographic research is directed to seek answers for five questions: a. who was there? b. how did they look like? c. where did they come from? d. what happened to them?, and, e. what can be said about their way of life? (Walimbe and Tavares 1995).

I. HUMAN SKELETAL EVIDENCE IN THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT

India provides large number of skeletal data from the pre- and protohistoric levels covering a time span of almost 20,000 years. Major skeletal collection comes from the cultural phases ranging from the Mesolithic, Harappan, Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age levels. After the Early Historic phase cremation became the most common method for disposing the dead, and cemeteries, if any, were probably away from the settlement, and consequently not being easily noticed by archaeologist. Though the relevant documentation is far less than complete,

recovery of human burials has been reported from more than 300 sites (Kennedy and Caldwell 1984) and a conservative estimate would lead to imagine approximately 2000 human skeletons. The obvious conclusion is, not much attention was and is still being paid to the skeletal evidence and wherever attempts were made the material was studied with limited research objective of establishing to infer their 'ethnic' or 'racial' identity. Only about 40 skeletal series have so far been studied. It is indeed unfortunate that evidence from other sites is either lost forever or still awaits careful anthropological scrutiny. Tavares (1998) summarizes the reasons for overlooking human skeletal evidence. She believes that the general lack of awareness regarding the research potential of the data on the part of many excavators was one of the major reasons for the slow progress of the discipline in India. It was not only the case with Indian archaeologist but this attitude was apparently shared in other regions of the globe. It would be of interest to quote comments of some senior western archaeologist about the discoveries of human skeletons in excavation. ". . . . burials on historical sites are much more trouble than they are worth ... Unless the circumstances are very special, I would advise quickly covering them over and forgetting you ever saw them" (Noel Hume 1975:158-160). Bush and Zvelebil (1991:5, cited in Larsen 1997:1-2) remark that "Unaware of the potential of human skeletal remains, many archaeologists view them as, at best, an irrelevance, and when encountered in situ as object whose excavation is time consuming and which somehow does not constitute 'real' archaeology". Since human remains were not the prime focus of research in most of the excavation projects it often resulted in poor post-excavation care to the recovered remains. Nevertheless, there were some scholars who sought to analyze the osseous remains and interpret them in the cultural context they were discovered.

N

t Fig. 1.1: Approximate location of sites mentioned in text Notations Mesolithic : o

I.

Siwaliks: Haritaly Hathnora Fa Hein Batadomba Lena Morahana Pahar Sarai Nahar Rai Mahadaha Bagor Lekhahia Ki Pahari 10. Lang hnaj

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Harappa : •

11.

Harappa

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Mohenjo -daro Rupar Rakhigarhi Kalibangan Tarkanwala Dera Lothal Randal Dawa Chanhu daro

26 . 27.

Hulikallu Ieej

Chalcolithic : _.

28 . 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

Neolithic : b,,

20. Burzahom 21. Budihal 22. Tekkalakota 23. Piklihal 24. T. Narasipur 25 . N agarj unkond a

2

Nevasa Chandoli lnamgaon Daimabad Kaothe Jorwe Waiki Prakashe Bahal Tekwada

Megalithic : ■

38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45 . 46 . 47 . 48 . 49 .

Adichanallur Raigir Sanur Ranchi Savandurga Pamparippu Brahmagiri Nagarjunkonda Yelleswaram Raipur Bhagimohari Mahurjhari

Excellent review monographs and articles have appeared recently, which trace the development of this discipline in the sub-continent (Kennedy 1999, 2000, Tavares 1998, Walimbe and Tavares 2002). The following summary is based on these publications.

(Sri Lanka) gives the earliest date of c.33,000 years B.P. for the human skeletal deposits (Kennedy and Elgart 1998). The skeletal-bearing deposits from Batadomba Lena (Sri Lanka) have a radiocarbon date of c.16,000 years B.P., though the occupation of the cave dates back to c.28,500 years B.P.

Fig. 1.1 gives the approximate location of the sites mentioned in the text.

On the Indian soil, human skeletal evidence of Mesolithic cultural phase was reported for the first time from the site of Morahana Pahar, UP (Kennedy 1980). The most ancient representatives of anatomically modem Homo sapiens (AMHS) known till this date are from Sarai N ahar Rai and Mahadaha (Pratapgarh district) on the Gangetic plains of UP. The radiocarbon dates associated with the specimens indicate an age of 10,000 to 12,000 years B.P. Other Mesolithic sites yielding human skeletons in India are Bagor (Bhilwara district, Rajastan, 5800 years B.P), Lekhahia ki Pahari (Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, 4290 years B.P.), and Langhnaj (Ahmedabad district, Gujarat, 3925 B.P.).

The earliest Hominid fossil found in India is that of the genus Ramapithecus at Haritalyangar in the Siwaliks, and dated to around 8 to 12 million years BP. This genus is primarily represented by well preserved dental remains as well as a few facial and post-cranial bones. Once taken as ancestor for hominoids, on the basis of the recent fossil finds and supported by molecular evidence this genus is now linked with the Great Asian Ape, Orang-utan (Andrews and Cronin 1982). The other important fossil in the Indian subcontinent is the skull found at Hathnora on the river Narmada, 40 km northeast of Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh (Sonakia 1985). This fossil is recovered from the Pleistocene alluvium in association with stone artifacts like heavy handaxes, cleavers and scrapers. Right neurocranial half is complete with part of the left parietal attached. No facial bone is recovered. This old female adult (earlier interpreted as male) appears to be robust with an erect posture and a fairly well-developed brain. Comparisons of each morphological trait with those of Middle and Late Pleistocene fossils from Africa, Europe and Asia, prove that the Narmada specimen is Homo sapiens and not 'evolved' Homo erectus or 'archaic' Homo sapiens as identified by earlier scholars (Kennedy et al. 1991, Kennedy 2000) Recently right hominid clavicle has also been recovered from the same site by another research team (Sankhyan 1998, 2005), which exhibits robust features and short length of the concerned individual.

Human remains from the sites of Sarai N ahar Rai and Mahadaha have received serious anthropological treatment. These huntergatherers were tall statured and muscular. The robusticity is expressed in cranial and postcranial features. In the expression of robusticity and cranio-facial morphology, there is relative homogeneity amongst the Gangetic Mesolithic populations. Later Mesolithic populations however exhibit relative gracility. Bagor and Langhnaj populations, for example, are relatively gracile. Decrease in stature and tooth size is also evident. These changes seen in populations belonging to different time periods probably signify the ever present evolutionary mechanism of adaptation (Walimbe 1998). The Mesolithic populations were successful in exploiting new ecological settings, elaborating their food range, which is taken as an indicative of the increased sophistication of socioeconomic strategies (Kennedy et al. 1986).

As noted earlier the archaeological sites of the Mesolithic and later period in the Indian subcontinent provide excellent skeletal representation of the bygone human populations.

Harappan urban dwellers

The Harappan phase provides extensive human skeletal series and has a well-documented record of cultural identity. The Bronze Age Harappan civilization arose around 3rd millennium B.C. in the Indus basin and flourished there for nearly a thousand years.

Mesolithic hunter - gatherers

The Indian Mesolithic (10,000 to 7,000 B.P.) phase, widely distributed in varied ecological settings , appears to be a period of intense population expansion and cultural innovation. The cave burial and habitation site of Fa Hein

Besides the main Harappan sites (like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro) few other sites of the Mature Harappan phase (like, Rupar, Rakhi Garhi,

3

Conclusions regarding the traumatic end of the inhabitants of Mohenjo-daro had been drawn on the basis of the disorderly disposal of the skeletons. Archaeologists inferred that these individuals had been slain by raiders while attempting to escape from the city during a military attack of Aryans (Wheeler 1968). Palaeopathological restudy (Kennedy 1984b, 1994) of the skeletal series, however, clearly indicated that all the so-called wound marks (except in one out of the 24 reported cases) appear to be only erosional in origin, or well healed traumatic lesions, that cannot be related to circumstances and places of burial.

Kalibangan, Tarkanwala Dera, Lothal, Randal Dawa, and Chandu-daro) give evidence of human burials. The studies carried out on the Harappan skeletal series were mainly aimed to know the 'racial' identity of the population. Dutta (1984) opines close genetic affinity of the Harappans with the Tepe Hissar (Iran) and Sakkara (Egypt) populations. These populations temporally belong to the same time frame but flourished in diverse geographical situations, and cultural assemblage collected from these sites is different too. Other anthropological reports doubt any biological linkage with Mediterranean populations. "Certain differences exist in facial features, which are of immense value, especially when trying to place the Harappan population in the biological taxon. These differences would suggest that the Harappans occupied a distinct unique status. It would seem reasonable to conclude that there might have been biological links and genetic continuities between the pre-Harappans and the Harappans, considering the uniqueness of the Harappan physique with regard to the reference population groups and the cultural sequence in this region" (Walimbe and Tavares 2002).

N eolithic-Chalcolithic agro-pastorals

The Neolithic phase in India covers a wide geographic area and time span from 3,000 to 1,000 B.C., which is contemporary to Harappan culture. Burzahom (Kashmir) is one of the major sites in North India giving an evidence of human burials. Studies carried out on gross cranial morphometric features of this skeletal series indicate closer biological affinity to the skulls from Harappan Cemetery R-37 (Basu and Pal 1980), rather than with other Neolithic sites of the South India. The Burzahom skeletons exhibit characteristics similar to the Mature Harappans with respect to the long and narrow dolichocephalic head, low receding forehead, and a sturdy physique with a tall to medium stature. These features suggest some ethnic continuity between the two cultures separated by a temporal span. The variations in Burzabom and the southern Neolithic populations could be because of the different environmental settings they were placed in.

The Bronze Age Harappan cultural phase came to an abrupt end at around 1700 B.C. Many hypotheses have been forwarded to explain the extinction of this culture. Human skeletal evidence, primarily derived from the sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, was used in two ways to support the hypothesis of presumed invasion of 'Aryans' and their role in destruction of these urban centres: a. the claim for a 'foreign' phenotypic element in the later phases of the Harappan culture, and b. the so-called 'massacre' evidence at Mohenjo-daro. The skeletons of the earlier phase were supposed to be 'racially' different from those coming from the later phases of habitation. The 'foreign' racial element was obviously supposed to have represented some other non-Harappan populations, labeled as 'Aryans' (Guha and Basu 1938). The recent revaluation of skeletal series from Harappa indicates that the phenotypic variability seen in the two levels is in acceptable normal range expected in most urban populations, or, even can be attributed to the gradual bodily adaptations to the changes in subsistence pattern and settlement style (Tavares 1998). Kennedy ( 1982) concludes that the population of Harappa does not exhibit any significant phenotypic diversity over different levels of habitation and probably belongs to a single homogeneous unit.

The South Indian Neolithic culture extends from around 2,500 B.C. to 1,000 B.C. The inhabitants of this culture occupied areas in and around the hills overlooking the plains. Though many sites yield human remains, only a few series have been studied, including those from the some sites like Budihal, Tekkalakota, Piklihal, T.Narasipur, Nagarjunkonda, Hulikallu and Ieej. Archaeological evidence suggests small-scale trade between the Neolithic and their contemporary Chalcolithic inhabitants of the Deccan plateau. Biologically too the Southern Neolithic specimens show close affinity with the Neolithic-Chalcolithic specimens at Nevasa and Chandoli. These studies are based on craniomorphometry and non-metric traits and serve to

4

establish a biological continuum in the area south of the Narmada.

Vidarbha region. Of the 91 reported Megalithic burial sites in the Maharashtra state, the Vidarbha accommodates as many as 86 sites, where stone circles with cairn filling is the predominant type of megalithic burial construction (Deo 1985). Because of the pressure of the superincumbent burial deposit the preservation conditions of skeletal remains is often far from satisfactory.

Not much of anthropological information is available for paleodemographic features of the Neolithic skeletal series, except for the comments on their origin and biological affinities. The Neolithic sites represent a mixed hunting-gathering and incipient agro-based subsistence pattern. A detailed analysis of the skeletons from the Southern Neolithic sites may therefore provide a valuable source of information regarding bodily, morphological and pathological adaptations in relation to mixed economic strategies. The recent anthropological study of the Budihal skeletal series (Walimbe and Paddayya 1999) is one good example in this direction. This study concludes on moderate physiological stress on these early agro-pastoral communities and emphasizes the need for a fresh anthropological appraisal of the entire Neolithic skeletal series.

Though archaeological excavations were undertaken at several burial and a few habitational sites, most of these excavations were of small scale nature. For example, out of 2643 burial circles reported from the excavated sites of Vidarbha, only 69 (2.61 %) were exposed (Mohanty and Walimbe 1993). The skeletal material from the Megalithic sites therefore provides very limited anthropological information due to the relatively small-sized collection and its fragmentary and weathered condition. Nevertheless, careful scrutiny of the skeletal material leads to conclude about the variability of physical characteristics (Kennedy 1975). The specimens from Adittanallur, Raigir, Sanur, Ranchi, Savandurga and Pomparippu are dolichocranic in head form, whereas specimens from Brahmagiri, Nagarjunkonda and Yelleswaram have broader, brachycranic, head. Archaeologists have used these two categories to assume presence of two ' racial' stocks and hypothesize about an 'intruder population' (cited in Kennedy 1975). It is been established now that besides genetic reasoning, these changes can be attributed to non-genetic pressures such as dietary habits, life style, and pathological factors. However , not much of data on dietary habits is available in the Megalithic context. Though the excavations at Raipur and Bhagimohari have yielded agricultural evidence (Deglurkar and Lad 1992), skeletal and dental pathology was so far the only indirect method of assessing the diet and subsistence pattern. Dental evidence (viz. crown size and pathological features) from the site of Mahurjhari has suggested a mixed economy, combination of both domesticated and wild flora and fauna (Lukacs 1981).

The Chalcolithic phase flourished between 2000 and 700 B.C. and marks the beginning of sedentary life. The Deccan Chalcolithic human skeletal series recovered primarily from five Chalcolithic sites, viz. Nevasa, Chandoli, Iriamgaon, Daimabad and Kaothe, is one of the largest and most systematically studied human skeletal series in the Indian subcontinent. The Chalcolithic was a rural based culture and there was not much emphasis on trade as was during the Harappan phase. Because of limited mobility there was probably not much of external biocultural influence, as well. This provides a sort of 'controlled' laboratory situation for undertaking demographic and pathological analyses, which have provided valuable insights into the biological adaptive strategies of these early farmers in response to the changing ecosystems. More detailed note on the Chalcolithic phase appears in the following section.

Iron Age Megalithic inhabitants The Megalithic culture is distributed over a wide geographical area in the peninsular region. Extensive explorations have been undertaken, but most of these studies were in archaeological research perspectives. The peninsular India offers quite a variety of megalithic architecture, like dolmens, dolmenoid cists, urns, menhirs, topikals, stone circles and passage graves. General notion prevalent among archaeologists was (is?) to assign 'racially' different groups to each of these styles. In Maharashtra, the Megalithic culture is basically confined to the

It is noteworthy to mention of some studies which have used human skeletal evidence to verify archaeological propositions.

The first study of its kind (Mohanty and Walimbe 1993) attempts to verify a fundamental question, whether the Megalithic burials, which are the prominent feature of the cultural remains

5

of these people, were created or built for all the persons of the society? If not, for whom were they created? The exercise of actually building a megalithic monument with Iron Age technology carried out by them suggests that erection of a monument was not for everybody.

genetics to Indian anthropology in the early seventies signifies more usage of genetic markers (like blood groups for studying living populations, or cranial discrete traits for skeletal populations). Being under genetic control and unmodified by environmental factors discrete traits provided better basis for population comparisons. However, replacement of craniometry by morphological features did not stop writings on racial classification. And this practice continued more than a decade thereafter (cited in Kennedy 2000).

The observations carried out on the remains from a sarcophagus burial at the ashmound site of Kudatini are also of significance. The burial excavated from this site contained disarticulated human skeletal remains, distributed in a central six-legged terracotta sarcophagus, as well as in some of the numerous Black-and-Red ware pots which surrounded the sarcophagus. The study (Mushrif et al. 2003) surmises that the skeletal finds associated with the sarcophagus and pots represent the remains of a single juvenile individual who died of unknown causes. The burial was a secondary burial, and on the basis of ethnographic parallels it has been suggested that handling and deposition of the skeletal remains occurred in a specific and meaningful manner during the course of secondary burial rites.

Scholars in systematic biology had begun to recognize difficulties in selecting observable diagnostic feature in identifying genetically distinct groups of organisms. Gradually anthropologist also came to realize that every objection to the race concept with reference to plants and animals is equally relevant to Homo sapiens , past and present. Traditional race concept is therefore now no longer a part of the scientific study of human diversity and evolution. Cranial index is no longer a key for identification and studying affinities of a population, but remained as a measure of cranial shape as a result of evolutionary forces of natural selection operating continuously in response to the subsistence strategies of the population and advancement in food procurement technologies achieved. In earlier descriptive and comparative studies primary focus of research was on better preserved adult crania to obtain data on racially diagnostic features. The unfortunate result was that a more extensive collection of fragmentary and immature specimens was routinely disregarded either during the excavation process itself or in the anthropological laboratories. In the changed perspective since the aim is to understand how ancient populations lived, how they coped with the surrounding environment with the technology in hand, all the fragmentary bones are required to be analyzed. Every piece of preserved human bone, cranial or post-cranial, fragmentary or complete, needs to be scrutinized, since these elements can yield information on health status, occupation, age and sex of the deceased. Moreover, synthesis of archaeological and anthropological data is needed to understand the process of cultural evolution and its impact on human life and viceversa (Walimbe and Tavares 1996). As Kennedy had pointed out in the early eighties a comparative analysis of the biological anthropology of extinct and /or living populations is no longer considered simply a roster of 'racial traits' or hypotheses of possible genetic affinities; "rather it is more importantly a

II. CHANGING RESEARCH ORIENTATIONS

Picture emerging from the skeletal biological research in India emphases 'racial' classification as an integral part of the research design. Those who were working on living human populations, were classifying them on the basis of their phenotypic characteristics such as skin colour, hair texture and various other facial features. More 'serious' studies used cranial lengthbreadth Index as the basis for classifying population in dolicho-, meso- or brachycranial categories. There were a few courageous scholars who rejected the traditional race concept as being applied in India. For example, Sen (1967) opined that there is every reason to believe that the populations of the Sub-continent have descended from earlier populations of the same geographical region and hypothesized biological continuity in the region. He strongly stated that every population will have its own range of characteristics, and in view of such inter-population variation, single or handful skeletal specimens recovered from many archaeological excavations are not enough to provide data about the ranges of phenotypic variations of those ancient populations. He favored "a more rigorous application of a scientific concept based on population genetics" (Sen 1967: 179). Introduction of population

6

consideration of palaeodemographic factors of mortality and morbidity, fertility and fecundity, nutrition and disease, as these dynamics of population change are influenced by past and present ecological frameworks" (Kennedy 1982:31).

segment of the Nevasa series, which comprises approx. 80% of this series, was not included in this work. Osseous remains of 75 immature individuals recovered (and available for study) from the site of Nevasa comprise the main subject matter of the present research. Earlier Ehrhardt (1960) had prepared inventory of the skeletal remains from two excavation seasons, which included immature individuals also. However, besides providing mere listing of the skeletal recovery no substantial anthropological emphasis was given. In order to draw a concise picture regarding the bio-cultural adaptations of these agro-pastorals (and the Deccan Chalcolithic populations, in general) it was necessary to thoroughly examine all the immature and fragmentary elements recovered. This study is essentially an attempt to fill this lacuna.

The studies carried out in such bio-cultural perspectives on the Inamgaon, Daimabad and Kaothe human skeletal series were successful in unfolding the patterns of ancient lifeways in the ways never explored before. For example, valuable data is now available on the health status of these early agro-pastoral populations. The overall gracile appearance of the Chalcolithic population in comparison with the Mesolithic predecessors has also been interpreted as due to factors like natural selection involving a settled life style and low quality diet (Walimbe and Tavares 1996).

This study has broadly been aimed to cover the following aspects:

Tavares' study on the palaeopathological lesions / anomalies (1998) and Walimbe's work on cranio-facial evolutionary trends ( 1998) have shown that the skeletal remains should not be viewed as an isolated piece of evidence. By placing the skeletal material into an assigned cultural context anthropologists can attempt to trace the evolutionary routes of the human form through different technologically based culture groups through time. Moreover, they can also evaluate the nature of the biological stress on populations in diverse ecological settings and in relation with the advancement in technology.

Demography: Age-sex determination, estimations of infant and child mortality, trends of population growth, etc. Phenotype: Analysis of the biological characteristics, metric and non metric, comparisons between the Deccan Chalcolithic, Southern Chalcolithic and Harappan populations; assessment of the changes in craniofacial morphology with the changes in food procuring strategies.

In the light of the new knowledge available in the subject the Nevasa human skeletal series has been examined in the present research. More than 131 burials have been uncovered from the site between 1954-1961. All burials belong to the Chalcolithic period except one, which comes from the Indo-Roman level. Kennedy and Malhotra ( 1966) had studied four adult skeletons of this series previously, but the sub-adult

Dentition: Morphological and metric variations, trends of dental evolution. Pathology: Study of indelible marks of famine, disease, occupational trauma and congenital/genetic anomalies on teeth and bones; study of indicators of population stress, skeletal growth amongst the sub-adult population.

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2 THE CHALCOLITHIC CULTURE AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT OF NEV ASA

'A healed femur is the first sign of civilization' (Dr. Margaret Mead: 1935).

Many scholars have authoritatively described archaeology of the Chalcolithic phase. In the context of the present research the salient features and distribution of the Deccan Chalcolithic culture are briefly summarized , with special reference to the site of Nevasa. The authors state that the note is not based on original research, but uses various archaeological excavation reports and other publications . Besides the specific references given in the text, the observations and inferences of the following publications are broadly used. 1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

6.

into an urban status and died off as a rural culture , it gives an evidence of high social complexity , existence of a class structure and well-organized social life. There appears a possibility of a wellformed trade network with other contemporary regional exchange centres. The trade activities , however , might not be as extensive as those of the Indus valley Harappan phase . Hundreds of Chalcolithic sites are found all over India , primarily in the vicinity of the river valleys. Jain (1979) has divided these cultural sites in six different regional zones as:

Dhavalikar M. K. 1988. The First Farmers of the Deccan. Pune: Ravish Publishers. Dhavalikar M. K., H. D. Sankalia and Z. D. Ansari. 1988. Excavations at Inamgaon. Vol I. Pune: Deccan College Research Institute. Kennedy K. A. R. and K. C. Malhotra. 1966. Human Skeletal Remains from Cha/eolithic and Indo-Roman Levels from Nevasa: An Anthropometric and Comparative Analysis. Pune: Deccan College Research Institute. Sali S. A. 1986. Daimabad 1976-79. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India. Sankalia H. D., S. B. Deo, Z. D. Ansari and S. Ehrhart. 1960. From History to Prehistory at Nevasa : Report on the Excavation and Exploration in and around Nevasa 1954-56. Pune: Deccan College Research Institute. Tavares A. 1998. Paleopathology: Its Implications in the Archaeological Record. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Pune.

• • • • • •

Ahar-Banas Chalcolithic culture, Chalcolithic culture of Madhya Pradesh, Northern Deccan Chalcolithic culture, Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture of the Deccan , Chalcolithic culture of the Gangetic Doab, and, Chalcolithic culture of the Eastern region.

Striking simi larity is noticed in the material assemblage of these regional cultures. The main feature is the proximity of the site to a perennial water source. Wheel made Black-on-Red is the characteristic pottery, which is found at all the sites. Well-developed blade/flake industry of siliceous stone such as chalcedony and chert was another characteristic feature. Copper was known to the Chalcolithic people, but was used on a restricted scale primarily for ornamentation or smaller tools, as it was scarce. Though they were farmers, being in incipient stage the food economy was supplemented by animal food of both domestic and wild variety. Other similarities found are in the settlement pattern. The house pattern was either of rectangular or round shape. From some sites 'pit dwelling ' has also been reported.

I. INTRODUCTION As the word Chalcolithic indicates (cha/co meaning copper, and lithic-meaning stone) this cultural phase is characterized by the use of both copper and stone tool technology. This culture, which flourished from 2000 B.C. to 700 B.C. , marks the shift form nomadic hunting-gathering subsistence pattern to semi-settled and settled agricultural life. Though this phase did not evolve

There are different arguments about the origin of this culture. Some scholars , having been

8

influenced by the coincidence of this culture with the decline of the Harappan culture, are of the opinion that these people have probably migrated from the Northwest and the 'post-Harappan' element found in the cultural assemblage has thus been explained. When the decline of the Harappan culture began, people presumably started migrating to different regions. They had the knowledge of agriculture but the success in farming depended on the new ecological settings and therefore they had to add some local elements into their culture. The recent evidence from north Gujarat and Rajasthan clearly suggests that the Chalcolithic community came into being much before the Harappan period. It is obvious therefore that the Harappans did not play any significant role in the origin of the Chalcolithic culture in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and central India (Shinde 2002).

excavated the site in the year 1955 and this opened a new phase in the Protohistory of the Deccan. Subsequent explorations and selective excavations in the region have brought to light a number of settlements of this culture that survived in the plateau for more than 1500 years, in the second and first millennium B.C. A few of these sites have been systematically excavated; important ones include: Jorwe, Nevasa, and Daimabad (Ahmednagar district); Chandoli, Songaon, Walki and Inamgaon (Pune district); Kaothe and Prakashe (Dhule district) and Bahal (Jalgaon district). These sites are generally located away from main rivers and primarily seen along the bank of the major tributaries of the rivers stated above. It was earlier presumed that the Chalcolithic occupation was primarily concentrated along the W estem districts of Maharashtra. Recent excavations in the Vidarbha region indicate presence of this culture in Eastern region also. However, no convincing site has so far been reported from the Konkan region.

II. DEECAN CHALCOLITHIC

Remains of early farming culture of the Deccan were accidentally brought to light in 1950 at Jorwe (Dist. Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) by S.A. Sali. Profs. H. D. Sankalia and S. B. Deo later

Fig. 2.1 gives approximate location of the excavated Deccan Chalcolithic sites.

...

Fig. 2.1: Map showing approx. location of the excavated Deccan Chalcolithic sites.

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Chalcolithic sites are densely distributed throughout the Tapi valley. The cultural subphases, which could be identified in the habitation levels, are mainly distinguishable on the basis of the ceramics , and other cultural assemblage . In some instances name of the pottery and culture is given after the name of type-site where it found for first time. For example, the Jorwe ware or Malwa ware were first reported from these respective places. ' Savalda culture' , or 'Malwa culture' define certain settlement style and cultural assemblage seen there. Salient feature of the Chalcolithic cultural subphases are given below. •

Savalda culture (2000-1800 B.C.): This culture flourished in the Tapi valley. As stated earlier, the culture is named after the type-site Savalda (Dhule district). It is characterized by Black-on-Red painted pottery, which is decorated with naturalistic designs such as birds, animals and fishes. The typical forms are bowls, dishes and globular jars.

•

Late Harappan (1800-1600 B.C.): Some scholars are of the opinion are of the opinion that with the decline of the Indus civilization, the Harappans of Gujarat presumably began migrating into Maharashtra through the Tapi valley. In course of time they descended towards the south in the Pravara valley as evidenced from Daimabad excavation. They practiced subsistence agriculture, stock raising and hunting-fishing.

•

•

Malwa culture (1600-1400 B.C.): Malwa culture, first discovered at Maheshwer and Navadatoli (Nimar district, MP) known to have widely spread all over the Malwa region. It is characterized by distinct painted pottery having buff or creamish slip and is decorated with designs in dark brown. A variety of forms are represented with richly designed surface. The Malwa people began to migrate southwards sometime around 1600 B.C. in search of fresh pastures. Early Jorwe culture (1400-1000 B.C.): The Jorwe has been named after the type-site Jorwe (Ahmednagar district) where it was discovered for the first time. It was probably the most prosperous period of the Chalcolithic phase as evidenced from many

sites like, Prakashe, Daimabad, Inamgaon, etc. This culture is characterized by a Blackon-Red painted pottery, which is represented by distinct forms such as carinated bowl, a spouted jar and a high necked globular vase. The pottery was well-fired and having repeated designs of linear and geometric patterns, and very rarely of bird or an animal and human. The house pattern was mostly rectangular . •

Late Jorwe culture (1000-700 B.C.): By the close of the second millennium B.C. the Jorwe culture was on the decline and it degenerated into what has been termed as the Late Jorwe. This phase has so far been found to occur in the Bhima valley only. The pottery is coarse in fabric and is represented by convex bowls, channels spouted cups and spouted jars. In the course of time, painting also vanishes. The house dwellings were circular in shape. The cultural degradation is sometime attributed to the semi-nomadic lifestyle adopted by the people, to cope up with the deteriorating climate towards the close of phase in 8th century B.C.

Structural evidences and settlement pattern

The pioneering colonizers of Maharashtra , people of Savalda culture, lived in small rectangular houses with mud walls and thatched roofs. Although a vast majority of the houses were single roomed units, a few with two or three rooms also occur at Daimabad. Late Harappan houses, however, were more of a permanent type. They were long rectangular houses, either of mud or mud brick walls. Only few settlements of Late Harappan settlements have so far been known in Maharashtra. They were all small villages, each having population of around 100-200 persons. Some of the Malwa settlements, such as those at Prakashe , Daimabad and Inamgaon were quite large and the evidence form Inamgaon suggests that there were some modicum of planning the settlement. They had passage like space in between two houses at Inamgaon. Almost all the houses were large rectangular (7 X 5 m) structures with partition wall in between and a courtyard. The houses generally had a low mud wall and gable roof. Most of the houses gave an evidence of a large oval fire pit with raised sides. The grains were stored in deep pit silos and also in

bins of wickerwork , which were placed over circular platforms. Some people lived in round huts probably leading semi-nomadic existence. Pit-dwelling units have also been recovered from sites like Kaothe (Dhavalikar et al. 1990a).

stone in the centre at the bottom in support to the pot. Animals were kept in courtyard , which is evident by the nitrogen content of the soil. Sudden environmental change was noticed during the Late Jorwe period from 1000 B.C. onwards, resulting in decrease in rainfall patterns, which led to decline in agriculture. Subsequent poverty is reflected in the house type and coarse pottery. Instead of rectangular houses they built round huts in clusters of three to four or more. Round huts had a very low mud wall and its function was to prevent the rainwater from entering into house. These huts were apparently extremely flimsy with an irregular plan.

The notable feature of the Jorwe settlement organization is that there was a large centre in each region, e.g., Prakashe in Tapi valley, Daimabad in the Godavari valley and Inamgaon in the Bhima valley. The largest of these was Daimabad 30 hectors in extent, whereas Prakashe and Inamgaon about 5 hector. If the modest estimate of 200 persons per hectare were taken (as calculated by Dhavalikar, 1986), the population of the regional centers would have been around 6000 to 1000 respectively. Inamgaon was fortified with a mud wall having stone rubble bastions and a ditch around the habitation. In addition, the diversionary channel and the embankment on the western periphery at Inamgaon also may have afforded a measure of protection to the inhabitants. An embankment to protect the settlement from flood has been noted at Daimabad also. A remarkable feature of the Jorwe (both Early and Late) settlement at Inamgaon is that the houses of the artisans such as the potter, lime maker, the lapidary etc. were located on the western periphery of the principal habitational area. Besides these major regional centres a vast majority of the Jorwe settlements can be classified as villages. They usually range from 1- 3 hectors in extent with an approximate population of 200600 persons. Nevasa and Bahal had somewhat larger extent with a population of approximately 500-1000.

Material culture

The early farming cultures had made considerable progress in ceramic technology. Four pottery kilns have been recovered, two each from Daimabad and Inamgaon. Very little quantity of terracotta male or female figurines has been excavated from some of the Deccan Chalcolithic sites. There are few bull figurines found from Kayatha, central India. The specialized blade-flake industry of siliceous material such as chalcedony and agate is another characteristic feature of the Jorwe culture. Polished stone axes and chisels of dolerite were used, though rarely. Metal technology was in a rudimentary stage. The copper was doubtless scare and was sparingly used for making objects such as axes, chisels, bead, fishhooks etc. made by cold hammering. Four bronze objects (chariot, elephant, buffalo and rhinoceros) found at Daimabad show great skill of metalworking. The images have been assigned to Late Harappan period but this proposition is questioned on the grounds of technology. Personal ornaments were mostly composed of beads of chalcedony, agate, carnelian and varieties of jasper. Only in few instances copper bangles, anklets, and necklaces of copper beads strung in silken thread are seen at Chandoli. A few gold beads and spiral ear ornaments have been found at Daimabad and Inamgaon. Ivory bead has also been found at Inamgaon.

The huts excavated at Walki (Pune district) provide some interesting aspect of Jorwe culture (Dhavalikar et al. 1990b). They are found in clusters and each cluster contained five huts, built in a circular fashion. The flimsy nature of structures and the thin habitation deposit at Waiki has led to identify the settlement as a Chalcolithic farmstead of the Jorwe period, dated to 1400-1000 B.C. which was probably a satellite settlement of the people form Inamgaon. The Early Jorwe settlement houses were large and rectangular with low mud walls over which the wattle-and-daub structure constructed. The thatched roof may have conical. The Inamgaon houses vary in size in the range of 5x3 m. to 7x5 m. The larger ones were divided into two parts. Inside the house, and most of the time in courtyard, oval fire pit is noticed, having a flat

Religion

The evidence suggests that the Chalcolithic people worshiped gods, goddess and also certain animals. There are terracotta figurines of female goddess reported from Inamgaon and other few Chalcolithic sites. Two types are noticed, with

11

head, and without head; there are several examples of the former class corning from Nevasa . Two female figures from Inamgaon were found buried under the floor of one Early Jorwe house datable to 1300 B.C. They were inside the pit in a corner of a house containing an oval shaped clay receptacle with lid. Over the lid of the receptacle was found a clay figurine without head and a bull. These objects were unbaked. Figurines of males are extremely rare at Chalcolithic sites and even on painted pottery they are depicted rarely . They may have practiced animal and fire worship , which is evident from tortoise amulet of shell from the excavations at Prakashe , (Dhule district). Evidence of fire worship comes from Daimabad. Large mud platforms were excavated at this site and been identified as sacrificial altars.

which formed component of the food economy were sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus), buffalo (Buba/us bubalis), pig (Sus domesticus) for the food purpose. Dog (Canis familiaris) , donkey (Equus asinus) and wild animals like black buck (Anti/ope cervicapra), four horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricomis) , sambar (Cervus unicolour), chital (Axis axis) were identified in the assemblage of faunal remains. The choice and combination of animals depended on the geographical location of the site. Among whole faunal assemblage 50% cattle bones are found (Thomas 1988, Thomas and Joglekar 1990). The second preference was given to the sheep/goat meat. But at the sites like Adam and Tuljapur Garhi (Vidarbha region) , the pig become important part for food economy . The difference in selection of animal is attributed to the diverse climate in western and eastern regions of Maharashtra . Typical forested animals like barking deer and gaur were hunted frequently in the humid region, whereas, from the semi-arid plains animals like black buck (Antelope cervicapra), nilgai (Boselaphus trogpcamelus), gazella, etc. have been identified (Thomas 1988).

Food habits Food economy of the Chalcolithic communities was based on farming , stock raising , hunting, gathering and fishing. The black cotton soil helped better agriculture. Though there is an evidence of artificial irrigation from Inamgaon, this was mainly dry farming due to the semi-arid zone with annual rainfall ranging between 4001000 mm. The micro studies of soil from Inamgaon and Daimabad and the palaeobotanical study give fare evidence of agricultural products. Barley (Hordeum vulgare) seems to be staple diet of the people. Other cereals and pulses cultivated were jawar (Sorbhum vulgare), rice (Oryza sativa), horse gram (Dolichos biflorus Linn.), hyacinch bean (Dolichos lab/ab Linn.) , lentil (Lens esculenta Moench) , pea (Pisum arvense Linn.) , green gram (Phaselous aureas Roxb.), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus Linn.), etc. Wheat (Triticum sp.) was also grown whenever there was assured irrigation, as in the Early Jorwe phase at Inamgaon. The wild plants include Indian jujube (Zizyphus jujubi Lamk.), Indian jambun (Sizygium cumini Linn.), beheda (Terminalia belerica Roxb.), etc. This indicates that Chalcolithic diet had consisted of domesticated as well as wild plants (Kajale 1988).

Chalcolithic diet also consisted of fish. Evidence like fishhooks of copper and fish bones in a large quantity throws light on the fishing activity of these people. They also used turtle, crocodile, crab and mollusks in food. In general the Chalcolithic people explored all the natural resources which were available to them in surrounding area. Ratio of domestic and wild species in the diet was 4: 1 (Thomas 1984). The evidence of bone fragments of horse (Equus cabalus) is taken as an indicative of contacts between Chalcolithic people from Inamgaon to Iron age.

Human burials The Chalcolithic sites of the Deccan provide rich evidence of ceremonial human burials, which comes from the habitational levels, rather than a conventional cemetery. Almost every excavated Chalcolithic site has yielded evidence of human burial. However, many of these burials are symbolic, and osseous remains from many more burials have not survived. Nevertheless some of these sites have yielded excellently preserved human skeletons. The Deccan Chalcolithic human skeletal series, recovered primarily from five Chalcolithic sites, viz. Inamgaon , Daimabad, Kaothe , Nevasa and Chandoli, is one of the largest human skeletal series in the Indian sub-continent.

Along with the plants they incorporated animal food in their diet. Almost all the sites provide large number of faunal remains covering domesticated and wild animals. Quantitative analysis carried out at Inamgaon, Kaothe and other Chalcolithic sites, give indications that substantial amount of meat was used in Chalcolithic diet. These studies show that cattle meat was used in large quantity. Other animals

12

areas, not evidenced in the building of structures. These bricks were said to resemble with those at Harappa, so also was the pottery type and hence Daimabad was supposed to have close relations with the Harappan cultures of Gujarat or the population at Daimabad were the migrants of the post-Harappan migrations into Southern India.

A common linkage that runs through all the Chalcolithic sites is the mode of disposal of the dead. Most of the burials were located within habitation area, in the houses itself or in the courtyard of the house. However, for one of the sites of Tapi valley, burials were unearthed at Tekawada, whereas on the opposite bank of the Girna, a tributary of Tapi, the Chalcolithic habitational site Bahal is located. It seems that people of Bahal buried their dead on the opposite bank of the same river. Keeping the cemetery away from the habitation was indeed an uncommon feature of the Chalcolithic culture.

The burials were accompanied with burial goods, such as pottery, tools, ornaments etc. The burial furniture usually consisted of a carinated bowl and a spouted vessel, both of Black-on-Red painted variety. In one case, burial of late Jorwe phase contained fifteen pots inside the pit. The pots that found in burial pits most likely contained food and water for dead person deceased. Few burials have been described as 'symbolic', meaning they were devoid of any human bone, while some burials contained remains of two, three or even four individuals, buried together were treated as 'multiple' burials.

Most common mode of disposing the adults was in extended or supine position. Sub-adults were usually buried in the urn burials, mostly twin-urns, placed mouth to mouth horizontally in the grave pit. The 'extended' style of burials was rare for children and infants. The burial pit was usually dug in a north-south direction, and the dead was kept on grass or on bare floor, with the legs towards south and head towards north. In case of twin-um burials, it has been observed that one of the urns is usually bigger than the other; in most of the cases, the northern urn which accommodates head is bigger. A curious feature of the adult skeletons is that the portion below ankles was deliberately chopped off before the ceremonious burial.

Nature of human skeletal evidence Following is the brief description of the archaeological context of the principal Chalcolithic sites in the Deccan Plateau and the nature of human burial evidence recovered. Classification of sites has been done according the river valleys where these sites are situated.

Bhima river valley Though the Chalcolithic burials are divided into two broad categories, twin-um and extended, several variations in burial customs occur. Vertically placed single-um burials or horizontally oriented three-um burials have also been rarely noticed. There are two instances at Inamgaon where the dead body is buried in sitting posture, in four-legged jar of unbaked black clay. At Kaothe, both adults as well as sub-adults were buried in an extended position, and feet below ankles was not cut off and the pits are devoid of any burial goods. In many burials at Inamgaon the dead body seems to have wrapped in grass as traces of these have been found along with the skeletons when excavated. Only at Daimabad evidence of pit burials lined with mud bricks is found. In this Late Harappan burial the body was placed on a wellrammed floor, and covered with twigs of hemplike fibrous plant. Mud brick bats were placed to form an encasing (Sali 1986). This is interesting as bricks are totally absent from the habitation

Inamgaon: The Inamgaon site (Lat. 18°36' N; 74° 32' E) is located on the right bank of the river Ghod, a tributary of Bhima, 85 Km south-east from Pune. Between 1968-1983 large-scale excavations were conducted at the site which revealed two main cultural phases, as follows.

Period I

Malwa

c. 1600 - 1400 B.C.

Period II a

Early Jorwe

C.

1400 - 1000 B.C.

Period II b

Late Jorwe

C.

1000 - 700 B.C.

In the course of excavation 251 burials were unearthed. Culture wise and burial type distribution of these burials is given below. Of the 251 burials, remains from 228 burials have so far been studied anthropologically (Lukacs and Walimbe 1986).

13

Table 2.1. Distribution of burial types from Inamgaon Single urn 7

Twin urn 15

Ila. Early Jorwe lib. Late Jorwe

Period I. Malwa

Total

Three urn

Extended

Four legged

Other

Total

--

--

23

5

---

1

40

20

2

5

72

10

82

3

60

--

1

156

22

137

3

81

2

6

251

Waiki: This site is located (Lat. 18°35' E; Long. 74°18 N) about 32 Km west from Inamgaon and approximately 60 Km east from Pune on the right bank of Bhima. It is said to be a satellite site of Inamgaon. The site gives cultural evidence of Jorwe (Early and Late) period (Dhavalikar et al. 1990b). All together 14 burials were unearthed . Some of these burials are symbolic and osseous remains of only nine (?) individuals were available for study. Except one, all are of subadult age group (Mushrif and Walimbe 2001).

obtained from the excavation , only 37 burials were made available for anthropological scrutiny. Except one adult individual from the Late Harappan level, all others belong to the sub-adult segment (Walimbe 1986). The preservation status of this skeletal series is poor and lack of adequate field record precludes precise archaeological association. Apegaon : The Apegaon site is situated (Lat.19°36 N; Long. 75°29) on the left bank of Godavari, near Paithan (Aurangabad district) (Deo et al. 1979). No human burial was excavated but single human mandibular fragment retaining three molar teeth was unearthed from the site which was studied by Lukacs (Lukacs 1980).

Cbandoli: The site of Chandoli (Lat. 19°10' N; LONG. 73°58 E) lies about 60 Km north-east of Pune and is located on the bank of river Ghod. The excavation yielded prosperous Jorwe phase dated to 1400-1000 B.C. (Deo and Ansari 1965). All the skeletal evidence comes from the Malwa phase, which is further divided in three subphases. The total number of burials was 24, of which 11 (including one adult) come from the Phase I, 10 from Phase II and 3 from Phase III. The skeletal inventory was made by Malhotra and the adult skeleton was later studied by him (Malhotra 1965). The sub-adult skeletons were, however, not subjected to anthropological scrutiny and subsequently became untraceable.

Nevasa: This skeletal series is discussed in the later part of the chapter. Archaeological report indicates recovery of 131 burials, but approximately osseous remains of only 75 individuals are available at the time of this study. Four adults of this series were studied earlier. Tapi river valley Kaothe : Chalcolithic site of Kaothe (Lat. 21°00 N; Long. 74°18 E) is situated on the left bank of river Kan, a tributary of river Ranjhara, which is a major tributary of Tapi of Dhule district (Dhavalikar et al. 1990a). On the basis of the habitational deposit the site has been ascribed to the time bracket of 2000 B.C. - 1800 B.C. Five burials were uncovered from the trenches, while the sixth one was found approximately five meter away from the excavated area. Out of five human skeletons studied so far, two are of adults and three are of children (Walimbe 1990). There are some interesting features observed in the mode of burials. The children were not buried in the twin urn as in other sites, but placed in extended position like adults. Another thing is that, the part of below ankle was not chopped off in case of adults as usually found in other Chalcolithic sites. There was no evidence of burial offering or goods.

Godavari river valley Daimabad: Daimabad (Lat. 19°31' N; Long. 74°42') is situated on the left bank of river Pravara, a tributary of Godavari in Ahmednagar district. The cultural phases of Daimabad are five folds, as:

Period Period Period Period Period

I II III IV V

Savalda Late Harappa Daimabad Malwa Jorwe

2200 2000 C. 1800 C. 1600 C. 1400 C.

C.

2000 B.C. 1800 B.C . 1600 B.C. 1400 B.C. 1000 B.C.

Of the 76 burials were uncovered during excavation process some have been reported to be 's ymbolic ' in nature. Of the skeletal inventory

14

All the specimens have fairly well preserved crania and post-cranial skeleton.

The habitation at these sites does not show any further expansion of culture after 700 B.C. The chemical analysis of the soil profile from Nevasa indicates a decline in the rainfall pattern. It has been argued that in the later phase of the culture there was growing dependence on pastoral activities. It has also been hypothesized that there was an increase in population pressure, leading to general mal- or under-nourishment, higher morbidity, and decrease in life expectancy. The climatic changes coupled with the problems of increasing population pressure probably might have resulted in the decline of the culture. In later phases the stressful conditions forced these early farming communities to resort gradually to sheep/goat pastoralism leading to a semi-nomadic existence. The Chalcolithic culture, unlike the Harappan culture, died off as a village culture. Some sites show the beginning of megalithic culture around 800 B.C.

Tekawada: This site is situated on the left bank of river Girna, a tributary of Tapi. It is said to be the cemetery of the Chalcolithic population of Bahal. The excavation revealed eight burials, out of which six were of children buried in single-urns, and two were adults interned in extended position. There is no evidence of twin um burial in the site. No anthropological information is available for this skeletal series and the contents of the burials are untraceable.

To summarize, the number of burials unearthed from these seven sites is as follows; Table 2.2. Human burials recovered from the Deccan Chalcolithic sites. No. of 'individuals' Name of No. of Burials studied the site Inamgaon 251 228 Walki 14 9 24 Chandoli 1 Daimabad 76 37 Apegaon 1 1 Nevasa 131 75* Kaothe 6 5 Tekawada 8 Total 511 356 *Present study As stated earlier, many of these burials are 'symbolic' and devoid of any human bones. Osseous remains from many other burials were too brittle and did not reach the laboratory for anthropological study. Some burials were 'multiple' and contained skeletal remains of more than one individual. Anthropological information is available for 356 'individuals' recovered from 511 burials (including the Nevasa series studied in this thesis). This skeletal collection constitutes one of the largest skeletal series from the protohistoric levels of the continent. It must be reemphasized that the word 'individual' has been used in only in a paleontological sense. All skeletal elements are seldom preserved; most of the individuals are represented by cranial or post-cranial fragments, or even by a single tooth.

Recently yet another hypothesis has been forwarded to explain the decline and end of the Chalcolithic culture of Deccan. It has been stated that, " .....There is a strong possibility that the Megalithic people, equipped with effective iron implements and fast moving horses, began to arrive in the Deccan around 800 B.C. and were responsible for the end of the Chalcolithic culture in this region" ((Shinde 1994:169-178). To support this theory, the evidence of burnt rectangular structures and burials of the last phase at Inamgaon has been used. "In the earlier phase the adults were ceremoniously buried and most of time one person was buried in one pit. But in later phase the presence of more than one person in one pit, an absence of burial goods in many cases, and missing limbs such as a hand or a leg or even the head of a skeleton" (Shinde 1994:169-178). This theory however does not fit with the skeletal evidence. More discussion on this issue appears later in this publication.

III. ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT OF NEVASA

The Chalcolithic site of Nevasa (Lat. 19" 34' N; Long. 74" 54' E) is situated on the bank of the river Pravara, a major tributary of Godavari in Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra. This site was discovered by Shri. M. N. Deshpande, then in the Maharashtra State Department of Archaeology, and later Director General of ASL Excavations were conducted at the site by Deccan College Research Institute under the leadership of late Dr. H. D. Sankalia from 1954 to 1961.

Decline of the culture:

The Chalcolithic cultures flourished from 2000 B.C. to 700 B.C. Evidence recovered specifically from Inamgaon and Nevasa indicates gradual deterioration of culture from around 1000 B.C.

15

Fig. 2.2 : General view of the Chalcolithic mound at Nevasa.

In the beginning the aim of excavation was to know more about the thirteenth century Marathi saint Shri Jnanesvara, who wrote commentary on the great religious text Gita. There are some literary references ofNevasa in Lilacaritra (11941276) and in some manuscript of the Jnanesvari (1271-1296 A.O.). The ancient name ofNevasa is given as Nidhivasa, Nidvasa, or Nivasa. Nivasa which in Marathi refers to the habitation of human.

evidence of habitational levels of four major cultures from Chalcolithic to Medieval (Fig. 2.3).

Period III

Early Paleolithic (middle Pleistocene) Middle Paleolithic (Upper Pleistocene) Chalcolithic

Period IV

Early Historic

Period V

Late early Historic (Indo Roman) Medieval (Muslim and Maratha)

Period I

Period II

During the exploration of this site, the Ladmod mound at Nevasa among others was selected for excavation because of its larger size and bestpreserved condition (Fig. 2.2). The ancient site is situated on both the banks of river Pravara. The Ladmod mound, which was excavated, is located on the left bank of the river. This mound is divided into three smaller mounds. The part of Ladmod having temple was named as Md. I; mound on the western side as Md. II, and mound where the excavation camp was located, was called as Md. III. Among these three mounds Md. I, which was the highest about 70 ft. above the Pravara river, was selected for the excavation in 1954-55 and subsequently the investigations were extended to Md. II. The site revealed six cultural phases, whereas the protohistoric mound gives an

Period VI

1,50.000 B.P. 25,000 B.P.

15001000 B.C. C. 150- 50 B.C. C. 50B.C. 200A.D. C.

1400 1700 A.O.

C.

The habitation of period III, Chalcolithic, is on the black soil indicating that these were the first inhabitants of this area. Top layer of Period III was found weathered possibly due to the abandonment of the site after about 1000 B.C. This layer, therefore, taken as an indicative of the long gap of time that existed between the occupations of Period III and that of Period IV.

16

Fig. 2.3: Excavation ofNevasa in progress.

There are phases within the Chalcolithic broad cultural stratum , which could be demarcated with clusters of burials associated with each habitational level. They practiced burying their dead below the occupation floor. On the basis of the burial evidence the Chalcolithic phase has been divided into five sub-phases.

about two inch thickness. No evidence of any posts or post-holes could be found. Phase IV: The next phase was represented by group of nine um-burials. Floor was without any hard foundation. On the available plain surface lime and clay was spread and possibly rammed. At least six post-holes , all round in shape and varying between four and two inches in diameter , were seen; the remains of a round wooden central post indicated the use of wooden support for the roof above.

Phase I: The habitation in this phase was on the black soil, as evidenced by group of two burials, the urns of which were kept in a pit dug into the black soil. No floor of any kind was associated with these burials suggesting no elaboration of making floors and structures, the only exception was the lime platform which was noticed immediately over the black soil on which a skeleton was laid.

Phase V: The last and the topmost habitation of Chalcolithic period III was evidenced by a patchy floor and one burial in Tr. A, which lay below the lime floor of Period IV.

Structures

Phase II: The next phase of habitation was evidenced by remains of a patchy floor level. No evidence of any post-holes could be had.

The excavation yielded very few structures . Nature of stratification was determined to a greater extent by the material used for structures . The Chalcolithic culture at Nevasa was stated to be devoid of any structural remains and consisted primarily a dark brown earth , except the white streaks of lime floors. These mud houses had floors either of hydraulic lime mortar , lime and clay, or lime, clay and gravel. The floors were not

Phase III: This phase was characterized by a group of seven um-burials and one adult burial, and an 'empty ' um burial. The extent of these burials shows that the habitation extended at least over an area measuring 45 ft X 20 ft. on Md. I. The floor consisted of rammed brown clay of

17

thick and did not involve elaborate preparation of a level or foundation. Wooden posts were sunk into these floors (Sankalia 1960).

Other material incorporates copper and stone beads, few terracotta and shell beads and several steatite beads. The shapes were mainly barrel, cylindrical, globular, biconical types. In toilet objects terracotta skin-rubbers of various shapes and sizes were recovered. Hand -made terracotta lamps , 'sharpeners' , stoppers, lids , wheels, etc., as well as stone objects including hammer-stones, anvils and muller were found associated with the Chalcolithic period. In metal objects , four heavily rusted copper blade-like pieces were found in which one belongs to Chalcolithic period. One copper chisel and pot was also discovered.

Material Culture Microlithic blades are associated with this culture. In some cases working floors could be identified on the basis of occurrence of cores in various stages of manufacture as well as the debitage like plunging flakes , flakes etc . The inhabitants used primarily chalcedony, occasionally agate and very rarely chert. The ceramic industry of Chalcolithic period at Nevasa consisted mainly of four types , of which the painted black-on-red or the Jorwe fabric was the most abundant. The others were the coarse red and the orange ware . Besides real Jorwe ware , the Nevasa black-on-red exhibited quite a range in the treatment of the outer surface showing application of various slips, though principally red. Another distinguishing feature of the Nevasa pottery was the variety of shapes. They included carinated bowls, spouted vessels with high necks and squat body , spouted bowls, a number of very small bowls, basins and ringed and stemmed stands.

Burials and the skeletal remains Like all other sites in Deccan , the Chalcolithic people at Nevasa buried their dead within the habitation itself. Adults were buried in extended position , while normally two urns of grey handmade fabric with globular body, rounded bottom and flared mouth were kept mouth to mouth horizontally in north-south orientation for burying sub-adults. Earlier researchers comment on the shape of the burial urn. In their opinion the shape of the urn resembles very much the abdomen of a pregnant female. This may be because the custom of burying infants in a position of embryonic flexure within the belly-shaped urns was for the purpose of facilitating the rebirth of the child and symbolically affording it a re-entry into maternal womb (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966).

Almost all the pottery was wheel-made. Very few hand-made varieties were recovered. In some cases bamboo baskets were used for making clay vessels as is evidenced by a few thick sherds with perfect bamboo-matting impressions on them. Nevasa painted pottery (Jorwe ware) consisted mostly of various sized bowls and spouted pots with very limited range of painted designs. These designs are drawn in black over a matte red surface and are mostly geometrical, predominated by lines and bands. These in some case combine to evolve more elaborate decorations like triangles, zigzags, diamonds, lozenges, loops and semi-circles. Few sherds exhibit naturalist figures of animals and plants. The course grey ware mainly consisted of spouted vessels, burial urns and knobbed lids . Course red-ware were predominately used as storage jars , and some time as burial cover for adults. Decorations consist chiefly of fingertip designs, punctured dots etc.

Fig. 2.4 : Single urn burial from Nevasa .

18

Fig. 2.5: Twin-um burial from Nevasa.

In some incidences shallow pits were dug out for the burial. It may also be noted that burial urns were not used in all the cases. There are instances where two storage jars were used for burying the dead. In some burials three or four urns were used to cover the body. The practice of um-burials was associated with all the phases of Period III and in most of these skeletal remains were found in various stages of preservation, except for a few 'symbolic burials', where nothing but earth was found. There are in general five varieties of urn burials encountered. They are: a. single-um covered with bowl (Fig. 2.4), b. double-urns placed horizontally face to face (Fig. 2.5), c. double-urns placed vertically face to face, d. three-urns, of which two placed horizontally face to face and the third covering the broken bottom of one of the other two, (Fig. 2.6), and e. symbolic burial. Normally remains of one child were associated with one burial, though some 'multiple burials' were also encountered (Fig. 2.7).

hand made urn" (JAR 1955:7). However, Dr. Ehrhardt remarks that "it is more possible that the dead bodies of the children were placed into the urns after a process of desiccation" (Ehrhardt 1960:522). The scholars suspects loss of many parts of the body in this process and opine that only certain bones were probably ritually collected and placed in urns. Recent observations by the second author on the skeletonization process in the 'site formation' perspective do not support both these views, however.

Adult dead were normally buried in extended position with head towards north and legs towards south (Fig. 2.8). There were some flexed burials also, where the body was kept in tight position. In most of the cases they were partial burials. While describing the burial practices at Nevasa it has been stated that, after the partial cremation or exposure of the body, the bones were placed in a

Fig. 2.6: Three-um burial from Nevasa.

19

Prehistory at Nevasa: A report on the excavation and exploration in and around Nevasa 1954-56 by H. D. Sankalia and others. She studied bones recovered from 20 burials and belonging to at least 18 individuals. All were sub-adults (children) except one, (Burial 10-A), which was an adult specimen. Though not much of information is given for the sub-adults, the Scholar has described in some detail the physical characteristics of the adult Specimen.

In subsequent excavations at Nevasa, 1959-60 and 1960-61 seasons, another 66 burials were found; all but three contained the remains of immature individuals. Of the three adult specimens two (nos. 18 and 21) were from the Chalcolithic levels, and the third (no. 49) came the IndoRoman level dated to 50 B.C. to 200 A.D. During the most recent excavation at Nevasa 34 additional burials were found. All the four adult specimens recovered from the site, No.IO (10-A in the Ehrhardt's record), 18, 21 and 49, were studied by K. A. R. Kennedy and K. C. Malhotra in 1966, and the results were published as a monograph, entitled, Human Skeletal Remains from Cha/eolithic and Inda-Roman Levels form Nevasa: An Anthropometric and Comparative Analysis. Besides the four adults, they also studied three immature skeletons (No. 19, an urn burial, 1959-60 expedition, and, No. 72 and 72a, two skeleton described as 'a pair of grown-up boys' from the 1960-61 excavation). The Indo-Roman skeleton was studied 'to understand the postChalcolithic phenotype pattern at Nevasa'.

Fig. 2.7: Multiple burial from Nevasa.

Very few burial goods were found in burial pits, which primarily consisted of pottery, bead necklace and rarely a copper object or ornament. Rare incidences of elaborate burial offerings obtained from Nevasa is shown in Fig. 2.9. There is a great deal of confusion in published archaeological reports but it seems that around 131 burials have been uncovered from the site between 1954-1961. All burials belong to the Chalcolithic period except one, which comes from the Indo-Roman level. Dr. Ehrhardt studied the skeletal remains coming form 1954-56 excavations and report was published in 1960 in Nevasa excavation report From History to

Fig. 2.8: Extended adult burial from Nevasa.

20

Fig . 2.9: Offerings in the burial pit.

contemporary inhabitants of the area, comparative studies were undertaken in metrical and morphological aspects with present day 86 castes groups. Kennedy and Malhotra opine that the Indo-Roman specimen (No. 49) bears close affinities with the tribal populations of Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat and little similarity to the village and urban dwellers of these regions today.

More discussion on the observations made by Kennedy and Malhotra appears in the fourth chapter. In brief, it may be mentioned here that in their opinion, the phenotype pattern, which was present at Nevasa during the Chalcolithic period bears close metrical and morphological similarities to the pattern dominant at the Harappan skeletons. The lndo-Roman skeleton shows affinity to the Iron Age skeletal remains from Adittanalur and Brahmagiri. The predominant 'raciar type identifiable in both the Chalcolithic and Indo-Roman specimens from Nevasa is 'Mediterranean ' . The nonMediterranean physical features are 'racially' assigned to 'Proto-Australoid' phenotype elements. In order to understand the biological linkage of the Chalcolithic predecessors to the

As has been pointed out earlier, like other human skeletal series, the research on Nevasa skeletal collection was restricted to know about their 'racial' identity. For better understanding the health status and lifeways of the Chalcolithic population the entire skeletal series has been reexamined in palaeodemographic and pathological perspective in this research.

21

3

PRESERVATION AND SKELETAL INVENTORY

"The skeleton is a machine. Like machines of iron and steel, it may be described in two ways: A catalogue may be prepared of its parts with their assigned names and data as to their size, shape and the materials of which they are constructed, or a description may be given of its parts in their assembled relationship, noting the roles that they play in manipulating and controlling energy. Neither of these approaches is meaningful without the other " (S. L. Rogers, 1984: 3).

number to provide accurate identification, whereas, in some cases the only information mentioned was the trench and the position of the urn from where the bones were picked up (for example, northern um, southern urn, etc.). Some labels indicated only the date of excavation. Some burials were packed in more than one box and no such indication was provided. The bones were packed in raw cotton and several such tin boxes were stored in two bigger sized metal trunks. Since these sub-adult individuals were not considered to be useful for anthropological study the trunks remained unopened for almost four decades since the date they were packed. Hence, there was considerable damage to the bones and accompanying identification label caused by of white ants, and other natural factors. Further there was no way to confirm skeletal inventory of each burial pit since no photographic documentation is available.

Archaeological evidence of 131 burials was recovered from the excavated area of the Nevasa mound. Some burials were apparently ' symbolic' in nature and no human bones were recovered from these pits. On the other hand, some burials were 'multiple' , yielding remains of more than one individual. Earlier studies of Kennedy and Malhotra ( 1966) considered only four adult burials of the Nevasa skeletal series (namely, 10, 18, 21 and 49). The skeletal elements belonging to these specimens were adequately cleaned and numbered. Of these four adults, one individual, No. 49, comes from the Indo-Roman habitational level whereas other three belong to the Chalcolithic level. In addition to the four adults mentioned above one adult cranium was also found in the Nevasa collection, which was not included in the study undertaken by Kennedy and Malhotra.

Other serious problem was posed by the numbering style adopted in the field. The site of Nevasa was excavated for four seasons and the burials excavated in each season were serially arranged starting from one. To complicate the matter further, during one (two?) field season(s) roman numbering system was used.

The sub-adult segment of the Nevasa skeletal series, however, poses serious problems regarding their identification. Since the anthropological research in the early 60' s was focused primarily on establishing 'racial' identity of the population, only adult individuals were given decent field and laboratory treatment and the sub-adult burials were not adequately documented and reported in the archaeological context. The archaeological excavation report of the site did not provide burial-wise inventory of the cultural findings or the skeletal orientation and other relevant details as regards the contents of the burial pit. The bones were packed in small or medium sized tin containers. Very few of these containers carried identification tag, or might be the tag was pasted outside the box and lost eventually . The only identification for most of the other individuals was the label that was kept inside the tin, quite a few of such labels survived though in very bad state of preservation. Nevertheless some labels gave information about season, date of excavation, trench and the burial

In order to minimize the confusion of numbering system the present authors have attempted to renumber the entire skeletal series. In the first place, all the skeletal remains packed in a single tin or box with proper identifying information were arranged serially. Most of these individuals were included in the inventory prepared by Dr. Ehrhardt (1960). The information given in her report is tallied with the label found in the box. The individuals whose archeological context was not precisely known followed this set. In this case each and every bone piece was to be properly examined for the morphological details, preservation condition and duplication of parts, if any, etc. The boxes containing remains of two

22

individuals were more problematic and at most care was given to separate the bones individually.

achieved in this regard as the log-books remained untraceable to the present authors. The scholars involved in excavation process are no longer available for consultation. Fortunately it has been categorically stated in archeological report that all the urn burials belong only to the Chalcolithic levels and bear no connection with the lndo-Roman phase of the occupation (Sankalia 1960). Therefore, though it is not possible to classify the skeletons in five subphases of the Chalcolithic habitation it is logical and justifiable to treat the whole sample as coming from the single cultural deposit.

In all 70 individuals could be recognized in this skeletal series and they are renumbered as NVS(VM) 1, NVS(VM) 2, ......... ,NVS(VM) 70. For the four adult burials studied by Kennedy and Malhotra (1966), and one adult cranium which remained unstudied earlier, there was no confusion regarding their archeological association. However, to avoid any confusion at a later date these five individuals are also renumbered, from NVS(VM) 71 to NVS(VM) 75. The adult individual coming from the IndoRoman level, though does not carry any significance in interpreting the Chalcolithic skeletal population, is reported in this study and has been numbered as NVS(VM) 75.

The Table 3.1 gives complete inventory, including new number given by the present scholar, the old number given on the identification tag, the information on the archaeological context, if any, and other relevant details.

To associate the burials stratigraphically was a big challenge and not much of success could be

Table 3.1: Numbering system for the Nevasa skeletons, as adopted in the present study.

Numbers given by Present scholar NVS(VM) 1

Old number Burial III

NVS(VM) 2

Burial IV

NVS(VM) 3

Burial 1

NVS(VM)4 NVS(VM) 5

Burial 2 Burial 15

NVS(VM) 6

--

NVS(VM) 7

Burial 8

NVS(VM) 8 NVS(VM) 9

Urn8 Burial 5

NVS(VM) 10

--

NVS(VM) 11

Burial 5

NVS(VM) 12

Burial 24

NVS(VM) 13 NVS(VM) 14

Bones from urn4A Burial 25

NVS(VM) 15

Burial 27

Excavation details or information provided on labels / boxes Trench A / Layer 10 / depth 2' 8" I BD 5/ urn I and 2 / date 9.2.55. Skull, packed separately , numbered as 9374 Trench A / Layer 10a / depth 2' 8" / BD 5 / urns 1 and 2 / 9.2.55. Trench A / Layer 10a / depth 2' 8" / BD 5 / urns two/ 8.2.55 / On skull : A/ lOa/ 3975 Trench A / 10a. Trench F / Layer 11 / depth 4' 10" / urns 15 and 15a / 22.2.56 On label: (Only date) 17.2.56 Trench F / Layer 11 / depth 4' 9" I BD 3 I urns 8 and 8a / 24.2 .56 On label: Trench F/ northern urn On label: Trench F / Burial urn 5 / Layer 11 / 22.2 .56 On box: specimen found from MDII Trench F / Layer 11 / depth 4' 9" I BD3 I urns 5 and Sa/ 23.2.56 On label : Trench F / Layer 12 / 13.3.56. On label: Trench A / Layer 10a / 26.2.55 Trench F / Layer 13/ depth 1' / BD 4 / 7.3.56 Trench F / Layer 12 / depth 11" I BD4 I 9.3.56

23

Remarks Reported by Ehrhardt ( 1960)

Reported by Ehrhardt ( 1960) Reported by Ehrhardt ( 1960) (?) @

Not reported Reported by Ehrhardt ( 1960) Not reported Reported by Ehrhardt ( 1960) Not reported Skeletal assemblage probably belongs to NVS(VM) 11. Described separately as the excavation date varies . Not reported Reported by Ehrhardt ( 1960) Probably reported by Ehrhardt ( 1960). Excavation date given in her report is 7.3.56. Not reported Reported by Dr. Ehrhardt (1960) Reported by Dr. Ehrhardt ( 1960)

Table 3.1: continued ......... Numbers given by Present scholar NVS(VM) 16

Old number Bones from burial no. 3

NVS(VM) 17 NVS(VM) 18

--

NVS(VM) 19 NVS(VM) 20

Bones from urn no I Burial 7

NVS(VM) 21

Burial 21

NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM)

22 23 24 25

Burial 17

-Burial XXXII Urn no 4

NVS(VM) 26

XXXVI-60

NVS(VM) 27

Um no.4

NVS(VM) 28 NVS(VM) 29 NVS(VM) 30

Burial l Burial 19

NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM)

Burial 3 Burial 69 NVSXXIII Burial LXIV burial XXXIX Burial XI (60)

31 32 33 34 35 36

NVS(VM) 37

Burial XLVI

NVS(VM) 38

Burial 1 (60)

NVS(VM) 39 NVS(VM)40

burial XXV Burial LXI (60) Burial XIX Burial: XXI (60) Burial XII (60)

NVS(VM)41 NVS(VM)42 NVS(VM)43

Excavation details or Information provided on labels / boxes On label : urn no. I/ 15.2.56

Not reported Reported by Ehrhardt ( 1960)

Trench F / Layer 11 / depth 4' 9" I BD3 I 23.2.56 Trench E I Layer 14 / depth 2' 4 " I BD 4 I 3.2.56 No information On box: Sq. 14 No information On label: trench A/ Layer 10a / locus Rd I I 25.2.55 On label: Trench 26 / locus B / sealed by layer 2 On label: Trench A / locus BD / 25.2.55 On box: 59-60 / locus B / Layer 6 On label: Trench A/ 55-56 Trench H I Layer 12 / depth 4' 10" / BD 3 / storage jars 19 and 19a and um 1 lA / 23.2.56 On box: trench 14, B / Layer 2 On box : NVS 60-61 / Sq. 121 On box: trench B On box : 60/ trench 26 / locus B On box: / NVS 60/ trench 26, B On box trench 13 / locus B / Layer 2 On label: trench 26 / locus B / sealed by layer 2 / 15.3.60 On label: Layer 2 / depth 31.50 I locus B / 8.2.60 On box: Sq. 14 On label : trench 180 (B) / northern urn / layer 5 On box: trench 4 / locus B No information

Reported by Ehrhardt ( 1960)

On box: / trench 13/ locus Bl layer 2 On box : trench 181 (B) On box: trench 4 / locus B

Burial 51

NVS(VM)46

Burial XVI (60) Burial 72 (60)

On box: trench 14 / locus B I 13.3.60 On box: Sq. 201 On box: Sq. 201

NVS(VM)49 NVS(VM) 50

Burial 72A (60) Burial 69 Burial 2 (60)

NVS(VM) 51

Burial LIX

On label : trench 120 B / sealed by layer 4

NVS(VM)48

Not reported

No information Trench F / Layer 11/ depth 4' l 0" I BD 3 / 22.2.56 On label: Trench A / Layer 10a

NVS(VM)44 NVS(VM) 45

NVS(VM)47

Remarks

On box : 60-61 On box: burial no. 2 / 60

24

Reported by Ehrhardt ( 1960)

Reported by Ehrhardt (1960) Not reported Not reported @ Found with NVS(VM) 23 Inside one bag (Lukacs): NVS (60) / burial 4 ~ Not reported Not reported Not reported~ Not reported Reported by Ehrhardt (1960) and Kennedy-Malhotra ( 1966) Not Not Not Not Not Not

reported reported reported ~ reported reported@ reported@

Not reported Not reported@ Not reported Not reported

~

Not reported @) Not reported Not reported Not reported These bones were mixed with NVS(VM) 41; sorted out later. Not reported. @

~

Reported by Kennedy and Malhotra (1966) Reported by Kennedy and Malhotra (1966) Not reported Not reported Not reported

Table 3.1: continued ......... Numbers given by Present scholar NVS(VM) 52 NVS(VM) 53 NVS(VM) 54

Old number Burial (60) Burial Burial (60) Burial (60) Burial Burial (60) Burial Burial Burial

XXIV IX (60) XCII

I Excavation

Remarks

details or Information provided on labels/ boxes On box: burial no XXIV / 60

Not reported Not reoorted@ Not reported @

XCII

On box: NVS IX / 60 On box: bones from northern um/ 13.3.60 On bag: bones from southern um

1 XVII

No information On box: XVII / 60

Not reoorted Not reported @

11 1 (55) 14

On On On On On

box: NVS 11 bag: NVS 55 /burial 1 label: burial 14 box: NVS 60 box: NVS XII / 60

Not Not Not Not Not

Burial 65 Burial 1

On On On On

box: box: box: box:

--

--

NVS(VM) 68

--

--

NVS(VM) 69

--

--

NVS(VM) 70

--

--

NVS(VM) 71

Burial 10

Trench H I Layer 12 / depth 4' l 0" / BD3 / storage jars l 0 and l 0a / 20.2.56

Not reoorted Not reoorted Not reoorted Not reoorted Second individual found mixed with NVS(VM) 2 Second individual found mixed with NVS(VM) 39 Second individual found mixed with NVS(VM) 48 Second individual found mixed with NVS(VM) 53 cm This specimen reported by Ehrhardt (1960) and Kennedy-Malhotra (1966)

NVS(VM) 72

Burial 18

--

NVS(VM) 55 NVS(VM) 56 NVS(VM) 57 NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM)

58 59 60 61 62

NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM)

63 64 65 66 67

-Burial XII

Not reported

reported reported reported reported reported

cm

(60)

---

NVS NVS NVS NVS

63 60 (B) 60 55

Studied by Kennedy and Malhotra (1966) NVS(VM) 73 Burial 21 Studied by Kennedy and Malhotra -(1966) NVS(VM) 74 Trench 323 Not reported NVS(VM) 75 Burial 49 Studied by Kennedy and Malhotra -(1966) @ These specimens have been sampled for sub-cortical thickness by Prof. J. R. Lukacs. The ample taken to University of Oregon, Eugene include the following: NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM)

3: Rt humerus 23: Rt femur 25: Rt femur and Lt tibia 28: Lt femur 33: Rt humerus 35: Lt humerus 36: Lt humerus and Lt tibia 3 8: Lt humerus and Rt femur 39: Rt femur

NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM)

Preservation of these skeletons is far from satisfactory. The elements are in very fragmentary and weathered condition. During excavation synthetic preservatives were used giving blackish brown colour coating to the bone surfaces even at times changing the morphological structure of bones too. The bones look deceptively sturdy and give metallic sound! Many non-human bones were also found

41: Rt femur 45: Rt humerus 46: Rt femur 53: Rt tibia 54: Lt humerus and Lt femur 57: Lt humerus and Lt tibia 59: Lt femur and Lt tibia 70: Rt femur

associated with the burial. The bones are covered with heavy matrix in almost every case and it is hard to remove soil from the bone. Many bones are glued together with the soil and hard to identify. There are several cases where radius and ulna, and tibia and fibula are held together with soil. The main reason for this could be application of preservative to the

25

bones before their removal from the soil and delayed lifting of the skeleton after its exposure.

considerable post-mortem damage. Only some neural or articular facet fragments and rarely centra are parts preserved for the elements vertebral column.

Very few individuals have most of their skeletal parts preserved, while in some cases, individual is represented only by four to five cranial or rib or vertebral fragments and/ or few long bone fragments. In few cases only a single tooth indicates presence of a different individual. In many cases the attempted reconstruction in the field has deformed the bone considerably, and cases of wrongly articulated pieces are not wanting. In comparison with sub-adults, the preservation of the adult specimens from N evasa is relatively good. This appears to be essentially because of the refined importance given to the adult specimens. Bones preserved for sub-adult skulls mainly consists of petrous portions , basi-occipital and part of occipital and parietal. Cranial flat bones are not weathered but fragmentary , owing to the poor postexposure treatment. Generally no bone from the facial skeleton is recognizable , except the gnathic elements and zygomatic. Bones like pelvis or scapula have suffered more damage along their flat surfaces. Glenoid and a fragment or two of the spine generally represents scapula. In rare case the body of scapula is preserved entirely. Clavicle and sternum are rare findings in the collection. These elements are found in broken condition in very few instances. In long bones, shafts are preserved but the extremities suffer

The post-mortem damage to cranial or postcranial elements generally varies from moderate to severe. Consequently barring few long bones virtually no reconstruction is possiple for the delicate sub-adult bones. Relatively better treatment was given to adult bones in the field and previous workers have attempted to reconstruct some of these. The present authors while studying these specimens have made further improvements in bone alignment. Many scholars have worked on the Nevasa skeletal series for various research problems. Dr. Diane Hawkey and Prof. John Lukacs have studied the dental collection. Dr. Gambhir and Dr. Walimbe have taken radiographs of selected long bones. Prof. Lukacs have taken 23 midshafts fragments of long bones, belonging to 17 individuals (all sub-adults) , for sub-cortical thickness assessment. He also has taken 25 dental specimens for histological study. Results of these studies are published and have been used in this study to verify and supplement the findings of the present researchers. Table 3.2 gives inventory collection.

of the skeletal

Tab le 3.2: Invent ory of Nevasa skeletal series.

NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 1

Skull

Almost complete frontal with R & L orbits; Parietals L parietal better preserved than R; fragmentary occipital ; temporal: only L petrous portion; maxilla with damaged L side; R side orbita l margin and zygomatic process of maxilla ; in mandible L side condylar region is missing.

Dentition

Maxilla : RLdi 1, RLdi2 (In situ), Rdc, RLdml (in crypt). Mandible : Rdi 1, RLdi2, Ldc, Ldml (in situ), Ldm2 and LMI (in crypt).

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Total 19 small and medium sized rib fragments including 11 midshaft and 8 sternal ends ; four bodies and 17 articular facets of vertebrae .

Scapula: R part of axillary border, spine and complete glenoid cavity , L axillary border, glenoid cavity and part of spine; Damage has occurred on the medial border. Clavicle: R & L fragments of lateral side with conoid tubercle and one sternal end without articulation.

26

Lower extremity

N il

Table 3.2: Continued ........ . NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 2

NVS (VM) 3

NVS (VM) 4

Skull

Dentition

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Lower extremity

Damaged frontal; R parietal and almost complete occipital; basal parts includes R & L petrous portion; basilor, R & L border of foramen magnum; sphenoid; In facial skeleton R & L orbital roof; superior portion of maxilla and almost complete mandible with broken condylar and coronoid process. Part of frontal bone with postmortem damage; L parietal and occipital fragment in articulation; few R side parietal fragments; R & L petrous portion and some unidentifiable fragments of the basal part; from facial region, R & L orbital roof and damaged R orbital fragment. R side of the cranium almost complete; better preserved than the L side; nearly complete frontal; R parietal almost complete; L parietal partially broken; part of R temporal, L side bone missing; occipital damaged near lambdoidal suture; R & L petrous portions, R & L border of foramen magnum, basilar and some small medium sized bone fragments; R orbit partially preserved; two pieces of maxilla ;

Maxilla : RLdi 1, RLdi2, Ldml, RLdm2 and RMI (isolated).

R (?) first rib; 9 rib fragments of mid-shaft region; 10 vertebral fragments consisting articular and spine region.

Scapula: L fragment. Clavicle: R (?) sternal end. Humerus: R complete with little damaged on the medial epicondylar region; L distal half. Radial (?): distal epiphyseal fragment , side uncertain.

Femur : R complete with little damaged at distal end; L almost complete shaft but proximal end is broken and lost.

Nil

Nil

Humerus: R proximal one fourth.

Nil

Maxilla: Rdi 1, RLdi2, Ldc , Ldm 1, RLdm2.

Nil

Nil

Nil

Mandible: All teeth are in situ except Ldc. RLdi 1, RLdi2, Rdc and RLdm 1, RLdm2, LMl seen in crypt.

Mandible: RLdc, RLdm 1, RLdm2 and RMI.

27

Table 3.2: Continued ........ .

NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 4

Skull

Dentition

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Humerus : R 1/3 distal part. Six long bone midshafts, individual identification not possible. Humerus : R complete. Radius: R distal half. Radius: L almost complete . Ulna : L almost complete . Two fragment s of extremities, individual identification not possible . Humerus: midshaft, side uncertain .

complete horizontal ramus of mandible damaged on the L condylar region. Nil

Nil

Some rib and vertebral fragments attached to each other with matrix.

Nil

Nil

Two rib fragment s

NVS (VM) 7

Six piece s of skull, no individual identification possibl e.

Nil

Two rib fragments

NVS (VM) 8

Nil

Nil

One rib fragment

NVS (VM) 9

Nil

Nil

NVS

Fifteen pieces of skull vault; R mandibular fragment with di 1 and de in situ.

Mandible : Rdi 1 and Rdc (?) (which is identified as Rdml by J. R. Lukacs).

Some rib and vertebral fragments stuck together. Total 24 rib fragments form either sides. Vertebral fragments stuck to each other with matrix and to scapula also.

Five small- and medium sized fragments, individual identification not possible.

Nil

NVS (VM) 5

NVS (VM)

6

(VM) 10

NVS (VM) 11

Total 30 pieces of rib fragments including sternal end, mid-shaft and vertebral end; 10 vertebral fragments including spine and articular facet.

28

Nil

Scapula: R fragment with damaged acromion process. Humerus : R (?) proximal half with damaged head portion. Radius: R distal half. Humerus: L one fourth proximal and distal end, 2 small pieces of mid-shaft probably of same side without articulation . Radius: R& L proximal half. Ulna: Rone fourth proximal and lower extremity ; L 1/3 proximal part and distal epiphyseal part without articulation .

Lower extremity

Nil

Ni l

Pelvis: R almost complete ilium but damaged postmortem . Femur : L half distal part of the bone with post mortem damage. Femur: L (?) quarter distal part. One mid-shaft fragment, 5 chips of bone(s). Nil

Pelvis : L ilium blade.

Nil

Table 3.2: Continued ...... . . . NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 12

Dentition

Skull

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Lower extremity

Pelvis: R ilium blade damaged to border . Fibula : R small fragments of both extremities; L complete. 8 phalanges can not be identify individually , may from hand/feet region. 2 pieces of epiphyses , not identified . Two fragments of extremities , individual identification is not possible.

One skull (?) fragment.

Nil

Three vertebral fragments .

Clavicle: small mid -shaft fragment , side uncertain . Humerus: mid shaft fragment side uncertain. Radius: R (?) distal half with damaged end ; L (?) mid-shaft region. Ulna: R complete.

NVS (VM) 13

Ni l

Nil

NVS (VM) 14

Four skull fragments sticking together with soil. According to Dr. Ehrhardt (1960) these pieces belong to frontal. Nil

Maxilla: Ldil, Ldc, RLdml, Rdm2 .

Total 45 rib fragments and 10 vertebral pieces; one vertebra with spine and articular facet. Eight rib and 45 vertebra l fragments.

Nil

One rib and vertebra l fragment.

NVS (VM) 16

Nil

Nil

Four rib and one vertebra l fragments.

NVS (VM) 17

Nil

Nil

Ni l

NVS (VM) 18 NVS (VM) 19 NVS (VM) 20

Nil

Nil

Nil

Humerus: L preserved in 3 fragments, postmortem damage does not allow reconstruction Humer us: one mid-shaft fragment , side uncertain. Radius (?): one small mid-shaft fragment. Humeral head and a piece of dista l end ; one phalange , not identified . Radius: ¾ distal part , side uncertain. 3 oha langes . Hu merus: R almost compl ete but preserved in 2 fragments. Radius: R nearly complete but damaged distally. One long bone mid-shaft.

Nil

Nil

Two vertebra l fragments .

2 long bone fragments.

Nil

Sixteen neurocranial fragments; R petrous portion; L mandibular fragment having dm 1 and dm2 in crypt.

Max illa : Rdil isolated.

Fourteen rib and 5 verte bral fragments.

Humerus: R (?) mid- shaft fragment. Five mid-shaft fragments of radius (?), side uncertain. Ulna: R distal half with post-mortem damage .

Femur: R half proxima l fragment with broken end; L 2 fragments - 1/3 of proxima l side and 2/3 of distal end without articu lation.

NVS (VM) 15

Ma ndib le: Ldc , RLdm2 .

Ma ndible: RLdi 1 isolated , Ldm 1 and dm2 in situ.

29

Damaged proximal end of fem ur (?) and about 50 pieces of bone chips . 3 pha langes without identification . Nil

One long bone fragm ent probably human . Two fibu lar fragments (?).

Nil

Table 3.2: Continued ........ .

NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 21

NVS (VM) 22

NVS (VM) 23

NVS (VM) 24 NVS (VM) 25

Skull

Dentition

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Nine fragments of neurocranium ; from the basal region: part of basilar , L lateral, L border of foramen magnum; L sphenoid ; two maxillary fragments , one each from R & L side, from canine to molar region; L mandibular fragment from di 1 to Ml. R mandibular fragment having Rdm 1, dm2 and Ml (in crypt) and R condylar and coronoid fragment of mandible. Thirteen pieces and R petrous and L squamous part, one R maxillary fragment.

Maxilla: RLdi 1, RLdi2 , RLdc , RLdm 1, RLdm2 , RLMl .

Twenty mid-shaft rib fragments and 8 pieces held together with soil ; more than 30 vertebral fragment.

Humerus: midshaft fragment, side uncertain. Radius : midshaft. Ulna: R ¾ proximal part , damaged postmortem , and other 5 small and damaged fragment s, side uncertain.

One tibial midshaft fragment , side uncertain.

Mandible : R dml , drn2 (in situ) and Ml in crypt.

Nil

Nil

Nil

Maxilla : Rdi 1 (isolated).

Total 40 rib fragments including sternal end and mid shaft region; 3 vertebral centra .

Humerus: R distal quarter fragment; L distal ¾ part. Radius : R complete; L half distal side. Ulna: mid-shaft fragment, side uncertain.

Nil

Nil

Nil

Radius: complete , side uncertain.

Nil

Nil

Fourteen rib and 2 vertebral fragments.

Radius: L half distal end. Ulna : R quarter proximal side with damaged on medial side of head. Two bones probably carpals (?). Seven phalanges individual identification not possible.

Pelvis: R & L complete iliac blade. Femur: R proximal and distal fragment, mid-shaft region is broken and lost; L half proximal side. Tibia: R complete. Fibula: proximal half, side uncertain. 3 long bone midshaft fragments (?). Pelvis: R iliac blade with postmortem damage and ischium; L badly damaged iliac blade. Femur : R half to proximal side and little less to half of distal side with broken epiphyses , mid-shaft fragment is missing. Tibia: R almost complete, with both extremities broken ; L preserved in two fragments without articulation , Specimen 25 continues

Mandible : RLdi 1, RLdi2, RLdc , RLdml , RLdrn2 , RLMl .

30

Lower extremity

Table 3.2: Continued ......... NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 25

Skull

NVS (VM) 26

Almost complete cranial vault preserved in bigmedium- small sized fragments; L petrous portion; no bones from the facial region.

All teeth are isolated. Maxilla: Ldil, Ldi2, Ldc, RLdm 1, RLdrn2 .

NVS (VM) 27

Only basilar. No other element present.

NVS( VM) 28

Frontal portion with R & L orbit s; R parietal damaged , L complete; damaged occipital without articulation ; R petrous portion; R & L sphenoid fragments and lateral part of foramen magnum ; Also 5 small unidentifiable fragments of neurocranium. Basilar and lateral part of foramen magnum.

NVS (VM) 29

Dentition

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Sixteen rib and 2 vertebral fragments.

Clavicle: quarter fragment of lateral end, side uncertain.

Nil

Two rib fragments and 4 articular facets and one centra of vertebrae .

Humerus : R distal half; L proximal half. Radius: proximal approx. half part , side uncertain . Ulna: R proximal half with broken extremity; L almost complete but distal extremity brok en. 4 phalanges , individual identification not possible .

Maxilla: Rdi 1, Rdi2 and RMl (both teeth isolated).

Five rib fragments and 3 vertebral fragments.

Humerus: R almost complete with damaged to its head and condylar region. Radius and Ulna: medium sized mid-shaft fragments, sides uncertain for both bones.

Nil

Total 35 mid-shaft and 6 vertebral end fragments; 10 vertebral fragments of articular facets.

Clavicle : 2 fragments, one medial and another lateral without articulation and side uncertain. Humerus: R almost complete,

Lower extremity

both extremities broken. Fibula: almost complet e with both extremities broken, side uncertain. Nil

Mandible: R di 1, R di2 , RL dm2.

31

Pelvis: R complete iliac blade ; L iliac blade , with badly post-mortem damage. Tibia : R almost complete with both extremities damaged; L proximal half , badly damag ed, bone chips, not in articulation . Fibula: R damaged midshaft; L ¾ bone , both extremities lost. Femur: L side preserved in two fragments , less than half to proximal side and quarter to di sta l side without articulation .

Pelvis: R almost complete iliac blad e; L badly damaged border of iliac; One phalanx .,

Specimen 25 continues

Table 3.2: Continued .........

Dentition

NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 29

Skull

NVS (VM) 30

Almost complete cranial vault comprising frontal; R & L parietal ; R temporal with mastoid proces s and part of zygomatic arch; occipital ; R petrous portion, basilar ; In facial aspectR & L zygomatic process of maxilla with lower border of orbit; maxilla and mandible with well preserved teeth.

Maxilla: RLI 1, RLI2 , RLC, RLdml , RLdm2 , RLM1 , RLM2 . RLPm 1 seen in crypt.

Several small and medium sized skull fragments; R & L sphenoid; R temporal fragments with mastoid process and petrous portion.

All teeth are isolated . Maxilla: RLdi 1, RLdi2, Ldc, RLdml and RLdm2 , RMI (in gum).

NVS (VM) 31

Mandible: LII , RLI2 , RLdc , RLdml , RLdm2 , RLMI,RLM2.

All M2s are with quarter of its crown out of crypt.

Thoracic cage

Ribs : Nine complete R ribs and 11 complete ribs from L side . Vertebrae : Atlas , Axis plus four cervical , 2 centra and IO fragments of articular and spine parts of cervical; first six thoracic and 2 complete lumber vertebrae , probably last two and 3 centra fragments of lumber. Sternum : complete, including manubrium and body.

Two rib fragments and one L side complete rib (first?) and 9 vertebral articular facets .

Mandible: RLdi2 , Rdc , RLdml , RLdm2.

32

Upper extremity

both extremities , broken and badly damaged to its ventral aspect. Proximal half of L, extremity broken . Radius and Ulna: midshaft fragments , side uncertain. Scapula : R badly damaged spine , acromion and body, 1/3 axillary border preserved ; L complete with damaged to acromion process . Clavicle: L complete . Humerus: R complete but head is damaged partially; L complete with damaged to its head and lateral condyle. Radius: R almost complete with broken distal end; L complete . Epiphyseal parts of both sides. Ulna: R&L complete but lower extremity lost. Phalange: R 14 and L 10 no individual identification.

Nil

Lower extremity

no individual identification

Pelvis : R parts of iliac border , ilium and acetabulum without articulation ; L parts of iliac border , complete isium with pubic symphysis region . Femur: R complete shaft and head fragment without articulation, distal end missing; L almost complete with damaged distal diaphyses and epiphyses . Tibia : L proximal end fragment, 4 fragments (side uncertain) including two big and small sized mid- shaft fragments and one diaphyseal fragment. Fibula : preserved in 3 parts, I large and 1 small mid-shaft fragment and 1 diaphyseal and epiphyseal fragment, side uncertain. Talus side uncertain. Nil

Table 3.2: Continued ........ .

NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 32 NVS (VM) 33

Skull

Dentition

Thoracic cage

Part of foramen magnum.

Nil

Total 12 rib fragment s.

Nil

Nil

Nil

NVS (VM) 34

Nil

Nil

Two rib fragments.

NVS (VM) 35

R side damaged frontal bone with orbital roof; 9 skull fragments including parietal ; damaged petrous portion, side uncertain .

Nil

Twenty rib fragments.

NVS (VM) 36

Almost complete skull but compressed and badly damaged. R Fronta l fragment with orbital region; basi lar; R petrous fragment; complete maxilla and mandible.

Max illa: RLdi l and Rdi2.

Five rib fragm ents of vert ebral end and 4 sternal end fragments ; 7 vertebral articular facet fragments and 2 centra .

NVS (VM) 37

L fronta l with damaged orbital roof fragment ; 29 skull fragments without articulation . Horizontal ramus of mandibular fragment having teeth in situ

Mandi ble: RLI2 (seen inside the crypt).

Maxilla : 2 isolated teeth. Rdi I and Ldi2.

Two rib fragments.

Ma ndible: Ldi2, RLdc , RLdml and Ldm2.

33

Upper extremity

Clavicle: probably L (?) ¾ lateral fragment. Humerus: R (?) small mid-shaft fragment , side identified by Dr. Lukacs . Long bone fragments coated and mixed with matrix, hard to separate. Scapular fragment , badly damaged , side uncertain. Clavicle: preserved in 2 fragments of lateral side , one is half and another is quarter , with side identification not possible . Humerus : R ¾ of the distal side proximal side is broken ; L preserved in two fragments without articulation . Ulna : R proximal half. Clavicle: R quarter fragments of sternal and lateral end s; L compl ete but damaged lateral end. Humerus: L quarter proximal and distal end, mid-shaft portion is missing. Ulna: R complete ; L head fragment. 3 phalanges. Humeral half proximal fragment with damaged end , side uncertain.

Lower extremity

One long bone fragment.

Pelvis: R& L iliac blade badly damaged . Fibula (?): 1/3 fragment side uncertain. Nil

Pelvis: R badly damaged ilium. Fem ur: complete shaft with both extremit ies broken , side uncertain. Tibia: R (?) complete shaft part with damaged both extremities.

Fem ur: R& L almost complete , with both the extremiti es missing . Tibia : R complete but damaged both extremities ; L half part of pro ximal side with damaged head. Fib ula: R& L almost complete but damaged to distal end. Nil

Table 3.2: Continued ........ .

NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 38

NVS (VM) 39

Skull

R Frontal, partially preserved with orbital roof; approx. 20 medium and small sized skull fragments ; R & L petrous portion and basilar ; Almost complete mandible with damaged to R & L vertical ramus.

Nil

Dentition

Maxilla: Ldi 1, RLdc, RLdm 1, RLdm2 , RM1 (seen in crypt). Mandible: RLdi 1, Rdi2 , RLdc , RLdml , RLdm2 (seen in crypt).

All teeth are isolated . Maxilla : RLdc, Rll , RC, Ldml, RLdm2, RLMl.

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Lower extremity

Total 42 rib fragments and 30 vertebral fragments including one centra and posterior part. Some vertebrae are stuck together with soil probably thoracic (?) region.

Scapula: R complete body, spine portion damaged ; L damaged lateral fragment with glenoid cavity . Humerus: R distal half, L proximal 1/3 and distal half, midshaft fragment is missing . Radius : R&Lhead fragments, 2 midshaft fragments , side uncertain . Ulna: R ¾ complete with distal end is missing ; L complete. Scapula: R spinal fragment. Humerus : L distal half. Radius: 4 fragments including one proximal (?) end, 3 mid-shaft part, side uncertain. Ulna: R proximal half. 10 phalanges no individual identification.

Femur: R proximal half and one small midshaft fragment without articulation , one mid-shaft fragment , side uncertain . Tibia : L complete but damaged to both extremities. Fibula : complete shaft with both extremitie s broken , side uncertain . 6 phalange s, individual identification not possibl e.

Thirteen rib and 9 vertebral fragments .

Mandible : LI2, Ldml , RLdm2 , RLMl.

NVS (VM) 40

NVS (VM) 41

R & L maxilla with all teeth in situ; almost complete horizontal ramus of mandible with damaged to R side at canine region andR&L condylar portion. Around 50 small fragments of cranial vault. Identifiable parts are nasal bone , R & L petrous portion s, basilar, R & L lateral and R orbital

Maxilla: Rldi 1, RLdi2 , RLdc , RLdml, RLdm2 and LMl (crypt) .

Nil

Nil

Around 50 rib small- medium sized and 9 vertebral fragments.

Radius: R complete; L quarter part of distal end.

Pelvis: R almost complete iliac blade with little damage to the superior aspect; L badly damaged iliac blade small fragment. Femur: R proximal half and small fragment of shaft without articulation ; L complete shaft fragment with both extremities are missing. Tibia: R proximal 2/3 portion ; L small mid-shaft region. Nil

Mandible: Rdi 1, Rdi2, Ldc , RLdm 1, RLdm2.

Maxilla: LI I (isolated) RLdc , RLdml , RLdm2 (in situ), RLMl seen in crypt.

Femur: R preserved in two fragments , proximal half and distal diaphysis ,

Specimen 41 continues

Mandible : Ldml , Rdm 2.

34

Table 3.2: Continued . ....... . NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 41

NVS (VM) 42

NVS (VM) 3

Skull

Dentition

Upper extremity

fragment; Maxilla preserved in two fragments ; Complete horizontal ramus for mandible but damaged at centre and R condylar region .

More than 60 small fragments and R & L petrous portion; Maxillary and mandibular fragments.

Maxilla : Rll seen in crypt , Rdi 1 and di2 , Ldm2.

Around 30 small medium sized fragments .

All isolated. Maxilla: RLI 1 LI2*. (*Dr. Lukacs identified as mandibular Rl2) .

Crushed and damaged part of face including maxilla, L zygomatic process of maxilla is

Thirteen rib fragments.

Mandi ble: Rll and 12 seen inside bone, Ldc , Rdm2.

Ma ndible: Rdi2.

NVS (VM) 44

Thoracic cage

Almost all teeth are in situ.

Total 50 rib fragments plus complete R side first rib; 12 vertebral fragments mainly cervica l and thoracic region plus one almost complete cervical vertebra.

Nil

Scapula: L fragment damaged to spine and body . Clavicle: 2 small fragments of sternal and lateral end probab ly of L side. Humerus: 2 humera l mid-shaft fragments , side uncertain. Radius: half distal end with broken extremity , probably of R side (?). Ulna: midshaft fragment side uncertain. Scapula: L badly damaged fragment with broken spine and glenoid cavity. Clavicle : sternal end , side uncertain . Humerus: small mid-shaft fragment , side uncertain . Radius: R& L almost comp lete Shaft fragment. Ulna: ulnar head damaged fragment and 2 mid-shaft parts , side uncertain.

Nil

Max illa : RLdi 1, RLdi2 , Ldc , Ldm 1, RLdm2 ,

Lower extremity

mid-shaft fragment is missing ; L proximal ¾ but damaged to head and shaft portion. Tibia: R proximal side. Fibula : 4 mid-shafts and one epiphysis side uncertain . Nil

Pelvis: L badly damaged iliac blade stuck with soil to R femora l proximal head , one small fragment probably pelvic part. Femur: R proximal head badly damaged. and 2 mid-shaft fragments side uncertain. Probably tibial head (?) and 14 chips without articu lation. 4 phalanges, individual identification , not possib le. Nil

Specimen 44 continues

35

Table 3.2: Continued ........ . NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 44

NVS (VM) 45

NVS (VM) 46

NVS (VM) 47

Dentition

Skull

preserved . Almost complete mandibular horizontal ramus with damaged to the L side vertical ramus . Nil

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Lower extremity

Clavicle: L lateral half and one sternal end, side uncertain. Humerus : R proximal quarter and one mid-shaft with diaphyseal fragment, L complete shaft . Radius: L almost complete but without proximal end. Ulna: R & L almost complete, olecranon processes are missing . Clavicle: R & L sternal ends. Humerus: R midshaft fragment, L mid-shaft and distal diaphyseal fragment. Radius: R 2 mid-shaft fragments ; L distal half with extremity broken. Ulna: R ¾ distal side, proximal diaphyses and olecranon process is missing; L completely preserved in 2 oieces. Scapula: L damaged small fragment including glenoid cavity and spine. Humerus: R complete shaft. Radius: 2 midshaft fragments , one fragment is adhered to ribs with soil.

Tibia : R complete shaft; L medium sized mid-shaft fragment.

RLMl.

Mandible: RLdi1, Ldi2, Ldc, RLdm1, Ldm2. Nil

Nil

Some 60 skull medium and small sized fragments. Only R petrous, L lateral border of foramen magnum ; L mandibular condylar , coronoid part identifiable .

All teeth are isolated. Maxilla: Ldi 1, Ldi2, Ldc, RLdml, RLdm2 , RLMl.

Total 44 rib midshaft, 8 vertebral and 4 sternal-end fragments. Some 13 vertebral fragments of inferior aspect including articular and spin.

Skull is crushed and covered with soil. Almost complete cranial vault. May have some parts of face , not recognizable.

Maxilla: RC stuck with cranium

Mandible: Ldi I, RLdm2 , LMl.

There are more than 50 large, medium and small sized fragments. Complete axis and 20 vertebral pieces including articular facets and centra.

Pelvis: L damaged iliac blade , 3 pelvic parts, no individual identification possible. Femur: R proximal diaphyseal part. Tibia : 3 fragments , I big, 2 small mid-shaft and 3rd proximal damaged fragments.

Pelvis: iliac fragment, side uncertain. Femur: R quarter distal diaphyseal fragment, damaged to medial side, L almost complete shaft with both extremities broken. Tibia: R crushed mid-shaft region;

Specimen 47 continues

36

Table 3.2: Continued . .. .. .. . .

NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 47

Dentition

Skull

Thoracic cage

NVS (VM) 48

Nil

Nil

Eight rib small medium fragments; 13 vertebral fragments including 3 centra and part of articular facets and one centra of cervica l region. (Bones stuck with each other by matrix are: I . 3 cervical vertebrae, 2. R radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals; and, 3. Pelvis and 4. L tibia and fibula.) .

NVS (VM) 49

Damaged L frontal bone with upper orbital margin, R frontal side is missing; 2 parietal fragments; R temporal with petrous part; and occipital with R latera l border of foramen magnum; sphenoid, side uncertain . In all 24 small skull fragments . Almost complete mandibu lar horizontal ramus, R & L vertical ramus is missing .

Ma ndible: Ldc (coming out of gum), RLdml (in situ), RLdm2 and RMI (seen in crypt).

Nil

37

Upper extremity

Humerus: R¾ mid-shaft and distal side, proximal side is missing; L half distal side, one head cap without articulation, side uncertain. Radiu s: R distal half and quarter proxima l side without articulation; L almost complete but damaged to both sides. Ulna : R complete but heavi ly coated with matrix ; L proximal half . Carpals: 2 (3?), not identified . Me tacarpals: R all. Nil

Lower extremity

L complete but damaged proximal and distal ends. Fibula : R distal 2/3, L distal half, both stuck with respective tibias with soil; 3 fibular mid-shaft fragments, side uncertain. Pelvis: L almost complete iliac blade stuck with partially preserved iliac blade ofR side, one unidentifiable small fragment. Fem ur: R head and proxima l diaphyseal fragment; L badly damaged head. Tibia: R almost complete, damaged to distal epiphysis. Fibul a: R complete . 8 phalanges , no individua l identification possible.

Nil

Table 3.2: Continued .........

NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 50

NVS (VM) 51

Skull

Dentition

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Scapula: L small fragment with broken spine and glenoid cavity. Ulna : mid-shaft fragment, side uncertain. One small mid-shaft piece probably of humerus. Nil

Twenty-one small sized cranial fragments; identifiable are L petrous part, L lateral border of foramen magnum.

Nil

One small rib and 4 vertebral fragments embedded in soil with cranial fragment.

Four chips of cranial fragments and one medium sized fragment, probably of the parietal region. 2 mandibular fragments.

All teeth are isolated in case of maxilla. Maxilla : Ldi 1, Ldi2, Rdc, LC, RLdm 1, RLdrn2 ,

Nil

NVS (VM) 52

There are 32 neurocranial fragments; 2 pieces of occipital; R & L petrous portion with part of temporal bone; 2 fragments of sphenoid; one maxillary piece with 3 teeth in it.

NVS (VM) 53

There are 40 small medium sized fragments, identifiable are R & L petrous portion and basilar; R & L border of foramen magnum and sphenoid fragment, side uncertain; 2 maxillary and one mandibular fragment.

Lower extremity

Pelvis : R complete iliac blade. Tibia: R complete but lateral wall of shaft is damaged and missing .

Nil

RMI. One enamel chip probably belongs to Rdil (?). Mandible: RLdrn2 (in situ), RLM l isolated. Maxilla: Rll (seen in crypt) , Rdc, Rdm 1 and Rdm2 (in situ).

Maxilla : Rdi2, Rdm2.

Twenty-five rib fragments and 17 vertebral fragments of articular facets.

Humerus: R proximal quarter and one condylar fragment side uncertain. Radius: R small head fragment, L ¾ proximal side, distal end is missing. Ulna: R complete but preserved in 3 fragments. One phalange.

Fifty-two rib fragments and 29 vertebral neural arch fragments and one centra.

Scapula: R & L small fragments including glenoid cavity. Clavicle: lateral half, probably L side(?). Humerus: R half of distal side, distally lateral side is damaged; distal side of L, damaged in the region of lateral condyle . Three mid-shaft fragments of radius and ulna, side uncertain.

38

Pelvis: R iliac fragments including articular surface; L complete iliac blade , 5 fragments including ischium and other parts, side uncertain. Femur: L quarter proximal side. Tibia: L complete shaft with both extremities broken . Fibula: mid-shaft fragment, side uncertain. Pelvis : L badly damaged iliac blade , one ischium part side uncertain. Femur: R half proximal side; for L 2/3 fragment of proximal side with damage to head part. Tibia : R quarter proximal side, L complete but little damaged to both extremities . Fibula : R half to the proximal side, L complete. 5 phalanges.

Table 3.2: Continued .........

NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 54

NVS (VM) 55

NVS (VM) 56

NVS (VM) 57

Skull

Dentition

Total 41 skull fragments and identifiable are R & L petrous portions; basilar, R & L border of foramen magnum; one small fragment of sphenoid; L orbital roof fragment and one orbital lower orbital border, side uncertain; complete mandibular horizontal ramus, R side condylar region damaged. Total 69 skull fragments. Identifiable parts include L orbital roof fragment and R & L border of foramen magnum. There are 12 skull fragments and one petrous portion, side uncertain; 2 fragments of maxilla holding teeth in jaw.

Nine cranial small sized fragments; one maxillary process of zygomatic, side uncertain; one maxillary fragment.

Maxilla: Ldi 1 and di2, Ldc, Ldm 1.

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Lower extremity

Mandible: Rdi2 , Rdm 1 and dm2 all are seen in crypt.

Total 34 rib and 14 vertebral neural arch fragments.

Scapula: R fragment including glenoid cavity, spine and some part of body . Humerus: R complete; L quarter proximal side and one midshaft fragment without articulation. Radius: R complete. Ulna: distal half, side uncertain.

Pelvis: R complete iliac blade; L half damaged iliac blade. Femur: R complete shaft both extremities broken , L quarter fragment of proximal side.

Mandible: Rdi 1.

Nil

Scapula: L fragment with glenoid cavity and broken spine.

Nil

Maxilla : Ldi 1, Rdc, LC (seen in the crypt), RLdm 1 and dm2.

Eight rib and 5 vertebral fragments .

Humerus : R almost complete shaft with distal end without articulation ; L mid-shaft fragment. Ulna: half proximal side with broken olecranon process.

Five rib fragments.

Humerus: R badly damaged 2/3 proximal side preserved in 2 fragments; Two fragments, proximal and distal, ofL , midshaft portion is missing. Radius: L complete. Ulna: L complete. 4 metacarpals glued to radius and ulna. 8 phalanges / metacarpals tarsal.

Pelvis: L badly damaged iliac blade. Femur: distal end damaged fragment , side uncertain . Tibia : R proximal 2/3 preserved in 2 fragments without articulation. There are 6 mid-shaft fragments without identification . Femur: R proximal head fragment (?), L complete shaft with both extremities broken . Tibia: L preserved in 2 fragments proximal and distal , with broken extremities and mid-shaft fragments are missing. Fibula: mid-shaft fragment, side uncertain .

Mandible: RI 1 (seen inside bone) , Rdi 1, Ldi2, Ldc, RLdml, RLdm2,RLM1 (inside crypt).

39

Table 3.2: Continued ........ .

NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 58

NVS (VM) 59

NVS (VM) 60 NVS (VM) 61 NVS (VM) 62

NVS (VM) 63

NVS (VM) 64

Upper extremity

Lower extremity

Skull

Dentition

Thoracic cage

Sixteen skull fragments including one petrous portion , side uncertain . There are 40 small bone fragments. Maxillary 2 fragments with R & L maxillary process of zygomatic and L lateral border of orbit, mandible is preserved in 3 fragments damaged to R condylar region and central part. Nil

Maxilla: RLil, RLdm 1, RLdm2 , RLM1 , RM2 (seen in crypt) .

Some rib fragments embedded in soil.

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Femur: L preserved in two fragments, proximal half and distal less than half , mid-shaft is missing, both extremities broken . Tibia: L proximal half and distal quarter without articulation, midshaft and distal extremity missing. Nil

Mandible : Rdi2 , Ldc , Ldml.

Nil

Nil

Nil

Maxilla: Rdi2, RLdc, Rdml, Ldm2 , RMI.

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Mandibular fragment with empty sockets. Mandibular fragment containing three teeth. Two maxillary fragments and 5 mandibular small fragments badly damaged.

Mandible almost complete with horizontal ramus holding L dm 1 andR&Ldm2 with slight postmortem damag e. Two maxillary fragments , and R side contains R de to RMI and L side small

Mandible: Rdi2 , RC ( in crypt), Ldml , RLdm2 , RLMl.

Mandible: RI l , RLdc, Ldml, RLdm2 , RMI. Maxilla: Ldi l , Ldc , RMI . Mandible: Rdi2 , RLdml , RLdm2 , RM 1 (isolated) , LM 1 seen inside crvot. Maxilla: Ldi2 , Rdc , Rdml Rdm2 , RMI (seen in crypt) .

Specimen 64 continues.

40

Table 3.2: Continued . .. ..... .

NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 64 NVS (VM) 65

NVS (VM) 66

NVS (VM) 67 NVS (VM) 68 NVS (VM) 69 NVS (VM) 70 NVS (VM) 71

Skull

Dentit ion

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Lower extremity

fragment contains Ldi2. On mandibular R side fragment holding Rdi 1 and one maxi llary L side having 3 teeth in situ .

Maxilla : Ldc, Ldml, Ldm2.

Ni l

Ni l

Nil

Max illa is preserved and has 3 teeth in situ, damaged at centre and along the molar region; Mandib le is preserved in two fragments which cannot be articulated . Nil

Ma xilla : RLdi 1, RLdi2, Ldc, RLdm l .

Ni l

Nil

Nil

Maxilla : RLdm2 .

Ni l

Ni l

Nil

Ni l

Max illa : RM 1

Nil

Nil

Ni l

Nil

Nil

Ni l

Nil

Ni l

Nil

Ni l

Mid-shaft fragments of radius and ulna Nil

R & L parieta ls; R tempora l; Occipita l present, all the four bones complete ; R & L petrous portions, left side fragment with part of the zygomatic arch; Fronta l bone is missing; In facial skeleton R & L orbita l fragments; R & L maxillary bone . Several small and medium sized fragments of neurocran iurn and face which cannot be articu lated. Maxilla and mandib le are preserved in fair condition. Damage occurred in L mandibular horizonta l ramus.

All the teeth of maxi lla and mandible are in situ. In maxilla RLM3 were inside the crypt, but postmortem damage to the bone allows metric assessment. In mandible the RLM3 are seen in the crypt.

One fragment of vertebra. No other bones for this part are preserved in the collection

Clavicle: Sternal end ofR (?) clavicle ; Scapula: Acromion process and axillary border of R (?) side; Humerus: R: proximal 1/3 part and distal end with broken portion of trochlea without articu lation, L complete shaft with both extremities missing ; Radius: R almost comp lete except dista l end; L midshaft fragment; Ulna: R almost comp lete but with broken distal end, L mid-shaft fragment; Carpal : L navicular and

Fem ur: R more than half portion with broken proximal extremity , distal part is missing; part near the lesser tronchanter is damaged. Only the media l aspect of proximal end is preserved and head is also missing . No other bone from lower extremity preserved . There are 15 comp lete and 3 proximal and 2 distal ends of metatarsa ls (metacarpa ls?).

Mandibl e: Rdi 1, Rdi2, Rll.

Mandibl e: RLdi2, RLdc, Ldml , RLdm2.

M axilla : RLI l , RLI2 , RLC, RLPm l , RLPm2, RLM 1,RLM2, RLM3 Mandibl e: RLI 1, RLI2, RLC, RLPml, RLPm2 , RLMl, RLM2, RLM3.

41

Femoral proximal head

Sp ecimen 71 continues.

Table 3.2: Continued ........ . NVS (VM) no. NVS (VM) 71

NVS (VM) 72

Skull

Dentition

Thoracic cage

capitate.

R ascending ramus , condyles and coronoid process are all in articulation.

Almost complete skull and facial skeleton. Slight post-mortem damage and weathering. R & L zygomatic arch ; Missing parts are R & L temporal bones , basioccipital , and R & L sphenoid . Palat e is partially preserved. From the facial skeleton R nasal bone , ethmoid are missing . Maxilla is complete and undamaged . Mandible is also complete except some damage at L condyle and coronid process.

Upper extremity

All teeth are in s itu, except maxillary RM2 , RM3 and mandibular RC are missing.

Scapula : R glenoid cavity and some part of caracoid , L sam e as R side ; Humerus: R complete and undamaged ; L complete shaft with distal extremity , proximal end is missing; Radius : R complete and undamaged ; L preserved in two fragments but complete , damaged has occurred near the distal end on the lateral surface; Ulna: R ¾ shaft including proximal end , but distal end is missing; L proximal and distal ends with diaphyses , but the mid-shaft is missing; Carpals: R lunate, triquetral, grater mutangular , lesser mutangular, capitate , hemate ; L navicular , lunate , hemate ; Metacarpals : R first, L third (?), there are 3 complete and 3 fragments of phalanges and 2 terminal end , side undetermined.

Nil

Maxilla : RLII , RLI2 , RLC , RLPml , RLPm 2, RLM1 ,L M2 , LM3

Mandible : RLI l , RLI2 , RLC , RLPml, RLPm2 , RLM1,RLM2, RLM3.

42

Lower extremity

6 terminal phalanges are preserved. Individual identification not possible for any of the metabones . Pelvis : R complete ilium and pubic bone with syphysis ; L almost complete ilium with post mortem damaged and brakes , articular surface is missing . Also there are 3 pelvic fragment s including part of acetabulum , side remains uncertain for these fragments.

Specimen 72 continues Femur : R complete shaft with damaged proximal end on anterio-lateral aspect , damaged head, distal end represented by lateral condyle, anterior side severely damaged; L complete shaft, but proximal and distal end missing; Patella: L complete; Tibia: R complet e shaft but both extremities broken , proximal end is represented b y 2 fragments of lateral condyle, L complete and undamaged; Fibula : R 1/3 shaft with proximal end , head damaged to the medial aspect , L complete ; Specimen 72 continues.

Table 3.2: Continued ....... .. Dentition

NVS (VM) no . NVS (VM) 72

Skull

NVS (VM) 73

Very badly and deformed preserved skull , frontal, both the parietals and occipital are almost complete but suffer post-mortem damage. R temporal bone is missing , some parts of L side are preserved in articulation. Basal portion of skull broken and missing. From the facial skeleton nasal portion , L lateral orbital margin , zygomatic arches forL & Rare missing . Maxilla is complete with teeth in situ. In mandible L side coronoid is preserved and R side partially broken, damaged R & L condyles.

Dentition suffers post-mortem damage and is heavily coated with matrix.

Only partially preserved cranium with plaster mould . L half of frontal and L parietal damaged. Several fragments of skull , identifiabl e portions include R parietal and occipital.

Nil

NVS (VM) 74

Thoracic cage

Upper extr emity

Humerus: R complete shaft with distal epiphysis , the proximal end is crushed postmortem and represented only by inferior aspect of head ; L complete shaft with crushed humeral head , distal end is broken near olecranon fossa . Radius: R 1/3 fragment including head and shaft ; L ¾ of bone with head and shaft , but distal end and rest of the diaphysi s missing. Ulna: R ¾ including coronoid process radial notch , olecranon is broken and missing ; L completely preserved proximal end with ¾ shaft, but distal end is missing. Phalanges : 4 complete and little damaged phalanges of 2 nd row and one with broken base . Nil

Nil

Maxilla: RLI 1, RLI2, RLC, RLPm 1, RLPrn2, RLM1,RM2, RLM3. Mandible: RLII , RI2, RLC , RLPml , RLPrn2 , RLM1 , LM2 , RLM3. Maxillary LM2 , mandibular RM2 are lost antemortem . Mandibular LM I , LM2 have broken crowns, precluding measurement.

Nil

43

Lower extremity

Metatarsals: R 3 (4?) complete , L I complete , 2 proximal ends , 4 distal ends ; Phalanges: 2 side undetermined Femur: R almost complete shaft with damaged ends and both Extremities missing , L complete shaft with both extremities missing. Tibia : R complete shaft with both extremities broken , bone is crushed medial laterally to proximal end of shaft, L complete shaft with distal end , proximal extremity is missing . Fibula : R complet e shaft with medially damaged distal end , pro ximal end is missing , L complet e shaft with both the extremitie s broken and lost.

Nil

Table: 3.2. Continues

NVS (VM) no. NVS

(VM) 75

Skull

Dentition

Thoracic cage

Upper extremity

Lower extremity

Almost complete cranium vault and facial skeleton ; hyoid bone ; postmortem damage at R & L sphenoid portion and mid point of sagittal and coronal suture ; superior aspect ofR zygomatic and L zygomatic arch is broken and occipital condylar region is missing ; palate is broken and lost, so also basal portion including foramen magnum;R&L petrous portions are present; R & L nasal bones are preserved; ethmoid is missing. Maxilla and mandible preserved with most of the teeth in situ; R mandibular condyle slightly damaged.

Most of the tooth are present in situ.

Ribs: All R & L ribs are preserved in the collection. Almost complete spine. Slight postmortem damaged on some vertebrae . Cervical: Both atlas and axis is persevered with other cervical vertebrae except some damage to 3,4,5 vertebral spine . Thoracic: Tl , T2 body and transverse process, T3 and T4 missing spines , T4 superior part of body and spine broken, TS, T6 lost transverse process , T7, transverse process and spine in preserved for T8, T9, TlO, Tl 1 and Tl 1. Lumber; All lumber vertebrae and slightly damaged sacrum.

Sternum complete and undamaged ; Clavicle: R complete but damaged on sternal end ; L complete ; Scapula : R complete and slight damage to acromion ; L complete ; Humerus : R & L complete and undamaged ; Ulna: R& L complete ; Radius: R & L complete and undamaged; Carpals: R 7 carpals preserved except triquetrum; L all present. One extra oval shaped bone measuring app. 1cm is present in this collection; Metacarpals : R all, L 2, 3, 4, 5; Phalanges: (these bones cannot identified individually First row R 3 L 3; second row R 5 L 5, third row R 2 and L 3.

Pelvic: R complete but slight damaged on pubic symphysis and ischium, L complete but more damaged on ischium and part of acetabulum , features on pubis symphysis damaged; Femur: Rproximal epiphysis is undamaged , the part below lesser trochanter is subjected to post mortem breaks, diaphysis and distal epiphysis is missing; L complete proximal and shaft, distal end is represented by posteriorly damaged medial epicondyle with part of inter condylar fossa, patellar surface is missing; Patella : R & L complete; Tibia: R&L complete , small pieces of both shafts are missing due to postmortem breaks; Fibula: R complete, L complete proximal end and shaft, distal end and part of diaphysis is lost; Tarsal: all preserved for R & L; Metatarsals: all for R & L; Phalanges : (cannot identified individually) First row- R4 L 4; Second row- R 4 L3

Maxilla : RLI I, RLI2 , RC, RLPml , RLPm2 , RMI (root) , RLM2 Mandible: RLI 1, RLI2 , RLC, RLPm I, RLPm2 , RLMl , RLM2 , RM3

44

4

MORPHOMETRY AND DEMOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT

"It must be remembered that the measuring of skulls must remain the sef'Vant and not the master of the physical anthropologist" (Leakey 1953)

The results of morphometric and demographic assessment of the Nevasa skeletal series are discussed in this section. Contents of are presented in the following order:

Assessment of non-metric discrete cranial and post-cranial traits (minor variants) is attempted following standardized coding system of Ubelaker and Buikstra (1994). These traits are described and analyzed for population comparisons. As noted by many researchers, an advantage of non-metric traits is the fact that they may be recorded in fragmentary, incomplete, and poorly preserved materials.

1. Measurement data and morphological features: Cranium and post-cranium. Comparison with other archaeological populations. 2. Dentition: dental crown metry, occlusal morphological features. 3. Evaluation of the cranio-facial and dental evolutionary trends. 4. Age estimation. 5. Sex determination.

Important cranial observations conducted include:

1. Occipital bone a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

The methodology adopted has been spelled out in the relevant sub-sections.

I. MORPHOMETRY: CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL ELEMENTS

Inca bone-presence and its shape Muscle relief on occipital bone External occipital protuberance Occipital torus Condylar canal Hypoglossal canal Size and shape of foramen magnum

Methodology

Craniometric and osteometric methods used in this report follow Martin and Saller (1957). All the measurements, unless otherwise specified, are in millimeters. Cases where the reading is an estimated guess, the measurement is recorded in bracket. Some of the measurements / indices are classified according to the sources quoted. Since the adult specimens of this skeletal series were subjected previously to rigorous anthropometric analysis, not all the measurements prescribed have been executed in this study.

2. Parietal bone a. Presence of parietal tubera b. Parietal foramen c. Lateral depression

3. Frontal bone or forehead a. b. c. d. e. f.

Stature estimation, using complete and intact long bones, follows the method of Trotter (1970), where racially specific equations for White populations are used.

45

Curvature and slope of forehead Development of frontal elevation Development of supra-orbital ridges Supra-orbital foramina or notches Projection of glabella Metopic suture

11. Teeth

4. Temporal Bone

a. Number, size, shape of teeth and their roots

a. Auditory exostosis b. Mastoid foramen

12. Skull shape in Norma verticalis 5. Basal bone 13. Sutural bones

a. Size of mastoid process b. Supramastoid crest

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

6. Upper jaw a. Depth of canine fossa b. Shape of dental arch c. Infra-orbital suture

1.

Epipdteric bone Coronal ossicle Bregmatic bone Sagittal ossicle Apical bone Lambdoid ossicle Asterionic bone Ossicle in occipito-mastoid suture Parietal notch bone

7. Nasal bone 14. Post-Cranial Elements

a. Shape, size and position of nasal bone b. Curvature of nasal bone in mid-sagittal plane c. Shape of pyriform aperture. d. Nasal root

a. Atlas bridging b. Accessory transverse foramina in seventh cervical vertebra c. Septal aperture d. Squatting facet on distal tibia e. Squatting facet on talus

8. Bizygomatic bone and arch a. Infra-orbital suture. b. Projection or depression of malars. c. Zygomatico-facial foramina.

Observations

9. Orbit

Since the craniometric analysis attempted in the present research is to seek answers for the nature of biological adaptation in response to the life style and the dietary habits, and not to place the population in a specified 'racial' bracket, only selected measurements have been carried out. Craniometric data collected by the present scholar and that of Kennedy and Malhotra ( 1966) is presented in Table 4.1. Table 4.2 gives long bone measurement data. Stature estimations are given in Table 4.3. Diaphyseal length data for Nevasa subadults is given in Table 4.4.

a. Shape of orbital margins. b. Bend or orbit. c. Size and shape of lacrimal bone.

10. Lower jaw or mandible a. Shape of chin and mental tubercle b. Angle of lower jaw c. Shape and size of coronoid and condylar processes d. Eversion of gonion e. Mental foramen number f. Mylohyoid bridge

46

Table 4.1: Cranial measurements and indices: Nevasa adult skeletal series

~

-....J

Specimen no. Age Sex Measurement Maximum cranial length (1) Glabella inion length (2) Nasion inion length (2a) Maximum cranial breadth (8) Minimum frontal breadth (9) Maximum frontal breadth (10) Bi-auricular breadth (11) Bi-mastoid breadth (13) Basion-bregma height (17) Basion vertex height, total height of skull (17-2) Auriculo bregmatic height (20) Porion (auriculo) vertex height (21) Horizontal circumference of skull (23) Transverse arc (24b) Longitud inal arc (25) Bi-orbital breadth (44) Bi-zygomatic breadth (45) Bi-maxillary breadth, breadth ofupper jaw (46) Morphological facial height (4 7) Upper facial height (48) Orbital breadth (51), Right Left Orbital height (52), Right Left Nasal breadth (54) Nasal height (55) Length ofupper jaw (60) Breadth ofupper jaw (61) Sub-nasal height (48-1) Molar teeth row length (80-3), Right Left Premolar teeth row length [80-3a], Right Left Bi-condylar breadth (65)

NVS(VM) 71 19 ± 1 year Female K-M P.S. 185 -

-

-

129

134 111

(470)

134

114

-

-

299

(112)

-

26

44 64 20 32 32 14 14 (95)

125

67 40

32

24 47

21 43 43 32 31 94

NVS(VM)72 20 to 21 year Female K-M P.S. 173 174 169 164 132 132 94 92 100 116 113 126 (135) (140) 122 115 125 123 494 510 295 300 320 283 91 105 (90) 100 60 60 39 39 (36) 31 30 31 (24) 43 44 41 (60) (16) 20

-

-

25 12 12 (108)

25

38 110

NVS(VM)73 30 + 5 years Male K-M P.S. (172)

(138) (98) 124 (105) (100)

(130) (130) (520)

(102) (128) 103 (115) 69 41

36 (35) 25 48 50 68 18 25 25 11 12

-

64

35

25 48

16 26

38

-

NVS(VM) 75 30 to 35 years Male K-M P.S. 185 186 182 (175) 125 125 (91) 89 (110) 116 110 119 (137) (139) 120 110 122 115 520 518 295 300 290 315 95 122 115 94 111 64 66 40 35 (39) 35 32 32 32 32 24 24 (49) 46 40 65 15 22 17 17 12 12 110 112

~

00

Specimen no. A2e Sex Measurement Bi-coronoid breadth (65-1) Bi-gonial breadth (66) Bi-mental breadth, anterior breadth (67) Length of lower jaw (68) Condylo-symphyseal length (68-1), Right Left Chin height, symphyseal height (69) Ascending ramus minimum breadth (71 ), Right Left External mandibular arc (80a) Molar teeth row length [80-1 a], Right Left Premolar teeth row length [80-b ], Right Left Total profile angle, facial profile angle (72) Nasal profile angle (73) Alveolar profile angle (74) Angles of superior facial triangle n - ba - pr ba - pr - n pr- n - ba Angles of cranial quadrilateral 1- ba - n ba- n - b n - b -1 b - 1- ba Mandibular angle , gonial angle (79), Right Left

NVS(VM) 71 19 ± 1 year Female K-M P. S. 90 (95) 102 (50) 49 (80) 106 105 105 31 31 34 33 33 (200) 24 30 (32) 31 15 45 45 15

NVS(VM)72 20 to 21 year Female P.S. K-M (95) 97 102 45 44 74 108 106

NVS(VM)73 30 ± 5 years Male P.S. K-M 113 (96) 99 47 47 80 -

-

-

-

-

32 32

33 37

35

-

-

31 30 37 36 75 79 63

215 30 30 12 12 83 82 90

NVS(VM) 75 30 to 35 years Male K-M P.S. 96 90 90 44 45 81 105 105

-

32 29 30

-

33 29 29 200 29 20 11 11 94 92 98

93 91 101

-

-

31 32 32 185 31 31 14 13 78 82 61

-

-

41 65 74

-

38 87 55

-

37 90 53

-

-

-

-

101 77 108 72 126

-

127

89 93 88 90 135

-

130

128 79 96 65 125

-

Note : Posterio-basal angle of Kennedy and Malhotra is taken equivalent to mandibular angle (79). Nasion-opisthion length of Kennedy and Malhotra is taken equivalent to longitudinal arch (25).

132

27 30 42 43

113

28

40

-

119

Table 4.1: Continued ........ .

~

\0

Specimen no. Aee Sex Indices Cranial capacity (Lee-Pearson 1901) (38) (Using basion-bregma height) Cranial index (I 1) (8/ 1) Length-height cranial index, vertical index (I 2) (17/ l) Breadth-height cranial index , trans. Vertical index (I 3) (17/8) Auriculo-vertical index (14) (20/ 1) Hauschild ' s circumference height index (I 9) (17/23) Sagittal arc index (I 10) (20/25) Transverse frontal index (I 12) (9/ 10) Transverse fronto breadth index, frontal index (I 13) (9/8) Skull modulus (137) (1+8+ 17/3) Total facial index (I 38) (47/45) Jugo-mandibular index (I 40) (66/45) Jugo-malar index (I 41) (46/45) Kollman ' s upper facial index (I 39) (48/45) Orbital index (I 42) (52/51) Nasal index (I 48) (54/55) Maxillo-alveolar index, Palato-alveolar index (154 ) (61/60) Mandibular index (162) (68/65) Gonio-condylar index (I 64) (66/65) Transverse cranio-facial index (I 71) (45/8) Jugo-frontal index (I 73) (9/45)

NVS(VM) 71 19 ± 1 year Female P.S. K.M. 1330.21 1338.19 72.43 72.43 100.00 61.62

72.43 72.43 100.00 61.62

-

-

82.83 151.00

82.84 151.00

-

-

84.82

75.20

-

-

145.45 84.21 100.00 86.52

-

Note: Indexes on K-M (Kennedy and Malhotra) data are calculated by present scholars

53.60 80.00 51.06

108.51 93.29 88.80

NVS(VM)72 20 to 21 year Female K.M. P.S. 1292.92

NVS(VM)73 30 + 5 years Male P. S. K.M.

-

-

76.74 78.03 102.27 70.52 26.47 38.12 94.00 71.21 146.66 95.23 92.38 85.71 57.14 79.48 55.81 146.34 68.51 89.81 79.54 89.52

75.86

75.58

-

-

66.09

75.58

-

-

-

40.64

69.70

76.92

-

79.03 71.01

89.84 75.00 80.46 53.90 87.80 52.08 136.00

92.73

-

-

92.75 76.56

52.08

-

NVS(VM) 75 30 to 35 years Male K.M. P.S. 1367.32 67.56 74.05 109.60 64.86 26.34 38.09 82.72 72.80 149.00 96.52 78.26 81.73 57.39 80.00 48.97 162.00 73.63 81.81 92.00 79.13

67.21

59.14

37.93

71.20

91.80

57.14 91.43 52.17

80.36 97.60 72.95

Table 4.2: Long bone measurements for adult specimens form Nevasa:

Bone measurements

Clavicle Maximum length Anterior-posterior Medial-lateral Girth at mid-shaft Humerus Maximum length Anterior -posterior Medial-lateral Girth at mid-shaft Radius Maximum length Anterior-posterior Medial -lateral Girth at mid-shaft Ulna Maximumlength Anterior-posterior Medial-lateral Girth at mid-shaft Femur Maximum length Anterior-posterior Medial-lateral Girth at mid-shaft Tibia

Maximumlength Anterior-posterior Medial-lateral Girth at mid-shaft Fibula Maximum length Anterior-posterior Medial-lateral Girth at mid-shaft

NVS(VM) 71 (Female) R L

NVS(VM) 72 (Female) R L

--

--

--

--

20.00 17.00 59.00

(32.00) 20.00 17.00 59.00

29.00 15.00 19.00 59.00

14.00 17.00 58.00

(23.00) 11.00 14.00 45.00

-11.00 14.00 45.00

23.00 9.00 13.00 40.00

22.60 9.00 13.00 39.00

(25.00) 13.00 15.00 47 .00

--

--

13.00 17.00 47.00

--

--

--

--

--

--

(43.50) 23.00 23.00 76.00

-26.00 20.00 70.00

--

--

--

10.00 11.00 41.00

50

--

NVS(VM) 73 (Male) R L

--

(31.00) 23.00 25.00 74.00

--

(32.00) 23.00 23.00 72.00

--

--

15.00 17.00 52.00

17.00 16.00 53.00

--

NVS(VM) 75 (Male) R L 16.00 10.20 10.00 40.00

16.00 10.20 10.00 40.00

33.00 20.10 10.00 60.50

32.70 20.00 10.00 60.30

25.00 10.20 10.90 40.40

25.00 10.20 10.90 40.40

27.00 10.20 10.50 40.70

27.00 10.20 10.50 40.60

--

--

--

23.00 22.00 76.00

34.00 27.00 101.00

33.00 27.00 100.00

(46.00) (20.60) (20.50) (80.60)

46.00 20.20 20.50 80.30

34.50 25.00 19.00 72.00

(35.00) 33.00 23.00 95.00

(36.00) 33.00 22.00 93.00

38.80 20.80 20.10 80.10

30.30 20.56 20.10 80.00

34.00 11.00 11.00 43.00

--

--

17.00 13.00 54.00

17.00 13.00 13.00

38.00 10.30 10.20 40.10

(37.00) 10.10 10.20 40.00

Table 4.3: Stature estimation for the Nevasa adult specimens Sp. No

Bone

NVS(VM) 71 Female

Humerus Radius Ulna Humerus Radius

NVS(VM) 72 Female

NVS(VM) 73 Male

Femur Tibia Fibula Humerus Tibia

NVS(VM) 75 Male

Humerus Radius Ulna Femur Tibia Fibula

Side L R R R R L R L L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L

Maximum length (32.00) (23.00) (25.00) 29.00 23.00 22.60 (43.50) 34.50 34.00 (31.00) (32.00) (35.00) (36.00) 33.00 32.00 25.00 25.00 27.00 27.00 (46.00) 46.00 38.80 38.30 38.00 (37.00)

51

Stature estimation 165.49 ± 4.45 163.95 ± 4.24 164.51 ± 4.30 155.41 ± 4.25 163.95 ± 4.24 162.05 ± 4.24 161.54 ± 3.72 164.58 ± 3.66 159.23 ± 3.27 165.93 ± 4.05 169.01 ± 4.05 166.82 + 3.37 169.34 + 3.37 172.09 ± 4.05 169.01 ± 4.05 173.51 ± 4.32 173.51 ± 4.32 173.95 ± 4.32 173.95 ± 4.32 170.89 ± 3.27 170.89 ± 3.27 176.39 ± 3.37 175.13 ± 3.37 173.62 ± 3.29 170.94 ± 3.29

Mean 164.65

161.12

167.77

172.82

Table 4. 4: Diaphyseal lengths of sub-adults (measurements are in mm) No. NVS(VM)2 NVS(VM) 6 NVS(VM) 7 NVS(VM) 11 NVS(VM) 12 NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM)

13 16 17 21 23

NVS(VM) 25 NVS(VM) 27 NVS(VM) 28 NVS(VM) 29 NVS(VM) 30

NVS(VM) 35 NVS(VM) 36 NVS(VM) 38 NVS(VM)41 NVS(VM)45 NVS(VM)46 NVS(VM) 47

NVS(VM) 48

NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM)

52 53 54 57

Age 1 yr±4m Newborn 7 - 8m Newborn 3-5m 12-18 m 3-4m Neonatal 18± 3 m Less than 2 m lyr ± 2 m lyr ± 2 m 18 ± 3 m lyr ± 2 m 10 - 12 yr (Mea. in cm) 6 - 7m 9 ± 3m 18±2 m Around 2.5 yr 18 ± 3 m 27 ± 3 m 10 ± 1 yr (Mea. in cm) 7 - 8 yr (Mea. in cm) 18 ± 2 m 9± 3m 6 ± 2m 7 ±2 m

Side R R L L R L L L R R R

Hum 91.50 65

Ulna

Radius

--

--

--

--

Femur 120

Tibia

Fibula

---

-----

--

73

67

67

--

--

---

70

---

-------

--

--

-------

--

70

(113)

--

--

(70)

---

(64)

--

(53)

--

--

--

--

(84)

--

--

--

--

51

---

---

--

---

--

--

--

--

--

----

R R L R R R L

--

80

97 92 23 23

--

--

--

---

L R L L R L L L L

----------

R L

--

16

--

--

L L R R L

---

--

--

64 95 95

90

--

------

-----

18 18.05

15.05

--

71 76

--

--

-----

108

---

--

--

---

--

--

--

86

(80) 80

--

90

--

---

91

--

--

155

95 115

90

---

----

---

--

23.05

--

--

-----

--

--

21

21

14.5

--

--

--

95

--

--

--

---

--

89

85

76

---

--

--

62 63.5

--

--

--

--

67

--

--

---

----

52

Skulls of NVS(VM) 72 (Fig. 4.3) and NVS(VM) 73 (Fig. 4.4) are rhomboid in shape in norma verticalis perspective. The cranial index falls within the dolichocranial and lower values of mesocranial cranial categories. The cranial index (ms I 1) of NVS(VM) 71 is 72.43 (dolichocranial), while NVS(VM) 72 and NVS(VM) 73 have slightly broader skulls giving values of 76.86 and 75.86, respectively, both falling in mesocranial category. It must be noted that NVS(VM) 71 (Fig. 4.5) is damaged in the frontal perspective after Kennedy and Malhotra's study and not much of anthropometric data could be generated on this specimen presently.

From the four Chalcolithic adults from this skeletal series two specimens, NVS(VM) 72 (Fig. 4.1) and NVS(VM) 73 (Fig. 4.2), preserve almost all craniofacial elements. The cranium of NVS(VM) 73 shows considerable amount of post-mortem warping. However, fair amount of accuracy could be achieved while executing neuro-cranial measurements.

Fig. 4.1: Normafrontalis: NVS(VM) 72.

Fig. 4.3: Norma verticalis: NVS(VM) 72.

Forehead of NVS(VM) 72 (female) (Fig. 4.1) is straight and gradually slopes backward from the metopic region, whereas the metopic region of NVS(VM) 73 (male) (Fig. 4.2) is not prominent and the forehead slope is gradual from the supraorbital region itself. Prominence of supra-orbital and glabellar region is more evident in this specimen (NVS(VM) 73) than the female individual (NVS(VM) 72). Expression of supraorbital foramina cannot be judged precisely because of the post-mortem damage. No adult specimen of the Nevasa series have open metopic

Fig. 4.2: Normafronta/is: NVS(VM) 73.

53

mastoid region, where mastoid processes are massive, as well as in the zygomatic region of temporals. The temporals of NVS(VM) 72 (female) are much gracile when compared with NVS(VM) 73. External occipital protuberance and nuchal region are prominent in the male specimen (NVS(VM) 73) in comparison with both the female specimens (NVS(VM) 71 and NVS(VM) 72). Attempts to evaluate hypoglossal canal, flexure for superior sagittal sulcus and other features in basalis perspective were not successful as the elements are either missing or not in articulation. No sutural bones could be identified for any of the Chalcolithic specimens. When maximum and minimum frontal breadth values are compared (transverse frontal index, ms I 12) the values for both male and female come in the range of Eurymetopic category. Though the values for NVS(VM) 72 and NVS(VM) 73 fall in the same category, the index is 94.00 for NVS(VM) 72, while for the male specimen it is as less as 79 .03; the maximum frontal breadth for NVS(VM) 73 is 124 mm while for female specimen (NVS(VM) 72) the value is 100 mm. Also to be noted that the minimum frontal value is an estimate for NVS(VM) 73, while for NVS(VM) 72 both maximum and minimum frontal diameter could be measured accurately. Minimum frontal breadth when compared with minimum cranial breadth (frontal index, ms I 13) values are 82.83, 71.21 and 71.01 for NVS(VM) 71, NVS(VM) 72, and NVS(VM) 73 respectively, all falling in Eurymetopic category. The skull modules (ms I 37) for NVS(VM) 71 and NVS(VM) 72 are 151.00 and 146.66, respectively. Cranial capacity figures are, 1330.21 cc (NVS(VM) 71), 1292.92 cc (NVS(VM) 72) and 1367.32 cc (NVS(VM) 75) (Fig. 4.8 and 4.9).

suture. Norma basalis is either severely or totally damaged and consequently only rough estimation is possible for basion-bregma or vertex height, and that too only for NVS(VM) 72. Fortunately Kennedy and Malhotra had executed these measurements for NVS(VM) 71. The values are 134 mm NVS(VM) 72 and 135 mm NVS(VM) 71 (Fig 4.5). The vertical index (ms I 2) for NVS(VM) 71 is 72.43 (orthocranial) and for NVS(VM) 72 the index is 78.43 (hypsicranial). When breadths are compared with heights (ms I 3), the indices are 100.00 and 103.27, respectively, both falling within acrocranial category. For calculating cranial capacity auriculo-bregmatic and/or auriculovertical height measurements were necessary and for that purpose dioptrograph drawing were made. The ratio of auriculo-bregmatic height and cranial length (auriculo-vertical index, ms I 4) is 61.62 (orthocranial) for NVS(VM) 71, and 70.52 and 75.58 (both hypsicranial) for NVS(VM) 72 and NVS(VM) 73, respectively. Kennedy and Malhotra (1966) have cautioned that the indices based on height values for NVS(VM) 71 should be accepted with reservation owing to the poor inferior preservation.

Fig. 4.4: Norma verticalis : NVS(VM) 73

The presence of parietal foramina cannot be observed. Parietal tubera of NVS(VM) 72 (Fig. 4.6) are much more prominent than those of NVS(VM) 73 (Fig. 4.7). Temporal lines are faint and do not extend to parietals. The robusticity in male specimen (NVS(VM) 73) is prominent in the

Fig. 4.5: Norma lateralis: NVS(VM) 7

54

Fig. 4.6: Norma lateralis: NVS(VM) 72.

Limited observations are possible for the facial region of NVS(VM) 72 (Fig. 4.1) and NVS(VM) 73 (Fig. 4.2) because of partial damage and/or distortion to the region. As noted earlier , all the facial bones for NVS(VM) 71 are broken and lost, except maxilla and mandible , and consequently only a limited number of observations could be carried out. Most of the teeth are in situ as well as bones are in fairly good state of preservation for both NVS(VM) 72 and NVS(VM) 73 making it possible to measure the morphological facial height (ms 47), which is 100 mm and 115 mm (estimate), respectively. Upper facial heights for these two specimens are 60 mm and 69 mm, respectively. Before the damage to the facial region, NVS(VM) 71 was 67 mm in upper facial height, according to Kennedy and Malhotra (1966). The male specimen (NVS(VM) 73) is much broader in norma frontalis perspective giving estimated value of 128 mm for bizygomatic breadth , whereas for NVS(VM) 72 the said

Fig. 4.7: Norma lateralis: NVS(VM) 73.

55

dimension is 105 mm. The female individual (NVS(VM) 72) has a long face (hyperleptoprosopic) giving total facial index value (ms I 38) of 95.23. Male (NVS(VM) 73) face is much broader having a facial index of 89.84 which falls in higher ranges of mesoprosopic category. 'Longness ' of facial morphology of the female is also reflected in the values of upper facial index (ms I 39) ; for NVS(VM) 72 this index is 57.14 (lepten- long upper face) whereas for NVS(VM) 73 the index is 53.90 (mesen- middle upper face). At the same time it must be noted that the 'broadness ' in the male specimen (NVS(VM) 73) is seen in other breadth measurements as well. For example , bimaxillary breadth (ms 46) is 103 mm (94. 72 mm for NVS(VM) 72), bi-orbital (ms 44) is 102 mm (91 mm for NVS(VM) 72). Orbits of NVS(VM) 72 are squarish and slightly inclined whereas the male specimen has much larger orbits. Orbital index (ms I 42) for NVS(VM) 72 is 79.48 (mesoconch- medium category) whereas for NVS(VM) 73 it is 87.80 (hypsoconch- long). Both male and female specimens (NVS(VM) 72 and NVS(VM) 73) have broad nose (chamaerhinae) with nasal index (ms I 48) of 55.81 and 52.08, respectively. NVS(VM) 72 is prognathus in the facial perspective and exhibits pronounced forward projection of upper jaw (alveolar profile angle, ms 74, is 61 °), which gives still more prognathus appearance to the face. The nasal profile angle (ms 73) however is 82° (not so projecting- mesognathus) . These alveolar and nasal features give concave appearance to the face profile. The male NVS(VM) 73, however, has relatively straight face giving the facial, nasal and alveolar profile angles of 83° (mesoprognathus) , 82° (mesoprognathus) and 90° (orthognathus), respectively (all the angles are estimates). Robusticity of NVS(VM) 73 is prominently seen in the mandible especially in the mental, and gonial region. Condyles are broken but apparently this specimen is broader than NVS(VM) 72 in condylar breadth. The corpus bone is very robust in the second molar region and the robustness is bilaterally expressed indicating its morphological origin rather than pathological. Chin is bifid. Both female specimens (NVS(VM) 71 and NVS(VM) 72) are comparable so far as the robusticity expression is concerned. Both have pointed chin but the degree of upper alveolar prognathism in NVS(VM) 72 is much pronounce than that of NVS(VM) 71.

Fig. 4.8: Norma occipitalis: NVS(VM) 72.

Fig. 4.9: Norma occipitalis: NVS(VM) 73.

It must be noted that the observations made by the present scholar and those by Kennedy and Malhotra regarding the horizontal circumference of skull (ms 23), transverse arc (ms 24b) and longitudinal arc (ms 25) are not

56

femora are stenomeric and have high pilastric indices" (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966:81).

consistent and difference is in the range of 5 to 40 mm. There is also a large difference in two other measurements, premolar teeth low length of maxilla (ms 80-3a) and mandible (ms 80-b), in Kennedy-Malhotra's and present scholar's reading; variation in these two observations is in the range of 20 to 30 mm. The present scholar follows the standard methodology (Martin and Saller 1957). Assessment of mandibular angle (ms 79) also varies in these two studies.

Kennedy and Malhotra also note an evidence of squatting facet at the distal end of tibial shafts of NVS(VM) 72 and NVS(VM) 73 (NVS 18 and NVS 21 respectively). In case ofNVS(VM) 72 the distal end of right tibia is broken and not available for inspection. The left side bone, however, retains excellently preserved distal extremity. The evidence of squatting facet, as stated by these scholars, cannot be supported. Articular surface in this case has a slight depression near the distal end, which cannot be equated with the squatting facets seen in other Deccan Chalcolithic populations. There are two cases of squatting facet, one each from Kaothe (Walimbe 1990) and Daimabad (Walimbe 1986). At Inamgaon the custom of chopping off the feet below ankle for adults preclude assessment of this anomaly. Distal end of only the left tibia is preserved for NVS(VM) 73, which has suffered post-mortem damage, and therefore presence of a squatting facet cannot be determined.

Preservation of the post-cranial component is much better as compared to the cranium. While most of the long bone shafts are complete and undamaged, the extremities, especially in case of NVS(VM) 73, are broken during the excavation process or later. Most of the long bones of NVS(VM) 72 are complete. However, the flat girdle bones and the bones of thoracic cage are weathered and not much of morphometric information could be gathered on these elements.

The male specimen (NVS(VM) 73) is far more robust than the two female specimens (NVS(VM) 71 and NVS(VM) 72). The robusticity is expressed especially in the linea aspera, tronchanter region and distal femoral condyles, and deltoid tubercle, epicondyle and trochlea region of humerus. All other long bones also exhibit moderately developed tubercles, condyles, processes and other areas of muscle attachment. Kennedy and Malhotra comment, "The arm bones are robust and prominently crested. The humerus shows an extensive and deep bicipital groove and a large deltoid tuberosity. The shaft is oblong in its transverse section with marked curvature of the proximal extremity. The lesser tubercle and the lateral lip of the bicipital groove are somewhat less well developed. The interosseous border of the radius is sharply defined and attains a maximum elevation from the surface of the shaft of some 7 mm. This crest is 59 mm. in length with its point of origin some 15 mm. Inferior to the radial tuberosity. The impression for the pronator tares is unusually prominent. There is moderate lipping of the border of the radial head and neck, these structures being rather broad in their dimensions. The ulna correspondingly exhibits a well developed interosseous border. The ulnar tuberosity is high and shows a prominent supinator crest. The shafts are bowed. Both

The right radius and ulna of NVS(VM) 71 exhibit slight bending along the anterior aspect of the entire shaft. This anomaly is more evident in ulna. Interestingly there are some more anomalies seen on NVS(VM) 73 long bones. The humeral shaft above the deltoid tuberosity shows area of muscle marking, which is more prominent on the right side than the left. It has resulted in increasing the girth values (right 8.01 cm and left 7.5 cm) (Fig. 4.10). This expression of robusticity is likely to be due to the more stress on the right side. The other noteworthy feature is the new bone formation on the medial aspect of right radial shaft. The elevation is on the interosseous crest and measures about little less than 1 cm (Fig. 4.11 ). Opposite to this elevation are two rugged areas, which probably indicate involvement of stress factor in the bone remolding process. Shaft of this bone exhibits slight new bone formation proximally. The bone is broken along this feature precluding assessment of the extent of the lesion. The ulna, neighboring bone, is normal. Morphology the left radius cannot be compared with the right side bone as the element is in damaged state. The etiology and discussion on these anomalies appears in the next section.

57

make the description of the Nevasa skeletal series complete the following comments on its morphometric features are offered. While the pathological observations are of the present authors, the observations of Kennedy and Malhotra (1966) have been used liberally to describe the phenotype.

Fig. 4.10: R. Humerus : NVS(VM) 73. Note the mussel markings. (Left side bone is given for comparison)

Kennedy and Malhotra ( 1966) have used four different formulae for stature estimation of the adult individuals. These investigators arrive at the mean stature of 164.93 for NVS(VM) 71, 157.19 cm for NVS(VM) 72 cm and 168.70 cm for the male specimen NVS(VM) 73. Using Trotter and Gieser formulae for white population, the present authors estimate stature for these individuals as 164.12 cm, 161.77 cm and 167.77 cm, respectively. All these values fall within the range of measurements for ' medium statured people ' of world population today, as Kennedy and Malhotra opine.

Fig. 4.11: R. Radius : NVS(VM) 73. Note the elevation on the shaft .

Preservation of this specimen is good (Fig. 4.13 and 4.14). In general there exists a close metrical and morphological similarity between the Chalcolithic specimens and the Indo-Roman specimen .

Indo-Roman Specimen from the Indo-Roman level NVS(VM) 75: Individual NVS(VM) 75 (Fig. 4.12) belongs to the Indo-Roman levels of occupation . However , to

58

Fig. 4.12 : Normafrontalis : NVS(VM) 75

Fig. 4.13: Norma lateralis : NVS(VM) 75.

59

within the range of size of the Chalcolithic dentitions. Like the Chalcolithic teeth the anterior teeth of the Indo-Roman specimen shows greater attrition than that exhibited by the posterior teeth, thus suggesting that either there was a persistent practice of holding objects in the mouth or that the biting functions of the anterior teeth were called into use with a considerably high frequency. The stature estimations show that the lndo-Roman specimen stands somewhat apart from the others. The mean estimate of 172.82 cm (169.30 cm Kennedy-Malhotra's estimate) makes this individual taller in the series. Excellently preserved post-cranial elements permit thorough morphological observations. Interestingly there are considerable morphological differences between the elements of right and left side. ►

Fig. 4.14: Norma Verticalis: NVS(VM) 75.

The individual is a robust male adult. The robust built is evident in skull, mandible and other long bones of upper and lower extremity. The cranial length-breadth index (ms I 1) is hyperdolichocranic (67.56), but in indices involving cranial height (ms I 2) the values fall within the orthocranic (74.05) and (ms I 3) acrocranic (109.60) categories. The Indo-Roman specimen is unique in the possession of a complex serration pattern of its cranial sutures; multiple wormian bones and paired parietal foramina are features not present in the earlier inhabitants of Nevasa as represented by the present series. In facial architecture the specimen is (ms I 38) hyperleptoprosopic (96.52) with a (ms I 48) mesorhinea (48.97) nasal type and a (ms I 42) mesoconch (80.00) orbital form. Morphological facial features which set this specimen apart from the Chalcolithic specimens of the series are observed in the orbital shape, pronounced guttering of the sub-nasal region, and lateral projection of the zygomae and malar complex. Mandible belongs to (ms I 62) dolichostenomandibular category (73.63).

First two ribs of the right and the left side have different morphology at their sternal ends. Compared to the left side, the right side bones have developed slight robusticity (Fig. 4.15). This 'pathology' could be attributed to some sort of occupational stress, but the diagnosis remains tentative. Usually the stress affects morphology of the shoulder girdle, more specifically of clavicles. In this individual both the clavicles are normal.

,pUIJII II!!.' I 1,I' 111rUt1 111!( :f

2

~

Fig. 4.15: R. first rib: NVS(VM) 75. Note the mussel markings. (Left side is given for comparison).

Apart from the mandibular first molars, the teeth of this Indo-Roman specimen are small and are

60

►

►

Many of the ribs also show slight bilateral morphological difference at the vertebral articular facets. But this variation can be in normal range seen in the right and left sides of the body.

In patella the length and width of right and left varies considerably (Fig . 4.16). The measurements are as follows:

Dimension Length Width Thickness

Right

Left

4.00 4.30 2.00

3.80 3.70 2.00

Fig. 4.16: Right and left patella: NVS(VM) 75. Note the difference in size.

►

The shape of the left fibular shaft is also slightly modified. The reason behind this variation cannot be determined. The bone is sturdy and strong. The measurements of head and neck area of right and left fibular head vary notably (Fig. 4.17), as follows:

Dimension

Right

Left

Head diameters N eek diameters Anterio-posterior diameter Medio-lateral diameter

2.25

2.09

1.10 0.99

0.99 0.70

Fig. 4.17: Right and left fibular proximal ends: NVS(VM) 75. Note the size difference.

61

►

►

worthwhile to quote some observations of these studies.

One extra sesamoid bone is found in the collection. It is 1 cm in length, oval shaped and having two articular facets. This bone was found in the bag containing carpal bones. The exact location of this bone cannot be understood but apparently it belongs to the carpal area. There are seven carpal bones preserved for right side while inventory is complete for the left side. Presence of an extra sesamoid bone in the carpal region is rare.

of

the

major

Kennedy and Malhotra (1966) compare the four skeletal specimens, including the Indo-Roman Specimen No. NVS(VM) 75 with the specimens from sixteen prehistoric localities from the continent and neighborhood . The main observation of this study is the close phenotypic similarity of NVS(VM) 71 (NVS 10), female adult, to the male specimens from the Harappa Cemetery R-37. It has been stated that "the series from Harappa Cemetery R-37 shows the most striking incidence of metrical and morphological parallels with the Nevasa specimens; a secondary degree of similarity is established among the specimens from the Harappa Cemetery H, Strata I and II; a tertiary degree of similarity is established among the specimen from the later Iron Age sites of Adittanalur and Brahmagiri" (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966:120). When these phenotypes are compared with metrical and morphological data relating to the Indo-Roman Specimen NVS(VM) 75 (NVS 49) the Harappan elements decrease in number and significance, and parallels with the specimens from the Iron Age sites of Adittanalur and Brahmagiri become more obvious. It is interesting to note that these scholars find very minor or no similarity of the Chalcolithic and Indo-Roman Nevasians with certain other prehistoric populations of the Subcontinent or Baluchistan. The predominant 'racial" type identified between both the Chalcolithic and IndoRoman Specimens from Nevasa is 'Mediterranean'. The non- 'Mediterranean' physical features have racially been assigned to 'Proto-Australoid' phenotypic elements.

There are three extra wormian bones m lambdoidal region (Fig. 4.18).

Fig. 4.18: Norma occipitalis: NVS(VM) 75.

Based on the craniofacial morphological comparisons Kennedy and Malhotra advance the following conclusions (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966:121).

Comparison

As mentioned earlier, ascribing a 'race' label to the population under study cannot be a goal in skeletal biological research. Rather such approach is considered unscientific and unjustifiable. The earlier studies undertaken on the adult component of the Nevasa skeletal series (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966; Ehrhardt 1960) were primarily oriented in this direction. Nevertheless, these publications provide excellent narration of the morphological features of the adult individuals. Though the present scholar does not believe in any sort of phenotypic categorization it would be

♦

62

The Phenotypic pattern which was present at Nevasa during the Chalcolithic period (circa 1500-100 B.C.) bears close metrical and morphological similarities to that pattern dominant at Harappa during the zenith of the Indus Valley Civilization (2500-1800 B.C.) and which persisted through populations. Hence the "Mediterranean-Proto-Australoid" phenotypic complex has been existent in the Subcontinent for at least 5000 years, and certainly for a still longer period of time.

♦

♦

The fact that other specimens and series from prehistoric populations in North and NorthWestern India are phenotypically distinct from the Chalcolithic and Indo-Roman Nevasian and the populations with whom they were most closely related is suggestive of a situation whereby a distinct "Mediterranean" population without "ProtoAustraloid" components may have been established in this border land of the subcontinent while the phenotype represented at Nevasa was the dominant one in the Indian heartland.

♦

Since certain elements of the Nevasian "Mediterranean-Proto-Australoid" phenotype are found at the present day among tribal populations and not among their urbanized and sedentary neighbors, the hypothesis may be advanced that at the close of the Chalcolithic period the ancestors of the latter groups may have pushed the survivors of the aboriginal population into relict areas where their phenotype persists today among the hill tribes.

♦

analyzed two decades thereafter. In the light of the new information available it would be necessary to forward a comment on the phenotypic pattern of the Deccan Chalcolithic population.

Commensurate with this considerable time depth for the phenotype is its wide geographical distribution. The distinctive physical features of the Nevasians are to be discerned in series from Sind in the North to Tinnevelly in the South.

When the Nevasa skeletal series is compared with the other Deccan Chalcolithic skeletal collections relative homogeneity in cranio-facial features is evident. There are both striking differences and similarities in the expression of robusticity and size of the vault. The male specimen from Nevasa (NVS(VM) 73) is extremely robust, degree of which is comparable with some of the Inamgaon males and that of the Daimabad individual. However, the best preserved male specimens from Inamgaon (INM 146b) and Kaothe (KTE 4) are much gracile. Tables 4.5 and 4.6 provide comparative data on cranial measurements and indices from major early agro-pastoral male populations of the subcontinent. Tables 4. 7 and 4.8 give the data on female population. The Nevasa male specimen gives the least value for maximum cranial length (ms 1), which is comparable to Piklihal and Hullikallu adults (Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites of the peninsular region). Amongst the Deccan Chalcolithic populations Kaothe and Inamgaon are fairly identical with the Nevasa specimen. Daimabad and Chandoli males have extremely long cranium. Cranial and facial breadth values ofNVS(VM) 73, however, very well fit in the range shown by other specimens. Cranial index ofNVS(VM) 73 (75 .86) is the highest for the best preserved specimens of the region.

Hence the phenotype pattern identifiable at the Chalcolithic and Indo-Roman occupation levels at Nevasa is not a unique one. Rather it is a part of a very ancient racial sub-stratum with an extensive geographical distribution in Chalcolithic times. Upon this phenotypic pattern was superimposed in postChalcolithic times (and in the region of South India in post-Iron Age times) a very different "Mediterranean" population with its origins, in so far as they can be traced at present, in the North and North-Western periphery of the Subcontinent."

Both the Nevasa female specimens are more comparable in cranio-facial features and robusticity with other prehistoric female populations of the region. Of the two, NVS(VM) 71 (measured by Kennedy and Malhotra, 1966) is more similar than NVS(VM) 72, having smaller cranium, and incidentally giving the least value of maximum cranial length among the best preserved female specimens. To summarize it may be stated that the phenotypic range expressed in the N evasa skeletal series , barring the extreme robusticity in NVS(VM) 73, is identical to the other Neolithic-Chalcolithic agro-pastoral communities. While assessing the human evolutionary status in the region, therefore, the whole Deccan Chalcolithic series can be taken as a unit.

May not be for establishing 'racial' identity but to understand the nature of biological continuity in the region the comments of Kennedy and Malhotra ( 1966) need to be appreciated. It must be noted that the Nevasa skeletal series was one of the first few Deccan Chalcolithic series (Chandoli adult was studied almost at the same time) to be screened in anthropological perspectives. The Inamgaon, Kaothe and Daimabad series have been

63

Table 4.5: Comparison of cranial measurements of male specimens from Nevasa to other Chalcolithic sites

Measurement (M .S.code)

0\

~

Frequency Measurements Maximum cranial length (I) Maximum cranial breadth (8) Basion bregma height ( 17) Auriculo vertex height (21) Auriculo-bregma height (20) Minimum frontal diameter (9) Bizygomatic diameter (45) Prosthion-nasion height (48) Basion-nasion length (5) Basion-prosthion length (40) Nasal height (55) Nasal breadth (54) Orbital height (52) Orbital breadth (51) Bi-condylar breadth (65) Bi-gonial breadth (66) Symphyseal height (69) Ascending ramus height (70) Min.br.asce. ramus (71) Con.-symphyseal lgt (68/ 1) Mandibular length (68) Mandibular angle (79)

Nevasa

Kaothe

Daimabad

lnamgaon

Chandoli

1

l

I

la

l

172 138

194 133 145 138 135 89 121

181 138 137 121 119 87 122 65

197 128

IOI

114 96 39 62 32 108

102 46 22 31 36 130 90 34 58 37 103

---

--

175 129 129 Ill 108 96 135 56 97 92 44 24 32 41 112 99 30 51 33 114

80 135

72 121

79 124

72 121

-(130) (130) 98 (128) 69

--48 25 36 41

-(96) 33

-37

----

--40

--

--

-126 81 --

Harappa R-37 13

Harappa AreaG 7

Harappa H-1 3

Harappa H-II 5

MohenJo daro 3

Burzahom

Piklihal

la

l

188 133 134 115 115 95 131 71 -102 51 27 34 42 104 89 34 68 34

181 138 134 114 114 99 128 67

187 138 135 119 118 97 133 65

189 145 135 119 119 96 136 70

197 130 139 122

190 133 140 126

172 139 141

--

--

--

--

--

95 51 26 31 41 120 91 31 57 33

103 49 27 32 41 111 87 29 62 35

97 53 26 33 41 113 79 30 62 35

95 127 69 99 102 46 22 31 37 116 102 35 62 37

124 95 126 66 103 100 45 23 35 45 117 93 35 66 35

--

--

--

--

--

--

97 134 74 110 100 55 28 36 40 117 84 33 67 30 77

-116

82 120

79 119

84 121

87 Ill

81 117

68 115

-----

-121 92 29 67 35

--

--124

Hullikallu l

Ieej

172 144 142 117 116 94 124 68 99 92 46 25 33 40 108 95 30 55 34 120

179 145 -107 105 97 --

75 121

75 125

l

----

---

--

-108 112 29 58 31 129

Table 4.6: Comparison of cranial indices of male specimens from Nevasa to other Cbalcolitbic sites

lndex (M.S. code)

0\ VI

Frequency Indices Cranial capacity (38) Cranial Index (I I) Cranial module (I 37) Total facial index (138) Upper facial index (I 39) Height (au-v) length index Height (au-v) breadth index Height (ba-b) length index (I 2) Height (ba-b) brea. index (I 3) Height (au-b) length index (14) Height (au-b) br. index (I 6) Zygo-frontal index (I 73) Nasal index (I 48) Orbital index (I 42) Mandibular index (I 62) Jugo-mandibular index (I 40)

Nevasa

Kaothe

Daimabad

lnamgaon

Chandoli

1

l

1

la

I

--

1519.8 68.6 157.3

71.l 103.8

1444.3 76.2 152.0 -53.3 66.9 87.7

1519.0 65.0 --

89.8 53.9 75.6 94.2

1299.2 73 .7 144.3 77.4 41.5 63.4 86.0

--

73.7

74.7

--

100.0

75.6

Harappa R-37 13

Harappa AreaG 7

Harappa H-1 3

Harappa H-11 5

Mohenjodaro 3

Burzahom

Piklihal

la

l

1387.7 76.4 150.7 93.0b 51.6 63.l 82.0

1470.8 73.8 154.6 93.8 49.1 63.6b 86.2b

1505.l 76.7 156.1 85.6 50.0 63.0b 82.lb

1471.Sb 66.0 155.7 88.9 53.9 61.9b 93.8b

1465.7b 70.0 154.3b 91.0 55.2 66.3 94.7

1421.3b 80.8b 150.7b 97.6b 52.4

--

1387.5 71.1 151.5 93.6 52.6 61.3 86.2

75.7

--

71.3b

74.0b

72.2b

71.4b

70.6

109.0

99.3

--

100.8b

97.lb

97.8b

93.lb

61.7

69.6

65.8

63.9

61.3

63.1

62.l

94.2

83.7

101.5

86.2

98.4

86.2

82.0

76.5 52.0 87.8

71.l 54.6 78.0 64.3 73.3

--

71.3 47 .8 86.1 55.4 73.8

-----

71.3 50.6 80.8 78.8b 69.7

77.9 50.6 78.5 65.8b 75.6

80.2

--

-75.0

--

--

--69.3 79.3

----

--

Hullikallu l

Ieej 1

--

--

1460.1 83.7 152.7 89.5 54.8 68.0 81.3

59.8 73.8

73.7

82.0b

82.6

--

107.2

105.3

101.4b

98.6

--

63 .0b

--

--

72.lb

67.4

58.7

85.9

82.lb

--

--

87.9b

80.6

72.4

72.9b 55.2 80.0b 75.7b 65.5

70.6b 47.6 79.2 77.0b 55.5

74.8b 47 .8b 84.5 69.8b 80.3b

72.4b 50.9 90.0 58.1 62.7b

75.4b 51.l 77.8 -73.8

75.8 54.4 82.5 69.4 76.6

--

--

81.0

---

--

--69.4

--

Table 4.7: Comparative craniometric data for selected prehistoric female populations.

Measurement (M .S. code)

°' °'

Frequency Maximum cranial length (I) Maximum cranial breadth (8) Basion-bregma height ( 17) Auriculo-vertex height (21) Auriculo-bregma height (20) Minimum frontal diameter (9) Bi-zygomatic diameter (45) Prosthion-nasion height (48) Basion-nasion length (5) Basion-prosthion length (40) Nasal height (55) Nasal breadth (54) Orbital height (52) Orbital breadth (51) Bi-condylar breadth (65) Bi-gonial breadth (66) Symphysealheight(69) Ascending ramus height (70) Min .hr. ascending ramus (71) Cond.-symphy. length (68/ 1) Mandibular length (68) Mandibular angle (79)

Nevasa I 173 132 135 125 122 94 105 60

--

Kaothe

Inamgaon

Harappa R-37

Harappa AreaG

Harappa H-1

Harappa H-11

Mohenjo-daro

Burzahorn

Pikliha!

Langhnaj

Tekkalakota

I

la 183 137 136 115 113 100 (I 18) (65) 102 (95) 46 24 32 41 109 82 31 43 34 106 -134

15 180 131 128 Ill

2 174 130 125 108 -89 I 16 66

II 176 132 126 108 -91 121 59 -94 46 25 32 39 -86 23 52 32 -82 126

2 182 133 134 109

1 180 --

la 190 129

1 190 136

--

---

la 181 122 ---114 84 -72

-137 130 116 113 -124

---

--

90

43 (24) 31 39 (108) 97 31

--

-32 108 74 125

21 --

-116 90 28 52 29 121 78 130

-93 125 65

--

_,_

94 48 25 34 41 108 81 30 59 32

92 46 23 31 39

--

--

75 119

--

------

--

93 117 66 -100 46 24 33 41 Ill 84 30 58 32

-75 123

--

--

I 175 131 131

--

120

--

--

110 94 128

(I I 7) 95

---

97 132 70

--

--

---

----

-51 28 39 37 119 87 28 55 33

----

36 38 --

------

---

--

-69 124

46 23 33 41

----

---

--

--

----

--

--

--

-(80) 24 49 28 --

52 24 35 37 (112) 90 34 58 38 105

---

115

--

---

--

Table 4.8: Comparative crauiometric data for selected prehistoric female populations.

0\ -J

Index (M.S.code)

Nevasa

Kaothe

lnamgaon

Harappa R-37

Harappa AreaG

Harappa H-1

Harappa H-II

Frequency Cranial capacity (38) Cranial Index (I I ) Cranial module (I 3 7) Total facial index (I 38) Upper facial index (I 39) Height (au-v) length index Height (au-v) breadth index Height (ba-b) length index (I 2) Height (ba-b) brea. Index (13) Height (au-b) length index (I 4) Height (au-b) br. index (I 6) Zygo-frontal index (I 73) Nasal index (l 48) Orbital index (I 42) Mandibular index (I 62) Jugo-mandibular index (I 40)

I 1292.92 76.3 146.6 95.2 57.1 72.2 94.6 78.0 102.2 70.52 94.4 89.5 55.8 79.4 68 .5 92.3

I --

la 1358.8 74.8 152.0 (94.1) 55. 1 62.8 83.9 74.3 99 .3 61.7 82.5 84.8 52.2 78. 1

15 1285.3 72.6 146.4 89.6 52 .2 85.2 61.9 71.0 97 .6 --

2 1205.8 74.5 143.0 -56.0 61.6 82.7 71.3 95.7

II 1235.4 75.8 145.1 51.4 60.2 81.8 77.1 97.7

2 1251.4 76.1 147.6 96.5 54.8 62.6 82.3 76.9 101.1

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

76.7 51.4 80.7 --

-73.9 55.1 80.5

--

74.7 51.6 82 .9 69 .5 65 .0

78.3 53.3 83.0 66 .8 69.1

---

----

--84.7

-94.9

-82.5

---

-67.2 72.6

-69.5

--

--

-71.1

Mohenjo-daro

Burzahorn

Piklihal

Langhnaj

Tekkalakota

I

la 1413.3 67.9

I 1280.5 74.9

I 1430.0 71.6

la 1037.2 67.4

----

--

-----

--

94.7 --

--

--

-

--

--

(87.8) 53.0 63.2 93.0

--

--

--

--

---

---

---

--

---

74.9 100.0 62.9 84.0 73 .4 50.0 80.5

--

--

-61.6 86.0 --

63 .0 93.4

73.5 54.5 105.4 58.0 66.0

---

--

---

---

-46 .2 94.6

---

population in response to the subsistence pattern and the level of food processing technique achieved. The comparative study of such dental adaptations are primarily based on two composite figures, the summed crown area or total crown area (TCA), a figure obtained by summation of the crown area of each tooth of the upper and lower jaws for either the right or left sides, and the molar crown area (MCA), a figure obtained by summation of the crown area of molar teeth of the upper and lower jaws for either the right or left sides. These figure are expressed in millimeters squared (mm2).

II. DENTITION

In general, preservation of dental elements is fairly good, better than the skeletal elements. Some teeth are broken owing to the post-mortem damage. In total 494 teeth are available for inspection, which include 193 permanent (100 upper and 93 lower) and 301 deciduous teeth (160 upper and 141 lower). Some deciduous or permanent teeth were unerupted at the time of death of the individual and now seen inside the jaw socket because of the post-mortem erosion of bone. Some teeth were only partially erupted. Teeth considered for metric and morphological study are 364 and 81, respectively.

The crown index (CI) is used for inter and intragroup comparisons. In addition, basic data on three other indices have been provided for the maxillary and mandibular teeth. These include incisor breadth index, molarisation index and step index. The relative breadth of maxillary lateral incisor is frequently reported and variation in this index appears to be ethnically patterned (Potter et al. 1981). This index is referred to as ' incisor breadth index' in this report. A relative measure of the 'molarisation' of lateral premolar is also frequently used in calculating the biological distances for different living or prehistoric populations. This index, employed by Dahlberg (1963), is named as 'molarisation index' by Lukacs (1985). The step index (Selmer-Olsen 1949, quoted by Lukacs 1985) gives relative breadth of third and second molar with the first molar. The step and molarisation indices are calculated on both the upper and lower dental arcades.

Metric Analysis Methodology

Two basic measurements have been carried out for each tooth following the Moorrees' (1957a, 1957b) technique. These consists of maximum crown length (mesio-distal diameter)and maximum crown breadth (bucco-lingual diameter). The mesio-distal diameter (MD) is the maximum dimension of the tooth crown in the mesio-distal direction, parallel to the occlusal and the labial surface. The bucco-lingual crown diameter (BL) is defined as the greatest distance between the buccal and the lingual surface of tooth crown in a plane perpendicular to that of the mesio-distal diameter. The crown measurements are carried out with electronic MAX-CAL digital caliper with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. The primary comparative standard in the analysis of tooth size is the crown area (CA) or the crosssectional area of the tooth. This figure of crown size is obtained by multiplying mesio-distal diameter by bucco-lingual diameter. The crown index (CI), a measure of crown shape is the ratio of mesio-distal and bucco-lingual diameter expressed in terms of percentage, as suggested by Wolpoff (1971). The measure of crown bulk, crown module (CM), is the average of mesiodistal and bucco-lingual values. The formulae used for calculating crown area, crown index and crown module are summarized below.

The formulae used for computing the incisor breadth index, the molarisation index and the step index are as follows: 1. Incisor breadth index = MD 12 + MD I 1 x 100 (only for maxillary dentition) 2. Molarisation index = BL Pm4 + BL Ml x 100 3. Step index, M3 = BL M3 + BL Ml x 100 4. Step index, M2 = BL M2 + BL Ml X 100 Out of the inventory of 494 teeth of the Nevasa series, 364 teeth, including 207 deciduous and 157 permanent, are measurable and have been included in the metric analysis. Table 4.9 provides the basic odontometric data for the Nevasa teeth. Table 4.10 and 4.11 gives the mean values of dental crown measurements and indices for deciduous and permanent dentition.

CA = MDxBL CI = MD x 100 I BL CM = (MD + BL) / 2 The measurements of crown size and bulk (CA and CM) reflect the adaptive strategies of a

68

Table 4.9: Basis odontometric data for deciduous and permanent teeth from Nevasa Table 4.9.a: Dental crown measurements and indices: dil

Mandible

Maxilla Sp.No .

Right

MD

0\ \0

NVS(VM) l NVS(VM) 2 NVS(VM)4 NVS VM)20 NVS(VM) 21 NVS VM) 26 NVS(VM) 28 NVS(VM) 31 NVS(VM)37 NVS(VM)38 NVS VM 40 NVS(VM)42 NVS1[VM )44 NVS1 VM)46 NVS1(VM 49 NVS1 VM 55 NVSi ~ > 56 NVS(VM) 63 NVS(VM) 65 NVS(VM) 66

N

Mean

6.71 7.50 6.11 7.16 6.70

-6.57 6.59 7.14

BL

-5.70 4.85 5.28 4.94

--

CA

-42.75 29.63 37.80 33.09

---

CI

CM --

--

131.57 125.97 135.60 135.62

6.60 5.48 6.22 5.82

BL

MD 6.78 7.64

---

6.57 6.82

--

Left CA

Right

CI

CM

MD

-

-

--

5.78

44.15

132.17

6.71

4.05 4 .65

--

---

--

--

--

-

--

4.98 5.12

32.71 34.91

131.92 133.20

5.77 5.97

4.12 4.37 4.14

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

-

35.48

--

BL

-4.05 3.98 3.81

3.64

---

143.28 120.81 139.77

6.07 5.99 5.33

149.14 147.29

5.07 6.17

3.85 4.28

3.34 3.30

-

---

-

---

--

--

--

--

---

--

--

31.68

130.89

5.68

--

--

--

-

---

---

130.75 133.70

5.36 6.24

-

--

-7.07 12 6.79

6.08 7.14

4.65 5.34

-

-

---

----

--

--5.38 9 5. 11

38.03 9 35.10

131.41 9 133.75

6.22 9 5.97

--

--

-

7.02 11 6.78

5.42 10 5.04

-28.27 38. 12

38.04 10 34.47

130.04 10 134.87

6.22 10 5.91

4.13 4.54

-4.85 4.60 11 4.32

--

--3.88 4.42

4.55 4.35 10 3.93

---

--

--

106.44 102.71

35.67 35.62 27.67

24 .70 36.67

--

--

16.02 20.06

4.99 5.43 4.45

4.07 4.99

--

4.10 4.45

--

7.15 6.56 6.22

6.07 7.35

---

4.05 4.09 3.89

--

-

--

103.51 114.69 113.73

---

--

--

16.39 16.64 15.06

---

--

---

-

--

--

-----

-

-

--

--

-

--

--

4.92

-

--

--

--

-4.35

--

5.97

--

6.44

-114.81

3.59 3.79

129.61

--

--

--

115.26 129.69

5.20

6.07

BL

MD

18.83

12.85 14.12

6.74

142.80

---

CM

--

-

35.70

--

CI

--

-

5.00

--

CA

-22.00 20.01 10 17.19

-106.59 105.74 10 111.31

-

--4.00 4.48

--

--

-

-3.81

-

--

-3.84 3.85

--

Left CA --15.74 16.74

106.77 115.58

3.97 4.15

-

-

--

-

--

--

3.39

12.91

--

-

6.14

--

--

--

---

-

4.70 4.47 10

4.70

4.14

4.64

5

--

-4.32 4 3.85

-

-

--

--

--

-

-

--

CM

--

--

---

CI

--

--

--

--

-112.38

-

---

----

--

20.30 4 16.42

108.79 4 110.88

-

--

-3.60

---

-

----4.51 4 4.05

Table 4.9.b: Dental crown measurements and indices: di2

Mandible

Maxilla Sp.No.

-.J 0

NVS(VM) l NVS(VM)2 NVS(VM)4 NVS(VM 20 NVS(VM) 21 NVS(VM) 26 NVS(VM) 28 NVS(VMJ31 NVS(VM l 37 NVS(VM J 38 NVS(VM 140 NVS(VM)42 NVS(VM)43 NVS(VM)44 NVS(VM)46 N VS(VM) 56 NVS(VM) 62 NVS(VM) 63 NVS(VM) 64 NVS(VM) 65 NVS(VM) 66 N Mean

MD 5.61 5.86

--

BL

--

CA

CI

CM

--

--

--

4.96

29.06

118.14

5.41

--

---

---

5.00

--

(5.04)

4.96

24.99

101.61

--

--

-

--

5.78 5.67

4.99 5.38

28.84

115.83 105.39

---

--

--

5.72 4.87

4.72 4.33

--

--

--

30.50

--

--

CA

BL

Left

Cl

CM

--

--

--

-

5.83 5.19

4.91 4.88

28.62 25.32

118.73 106.35

5.37 5.03

--

--

--

--

-

-

--

--

--

-

--

--

--

5.32

4.84

25.74

109.91

5.08

4.12 4 .53 4.56

3.98 4 .10 4.30

16.39 18.57 19.60

103.51 110.48 106.04

4.05 4.31 4.43

--

-

-

-

--

-

-

--

--

--

5.64 5.50

5.28 4.80

29.77 26.40

106.81 120.83

5.46 5.15

4 .54

4.44

102.25

4.49

-

--

--

4.02 4.28

3.66 3.30

14.71 14. 12

-

-

--

4.82

4.31

20.77

118.83

--

--

--

-

-

-

--

--

--

5.51

4 .64

25.56

118.75

5.07

--

--

--

--

--

---

4.58

--

----

---

--

--

20.15

--

--

-

-

-109.83 129.69

--

-3.84 3.79

4.56

-

4.97

4.89

101.63

4 .93

--

--

-

--

--

-

4.32

4.77

4.18

19.93

114.11

4.47

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

5.03

4.37

--

--

--

5.50

4.67

25.68

117.77

5.08

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

5.40

4.85

29.19

29.51 8 26.49

106.26 8 110.89

5.43 8 3.78

5.62 10 5.38

5.32 10 4.84

29.89 10 26.12

105.63 10 112.05

-

-

--

--

--

10 4.56

10 4.15

10 19.42

10 111.19

10 4.25

--

---

-

--

----

--

-

--

--

-

24.30

--

-5.47 10 5.10

--

--

-

--

--

--

---

-

-

-

--

--

MD

--

5.22 4.60

106.30

5.27 8 4.88

--

CM

--

20.95

5.60 9 5.43

5.38 5.52

--

CI

121.18 112.47

4.44

---

--

CA

BL

MD

26.99 21.08

4.72

--

Right

Left

Right

4.24

-18.74

-21.98

--

-101.88

-115.10

-114.34

--

-4.28

-4.70

-4.12

BL

MD

4.10

--4.71 4 .95

-

----

--

-

--

CM

-

-

--

3.84

15.74

106.77

3.97

-

--

--

2l.l9 19.75

104.66 124.06

4 .60 4.47

--

---

--

--

---

-4.50 (3.99)

---

--

CI

-

----

-

--

--

---

----

--

-

--

--

---

----

--

---

3 4.58

3 4.11

--

CA

----

---

--

3 18.89

--

--

-

_,_

--

--

-

--

--

-

--

--

--

-

3 111.81

3 4.34

Table 4. 9.c: Dental crown measurements and indices: de

Maxilla Sp.No.

-.....)

NVS(VM) 4 NVS(VM) 14 NVS(VM) 20 NVS(VM) 21 NVS(VM) 22 NVS(VM) 26 NVS(VM) 30 NVS(VM)31 NVS(VM: 39 NVS(VM140 NVS(VM141 NVS(VMJ 42 NVS(VM) 46 NVS(VM 49 NVS(VM 51 NVS(VM) 52 NVS(VM) 56 NVS(VM) 58 NVS(VM' 62 NVS(VM: 63 NVS(VM) 65 NVS(VM) 66 N Mean

MD --7.12 6.66 --6.58 6.75 6.76 -8.12 (6.54) 6.18 -7.19 ---9 6.88

BL ---6.35 6.04 --5.58 5.58 6.07 -6.28 (5.21) 6.02 -6.28 -9 5.93

Right CA ---45.21 40.22 ---36.71 37.66 41.03 --50.99 34.07 37.20 -45.15 ---9 40.91

CI ---112.12 110.26 117.92 120.96 111.36 --129.29 125.52 l 02.65 -114.49 ---9 116.06

CM ---6.73 6.35 -6.08 6.16 6.41 ---7.20 5.87 6.10 -6.73 ---9 6.40

MD 6.60 6.16 --6.95 6.73 6.51 6.65 6.69 -6.35 ------6.94 (7.07) 6.56 11 6.65

Mandible BL 4.88 5.40 --6.15 -6.02 5.58 5.65 6.04 -5.96 ----5.97 6.43 6.05 11 5.83

Left CA 25.32 33.26 ---42.74 -40.51 36.32 37.57 40.40 -37.84 ----41.43 45.46 39.68 11 34.81

CI 106.35 114.07 --113.00 -111.79 116.66 117.69 110.57 -106.54 ----116.24 109.95 108.42 11 111.93

CM 5.03 5.78 ---6.55 -6.37 6.04 6.15 6.36 6.15 -----6.45 6.75 6.30 11 6.17

MD 5.69 -5.94 6.04 ----5.56 6.05 -5.98 6 5.87

BL 5.15 -5.02 --5.50 ----5.40 5.70 -5.46 6 5.37

Right CA 29.30 30.23 ---33.22 --------30.02 34.48 ---32.65 6 31.65

CI 110.48 116.69 ---109.81 --------102.96 106.14 ---109.52 6 109.26

CM 5.42 5.51 ---5.77 -------5.48 5.87 ---5.72 6 5.62

MD 5.68 6.63 ---6.25 5.70 5.47 6.14 ---5.78 6.00 8 5.95

BL 5.14 5.87 ---5.50 -5.72 -5.63 ----(4.80) -5.42 7 5.44

Left CA 29.19 38.91 ---34.37 -32.60 -30.79 --27.74 -32.52 7 32.30

CI 110.50 112.94 ---113.63 -99.65 97.15 -----120.41 -110.70 7 109.28

CM 5.41 6.25 ----5.87 -5.71 -5.55 ----5.29 --5.71 7 5.68

Table 4. 9.d: Dental crown measurements and indices: dml

Maxilla

BL

MD

-...J

N

NVS(VM) I NVS(VM)2 NVS(VM)4 NVS(VM) 14 NVS(VM)20 NVS(VM) 21 NVS(VM)22 NVS(VM)26 NVSJYM130 NVS_fYM_}31 NVSiYM)_37 NVS(VM}38 NVS(VM) 39 NVS(VM)40 NVS(VM)41 NVS(VM)42 NVS(VM)46 NVS(VM)49 NVS(VM) 51 NVS(VM) 52 NVS(VM)56 NVS(VM) 58 NVS{VM ) 62 NVS(VM)63 NVS(VM) 65 NVS(VM ) 66

N Mean

Mandible

Ri_g_ht

Sp.No.

CA

CI

CM

MD

BL

Left CA

Right CI

CM

7.66

I (5.62)

43.04

136.29

6.64

7. 13

I

8.32

59 .32

85 .69

7.72

6.97 7.14

8.91 8.42

I 62. 10 I 60.11

78.22 84.79

7.94 7.78

7.28

I

8.47

61.66

85.95

7.87

7.29

8.57

I 62.47

85 .06

7.93

7.29

I

8.32

60 .65

87.62

7.80

7.13

8.25

I 58.82

86.42

7.69

7.34

I

8.19

60.11

89.62

7.76

7.13

8.23

I 58.67

86.63

7.68

7.23 I

7.41

53 .57

97.57

7.32

7 .71 6.89 6.19 6.33

I I I I

7.82 8.37 8.20 8.81

60.29 57 .66 50 .75 55.76

98.59 82.31 75.48 71.85

7.76 7.63 7.19 7.57

7 .06 6.84 7 .52 6.85

7.39 I 52 .17 7.88 I 53.89 7.83 I 58 .88 8.27 I 54 .99

95.53 86.80 96.04 82.82

7.22 7.36 7.67 7 .56

6.32

8.80

I 55 .61

71.81

7.56

6 .98 6.67 6.77 (7.33}

I I I I

8.67 8.42 7.58 7.40

60 .51 56.16 51.31 54 .24

80.50 79 .21 89.31 99 .05

7.82 7.54 7.17 7.36

7 .25 I 15 I 7.07 I

8.98 15 8.03

65.10 15 56.67

80.73 15 89.31

8.11 15 7 .55

7.00 7.23 13 7.02

7.56

8.06 8.95 13 8.24

I 52.0I

I 56.42 I 64.70 I 13 I 57 .75

91.00

86.84 80.78 13 85 .59

7.22

7.53 8.09 13 7.63

I

CA

CM

CI

7.25

60.32

114.75

I 7.78

8.53 I 7.54 8.30 I (6.40) 8.181_(§_.lli 7 .67 I 5.92

64 .31 53 .12 53.33 45.40

113.12 129.68 125.46 129.56

I I I I

8.32

6.88

BL

MD

8.03 7.35 7 .35 6.79

BL

MD

Left CA

CM

CI

8.36

I (6.43)

53.75

130.01

I 7.39

8.81

I

7.27

64 .04

121.18

I 8.04

8.19 8.30 8.21 7.65 8.54 8.70 8.28

I I I I I I I

7.55 6.65 6.59 5.92 6. 18 6.68 6.98

61.83 55.19 54.12 45 .28 52.77 58.11 57.79

108.47 124.81 124.58 129.22 138. 18 130.23 118.62

I I I I I I I

7.87 7.47 7.40 6.78 7.36 7.69 7 .63

7.23

8.70

I

6.58

57 .24

132.21

I 7.64

7.97

I

6.55

52.20

121.76

I 7.26

7.92

I

6.54

51.79

121.10 I

7.71 I

6 .56

50.57

117.53

I 7.13

7.70

I

6.53

50 .28

117.91

I 7.11

8.32

I

6.36

52 .91

130.81

I 7.34

8.29 8.36

I I

6.76 6.42

56 .04 53.67

122.63 130.21

I 7.52 I 7.39

8 .84

I

7.48

10

I

IO

8.24

I

6.74

66.12 10 55.55

118.18 I 8.16 10 I 10 123.30 I 7.48

13 I 8.25 I

13 6.65

13 54 .97

13 I 13 124.39 I 7.45

Table 4. 9.e: Dental crown measurements and indices: dm2

Maxilla Sp.No

BL

MD

-:i u.)

NVS(VM)4 NVS VM) 14 NVS(VM)20 NVS(VM)22 NVS VM)26 NVS(VM) 30 NVS(VM) 31 NVS(VM)39 NVS(VM)40 NVS VM)41 NVS(VM)42 NVS(VM)46 NVS(VM) 51 NVS1VM)52 NVS1(VM) 56 NVS 1VM)58 NVS VM)62 NVS VM)65 NV S VM)66 NVS1(VM) 67 N

Mean

Mandible

Right

--

--

CA

CI

CM

--

--

-

99. 17

9.60

9.56

9.64

92.15

-

-

--

-

9.25 (9.01) 9.87 9.50 9.25 8.85

9.61 9.48 8.90 8.66 9.97 9.55

88.89 85.41 87.84 82.27 92.22 84.51

96.25 95.04 110.89 109.69 92.77 92.76

9.43 9.24 9.38 9.08 9.61 9.20

--

--

--

--

8.78 9.80 8.86 8.68 8.63

8.04 9.08 9.00 8.93 9.27

70.59 88.98 79.74 77.51 80.00

109.20 107.92 98.44 97.20 93.09

8.41 9.44 8.93 8.80 8.95

--

---

--

--

--8.69 13 9.17

--

--

-

-

--

MD 8.85

BL 9.00

Left CA

Cl

79.65

98.33

Right

CM 8.92

-

--

10.88 10.31 10.37 10.69 10.14 10.06 9.54 10.34 9.77 10.32 9.51 10.45

--

--

---

--

--

--

--

9.18 9.41

86.93 85.06

103.15 96.04

9.32 9.22

---

--

9.47 9.04

--

--

--

--

--

9.50 9.25 8.81 9.22 8.79 9.81

8.68 9.99 9.50 9.92 8.09 9.09

82.46 92.40 83.69 91.46 71.11 89.17

109.44 92.59 92.73 92.94 108.65 107.92

BL

MD

-9.09 9.62 9.15 9.57 8.44 9.45

--

--

--

--

--

---

8.62 8.68 8.31 (8.86)

8.83 9.28 9.02 9.19

76.11 80.55 74.95 81.42

97.62 93.53 92.12 96.40

8.72 8.98 8.66 9.02

9.49 10.13 9.62

-

--

JO.IO 9.10 9.28 8.84 (8. 18) 8.19 8.94 8.68 8.80 7.71 (9.05)

CA --

104.13 94 .36 99.20 89.63 82.29 78 .13 92.43 84.80 90.81 73.32 94.57

CI

--

102.07 113.95 115.19 114.70 122.98 116.48 116.65 112.55 117.27 123.34 115.46

CM --

10.20 9.73 9.98 9.49 9.12 8.86 9.64 9.22 9.56 8.61 9.75

BL

MD

Left CA

-

-

--

10.60

8.86

93.91

-

--

10.57 10.14

9.02 8.87

-9.37 10.20

-7.71 8.74

-95.34 89.94

CM

--

--

119.63

9.73

-

--

117.18 114.31

9.79 9.50

-

--

--

--

72.24 89.14

121.53 116.70

8.54 9.47

--

-

--

--

-

9.47 (10 .52)

7.81 9.07

73.96 95.41

--

CI

--

-

121.25 115.98

--8.64 9.79

-

-

-

-

8.37 8.64 8.93

79.43 87.52 85.90

113.38 117.24 107.72

8.93 9.38 9.27

9.42

--

--

--

--

--

9.55

(8.37)

79.93

114.09

9.06

-

--

--

---

--

--

--

-

9 85.48

9 116.92

9 8.19

-8.44

---

--

--

--

--

-

--

--

-

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

10.52

8.94

94.04

117.67

9.73

--

8.32 13 9.11

72.30 13 83.26

104.44 13 100.52

8.50 13 9.12

8.46 14 8.97

8.34 14 9.10

70.55 14 81.82

101.43 14 98.77

8.40 14 9.03

--

--

--

--

--

-

--

16 10.13

15 8.78

15 88.70

15 115. 11

15 9.43

9 9.98

9 8.54

-79.50

--

--

111.61

8.93

Table 4.9.f: Dental crown measurements and indices: 11 Maxilla Sp.No

Mandible BL

Left CA

CI

7.12 (5.81) 5.30 6.18 6.66 6.42

61.94 49 .09 44.36 54.13 58.00 50.26

122.19 145.43 157.92 141.74 130.78 121.96

Right

MD NVS VM)30 NVS VM)41 NVS VM)43 NVS('VM) 58 NVS(VM) 71 N VS(VM) 72 NVS(VM)73 NVS(VM) 75 N

Mean

BL

CA

CI

CM

8.75

7.10

62. 12

123.23

7.92

-

--

--

-

-

8.40 (8.34) 8.72 7.77

5.33 (5.82) 6.66 6.48

44.77 48.53 58.07 50.34

157.59 143.29 130.93 119.90

6.86 7.08 7.69 7.12

MD

8.70 8.45 8.37 8.76 8.71 7.83

Right

CM 7.91 7.13 6.83 7.47 7.68 7.12

--

-

-

--

-

--

--

--

--

-

6.84 6 8.13

6.39 6 6.29

43 .70 6 51.25

107.04 6 130.33

6.61 6 7.08

6.91 7 8.24

6.48 7 6.28

44.77 7 51.79

106.63 7 132.37

6.69 7 7.26

BL

MD

CA

CI

CM

BL

MD

Left CA

CI

CM

-

-

5.83

5.62

32.76

103.73

5.72

-

----

-

-

--

-

-

-

--

-

--

-

-

-

--

---

-

--

-

5.38 4.46 (6.02) 4.38 4 5.06

30.02 22.38 27 .69 17.91 4 24.50

103.71 112.55 76.41 93.37 4 96.51

5.48 4.74 5.31 4.23 4 4.94

5.56 5.04 (3.89) 4.12 5 4.88

5.36 4.47 (5.78) 4.35 5 5. 11

29.8 0 22.52 22.48 17.92 5 25 .09

103.73 112.75 67.30 94.71 5 96.44

5.46 4.75 4.83 4.23 5 4.99

BL

Left CA

CI

36.86 27.35

106.63 116.28

----

-

5.58 5.02 (4.60) 4.09 4 4.82

-

-

--

--

-...J

.f::.

Table 4.9.g: Dental crown measurements and indices: 12 Maxilla Sp.No

BL

MD

NVS(VM) 30 NVS(VM) 39 NVS(VM)43 NVS(VM)71 NVS(VM) 72 NVS(VM)73 NVS(VM) 75 N

Mean

Mandible

Right

7.27

-

6.66

--

CA

CI

48.41

109.15

--

--

--

--

6.93 5.98

5.68 4.27

39.36 25.53

--

--

5.67 4 6.46

5.81 4 5.60

-32.94 4 36.56

CM

--

122.00 140.04

-97.59 4 117.19

6.96

--

6.30 5.12

BL

MD

7.25

6.32

--

--

5.90 6.98 5.99

5.27 5.73 4.43

Left CA

CI

45.82

114.71

-31.09 39.99 26.53

Right

CM --

111.95 121.81 135.21

--

--

--

-

-

5.74 4 6.03

5.68 5 6.36

5.90 5 5.53

33.51 5 35.38

96.27 5 115.99

6.78

-5.58 6.35 5.21

-5.79 5 5.94

BL

MD

CA

CI

CM

6.23

5.81

36.19

107.22

6.02

--

-

-

-

-

--

--

--

6.05 5.44 4.70 4.23 5 5.33

4.93 4.83 6.23 4.76 5 5.31

29.82 26.27 29.28 20.13 5 28.33

122.71 112.62 75.44 88.86 5 101.37

5.49 5.13 5.46 4.49 5 5.31

MD

6.27 5.64

-6.11 5.44

-4.22 5 5.53

5.88 4.85

-4.92 4.89

-4.74 5 5.05

-30.06 26.60

20.00 5 28.17

CM

124.18 111.24

-29.02 5 97.47

6.07 5.24

-5.51 5.16

-4.48 5 5.29

Table 4.9.h: Dental crown measurements and indices: C Maxilla Sp.No

BL

MD

NVS(VM) 30 NVS(VM) 39 NVS(VM ) 51 NVS(VM) 58 NVS(VM)71 NVS(VM) 72 NVS(VM) 73 NVS(VM)75 N Mean

7.70 7.52

-

7.77 (5.73)

-

--

--

7.90 7.58 7.18 6.09 6 7.31

8.22 7.08 7.82 6.55 6 7. 19

Right CA

CM

CI

Mandible

BL

MD

Left CA

59.82 43.09

99.09 131.23

7.73 6.62

7.65

7.74

59.21

--

--

--

--

---

-

7.74

5.30

--

--

--

96.10 107.06 91.81 92.97 6 103.04

8.06 7.33 7.50 6.32 6 7.26

7.53 7.41 7.08

-64.93 53.66 56. 14 39.88 6 52.92

BL

MD

CM

CI

--

--

Right CA

CM

CI

--

--

--

41.02

98.83 -146.03

7.69 -6.52

-

-

--

8.00 6.90 7.83

60.24 51.12 55.43

94.12 107.39 90.42

7.76 5.15 7.45

7.17

--

-

-

-

-

6.21

7.70

47.81

80.64

6.95

--

--

-

-

--

--

--

--

--

5 7.48

5 7.15

5 53.40

5 107.35

5 6.91

2 6.69

2 7.38

2 49.2 5

2 91.02

--

-

-

--

7.07

-50.69

---

--

---101.41

MD

BL

--

--

6.53 7.21 6.26 6.14 6.03 5 6.43

---

-2 7.03

(6.08) 7.12 6.28 7.80 5.32 5 6.52

CI

--

--

--

--7. 12

Left CA

39.70 51.33 39.31 47 .89 32.07 5 42 .06

CM

--

--

-

-107.40 101.26 99.68 78 .71 113.34 5 80.07

-6.03 7.16 6.27 6.97 5.67 5 6.42

-....J VI

Table 4.9.i: Dental crown measurements and indices: Pml Maxilla Sp.No MD

NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) N4 Mean

71 72 73 75

6.71 6.56 5.23 6.06 4 6.14

BL 9.38 7.98 8.31 (8.14) 4 8.45

Right CA 62.93 52.34 43.46 49 .32 4 52.01

CI 71.53 82.20 62.93 74.44 4 72.77

CM 8.04 7.17 6.77 7.10 4 7.27

Mandible

MD

6.70 6.58 4.74 6.10 4 6.03

BL 9.22 7.96 8.34 8.16 4 8.42

Left CA 61.77 52.37 39.53 49.77 4 50.86

CI 72.66 82.66 56.83 74.75 4 71.72

CM 7.96 7.27 6.54 7.13 4 7.22

MD

6.85 6.74 6.35 5.54 4 6.37

BL 8.25 6.90 7.77 6.26 4 7.29

Right CA 56.51 46.50 49.33 34.68 4 46.75

CI 83.03 97.68 81.72 88.49 4 87.73

CM 7.55 6.82 7.06 5.90 4 6.83

MD

6.72 6.78 6.42 (5.47) 4 6.34

BL 8.17 6.90 7.76 (6.33) 4 7.29

Left CA 54.90 46 .78 49.81 34.62 4 46.52

CI 82.25 98.26 82.73 86.41 4 87.41

CM 7.44 6.84 7.09 5.90 4 6.81

Table 4.9.j: Dental crown measurements and indices: Pm2 Maxilla Sp.No

Mandible

Right

MD NVS(VM) 71 NVS(VM) 72 NVS(VM)73 NVS(VM) 75 N

Mean

6.22 6.46 6.52 5.48 4 6.17

BL 8.75 8.02 9.04 8.15 4 8.49

CA

CI

54.42 51.80 58.94 44.66 4 52.45

71.08 80.54 72.12 67.23 4 72.74

BL

MD

CM

7.48 7.24 7.78 6.81 4 7.32

Left CA

CI

BL

Left CA

CI

8.32 6.77 (8.96) 7.38 4 7.85

56.99 46.91 59.85 43.68 4 51.85

82.33 102.36 74.55 80.21 4 84.86

BL

Left CA

CI

Right MD

CM

6.35 6.41 5.16

8.66 8.03 8.96

54.99 51.47 46 .23

73.32 79.82 57.58

7.50 7.22 7.06

--

-

--

-

-

3 5.97

3 8.55

3 50.89

3 70.24

3 7.26

6.95 (6.91) (6.79) 5.94 4 6.64

BL

CA

CI

8.30 (6.75) (8.34) 7.33 4 7.68

57.68 46.64 56.62 43.54 4 51.12

83.73 102.37 81.41 81.03 4 87.13

CM

MD

7.62 6.83 7.56 6.63 4 7.16

6.85 6.93 (6.68) 5.92 4 6.59

CM 7.58 6.85 7.82 6.65 4 7.22

Table 4.9.k: Dental crown measurements and indices: Ml Maxilla

-...J 0\

Sp.No NV S(VM) 2 NVS(VM)21 NVS(VM) 28 NVS(VM) 30 NVS(VM) 39 NVS(VM)41 NVS(VM 46 NVS(VM 51 NVS(VM )56 NVS(VM I 58 NVSVM 162 NVS 'VM I 63 NVS VM I 68 NVS VM I 7] NVS1:VM 172 NVS1[VM I 73 NVS( VM)75 N

Mean

Mandible

Right

CA

CI

8.51

68.93

95.18

8.30

-

--

--

-

-

9.57 10.89 9.32

10.26 11.49 9.65

98.18 124.48 89.93

93.27 94.77 96.58

9.76* 11.19 9.48

--

--

--

9.53 10.55

9.56 10.09

91.10 106.44

MD 8.12

BL

--

--

10.17 9.7 1 9.45 9.67 10.27 9.90 9.36 -13 9.73

10.24 9.74 9.64 9.20 10.77 10.12 10.38 -13 9.97

103.42 94.57 91.09 88.96 110.60 100.18 97.15

13 97.31

CM

-99.68 104.55

99.31 99.69 98.02 105. 10 95.35 97.82 90. 17

13 97.65

-9.54 10.32

MD

--

BL

--

Left CA

--

Right

CM

CI

MD

--

--

-

9.77

BL

--

--

(9.42)

(9.58)

90.24

-

-

10.66

(8.88)

94.66

120.04

-

-

-

-

10.81 9.54 10.41 9.59 --

11.48 9.68 11.12 9.52 --

124.09 92.34 115.75 91.29

94.16 98.55 93.61 100.73

11.14 9.61 10.76 9.55

10.16 10,03

10.26 9.20

--

--

--

-

--

98.92 --

10. 17

11.55 10.28 II.II 10.83 10.06

9.84 9.23 10.13 9.64 (8.95)

--

--

--

---

10.20 9.72 9.54 9.43 10.52 10.01 9.87

10.12

10.23

103.52

--

--

--

-

--

--

-

--

-

-

-10.78 10. 10 10.38

--

--

10.26 9.94 9.27

110.60 100.39 96.22

95.17 98.41 89.30

10.52 10.02 9.82

--

--

--

13 9.83

9 10.06

9 10.23

-

-

-9 103.23

--

--

9 98.76

9 10.15

*This maxillary RMI is extra tooth, belonging to another individual, was found in the VM 28 collection.

CA

10.56 9.70 (9.83) 9.86 12 10.28

10.64 9.18 (9.97) 10. 12 12 9.72

CI

CM

--

MD

--

--

98.32

9.50

-

-

--

-

104.24 92.27

99.02 109.02 --117.37 111.37 109.67 112.34 112.40

10.21 9.75

10.23

--

-

--113.65 94.88 112.54 104.40 90.03

--

--

112.35 89.04 98.00 99.78 12 I 00.11

99.24 105.66 98.59 97.43 12 105.86

-10.69 9.75 10.62 10.23 9.50

-10.60 9.44 9.90 9.99 12 10.01

--

---

--

10.28

--

--

-

CM --

-

-

-

-

-

105.16

99.51

-10.25

--

--

-

--

-

--

10.37 11.44 10.31 11.12

9.88 9.95 9.20 10.14 _,_

104.95 114.97 112.06 109.66

10.12 10.69 9.75 10.63

--

102.45 113.82 94.85 112.75 --

-

-

-

--

--

--

--

-

10.67 9.13

115.76 88.74

107.35 106.46

10.76 9.42

10.85 9.72 -9.75 8 10.47

-10.10 8 9.91

--

--

-

--

98.47 8 104.00

96.53 8 106.43

9.92 8 10.19

Table 4.9.l: Dental crown measurements and indices: M2

Mandible

Maxilla BL

Right CA

-10.39

-104.93

Sp.No NVS(VM) 30 NVS(VM) 71 NVS(VM)72 NVS(VM) 73 NVS(VM) 75 N

Mean

MD -10.10 -9.51 8.85 3 9.48

-10.26 9.52 3 10.05

-97.57 84.78 3 95.76

CI

--

97.20 -92.69 92.37 3 94.08

CM

MD

BL

Left CA

10.24 -9.88 9.21 3 9.77

10.80 10.12 9.30 -8.81 4 9.75

9.84 10.40 9.42

106.27 105.24 87.60

--

CI

CM

109.75 97.30 98.72

10.32 10.26 9.36

MD

BL

-

-

10.15 9.53

9.97 8.76

--

-

-

--

-

9.53 4 9.79

83.95 4 95.76

92.44 4 99.55

9.17 4 9.77

9.32 3 9.66

-8.74 3 9.51

Right CA

--

101.19 83.48

CI

-101.80 108.78

-81.45 3 88.70

CM

-106.63 3 95.93

--

10.06 9.41

MD 9.76 10.13 9.53

--

9.03 3 9.50

9.36 4 9.69

BL

Left CA

9.63 10.00 8.64

93.98 101.30 82.33

CI

CM 9.69 10.06 9.08 -9.06 4 9.47

CM

--

--

8.77 4 9.26

82.08 4 89.92

101.34 101.30 110.30 -106.72 4 77.34

Left CA

CI

Table 4.9.m: Dental crown measurements and indices: M3 --...J --...J

Mandible

Maxilla Sp.No NVS(VM)71 NVS(VM) 72 NVS(VM)73 NVS(VM) 75 N

Mean

MD 9.15

-7.50

-2 8.32

BL 9.76

-11.73

-2 10.74

Right CA

CI

89.30

93.75

-

-

87.97

-2 88.63

BL

63.93

9.45 -9.61

MD 9.14 7.96 7.48

Left CA

9.80 9.20 10.90

89.57 73.23 81.53

93.26 86.52 68.62

9.47 8.58 9.19

-

--

--

--

-

-

--

2 78.84

2 9.53

3 8.19

3 9.96

3 81.44

3 82.80

3 9.08

CM

CI

CM

MD

BL

Right CA

CI

CM

MD

--

-

-

-

--

--

9.50 10.64

8.36 9.94

79.42 105.76

113.36 107.04

8.93 10.29

9.51 (10.64 )

9.02 3 9.72

8.52 3 8.94

76.85 3 87.34

105.86 3 108.75

8.77 3 9.33

2 10.07

BL

-

8.40 9.90

-2 9.15

--

--

--

79.88 105.33

113.21 107.47

8.95 10.27

-2 92.60

-2 110.34

-2 9.61

Table 4.10: Dental crown measurements and indices: Mean values, deciduous teeth Tooth Dil

R

L Mean Di2

R

L Mean de

R

L Mean Dml

R

L Mean

-..J 00

Dm2

5.11 (9) 5.04(10) 5.07 (19)

Maxilla CA 35.10 (9) 34.47 (10) 34.77 (19)

CI 133.75 (9) 134.87 (I 0) 134.34(19)

CM 5.97 (9) 5.91 (10) 5.94 (19)

MD 4 .32 (11) 4.64 (5) 4.42 (16)

5.43 (9) 5.38 (10) 5.40 (19)

4.88 (8) 4.84 (10) 4 .85 (18)

26.49 (8) 26.12 (10) 26.28 (18)

110.89 (8) 112.05 (10) 111.53 (18)

3.78 (8) 5.10 (10) 4.52 (18)

6.88 (9) 6.65 (11) 6.75 (20)

5.93 (9) 5.83(11) 5.87 (20)

40.91 (9) 34.81 (11) 37.56 (20)

116.06 (9) 111.93 (11) 113.79 (20)

7.07 (15) 7.02 (13) 7.05 (28)

8.03 (15) 8.24 (13) 8.13 (28)

56 .67 (15) 57.75 (13) 57.17 (28)

9.17(13) 8.46 (14) 9.05 (27)

9.11 (13) 9.10 (14) 9.10 (27)

83.26 (13) 81.82 (14) 82.51 (27)

Side

R

L Mean

MD 6.79 (12) 6.78 (11) 6.78 (23)

BL

3.93 (10) 3.85 (4) 3.90 (14)

Mandible CA 17.19 (10) 16.42(4) 16.97 (14)

CI 111.31 (10) 110.88(4) 111.17(14)

CM 4.14(10) 4.05 (4) 4.11 (14)

4.56 (10) 4.58 (3) 4.56 (13)

4.15 (10) 4.11 (3) 4.14 (13)

19.42(10) 18.89 (3) 19.30 (13)

I 11.19 (10) 111.81 (3) 111.33 (13)

4 .25 (10) 4.34 (3) 4 .27 (13)

6.40 (9) 6.17 (11) 6.27 (20)

5.87 (6) 5.95 (8) 5.92 (14)

5.37 (6) 5.44 (7) 5.40 (13)

31.65 (6) 32.30 (7) 32.00 (13)

109.26 (6) 109.28 (7) 109.27 (13)

5.62 (6) 5.68 (7) 5.65 (13)

89.31 (15) 85.59 (13) 87.58 (28)

7.55 (15) 7.63 (13) 7.58 (28)

8.24 (10) 8.25 (13) 8.25 (23)

6.74 (10) 6.65 (13) 6.69 (23)

55.55 (10) 54 .97 (13) 55.22 (23)

123.30 (10) 124.39 (13) 123.92 (23)

7.48(10) 7.45(13) 7.46 (23)

100.92 (13) 98.77 (14) 99.62 (27)

9.12 (13) 9.03 (14) 9.07 (27)

10.13 (16) 9.98 (9) 10.07 (25)

8.78(15) 8.54 (9) 8.69 (24)

88.70 (15) 85.48 (9) 87.49 (24)

115.11 (15) 116.92 (9) 115.78 (24)

9.43 (15) 8.19 (9) 8.96 (24)

BL 5.06 (4) 5.11 (5) 5.09 (9)

Mandible CA 24.50 (4) 25 .09 (5) 24 .83 (9)

CI 96.51 (4) 96.44 (5) 96.47 (9)

4.94 (4) 4.99 (5) 4 .97 (9)

5.31 (5) 5.18(5) 5.18(10)

28.33 (5) 28 .25 (5) 28 .25 (10)

101.37 (5) 99.42 (5) 99.42 (I 0)

5.31 (5) 5.30 (5) 5.30 (I 0)

BL

Table 4.11: Dental crown measurements and indices: Mean values, permanent teeth Tooth II

R

L Mean 12

Maxilla

Side

R

L Mean

MD 8.13(6) 8.24 (7) 8.19(13) 6.46 (4) 6.36 (5) 6.85 (9)

BL

CM

6.29 (6) 6.28 (7) 6.28 (13)

CA 51 .25 (6) 51.25 (7) 51.53(13)

CI 130.33 (6) 132.37 (7) 131.43 (13)

7.08 (6) 7.26 (7) 7.18 (13)

MD 4.82 (4) 4.88 (5) 4.85 (9)

5.60 (4) 5.53 (5) 5.56 (9)

36.56 (4) 35.38 (5) 35.90 (9)

117.19(4) 115.99 (5) 116.52 (9)

6.03 (4) 5.94 (5) 5.98 (9)

5.33 (5) 5.53 (5) 5.43 (10)

CM

Table 4.11: Continued ...... .. . Tooth

Ml

M2

7.29 (4) 7.29(4) 7.29 (8)

46 .75 (4) 46.52 (4) 46.64 (8)

87.73 (4) 87.41 (4) 87.57 (8)

6.83 (4) 6.81 (4) 6.82 (8)

7.32 (4) 7.26 (3) 7.29 (7)

6.64 (4) 6.59 (4) 6.62 (8)

7.68 (4) 7.85 (4) 7.76 (8)

51.12 (4) 51.85 (4) 51.48 (8)

87.13 (4) 84.86 (4) 85.99 (8)

7.16 (4) 7.22 (4) 7.19 (8)

97 .65 (13) 98.76 (9) 98.08 (22)

9.83(13) 10.15 (9) 9.96 (22)

10.28 (12) 10.47 (8) 10.35 (20)

9.72 (12) 9.91 (8) 9.80 (20)

100.11 (12) 104.00 (8) 101.67 (20)

105.86 (12) 106.43 (8) 106.09 (20)

10.01 (12) 10.19 (8) 10.08 (20)

95.76 (3) 95.76 (4) 95.76 (7)

94.08 (3) 99.55 (4) 97.21 (7)

9.77 (3) 9.77 (4) 9.77 (7)

9.66 (3) 9.69 (4) 9.68 (7)

9.51 (3) 9.26 (4) 9.21 (7)

88.70 (3) 89.92 (4) 89.40 (7)

95.93 (3) 77.34 (4) 85.30 (7)

9.50 (3) 9.47 (4) 9.48 (7)

88 .63 (2) 81.44 (3) 84.32 (5)

78.84 (2) 82.80 (3) 81.21 (5)

9.53 (2) 9.08 (3) 9.26 (5)

9.72 (2) 10.07 (3) 9.86 (5)

8.94 (2) 9.15 (3) 9.02 (5)

87.34 (2) 92.66 (3) 89.44 (5)

108.75 (2) 110.34 (3) 109.38 (5)

9.33 (2) 9.61 (3) 9.44 (5)

MD 6.69 (2) 6.43 (5) 6.50 (7)

Mean

6.14 (4) 6.03 (4) 6.08 (8)

8.45 (4) 8.42 (4) 8.43 (8)

52.01 (4) 50.86 (4) 51 .43 (8)

72.77 (4) 71.72 (4) 72.25 (8)

7.27 (4) 7.22 (4) 7.24 (8)

R L Mean

6.17(4) 5.97 (3) 6.08 (7)

8.49 (4) 8.55 (3) 8.51 (7)

52.45 (4) 50.89 (3) 51.78 (7)

72.74 (4) 70.24 (3) 71.67 (7)

R

9.73 (13) 10.06 (9) 9.86 (22)

9.97(13) 10.23 (9) 10.27 (22)

97.31 (13) 103.23 (9) 99.73 (22)

9.48 (3) 9.75 (4) 9.64 (7)

10.05 (3) 9.79 (4) 9.90 (7)

8.32 (2) 8.19 (3) 8.24 (5)

10.74 (2) 9.96 (3) 10.27 (5)

R L

R

R L Mean

M3

6.37 (4) 6.34 (4) 6.35 (8)

CM 7.26 (6) 6.91 (5) 7.10(11)

L Mean

--..J \0

7.03 (2) 6.42 (5) 6.59 (7)

CI 103.04 (6) 107.00 (5) 105.00 (I 1)

L

Pm2

Cl 91.02 (2) 80.07 (5) 83.29 (7)

CA 52.92 (6) 53.40 (5) 53.14(11)

Mean

Pm!

7.38 (2) 6.52 (5) 6.76 (7)

7.31 (6) 7.48 (5) 7 .38(11)

BL 7.19 (6) 7.15 (5) 7.17(11)

MD C

Mandible CA 49.25 (2) 42.06 (5) 44.11 (7)

Maxilla

Side

R L Mean

BL

CM

suffer from both ante- and post-mortem damage. For the available teeth, however , it would be interesting to note that NVS(VM) 71, female , gives more values for both the measurements than NVS(VM) 73, male for almost all the teeth . The other female individual , NVS(VM) 72, also gives higher values in many cases than those for the male individual. The evident post-mortem damage seen in NVS(VM) 73, might have contributed to some extent to this discrepancy . Though the Nevasa dental series is sufficiently large, sex determination is not possible for the immature specimens. Normally male dentition is expected to exhibit larger crown than the females (Walimbe and Kulkarni 1994). Because of the limited adult sample , where sex could be determined with certainty , the pattern of sexual dimorphism can not verified in Nevasa adult s.

Observations

So far as general size pattern of permanent teeth is concerned , for maxillary teeth , mesial members of incisor and molar tooth class (Ils and Mls) are larger in both MD and BL crown dimensions than the distal member(s) of the same class. Noteworthy exception is of BL diameter of maxillary RM3 of NVS(VM) 73 which is much larger than the corresponding measure for the second molar (M2 in BL dim ension measure s 10.26 mm while M3 is 11.73 mm) . For mandibular teeth , however , no such consistency is seen. The lateral incisors are greater than the mesial member s in both mesio-distal and bucco-lingual dimensions. The feature is reflected in the crown area , where lateral incisors have larger area (28.25 mm 2) than the central incisors (24.83 mm 2 ). The mandibular first molars are the largest than the second and third molar , in both length and breadth dimensions. However, the second molars are almost of equal length, or sometime even smaller, than the third molars in MD diameter (mean MD diameter for M2 and M3 are 9.68 mm and 9.86 mm, respectively) . In breadth measurement the usual reduction pattern is evident, M2s being larger than the M3s.

For deciduou s dentition , dm2 s are alway s larger than dmls in both dimensions. Maxillary molars are smaller lengthwise (MD diameter) than the mandibular molars. Slight bilateral asymmetry is seen in mandibular molars ; for example, BL diameter for Rdml (6.92 mm) is larger than that ofLdml (6.82 mm). Mandibular Rdm2s are larger in both MD and BL dimensions than the lower Ldm2. Mandibular deciduous lateral incisors are larger (CA 19.30 mm2) than the central ones (CA 16.97 mm 2 ) . Reverse trend is seen in maxilla where dils are larger than the di2s.

Much discrepancy is seen in the maxillary premolars. Though mean crown area of Pm2 (51.78 mm 2 ) is larger than Pml (51.43 mm 2 ) , in MD diameters these teeth are almost same , or sometime the mesial member is larger than the distal. Mandibular second premolars are larger than the first in both dimensions. Moreover, significant dental asymmetry is seen in Pm2s , especially for upper jaw than the lower.

Mandibular deciduous canines (CA 32.00 mm 2) are smaller in both MD and BL diameter to maxillary canines (CA 37.90 mm 2 ).

Miscellaneous Indices

Maxillary canines are larger in both dimensions and incidentally in crown area (53.25 mm 2 ) than mandibular canines (44.11 mm 2 ). Interestingly usually maxillary LCs are larger in MD diameter to the right side teeth (7.48 mm and 7 .23 for left and right sides, respectively). In mandible the trend seems to be reverse where RC is larger (6.69 mm) than the LC (6.43 mm). It may be mentioned that the sample size for canines is meagre, and therefore the comment on bilateral asymmetry should be read with caution.

Incisor Breadth index (IBI)

This index exhibits length proportions of lateral and central maxillary incisors. The values of this index vary from 70.48 to 83.33 , giving a mean value of 79.82 (i.e. 0.80) (Table 4.12). When compared with the other archaeological populations (Table 4.15) it is evident that the Mesolithic Batadoma Lena series gives the highest value of 0.90. In general the Mesolithic populations exhibit the index in the wide range of 0.90 to 0.78, while the later agro-pastoral

There are only three adult specimens having dentition preserved , only one male (NVS(VM) 73) and two are females (NVS(VM) 71 and NVS(VM) 72). The NVS(VM) 73 dental arcades

80

communities have less IBI values. For Inamgaon and Kaothe population the figures are 0.82 and 0.83, respectively. The reduced lateral incisors in the Deccan Chalcolithic populations probably indicate that the dental reduction evolutionary process was operative for a long time among them than the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. The dental reduction phenomenon affects the distal member of a given tooth class to a greater extent than the mesial member (Lukacs 1985). This observation confirms the evolutionary trends seen in dental size.

Step Index

The most significant observation is the second molar step index is larger than the third molar step index in both the maxillary and mandibular dentition (Table 4.14 and 4.15). Of the three individuals for whom the indices could be calculated, two agree to this statement. Third molar of NVS(VM) 73 is exceptionally larger in BL diameter giving a reverse trend. Nevasa permanent dental series being too small, no separate conclusions could be drawn. However, barring few exceptions, like NVS(VM) 73, the Deccan Chalcolithic series in general confirms the Sofaer's model of dental reduction (Sofaer 1973, Sofaer et al. 1971) which indicates that the dental reduction process affects the distal members than the mesial in the given tooth class. The third molars are generally smaller than the second molars.

Table 4.12: Incisor Breadth Index Maxilla

Specimen no R 83.08

NVS1 VM 30 NVS1 VM ,43 NVS1 VM ) 71 NVS(VM) 72 NVS VM 73 NVS(VM) 75

L 83.33 70.48 80.13

-79.47 76.96

--

--

--

82.89

82.19

Table 4.14: Step Index for M3

Specimen no

Molarization Index

NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM) NVS(VM)

The values of molarization index in the given series ranges from 79.24 to 87.09 for maxilla, and 72.43 to 83.65 for mandible (82.28 and 76.11, mean values). The wide range exhibited in the Nevasa series is obviously due to smaller sample size (Table 4.13). The Inamgaon population has the molarization index of 0.80 for maxilla and 0.76 for mandible. The molarization process of second premolar can be traced in maxillary dentition. However, such trend is not discemable in Mandible.

NVS1VM)71 NVS1VM)72 NVSi VM)73 NVSi VM)75

Maxilla

---

--

Mandible R

-91.06 99.69 84.12

L -94.63

---

Table 4.15: Step Index for M2

Specimen no

Maxilla

R NVS(VM 30 NVS(VM 71 NVS(VM ) 72 NVS(VM l 73 NVS(VM l 75

Table 4.13: Molarization Index Specimen no

71 72 73 75

Maxilla R L 90.62 90.90 91.08 130.05 105.00

Mandible

-96.47 -98.84

L 85.71 96.47 93.26 --

--

--

R -93.70 95.42

-86.36

L 93.67 93.72 94.63 -86.83

Mandible

R

L

R

L

81.24 79.24 87.09

80.33 79.50 86.31

77.97 74 .15

--

--

78.00 73.52 83.65 72.43

Although not much of interpretive comment could be offered data on dental indices of ethnic significance in some archaeological population on the continent is given in Table 4.16.

-73.06

81

Table 4.16. Dental indices of 'ethnic' significance in some archaeological populations of the continent. Population

Timargarha Sarai Khola Mehrgarh MR3 Inamgaon Mahurjhari Batadomba Lena Bellan Bandi Palassa Sarai N ahar Rai Bagor (Mesolithic) Langhnaj Rupar Harappa Burzahom Kaothe Daimabad Hullikallu Raipur Pomparippu Nevasa

Incisor Breadth Index 0.76 0.80 0.80 0.82 0.82 0.90 0.79 0.83 0.77 0.78 0.79

Molarization index Max 0.81 0.80 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.84 0.92 0.80 0.76 0.77

Mand 0.79 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.80

Mand 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.96 0.95

Max 10.01 0.99 0.99 10.00 0.97

Mand 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.96

--

--

--

--

--

10.03 0.98 0.97 10.03 0.90 0.98 0.92

10.01 0.92 0.86 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.94 10.14 0.94 0.95 0.92

10.02 10.02 0.93 10.10 0.90 0.96 0.93 0.97 0.98 0.98

0.97 0.90 0.92 10.00 0.95 0.93 0.99 0.93 10.09 0.96

--

--

--

0.81 0.86 0.85 0.89

0.71 0.74 0.80 0.95 0.85 0.79 0.76

--

Max 0.97 0.96 0.93 0.96 0.99

Step index M2/M 1

0.82 0.74 0.76 0.68 0.75

0.79 0.83 0.87 0.74 0.73 0.80 0.79

0.81 0.82

Step index M3/Ml

-0.93 10.00 --

0.95 10.10

--

--

0.97 0.94

0.96 0.92

*Modified after Lukacs (1985) and Walimbe-Kulkami (1993). Note: While comparing with other populations , the indices for Nevasa are given as ratios and not as indices (i.e. without multiplying the ratio with I 00).

Methodology Morphology

Specific observations of dental morphology have been made on maxillary and mandibular permanent dentition. The observations are made on undamaged and unworn teeth. Most of the archaeological permanent dental elements exhibit considerable attrition resulting in partial or complete obliteration of occlusal features, so not all teeth could be studied. Since many of the deciduous teeth were still in the formative stage when the individual died, they could not be considered for morphological analysis for their immaturity.

This section deals with the occlusal morphological observations conducted on permanent teeth of this series. Dental morphology is considered as a more useful research tool than odontometry for the assessment of biological affinities. The morphological variations appear to be under strict genetic control, though the underlined genetic mechanism is not precisely known. Environmental conditions are stated to have just a little influence on the morphology of teeth, as revealed by many studies postulating modes of inheritance for different dental traits (Kraus , 1951; Turner, 1967). Morphological features when treated in discrete manner, using standardized coding for the expression of a trait, enables to compare different groups meaningfully. These variations themselves might not be enough to provide a conclusive answer, but when considered in association with cranial discrete traits and other variations may provide adequate data for the assessment of the degree of biological variation.

The structural variations observed on permanent teeth include the following: Maxillary Dentition 1. Shovel Shaping of Incisor

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

82

Metacone size variation in molars Hypocone size variation in molars Cusp 5 (metaconule) size variation in molars Carabelli's trait in molars Parastyle cusp variation in molars

Mandibular Dentition Metacone 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Groove pattern in molars Molar cusp number Cusp 5 (hypoconulid) size variation Cusp 6 (entonconulid) size variation Cusp 7 (metaconulid) size variation

Upper molars . The distobuccal cusp or cusp 3. Absence and weaker forms of expression are extremely rare for Ml and M2, but occasionally occur on M3. Scoring pattern:

Comparisons on the basis of dental morphology have several limitations owing to the lack of common methodology . Expression of dental traits, discrete or continuous , often lead to certain arbitrariness and also the methods used in evaluating the expression of certain dental varia bles vary greatly. In the present study the assessment of morphological variations has been attempted using reference plaster plaques prepared by the ASU Dental Anthropology System (Turner II. et al. 1991), as described below:

Grade 0 Grade 1

Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 3.5 Grade 4 Grade 5

Metacone is absent. An attached ridge is present at the metacone site, but there is no free apex. A faint cuspule with a free apex is present. Weak cusp is present. An intermediate -sized cusp is present. Metacone is large. Metacone is very large ( equa l in size to a large Ml hypocone).

Shoveling Hypocone

Upper incisors . The presence of lingual marginal ridges. Scoring pattern: Grade 0

None

Grade 1

Faint

Grade 2

Trace

Grade 3

Semishovel

Grade 4

Semishovel

Grade 5

Shove l

Grade 6

Marked

Grade 7

Barrel

Lingual surface is essentially flat. Very slight elevation of mesial and distal aspects of lingual surface can be seen and palpated. Elevations are easily seen. Stronger ridging is present and there is a tendency for ridge convergence at the cingulum. Convergence & ridging are stronger than in grade 3. Strong development of ridges , which almost contact at the cingulum . Strongest development. Mesia} and distal lingual ridges are sometimes in contact at the cingulum. To be considered (Ul2 Only) barrel-shaped, the form should not result from a hypertrophied trberculum dentale.

Upper molars. The distolingual cusp or cusp 4. Absence and severely reduced forms of this cusp are more common on Ml and (especially) M2 than the same forms of the metacone. Scoring pattern: Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade

0 1 2 3 3 4 5

No Hypocone. Site is smooth. Faint ridging present at the site Faint cuspule present. Small cusp present. 5Moderate-sized cusp pre sent. Large cusp is present. Very large cusp present.

Cusp 5 Upper molars. A fifth cusp, the metaconule , may occasiona lly be present in the distal fovea of the upper molars between the metacone and hypocone. Scoring pattern: Grade 0

Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade

83

1 2 3 4 5

Site of cusp 5 is smooth, there being only a single distal groove present separating cusps 3 and 4. Faint cuspule is present. Trace cuspule present. Small cuspule present. Small cusp is present. Medium-sized cusp present.

Carabelli's Trait

Groove pattern Lower molars. Scoring pattern:

Upper molars . Occurs on the lingual surface of the mesiolingual cusp (the protocone or cusp 1) of the upper molars . Scoring pattern:

Grade O Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5

Grade 6

Grade 7

TypeY Type + TypeX

The mesiolingual aspect of cusp is smooth. A groove is present. A pit is present. A small Y-shaped depression 1s present. A large Y-shaped depression is present. A small cusp without a free apex occurs . The distal border of the cusp does not contact the lingual groove separating cusps 1 and 4. A medium-sized cusp with an attached apex making contact with the medial lingual groove is present. A large free cusp is present.

Cusp Number: Lower molars . Scoring pattern: Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6

Lower molars. Cusp 5, or the hypoconulid, occurs on the distal occlusal aspect of the lower molars. It is graded in terms of size only in the absence of cusp 6. Scoring pattern:

Parastyle

Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade

Upper molars. Scoring pattern

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5

The buccal surfaces of cusps 2 and 3 are smooth. A pit is present in or near the buccal groove between cusps 2 and 3. A small cusp with an attached apex is present. A medium-sized cusp with a free apex is present. A large cusp with a free apex is present. A very large cusp with a free apex is present. This form usually involves the buccal surface of both cusps 2 and

1 2 3 4 5

No occurrence of cusp 5. The molar has only 4 cusps. Cusp 5 is present and very small. Cusp 5 is small. Cusp 5 is medium-sized. Cusp 5 is large. Cusp 5 is very large.

Cusp 6: Lower molars. Cusp 6, the entoconulid or tuberculum sextum, occurs in the distal fovea of the lower molars lingual to cusp 5. It is scored by size relative to cusp 5. Scoring pattern: Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade

3. Grade 6

Cusp 1- 4 (1 protoconid, 2 metaconid, 3 hypoconid and 4 entoconid). Cusp 5 (hypoconulid) is also present. Cusp 6 (entoconulid) is present.

Cusp 5:

Grade 0

Grade O

Cusps 2 and 3 are in contact. Cusps 1-4 are in contact. Cusps 1 and 4 are in contact.

An effectively free peg-shaped crown attached to the root of the third molar is present. This condition is extremely rare, and is not shown on the plaque.

0 1 2 3 4 5

Cusp Cusp Cusp Cusp Cusp Cusp

6 6 6 6 6 6

is absent. is much smaller than cusp 5. is smaller than cusp 5. is equal in size to cusp 5. is larger than cusp 5. is much larger than cusp 5.

Cusp 7: Lower molars. Cusp 7, tuberculum intermedium, groove between cusps 2 molars , most commonly Scoring pattern: Grade 0

84

the metaconulid or occurs in the lingual and 4 of the lower on the first molar .

No occurrence of cusp 7.

Grade 1

Grade lA

Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4

hypocone development of this category. On six teeth more pronounced (grade '5 ') hypocone expression is evident (31.58 %). Only on one tooth small-sized hypocone (grade '3 ') is seen. On second and third molars smaller hypocone development is evident.

Faint cusp is present. Two weak lingual grooves are present instead of one. Faint tipless cusp 7 occurs displaced as a bulge on the lingual surface of cusp 2. Cusp 7 is small. Cusp 7 is medium sized. Cusp 7 is large.

Metacone of grade '5' is seen on 18 out of 27 observable teeth (66.67 %), while on 6 teeth the development can be graded as '4' (22.22 %). Remaining three teeth exhibit either smaller or no metacone.

Observations

Cusp 5 metaconule, is rare in the series. RMl of NVS(VM) 51 exhibits the largest metaconule of grade '3 '. Two other teeth from this series have slight metaconule development of grade ' 1'. Remaining 23 specimens have no trace of metaconule.

Shoveling

Shoveling is observed on the maxillary first and second permanent incisors (Table 4.17). Out of 21 observable incisors 8 teeth (38.09 %) exhibit development of grade '1' and 6 teeth of grade '2' (28.57 %). Only one tooth, left second incisor of NVS(VM) 72, shows grade '3' development of shoveling.

Comparative data is available only on hypocone. Compilation of the available information is given in Walimbe and Kulkarni (1993). It must , however, be mentioned that the grading system adapted by different scholars is not uniform. The Mesolithic populations are reported to have grade '4' or '4-' pattern which is equivalent to grade '5' in the classificatory system which is followed by the present scholar. The Chalcolithic populations have hypoconal expression in the range of '4', '4,, '3+' and '3' which may be equated with grade '3' and grade '4' of present system.

Table 4.17: Shoveling on maxillary permanent incisors Incisors

Sp. No.

12

I1 NVS(VM) 30 NVS(VM) 41 NVS(VM)43 NVS(VM) 58 NVS(VM) 71 NVS(VM) 72 NVS(VM) 75

R 2

1 0 1 0 1

L 2 1 1 0 1 0 1

R 2

2 1 0

L 2 -

Occlusal morphology of mandibular molars

2 3 0

Attrition, especially on the first molars have resulted in obliteration of morphological features in some cases. Most common groove pattern is of 'Y' type (57.14 %, 16 out of 28 teeth), followed by '+' type (39.29 %, 11 out of 28). Pattern 'X' is seen on one tooth (3 .57 %) (Table 4.19). Groove pattern on five teeth can not be diagnosed as the teeth are worn off.

Occlusal morphology of maxillary molars: Grade '4' is the most commonly appearing pattern of hypocone for the first molars (Table 4.18). Of the 19 observable teeth, 12 teeth (63.16 %) exhibit

85

Table 4.18: The occlusal morphological pattern of maxillary molars

Speci no. Ml

Metacone M2 R L

M3

Ml

R

L

-

-

-

-

5

-

R

L

NVS(VM) 2

5

-

-

NVS(VM)28

5

-

Hypocone M2 R L

R

L

R

(Cusp 5) Metaconule M2 M3 L R L R L

-

-

-

0

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

I

-

-

-

-

-

4

4

-

-

0

0

-

-

-

-

R

L

-

3

-

-

-

-

4

-

-

-

-

4

4

Ml

M3

NVS(VM) 30

5

NVS(VM) 39

5

5

-

-

-

-

4

4

-

-

-

-

l

0

-

-

-

-

NVS(VM)41

-

4

-

-

-

-

-

5

-

-

-

-

-

0

-

-

-

-

NVS(VM) 46

5

5

-

-

-

-

4

4

-

-

-

-

0

0

-

-

-

-

NVS(VM) 51

4

-

-

-

-

-

4

-

-

-

-

-

3

-

-

-

-

-

NVS(VM) 58

5

5

-

-

-

-

5

5

-

-

-

-

0

0

-

-

-

-

NVS(VM)62

4

-

-

-

-

-

4

-

-

-

-

-

0

-

-

-

-

-

NVS(VM) 63

4

-

-

-

-

-

5

-

-

-

-

-

0

-

-

-

-

-

NVS(VM) 68

5

-

-

-

-

-

4

-

-

-

-

-

0

-

-

-

-

-

NVS(VM) 71

4

4

5

5

3

1

4

4

3

3

1

I

0

0

l

0

0

0

NVS(VM) 72

5

5

-

5

-

0

5?

5?

-

2?

-

I?

0

0

-

0

-

0

NVS(VM) 75

-

-

5

5

-

-

-

-

4

4

-

-

-

-

0

0

-

-

Table 4.19: The occlusal morphological pattern of mandibular molars Specino.

Groove pattern M2

Ml NVS VM 30 NVS VM 39 NVS VM 46 NVS VM 51 NVS! VM l 56 NYS! VM ) 58 NVS(VM J 62 NVS VM l 63 NVS VM)71 NVS(VM) 72 NVS(VM) 75

M3

R X

L y

R

L

R

L

R

+

+

-

+ -

+

-

-

4 4

y y y y

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

? ? ?

+ +

+ +

+

+

y

y

y y

y y

y y y y y

+ ? ?

-

-

Cusp number M2

Ml

-

5 5 5 5 5 4 5 6

L 5 4 5 5 5 5

R

L

R

L

R

4

4

-

-

-

0 0

-

-

-

4 4 4

4 4? 4?

4 4?

-

-

? 4 6

4 4 4

-

Cusp 5 M2

Ml

M3

-

-

4 3 4 3 5 4 ? 4?

M3

R 0

L 0

R -

L

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4 ? 4

4 0 4

4 0 4

4 0 ?

4 0 ?

L 4 0 4 3 3 4

-

Cusp number is usually 4 or 5. Out of 33 teeth, 18 (54.54 %) shows grade 4 and 11 teeth (33.33 %) gives grade 5. Only two teeth (NVS(VM) 75) gives cusp number 6.

Factual comparisons of the Nevasa data with other protohistoric sites are not attempted in the present study because of the different analytical approaches.

The hypoconulid cusp of grade 4 is seen in 15 out of 33 teeth (45.45 %) and while grade 3 cusp development is observed on 4 teeth (12.12 %). Only one tooth of NVS(VM) 63 gives grade 5 development. Morphology is not visible for 4 teeth. Remaining 9 teeth do not exhibit the development of this cusp.

Other than these general features, some distinct traits occur on some of teeth as discussed below. Carabelli's cusp is observed on maxillary right and left Mls of NVS(VM) 30, which can be graded as '2' and '5', respectively (Fig 4.19).

86

III. CRANIO-FACIAL MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES: EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE

Because of limited sample size and poor preservation status any statement on the 'racial' affinities of the Nevasa skeletal series shall have only theoretical validity. The adult component of this series comprises of just four individuals. Of these, two are females NVS(VM) 71, NVS(VM) 72 and one male NVS(VM) 73. Sex of the fourth specimen NVS(VM) 74 cannot be determined as this individual is represented only by partially preserved skull cap. Of the two females, one skull NVS(VM) 72 is comparatively in better state of preservation. The other specimen NVS(VM) 71 has suffered extensive damage in Norma frontalis perspective in the repository during the last four decades, since its first exposure to anthropological analysis during the early 60's. The adult male skull NVS(VM) 73, though less weathered , has been distorted in the occipital region. Consequently, any inference regarding the phenotypic affinities of the Nevasa Chalcolithic population, as based only on two individuals, should be cautiously read.

Fig. 4.19: Carabelli's cusp on maxillary right and left Mls: NVS(VM) 30.

The Indo-Roman specimen NVS(VM) 75 has 'cusp 6' (entoconulid) of grade 1 and 'cusp 7' (metaconulid) of grade 3 on first molar of both right and left sides. The trait is bilaterally symmetrically expressed. Maxillary RM2 of NVS(VM) 71 has 'parastyle' grading 3 (Fig. 4.20). Parastyle generally occurs on the buccal surface of the mesio-buccal cusp (the paracone or cusp 2) of the third molar. It may also occur on the other molars in the same location. A similar structure can also be found on the buccal surface of cusp on any molar suggesting that the position of the parastyle is not morpho-genetically fixed. Given the rarity of the parastyle , expression of the feature in the Nevasa specimen is recorded.

While discussing the evolutionary trends in cranio-facial morphological features during the agricultural transition no separate conclusions could be drawn for the Nevasa series since the adult component is small. Nevertheless meaningful morphometric data is available as regards the craniofacial features for other collections of the region, viz. Inamgaon , Kaothe, Daimabad , Chandoli, etc. The use of multivariate analysis and other statistical tests have facilitated more precise comments on the biological homogeneity of these early farmers . As specified earlier in this chapter, when the adult specimens are compared, relative homogeneity is seen in cranial and facial features . The most obvious reason offered is the close geographical , temporal and cultural proximity between the sites (Lukacs and Walimbe 1984). Food habits of these agropastoral communities have been studied in detail, and variety of domestic and wild flora and fauna consumed was more or less same in the region. Therefore the entire Deccan Chalcolithic population could be considered as one unit. The adult Chalcolithic specimens in general are characterized by long to moderately long cranium (dolichocranial to mesocranial) , with a tendency towards broad cranium (brachycrany ), seen especially in the later period. Body musculature is

Fig. 4.20 : Parastyle on the maxillary RM2: NVS(VM) 71.

87

weak resulting in a gracile appearance. Important facial features are vertical or slightly receding forehead, moderately developed supra-orbital and glabellar region, square to horizontal orbits, broad nose with depressed root, medium to low upper facial height, moderate cheek bones, slight alveolar prognathism, etc.

built. This aberrant expression, however, may be taken as an individual variation, as the female specimens from this site are well within the expected range of variation for females. In this background it would be interesting to see the morphological features of earlier Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. As indicated in Chapter I, these nomadic hunter-gatherers, especially those of the Gangetic region, were characterized by robust built. In general, the walls of cranial vault are usually thick and heavy. Skull shape varies in the range of 'medium' to 'very long' category (low mesocrany to hyperdolichocrany), with spheroid or rambdoid vault. Forehead is usually exceedingly low with frontal bone inclining gradually from glabella to bregma . Glabellar region is prominent with a heavy and divided frontal torus. Mastoid processes are moderately large to very large with prominent supramastoid crests. Sharp temporal lines are evident. Parietal bosses are pronounced, so also the occipital curvature. Occipital torus is usually remarkable for its large size and robusticity. Development of nuchal lines ranges from slight to pronounced (Walimbe 1998).

The post-cranial elements are also relatively gracile. The mean stature is 172.48 cm and 167.13 cm, for males and females, respectively (Nevasa males and females are shorter, measuring 167.77 cm and 162.89 cm, respectively). There is a relatively less degree of sexual dimorphism, females tend to be more robust than expected and males somewhat gracile, in both cranial and postcranial features (Walimbe and Tavares 1995). Though most of the Chalcolithic populations phenotypically conform to this description, there are some exceptions as well. For example, some male adult skeletons recovered from southern Neo-Chalcolithic sites (for example, Hulikallu, Piklihal, Ieej) and from the Deccan region (for example, Daimabad) exhibit moderate or pronounced robusticity. Even the male specimens from the Nevasa series, NVS(VM) 73, is robustly

Pre agricultural communities Early Farming communities Fig.4.21: Drawing explaining the cranio-facial morphological changes during the agricultural transition.

88

Apparently the transition from nomadic hunting gathering to settled agricultural phase has influenced changes in cranio-facial morphology. The main noticeable change is the reduction in cranial length. Other changes include a progressive decrease in robusticity, a rotation of the facial region to a position more inferior to the cranium and a relative increase in cranial height and decrease in cranial length (Fig. 4.21 ). When the male specimen from the Indo-Roman level, NVS(VM) 75, is compared with Chalcolithic male, NVS(VM) 73, reduction in robusticity expression is evident. Even the Chalcolithic female, NVS(VM) 72, exhibits more pronounced muscular impressions than the Indo-Roman individual, who himself is not so delicately built by modem standards , most of the bone features showing moderately pronounced.

relatively less labour input is taken as an indicative of decrease in mechanical stress in the farming phase. Mesolithic predecessors were significantly robust, the feature being displayed in the form of prominently developed processes and tubercles, indicating pronounced musculature. The mean statures for Mesolithic Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha males were 181.47 cm and 181.69 cm, respectively (Kennedy et al. 1986, 1992), while the Chalcolithic males were relatively short statured. Decreased mechanical stress appears to be the most important contributory factor for changing the cranio-facial morphology. Walimbe (1998) takes changing food habits and more sophisticated food preparation techniques of the farmers as the main reason for releasing masticatory stress. "The argument gains support if the progress of dental crown reduction is traced from the pre-agricultural to the agricultural (and further to the recent) phase. The progress of dental reduction over time has been closely linked to the rate of technological development and increased efficiency of food producing techniques (Brace 1963, 1964). The Mesolithic population(s) exhibit(s) large teeth which are said to be adaptive for a preagricultural, pre-pastoral society. The subsequent Neolithic-Chalcolithic skeletal population has smaller dentition which is suited to the diet of an agricultural society" (Walimbe 1998:32).

The explanation offered for these differences in populations belonging to different time periods is the ever present evolutionary mechanism of adaptation (Walimbe and Tavares 1996, Walimbe 1998). Though these studies do not rule out role of the genetic and regional influence in determining the phenotype, prefer to explain the changes in cranio-facial morphology in non-genetic terms, as they apparently have resulted from different functional demands placed on the body in the changed lifestyle and the changing food preparation techniques. The robust body size of the pre-agricultural populations is interpreted as an biological adaptation for the exploitation of new ecological settings, hunting-gathering way of life and coarse food (Kennedy 1984). At the same time the overall gracile appearance of the early agricultural populations is attributed to two factors, decreased mechanical stress and increased nutritional stress (Walimbe and Tavares 1995). In addition, higher morbidity in the settled early farming communities might also have contributed for the comparatively delicate built.

Table 4.20 gives values of TCA and MCA for the Nevasa permanent dentition. Cross-cultural comparisons of crown areas provide confirmation to this argument. The available data on dental crown size suggests that pre-agricultural Mesolithic populations had relatively larger (and more complex) dentition than the later Neolithic and Chalcolithic populations (Table 4.21). The pooled TCA value for hunting-gathering Mesolithic populations is 1258 mm2 , while the agricultural-pastoral Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities have the TCA values of 1203 mm 2 and 1218 mm2 , respectively (Walimbe and Kulkarni 1993). In addition to the soft carbohydrate diet in early farmers, the evolution in pottery preparation technique probably enabled them effective cooking of the foodstuff releasing the masticatory demand placed on the dental apparatus.

Walimbe (1998) offers the following explanation: It has been argued that with the advent of agriculture there came a concept of food storability, which led to reduction in the functional demand placed on the skeleton (Cohen and Armelagos 1984). Assurance of food with

89

Table 4.20: Values ofTCA and MCA Maxilla L 51.79i 71 35.38 5'1 53.4015) 50.86(4) 50.89(3) 103.23(9 95.76(4) 81.44(3) 522.75 280.43

Tooth ~

11 12

C Pml Pm2 Ml M2 M3 TCA MCA

R 51.25(6) 36.56(4) 52.92(6) 52.01(4) 52.45(4) 97.31(13) 95.76(3) 88.63(2) 526.89 281.70

T 51.53(13) 35.90(9) 53.14(11) 51.43(8) 51.78(7) 99.73(22) 95.76(7) 84.32(5) 523.59 279.81

Table 4.21 Total Crown Area (TCA) and Molar Crown Area (MCA) in different cultural levels (pooled values in mm2) in the Indian sub-continent. Culture Mesolithic Neolithic Bronze Age Chalcolithic Megalithic Modern

TCA 1258 1203 1234 1218 1167 1101

R 24.50 41 28.33 51 49.25121 46.75 4) 51.12 4 100.111 12) 88.70(3) 87.34 3 476 .10 276.15

Mandible L 25.09 5) 28.17 5) 42.0615) 46.52(4) 51.85 4) 104.00 8) 89.92(4) 92.66 2) 480.27 286.58

T 24.83(9) 28.25 10) 44.11 7) 46.6418) 51.48 8) 101.67 20) 89.40(7) 89.44 5) 475.82 280.51

more or less same (138 mm and 136 mm , respectively). "In spite of the higher value of head height the Mesolithic crania appear 'low' in profile. On the other hand, though there is no significant change in the height value in the later populations , the skull appears 'high'." When compared with the length, the index (I 2) is considerably higher in farming communities (basion-bregma height: 141 mm and 138 mm, and, index 71.5 and 74.9, for Mesolithic and NeolithicChalcolithic populations, respectively). The relaxation of masticatory pressure is also reflected in lesser values of minimum frontal diameter and bigonial breadth (ft-ft diameter: 101 mm and 98 mm; go-go diameter: 98 mm and 90 mm, respectively).

MCA 673 668 645 699 639 597

Dental size is related to the space available in the jaw bones during its development. The smaller dentition and consequently smaller jaws, in farming populations, resulted in reduction of masticatory muscles, thereby causing gracility in the facial bones and ultimately resulting in orthognathus facial appearance. Prominent neck muscles were no more required giving gracility to the nuchal region of occipital. These cranio-facial modifications ultimately resulted in decrease in cranial length, thereby increasing the value of cranial index.

Second contributory factor for the overall reduction in robusticity with the advent of agriculture is stated to be the greater nutritional stress. In settled farming economy there was greater dependence on carbohydrate rich food, and less intake of animal proteins and other essential nutrients. As a result, populations during agricultural transition probably grew smaller in size because of protein malnutrition. At the same time, adaptation of agriculture led to increase in physiological stress. Higher morbidity level , which probably affected the growth rate and metabolism in general , appears to be the third contributory factor for the delicate body built of settled agricultural communities. More discussion on these aspects will appear in the next chapter.

It may be noted that tendency of having the third molar half erupted or not-erupted is more common from post-Mesolithic period (Walimbe-Lukacs 1992), which is correlated with the smaller sized jaws. Walimbe (1998:33) states categorically that the "change from dolichocrany to mesocrany (and further to brachycrany) is a consequence of decrease in head length and cannot be attributed to increase in head breadth". As shown in table 4.22, the average cranial length in hunting-gathering populations is as high as 197 mm, while in the later agricultural / pastoral communities the measurement reads only 183 mm. On the other hand, the cranial breadth measurement remains

Introduction of food production subsistence is also coincident with the reduction in the sexual dimorphism (Kennedy 1975a, 1984c). It has been hypothesized (Stini 1969) that in hunting gathering subsistence strategy there was more functional demand on males than females. On the other hand, work demand placed on males

90

and females was probably more or less equal in agricultural activities. It has also been argued that males are more affected under stress while the female metabolic system is better able to buffer

nutritional insults. Table 4.22 provides Comparative craniometric data for selected non agricultural and agricultural male populations.

Tabl e 4.22 Comparative craniometric data for selected non agricultural and agricultural male population s.

Popu lation

Bellan Bandi Palassa Mahadaha Mahadaha Mahadaha Sarai Nahar Rai Sarai Nahar Rai Langhnai

Cultural phase

Sp. No. I

8

17

Measurement/ index M. S. Code) 12 45 66 II

9

I3

173

140

Meso lithic

l

200

147

135

117

--

96

73.5

67.5

91.8

--

--

Mesolith ic Mesolithic Meso lithic Mesolithic Mesolithic Meso lithic

23 24 26 72-Ill 70-IV V

205 196 200 198 192 187

131 14 1 127 135 146 137

147 149 148 153 124 130

100 96 89 97 107 103

119 150 102

96

112.2 105 .7 116.5 113.3 84.9 94.9

84.0 64 .0 87.3

78.4

--

--

145 138

71.7 76 .0 74.0 77.3 64.6 69.5

80.7

80 90 118 107

63.9 71.9 63.5 68.2 76.0 73.3

73 .8 74.6

77 .5

197

138

141

IOI

130

98

70.0

71.5

102.8

76.7

78 .9

188 181 187 189 197 181 183 189 190 190 172 179 185 172 182 187 173*

133 138 138 145 130 138 146 132 132 133 139 145 134 144 138 134 138*

134 134 135 135 139

95 99 97 96 95 89

131 128 134 136 127

89 91 87 79 102 94

71.4 74 .0 70 .8 71.5 70.6

100.3 96.9 97 .9 93 .7 107.2

71.3 77.9 72.5 72.4 74.8

69.7 75.6 65.6

--

--

---

---

146 136 140 141

---

93 94 97 95 97 91 94 95 98 98*

134 120 133 134 126

71.1 76.1 73.8 76.7 66.0 76.2 79.7 69.8 69.4 70.0 80.8 81.0 72.4 83.7 75 .8 71.7 75.8

175 194 176 181 197

129 133 137 138 128

129 145

96 89

--

JOI

137

--

87 81

183

136

138

98

Mean , nomadic hunting -gathering Populations Harappa R-37 Harappa Area G Harappa H-1 Harappa H-11 Mohenio-daro Rupar Lothal Nal Timargarh Burzahom Piklihal leej Tekka lakota Hu llikallu Agiripalli Chinnamamr Nevasa

Harappan Harappan Harappan Harappan Harappan Harappan Harappan Harappan Neolithic Neolithic Neolithic Neolithic Neolithic Chalcolithic Chalco lithic Chalcolithic Cha lcolithic

Kaothe Daimabad lnamgaon lnamgaon Chandoli

Chalcolithic Chalcolithic Chalcolithic Chalcolithic Chalcolithic

Mean , semi -settled / /sett led Agricultural / pastoral populations

Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean I Mean

13) 17) 13) 15) 13) (7)

I Mean (9) I Vlll- 1 I

5 I

I I NVS(VM) 73 4 18 59 1468 16

--

-146 142 132

--

--

--

-124 130

--

--103 84 93 112 95 95

--

128*

100 96*

135 121 128 122

99 96 99 90

--

92

73.7 68.6 77.8 76.2 65 .0

128

90

74. 1

Note: This table is the revised version of the data presente d in Walimbe (1998). * Measurements for NVS(VM) 73 are all estimated.

91

--

77.2 71.6 73.7 82.0

---

110.6 103.2 105.3 101.4

77 .5 70.7 72.4 75.4

---

55.5 80.3 --

--77 .5 62 .7 73.8

--

--

--

78.9 82.6 72.5

109.0 98.6 95 .7

-75 .8 73 . 1

--

--

--

---

76 .5

75.0

99.3

71.l 73.6 78.9 71.3

73 .3 79 .3 77 .3 73 .8

--

--

--

95.5

74 .0

-73.7 74.7

---

75.7

74.9

-100.0 109.0

--

--76.6

72.5

Change in subsistence mode Hunting/ gathering to Agriculture

I

I

Change in life style

Changed food habits

Change in work demand on masticatory apparatus

Change in work demand on body

Reduced muscle activity Alternative of pattern of growth

Reduced jaw size Orthognathus face Dental reduction and simplification

Cranial and Post-cranial Gracility: Weakly ""'~-------------' developed supra-orbital ridges; smaller .... ~._-------------t occiput; short stature; straight forehead; brachycrany; Increased cranial height

Poor quality proteins

Model explaining the cranio-facial morphological changes in agricultural transition. (Modified after Larsen 1984 and Walimbe 1998.)

92

I

compared with those for the Inamgaon children (Lukacs and Walimbe 1986) and the skeletal growth data developed on contemporary population (Walimbe and Gambhir 1994). For adults, the unification of the epiphysis to diaphysis, third molar eruption and closure of cranial sutural unification are observed. Four out of five adults were already studied by Kennedy and Malhotra (1966). They had also incorporated three sub-adults specimens in their study. Their views and the observations are given with the results obtained from present study. Tables 4.23 and 4.24 gives the calcification and eruption sequence for deciduous and permanent teeth, respectively.

IV. AGE DETERMINATION

Methodology

Age of the adult segment of the sample is determined by the standardized criteria described in Brothwell (1981), Olivier (1969), Stewart (1979) and Ubelaker and Buikstra (1994). Age estimates for pre-adolescent individuals are based on dental eruption sequences (Olivier 1969, Stewart 1979), or the progress of dental calcification, if only isolated dental crowns are present (Schour and Massler 1940, Hunt and Gleiser 1959). There is no specific eruption sequence standard suggested for the Indian population. However, the earlier works (Banerjee and Mukherjee 1967, Mukherjee 1973, Prakash 1974 and Rami Reddy 1981, 1986) indicate differences in the timing of tooth eruption between Indian and European populations as not significant. Therefore, the use of European standards for classifying Indian data seems justifiable. The age estimates on the basis of dental elements are further supported by the long bone length data. Diaphyseal lengths are

Tables 4.23 and Table 4.24 gives the calcification and eruption sequence for deciduous and permanent teeth, respectively, followed in the present study. Besides the sequence tables and charts given in 'Standard' by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) is also been used. Individual comments on age determination are given below.

Table 4.23: Calcification and eruption sequence for deciduous teeth

Oil

Calcificatio starts n (month in utero) 4.0 - 4.05

Di2

4.5

De

5.0

Percentage of crown calcification at birth 5/6 upper 3/5 lower 2/3 upper 3.5 lower 1/3

Dml

5.0

Cusps joined

5.5 - 6.0

Dm2

6.0

Cusp joined

10.0 - 11.0

Tooth

Crown calcification (in complete months) 1.5 - 2.5

2.5 - 3.0 9.0

Eruption months)

(in

9/12 upper 6/8 lower 12/14 upper 14/15 lower 20/24 upper 20/24 lower 15/16 upper 15/16 lower 30/32 upper 30/32 lower

Root calcifica-tion complete (in years) 1.5

Root resorption starts (in years) 4.0 - 5.0

Tooth loss (in years)

1.5 - 2.0

4.0 - 5.0

7.0 - 8.0

3.25

6.0 - 7.0

10.0- 12.0

2.25

4.0 - 5.0

9.0 - 11.0

3.0

4.0 - 5.0

10.0- 12.0

6.0-7 .0

Table 4.24: Calcification and eruption sequence for permanent teeth

Tooth 11 12

C Pml Pm2 Ml M2 M3

Calcification begins 3 - 4 months 10- 12 m upper 3 - 4 m lower 4 - 5 months 18-24 m 2.0 - 2.5 years Birth

2.5 - 3.0 years 7.0- 10.0 years

calcification Crown complete (in years) 4.0 - 5.0 4.0 - 5.0 6.0 - 7.0 5.0 - 6.0 6.0-7.0 2.5 - 3.0 7.0 - 8.0 12.0- 16.0

Eruption years) 7- 8 8-9

(in

11 - 12 9 - 12 10 - 12 6- 7 12 - 13 18 onwards

93

Root calcification complete (in years) 9.0 - 10.0 10.0 - 11.0 12.0 - 15.0 12.0- 13.0 12.0-14.0 9.0 - 10.0 14.0 - 16.0 18.0 - 25.0

Observations

Fig. 4.23: Mandible : NVS(VM) 1.

NVS(VM) 1:

NVS(VM)2:

Age estimation for this individual is based on the dental calcification and eruption calendar. Postmortem damaged has occurred to the alveolar bone in both mandible and maxilla precluding proper evaluation of the eruption status . Nevertheless , damaged bone makes the teeth loose , allowing observation of calcification status of Ldml , Ldm2 and LMI. Upper and lower deciduous central incisors are still in the process of eruption (Fig 4.22 and 4.23) and the lateral incisors and canines are still inside the crypt. For Ldml and Ldm2 crown calcification appears to be almost complete . On the basis of the dental data this individual appears to be around ' 9 ± 3 months ' old at the time of death .

Age estimation of this individual (Fig. 4.24) is based on the long bone diaphyseal lengths and dental calcification status . Measurable long bones are right humerus (91.50 mm) and right and left femur (both 120 mm, estimates). These lengths place the specimen around 11-12 months at the time of death . Dental eruption status also confirms this age bracket. Post mortem damage of mandible allows looking at the calcification status of molars (Fig 4.25). Crowns of both maxillary and mandibular incisors are completely calcified and are fully erupted. Crown calcification of upper Rdm2 (?) is complete and more than I/4th of RMI crown appears calcified . This indicates an age of around ' 1 ± year 4 months ' at the time of death.

Fig. 4.24: Normafrontalis: NVS(VM) 2.

Fig. 4.22: Maxilla: NVS(VM) 1.

Fig. 4.25: Mandible: NVS(VM) 2.

There are two additional molar teeth (maxillary RLdm2) , which cannot be ascribed to this specimen , indicate the presence of another individual in the collection and has been named as NVS(VM) 67. Dr. Ehrhardt's study also confirm two individuals present in the collection.

94

NVS(VM)3: Age of this individual is based only on the morphology of skull (Fig 4.26). No other part of body and teeth are present in the collection. Dr. Ehrhardt estimates an age of around 2-3 years in her study of this individual. Present scholar on the basis of the appearance of skull suggests higher age group of '4 to 5 years' at the time of death.

Fig. 4.26: Normafrontalis: NVS(VM) 3.

Fig. 4.28: Maxilla: NVS(VM) 4.

NVS(VM)4: Neurocranial cap (Fig 4.27), and both maxilla and mandible (Fig 4.28 and 4.29) are preserved for this individual. The age estimation could be based on the skull morphology and dental eruption calendar. Maxillary Ldc and mandibular RLdc have completely calcified crown. More than 114th root formation appears complete for maxillary Ldml and mandibular RLdml. Complete crown calcification is evident for maxillary and mandibular RLdm2s. Age of the child can therefore be put in the bracket of '18 months ± 3 months' at the time of death. Fig. 4.29: Mandible: NVS(VM) 4.

NVS(VM) 5: On the basis of the basis of morphology of the humeral fragment this child appears to be 'a newly born infant' (still birth?) at the time of death.

NVS(VM)6: Age estimation based on the length of R humerus (65.00 mm) gives the 'newborn' status (neonatal) to the child.

Fig. 4.27: Norma lateralis : NVS(VM) 4.

95

NVS(VM)7:

the time of death.

Age estimation is based on the lengths of L radius and ulna. They are approximately (67.00 mm) and (73.00 mm), respectively , suggesting death age of '7-8 months'.

NVS(VM) 13: Age estimation in this case is based only on the length of left humerus (113.00 mm), which indicates an age of about '12 to 18 months' at the time of death.

NVS(VM)8:

NVS(VM) 14:

Only two long bone small fragments represent this individual. This child was probably '10 to 12 month ' old at the time of death . This estimate is based on comparison of morphology and appearance of preserved fragments with other long bones of known age.

The age estimation of the child is based on the calcification of seven preserved teeth. The root calcification status of RLdml and Ldc of maxilla cannot be determined owing to the post mortem damage . But the crown calcification of the mandibular RLdm2s is complete, so also for the maxillary Rdm2. This status of crown calcification indicates the individual was around ' 9 ± 1 months ' old at the time of death .

NVS(VM)9: This specimen is probably infant. This tentatively inference is based on the morphology of the preserved fragments.

NVS(VM) 15: NVS(VM) 10: This specimen is very fragmentary. The morphology and size of bone fragments suggest 'infant(?)' status of the child.

The age estimation of this individual is based on the dental calcification status. Mandibular first right deciduous incisor (Rdi 1) has more than ¾ crown calcified. The Rdc has less than half calcified crown. According to crown calcification calendar this child appears to be a very young infant, probably died in the first few days of life, or still birth, i.e., 'less than a month' (neonatal) at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 16: The ulna gives an estimated diaphyseal length of 70.00 mm, indicating the age of the specimen as '3 - 4 months' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 17: NVS(VM) 11: The age estimation for this individual is based on long bone lengths. Almost complete humerus and radius are preserved for this individual. Length of right humerus (64 mm) and right radius (53 mm) indicate 'neonatal' status of the child.

The age estimation is based mainly on morphology of bones and tentative length of left humerus. There are four pieces of humerus, of which two belong to the mid-shaft region. Presuming these mid-shaft fragments as coming from the left side bone, an estimated length of diaphysis comes to around 67.00 mm. Comparison with the standards of Walimbe and Gambhir (1994) a 'newborn' status may be given to the specimen. Preservation of specimen is extremely fragmentary, but in appearance the collection is comparable with other newborns of this series.

NVS(VM) 18: No identifiable bone is preserved in the collection precluding the exact age of the child. Only appearance and size of bones suggest 'infant (?)' age of the individual.

NVS(VM) 19: Only 2 long bone fragments are preserved for this individual , which indicate the age of around '1 - 2 years ' at the time of death . The age estimation is based on the comparison with the bones of a child of known age.

NVS(VM) 12: In the absence of dental elements the age estimation based on the length of right ulna (70.00 mm) and left fibula (70.00 mm). On this basis, age estimation of the child is around '3 - 5 months ' at

96

NVS(VM)20:

complete radius and 3 long bone fragments. These bones were packed with specimen 23. The length of radius is 43.00 mm, which suggests 'premature birth' of this child, probably during the third trimester of pregnancy.

Age estimation for this individual is based on the long bone morphology and five preserved teeth. Maxillary Rdi 1 have completely calcified crown. For mandibular RLdil also crown calcification is complete and 113rd of root is calcified . Ldml has finished its crown calcification, and for Ldm2 almost 113rd progress is achieved . On the basis of this calcification status this individual may be placed in the range of around '7 ± 2 months' old at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 25: In the absence of dentition the age estimation of this individual could be based only on diaphyseal lengths of almost completely preserved right tibia and fibula, which measure 95.00 mm and 90.00 mm, respectively (both estimates). These lengths suggest the age of around '1 year ± 2 months' for this child at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 21: Complete mandibular and maxillary dentition is preserved in the collection, which allows the exact age estimation. All the incisors are out of crypt. Upper and lower dml s are in the process of eruption and 113rd of crowns can be seen out of crypt. All dm2s exhibit complete crown calcification status. These parameters indicate an age of around '18 ± 3 months' at the time of death . Tentative length of R ulna (84.00 mm) also goes well with the age assessment based on dental development.

NVS(VM) 26: Eleven teeth are preserved in the collection to confirm death age of this individual. Though all teeth are 'isolated' some alveoli bone pieces are stuck with the elements, which confirm that all the teeth (except dm2s) were in occlusal level. Crown calcification process of the dm2s is over. Root calcification status for these teeth cannot be determined due to post-mortem damage. Deciduous canines erupt at the age of around 20 to 24 months. Consequently the child may be placed between '2 years ± 3 months ' old at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 22: Only some cranial fragments and right mandibular piece represent this individual. The age estimation is based on the mandible, which contains both the deciduous molars of right side, Rdml and Rdm2. They have erupted and reached occlusion level. Crown calcification of the RMI is complete; mandibular bone in this region is damaged facilitating observation of root development process, where slight traces of root development are visible . On the basis of these teeth, the age of this individual is around '5 years' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 27: Age estimation of this individual is based only on lengths of left ulna and right tibia. These bones measure 80.00 mm and 95.00 mm, respectively. On this basis the individual can be placed in the range of ' 1 year ± 2 months ' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 28: Age estimation is based on the morphology of skull, length of the right humerus and two preserved teeth for this individual. The almost complete humerus of the right side is preserved which measures about 97.00 mm. Two maxillary teeth Rdil and Rdi2 are erupted and their root calcification appears to be over. Using both these clues an age bracket of about '18 ± 3 months' may be suggested for this child.

NVS(VM)23: Age estimation of this individual is based on the crown calcification status of Rdi 1, and lengths of right radius and tibia. The measurements are 51.00 mm and 64.00 mm, respectively. Preserved right maxillary incisor shows almost complete crown calcification. These both criteria place the child in 'infant' age bracket , more precisely ' less than 2 months'.

NVS(VM) 29:

NVS(VM)24:

In the absence of dentition the age estimation is

This individual

is represented

based on the approximate length of right humerus (92.00 mm), which suggests '1 year± 2 months'

only by one

97

age bracket for this child.

NVS(VM)32:

NVS(VM)30:

No complete bone is preserved for this individual and state of preservation is very bad. Only thing that can be said on the basis of morphology of bone fragments is that the child was 'around 1 year' old at the time of death.

Age estimation of this specimen is based on general morphology of bones and well-preserved maxilla (Fig.4.19) and mandible (Fig.4.30). All the permanent incisors are erupted and are in occlusal plane. The deciduous first and second molars for both maxilla and mandible exhibit severe attrition wear, especially the first molars. The first permanent molars of maxilla and mandible are erupted and show little attrition. Second permanent molars are in the process of eruption. These indicators suggest that this child was around '10 - 12 year' old at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 33: Age estimation of this specimen is based on the morphology of very few preserved parts of body . The child was ' new born(?)' at the time of death.

NVS(VM)34: Bones for this individual are coated with hard matrix, which is difficult to remove. Age of this child can tentatively be described as 'infant (?)' .

Fig. 4.30: Mandible : NVS(VM) 30.

Kennedy and Malhotra in their studies place this individual in age bracket of '9 year' on the basis of the progress of epiphyseal union in the long bones. The present scholar prefers to indicate slightly older age bracket for this child.

NVS(VM)31: Only few fragments represent this specimen. There is well-preserved dentition, however, to provide clues for estimating age of this individual. Teeth exhibit different stages of crown calcification. Crown calcification for maxillary Ldc and mandibular Rdc is over. Root calcification for all maxillary and mandibular dmls has commenced. Maxillary RLdm2 have completed their crown calcification. For permanent right molar around 114th of the crown appears to have calcified. Accordingly, the death age of this child may be put as '9 ± 3 months'. The morphology of the mastoid process more or less suggests similar age bracket of 'less than 1 year and more than 6 months'.

Fig. 4.31: Norma frontalis: NVS(VM) 36. Note the preservation status.

NVS(VM)35: In the absence of dentition, the age estimation for this individual is based on the morphology and the length of left ulna (70.00 mm). The child was around '6 - 7 months' old at the time of death.

98

NVS(VM)36:

halfway over. Maxillary and mandibular deciduous canines are in the process of eruption. Two complete long bones preserved for this child, left ulna and left tibia measure 90.00 mm and 108.00 mm, respectively. Therefore this child may be placed in the age bracket of 'around 18 ± 2 months' old at the time of death.

Age determination of this individual is based on the eruption status of maxillary RLdi 1. The teeth are completely erupted (Fig.4.31 ). Another clue available for estimating age is diaphyseal lengths of four complete long bones. Right ulna, tibia and right and left fibula are preserved for this individual, which measure 76.00 mm, 86.00 mm, 80.00 mm and 80.00 mm, respectively. All these indicate an age of around '9 ± 3 months' for this child.

NVS(VM)37: Age estimation in this case is based on the crown calcification status of eight preserved teeth. Mandibular (Fig.4.32) Ldi2 is in the process of eruption. Maxillary lateral incisor (Ldi2) is recovered isolated, but was probably in the identical eruption status. Maxillary central incisor (Rdi 1) is also isolated but its root calcification is in advanced stage than the lateral tooth. The crown calcification of mandibular RLdc and RLdmls are complete. The Ldm2 has finished more than 314th of its crown calcification. According to these indicators the child was probably '1 year ± 3 months' old at the time of death.

Fig. 4.33: Mandible: NVS(VM) 38.

Of the skeletal inventory recorded for this individual, at least a few vertebral fragments appear to be belonging to a slightly older individual, aged around 3 years. For example, the cervical vertebral fragment exhibits completely formed foramina transversarium and the lumber elements too have completely fused neural arch. Since only few vertebral fragments represent possibility of a second individual, it could also be a case of post-excavation mixing of bone collections. Therefore this presumed second individual has not been listed separately in the inventory.

NVS(VM)39: Age determination of this individual is based on the dental calcification calendar. All the teeth of this child were found isolated. The maxillary RI 1 have completely calcified crown, while RC show halfway complete crown. Calcification for upper and lower RLMI crowns is almost complete. On the basis of the status of crown calcification this child was probably in the age bracket of '3 - 4 year' at the time of death. There is one extra maxillary RMI, which indicates the presence of another individual.

Fig. 4.32: Mandible: NVS(VM) 37.

NVS(VM)38: Age determination of this individual is based on well preserved upper and lower dentition (Fig. 4.33), and long bone diaphyseal lengths. Upper and lower deciduous incisors are erupted, so also dmls. Post-mortem damage to the maxilla allows observation of the crown calcification status of the dm2s and RMI. Crowns of maxillary RLdm2 are complete and for RMI the calcification process is

NVS(VM) 40: Age estimation of this individual is based on dental eruption status. All deciduous teeth of this

99

individual are erupted. Damaged maxillary alveolar bone allows inspection of the first permanent molar crown (Fig 4.34), which seems to be completely calcified. Broken mandibular bone exhibits Ril, which shows almost completely calcified crown. All these indicators suggest the age of this child was around '3 - 4 years' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 42: In the absence of complete long bone, age estimation of this child is to be based only on the dental calcification and eruption status. Maxillary deciduous incisors , Rdi 1 and Rdi2 , are erupted. The Ldm2 of maxilla and Rdm2 of mandible shows complete crown calcification and 114th of root calcification. Approx. 314th root calcification is over for maxillary Rdml. Broken mandibular fragment allows inspection of the crown calcification status of Ril and RI2, which are less than half filled. All these features point to the age of the child as around '18 ± 6 months' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 43: Fig. 4.34: Maxilla : NVS(VM) 40.

Age estimation m this case is based on the morphology of the left femoral head and four preserved teeth. Maxillary first permanent incisors , RLil , show almost completely calcified crown. Mandibular RI 1 is in the initial stages of root formation process. This data indicates that the child was around '3 - 4 years' old at the time of death. Proximal femoral fragment is comparable with the other specimens of same age.

NVS(VM) 41: The age estimation of this individual is based on the status of dental eruption and long bone lengths. All deciduous teeth are erupted and in occlusal plane (Fig . 4.35) Crown calcification for maxillary Lil is 3/4 1h over while the process is complete for the maxillary permanent Mls. This dental data indicates an age of around 3 years. The long bone lengths, however , suggests little younger age of the individual. The length of the complete radius (91.00 mm) and the approximate length of femur (155.00 mm) indicate the age around 2 years ± 4 months. The dental age seems more reliable, since the diaphyseal length is stated to be influenced by non-genetic factors ( see chapter V). Taking into consideration both these indicators the tentative age of the child can be stated to be 'around 2.5 years ' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 44: Age estimation of this individual is based on the badly damaged dental arcades (Fig 4.36). The central deciduous incisors for both maxilla and mandible are erupted, so also upper RLdi2 and lower Ldi2. Both upper and lower dmls are seen coming out of gum, so also left deciduous canines . Half of the crown for maxillary permanent first molars has calcified. RLdm2 of maxilla are in the process of eruption. All these suggest an age of this individual of around '2 years ± 4 months ' at the time of death. Poor preservation of the jaw bones precludes more precise estimate.

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damage has occurred to the tibial extremities. But comparing the specimen with the charts provided in Bass (1974) the individual may be placed at around 10 years at the time of death. Dentition was preserved for this child when the earlier scholars (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966) studied the specimen. This study puts this individual in the age bracket of '9 - 10 years'. They comment, "the permanent first molar and lateral incisor have erupted. The first and second premolars are about to erupt, but the canines were still developing within their alveoli before the time of death." These elements are not available to the present scholar for study. ,-.., 11111111111111111111111111111, .1

1 Fig. 4.36: Cranium: preservation status.

2

Length of left tibia is 23.05 cm, which indicates older age for this specimen. On the basis of length and the status of union , this individual was around ' 10 ± 1 years' old at the time of death.

3

NVS(VM)

44. Note

the

The skull of this specimen was mixed up with the bone collection of NVS(VM) 22. There was some confusion about the exact association of the skull cap. After meticulous search it has been now confirmed as of NVS(VM) 4 7. (Ms. Gwen Robins ' help in sorting this specimen is appreciated). Skull morphology and one maxillary tooth RC stuck up with the neurocranium agrees with the age assessment discussed above. More than 113rd of its root calcification is over. The axis vertebra found in the NVS(VM) 22 collection also goes with this -NVS(VM) 47- specimen. It shows complete fusion of the axis , which limits the lower limit at 12 years.

NVS(VM) 45: Age estimation of the child is to be based only on approximate diaphyseal lengths of left radius and ulna, which measure 90.00 mm and 95.00 mm, respectively. Considering the growth rate_ stat~d for the Chalcolithic children , the age of this child was probably around '18 ± 3 months' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 46: Age determination of this specimen is based on dentition and long bone lengths . Upper and lower deciduous left central incisors are erupted, so also maxillary RLdmls and Rdc. Crown calcification and 114th of root calcification is complete for dm2s. RLMl of maxilla and LMl of mandible exhibit almost haft calcified crown. Accordingly the age of this individual may be stated to be more than 2 years at the time of death. The tentative length of left ulna is 115.00 mm, which indicates an age of around 2.5 years. Considering both these indicators the age of the child may be put under the age bracket of '27 ± 3 months ' at the time of death.

All these parameters suggest the age of this individual as around ' 11 ± 1 years ' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 48: Age estimation in this case is based on morphology and lengths of long bones . Previous scholars (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966) indicate the age of this child as around 6 to 7 years. The dentition was also preserved then, which is missing now. Using these criteria they have reported that "Cranial sutures cannot be observed , but the dentition reveals that the permanent first molars are unerupted. The cusp of this developing tooth can be observed within the alveoli of upper and lower jaws " (pp. 35).

NVS(VM)47: Age estimation of this individual is based on the status of long bone epiphyseal fusion. Left tibia and right and left fibular distal fragments allow inspecting the status of union. For fibula the fusion process had not yet begun distally. Slight

In the absence of dentition , the present study could depend only on long bone lengths , which

101

NVS(VM) 53:

suggests slightly older age of the child than the earlier study. Diaphyseal length of long bones are as follows; L Radius 14.50 cm, R Ulna 16.00 cm (estimate) , R Tibia 21.00 cm (estimate) and R Fibula 21.00 cm, which point the age of this specimen as around '7 - 8 year ' at the time of death.

Age estimation for this specimen is based on the long bone lengths and dentition. The maxillary fragment contains Rdi2 and Rdm2. The Rdi2 crown is completely formed but eruption process is yet to begin. Rdm2 has almost 1/2 of its crown filled, though exact judgment is not possible because of matrix coating. Left tibia and fibula are complete and give length measurements of 89.00 mm and 85.00 mm, respectively . All these indicators suggest the age of the child as around '9 ± 3 months '.

NVS(VM)49: Age estimation is based of morphological appearance of the skull and eruption / calcification of the dentition. The mandibular RLdmls are erupted. Damage to the mandibular bone allows observing of the status of Ldc and RMI. Canine is in the process of eruption while both the deciduous second molars are still inside the bone. Crown calcification status for these teeth cannot be determined. Lower permanent right side first molar exhibits the I/4th complete crown. Accordingly the individual may be stated to be around ' 18 ± 2 months' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 54: Age estimation for this child is based on two criteria: dentition and long bone length measurements. Mandibular Rdi2 is seen in its crypt, but the crown appears to be completely formed (Fig 4.37). Crown calcification for mandibular Rdml is also about to complete. Accordingly the age of the specimen could be put at around 6 months. Completely preserved right humerus and radius give measurements of 76.00 mm and 62.00 mm, respectively, indicating slightly younger age of 4 - 6 months. If both the indicators are considered, the age of this individual may be suggested at around ' 6 ± 2 months' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 50: In the absence of dentition, age estimation of this child is to be based on the length of right tibia, which is 90.00 mm. On the basis of length this child was in age bracket of '10 - 12 months' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 51: Age estimation of this individual is based on the dental calcification status. Maxillary permanent LI2 has broken vertically but appears to have more than haft of the crown filled. The permanent canine, LC, have halfway complete crown. Maxillary right permanent first molar, and mandibular right and left first molars display almost complete crown calcification status. All dm2s are erupted and shows little attrition. On the basis of this dental status the age of this child was probably around '3 year ± 6 months' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 52:

Fig. 4.37: Mandible: NVS(VM) 54.

Age estimation of this individual is based on the dental eruption and crown calcification status of 3 teeth, and left ulnar diaphyseal length (95 .00 mm). Half of the crown of Rdc is out of crypt. The Rdml is erupted and crown calcification for Rdm2 appears to be complete. According to these indicators the age of this child could be '18 ± 2 months' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 55: Age estimation of this individual is based on morphological appearance of preserved bones and one tooth . The root of the Rdi 1 of mandible is completely formed. Generally this process is complete by 1.5 years. The scapular fragment and other bone fragments suggest similar age of the

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specimen. The age of this child was therefore probably about '18 ± 3 months' at the time of death.

time of death. Though two long bone diaphyses are present in the collection, part of the mid-shafts is removed for sub-cortical thickness study. It precluded measuring exact length of these bones.

NVS(VM) 56: NVS(VM) 60:

Age estimation of this individual is based on long bones and well preserved dentition. All deciduous teeth are erupted for both maxilla and mandible. The crown calcification process is complete for mandibular RI2 and RLMI. Maxillary bone is broken along the inferior border in the LC region, exposing its developing crown, which is probably half complete. General size of long bones when compared with other long bones of known age indicate an age of around '3.5 years± 6 months'.

The specimen is represented only by right mandibular fragment with empty sockets. Symphyseal region is yet to be fused. An 'infant' status may be given to this individual on the basis morphology and size of the mandibular fragment. NVS(VM) 61:

This specimen is represented only by a mandibular fragment with three teeth in situ. Rdi2 is coming out of gum and the crown calcification process of Ldc and dml has completed (4.38) . On the basis of these indicators, the age of this child could be estimated as around ' 1 year ± 2 months ' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 57:

Age estimation for this child is based on dentition as well as on two long bones. Both the upper deciduous first and second left incisors have completed crown calcification, and the first ones are in process of eruption. Maxillary Ldml too shows complete crown calcification but calcification process for deciduous canine is still incomplete. Complete left radius and ulna gives length measurements of 63.00 mm and 67.00 mm, respectively. According to these parameters , the specimen may be placed in the age bracket of ' 7 ± 2 months ' at the time of death.

'"'I'''' II11111111111 t '1't 11111 t~I ...___,.

NVS(VM) 58:

Age estimation of this individual is very difficult. The both maxilla and mandible are fragmentary and filled with matrix. All deciduous teeth are erupted. Both upper and lower permanent first molars are also erupted. The maxillary permanent first right and left incisors (recovered isolated) show complete crown calcification but their root formation status could not be evaluated because of post-mortem damage. Deciduous maxillary first and second molars show considerable wear. Taking into consideration of all these parameters , the age of this child can be tentatively put under the bracket of '6 - 7 years' at the time of death.

1

2

3

Fig. 4.38 : Mandible : NVS(VM) 61.

NVS(VM) 62:

Age estimation for this individual is based on dental eruption and attrition pattern. All deciduous teeth are erupted and in occlusion for this individual. The crown calcification is complete for mandibular and maxillary RMls. The mandibular left deciduous first and second molars and maxillary right and left second deciduous molars exhibits slight attrition of crown. Caries infection on mandibular RLdm2s has resulted in destruction of occlusal surface precluding assessment of wear pattern. The crown calcification status of maxillary and mandibular right first permanent molars is complete, which supports the age assessment as based on other teeth. The age of about ' 3 years ± 6 months' at the time of death is suggested.

NVS(VM) 59:

This specimen is preserved in very fragmentary condition. In the absence of dentition and postcranial bones the age estimation of the individual is to be based on overall morphology of the preserved skeletal elements. The age of this child was probably around '2 years ± 6 months ' at the

103

NVS(VM) 63:

NVS(VM) 68:

Mandibular right and left dmls are erupted. The broken mandibular bone allows looking at Rdm2 roots, which are in the initial formative stages. The maxillary RMI and mandibular isolated RMI have half calcified crowns. Accordingly, the child seems to be around '18 ± 6 months' old at the time of death.

Only tooth, maxillary RMI, was found in the NVS(VM) 39 collection, which is representing this individual. Crown calcification of this tooth is almost complete, which speaks about the age of the individual as 'around 3 years ' at the time of death. NVS(VM) 69:

These mid-shaft fragments of radius and ulna are found in the collection of NVS(VM) 48, who was 7 to 8 years at the time of death. These fragments are slightly oversized and do not match with the other bones of NVS(VM) 48, and therefore numbered as a separate individual. The morphology of these mid-shaft regions suggest the age of 'around 10 years' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 64:

Only one maxillary fragment is preserved for this individual to aid in estimating the death age. Left deciduous second incisor has erupted. Crown calcification is over for the right deciduous canine. Half of the root of Rdml is calcified , and RMI exhibits less than half of its crown. According to these indicators the age of this child was probably around '15 ± 3 months' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 70:

One extra proximal end of right femur was found mixed with NVS(VM) 53, who had both right and left femora preserved. Presence of extra bone suggests another individual, which has been numbered separately as NVS(VM) 70. There are no significant morphological details preserved on this bone, but its size suggests the age of this child as 'around 1 year'.

NVS(VM) 65:

Mandibular right di 1 and di2 are erupted, so also maxillary canine and Ldml. Approx. 114th of root formation is over for maxillary Ldm2. For the maxillary left permanent canine 114th of crown calcification is complete. Mandibular Rll have finished more than half of its crown calcification. Using these parameters the age of this individual can be estimated as around '2 year± 4 months ' at the time of death.

NVS(VM) 71:

Age estimation of this individual based on the long bone epiphyseal fusion. Size of long bones and the unification of the epiphysis to diaphysis suggest that this individual is an adult. The epiphyseal fusion of radius and ulnar heads to their shafts is over. This unification is generally complete by 19 years. Lesser tronchanter gets fused to femoral shaft at around 19-20 years in males. In females the union may get delayed by a year or so. Considering the female sex of this specimen complete unification of these parts suggests an age of around 20 years. Other criteria that might have been useful in determining lower limit of age estimate are the eruption of third molar. In this specimen third molars are not erupted for upper or lower jaw. Usually the eruption process is over at around 18 to 25 years of age. However, variations have been reported in its eruption status after the agricultural transition. Therefore, non-eruption of third molar is not indicative of a lower age bracket for this individual. All other masticatory teeth show some amount of wear, which supports the age estimate

NVS(VM) 66:

Age estimation of this specimen is based on fourteen preserved teeth. All upper lower incisors and RLdml are erupted, so also Ldml of mandible. The crown calcification is over for mandible RLdm2. This individual was probably '18 ± 6 months' old at the time of death. NVS(VM)67:

Only 2 maxillary teeth, RLdm2, represent this individual. These teeth were found mixed with the NVS(VM) 2 collection. Little less than half of the crown seems to be calcified for these teeth. With the limited evidence only thing that can be said is that the age of this individual was 'more than 7 months ' at the time of death.

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of around 18 to 20 years.

estimation could be in the range of 22 to 25 years.

According to Ehrhardt (1960), and Kennedy and Malhotra (1966), the age estimation of this adult specimen is little difficult. They suggest the age bracket between seventeen and twenty-four years 'with a favoring of an age of twenty years'. Their judgment is based on the observations mainly on the cranial sutural closure. "The lambdoid and sagittal sutures of which all parts of the latter begin to close around the twenty-first year, while the asterionic portion of the lambdoid may remain open until the twenty-six year. The sphenooccipital sutures at the basalar portion of the skull are patent also. The third molar has not yet fully erupted. A right humerus reveals incomplete epiphysial union of the medial epicondyle and the head of the right radius is still unfused with its diaphysis. The proximal end of the right femur and the acromial process of the right scapula are also incompletely fused to their larger structural components" (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966:3435).

Dental occlusal surfaces are only slightly worn. Even on the first molars cusps are still prominent, and secondary dentine pits are seen only on the left side teeth. Attrition, however, is not an accurate criterion for age assessment being influenced culturally. By comparing with other adults of the Deccan Chalcolithic series, the age of this specimen may be stated to be around 22 to 25 years. According to Kennedy and Malhotra death age of this individual is between 18 and 22 years. They comment, "all of the cranial sutures are patent but this is a direct result of post-mortem trauma, hence they are unsuitable in the estimation of age. The third molars have erupted and they reveal very slight degrees of wear. Attrition of the anterior teeth in mandible and maxilla is pronounced, and this condition also prevails for the upper first molars and premolars, but to a lesser degree. Epiphyseal union has been completed for all the long bones" (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966:35).

NVS(VM) 72:

Age estimation of this individual is based on the status of long bone epiphyseal fusion, dental attrition, and the morphology of pubic symphysis. All long bones are completely formed and the epiphyseal union seems to have occurred long ago before death. The specimen preserves complete and undamaged humerus, radius, tibia and fibula. Other long bones though damaged at the extremities, the preserved shaft portion allows precise assessment of the state of fusion. Proximal ends of humerus and tibia, and distal ends of radius and ulna show complete epiphyseal union by 22 nd year, indicating age of more than 25 years.

To conclude, the age of this individual can be estimated from 22 to 25 years old at the time of death. NVS(VM) 73:

The age determination of this individual is based on the enclosure of sutures and dental attrition. Cranial sutural lines are coated with matrix obliterating their morphological patterning. The degree of closure cannot be determined. Tentative observation leads to believe that the closure procedure had commenced for the sagittal and coronal suture. This judgement limits the lower range of age bracket as 25 years.

Pubic symphyseal morphology can be used to confirm the death age of this individual. Right symphyseal portion is present in the collection, which is damaged (post-mortem) on its superior aspect. Sex of this individual has been diagnosed as female. Females are stated to be different from males in the rate and locality of age related metamorphic changes in the os pubis (Gilbert and McKem 1973). By comparing the specimen with the scale of McKem and Stewart (1957) total score of component I, II, III is between 3 and 4. Along the dorsal demiface ridges are flattened and furrows are filled in. Similar condition is noticeable along the ventral demiface. Along the lateral edge distinct curve line is seen. On the basis of pubic morphology therefore the age

Epiphyseal union of the post-cranial bones is complete. The attrition of teeth is from 'medium' to 'advance' category. Some of the anterior teeth have lost their crown as a result of post-mortem damage. But the wear pattern on masticatory teeth would indicate the age of around 30 ± 5 years at the time of death. The third molars are erupted and are in occlusion; even these teeth evidence secondary dentine patches. Kennedy and Malhotra (1966) prefer to put this individual in the age group of '25 ± 5 years'. Increasing number of

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occurs around 18 - 25 years, which confine the lower age for this individual. The attrition is moderate for most of the molars. The maxillary first right molar, however, exhibits severe wear which has resulted in complete obliteration of crown. Wear is extended below the cementoenamel junction into the root. This extreme condition cannot be taken as an indicative of higher age of the individual but probably is the result of some pathological etiology. General wear pattern on most of other teeth suggests the age around 30 to 35 at the time of death.

dental evidence from the region and knowledge of food processing techniques during the Chalcolithic era have facilitated better understanding of the dental wear pattern, and therefore the result obtained from present study seems more justifiable. NVS(VM) 74:

This individual is represented only by the partially preserved cranium. Considering the fragmentary nature of bones only ' adult' status can be attributed to this specimen. No precise comment on age determination is possible.

V. SEX DETERMINATION

NVS(VM) 75:

Methodology

This Indo-Roman specimen is a middle-aged adult.

Adult segment of the N evasa skeletal series was previously studied (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966). Their comments on sex determination have been evaluated in the present research using the standardized criteria described in Brothwell (1981), Olivier (1969), Stewart (1979) and Ubelaker and Buikstra (1994). Sex determination of the pre-adolescent portion of the skeletal sample is not attempted.

Most of the post-cranial skeleton is preserved for this individual. Epiphyseal fusion process is complete. While using the status of cranial suture closure Kennedy and Malhotra (1966:36) state, "the age of this male specimen is about thirty years plus or minus five years. The degree of closure of the coronal suture cannot be estimated., but at pars verticis on the sagittal suture closure is evident. Closure of sutures at this region is irregular after twenty-nine years of age. Closure is advanced at pars obelica and pars lambdica, regions which normally complete closure at twenty-three and twenty-nine years respectively. Lambdoid sutures are patent at all portions. The squamous suture of the temporal is commencing closure which would have been completed at the age of thirty-seven. The mastoid-occipital suture is advanced, closure commencing usually at twenty-eight to twenty-nine years. The parietomastoid suture is not yet closed, but it commonly does so at the age of thirty-nine. Acceptance of these data for the estimation of age must be tentative, both because of the matter of the reliability of this method and on account of the fragmentary and damaged condition of the specimen itself'. The present scholar agrees with these observations.

Observations NVS(VM)30:

Though this individual comes under the sub-adult age group, the previous workers have attempted to determine sex of this specimen. They summarize their comments as: As a pre-adolescent individual this specimen is difficult to sex. The dentition suggests death age as around eight to nine years. "Examination of the acetabulum of both sides of the innominates reveals that the pubic and ischial bones are commencing their unification with the ilium. This unification is initiated earliest in females, and by the age of twelve or thirteen epiphysial union may be well advanced. There is a later time for this growth change in the male. The advancing unification of these pelvic bones in Specimen No. 19, (NVS(VM) 30), suggests that its sex may be female" (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966:34). The specimen is immature. The present scholar feels it appropriate to take the said judgment as a tentative assessment. The cranial and post-cranial elements are relatively gracile, but this gracility might be due to the young death age of the individual. The pelvic bones could have provided sex confirmation, but are missing in the collection.

The features on both right and left pubic symphyseal region are damaged post-mortem, and consequently this parameter is not available for forwarding precise age comment.

For this individual third molars are erupted and were in use. The third molar eruption generally

106

orientation of the ischia are not what might be expected in a female specimen, although these masculine traits are encountered occasionally in female pelvis. The breadth and depth of the sciatic notch is not sufficiently distinctive for an immediate pronouncement of the sex of the specimen. The pelvis is small and exhibits a low degree of muscular robusticity. Damage to the acetabuli and the inferior portions of the innominates precludes a clearer determination of the sex by means of anthroposcopic interpretation. The female characteristics are apparent in the low musculature of the long bones. The linea aspera is sub-medium in its size and there is no pilaster" (Kennedy and Malhotra 1966:33).

NVS(VM) 71:

No sexually diagnostic part is preserved for this individual. In comparison with the male specimen (NVS(VM) 73) this individual looks gracile, but is considerably robust in both cranial and dental features when compared with the other female specimens from Nevasa and as well as those from other Chalcolithic sites. In the absence of pelvic parts sex determination is to be based on robusticity features, which could be deceptive. But on the basis of overall morphological appearance the present scholar prefers to identify this individual more likely as a female, probably a robust female. Kennedy and Malhotra (1966) concur with Ehrhardt (1960) in the sexing of this specimen as that of a female, an opinion based on observation of the moderate to slight degree of muscular relief of the vault and face, the small sized mastoid processes, smaller supra-orbital tours and sharp superior borders of the orbit, inclination of the mandibular rami, and over-all conformation of the mandible. However, sizes of the teeth and probable position of the frontal bone which are noted by Ehrhardt are less reliable sex indicators than the other traits discussed above.

NVS(VM) 73:

No sexually diagnostic part of the skeleton is preserved. But pronounced robusticity of the skeleton undoubtedly indicates male sex of the specimen. As described in the morphology section, all muscular attachment areas are moderately or extremely developed. Earlier scholar also identify sex of this individual as male. They too rely on the extreme robusticity of the cranial architecture. The glabellar region is large and the supra-orbital ridges are prominent. The palate is wide. Robustness of this individual is seen in over-sized vault and face, and massive malars. Chin is prominent. Though the pelvic bones are too fragmentary to aid in confirmation of sex, the robusticity of this specimen is by all standards comparable with other males of the protohistoric period. It may be noted that NVS(VM) 73 adult is one of the most well-built individuals from the Deccan Chalcolithic series.

NVS(VM) 72:

This specimen shows considerable amount of robusticity, which could deceptively be taken as an indication of male sex. The pelvic portion of this individual is preserved in good condition, which allows exact sex determination. According to the grading standard of Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) the angle of grater sciatic notch falls between 1 and 2 grade, positively indicating female sex of the individual.

NVS(VM) 74:

Previous scholars too have suggested female sex though they are uncertain about it. They remarked that, "cranially it would appear to be female. There is a low degree of cresting and the glabella is smooth and rather small. The occipital crests are small and inion is not apparent. The minor degree of muscularity is encountered also in the face where the zygomae are small and gracile. The general size of the skull is small to medium. The form of the chin is median. The Pogonioncondylion superius line confirms this sex determination of the specimen. Inspection of the pelvic bones, however, shows that many features fall within the range of variations for males. The small preauricular sulcus and the parallel

This individual is represented only by the partially preserved cranium and some vault fragments, which are inadequate to forward any comment for sexing this individual. NVS(VM) 75 (lndo-Roman):

The robustness and pelvic morphology of this individual indicates male sex of the specimen. Complete preservation of pelvis, including the region of sciatic notch (grade 4, Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) gives confirmation of the male sex. Robustness in skull, muscle attachment areas in long bones, linea aspera, etc. are not as prominent as in NVS(VM) 73, and are

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comparable with the specimens of the region, Navadatoli and Kuntasi. (1966) also indicate male

47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

Early Historic male specifically from Padri, Kennedy and Malhotra sex for this individual.

Table 4. 25: Age estimation and sex determination for the Nevasa human skeletal series NVS (VM) NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

Age 9 ± 3 months 1 year ± 4 months 4 to 5 year s 18 ± 3 month s New born New born 7 - 8 months 10 - 12 month s Infant(?) Less than a month New born 3 - 5 months 12 - 18 months 9 ± 1 months Infant(?) 3 - 4 months Neonatal Infant(?) 1 - 2 years 7 ± 2 months 18 ± 3 months 5 to 6 years Les than 2 months Pre mature birth (?) 1 year ± 2 months 2 years ± 3 months 1 year ± 2 months 18 ± 3 months 1 year ± 2 months 10 - 12 years 9 ± 3 months Approx. 1 year New born Infant? 6 - 7 months 9 ± 3 months 1 year ± 3 months 18 ± 2 months 3 - 4 years 3 - 4 years Around 2.5 years 18 ± 6 months 3 - 4 years 2 years ± 4 months 18 ± 3 months 27 ± 3 months

Sex Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Female(?) Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain

10 ± 1 years 7 - 8 years 18 ± 2 months 10 - 12 months 3 years ± 6 months 18 ± 2 months 9 ± 3 months 6 + 2 months 18 ± 3 months 3.5 years ± 6 months 7 ± 2 months 6 - 7 years 2 vears + 6 month s Infant 1 year ± 2 months 3 years + 6 month s 18 ± 3 months 15 ± 3 months 2 years ± 4 months 18 ± 3 month s More than 7 month s Around 3 years Around 10 years Around 1 year 18 to 20 years 20 to 21 years 30 ± 5 years Adult 30 to 35 years

Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Female Female Male Uncertain Male

The results obtained from the study on age and sex determination of Nevasa skeletal series are summarized in table 4.25. Next chapter deals with the pathological observations carried out on this human skeletal series. Interpretations on demographic aspects appear in the next chapter.

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5 SKELETAL AND DENTAL PATHOLOGICAL LESIONS AND ANOMALIES "We must also recognize that an exact diagnosis of disease from ancient remains is often impossible. A pathological bone recovered from a burial ground is always a fact divorced from its context. Every diseased specimen lying on the laboratory bench and requiring a diagnosis is inevitably the end result of an illness which may, perhaps, have lasted for months or even years" (Wells, 1964) I. INTRODUCTION Palaeopathological investigation is a recent development in the field of human skeletal biology in India. It deals with the skeletal pathologies and anomalies in the light of ecology, environmental changes, subsistence pattern and social organization giving biocultural perspective. Differences in status and rank are expected to have effects on health and nutrition of people because of differential access to the food resources. These health and dietary differences are reflected in the bones and can be studied in archaeological populations.

dying of acute diseases or in the acute phase of chronic diseases. So when no lesions or very less amount of lesions are diagnosed, the inference may not necessarily be of a healthy population. Moreover, many disease processes affect only the soft tissues and cannot be read on bones (Tavares 1998). Secondly, the ultimate research goal in palaeopathology is not only to diagnose a disease, but also rather to study its impact on overall health status of the past populations as an entire unit. However , the skeletal population available for study may not always be 'representative' of the people. In addition, the skeletal material is often fragmentary and poorly preserved; therefore observation of the distribution pattern of abnormal changes is not possible.

There are several limitations in the study of palaeopathology. Tavares (1998) gives excellent narration of the serious lacunae and drawbacks in this developing branch of science. As she points out the problems are at the methodological and theoretical level.

Despite the problems and limitations, the branch of palaeopathology has lots of information to offer about the ancient lifeways , the palaeodiets, health and medical practices, history of diseases and their effects on past populations and the ways of adaptation and overcoming and buffering of these disease by past populations (Tavares 1998). In dealing with the problems related to health , palaeopathologists have a most crucial advantage over present-day medical historians. Physicians have at their disposal a vast array of data to assist them in diagnosing a morbid condition. Most of this data is not available to palaeopathologists. Yet, they have one significant advantage of having an opportunity to examine an abnormal skeleton in its entirety. Such a chance would be quite impossible in a current patient, living or dead. In addition, archaeological skeletons from specific localities are more homogeneous both genetically and in terms of the environments from where they came than are dissecting room or anatomical

In the first place, most of the analysis relating to pathological specimens of past populations has been based on present day clinical data. There is always a great risk in using such data to interpret protohistoric sample. Another major hurdle is the absence of a uniform method to describe different types of abnormal conditions and their locations as based on definite criteria that reflect the underlying pathological processes. The problems at the theoretical level are far more serious. Evidence of pathological lesion could be diagnosed as an indicator of poor health for the population under study, and at the same time absence of lesion may, at least theoretically, indicate good health. However, it may also imply evidence of a good immune response to disease, as the disease first affects the soft tissue before it makes its manifestations in the bone. Also possible is, individuals lacking evidence of skeletal disease may be

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►

skeletal series (Roberts and Manchester 1995, Ortner and Putschar 1981 ). So far as Indian human skeletal material is concerned, evidence from various Deccan Chalcolithic sites has been studied in palaeopathological perspectives (Lukacs and Walimbe 1986, Walimbe 1986, 1990). These are the first major attempts in India to understand the nature of biological adaptations of their owners.

Dental disease: covering dental anomalies like caries , enamel hypoplasia etc.

Main references used while describing the pathologies and anomalies are listed below . Other specific research publications referred in the study are mentioned appropriately.

1.

The methods of study in palaeopathology are many, but at the primary level usually rely on macroscopic observation. Aid of techniques like radiography , photography , stable isotopic studies, scanning electron microscopy , and in recent years DNA isolation in bone help accurate diagnosis of the lesion (Roberts 1990).

Larsen , C.S. 1997. Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton. New York: Ca mbridge University press.

2.

Ortner , D.J. and W.G.J. Putschar

1981.

Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. Washington D.C: Smithsonian Institution Press. 3.

The skeletal series from Nevasa has been studied here in consideration of the present research trends in the discipline. Observations are made on all 75 individuals form the site, including the individual from the Indo-Roman levels. Observations are made under 10-X hand lens, and selected specimens are X-rayed. The analytical methods used are non-destructive in nature.

Roberts , C. and K. Manchester 1995. The Archaeology of Disease (2nd edition). New York : Cornell University Press.

4.

Lukacs , J.R. 1989. Dental Paleopathology: Methods for Reconstructing Dietary Patterns, in Reconstruction of Life From Skeleton (M.Y. Iscan and K.A.R. Kennedy Eds.), pp.261-286. New York: Alan R. Liss.

Observations are made with regard to the following broad pathological categories:

II. DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES ►

Infectious disease: caused by invading living organisms (viruses , bacteria etc.).

►

Traumatic lesions: caused by injury or malformation of the skeleton and associated soft tissue.

Demographic data in terms of mortality rates, ages at death , body growth rates, robusticity expression, stature, etc. are taken as measures of the general or cumulative stress experienced by the past populations .

►

Joint disease: diseases that affect the joints of the body and their associated soft tissue.

Age and Sex ratios

►

Metabolic disease: caused by a disturbance in the normal process of cell metabolism.

►

Stress factors: indicators of the repetitive use of one part of the body resulting into bone remolding.

►

Neoplastic or new bone formation: malignant or progressive growth, which invades and destroys surrounding tissues and spread to more distant sites in the body beneath the skin.

Human skeletal collections from the Chalcolithic sites of Inamgaon, Daimabad, Kaothe , Walki , etc. are among very few series, which have been subjected to thorough anthropological scrutiny. Not only complete adult individuals , but also all fragmentary and immature elements have been included in these studies. As a result more precise information on the death age could be understood. As described in the earlier chapter the Nevasa human skeletal collection has also been studied age wise so as to project an accurate

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Table 5 .1. Fig. 5 .1 is the graphical presentation of the demographic data.

demographic spectrum of the population. The age-wise distribution of this series is given in

T able 5.1: Age-wise distribution of the Nevasa human skeletal series. Age category Infant 0 to 1 ear Early child 1 to 6 ears

Adolescent 11 to 16 ears Young adult 16 to 31 ears Middle-aged adult 31 to 46 ears Old adult 46 ears and above

Nevasa

Overall Chalcolithic

37 49.33%

172 56.96%

29 38.66%

55 18.21%

4 5.33%

30 9.93%

10 3.31% 4 5.33%

18 5.96%

1.00%

17 5.63%

Note: Pooled demographic data for the Deccan Chalcolithic series is taken from Walimbe and Tavares (1996).

Age-wise distribution

I ■ No. of individuals I

0 to 1

1 to 6 6 to 11 11 to 16 to 31 to 16 31 46 Age categories (years)

46 +

Fig. 5.1: Graph showing age-wise distribution of the Nevasa skeletal series.

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Table 5.2: Sex-wise distribution of the Chalcolithic adult skeletal series. Site Inamgaon Kaothe Daimabad Chandoli Nevasa Total

Male 9 1 1 1 2 14 53.84%

Female 9 1

2 12 46.14%

Retarded skeletal growth Some of the sub-adult individuals from the Nevasa series exhibit shorter diaphyseal long bone lengths . Discrepancies are seen when the dental age is compared with the age estimates based on long bone lengths .

Total 18 2 1 1 4 26

For example, in case of NVS(VM) 41, all deciduous teeth are erupted and are seen in occlusal plain. On the basis of crown calcification stage reached for maxillary central incisors (which is approx. 314th complete) death age of around 3 years is estimated. However , the long bones preserved for this individual appear shorter than the projections made by Walimbe and Gambhir (1994). Diaphyseal length of the femur is 155 mm and radius 91 mm. If the dental age is to be accepted, this child should be placed in the III grade of malnourishment, showing around 70% of the expected growth. It would be interesting to note that the bones being discussed give an evidence of multiple occurrence of Harris lines, four on proximal femur and three on distal radius. Maxillary right and left deciduous canines have deficient enamel formation (localized enamel hypoplasia) . Both these pathologies are treated as indicato:s of grow~h disturbance. Age for the enamel disturbance 1s estimated to be around 7 months. More discussion on these pathological lesions appears in the next section.

Since most of the individuals belong to the subadult segment it is not possible to study the gender-wise mortality rates. Even for the adults , not only for Nevasa but for most of ~he other skeletal series as well, sex determination is often difficult owing to unsatisfactory preservation condition. Sexually diagnostic portions of the pelvic bone of adults are often missing or available only in fragmentary and/or weathered condition. Nevertheless , in the absence of pelvic bone attempts have been made to offer a tentative comment on sex as based on the expression of robusticity, which needs to be accepted with caution. Among the specimens where sex could be ascertained with certainty, males and females occur in equal frequency at the sites of Inamgaon (Lukacs and Walimbe 1986) and Kaothe (Walimbe 1990). Only one male individual each have been identified for the sites of Daimabad (Walimbe 1986) and Chandoli (Malhotra 1965), making the malefemale ratio slightly biased (53.84% males as against 46.15% females). For the Nevasa series, of the five adults sex could be determined only for four. Table 5.1 gives sex-wise distribution for the Nevasa and overall Chalcolithic adult skeletal series.

The problem of under/malnourishment appears to have affected growing infants as well. Dental age of NVS(VM) 54 puts the individual at around 6 months, while humerus and radius indicate much younger age of around 4 months. If the dental age is valid, only inference that can be drawn is of retarded skeletal growth of around 80%.

Since each age group is adequately represented in the series the available skeletal evidence (for Nevasa and Chalcolithic in general) may be taken as a 'representative' segment for the population(s) under study. Though cremation or exposure methods might have been possibly adopted as an alternative method for disposing the dead, it seems that burial was an accepted mode at least for a few segments of the society and was being practiced for all members of the society.

The research focus of Walimbe-Gambhir's work (1994) is to provide comparative assessment of long bone growth and nutritional status in contemporary children, less than 5 years of age, in rural agricultural villages with the Chalcolithic spec imens from the Deccan plateau. In general the protohistoric children are stated to be growth retarded and placed in the I and II grades of malnourishment, and showing around 70% to 80% of the expected growth.

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III. SKELETAL PATHOLOGY

Chalcolithic level, only two individuals, NVS(VM) 71 and NVS(VM) 73, have the pertinent bone preserved and both these specimens exhibit this lesion. The Indo-Roman specimen, NVS(VM) 75, maxilla is complete with entire dental arcade making it difficult to observe the bone. Though there are several subadults in the series, in most of the cases the sinus floor is either damaged or fragmentary or inaccessible for diagnosing this lesion.

Among notable skeletal pathologies observed in the Nevasa skeletal series include cases of infectious diseases, various kinds of traumatic and degenerative lesions, examples of neoplastic or new bone formation, stress factors, etc. Besides, series of dental pathologies have also been noted. Each of the pathologies observed are discussed below, followed by description of the lesions as it appears on the studied collection.

NVS(VM) 71: (Age 18 - 20 y) The maxillary fragment preserved for this specimen includes portion of damaged orbit, exposing the interior features of the maxillary floor providing adequate space to observe the lesion. Confirmed maxillary sinusitis is identified on the left side of the bone. Morphology of the affected side is different from the right side, which is partially damaged post-mortem (Fig. 5.2). The lesion is seen as cyst. It is a hemispherical depression in the bone with a smooth inferior surface and no bony projection into the volume of the cyst.

Maxillary sinusitis Maxillary sinusitis is an infectious disease, which affects the area of maxillary sinus floor. It is broadly defined as inflammation of the mucosa of the paranasal sinuses. It functions as the body's first defense against airborne particulate and pathogens. When disruption of bone starts it results in the inflammatory events. Chronic or repeated inflammation of the sinus mucosa may result in damage to the surrounding bony tissue (Merrett and Pfeiffer, 2000).

Origin of the lesion may be attributed to chronic exposure to dense smoke and quality of the fuel. All teeth are in good condition and no pathology is observed on the premolars or molars, which confirms airborne etiology of the lesion. Ethnoarchaeological study currently in being undertaken by the authors highlights the pathological implications of heavy accumulation of smoke seen in the kitchen area in folk houses. In the Chalcolithic period, cooking was probably done inside the house. The houses were small-sized (as based on the excavated plan) and comparable with the present day folk houses of the region. These 'single room' houses (15' x 20' in size, and approx. 10 ft. in height) are without windows. Only two doors opening in front of the house and in the backyard provide cross ventilation. Part of the house is kitchen, which includes one or two hearths. Continuous smoke coming out of burning fuel while cooking causes moderate to severe suffocation. Problems are of much series magnitude in mansoon because of wet firewood. The above-mentioned study documents that preparing one meal for an average size family of 5 individuals requires spending minimum 1.5 to 2 hours in the kitchen for the house lady. In this particular case, the

Usually pathogens inhaled into the maxillary sinus may cause primary infection within the sinus. Other route for this infection is through the floor of the sinuses from periapical abscessing and periodontal disease. The thin layer of bone between the apex of the molar roots and the maxillary sinus may be resorbed as a result of periapical abscessing. Destruction of bone may also occur if excessive force is applied during tooth extraction (Merrett and Pfeiffer, 2000); the etiology seems far unlikely for the protohistoric individual. The maxillary sinuses are relatively inaccessible to direct examination, making them difficult to study. Sinusitis caused by airborne factors may be a result of crowded dwellings, poor sanitation and presence of accompanying respiratory infection, and chronic exposure to dense smoke and the quality of the fuel. It gives information about the respiratory health status of past human population. On the basis of the morphology of the lesion, it is been classified into a. spicules, b. pitting, c. remodeled spicules, d. plaque, e. lobules, and f. cysts categories. Of the four adults of the

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specimen NVS(VM) 71 is female, aged around 18 to 20 years at the time of death. Severity of the lesion seen in this case prompts to put possible etiology as 'smoke caused'. This female appears to have repeatedly got exposed to the smoke and developed this lesion in due course.

(attrition grade 8). The second molar was lost ante-mortem, probably a few months before the death of this individual, as the alveolar bone is not fused completely. The loss of this tooth might be because of attrition related periodontal problem or it might be a case of caries. Extent of the lesion cannot be judged even after radiographic study. Moderate bone growth is evident in the area, which appears as a patch of less dense bone formation in the X-ray.

NVS(VM) 73: (Age 30 ± 5 y) Observation is difficult in this individual, as the floor of the maxillary sinuses is not visible directly. The lesion appears on the left side. The etiology of maxillary sinusitis is different form the NVS(VM) 71. It may be dental in origin though other probable reasons cannot be ruled out.

Though the dental pathology appears to be the major etiological factor, the smoke related influence remains a strong possibility. The individual being discussed is male, the lesion could very well be occupation related pathology, involving activities like pottery making. The exact etiology of the lesion is therefore not possible to diagnose.

The alveolar bone of left side is damaged considerably precluding any trace of periapical abscess. The first molar is heavily worn

Fig. 5.2: Maxillary sinusitis:NVS(VM) 71.

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Trauma

While interpreting the traumatic lesions it is also necessary to study the healing status. Healing time for a fracture varies on several variables, including , a. the bone involved , b. severity of the fracture, c. age of the individual, and d. nutritional intake of person .

Trauma can be defined as any bodily injury or wound (Ortner and Putschar 1981). Trauma is one of the most common pathological conditions seen in archaeological human skeletal remains, along with the dental and joint diseases. Trauma generally represents extrinsic influences on the skeleton, which result from many factors. Traumatic lesions can be classified into four categories: a. partial or complete break in a bone (fractures) , b. abnormal displacement or dislocation of a bone, c. disruption in nerve and /or blood supply , and d. artificially induced abnormal shape or contour.

There are three cases of trauma in the Nevasa skeletal series.

Dynamic stress fractures usually happen by sudden high stress. The term 'fracture' is used here in a broad sense , meaning any traumatic event that results in partial or complete discontinuity of a bone. Stress in bone results from the application of one or more of the following types of force: a. tension , b. compression, c. torsion or twisting, d. flexion or bending, and e. shearing.

Fig. 5.4: Healed fracture on the left coracoid process: NVS(VM) 72 (lateral view).

NVS(VM) 36: (Age 9 ± 3 months) Incidence of trauma or 'green stick' fracture is noticeable in this individual, where the right ulna exhibits sharp posterior convexity along the entire shaft (Fig. 5.3). Distally the bone is unusually flat. The flatness of the bone is comparable with the distal flatness of the radius bone. The marked medial inclination is quite smooth in appearance . There is no superficial indication of any unusual bone apposition or other kind of secondary bone formation . But the radiograph confirms the bone deformity showing more sub-cortical thickness along the posterior surface

Fig. 5.3: Green-stick fracture on the right ulna : NVS(VM) 36.

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collection precluding observation of any other related deformity within the bone. Proximal extremity of the left humerus is also missing in the collection, so extent of the force of the fall traveling along the humerus cannot be determined. The right side bone is complete and normal. This traumatic lesion can be categorized as 'torsion' or 'twisting'. Dislocation of the shoulder and hip is a common traumatic category seen in archaeological human remains. A fracture of this type occurs when the victim falls of a flexed elbow.

than the anterior. The fracture is comparable with the Inamgaon specimen INM 122 where the right humerus is affected. The Inamgaon specimen is 4 to 6 months younger than the Nevasa specimen, who is 9 ± 3 months old. Abnormal stress , as a result of a fall, appears to have caused bending of the bone. Bones of infants and children have a great potential for corrective modeling, and because of their elasticity they often show a tendency to bend (like green bamboo stick) , rather than break, and produce an incomplete transverse break in the long bone with longitudinal splitting. Such bending fractures in immature individuals are termed as 'greenstick fractures'.

NVS(VM) 73: ( Age 30 ± 5 y)

Fig. 5.5: Healed fracture on the left coracoid process: NVS(VM) 72 (dorsal view).

NVS(VM) 72: (Age 22 - 25 y) Left scapular fragment of this adult female shows a well-healed fracture and possible dislocation of the shoulder girdle (Fig. 5.4 and 5.5). Glenoid cavity is broken post mortem but appears normal. But the preserved coracoid portion is dislocated. The trauma must have happened long before death, as indicated by complete healing, and thus the incidence cannot directly be taken as a cause of death. Remodeling of the coracoid process can be confirmed on radiographs in the form of relatively less area of radiopacity. Remaining portion of the scapula is not preserved in the

Fig. 5.6: Healed fracture on the left ulna: NVS(VM) 73 (medial view).

Proximal end of the left ulna exhibits a wellhealed traumatic lesion (Fig. 5.6 and 5.7). The olecranon process of this bone appears to be dislocated . Inferiorly to the olecranon, the coronoid process shows aberrant features on both the medial and lateral aspects.

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Porotic hyperostosis Sufficient quantity of minerals is required for healthy growth of the body. Iron constitutes the main component of an average diet and is an important element in hemoglobin, which helps to transport oxygen to blood tissue. It also contributes to the strength of the immune system. A good amount of iron is provided by both animal and plant foods, but phytates, plat proteins, or intestinal parasitic infections hinder iron absorption (Baynes and Brothwell 1990). In clinical terms , iron deficiency is only a symptom and not a disease. It results in lack of colour, reduction of size and life span of red blood cell size. In general, children have greater risk of experiencing iron deficiency than adult. During infancy body mass increases very rapidly and if the child is fed exclusively on breast milk the iron demand is not fulfilled.

Skeletal manifestations of this pathological lesion can be diagnosed even in the prehistoric populations. These changes are related to a hyperactive bone marrow that creates pressure on surrounding bone increasing the width of the marrow space and decreasing width of the outer table of bone. The lesion is described as porotic hyperostosis. Angel ( 1966) was the first to use the term while describing pathology of the outer table of cranial vault bones. There are different patterns (for example , cribra crania , symmetrical osteoporosis , spongy hyperostosis , etc.) , which can be grouped in this pathology (Ortner and Putschar 1981). Porotic hyperostosis is present when normally smooth and dense outer compact bone of the skull (more common in parietal) and/or orbit is pitted by small holes of varying size and density. If porosity of the outer layer of the skull corresponds with that of the roof areas of the eye orbit, the lesion is known as cribra orbitalia. The lesion may appear asymmetrically.

Fig. 5.7: Healed fracture on the left ulna : NVS(VM) 73 (lateral view).

Medially there is a marked depression (around 5 mm deep) in the region of flexer digitorum superficialis attachment. On the lateral side, inferior to the radial notch, the triangular depression (supinator fossa) has a very prominent plate like crest. The formation of extra bone laterally and large basin medially confirms traumatic origin of the morphology . The lesion is confirmed on X-ray. The fracture can broadly be described 'shearing'. Shearing fractures result when opposite forces are applied to a bone in slightly different planes. The force must have come from the posterio lateral side of the bone. The neighboring bone is normal proximally and seems to be unaffected by the trauma. There is slight anterior concavity along the entire shaft ; but this feature does not seems to be pathological in origin, as it appears symmetrically on the right side bone too.

Porotic hyperostosis occurs in archaeological population from very early period . Causative factors for this pathology are not precisely known. The range , besides iron deficiency, includes sickle cell anemia or thalassemia , and loads of intestinal parasites. In young juveniles this lesion is evident as active , unhealed patch (Lallo et al. 1977; Larsen et al. 1992; Walker

Interosseous crest is very prominent in both ulnae , which reflects the extreme robust features of this individual. No pathology could be attributed to it.

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1986), whereas in adult the lesion may be remolded and healed.

NVS(VM) 2: (Age: 1 y ± 4 m) A patch of moderate porosity is evident on the occipital bone. An area of approx. 2 x 2 cm is affected. NVS(VM) 3: (Age 4 to 5 y) Slight porotic patch is seen on the left parietal fragment. However, confirmation of the lesion is not possible because of the heavy matrix coating to the bone.

Fig. 5.9: 'Holes' inside the cranial vault: NVS(VM) 4.

NVS(VM) 75: (Age 30 - 35 y) Some porosity observed on occipital and left and right parietal bones (Fig. 4.18) of this Indo-Roman specimen. The area affected measures about 5 x 5 cm, around the lambdoid region. There are three large sized inter-sutural bones in the region, which are also affected. The specimen is middle-aged male adult. The lesion is not seen on the orbital roofs, but the supra-orbital region exhibits uneven bone surface, which could either be a result of pathology or aging process.

Fig. 5.8: Possible lesion of porotic hyperostosis on the orbital roof: NVS(VM) 4.

Radio graph of the skull of this individual confirms the affected area of the lesion. The right and left parietals and occipital area show typical formation of the porotic hyperostosis. Porosity is evident in the glabellar region also. The etiology of this lesion is not known completely and can be merely grouped as 'non-specific'.

NVS(VM) 4: (Age 18 ± 3 m) Porosity is observed on the right orbital roof. The area is slightly damaged post-mortem and left orbit is missing. Extent of the area affected by porosity is small but two depressions (measuring 5 x 5 mm) are seen (Fig. 5.8). Two similar depressions are also seen on the inner table of the left parietal (Fig. 5.9). The edges of these depressions (both on orbits and parietal) are smooth and rounded hinting antemortem origin of the lesion, though the etiology of the lesion cannot be ascertained. Tentatively the lesion on orbit may be diagnosed as cribra orbitalia. The incidence of this pathology can be confirmed in the radio graph.

Harris lines Radiopaque transverse lines found on growing end( s) of long bones, running horizontal to the epiphyseal end( s), are commonly referred to as Harris Lines, after the discoverer (Harris 1931, 1933). Such lines can be observed in apparently healthy as well as chronically ill infants or children as a result of numerous metabolic insults. They record a suspension of growth followed by a recovery period of

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There is no co-occurrence in the two growth disturbance indicators studied in the present research, viz. Harris lines and enamel hypoplasia (discussed later), except in NVS(VM) 41 where two bones, femur and radius , show multiple disturbances, 4 and 3, respectively. Deciduous canines of this around 3 year old child exhibit hypoplastic enamel pits. The presence of both these indicators in a single individual justifies the conclusion drawn regarding the retarded skeletal growth.

catch-up growth and taken as an evidence of childhood illness and index of morbidity in a given population (Wells 1964). Several questions have been raised as to the validity of this technique as the lines have been shown to disappear later in life (Marshall 1968). Harris line formation is attributed (Park 1964, Steinbock 1976) to episodes of bone growth disruption in which cartilage cell division slows or stops while mineralization is allowed to continue, resulting in abnormal formation of bone structure. In the recovery period, when growth resumes, the cartilaginous plates of long bone move longitudinally, leaving behind rings of increased mineralization, density and radiopacity. These lines thus are not simply 'growth arrest lines' but more accurately, 'recovery lines'. In the aging process the lines may be resorbed and become invisible gradually.

Scurvy Deficiencies of particular vitamins produce more specific skeletal changes. Skeletally the evidence for survey consists of new bone formation , potentially anywhere on the skeleton. It is caused due to vitamin C deficiency. In addition to reducing the resistance to infection , vitamin C deficiency predisposes to bleeding into the skin and beneath the periosteum . Apart from faulty periosteum and the ligaments holding the teeth in the sockets , the cement substance in the blood vessels is defective and predisposes the individual to hemorrhage into the soft tissues bones, especially the jaws and joints. Most commonly the gums swell and bleed and this leads to the development of periodontal disease. Recent works (Roberts and Manchester 1995) suggests that the new bone may be localized in the jaws, in the orbit and along the lines of the temporalis muscle (important for chewing). For all this , however, scurvy is a palaeopathological rarity , probably due to non-recognition or misdiagnosis in the record , especially if the orbital lesions are being taken as the changes of anemia.

In all, 108 sub-adult long bone diaphyses and 6 long bones of adults, having either one or both epiphyseal ends preserved, are radiographed for exammmg growth disturbances. Of these 9 (8.33 %) bones belonging to 7 individuals exhibit complete or partial Harris line(s) on one or both ends. Multiple occurrences of lines are seen on 5 bones. The thickness of the line expression varies from a thin hairline to that of a soft pencil line. Some lines are complete across the width of the bone with more than 1 mm thickness, while some are thin with half or even one quarter of the bone width affected. It may be noted that line gradation could not be attempted for some bones because of poor preservation and matrix covering. Table 5.3 gives the details of the Harris lines incidence.

A probable case of scurvy is diagnosed on the specimen NVS(VM) 4 (Age 18 ± 3 m). Prevalence of the lesion is seen on both gnathic bones, more severely on the maxilla (Fig. 5.10 also see Fig. 4.28) than in mandible. Inside the crypt of maxilla where teeth sockets are located, bone porosity is observed which might be attributed to survey. As described earlier, in porotic hyperostosis section, two 'hole' like lesions are observed on the right orbital roof and on the inner table of the skull. The area is slightly damaged post-mortem and bone of the other side is missing. Some antemortem depression is seen on that area measuring 5 x 5 mm in size (Fig. 5.8). There

Table 5 .3: Incidence of the Harris lines

Specimen No. NVS(VM) 36 NVS(VM) 39 NVS(VM)41

NVS(VM)46 NVS(VM) 50

Bone affected Humerus Hemures Radius Femur Radius Ulna Ulna Ulna

NVS(VM) 59

Tibia

NVS(VM)45

Lines occurrence I 4 3 4 5

2 I

½ of the bone width I

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seems to be remolding of bone. Similar lesion is also seen on the inner table of left parietal at two places (Fig. 5.9). The edges of all the holes and depressions are smooth and rounded. This lesion on the orbit and skull could be because of porotic hyperostosis. But the confirmative diagnosis is difficult to arrive at.

Indicators categorized as 'stress marker' are primarily of three types: a) Robusticity marker related to the normal reaction of the skeleton to habitual muscle usage, reflecting daily activities that produce rugged markings at the musculoskeletal site of attachment. It is seen in its most extreme expression as sharp ridges, or crests of bone; b) Stress lesion is a pitting or 'furrow' into the cortex to the degree that it superficially resembles a lytic lesion. A continuum often occurs between the robusticity and stress lesion markers . Some individuals exhibit a combination of the strongest robusticity score and faintest stress lesion grade at a single insertion site, suggesting a severe use pattern ; and, c) Ossification exostosis where the particular type of MSM is because of an abrupt macrotrauma. When a bone avulsion injury occurs new bone formation may be incorporated into the ligament or muscle tissue and results in exostosis or bony 'spur'.

Occupational stress indicators

Skeletal markers of occupational stress (MOS) can clarify the daily activity patterns of individuals . The term MOS includes a variety of activity-induced changes produced by stress on human bone. Continual stress of a muscle in repetitive tasks creates a well-preserved skeletal record of an individual's habitual activity patterns . The use of MSM for habitual activity analysis operates under the assumption that degree and type of markers are related directly to the amount and duration of habitual stress placed on specific muscle (Kennedy 1989).

'

l

.

i .

' .

'

.

·a

2 .

Fig . 5.10: Possible case of scurvy on the maxillary fragment: NVS(YM) 4.

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NVS(VM) 71: (Age 18 - 20 y) As mentioned in the earlier chapter, this individual gives an evidence of slight blending of the entire shafts of the right radius and ulna along their anterior aspect. The crest is more evident in the lateral bone than the medial (Fig. 5.11). Outer table of both the bones is damaged post-mortem and bones of the left side are not preserved in the collection. It appears that the curvature might have resulted from prolonged stress of minimal severity.

Fig. 5.12: (VM) 73.

New bone formation on left fibula: NVS

NVS(VM) 73: (Age 30 ± 5 y)

Right humeral shaft shows areas of mussel marking above the deltoid tuberosity, making the bone bigger than the bone of left side. The girth values in the affected area are 8.01 cm (R), and 7.5 cm (L) (Fig. 4.10). The pronounced expression of robusticity on the right bone might be due to differential and/or asymmetrical work demand placed on this side. Interestingly yet another instance of stress factor is observed on the same individual. New bone formation on the medial aspect of right radial shaft is noticed. The elevation is little less than 1 cm and occurs on the interosseous crest (Fig. 4.11 ). Two rugged areas are noticed on the medial aspect of the elevated deformity, which confirm the involvement of stress factor in bone remolding. On the same bone, on its superior aspect, new bone formation is also observed. The bone is broken at this point precluding observation of the extent of the lesion. The neighboring bone, ulna, is normal. Comparison with the bone of other side is not possible.

Fig. 5.11: Bending of the radial shaft: NVS(VM) 71. Normal bone from same side is given for comparison.

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Left fibula also exhibits an area about 1 cm with extra bone formation on its distal end to its mesial aspect (Fig. 5.12).

this condition, with underlying infection, osteoporosis and neoplastic disease weakening the bone structure, enabling Schmorl's nodes to develop (Resnick and Niwayama 1988, Roberts 1994).

Vertebral pathology Human vertebral column is one of the most commonly affected elements of the skeletal system to the joint problems. No ervation is possible on immature vertebral elements of Nevasa sub-adults . Of the adult segment vertebral column is preserved only for NVS(VM) 75. Only two cases of vertebral pathology are identified , one of which cannot be confirmed. NVS(VM) 30: (Age 10 - 12 y) This is a possible case of 'pseudopathology'. Vertebral bodies of the thoracic region on their superior aspect give an evidence of longitudinal grooves measuring from 0.5 cm to 1 cm (Fig. 5.13 and 5.14). There is slight postmortem damage in the region but the texture and the morphology of the grooves is convincingly different. In the first glance it appears like a problem related to tuberculosis but no corresponding lesions on the ribs are seen. The changes might also be due to water logging or other bacterial reactions during the decomposition process, but the neighbouring skeletal elements give no such indication. The origin of this 'lesion' therefore cannot be confirmed. It might just be a case of vascular impressions seen in growing ages.

Fig. 5.13: Pseudopathology (?) on the vertebral column: NVS(VM) 30, dorsal view.

VS(VM) 75: (Age 30 - 35 y) Some osteophytic growth is observed on the superior and inferior aspects of vertebral bodies. On the inferior side of the 10th thoracic vertebral body uneven depression is seen (Fig. 5.15). On the superior side of T-11 vertebral body extra bone is developed, which could be described as 'nodes'. The affected articular area of these vertebrae corresponds with each other. The lesion could be described as a degenerative pathology. Intensity of this pathology depends on the age and stress factors, and occurs when the inter-vertebral disc starts degrading due to stress. Although the Schmorl's nodes are generally seen on the lower thoracic and lumber vertebral body surfaces , their specific etiology remains unknown in most of the cases. Trauma has been implicated as one of the major causes of

Fig. 5.14: Pseudopathology (?) on the vertebral column : NVS(VM) 30, lateral view.

122

Fig. 5 .15: 'Schmorl 's nodes' on the 10th and 11th thoracic vertebrae : NVS(VM) 75.

Fig. 5.16: Osteoporosis on the vertebrae: NVS (VM) 75.

123

Osteoporosis growth is noticed on the 12th thoracic and 1st lumber vertebral bodies along their superior and inferior articular edges (Fig. 5.16). This is probably a general developmental phenomenon related to growing age. In this the lesion is not severe but excessive bone growth in this region may result in the joining of two vertebral bodies in due course and is taken as an initial stage of DISH lesion.

NVS(VM) 2:(Age 1 y ± 4 m)

On the right humerus of this individual an area of about 5 mm exhibits periosteal lesion. It is located on the anterior proximal side near the area of inter tubercular groove. It is seen as a ridge plus slight bone remolding.

NVS(VM) 11: (Age New born) Periostosis New woven bone formation is seen prominently on the left ulna proximally to its lateral-anterior side (Fig. 5.17). The area of the porosity on the shaft is about 1.5 cm in length. Doubtful appearance of periostosis lesion is also observed on the left humeral head fragment along its medial-superior side.

Periostosis , as a disease by itself, is uncommon. It usually represents part of, or a reaction to, pathologic changes of the underlying bone . The inner layer of the periosteum retain s ostoblastic capacity throughout life, through which it reacts to many different insults with formation of woven bone. This new bone formation is not always an expression of inflammation but is just one of the reactions to any specific or nonspecific infections of bone . The new bone formation if continues over a long period of time make the bone surface irregular and affects the bone thickness as well. The marked, uneven hypervascularity visible on dry bone in the form of smaller and larger pores in periosteal bone is often striking (Ortner and Putschar 1981). Many individuals from the Nevasa exhibit periosteal reactions where etiology remains questionable.

NVS(VM) 12: (Age 3 - 5 m)

The right ulna of this individual indicates nonspecific infection . The post-mortem damage has occurred for both the extremities. But the area preserved around the damaged head exhibits slight periostitic lesion. Almost complete shaft of the bone indicates remolding of the outer table, which is evidenced in the Xray of the bone. Some 'deformation/swollen' bone is seen on the medial aspect of the diaphysis. Bone of the other side is not available for comparison. Doubtful appearance of 'lesion' is also seen on the humeral fragment.

series exact

NVS(VM) 17: (Age Neonatal)

Bone remolding is seen on the right radial midshaft region along its mesial aspect (Fig. 5.18). Some remolding is also seen on the proximal side of the bone. The length of radius is 54 mm and the lesion extends approx. 2 cm. Similar lesion is also seen on the fibular fragment but it is not as prominent as that on the radius. Fig. 5.17 : Bone infection NVS(VM) 11.

seen on the left ulna:

124

Fig. 5.19: Radial mid-shaft fragments with ' holes ' : NVS(VM) 20.

NVS(VM) 26: (2 y ± 3 m) Porosity is observed on the inner and outer table of three skull fragments. Approximate diameter of the porosity is 2 mm. The lesion is comparable with the 'porosity' observed on NVS(VM) 20. NVS(VM) 33: (New born) The right humerus of this individual shows possibility of periostosis lesion. The bone has been cut transversally in the mid-shaft region (by Prof. Lukacs) for the study of sub-cortical length. This cut has allowed seeing the 'bony growth(?)' on the dorsal aspect of the bone (Fig. 5.20). The bone is covered with matrix hindering observation of the lesion on the outer table. In spite of trying thrice because of the matrix coating the bone could not be radiographed satisfactorily and therefore offers no help in evaluating the bone changes , if any.

Fig. 5.18: Bone remolding on the mid-shaft of right radius: NVS(VM) 17.

NVS(VM) 20: (Age 7 ± 2 m)

All the bones are heavily encrusted with the soil. But on three radial mid-shaft fragments very minute 'holes' measuring 2 mm to 5 mm are observed (Fig. 5.19). The edges of these holes are smooth which indicate ante-mortem origin of the lesion. Interestingly on the three skull fragments present in the inventory porosity is observed on both inner and outer table of vault. The lesion on radius and cranial bones are different in character. The main difference in these two lesions is that, the radial holes penetrate into the marrow cavity, whereas in case of skull the lesion is more like depressions. No secondary bone reaction was seen on the specimen. The etiology of the lesion is not understood at this stage of work.

:• I' 't 1111111111 Fig. 5.20: Periostosis on the right humerus: NVS(VM) 33.

125

5.22). Damaged proximal end with mesial wall of the shaft is preserved for the bone and the lateral wall is lost post-mortem. The affected area is about 5 cm. There are traces of infection on the inferior aspect of the proximal end.

NVS(VM) 41: (Age around2.5 y) Suspected pathology is seen on the proximal ends of both right and left femur to their lateralinferior aspect. On the left femur a small ridge (5 mm in length) has developed which can be confirmed on X-ray as a radio-opaque region . Slight porosity is also seen in the surrounding area (Fig. 5.21) . The lesion on right femur may come under normal range . The etiology cannot be understood at this stage of research .

Fig. 5.22: Periostosis on the entire shaft of right tibia: NVS(VM) 50.

NVS(VM) 54: (Age 6 ± 2 m) Five small-sized rib fragments , two from the sternal end and three retaining head and rib tuberosity exhibit porosity (Fig. 5.23). On the two sternal end rib fragments porosity is noticed on the inferior aspect measuring around 5-mm. Slight bone molding is also seen on the superior aspect. On three rib pieces of vertebral ends porosity is evident near the area of articulation. Porosity near the sternal end fragments is more prominent and dense.

Fig. 5 .21: Ridge and porosity on the left femoral proximal end: NVS(VM) 41 .

NVS(VM) 45: (Age 18 ± 3 m) Bone remolding is seen on the inferior aspect of the left radial and right ulnar distal ends to their lateral aspects . In both the cases the affected area is about 1 cm in length and located near the metaphyseal region. The morphology of this lesion is clearly different from the typical morphology seen at the growing diaphyseal ends during the primary osteon proces s. Nearly 2/3 rd of the radius is preserved but is covered with soil precluding observation of the extent of the lesion. The other side ulna is preserved and normal , with no porosity of any kind.

NVS(VM) 50: (Age 10 - 12 m) Only few bon e fragment s represent this individual. But dense porosity is observed on the entire preserved shaft of right tibia (Fig .

Fig . 5.23: Porosity on the sternal and vertebral ends of ribs: NVS(VM) 54.

126

NVS(VM) 57: (Age 7 ± 2 months) Slight porosity is observed on the left radius along the radial tuberosity. The affected area is 5 mm (Fig. 5.24). In the field the bone was glued in opposite orientation with the neighboring ulnar bone thereby creating little confusion regarding understanding of the lesion.

Fig. 5.25: 'Scratches' on the rib fragments: NVS(VM) 11.

IV.DENTAL PATHOLOGY Dentition is constructed of dense and hard material and therefore resists decay in the ground. It constitutes one of the most important components of physical evidence for bygone human populations. Studies on dental remains are important in archaeological perspectives. The mouth functions primarily as a food processor and food type determines the microorganisms present in the mouth. The condition of a person's teeth therefore reflects the composition of the food that has come into contact with those teeth. As Lukacs (1989) points out dentition provides information on the composition of diet of early man (what is eaten), nutrition (physiological adequacy of the diet), and subsistence (method of procuring the diet) of prehistoric populations. Dental pathology is the scientific study of the origin, nature, and course of dental diseases and associated diseases of jaws. It illustrates the complexity of bio -cultural (or geneticenvironmental) interaction in prehistoric human populations.

Fig . 5.24: Porosity on the proximal end of left radius : NVS(VM) 57.

Misc. bone changes

On seven rib fragments of NVS(VM) 11 ('new born' individual) curious bone infection is observed. Dr. Ehrhardt mentions the lesion as 'scratching'. The 'scratches' are observed on the inferior aspects of the mid-shaft or the sternal ends (Fig. 5.25). They are very minute and to look at them one need a magnifying glass. On rib fragments of NVS(VM) 15 (infant) similar kind of lesion is noticed.

Lukacs (1989) classifies the dental diseases in four categories on the basis of initial or primary

127

causal agent: 1. Infectious diseases are those that arise because of the action of a pathogenic microorganism; 2. Degenerative diseases are those that display loss of a conspicuous amount of tooth or bone surface or substance; 3. Developmental diseases are those whose effect or influence occurs during the formation of dental tissues or during the developing interrelationship between teeth and their supporting structures, the jaws; and, 4. Genetic diseases are those for which a large genetic component is involved.

1989). Multiple hypoplasias in a single individual yield clues to the timing or periodicity of repetitive stresses, such as recurring seasonal scarcity of nutrients. Differences in the frequency of enamel hypoplasias between sexes, social status and groups with different subsistence bases can provide valuable data on the pattern of stress in a prehistoric population (Hush-Ashmore et al. 1982).

The dental pathologies/anomalies observed in the Nevasa series include caries, periodontal diseases, enamel defects, attrition, antemortem tooth loss, variations in 3rd molar tooth eruption and other genetic defects.

Enamel hypop lasia

Enamel hypoplasia is a deficiency in enamel thickness due to a disruption during enamel forming activity and is an easily identified marker of stress or growth disruption (Goodman et al. 1980). Enamel hypoplasia appears as irregular horizontal linear grooves or pits in the enamel surface, best viewed on the labial (buccal) aspect of the crown.

Fig. 5.26: Localized enamel hypoplasia: NVS(VM) 40.

There are three types of enamel defects seen on the Nevasa dental series. They are linear enamel hypoplasia, localized enamel hypoplasia and enamel pits (Fig. 5.26). Linear enamel hypoplasias (Fig. 5.27), as mentioned above, are horizontal grooves in linear pattern and enamel pits are seen mainly as pinprick size, which is not server as linear hypoplasia. Localized enamel hypoplasia (EH) is of oval or roughly circular area of deficient enamel formation mostly appearing on the labial surface of deciduous canine teeth. This depressed area is often discolored (yellowbrown) and varies greatly in size from 2 - 5 mm in diameter. Bilateral expression of the trait is often asymmetric in size and severity as stated by Lukacs (1989). The reason behind this defect is still unknown to the scholars.

Microscopic hypoplastic defects provide an indelible and retrospective record of growth disruptive stress occurring during the period childhood (birth to about 13 years) when tooth enamel was being formed and remain as a permanent record into adulthood. Multiple causal factors can produce enamel hypoplasia; including nutritional stress (Hush-Ashmore et al. 1982), vitamin D deficiency and fevers. While the specific cause of a particular hypoplastic defect cannot be determined, the mere existence of a defect indicates a stress of sufficient magnitude to disrupt the normal growth process. Since the chronology of tooth formation is known, the developmental age at which a growth disruption occurred in a child can be precisely determined. Hypoplasias of deciduous or baby teeth represent stress in utero or immediately after birth and therefore tend to reflect maternal health and nutrition (Cohen

Table 5.4 provides details of the enamel defects observed on the series. Age wise and tooth wise prevalence of the lesion is given in Table 5.5 and 5.6, respectively.

128

Table 5.4: Enamel defects observed on the Nevas a dental series

No.

Death age

NVS (VM) 4

18 ±3 m

Tooth

Mandibular Rdc Mandibular Ldc

...... N

NVS (VM) 14 NVS (VM) 21 NVS (VM) 30

9±1m

Maxillary Rdm2

18 ±3 m

Mandibular Rdc

10-12yr

Maxillary RI2

\0

Maxillary LI2

Maxillary RC

Maxillary LC

Mandibular Rdc

Estimated time of disturbance

Description

Calcification begins

Calcification status at birth

Oval shaped EH on the mesial side. Crown height: 7.17 mm, EH location 2.11 mm above CEJ. The affected area : horizontally 1.72 mm and vertically 1.52 mm. EH as vertical groove of 1.81 mm on the mesial aspect. Estimated height of crown 6.94 mm. Place of lesion can not measured as the tooth is broken near CEJ. (Fig. 5.28) Enamel erosion (?) on the distal and bucco -lateral aspect of crown . Affected area 1.50 mm from CEJ, for both places . (Fig. 5. 29) EH on the mesio-buccal aspect. Crown height 7.41 mm. EH lesion 3.22 mm above CEJ. Affected area: 1.28 mm horizon tally and 1.38 mm vertically . Two hypoplastic lines on the bucca l side. Crown height is 9.76 mm. First EH line is 2.07 mm, and the second 4.45 mm, above CEJ. Distance between two lines 2.38 mm. Interestingly there is a vertica l hypoplastic line (?) in between mesio-distal diameter which curves mesially near CEJ. (Fig. 5.30 and 5.31) Two hypoplastic lines. Crown height is 9.31 mm. First line 1.76 mm, and the second 3.65 mm, above CEJ. Distance between two lines 1.89 mm. There is a vertical hypoplastic line (?) in between mesio-dista l diamete r, but it is not as prominent as on RI2. Two hypoplastic lines. Crown height: (11.41 mm). First line (2.72 mm), and the second line (4.30 mm), above CEJ. All measurements are estimates. Distance between two lines 1.58 mm. Two prominent hypoplastic lines on the mesial side. Lines get fed up in laterally . Crown height 11.26 mm. First line 2.61 mm, and second 4.00 mm, above CEJ. Distance between two lines 1.39 mm. One pin-prick sized EH on the bucca l surface approx . at the centre . Crown height can not be determined , so also height of the lesion from CEJ.

5.0 min uteri

I/3rd of crown

Calcification complete 9.0m

5.0 m in uteri

I/3rd of crown

9.0m

6.0 m in uteri

Cusp joined

10-12 m

7-8m

5.0 m in utrei

113rd of crown

9.0 m

6-7m

10 - 12 m

--

4-5

10-12 m

--

4-5 yr

First line: 52± 1 m Second line : 34± 2m First line: 65m Second line: 52± lm First line : 65m Second line: 52± 1 m (?)

yr

4-5

m

--

6-7 yr

4-5

m

--

6-7yr

5.0 min uteri

1/3rd of crown

9.0m

Around 5 m

(?)

First line: 52 ± 1 m Second line: 34±2m

Table 5.4: Continued ........ .

...... w 0

No.

Death age

Tooth

NVS (VM ) 30 NVS (VM ) 31 NV S (VM ) 37

Continue

Mandibular Ldc

9 ± 3m

Mandibular Rdc

lyr ± 3m

Mandibular Rdc Mandibular Ldc

NVS (VM) 40

3 - 4yr

Mandibular Ldc

NVS (VM) 41

Around 2.5 yr

Maxillary Rdc

Maxillary Ldc

NV S (VM) 43

3 - 4 yr

Maxillary LI 1

Maxillary LI2

NVS (VM ) 49

18 ± 2 rn

Mandibular Ldc

Description

Calcification begins

Ca lcification status at birth

One pin-prick sized EH on the mesio-buccal aspect. Crown height can not be determined due to attrition. EH lesion 2.9 mm above CEJ. Elongated groove of EH to the lateral-buccal aspect. Area of lesion approx. 2.67 mm . Damage at CEJ precludes measurement of crown height and height of lesion. (Fi2. 5. 32) EH (?) located on the mesio-buccal aspect as a small horizontal groove. EH located on the mesio-buccal aspect as vertical groove measuring 2.22 mm . Height of crown and place of lesion on RLdc can not be measured as the tooth is still forming. (Fig. 5. 33) EH on the mesio-buccal aspect. Height of crown 7.54 mm. Height of lesion 1.41 mm above CEJ. Affected area 3. 11 mm horizontally and 1.48 mm vertically . There are two pin-prick holes observed on the same tooth on its lateral side. (Fb?:.5. 26) EH on the mesio-buccal aspect. Height of crown 7.54 mm. Height of lesion 1.88 mm above CEJ. Affected area 1.98 mm horizontally and 1.92 mm vertically . EH on the rnesio-buccal aspect. Height of crown 7 . 16 mm . Height of lesion 1.51 mm above CEJ. Affected area 2.61 mm horizontally and 1.78 mm vertically . Lesion is not as prominent as on Rdc. Linear enamel hypoplasia on the buccal aspect. Height of crown 7.75 mm. Hypoplastic line 3.00 mm above CEJ. Unerupted tooth. (Fig. 5. 34) Linear enamel hypoplasia on the buccal aspect. Height of crown 7.74 mm . Hypoplastic line 2.01 mm above CEJ. Unerupted tooth. (Fi2. 5. 35) EH on the rnesio-buccal aspect. Height of crown 7 .22 mm. Height of lesion 1.61 mm above CEJ . Affected area 2.41 mm horizontally and 2.27 mm vertically . Tooth is in process of eruption . (Fi2.5.36)

5. 0 min uteri

1/3ra of crown

Calcification complete 9.0m

5. 0 min uteri

113rd of crown

9.0m

8m

5. 0 min uteri 5. 0 min uteri

113rd of crown

9.0m

(?)

113rd of crown

9.0m

(?)

5. 0 min uteri

1/3rd of crown

9.0m

7-8m

5. 0 min uteri

I/3rd of crown

9.0m

7 - 8m

5. 0 min uteri

113rd of crown

9.0 rn

7-8 m

--

4- 5 yr

32 ± 2m

10-12 m

--

4- 5 yr

42 rn

5. 0 rn in uteri

I/3rd of crown

9.0m

3-4

rn

Estimated time of disturbance 7 - 8m

7 - 8m

Table 5.4: Continued ........ .

No .

Death age

Tooth

Description

Calcification begins

Calcification status at birth

NVS (VM) 51 NVS (VM) 52 NVS (VM) 62 NVS (VM) 63

3 yr± 6 m

Maxil1ary Lil and LC

Il:3-4m C: 4-5 m

--

18±2 m

Maxi11aryRdc

5. 0 min uteri

I/3rd of crown

9.0m

Around birth time

3 yr± 6 m

Mandibular Ldc

5. 0 min uteri

I/3rd ofcrown

9.0m

(?)

18±3 m

Maxillary Ldc

These teeth show problem of enamel mineralization to their buccal sides. The lesion observed as small vertical lines of enamel formation. (Fig. 5. 37) One pin-prick sized EH on the mesio-buccal aspect. Crown height (8.34 mm). Height of lesion (7.20 mm) above CEJ. Both measurements are estimates . EH seen as vertical groove on centre of mesio -distal distance of crown. Crown height and place of lesion can not be measured because of damage. Pin-prick sized EH on the mesio-buccal aspect. Crown height 7.27 mm. Height of lesion 1.38 mm above CEJ. Linear hypoplasia on its buccal side, extending distally. The crown is still forming so measurements not attempted. Line is below 3.62 mm from the crown surface. (Fig. 5. 38) Linear hypoplasia on the mesio -buccal aspect. The crown is sti11 forming . Line is below 2.84 mm from the mesio-buccal cusp. Thickness ofline 1.30 mm. (Fig. 5. 39) Linear hypoplasia on the buccal surface . Crown height 10.88 mm. Height of EH Line 2.25 mm above CEJ. Two lines on the buccal surface . Crown height 10.10 mm. First line 1.37 mm, and second 2.96 mm, above CEJ. Distance between two lines 1.59 mm .

5. 0 min uteri Birth

113rd of crown

9.0m

7-8m

Beginning

2.5 to 3 yr

(?)

Birth

Beginning

2.5 to 3 yr

(?)

Maxillary RMI

......

Mandibular RMI

w

NVS (VM) 71

18-20 yr

Maxillary RI 1 Maxil1ary RI2

3-4m 10-12 m

Calcification complete Il:7-8yr C: 6-7 yr

--

4-5

--

4-5yr

Maxillary RC

Three hypoplastic lines on the buccal side. Crown height 10.64 mm. Distances from CEJ : First line (not very clear) 3.35 mm, second 4.42 mm, third 7.55 mm. Distance between first-second line 1.07 mm, and second-third line 3.30 mm. (Fig. 5. 40)

4-5m

--

6-7yr

Mandibular RC

Three hypoplastic lines on the buccal side, Crown height 10.87 mm. Distances from CEJ: First line 2.21 mm, second 3.91 mm, third 6.92 mm. Distance between first-second 1.70 mm, and second-third line 3.01 mm.

4-5m

--

6-7

yr

yr

Estimated time of disturbance (?)

40m First line: 50m Second line: 40m First line: 56-57 m Second line: 50m Third line: 18 m First line: 68-70m Second line: 50m Third line : 30m

Table 5.4: Continued ........ .

No.

Death age

NVS (VM) 71

NVS (VM) 72

22-25

yr

Tooth

Description

Mandibular LC

Three hypoplastic lines on the buccal side. Crown height 11.71 mm. Distances from CEJ: First line 3.31 mm, second 4.51 mm, third 7.13 mm. Distance between first-second line 1.20 mm, and second-third line 2.62 mm.

Maxillary LI2

Enamel depression line on the buccal aspect. Crown height 9.04 mm. Distance of line from CEJ 3.94 mm. Thickness of line 1.44 mm. Doubtful appearance of at least 2 or 3 hypoplastic lines on the buccal aspect. Not prominent. Crown height 10. 15 mm. The last of suspected lines occurs at 3.73 mm above CEJ. Distance of other lines can not be measured as they are ill-defined. One (2?) hypoplastic line on the buccal aspect. Crown height 10.15mm. Line occurrence 3.94 mm above CEJ. More prominent on the mesial aspect of the crown. Three hypoplastic lines on the buccal aspect, appearing very close to each other precluding exact measurements. Crown height 8.08 mm. Approx. distance from CEJ: First line 1.66 mm, second line 2.69 mm , and third 4.12 mm. The distance between first-second lines 1.03 mm , and second-third lines 1.43 mm. Faint hypoplastic lines , very hard to trace and measure the distance from CEJ. Linear hypoplasia on the buccal surface. Crown height 5.68 mm. Distance from CEJ : 2.17 mm. Continued. Linear hypoplasia on the buccal surface. Crown height 5.42 mm. Distance from CEJ 1.93 mm . One hypoplastic line covering the entire crown. Crown height 7.09 mm. Line occurrence 3.08 mm above CEJ.

Maxillary RC

Maxillary LC

......

w N

Maxillary RPml

Maxillary LPml Maxillary RPm2 Maxillary LPm2 Maxillary LM2

Calcification begins 4-5 m

3-4m

4-5

m

4-5m

Calcification status at birth

--

4-5

yr

Estimated time of disturbance First line: 60 m Second line: 50m Third line: 30-32 m 40 ± 2m

--

6-7

yr

53 - 55 m

--

6-7

yr

55 m

--

Calcification complete 6-7yr

18-24

m

--

5 - 6yr

18-24

m

--

5-6yr

First line: 60 m Second line : 50m Third line: 40±2m (?)

2-2.5

yr

--

6-7yr

60m

2-2.5

yr

--

6-7yr

60m

2.5-3

yr

--

7-8

yr

66m

Table 5.4: Continued .... .. .. .

No.

Death age

Tooth

Description

NVS

30 to 35 yr

Maxillary RC

Linear hypoplasia on the buccal aspect. Distance from CEJ: 2. 73 mm. Crown height can not be measured due to attrition. Linear hypoplasia on the buccal side. Crown height 5.68 mm. Line occurrence 2.38 mm above CEJ . Linear hypoplasia covering the entire crown. Crown height (4.76 mm, estimate). Lesion occurrence 1.76 mm above CEJ. Linear hypoplasia on the buccal aspect. Crown height (5.66 mm, estimate) . Line occurrence 2.37 mm above CEJ. Linear hypoplasia on the buccal side. Crown height (5.74mm, estimate). Lesion occurrence 2.52 mm above CEJ. Line more prominent on the mesio-buccal side. Linear hypoplasia on the buccal aspect. Line occurrence 3.03 mm above CEJ. Crown height can not be determined due to attrition. Linear hypoplasia on the buccal aspect. Line occurrence 2.29 mm above CEJ. Crown height can not be determined due to attrition. Linear hypoplasia on the buccal aspect. Crown height (6.00) mm, estimate. Lesion occurrence 2.77 mm above CEJ. Prominent lesion as is reflected in wide and deep line . (Fig. 5. 27) Continued. Linear hypoplasia on the buccal aspect. Crown height (5.80) mm, estimate. Height of lesion 2.54 mm above CEJ. Prominent lesion as is reflected in wide and deep line. The tooth crown broken on the buccal wall. Linear hypoplasia on the buccal side. Crown height (5.73 mm), estimate. Line occurrence 2.98 mm above CEJ. Linear hypoplasia on the buccal side . Crown height 5. 72 mm. Line occurrence 3.07 mm above CEJ.

(VM)

75

Maxillary RPml Maxillary LPml Maxillary RPm2 Maxillary RM2 Mandibular RC

...... w

w

Mandibular LC Mandibular RPml

Mandibular LPml

Mandibular RM2 Mandibular LM2

Calcification complete 6-7yr

Estimated time of disturbance (?)

Calcification begins 4-5m

Calcification status at birth

18-24 m

--

5-6yr

48m

18-24 m

--

5-6yr

48m

2-2 .5 yr

--

6-7

2.5-3

--

7-8yr

65 m

4-5m

--

6-7yr

(?)

4-5m

--

6-7yr

(?)

18 - 24 m

--

5-6yr

47-48

18 - 24 m

--

5-6yr

46-47m

2.5 - 3 yr

--

7-8

2.5- 3 yr

--

7-8yr

yr

--

yr

yr

60m

65-66

m

m

55 m

Note: The hypoplastic line identified as ' first line ' is in fact the last and most recent episode of stress observable . The second (or third) lines are the earlier disturbance events .

tqll ll \lltl l

,

Fig. 5.27: Linear ename l hypoplasia : NVS(VM) 75.

Fig. 5.29: Enamel erosion on molar: NVS(VM) 14.

1111p111p111111

1

Fig. 5.30: Enamel vertical groove on RI2: NVS(VM) 30

2

F ig. 5.28: Localized EH: NVS(VM) 4.

ig. 5.31: Enamel vertical groove on RI2: NVS(VM) 30

134

i''

II : Fig. 5.35: Linear NVS(VM) 43.

Fig. 5.32:Localized EH: NVS(VM) 31.

enamel

''

..

.

hypoplasia

maxillary

LI2:

···-·-··11..I..IJJ. .11Ull..Ul .1..lll .l..l .l..I . Fig. 5.33 : Localized EH: NVS(VM)37.

Fig. 5.36: Localized EH: NVS(VM) 49.

I 11'111 llflT Fig. 5.34: Linear NVS(VM) 43.

enamel hypoplasia

maxillary

Fig. 5.37: Problems in enamel mineralization of Lil and LC : NVS(VM) 51.

Lil:

135

Table 5.6: Age-wise occurrence of enamel hypoplasia (in months) F

M

M

F

11 1 0 12 1 13 2 14 3 15 4 16 1 5 17 6 18 1 4 7 19 5 8 20 9 21 10 M: Month; F: Frequency

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

-

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

4

44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

-

55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

2 1 4 -

66 67 68 69 70 71

2 1 -

77

-

2 1 2

1 -

1

3 1 3 4

1

3

72

73 74 75 76

78 79 80

Freauencyof enanEIhypoplasia

6 -....------------------------~5 g4~ 3er ~ 2 ~ 1

o .....,.,...,....,.,..,._.,.._ __ ..,.,..,. __ _ 1

6

11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 €>671 76 81

:tv1Jnt:hs

Fig 5. 41: Graph showingmonth-wiseprevalenceof enameldisturbancesin Nevasa

136

Out of the 494 teeth compnsmg this dental series, 51 teeth (10.3%) belonging to 17 individuals (out of 75 individuals, 22.6%) exhibit enamel hypoplastic lesions. Both deciduous and permanent teeth are affected. Though the development of crown is well understood, calculating the 'stress age' from the line/pit where it occurred from the cementoenamel junction is controversial. Using this method for permanent teeth was straightforward. But for deciduous teeth, since their development starts before birth, specific care was required. The following method has therefore been adopted while estimating the age of disturbance in case of primary teeth. Fig. 5.38: Linear enamel hypoplasia on maxillary Ml: NVS(VM) 63.

a.

Status of calcification achieved at birth (as written in Table 5.3) is the first consideration.

b.

Accordingly, from the total crown height an appropriate measure is subtracted as development before birth.

c.

While presuming that the remaining crown developed at a uniform rate, the remaining crown height is taken as development occurred till the crown completion or till the individual died, whichever is earlier.

d.

Using the height of lesion from the CEJ month of disturbance is calculated.

11111111111 .111 Fig. 5.39: Linear enamel hypoplasia on mandibular Ml: NVS(VM) 63.

Total 60 stress episodes are recorded on 51 teeth for which age estimation is possible for 48 events. For the remaining 12 stress events either the tooth is too immature or worn out or post-mortem damaged. From Table 5.4 and the graph based on this data (given on the next page) it appears that most of the children had experienced stress at very early stage of life, more specifically at the weaning age. If the weaning phase is presumed to have started from the 6th month and continued till around 12th month, the growing infant might have experienced nutritional stress and related pathological disturbances which is reflected in the form of deficient enamel. The earliest occurrence of the line is around the fifth month and there are nine cases in the range of 6-9 months. A longitudinal growth study undertaken on children below 5 years of age (Walimbe and Gambhir 1994) highlights the weaning stress in majority of their sample. Ethnoarchaeological facets of this study clearly

Fig. 5.40: Multiple linear hypoplasia: NVS(VM) 71.

137

show nutritional inadequacy of the weaning food given to the growing infants. This study also records the disturbance of feeding timetable if the child is being looked after by a 'mother substitute'. High instances of mortality during the early ages have been attributed to the weaning stress, non-feeding of colostrum, poor and prolonged lactation, maternal neglect and culturally imposed food taboos.

permanent teeth. The problems of this age might not have been solely nutritionally originated but appears to be resulting from increased exposure to pathogens. Of the 17 individuals showing enamel hypoplastic lesions, 8 individuals have only one tooth affected. There are also cases where the lesion is evident on two or more teeth of the same individual. As many as 5 to 8 teeth are affected in 3 individuals of the series. Noteworthy is the Indo-Roman adult, where the number of teeth showing the lesion is 11. More number of affected teeth does not necessarily indicate multiple occurrence of stress. As seen for NVS(VM) 30, one stress event has affected four teeth, which were being developed at that time. At the same time it may also be mentioned that two or even three episodes of stress recorded in single tooth. Such incidences, however, undoubtedly suggest multiple stress events.

Interestingly there is case where age of disturbance is around birth itself. This individual, NVS(VM) 52, died at the age of 18 ± 2 months. Deciduous canine where calcification process begins at about 5th month in uteri and I/3rd of the crown is complete at the time of birth. A pin-prick sized hypoplastic pit seen very close to the tip of the crown indicate disturbance during the prenatal life and further suggests physiological stress on pregnant and nursing mothers. Another most common episode of stress is around 4 to 5 years, which could be read on

Table 5.6: Tooth-wise occurrence of enamel hypoplasia Teeth Total

Maxilla Infected Fre. %

Deciduo us Dil Di2 De Dml Dm2 Total

30 27 27 36 40 160

--

--

--

--

4

14.8

Permane nt 11 12 C Pml Pm2 Ml M2 M3 Total

18 11 12 8 8 29 9 5 100

--

--

1 5

02.5 03.1

3 5 7 4 3 1 2

01.6 45.4 58.3 50.0 37.5 03.4 22.2

--

--

25

25.0

Total

Mandible Infected Fre. %

18 22 23 34 44 141

16 10 7 8 8 28 9 7 93

138

--

--

--

--

11

47.8

--

--

--

--

11

07.8

--

--

-4 2

--

57.l 25.0

--

--

1 2

03.5 22.2

--

--

9

09.6

Total

48 49 50 70 84 301

34 21 19 16 16 57 18 12 193

Total Infected Fre. %

--

--

--

--

15

30.0

--

--

1 16

01.1 05.2

3 5

08.8 23.8 57.8 37.5 18.7 03.5 22.2

11

6 3 2 4

--

--

34

17.7

Dental caries

NVS(VM) 56: (Age 3.5 y ± 6 m)

Caries are described as 'infectious and transmissible disease in which progressive destruction of tooth structure is initiated by microbial activity on the tooth surface' (Pindborg 1970:256). If the oral hygiene is poor food particles remain entrapped in the inter cuspal grooves of the occlusal surface and provide ideal microenvironments for the reproduction and destructive activity of microorganisms. Destruction of dental hard tissue is the direct result of lytic activity by these bacteria (Mandel 1979). Caries frequency at the population level is used as an indicator for evaluating the nutritional differences between hunter-gatherers and agriculturists (Cohen and Armelagos 1984). Increased carious lesions in agricultural populations are associated with a shift to high carbohydrate diets.

The caries lesion has affected the occlusal surfaces of maxillary RLdml (Fig. 5.42) and mandibular RLdml (Fig . 5.43). Lesion of almost negligible intensity is visible on the mandibular Ldm2. For maxillary Rdml the lesion is penetrated into the root. On Ldml it exists as a large cavity on the occlusal surface, but it is rather small as compared to the disturbance seen on the other side (Rdml). The cavities are on the mesial side of the occlusal surface and destroy complete morphology of the area. For mandibular RLdml , there is more infection on the right side of the jaw. The cavities on these teeth are on the distal aspect. Infection in the beginning stage is observed on the mandibular Rdm2, so also for Ldm2. Both maxilla and mandible exhibit sever infection on the right side, which indicates the preference of that side for chewing food . Pinprick sized attrition is seen on the large cusps of mandibular RLdm2s but they are not infected. No other teeth are affected by caries infection.

In the Nevasa series 19 teeth are noted to have caries infection. Table 5.7 gives tooth wise prevalence of the lesion. It may be noted that the sample of teeth available for inspection (as given in the table) includes fully erupted and mature teeth , as well as dental germs , either partially erupted or non-erupted, showing various stages of development. Therefore any statement regarding the percentage of teeth affected would be deceptive, since immature non-erupted germs are not likely to have the infection. Table 5.7: Tooth-wise prevalence of caries. Tooth

drnl Dm2 Pml Pm2 Ml M2 M3

Maxilla Observed Infected 28 2 27 I 8 I 7 22 I 7 5 -

Mandibl e Observed Infected 23 3 25 3 8 8 3 2 20 2 7 5 -

Cfll

1''.'11111'l'111lI'''l'11l111, '·l

Fig. 5.42: Caries on maxillary RLdmls: NVS(VM) 56.

Individual cases described below.

of

caries

pathology

are

139

, ••

,,,1 11111n1 ,11111111111111111 1 1 1

!)

m>'~-~

3

Fig. 5.43: Caries on mandibular Ldml : NVS(VM ) 56. Fig. 5.45: Caries on mandibular Rdm2: NVS(VM) 62.

NVS(VM) 62: (Age 3 y ± 6 m) Teeth of this individual have suffered from postmortem damage, which precludes proper understanding of the lesion. Mandibular Ldm 1 and RLdm2 seem to have affected with the lesion on their occlusal surface (Fig. 5.44, 5.45 and 5.46). For Ldml half of the enamel is worn off resulting into secondary dentine exposure. But the tooth appears to have infected with attrition related caries. For RLdm2 caries have destroyed occlusal morphology completely creating a sloping depression in the middle of the crown.

I11IIIl 1111111111I11111111 Fig. 5.46: Caries on mandibular Ldm2: NVS(VM) 62.

NVS(VM) 72: (Age 22 - 25 y) Caries lesion is observed on the mandibular RPm2 on its mesio-buccal aspect (Fig. 5.47 and 5.48). The crown and the root of the tooth are also infected. The neighbouring tooth RC does not show any kind of infection. Though post-mortem origin of the damage cannot be completely ruled out, more possibly it seems like a caries lesion as the morphology of the lesion indicates. Kennedy and Malhotra (1966:74) also mention this 'lesion' as caries infection. They comment "there is a large carious aperture on the mesial surface of the lower right second premolar but this is unaccompanied

Fig. 5.44: Caries on mandibular Ldml : NVS(VM) 62.

140

by any pathological alteration in the bone of its alveolus". Molar teeth of this individual are not infected.

Fig. 5.49: Mandible: NVS(VM) 73.

NVS(VM) 75: (Age 30 - 35 y)

Fig. 5.47: Caries on RPm2: NVS(VM) 72.

Caries pattern se.en in this individual is very interesting. The infection is seen on the maxillary RPml , RPm2 and RMI (Fig. 5.50). In mandible it is seen on RLMl and RLM2. In maxillary RPml, the lesion must have started on the occlusal surface and further penetrated to lingual-distal aspect of the crown. The buccal wall of the crown with little dentine is preserved. The neighbouring tooth, RPm2, has exhibits caries in beginning stages. It is evident as a 'hole' on the mesial aspect of the crown near the CEJ area. The RM 1 and LPm2 have lost their crowns ante-mortem and virtually roots are performing masticatory role . The loss of complete or almost complete crown might be occupation related, but possibility of caries infection , cannot be totally ruled out. Fig. 5.48: Mandible : NVS(VM) 72.

NVS(VM) 73: (Age 30 ± 5 y) The dentition of this individual has suffered severely from post-mortem damage. Caries plus chipping of the crown is evident on the mandibular RLPm2 (Fig. 5.49). There are traces of attrition related cavities / caries (?) on mandibular RM3 and RLPml. Caries infection on the mandibular RPm2 has resulted in total loss of buccal crown of the tooth and only the lingual wall of the crown has survived. The infection appears to have started from the occlusal level and penetrated to the buccal aspect.

Cffl

___

. ..

.

.. .

_ l_--- :.___2

""l ·3

Fig. 5.50: Caries on maxillary RPml, RPm2 and RMI: NVS(VM) 75.

141

In mandible caries lesion is observed on the mesial aspect of RM2. Distal side of RMI and the mesial wall of RM2 are very close to each other making it difficult to observe the lesion neatly. Infection is noticed on the other side of the mandible as well, for LMl and LM2. On the distal surface of LMl and the mesial aspect of the LM2 'holes' in the enamel are noticed. Severity of the infection in mandible is less than that of maxilla. Majority of these caries infections could be attributed to bacterial reaction and reflect poor dental hygiene of the individual. Caries could also develop in response to severe attrition where enamel is destroyed and the pulp cavity is exposed. Such infection often appears first on the occlusal surface . Though teeth of two individuals , NVS(VM) 73 and NVS(VM) , have their occlusal area affected the infection seems no way connected with the masticatory stress.

Fig. 5.51: Periapical abscess near canine region: NVS(VM) 73.

NVS(VM) 73: (Age 30 ± 5 y) Periapical abscess is visible in the right side maxillary canine region. It is located near the root of the tooth (Fig. 5.51). It can be described as medium-sized lesion. Dentition of this individual has suffered from the severe attrition. It cannot be confirmed that whether the canine had caries infection or not, but it shows attrition of grade 7 exposing lost enamel rim on two sides. The etiology of the peridontal disease can be attributed to the severe loss of the occlusal surface. Comment on specific etiology is not possible since radiographic ·exposure does not confirm appearance of any cavity in the area affected.

Periapical abscess

Exposure of the pulp chamber through severe attrition or extensive carious decay produces an inflamed or necrotic pulp. This causes infection of the periapical tissue and osteitis. The lesion is recognizable in skeletal remains only if the spreading pathological process has destroyed the external bony surfaces of the jaw. Periapical abscesses should be carefully differentiated from the post mortem damage to the jaws by their location at the apex of the dental root and by the smooth and rounded margin of the orifice of the abscess cavity, which exposes the tooth root.

Attrition Dental attrition is the gradual and regular loss of tooth substance as a result of natural mastication (Pindborg 1970). It is a mechanical process, reflecting daily and intimate contact of the people with their environment. Attrition of the occlusal surfaces may destroy the enamel, exposing the underlying dentine . Attrition continued beyond this point may threaten exposure of the pulp cavity. Dental attrition is the most commonly reported phenomenon in archaeological skeletal studies. In addition to the attrition resulting from natural mastication several other factors also contribute to attrition. For example, occlusal inaccuracy resulting from antemortem tooth loss, occupation related stress, preference for a side for chewing and hygienic habits of the individual contributes in accelerating the attrition rate.

It is classified on the basis of the location of the orifice, and the measured diameter of the externally visible orifice into: small (less than 3 mm); medium (greater than 3 mm and lesser than 7 mm); and large (equal to or greater than 7 mm). Among the Nevasa skeletal series, only one adult individual gives the evidence of this lesion.

142

The quality and quantity of abrasives in the diet is also considered as a major influencing factor. Hard, fibrous and unprocessed food of the Mesolithic hunter-gathers or processed soft food of the early agricultural societies are stated to have different kind of occlusal wear pattern.

exposing dentine. Right maxillary second molar is in between grade 2 and 3. Kennedy and Malhotra (1966) also report this attrition. The description is given in following manner: "The degree of dental attrition is slight for all of the teeth and negligible for the premolar and second molars. The third molars are still in the process of eruption and so exhibit no wear at all. The direction of attrition is buccal for the molar teeth" (pp. 68).

The attrition pattern seen in individual teeth is described below. NVS(VM) 30: (Age 10 - 12 y) This individual has less to moderate occlusal wear pattern (Fig. 4.19 and 4.30). The age of this child was 10 to 12 years old at the time of death. All deciduous dmls and dm2s were in use at the time of death. All permanent Mls were erupted and used for some time. Attrition on the maxillary and mandibular M 1s is very less and negligible. According to 'Standards' the attrition pattern seen on deciduous molars can be graded as follows: maxillary RLdml: grade 6, RLdm2: grade 5; mandibular RLdml: grade 5, RLdm2: grade 6. Mandibular canine also exhibits moderate attrition. On the mandibular RLMl small 'holes' are observed on the buccal-mesial aspect of the occlusal level. The size of the holes is 2-3 mm. The reason for this morphology could be attrition or caries related infection, but positive statement is not possible. The lesion is bilateral in appearance.

Fig. 5.52: Maxilla: NVS(VM) 71.

NVS(VM) 58: (Age 6 - 7 y) The attrition pattern for this individual is less to moderate. This child was around 6 to 7 years old at the time of death. Maxillary Ldml and mandibular Rdml are broken and judgement of wear cannot be made. The wear pattern for RLdm2 of maxilla is grade 2. Mandibular Ldml falls in grade 4, and RLdm2s in grade 3. All these teeth come under the normal range of wear. Maxillary Rdml is however severely worn, displaying pattern of grade 8, where enamel is present only on outer rim, but the remained enamel is thick on this edge. The severe wear only on one tooth is very surprising and difficult to explain. NVS(VM) 71: (Age 18 -20 y) Attrition for this individual is in the normal range (Fig. 5.52 and 5.53). For maxillary RLMl and mandibular RLMl it comes in grade 5, indicating that a quadrant of the crown is flat

Fig. 5.53: Mandible: NVS(VM) 71.

143

NVS(VM) 73: (Age 30 ± 5 y) The dentition of this individual shows different attrition grades varying between 'less' to 'moderate' categories (Fig. 5.53 and 5.48). Maxillary teeth show more wear than the mandibular. There is some post-mortem damage precluding observation of mandibular RLMls and M2. Maxillary pre-molars have suffered sever wear. The anterior teeth of this person also exhibit attrition with dentine exposed.

The attrition grades for different teeth are given in Table 5.8. Fig . 5.54 : Maxilla : NVS(VM) 73.

Table 5.8: Attrition pattern: NVS(VM) 73

Tooth

Side/ Grade

Description as per 'Standards'

Maxilla C

Pml Pm2 Ml M2

R: 5 L: 5

Enamel rim lost on two sides or small remnants of enamel remain Enamel rim lost on two sides or small remnants of enamel remain R: Sever loss of crown height L: Same as above R: Full dentine exposure, loss of a rim on at least one side L: Same as above R : Enamel is found only on two dies of the quadrant L: Ename l only on one side but the enamel is thick to medium on this edge R: Quadrant is flat with dentine exposure ¼ of quadrant or less L: R: Quadrant is flat with dentine exposure ¼ of quadrant or less L: Same as above

R:4 L: 4 R: 6 L: 6 R: 5 L: 5

R: At least one large dentin exposure on one cusp L : At least one large dentin exposure on one cusp R: Dentine areas coalesced, enamel rim is still complete L: Same as above R: Quadrant is flat with dentine exposure ¼ of quadrant or less L: Same as above

R: 7 L: 7 R: 8 L: 8 R: 7 L: 7 R: 7 L: 8 R: 5

L: M3 Mandible Pml Pm2 M3

144

NVS(VM) 75: (Age 30 - 35 y) Mandible shows attrition in the normal range (Fig. 5.55), but surprisingly the upper teeth exhibit different variations of attrition (Fig. 5.56). Incisors also show moderate attrition, so also the right canine. The left canine is lost postmortem. For the right Pml crown is broken post-mortem while the left Pml shows slight attrition. Interestingly the right Pm2 is only slightly attired but for the left side same tooth has lost its almost entire crown due to attrition. Crown for the right Ml is also lost completely, and its roots were in use as masticatory surface. Left side Ml is lost antemortem, long before death, as indicated by the closure of the alveolar bone after the loss the tooth. Right and left M2 exhibit slight attrition pattern. The attrition pattern suggests that the right side was preferred for mastication. It might also be because of the caries and/or associated periodontal problem developed for the left side, which resulted in the loss of the first molar.

Fig. 5.55: Mandible: NVS(VM) 75.

Grades of attrition on maxillary and mandibular teeth are given in Table 5.9.

Fig. 5.56: Maxilla: NVS(VM) 75.

Table 5.9: Attrition pattern: NVS(VM) 75 Tooth Maxilla Pml Pm2 Ml M2 Mandible Pml

Side

Description as per 'Standard'

R:4 L: 5* R: 5 L: 8 R: 10 L: 0 R: 1 L: 1

R: At least one large dentin exposure on one cusp L: Two large dentine area, slight coalescence R: Two large dentine area, slight coalescence L: Severe loss of crown height ; crown surface take on shapes of roots R: ware is extended below the cervico -enamel junction into the root L: No information available due to antemortem lost R: Ware faces invisible or very small L: Ware faces invisible or very small

R:4 L: 4 R:4 L: 4 R: 5 L: 5 R:4

R: At least one large dentin exposure on one cusp L: At least one large dentin exposure on one cusp Pm2 R: At least one large dentin exposure on one cusp L: At least one large dentin exposure on one cusp Ml R: Quadrant is flat, with dentine exposure one-fourth L: Quadrant is flat, with dentine exposure one-fourth or less M2 R: Quadrant area is worn flat (horizontal) but there is no dentine exposure other than a possible pinprick sized dot L: Quadrant area is worn flat (horizontal) but there is no L:4 dentine exposure other than a possible pinprick sized dot R: Quadrant area is worn flat (horizontal) but there is no M3 R:4 dentine exposure other than a possible pinprick sized dot L: L: 0 *No precise observation could be done as most of the crown is lost due to caries .

145

Non-eruption of third molar and other genetic anomalies

Antemortem tooth loss

In addition to the pathological lesions, certain genetic anomalies are also noticed on the Nevasa dental series. Most noteworthy is the non-eruption of third molar in the Indo-Roman adult specimen, aged around 30 - 35 years. In the upper jaw both right and left molars are absent , while in mandible the right one is fully erupted and in occlusion. Non-eruption of third molar is more frequent in the agricultural populations. The reduced masticatory stress because of soft and processed food is taken as the main influencing factor . Variations in third molar eruption is of three types: a. the tooth is half erupted and never reaches the occlusal plain , b. never erupts but stays in the jaw; and c. congenetic absence of the tooth. Radiograph taken on maxilla does not show traces of unerupted tooth, indicating its total absence. The mandibular left molar is, however, present in the jaw but because of the unlimited space did not get erupted.

The loss of teeth prior to an individual's death is referred to as anti-mortem tooth loss. It is recognizable by progressive resorptive destruction of the alveolus. There is always confusion in differentiating tooth loss immediately before death and post-mortem loss. Antemortem tooth loss may occur for a variety of reasons including trauma, nutritional deficiency, range of dental diseases (like attrition, caries, periodontal diseases) or even may reflect a ritual custom. Though establishing the ultimate causal agent is not possible , the tooth loss yields valuable information about the nature of masticatory stress in a skeletal population (Lukacs 1989). Two adult specimens of the Nevasa series exhibit antemortem tooth loss.

NVS(VM) 73: (Age 30 ± 5 y)

The other genetic feature is the absence of mandibular di 1 and I 1 sockets in NVS(VM) 51. This anomaly has been described earlier.

Maxillary second molar was lost probably a couple of months before the death this individual. The alveolar bone is still not fused completely (Fig. 5.54). The mandibular RM2 is also lost antemortem. The loss of this tooth was before the maxillary LM2, as indicated from the advanced stages of alveolar bone fusion . Loss of maxillary LM2 could be because of attrition (or attrition related caries). The neighbouring tooth LMl show severe wear pattern of the occlusal surface. The etiology behind RM2 antemortem tooth loss cannot be commented exactly.

Summary of the pathological lesions and anomalies observed on the Nevasa human skeletal series in given in Table 5 .10.

V. INTERPRETATIONS The Chalcolithic cultural phase of the Deccan plateau marks the beginning of agriculture and sedentary life in the region. As stated earlier , compact geographic distribution of this cultural sites, its rural base and prevalence of the subadult specimens in the skeletal series offers an 'ideal' situation to verify the theories regarding the physiological stress forwarded for the populations in the incipient stages of farming economy. The pathological lesions and anomalies observed on the Nevasa specimens, along with the other Chalcolithic evidence offer useful hints for projecting the nature of adoptive strategies of these early farmers.

NVS(VM) 75: (Age 30 - 35 y) The maxillary LMl was lost antemortem (Fig. 5.56). The loss of the tooth was long before the death of this adult, as the alveolar bone is completely fused. The attrition on LPm2 is severe which has resulted in complete loss of its crown, and the root was being used as masticatory surface for some time. Like NVS(VM) 73, loss of this molar appears to be the outcome of the attrition-related caries.

146

Table 5.10: Summery of pathological lesions and anomalies

Pathology

NVS(VM) no.

I Description

Age

Skeletal pathology

Maxillary sinusitis Trauma

Porotic hyperostosis

Harris lines

Scurvy(?) Stress indicators

Vertebral pathology

Periostosis

'Scratches' on rib fragments

NVS (VM) 71 NVS (VM) 73 NVS (VM) 36 NVS (VM) 72 NVS (VM) 73 NVS (VM) 2 NVS(VM)3 NVS(VM)4

18 - 20 y 30+ 5 y 9+3m 22-25 y 30+ 5 y 1 y±4m 4-5y 18 ± 3 m

NVS NVS NVS NVS NVS NVS NVS NVS NVS NVS NVS

30-35 y 9+3m 3 - 4y Around 2.5 y 18 + 3 m 27±3 m 10 - 12m 2y±6m 18 + 3 m 18-20 y 30 ± 5 y

(VM) 75 (VM) 36 (VM) 39 (VM)41 (VM) 45 (VM) 46 (VM) 50 (VM) 59 (VM)4 (VM) 71 (VM) 73

NVS (VM) 30

10 - 12 y

NVS (VM) 75

30-35

NVS (VM) 2

1 y±4m

NVS (VM) 11

New born

NVS (VM) 12 NVS (VM) 17 NVS (VM) 20

3-5m Neonatal 7 ± 2m

NVS (VM) 26

2y ± 3 m

NVS (VM) 33

New born

NVS (VM) 41

Around 2.5 y

NVS (VM) 45

18 ± 3 m

NVS NVS NVS NVS NVS

(VM) 50 (VM) 54 (VM) 57 (VM) 11 (VM) 15

y

10 - 12 m 6±2m 7+2m New born Infant(?)

147

Left maxilla. Left maxilla. Green stick fracture on right ulna . Well-healed fracture of left caracoid process. Well-healed fracture of left ulnar head. Occipital bone . Left parietal. Cribra orbitalia on left orbit and two depressions on the inner table on the left parietal. Right and left parietal and occipital bone. Humerus Humerus Radius and femur Radius and ulna Ulna Tibia Tibia Both gnathic bones. Slight bendim?:(?) of right radius and ulna. 1. Right humaral shaft shows muscle marking area near deltoid tuberosity. 2. Right radius shaft shows new bone formation on medial aspect. 3. Left fibula shows extra bone formation on its distal end on mesial aspect. Pseudopathological changes on the vertebral bodies of thoracic region. 1. Schmorl's nodes on the 10th and 11th thoracic vertebrae. 2. Osteophytic growth on the 12th thoracic and first lumber vertebrae. Proximal side of right humerus to anterior aspect. Proximal side of left ulna to lateral-anterior aspect. Complete shaft of right ulna. Mid-shaft region of right radius on mesial aspect. 1. 'Ho les' on the mid-shaft fragments of radius. 2. Depressions on the inner table of skull fragments. Depressions on the inner table of skull fragments. Dorsal aspect of right humerus in the mid-shaft region. Lateral aspect of left femur has ridge and porosity. Distal end of left radius and right ulna to their lateral aspects. On the complete mesial side of right tibia. On five rib fragments. On left radius along the radial tuberosity. Inferior aspect of seven rib fraITTnents. Inferior aspect of rib fragments.

Table 5.10: Continued ........ .

Pathology

NVS (VM) no.

Age

Description

Dental pathology Enamel hypoplasia

NVS(VM)4 NVS (VM) 14 NVS (VM) 21 NVS (VM) 30

Mandibular RLdc (localized). Maxillary Rdm2 enamel erosion (?). Mandibular Rdc (localized). Maxilla: RLI2 , RLC (linear).

18 ± 3 m 9±lm 18 ± 3 m 10 -12 y

Mandibular: RLdc (localized) . NVS NVS NVS NVS NVS NVS NVS

Caries

Attrition

Antemortem tooth loss

Periapical abscess Non-eruption of third molar. No socket for tooth

(VM) (VM) (VM) (VM) (VM) (VM) (VM)

31 37 40 41 43 49 51

9±3 m ly±3m 3 - 4y Around 2.5 y 3 - 4y 18 ±2 m 3y±6m

NVS (VM) 52 NVS (VM) 62 NVS (VM) 63

18 ± 2 m 3y ± 6m 18 ± 3 m

NVS (VM) 71

18 - 20 y

NVS (VM) 72

22-25

NVS (VM) 75

30 - 35 y

NVS (VM) 56 NVS (VM) 62 NVS (VM) 72 NVS (VM) 73

3.5 y ± 6m 3y±6m 22 - 25 y 30 ± 5 y

NVS (VM) 75

30 - 35 y

NVS (VM) 30

10 - 12 y

NVS (VM) 58

6 - 7y

NVS (VM) 71

18 - 20 y

NVS (VM) 73

30± 5 y

NVS (VM) 75

30 - 35 y

NVS (VM) 73

30 ± 5 y

NVS (VM) 75 NVS (VM) 73 NVS (VM) 75

30 - 35 y 30± 5 y 30 - 35 y

NVS (VM) 51

3y ± 6m

y

148

Mandibular Rdc (localized). Mandibular RLdc (localized). Mandibular Ldc (localized). Maxillary RLdc (localized). Maxillary LI 1 and Ll2 (linear). Mandibular Ldc (localized). Maxillary LI 1 and LC, problem related to enamel mineralization . Maxillary Rdc (localized). Mandibular Ldc (localized). Maxilla: Ldc (localized), RM 1 (linear). Mandible: RM 1 (linear). Maxilla: Rll , RI2, RC (linear). Mandible: RLC (linear). Maxilla: Ll2 (enamel depression); RLC, LPml, RLPm2 and LM2 (linear). Maxilla: RC, RLPml, RPm2 and RM2 (linear). Mandible: RLC, RLPml and RLM2 (linear) . Maxilla: Occlusal surface of RLdm 1. Mandible: Occlusal surface ofRLdml and Ldm2. Occlusal surface of mandibular Ldm 1 and RLdm2. Mesio-buccal aspect of mandibular RPm2. Occlusal surface of mandibular RLPm2 and attrition related caries on RM3. Maxilla: RPml (lingual-lateral) , RPm2 (buccal) , RM 1 (occlusal ?). Mandible: RLMl (distal) and RLM2 (mesial) . Maxilla: RLdml and RLdm2. Mandible: RLdm 1 and RLdm2. Maxilla: Rdml and RLdm2 . Mandible: Ldml and RLdm2. Maxilla: RLM 1. Mandible: RLM 1. Maxilla : RLPml, RLPm2 , RLMl, RM2 and RLM3. Mandible: RLPml, RLPm2 and RLM3. Maxilla: RLPml, RLPm2, RMI and RLM2. Mandible: RLPm 1, RLPm2 , RLM 1, RLM2 and RM3. Maxilla: LM2. Mandible: RM2 . Maxillary LMl. Maxillary RC, near root area. Maxilla: RLM3 Mandible: LM3 Absence of socket for mandibular di 1 and 11

Sedentism and subsequent adoption of agriculture are stated to have adverse effect on health (Cohen and Armelagos 1984). Shift to food producing economy is taken as a consequence of population growth. The agricultural subsistence system increased carrying capacity of the land. "Farming is a destabilized system that permits people to raise their production above the natural capacity of the land, and the most desirable cultigens (i.e. high energy yielders) typically have low nutrient densities. High carbohydrate diets are correlated with decreased birth intervals, which causes an increase in the potential rate of population growth and may result in a population surge" (Cassidy 1984:336). Agricultural practices also resulted in alteration of the settlement pattern. The earlier huntergatherer settlements had been small. But the farming economy made the villages larger and permanently occupied. The sedentary settlements probably led to higher birth rates (Cohen 1977), and consequently increased the population pressure further. Increasing population densities can be evidenced in archaeological record in the form of larger occupational area and more number of sites in the later sub-phases (like Late Jorwe) of the Chalcolithic culture. Increase in the population almost certainly created pressure on the carrying capacity of the land, making part of the population to move away to exploit new areas.

accelerated spread of epidemics. Settlements of the hunter-gatherers were smaller and spread over larger area. Their nomadic life style made them hardly prone to epidemics, whereas in the more settled lifestyle incidences of infection had greater chance of spreading. To summarize, causes of the physiological stress in the Deccan Chalcolithic populations were probably the deficiency of nutrients in staple crops, chronic lack of food, and high infectious rates due to population growth. The skeletal elements preserved over years have the potential to provide primary evidence of this stress. Decreased life expectancy is taken as one of the prime demographic indicators to confirm increasing physiological stress. Maximum life span in the Chalcolithic skeletal series was possibly around 35 years. There is no individual aged more than 40 years at the time of death. Stability of the food resource base for many hunting-gathering Mesolithic communities is evidenced in the skeletal record of relatively high ages at the time of death (Kennedy et al. 1992). As stated by the previous scholars (Walimbe and Tavares 1996, Tavares 1998) the most significant feature of the Chalcolithic skeletal series is the high proportion of the sub-adult individuals. Some anthropological reports have used fewer incidences of adult skeletons to presume alternative burial practices like exposure, disposal and cremation (LukacsBadam 1981, Malhotra 1965); at the same time, abundance of immature skeletons recovered from the sites like Nevasa or Chandoli was claimed to be because of the um-burial custom. While not denying the fact that burying immature dead in twin or single urns protected the skeletal elements against the destructive pressure of the superincumbent earth to some extent, Walimbe and Tavares (1996) have stated the need to critically assess of the Chalcolithic demographic spectrum. They project infant mortality rates during the Chalcolithic era at around 45% to 60%.

No doubt farming economy assured food supply, but, as stated earlier, in the initial stages of agriculture there was greater emphasis on carbohydrate rich food. On the other hand, the hunter-gatherers are said to have had a varied healthy diet with better quality protein and a better balance of other nutrients. Moreover, the hunter-gatherer's food range was wide, including both meat and forest products, whereas the agriculturists had a narrow choice of food. These settled communities could not improve food production beyond a certain level to meet the demands of the increasing population pressure experienced nutritional stress, both qualitatively and quantitatively, leading to undernourishment and malnourishment. Nutrition and disease are integrally and synergistically related with one another. Protein calorie malnourishment further deteriorated health status of the early agricultural populations. In addition, increased population densities in the sedentary life style

In continuation of the demographic analysis Walimbe and Tavares (1996) project the average life expectancy during the Chalcolithic times as around 25 years, and maximum life span as 35 years, as stated earlier. There are serious discussions among the anthropologists

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series, as described above, and those seen in other Deccan Chalcolithic populations confirm increasing physiological stress experienced by these early agro-pastoral communities.

regarding the accuracy that could be achieved while aging archaeological adult skeletons. Most of the criteria used depend on 'degenerative' features and lots of cultural variables are stated to have influence in the expression of these traits. But in spite of these limitations, considering the cultural material evidence and general life style projections, survival beyond the age of 45-50 years seems very unlikely during the protohistoric period. It may be noted that many of the anthropological studies on various incipient agriculture populations record decrease in life expectancy and low ages at death, in comparison with the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers (Cohen and Armelagos 1984).

Model for interpretation for physiological disruption and stress indicators in early agricultural populations, modified after Larsen 1984 and Tavares 1998, is given in Fig. 5.57.

Palaeopathology Decline

and

the

Chalcolithic

Issues related to the decline and extinction of the Deccan Chalcolithic phase has generated scholarly discussions. Several hypotheses have been offered to explain the enigmatic termination of this cultural phase. As stated in the second chapter the drastic change in the climate around c.1000 B.C. , leading to increasing aridity , thereby making people to shift their subsistence strategies, has been stated as a prime responsible factor (Dhavalikar et al. 1988). Decline and extinction of the Deccan Chalcolithic culture, however, cannot be explained adequately with a single reasoning. The climatic changes coupled with the problems of increasing population pressure probably resulted in the decline of the culture. It seems more probable that increasing population pressure (for human and non-human populations) was one of the main responsible factors.

General growth retardation is also noted for the Chalcolithic sub-adults (Walimbe and Gambhir 1994). As explained earlier in this chapter increased nutritional stress and decreased mechanical stress resulted in stature reduction and general gracility in the settled early farming populations. Of the possible etiologies quoted for retarded growth during the developmental phase, especially during the first five years of life, the important ones could be nutritionally inadequate weaning foods and synergistically associated pathologies. Some of the enamel hypoplastic lesions seen on the deciduous teeth indicate stress for the pregnant mother. Longitudinal growth study undertaken on the children below 5 years of age (Walimbe and Gambhir 1994) and the preliminary inferences of the ethnoarchaeological study currently undertaken by the authors clearly indicate high percentage of anaemia in pregnant and nursing mothers. Besides specific food taboos imposed by the community, factors like early marriages, subsequent pregnancies, repeat pregnancies, less child spacing, prolonged lactation increase the physiological stress for mothers, and consequently the growing featus and breast fed infant gets affected. Special weaning food is seldom prepared, and the nutritional supplementation is often far from satisfactory.

At the same time, the pathological lesions should not be misquoted while offering cultural interpretations. In the review articles published in the recent past, traumatic injuries reported on human bones are used to interpret the tragic and abrupt end of this culture (Shinde 1994, Naik and Mishra 1997). As mentioned in Chapter II (pp. 37), Shinde (1994) holds the Megalithic invaders responsible for the termination of the Chalcolithic culture in this region. His hypothesis is based on the traumatic lesions seen on human skeletal remains from Inamgaon and specific features of the settlement. Naik and Mishra (1997:54) while quoting the aforesaid reviewer state that " ....there is evidence of conflicts from the Late Jorwe levels at Inamgaon based on the human skeletal remains from which Lukacs and Walimbe ( 1986) identify evidence of death due to trauma."

In addition to the general and indirect evidences of stress (like reduced life expectancy, increased child mortality, gracility, reduced stature, growth retardation, etc.), the Deccan Chalcolithic human skeletal series provides primary evidence of several specific and non-specific pathologies. Specific pathologies and anomalies seen in the Nevasa

150

However, tracing such correlation seems unjustifiable (Walimbe 1997). Extension of anthropological data to conclude about the decline appears to be far stretched and therefore unconvincing. None of the publications referred by these scholars or any other publication dealing with anthropological aspects of the Chalcolithic series consider the traumatic lesions as the direct cause of death. The fractures/dislocations reported from this series are attributed to dynamic stress, and are cases of well-healed injuries. Also as stated in the aforesaid publication, while forwarding any statement on traumatic evidence as a factor for the Chalcolithic decline several factors should be taken into account, including age-sex prevalence of the lesion, status of healing process, occupation, and the temporal context of the individual.

only misquoting the incidence to suspect violence . It also hints for the after care offered to the disabled individual and the high social values of the population. Though it is not the direct concern of skeletal biology but it is interesting to note that the evidence of multiple burials (where two or more individuals were interned) or fractional burials (where certain body parts were missing) is also used to forward the hypothesis of 'massacre' theory (Shinde 1994). While discussing this issue Walimbe ( 1997) states "occurrence of more than one individual indicates their simultaneous death which could better be explained pathologically rather than culturally" (pp. 104). As stated previously the bio-cultural studies undertaken on the Inamgaon skeletal series (Tavares 1998) conclude higher morbidity levels in the later levels of occupation. Identical pathological lesions have been noticed on the individuals buried in the same pit, which suggests recurrent prevalence of epidemics (Lukacs and Walimbe 1986).

In the first place, if the individual showing traumatic lesion is female or a child , then one needs to be cautious in offering a cultural interpretation. If at all there was any tragic event, like interpersonal inter or intra-group conflicts, the victims would normally be adult males and not females, and certainly not the young children, even least probably an infant. One of the cases used by these scholars while forwarding the hypothesis is of a green-stick fracture seen on a child aged 4 to 5 months.

Palaeopathology, though relatively a young discipline in India, the studies undertaken on the Deccan Chalcolithic series have convincingly emphasized the usefulness of the so far neglected fragmentary and immature osseous in understanding the impact of ecological changes, subsistence strategies and social organization on human life.

Secondly , a healed fracture indicates the survival and recovery of the individual from the problem. Such evidence can more importantly be used to imagine the surgical and operative skills of the population concerned, rather than

The next chapter summarizes the findings of this research.

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Change in subsistence mode Hunting/ gathering to agriculture

Change in settlement pattern

Decrease in population mobility

Change in food habits

Increase in population density

Environmental constraints Limiting resources

.....

VI

N

Culturally buffering system a. Agricultural intensification b. Trade intensification c. Exploitation of new areas d. Exploitation of new resources

Poor quality food Culturally induced barriers

Increased infectious diseases

Malnourishment Host resistance Age, sex, genetic susceptibility

Growth disturbance

Specific disease stress

Mortality Fig 5.57: Model explaining stress indicators in agricultural population. (Modified after Larsen 1984 and Tavares 1998.)

6 SUMMARY COMMENTS

"Looking at the dust dry object which is the typical excavated bone, feeling its light brittleness of texture present or its heavy mineralized compaction, it need a leap of the imagination to see it again as it was in life." (Wells 1964)

The Chalcolithic phase of the Deccan Plateau flourished between 2000 and 700 B.C. It marks the beginning of sedentary life and agriculture in the region. The Deccan Chalcolithic human skeletal series recovered primarily from five Chalcolithic sites, viz. Nevasa, Chandoli, Inamgaon, Daimabad and Kaothe, is one of the largest human skeletal series in the Indian subcontinent.

More than 131 burials have been uncovered from the site between 1954-1961. All burials belong to the Chalcolithic period except one, which comes from the Indo-Roman level. Kennedy and Malhotra ( 1966) had studied four adult skeletons of this series previously, but the sub-adult segment of the Nevasa series, which comprises approx. 80% of this series, was not included in this work. Earlier Ehrhardt (1960) had prepared inventory of the skeletal remains from two excavation seasons, which included immature individuals also. However, besides providing mere listing of the skeletal recovery no substantial anthropological emphasis was given. In order to draw a concise picture regarding the bio-cultural adaptations of these agro-pastorals (and the Deccan Chalcolithic populations, in general) it was necessary to thoroughly examine all the immature and fragmentary elements recovered. This study is essentially an attempt to fill this lacuna.

The Chalcolithic phase remained a rural based culture and never evolved into an urban status. There was not much emphasis on trade, and because of limited interaction with the other contemporary populations there was probably not much of external bio-cultural influence. Along with these features, the concise geographic and temporal span of the sites of the culture provides a sort of 'controlled' laboratory situation for undertaking demographic and pathological analyses of this skeletal series, so as to know the nature of biological adaptive strategies of these early farmers in response to the changing ecosystems.

Barring the four adult burials studied by Kennedy and Malhotra (1966) there was a great deal of confusion in identifying and ascribing the sub-adult segment. Since the anthropological research in the early 60's was focused primarily on establishing 'racial' identity of the population, only well preserved adult individuals were given decent field and laboratory treatment while fragmentary and immature skeletons were not adequately documented, properly packed, stored, and reported in their archaeological context. Another serious problem was posed by the vague numbering style adopted in the field. Therefore, in the absence of any supporting archaeological document it was a great challenge to organize the material. Each and

This research is based on the osseous remains of 75 individuals recovered from the Chalcolithic of Nevasa. Like all other Chalcolithic sites in the Deccan, the people at Nevasa buried their dead within the habitation itself. Adults were buried in extended position, while normally two urns of hand-made fabric with globular body, rounded bottom and flared mouth were kept mouth to mouth horizontally in north-south orientation for burying sub-adults.

153

reveals relative homogeneity in the cranial and facial features.

every human bone fragment recovered from the site, and available at the time of present study, has been checked and its proper association is confirmed. Also in order to minimize the confusion of numbering system the present scholar has attempted to renumber the entire skeletal series. It is not however possible to sort the skeletons according to five sub-phases of the Chalcolithic habitation, and the whole sample is treated as a unit, as coming from the single cultural deposit.

Overall phenotypic identity among the Deccan Chalcolithic specimens has been attributed to the close geographical, temporal and cultural proximity between these sites. Most of the adult specimens are either long or moderately long headed (dolichocranial or mesocranial). Other characteristic facial features include receding to vertical forehead with faintly developed glabellar region, square to horizontal orbits, broad nose with depressed root, medium to low upper facial height, moderate zygomatic bones, and slight alveolar prognathism. Masticatory musculature is weak resulting in a overall gracile appearance. The post-cranial elements also exhibit less robusticity. There is relatively less degree of sexual dimorphism , females tend to be more robust than expected and males somewhat gracile, in both cranial and post-cranial features.

The status of preservation of these skeletons is poor. Not all body parts have survived in the buried condition. Also damage and loss that has occurred in the excavation and postexcavation phase has been of serious nature. A detailed inventory of the preserved elements has therefore been prepared. The study has been broadly focused on the following aspects: ►

Age and sex individuals ;

determination

of

the

►

Assessment cranial and dental morphological and metric features; comparison with other contemporary skeletal populations;

►

Explanation of changes in craniofacial morphology with changes m food procuring strategies;

►

Study of indelible marks of famine, disease, occupational trauma and genetic anomalies on teeth and bones; and,

►

Explanation of the physiological stress experienced by the population in biocultural perspective.

Certain unusual morphological features have been noted in the Nevasa series. For example, presence of a large number of wormian bones in one of the adult specimens which are rare in other contemporary specimens of the Deccan. Squatting facets are absent which are usually seen in early farming populations. Another significant incidences are of rare dental occlusal features like 'parastyle', ' metaconulid' and Carabelli's trait, only on one individual. Though comparable in facial proportions with other Chalcolithic individuals , yet another noteworthy feature of the well preserved Nevasa male specimen is its extreme robusticity. Some robust individuals are known from the Deccan Chalcolithic levels, but the degree of robustness for this individual is slightly higher. The expression of robusticity could be taken as an individual trait. Nevertheless the robusticity puts certain limitations to place the Nevasa Chalcolithic specimen(s?) with the other Chalcolithic populations.

Of the five adults recovered from the site, four are from the Chalcolithic level and one belongs to the Indo-Roman level of occupation. Of the four adults from the Chalcolithic levels only two (a male and a female) are better preserved, while the remaining two (female and an individual of indeterminate sex) are very fragmentary. The small sample size precludes any inter or intrasite comparisons. However, gross morphometric assessment of the Nevasa adults with other adult Chalcolithic specimens

The Indo-Roman specimen is comparable with the Early Historic individuals from sites like Kuntasi or Navadatoli. Nevasa specimens agree with the dental reduction pattern seen in the agro-pastoral communities in comparison with their huntinggathering predecessors. The Indo-Roman

154

(Early historic) specimen shows reduced dental occlusal surface.

further

The general and indirect evidences of stress can be observed on the population in the form of reduced life expectancy, increased child mortality, and growth retardation. Maximum life span in the Chalcolithic skeletal series was possibly around 35 years. There is no individual aged more than 40 years at the time of death.

This study has not been aimed to identify phenotypic affinity of the Nevasa inhabitants. But it may be stated that the morphological pattern identifiable at the Chalcolithic and Indo-Roman occupation levels at Nevasa is not a unique one. Rather it is a common phenotype seen across extensively geographically distributed protohistoric populations. It is also seen in the present day tribal populations of western Maharashtra .. The present authors do not approve the idea of labeling the phenotype. Still it may be mentioned that this pattern was labeled as 'Mediterranean-Proto-Australoid' phenotype in conventional anthropological literature.

Nevasa skeletal series also gives primary evidence of several specific and non-specific pathologies. Specific pathologies and anomalies seen in the Nevasa series include the followings: Specific or non-specific infectious diseases and nutritional deficiencies observed in this series include porotic hyperostosis, periostosis and probable case of scurvy. There are two cases of maxillary sinusitis (one female and one male). These are the first known instances of maxillary sinusitis from the Indian protohistoric levels. Three individuals of this series exhibit traumatic lesions, either well healed bone fractures, or dislocations. There are some occupational related bone deformities also, which indicate repetitive use of one part of the body. Joint diseases, like Schmorl's nodes and osteoporosis, related to vertebral column are evidenced in one adult. Cases of 'new bone formation' are also observed. Series of dental disease covering attrition, caries, enamel deficiencies, periodontal diseases, and antemortem tooth loss, etc. are noted. There are a genetic anomalies. One of the mandibles exhibits complete absence of sockets for both deciduous and permanent first incisors, which can be confirmed radiographically. Absence of third molar and presence of wormian bones are also cases of genetic influence.

Cross-cultural comparisons of the cranial features between the pre-agricultural and agricultural populations provide valuable insight for interpreting the nature of morphological adaptations in response to the changed economy. Significant changes seen in cranial morphometry include gradual reduction in robusticity, and changes in skull shape. Decrease in cranial length, increase in cranial height, orthognathus face and prominence of metopic region are the important changes seen during the agricultural transition. Both genetic and non-genetic explanations have been offered for the variations seen in cranio-facial morphology in populations belonging to different time periods and cultural levels. The robust body size and larger dentition of the Mesolithic populations is interpreted an adaptation for nomadic huntinggathering way of life and coarse food. The overall gracile appearance of the Chalcolithic population has been primarily attributed to 'decreased mechanical stress' and 'increased nutritional stress'. It is presumed that there was much less mechanical demand placed on body during the farming economy, as there was assurance of food. Consumption of soft and processed food relaxed masticatory stress, which resulted in craniofacial gracility. However, the food mainly consisted of carbohydrates and less in proteins and other desired nutrients, which resulted in protein calorie malnourishment making the population prone to recurrent infections.

Studies carried out on the Chalcolithic populations of the Deccan plateau in the palaeodemographic and pathological perspectives have on one side demonstrated the research potential of the skeletal data to verify hypotheses regarding the cultural lifeways of these early formers, and on the other side, helped evaluate the impact of life style on the biological patterning. While there is ample scope for undertaking research on the other skeletal series in the subcontinent in this perspective, certain difficulties and limitations come forth. Serious

155

nursing mothers would be highly useful. If the population is living in close proximity with the domesticated animals (as was the case during the Neolithic-Chalcolithic period), or when the population is engaged in large-scale hunting of wild animals (as in the Mesolithic phase) they are exposed to different sets of zoonotic infections. Present day cattle-keepers (communities like Gavali Dhangars) or shepherds often keep their domesticated animals in the house itself or very close to their habitation. Study of their morbidity status in this perspective would be highly appreciated by the palaeopathological community.

lack of palaeopathological, clinical and literary database is the main handicap. Lack of adequate training facilities and funding hinders scope of palaeopathological research in the country. Nevertheless, there is enormous amount of biological and cultural variability in the prehistoric and living Indian populations which is a rare incident in the other parts of the world. The Indian sub-continent provides an excellent spectrum of the human skeletal evidence representing a wide geographical region and broadly covering a temporal span of the last 20,000 years. These skeletal collections represent extinct populations belonging to various cultural levels , ranging from nomadic hunting-gathering way of life to semi-settled and settled agricultural and pastoral subsistence. Variability seen in living populations is even more remarkable . There are urbanites, rural village farmers, nomadic pastorals and tribal hunter-gatherers. There is a variety of subsistence patterns. Some populations are still practicing ancient technologies which have been abandoned by the western world few centuries ago. Using this unique situation 'ethno-osteobiographic' studies are highly recommended which will be a welcome contribution to the palaeopathology discipline.

So far as the problem of the Deccan Chalcolithic cultural decline is concerned , the environmental change is certainly not the only cause for the extinction , as was presumed earlier. Population experiencing this change must have gradually adapted to the environmental changes, and the skeletal record therefore can be used to see the nature of biological response to this change. Though abandonment of sites like Nevasa or Inamgaon cannot be explained solely in terms of the presence of the pathological stress indicators, the data generated for the Deccan Chalcolithic series demands reanalysis of the archaeological record. In this regard it may be noted that, the comparative analysis between the Deccan Chalcolithic skeletal data to collections from the other peninsular Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites will further enhance understanding of the protohistoric communities.

For example, studies related to the documentation of occupational skeletal stress markers, or analysis of cultural attitudes of a population towards the health-nutritional problems of growing children and/or pregnant-

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