Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges [1 ed.] 9781446265086, 9781853964015

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Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges David Middlewood and Jacky Lumby

CELM, University of Leicester

©SAGE Los Angeles | London | New Delhi Singapore | Washington DC

Copyright © 1998 David Middlewood and Jacky L u m b y First p u b l i s h e d 1 9 9 8 Reprinted 2003, 2005, 2008, 2009 All rights reserved. N o part o f this publication m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d , stored i n a retrieval s y s t e m , t r a n s m i t t e d or utilised in a n y form or b y a n y m e a n s , electronic, m e c h a n i c a l , p h o t o c o p y i n g , r e c o r d i n g o r otherwise, w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n in w r i t i n g from the Publishers, e x c e p t in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the p r o v i s i o n s o f the C o p y r i g h t D e s i g n s a n d P a t e n t s A c t 1 9 8 8 or u n d e r the t e r m s o f a l i c e n c e i s s u e d b y the C o p y r i g h t L i c e n s i n g A g e n c y Ltd., 5 D r y d e n Street, C o v e n t G a r d e n , L o n d o n W C 2 9NW, Engand.

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B r i t i s h C a t a l o g u i n g i n P u b l i c a t i o n data A c a t a l o g u e record for this b o o k is available from the British L i b r a r y ISBN: 978-1-85396-432-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-85396-401-5 (pbk) L i b r a r y o f C o n g r e s s c a t a l o g card n u m b e r a v a i l a b l e

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Contents The authors Acknowledgements 1. Introduction

* vi

v

1

SECTION A 2. The importance of HRM in education Introduction: a premise A model for HRM in education Yourself in this HRM context

5 5 8 8

3. W h a t is HRM? HRM in the m a n a g e m e n t world HRM in education

9 9 11

4. The m a n a g e m e n t implications People a n d performance The individual a n d the organisation

17 17 23

SECTION Â 5. M a n a g i n g the school or college a n d its staff Introduction The concept of the learning organisation M a n a g i n g for equal opportunities M a n a g i n g stress M a n a g i n g motivation Developing a team(s)-based approach Roles a n d structures School a n d college cultures

31 31 31 34 39 44 48 53 56

SECTION C 6. Key areas o f application Introduction M a n a g i n g recruitment a n d selection Induction Performance review a n d appraisal Staff development

61 61 61 72 76 81

7. Conclusion

87

References Author Index Subject Index

89 95 97

í

The authors D a v i d M i d d l e w o o d a n d J a c k y L u m b y both work in the Educational M a n a g e m e n t Development Unit of Leicester University, based in Northampton. They h a v e both written materials for Leicester University's MBA in Educational M a n a g e m e n t by Distance Learning programme a n d have both edited volumes a n d contributed chapters in the series 'Educational M a n a g e m e n t : Research a n d Practice', published by Paul C h a p m a n . Together, they have produced Strategic Management in Schools and Colleges, published in 1 9 9 8 in that series. D a v i d M i d d l e w o o d is Director of School-based programmes in the Unit, a n d was formerly a secondary school headteacher. He h a s published on a variety of topics, including Managing People in Education (with Tony Bush). J a c k y L u m b y is a lecturer in educational m a n a g e m e n t in the Unit, has published on a n u m b e r of topics, especially on Further Education, a n d is co-editor (with Nick Foskett) of Managing External Relations in Schools and Colleges, published by Paul C h a p m a n .

Acknowledgements The authors' thanks go to: J o h n O'Neill who was responsible for some of the original material on which Section A o f the book is based. F e l i c i t y M u r r a y for her patience a n d c o m m i t m e n t to ensure the completion of the book through her careful work on the manuscript.

vi

1. Introduction This book is intended primarily for students taking Advanced courses in Educational M a n a g e m e n t such a s Leicester University's Educational M a n a g e m e n t Development Unit's MBA in Educational M a n a g e m e n t . It is therefore written as a teaching text. However, it also offers m u c h to the general reader, especially those working in education, in terms of a n opportunity to increase their understanding a n d knowledge of, a n d develop their skills in aspects of, educational m a n a g e m e n t . The specific a i m s o f this book are: • • • • •

to equip readers with a body of knowledge that will improve their understanding of h u m a n resource management to e n a b l e readers to reflect on concepts, theories a n d models o f h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t in education to provide a range of analytical frameworks t h a t c a n be applied by readers to their own working environments to provide opportunities for the improvement of their skills in h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t through site-based research to e n a b l e readers to contribute to school or college improvement in its m a n a g e m e n t of h u m a n resources.

By the end of this book, readers should be able to: • • • • • •

set their own knowledge of h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t in a wider context o f theory a n d practice through a n awareness of relevant literature in the field clarify the linkages between theory, values a n d strategies in h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t in their own school or college situation critically analyse their own a n d their institution's current practice in h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t , using relevant analytical skills reflect upon a n d articulate their own a n d their institution's values in h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t conduct small-scale research investigations in their own institution in order to generate school or college improvement undertake a written assignment on a research-based topic in h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t .

• Activities In this b o o k we offer a n u m b e r of activities which should help you to: • •

use w h a t you h a v e read to help e x a m i n e your own practice constructively c r i t i c i s e your a n d your institution's practice.

These activities enable you to analyse a n d reflect upon what you have read a n d relate it t c your own m a n a g e m e n t practice, now a n d in the future. They m a y also assist you when you are considering a specific topic to investigate for a written assignment.

• Linked reading This text is free-standing a n d contains a m p l e material for the reader to be able to improve his/her m a n a g e m e n t practice or produce a course assignment or project. However, additional reading is clearly helpful, a n d for students essential. There are two key books to draw to your attention: 1.

Managing People in Education (1997) edited by Tony Bush a n d David Middlewood, published by Paul C h a p m a n . This book e x a m i n e s the implications of educational c h a n g e in the context of self1

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

m a n a g i n g schools a n d colleges for the m a n a g e m e n t of all the people who work in t h e m . Good m a n a g e m e n t practice is articulated on the basis of evidence in educational settings, with the emphasis on applying research findings to improve work practice. W e shall refer the reader to precise chapters or sections o f the book at regular intervals. 2.

The Principles of Educational Management (1994) edited by Tony Bush a n d John West-Burnham, published by L o n g m a n . This book covers a wide range of issues in educational m a n a g e m e n t , a n d some of its chapters relate specifically to h u m a n resource issues dealt with in this text.

• Structure of this book Section A proposes a premise on which m u c h of the discussion in the book is based. W e describe HRM, both generally a n d in education, a n d then point out the b a l a n c e or tension between the need for m a n a g i n g people a s individuals a n d the need to m a n a g e the whole workforce as a unit so t h a t the school or college performs effectively. In Section B, we e x a m i n e this b a l a n c e through a division into those issues which m a n a g e r s must address in thinking of organisation development a n d 'health' (Chapter 5) a n d those which are more easily seen from the perspective of the individual (Chapter 6 ) . O f course, the division is artificial, since e a c h person in a school or college h a s a n awareness of both personal a n d organisational pressures, demands a n d challenges. However, the division is perhaps helpful in reminding HRM m a n a g e r s that both perspectives, individual and organisational, are critical. An ideal is for the m a n a g e r to integrate these two perspectives as one. In Section C, we e x a m i n e the extent to which this ideal is a t t a i n a b l e through effective m a n a g e m e n t by looking a t certain a r e a s c o m m o n to all schools a n d colleges, such as staff selection a n d appraisal. Because the principles o f people m a n a g e m e n t apply to all who work in schools a n d colleges, we have not included a chapter specifically on m a n a g i n g associate staff. Most readers of this book studying to Masters level will be teachers or lecturers themselves, m a n y with responsibility for associate staff a n d other professional colleagues. We believe the principles apply to all those who work in schools a n d colleges. W e use the term 'teachers' throughout to m e a n both teachers in schools a n d lecturers in colleges, because their prime function is teaching. 'Associate s t a f f m e a n s all those working in schools a n d colleges who are not actually employed as teachers or lecturers, although the distinction between tasks for e a c h is becoming increasingly blurred.

2

Section A

2. The importance of HRM in education Introduction: a premise As you work through this book you will b e c o m e increasingly aware of our basic a r g u m e n t for the unit as a whole which is t h a t effective h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t (HRM) is the key to the provision of high quality educational experiences. The term itself, h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t , m a y still a p p e a r problematic, perhaps even slightly distasteful, in education where concepts of professionalism, professional a u t o n o m y a n d collegial approaches to decision-making militate against the perception o f teachers as a resource to be m a n a g e d , m a n i p u l a t e d or directed in pursuit of school or college objectives. We, however, do not see HRM approaches a n d professionalism as mutually incompatible. Indeed, we b a s e our assertion on a n apparently simple premise which we believe would h a v e the support o f professional colleagues in schools or colleges:

Educational organisations depend for their success on the q u a l i t y , c o m m i t m e n t a n d p e r f o r m a n c e o f p e o p l e who work there.

In order to introduce you to the values which underpin o u r understanding of HRM in education we 'unpack' e a c h o f our key terms below.

• Quality The quality o f staff in educational organisations is a n issue o f both s p e c i f i c a t i o n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . Informed recruitment a n d selection procedures are a n essential element of specification: what j o b needs to be done a n d w h a t sort o f person do we need to carry out that job? Quality is, however, a b o u t m u c h more t h a n appointing the most suitable candidate. Drucker ( 1 9 8 8 ) argues t h a t people as a basic resource are unique in the sense that the quality of their performance is dependent on a host of organisational variables. Drucker implies t h a t effective organisations are fully aware of the fact t h a t the m a n a g e m e n t support they provide makes a direct a n d qualitative difference to t h e level o f performance o f individual staff a n d the contribution they m a k e to the work of the institution. W e i m a g i n e t h a t your feelings of increasing confidence a n d competence in your present post are attributable in n o small measure to your personal a n d professional qualities a n d skills, but also, in great part, to the support a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t which h a v e been provided for you by others within your teaching t e a m , department or institution. Unfortunately, in some instances, the situation m a y be very different; you, or colleagues or friends, will h a v e experience of working in institutions, or with groups of people, where support a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t are not forthcoming; where the prevailing culture is one of 'sink or swim' or learning in the 'school of hard knocks'. W h a t e v e r the quality of your own treatment, you will know from your own experience that your professional effectiveness is contingent upon support from others. Effective schools a n d colleges display a similar awareness a n d actively m a n a g e the levels of support they provide for staff so that the quality of staff contributions increases rather t h a n decreases with time.

• Commitment W a n t i n g to do well, to feel a sense of belonging to a group or t e a m o f people working towards the s a m e goals, a n d being determined to achieve those goals or targets, are natural aspirations for staff in a n y organisation. Indeed, conscientious classroom teachers constantly attempt to develop those s a m e qualities a m o n g s t students with w h o m they work. 5

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

From a n HRM perspective, c o m m i t m e n t is something that h a s to be m a n a g e d , it c a n n o t be assumed. Developing c o m m i t m e n t is about: •

a r t i c u l a t i n g a clear sense o f purpose, so t h a t staff know what they are supposed to be doing a n d why

•

t r a n s l a t i n g a sense o f purpose into clear a n d realistic objectives for the institution, groups a n d individuals

•

p r o v i d i n g opportunities for a n d r e m o v i n g barriers to the a c h i e v e m e n t o f those objectives

•

i n v o l v i n g staff in developing that sense o f purpose a n d identifying targets so that, wherever possible, they feel ownership o f their work

•

i n t e g r a t i n g staff within the work o f the school or college so t h a t they feel their contribution is essential a n d unique

•

v a l u i n g staff a n d the qualities, skills a n d expertise they bring to the organisation.

Effective schools a n d colleges do not assume t h a t a n offer of e m p l o y m e n t is sufficient to secure comm i t m e n t but, rather, t h a t gaining c o m m i t m e n t involves active encouragement, support a n d open c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Various writers (e.g. Beare, Caldwell a n d Millikan, 1 9 8 9 ; Handy, 1994; West-Burnham, 1996) emphasise the active role t h a t needs to be taken by senior m a n a g e r s in organisations in: •

a r t i c u l a t i n g organisational values a n d mission

• •

p u b l i c i s i n g a c c e p t a b l e performance standards i n v o l v i n g staff in decision-making

•

b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r individuals a n d groups o f staff to reinforce c o m m o n objectives

so t h a t collective c o m m i t m e n t to agreed organisational goals c a n be optimised.

• Performance As we suggest above, quality of performance is not a n absolute standard. Performance varies between institutions a n d individuals according to a host o f variables. Performance standards m a y b e defined f o r , w i t h or b y individuals. Performance standards m a y seek to measure i n p u t , p r o c e s s or o u t c o m e factors or a c o m b i n a t i o n o f the three. They m a y be q u a l i t a t i v e or q u a n t i t a t i v e in nature. Often the performance of individuals will depend on contributions from others within the immediate work group. Traditionally the quality o f individual student learning experiences h a s eluded satisfactory, objective definition. For s o m e institutions ensuring regular attendance a n d developing basic levels o f literacy, n u m e r a c y a n d social skills a m o n g s t students constitutes a meaningful a n d worthwhile set o f objectives. For other institutions successful performance m a y only be measured against a b e n c h m a r k o f acceptable accredited results. For yet others, gaining a n d sustaining regular eye contact m a y be the realisation o f several years effort on the part of student, teacher, therapist, parent a n d carer. fust as the assessment o f student a t t a i n m e n t is complex, problematic a n d dependent on context, so it is with the performance o f adults employed within educational organisations. The c o m m o n elements between the two perspectives, however, are: •

the notion o f promoting continuous progress a n d improvement, a n d

•

the provision o f support a n d feedback on performance.

In order to perform at a n optimum level adults need: •

t a r g e t s a g a i n s t which they c a n measure progress

•

constructive f e e d b a c k so that impressionistic a n d potentially subjective observations or assessments o f performance are avoided

• 6

r e a s s u r a n c e that mistakes are a n inevitable a n d necessary part o f both learning a n d higher levels of a t t a i n m e n t

2 •

The importance of HRM in education

s t r u c t u r e d s u p p o r t so t h a t difficulties c a n be addressed as they occur a n d resources provided to support further development

•

frequent r e c o g n i t i o n o f their a c h i e v e m e n t s a n d contribution to the success o f the school or college.

Observers of effective m a n a g e m e n t practice in non-education sectors (e.g. Handy, 1 9 9 4 ; Morgan, 1 9 9 6 ) h a v e consistently highlighted the need for organisations to view mistakes positively, as a n inevitable byproduct of striving for higher standards of performance. This is perhaps a difficult new paradigm for educationalists to understand a n d adopt in a profession where the majority of practitioners have, historically, operated in classroom isolation, a n d where direct observation of performance has been the exception rather t h a n the norm. In England a n d Wales the teaching profession's perceived a m b i v a l e n c e towards the introduction of a variety of m e c h a n i s m s for increased professional accountability exemplifies the difficulties associated with direct assessment of individual a n d whole school or college performance (Foreman, 1 9 9 7 , p. 2 1 5 ) .

• People It is sometimes assumed t h a t 'people' in educational organisations m e a n s t e a c h e r s ; not other adults working within the school or college, nor even the students for whose development a n d learning the institution, in theory, is established. Our understanding of this issue is clear. 1.

The m a n a g e m e n t o f h u m a n resources in education focuses on a l l adults employed within the school or college and, in the case of external agencies a n d contractors, those who provide a service to the organisation.

2.

Although the m a n a g e m e n t of students is not directly our concern in this unit, it is worth noting t h a t m a n y of the p r i n c i p l e s which apply to the effective m a n a g e m e n t of staff apply also to the m a n a g e m e n t o f the relationship between teacher a n d student.

3.

T h e complexities associated with the m a n a g e m e n t of learning in schools a n d colleges in the 1990s lead us firmly towards the conviction that HRM perspectives need to acknowledge the invaluable contributions m a d e by all categories of staff to the work of the institution. As such we reject the historical iconography of the teacher as sole p r o v i d e r of support for student learning, as sole a r b i t e r o f what takes place within the classroom a n d as sole w o r k e r in the preparation, delivery a n d administration of all activities associated with the provision a n d assessment o f teaching a n d learning. It is, perhaps, only with the introduction of financial a u t o n o m y a t school a n d college level t h a t institutions h a v e begun to fully debate the merits of a more considered m i x of teachers, other professionals a n d ancillary staff at various levels within the establishment (NCE, 1 9 9 3 a ; O'Neill, 1 9 9 4 a ; Mortimore, Mortimore with T h o m a s , 1 9 9 4 ) .

The expectation t h a t teachers a l o n e should be the focus of h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t in schools a n d colleges presents three significant difficulties for us. 1.

It reinforces the historical notion that teachers c a n a n d should do everything, rather t h a n concentrate on their most important professional role responsibility as m a n a g e r s o f the learning process.

2.

It focuses on the teacher rather t h a n the tasks which need to be done in terms of m a n a g i n g a n d supporting student learning.

3.

It fails to recognise other adults as significant a n d valuable members o f teams which are structured to m a n a g e a n d support the learning process in a variety o f ways.

As Bush a n d Middlewood (1997, p. ix) argue, in justifying the title of their book as Managing People in Education, distinguishing between different groups would 'negate the principle t h a t all people are entitled to effective a n d sensitive m a n a g e m e n t ' . 7

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

A model for HRM in education An HRM perspective which acknowledges the potential contributions of all adults employed within the institution has m a n y benefits, not least because, for us, it incorporates each of the key terms in our original premise. A broader definition o f the term p e o p l e is inclusive rather t h a n exclusive. Holland ( 1 9 9 8 ) claims t h a t o n e of the key a i m s for education in the twenty-first century must be to be inclusive, not exclusive - for all members of society. It suggests t h a t e a c h adult employed within the school or college plays a critical role in its success. Acknowledging the unique contribution of individuals engenders c o m m i t m e n t . Equally it focuses m a n a g e r i a l attention on the q u a l i t y o f people needed a n d how those people c a n most effectively be encouraged a n d empowered to work together as part of a n effective t e a m . The sharing o f work a m o n g s t t e a m m e m b e r s is informed by a n analysis of which tasks need to be done. In turn, support for t e a m members a n d their work suggests t h a t clear objectives need to be established a n d agreed, a g a i n s t which p e r f o r m a n c e c a n be monitored, measured a n d evaluated.

Yourself in this HRM context The idealistic, rational approach to the m a n a g e m e n t of staff which we have just outlined m a y a p p e a r very remote from your own m a n a g e r i a l experience in school or college. Before we proceed further, it m a y b e a useful exercise for you to reflect on your own experience o f being ' m a n a g e d ' in school or college, and, if appropriate, your experience of m a n a g i n g other adults.

Activity M a k e brief notes u p o n the following questions: How would you characterise the way other people m a n a g e you in school or college? W h a t are your positive experiences of being m a n a g e d by others? W h a t are your negative experiences o f being m a n a g e d by others? W h a t are your feelings a b o u t our p r e m i s e , outlined above, for the unit? W h a t are your feelings about our m o d e l , outlined above, for HRM in schools a n d colleges? As a m a n a g e r , what characterises the way you m a n a g e other staff?

• Comment The way you m a n a g e others is likely to b e informed by your own experience of being m a n a g e d . These experiences m a y b e positive or negative. You m a y be fortunate to work with colleagues whose m a n a g e m e n t style provides positive role models a n d which you would like to emulate. Equally, you m a y h a v e h a d negative experiences to date a n d be determined to m a n a g e others differently so that they do not suffer in the way t h a t you feel you h a v e done! Whatever your experiences to date we hope t h a t your study o f this unit will e n a b l e you to reflect on your previous a n d current practice a n d inform a n y strategies you adopt a n d action you take in the future. Practice varies from organisation to organisation. It is likely, however, t h a t you will h a v e identified t h e importance of:

8

•

commonly

• •

consistently applied m a n a g e m e n t practices the imperative to m a k e the most efficient use of scarce resources m a n a g e m e n t processes which enable personal a n d institutional objectives to b e b a l a n c e d .

agreed

and

shared

values within

the working

community,

expressed

through

3. What is HRM? HRM in the management world This section considers: • •

The growth of HRM The different approaches to HRM

H u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t is generally agreed to h a v e emerged into c o m m o n usage within m a n a g e m e n t vocabularies during the 1980s. There is still some difference of opinion regarding the acceptability of HRM as a generic term for the m a n a g e m e n t a n d development o f staff within organisations. This section explores the differences between the two terms 'HRM' a n d 'personnel m a n a g e m e n t ' . W e e x a m i n e the reasons for the emergence of HRM as a n apparently distinctive a p p r o a c h to the m a n a g e m e n t o f staff in organisations. W e also consider arguments from sources which articulate a certain scepticism a b o u t the actual contribution of HRM to organisational effectiveness.

• Origins of HRM The term ' h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t ' (HRM) b e g a n to a p p e a r regularly in m a i n s t r e a m m a n a g e m e n t terminology during the 1 9 8 0 s (for a chronological overview see Goss, 1 9 9 4 ) . In essence the term is intended to offer a broader, strategic a n d more dynamic interpretation of the role o f effective staff m a n a g e m e n t in organisations t h a n h a d b e e n the n o r m in previous decades. Amongst proponents of HRM approaches, 'personnel m a n a g e m e n t ' carries largely negative connotations.

• From personnel management to HRM The move towards HRM approaches is attributable to the notion t h a t traditional, specialist personnel provision: • • • • • •

is unsustainably expensive in financial a n d h u m a n terms is highly bureaucratic leads to lengthy delay between identification o f need a n d intervention offers solutions which work in artificial or simulated situations but are difficult to apply in the workplace threatens the relationship between line m a n a g e r a n d subordinate is reliant on, a n d perpetuates the mystique of, the perceived expertise o f personnel specialists rather t h a n focusing on the development of line m a n a g e r capability

• Human resource management HRM approaches typically contain the following features. They: • • • • • • • •

m e a s u r e actions against the strategic objectives of the organisation as a whole emphasise the central importance of the line m a n a g e r advocate customised, individual responses to intervention focus on positive motivation rather t h a n negative control use process rather t h a n standardised procedures are considered proactive rather t h a n reactive are fully integrated into the day-to-day m a n a g e m e n t of the organisation encourage purposeful negotiation a n d the resolution of potential conflict between m a n a g e r a n d managed. 9

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

Table 3.1

'Hard' and 'sott' approaches

to

management

'Hard'

'Soft'

Systems-led Market-led Cost-effectiveness Unproblematic goals Periphery workers = variable costs Selection to 'fit' Targeted development 'Accountable' appraisal Human resources People - means to an end Control, compliance, 'fit' Training for now Strategic concern Mechanistic Uniformity

People-led Effective learning Diverse goals, 'visions' All workers important Something to offer Development for all 'Development' appraisal Resourceful humans People - end in themselves Consensualism, mutuality, commitment Development for the future Excellence ethos Organic' Flexibility (Hall, 1997a, p. 145)

HRM theory is predicated on the principles of concern for the quality of relationships, a desire to reduce unnecessary bureaucracy a n d a concern to see staff m a n a g e m e n t issues as the routine preserve of the line m a n a g e r , to be addressed in the workplace. Fowler ( 1 9 8 8 , p. 1) in applying the HRM approach to a local government context, m a k e s two key points relevant to our context: • •

people are the primary resource h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t is a prime responsibility of all managers, not a specialist role.

The debate between personnel m a n a g e m e n t a n d HRM, a s described by O'Neill ( 1 9 9 4 a , pp. 2 0 0 - 5 ) , is less relevant now. Much more significant for m a n a g e r s in schools a n d colleges is a n understanding o f the philosophies o f m a n a g i n g people (Hall, 1 9 9 7 a ) which underpin particular approaches to HRM. The distinction between ' h a r d ' a n d 'soft' approaches, although simplistic, does offer m a n a g e r s a n insight into alternative strategies (see Table 3 . 1 ) . The impetus therefore for a n increased focus on HRM approaches in the last decade or more demonstrates a high degree of similarity between the performance priorities o f educational a n d other types of organisation (Riches a n d Morgan, 1 9 8 9 ) , together with a growing realisation that optimum, rather t h a n merely adequate, levels of organisational performance depend on the effective m a n a g e m e n t of h u m a n resources (Bush a n d Middlewood, 1 9 9 7 ) .

• Building on key learning points The c h a n g i n g c o n t e x t of self-management for schools a n d colleges h a s ensured t h a t their m a n a g e r s consider HRM strategies. •

HRM approaches are considered highly normative; they emphasise staff

• •

c o m m i t m e n t a n d involvement. HRM approaches rely on the active participation o f line m a n a g e r s . Personnel m a n a g e m e n t approaches are seen as reactive a n d operationally oriented; HRM approaches are considered proactive a n d strategically oriented.

•

HRM approaches provide a background against which the rapid a n d c o m p l e x c h a n g e within education c a n be m a n a g e d .

10

motivation,

3

@l

What is HRM?

Reading

Pleuse read Tony Bush's chapter T h e changing context of management in education' in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n E d u c a t i o n , which describes how the world of education has changed, as has the world of work in society generally. This has had important consequences for the need for management in the educational world.

HRM in education This section considers: • •

HRM specifically in the educational context the number of changes in this context which have influenced the changes in HRM in education.

• Introduction In educational organisations the majority of personnel m a n a g e m e n t functions have historically come within the remit of the local education authority (LEA) with the role of schools a n d colleges, until recently, being limited to the deployment of staffing establishments decided elsewhere. With the development o f a u t o n o m o u s educational institutions the role of the institution h a s expanded rapidly in terms both o f scope a n d complexity. Schools and colleges, however, face the additional challenge of coming to terms with the m a n a g e m e n t implications of the HRM versus personnel m a n a g e m e n t debate. In the further education (FE) sector, incorporation h a s m e a n t that colleges, like grant-maintained (GM) schools, have full employer responsibilities a n d obligations (Warner a n d Crosthwaite, 1 9 9 3 ) . Within the m a i n t a i n e d sector schools were faced with difficult decisions about which aspects of HRM administration a n d m a n a g e m e n t c a n be m a n a g e d well in-house a n d which need to be bought in as services from external agencies.

• Changes in HRM in education The increased focus on the contribution o f staff to organisational success is reflected, in England a n d Wales, in specific central government initiatives, designed to e n h a n c e teaching a n d m a n a g e m e n t performance in a u t o n o m o u s schools a n d colleges: • •

• • • • •

a broadening of entry routes into the teaching profession a strengthening of support arrangements for teachers at various career stages via - induction guidelines - mentoring schemes - attempts to develop t a x o n o m i e s o f professional a n d m a n a g e r i a l competencies the introduction of appraisal schemes 'guided' funding for professional development activities the development of published performance indicators a preference for links between pay a n d performance (e.g. HMCI Report 1 9 9 5 ) a n e n h a n c e d focus on the role played by associate staff. (O'Neill, 1 9 9 4 a , p. 2 0 5 )

These initiatives are of m a j o r significance for the education service in several ways: 1. The pattern of entry, or re-entry, to the teaching profession in the 1990s is fragmenting. This suggests t h a t schools a n d colleges will need to develop flexible m a n a g e m e n t responses to cope with a n increasingly diverse group of recruits whose previous work experiences, career aspirations a n d needs in terms of personal a n d professional support will all vary considerably. Research suggests that the following factors will be o f particular significance: 11

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

•

•

From the mid-1990s demographic changes suggest a reduction in a 'pool' o f well-qualified graduates leading to increased competition from staff from other sections. However, in the United Kingdom the potential effects of such demographic 'downturns' m a y be mitigated by factors such as the large increase in university entrance since 1 9 8 8 but exacerbated by the low morale in the teaching profession, its 'poor image', a n d unattractiveness to potential recruits. Shortages of appropriately qualified teaching staff are likely to be subject-specific rather t h a n across the board.

•

The numbers o f qualified but 'inactive' teachers are consistently identified (e.g. NCE, 1 9 9 3 a ) a s a potential, yet relatively untapped, source of supply.

•

Over 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 teachers are currently employed in the m a i n t a i n e d sector in England a n d Wales. Parttime employment accounts for less t h a n 5 per cent of the total. There are over 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 people with teaching qualifications currently not employed in the m a i n t a i n e d sector, over h a l f o f w h o m ( 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 ) are female, aged 3 0 - 4 9 (Buchan, Pearson a n d Pike, 1 9 8 8 , p. 1).

2. The introduction of institutionally based modes of Initial Teacher Training (SCITT) implies that schools a n d colleges c a n seek to exercise more direct control over the style a n d type o f initial training a n d the criteria which are used to select appropriate recruits at the point o f entry to the profession. The premise for a revised, school or college-based, approach to teacher-training is twofold: •

Traditional 'instructional' teaching methods are inappropriate responses to the m a n a g e m e n t o f pupil or student learning in the 1990s and the n e x t century. The role o f the teacher in a u t o n o m o u s schools a n d colleges, prompted jointly perhaps by developments in information technology a n d greatly increased curriculum complexity, is moving towards t h a t o f 'facilitator' rather t h a n 'deliverer' o f education.

•

In order to prepare new, a n d returning, teachers for this unfamiliar 'facilitator' role, a new type of training institution is necessary, one in which preferred good practice is modelled a n d encouraged for, as Holland ( 1 9 9 8 , p. 5) argues, 'the priority must be learning not teaching. Schools, colleges a n d universities are workplaces t h a t have not c h a n g e d m u c h in decades. The world people are going to own a n d live in is not a world in which people sit neatly a n d tidily a n d c h a n g e every hour from one subject to another. It is not a world of bits a n d pieces.'

3. Documented, perennial difficulties caused by teacher wastage (Buchan, Pearson a n d Pike, 1 9 8 8 ; NCE, 1 9 9 3 a ) , in particular in urban a n d inner city areas, imply that initial recruitment is not the only staff m a n a g e m e n t issue facing schools a n d colleges. The introduction of induction guidelines, mentoring schemes a n d teacher appraisal frameworks imply t h a t historically weak levels o f institutional support for staff contribute in a substantive way to inappropriately high levels of teacher turnover. Blunkett's (1997) concern for the need for teachers to regularly update their professional skills a n d expertise links closely with a perceived need to deliver externally prescribed targets. 4.

Attempts to develop t a x o n o m i e s of professional a n d m a n a g e r i a l competences in education, a n d

indeed to explicitly link pay a n d performance, reflect (a)

the increased awareness in all types o f organisation o f the importance o f optimum employee

(b) (c) (d)

involvement the need to identify appropriate standards o f performance for individuals the importance of creating m a n a g e a b l e agendas for individual employee development recognition of the value of early identification of potential for promotion.

The introduction in England and Wales of specific requirements based on prescribed standards, e.g. National Professional Qualifications for Headteachers (NPQH) and the proposed National Professional Qualification for Subject Leaders (NPQSL), indicates a m o n g other things a desire at national level to ensure value for money. This places pressure on schools and colleges to ensure similar value from their own staff a n d avoid unnecessary wastage either via avoidable staff turnover, or, just as significantly, from lack of motivation. 12

3

What is HRM?

5 . A focus o n staffing costs a n d levels o f performance as m a j o r indicators o f effective m a n a g e m e n t within the organisation suggests t h a t schools a n d colleges need to be creative in terms o f their approaches to staffing a u r i c u l a r activities, so that: •

professional t e a c h e r expertise, which is expensive a n d m a y be in short supply, is employed directly in the m a n a g e m e n t o f student learning

•

administrative or support activities are delegated where appropriate to non-teaching staff which, in general, costs less.

This shift in perspective, from 'supply' to ' d e m a n d ' led staffing (O'Neill, 1 9 9 4 a ) , is reflected in tangible trends in schools a n d colleges. First, the use o f large numbers of part-time staff in the further education sector (Fagg, 1 9 9 1 ) demonstrated t h a t at the time o f incorporation m a n y more teachers were being employed to staff certain viable curricular activities. In schools, the n u m b e r o f part-time qualified teachers h a d risen b y 3 5 . 4 per cent in 1 9 9 6 c o m p a r e d to 1 9 8 9 (Select Committee, 1 9 9 8 ) . Secondly, the n u m b e r o f teachers in schools a n d colleges in a self-governing era who are on fixed-term contracts increased significantly in the 1 9 9 0 s . Thirdly, in both primary a n d secondary schools, budgetary a u t o n o m y h a s encouraged schools to scrutinise the distinction between teaching a n d non-teaching roles (Mortimore et al, 1 9 9 4 ) . This h a s led to a broadening o f the range a n d importance o f activities undertaken by non-teaching staff, in both direct curriculum a n d more general m a n a g e r i a l a n d administrative support (Mortimore et al, 1 9 9 4 ; Levacic, 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e n u m b e r o f non-teaching assistants in schools h a d risen by 5 1 . 2 5 per cent compared with 1 9 8 9 (Select Committee, 1 9 9 8 ) . 6. The creation o f a n educational marketplace, via the ERA a n d subsequent legislation, now h a s direct relevance for t h e recruitment o f staff, just as m u c h a s students. W i t h greater freedom to determine the range o f benefits a n d working conditions on offer to individual staff comes the realisation that, particularly when seeking to attract quality staff institutions are in direct competition with e a c h other (O'Neill, 1 9 9 4 a , p. 2 0 7 ) . There are three i m p o r t a n t m a n a g e m e n t issues for schools a n d colleges here which arise directly from the move towards a u t o n o m o u s schools a n d colleges: (a)

As de facto employers o f staff, schools a n d colleges c a n exercise m u c h greater degrees of latitude in terms o f p a y a n d conditions o f service. As Fagg ( 1 9 9 1 ) indicates, central government intention appears to be to urge employers, in the further a n d higher education sectors, to negotiate with staff on the basis o f individual contracts wherever possible, leading eventually to the complete demise of collective b a r g a i n i n g a n d n a t i o n a l l y determined norms.

(b)

O n e view o f the i m p a c t of the shift of HRM responsibility from central to institutional organisations is t h a t it inevitably led to school a n d college m a n a g e r s having to acquire 'more for less' from their workers (Ironside a n d Seifert, 1 9 9 5 ) . Since teachers are a l a b o u r intensive section ( 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 teachers a t £ 1 1 billion in 1 9 9 5 ) , this view would see self-governance a s ultimately being a rationalisation o f cutting government costs. T h e consequences o f 'more for less' m a y reveal themselves in high levels of stress a n d discontent (see the later section on 'stress').

(c)

A n o t h e r effect o f self-management h a s been the issue o f affordability of staff. One way o f keeping costs down is employing less experienced a n d therefore less expensive teachers. This practice m a y h a v e consequences for job mobility. 'Older, more experienced a n d therefore more expensive teachers are finding j o b mobility a n d as a consequence promotion opportunities more difficult to c o m e by' (Healy a n d Calveley, 1 9 9 8 , p. 2 0 ) . This in turn c a n relate to staffroom dissent in the belief ' t h a t they h a v e been appointed not through a c h i e v e m e n t but simply a s a cost factor' (ibid.).

The p a c e o f c h a n g e in the environment depends upon local conditions - the suburban or rural school, for e x a m p l e , is less likely to h a v e problems in attracting staff. However, it m a y suffer from so m u c h stability t h a t the process o f innovation a n d development m a y b e hindered. Equally, a n y requirements for m a j o r retraining for existing staff m a y be a costly call on limited resources. These issues, however, are now part o f the m a n a g e m e n t brief of individual schools a n d colleges. 13

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

Schools a n d colleges, as a u t o n o m o u s institutions, need to develop highly customised HRM policies which reflect their own priorities in terms of recruiting, retaining and developing staff, rather t h a n outdated n a t i o n a l or local 'custom a n d practice'. Schools a n d colleges need to consider the following in terms of developing their strategic approach to m a n a g i n g h u m a n resources (adapted from Armstrong, 1994): Social

responsibility

- the philosophy of the organisation towards the people it employs, covering

areas such as equity, consideration of individual needs a n d fears, the quality o f working life. Employment

- the level of personnel the organisation wishes to employ, the provision o f equal

opportunity a n d reasonable security. Pay - the level of pay a n d other benefits for employees a n d the extent to which pay systems are negotiated a n d disclosed. Promotion

- the attitude of the organisation to providing long-term career prospects a n d to promoting

from within the organisation. Training

- the scope of training and staff development schemes a n d the extent to which the

organisation proposes to subsidise education a n d training. Industrial

relations

- policies on union recognition, closed shops, the role of teacher representatives

a n d shop stewards a n d the approach to dealing with grievances, discipline a n d redundancy. The key m a n a g e m e n t issue which emerges for a u t o n o m o u s schools a n d colleges is the need to put in place policies for e a c h o f the a b o v e a r e a s which reflect the aspirations, priorities a n d circumstances of the individual institution. These relate not only to the interpretation of statute in terms o f e m p l o y m e n t law a n d equality of opportunity but also, a n d more significantly, to the broader ethical a n d social responsibility aspects of the e m p l o y m e n t a n d m a n a g e m e n t of staff which distinguish o n e institution from another. In England a n d Wales, more rigorous a n d regular inspection processes (Ofsted for schools a n d FEFC for colleges) m a y provide specific requirements for schools a n d colleges that are relevant. At the least, they m a y provide a framework within which staff c a n be m a n a g e d to enable certain outcomes (e.g. of a postinspection action plan) to be achieved. Elliott a n d Hall ( 1 9 9 4 ) express serious reservations about the incorporation of further education colleges in terms of the detrimental effects on the pay and conditions of service of teaching staff. Armstrong's six areas for consideration provide a useful a g e n d a for auditing both the spirit a n d the practice of h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t policies within individual educational establishments.

Activity Consider the six functions listed earlier by Armstrong in relation to your institution. For e a c h function note: • • •

whether a policy exists how the policy was evolved who administers the policy

•

who m a i n t a i n s the records a n d copes with administration.

W h a t do your findings suggest about the 'hidden costs of a u t o n o m y ' ?

14

3

What is HRM?

• Comment Your answers to the above questions depend to a large extent upon the scale of operation of your school or college and the frequency with which individual functions are undertaken. Although larger organisations, such as FE colleges, are able to create their own specialist personnel function that deals with, for example, payment of salaries, this m a y be costly. Smaller schools and colleges experience problems in developing and maintaining specialist areas of personnel knowledge and expertise and in finding the time to undertake the work. Overall, however, the involvement of governors and senior staff in these functions c a n result in difficulties if a clear distinction between the creation of policy and day-to-day administration is not maintained.

• Building on key learning points •

As 'service' organisations, schools a n d colleges depend for their success on the c o m m i t m e n t a n d capability of staff. This dependence is reflected in the increased use of public domain performance indicators for teaching a n d support staff.

•

Flexible a n d creative use o f associate staff a n d a n awareness of the implications o f the use of part-time staff a n d fixed-term contracts c a n be a n important part of current HRM strategies in individual schools a n d colleges.

•

Autonomous schools a n d colleges enjoy greater freedom a n d responsibilities in all areas of HRM as a result of which they are able to develop customised approaches to the m a n a g e m e n t of staff, geared to the needs and circumstances of the individual institution.

E13 Reading Please read John O'Neill's chapter, 'Managing human resources', pp. 206-18 in P r i n c i p l e s o f E d u c a t i o n a l M a n a g e m e n t , which covers some of these issues in detail at the time when schools and colleges were beginning to become accustomed to self-governance.

15

4. The management implications People and performance This section considers: • •

several different approaches to performance m a n a g e m e n t the factors, especially support a n d motivation, which influence performance.

• Introduction The period since 1 9 7 9 , in England a n d Wales, has seen the development of frameworks for the inspection of school a n d college performance, t a x o n o m i e s of professional a n d m a n a g e r i a l competence a n d comparative data in the form of published performance indicators for FEs, league tables o f standardised assessment tests (SATs) a n d public e x a m i n a t i o n results. The curricula which schools a n d colleges are required to deliver are either prescribed via statutory national curriculum (NC) programmes of study or, in the case of vocational curricula, determined by funding a n d validating bodies. Performance standards for a u t o n o m o u s schools a n d colleges, it m a y be argued, are increasingly centrally controlled by national government or government appointed quango. You will have noticed, no doubt, that your personal observations on your own teaching a n d m a n a g e r i a l performance are increasingly measured against a framework of external expectations of performance. In addition, students a n d parents are encouraged to choose between competitor institutions on the basis of comparisons o f actual a n d expected levels of performance rather t h a n on the content of the curriculum. At the s a m e time, studies of m a n a g e m e n t effectiveness in m a i n s t r e a m (e.g. Senge, 1 9 9 0 ) a n d educational organisations (e.g. Grace, 1 9 9 5 ; Jenkins, 1 9 9 7 ) suggest that effective m a n a g e m e n t is characterised by a n ability and willingness to devolve authority a n d responsibility throughout the organisation so t h a t individuals a n d t e a m s are 'empowered' to act. The philosophical a n d empirical bases for these exhortations reflect the notion t h a t uniquely bureaucratic styles of m a n a g e m e n t with their tight control a n d detailed assessments of performance are unlikely to secure o p t i m u m levels o f staff performance. Advocates o f people-oriented m a n a g e m e n t approaches (Riches, 1997) argue for supportive yet challenging styles of m a n a g e m e n t . These are perceived as particularly appropriate in professionally staffed schools a n d colleges a n d a necessary response to curriculum a n d administrative overload in a u t o n o m o u s institutions. This section e x a m i n e s the issues which confront m a n a g e r s in education in terms of responding to conflicting pressures for increased levels of public accountability a n d a n appropriate degree of professional autonomy.

• Performance-centred approaches The a p p e a r a n c e of frameworks for the analysis of teaching or m a n a g e m e n t performance reflects the trend in education towards more public or market-oriented forms of accountability. Bush (1994) analyses recent changes in the b a l a n c e of accountability in education. His c o m m e n t a r y demonstrates that, in particular since the 1 9 8 8 Education Reform Act, there h a s been a substantive increase in the accountability of schools a n d colleges to external stakeholders. Such increases have been paralleled by a diminution in the scope, relevance a n d perceived importance of professional forms of accountability. The shift is significant. It not only reflects a more active role for central government a n d parents, as customers, in the definition of 17

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

appropriate standards a n d the scrutiny of actual levels of performance, but also emphasises what sociologists of education, in particular, have called the attempted 'proletarianisation' of teaching (e.g. Healy and Kraithrnan, 1 9 9 4 ) . In this teachers are seen primarily as 'technicians' whose job is to i m p l e m e n t closely denned curricula which h a v e been determined elsewhere rather t h a n as active professionals who are regarded,

like other professions, as self-determining,

self-regulating, self-monitoring a n d

self-

m a n a g i n g . The 'technician' a n a l o g y is most acute in the further education sector where the Further Education Funding Council (FEFC) a n d Training a n d Enterprise Councils (TECs) are seen to 'commission' the delivery of accredited vocational courses at regional a n d local levels with funding linked, at least in part, to successful student outcomes. Similar analogies m a y be drawn in relation to the development of the National Curriculum in England a n d Wales. Below we briefly consider four perspectives on performance oriented approaches. These are: •

m a n a g e m e n t by objectives

•

m a n a g e r i a l competences

•

inspection frameworks

•

value-added measures.

They differ in the extent to which performance standards in each approach are: (a)

internally generated

(b)

customised

(c)

developmentally oriented

(d)

confidential.

(i) Management b y objectives ( M B O ) Squire (1989) argues t h a t MBO provides a n objective and necessary bulwark against both imposed performance standards a n d subjective or hearsay assessments of performance. For Squire MBO is essentially 'a system within which to carry out one's intentions' (p. 2 0 ) , involving: 1.

performance goals or targets initiated periodically by the employee

2.

mutual a g r e e m e n t on a set of goals by the employee and his (sic) superior after discussion

3.

periodic review by the employee and his superior of the m a t c h between goals a n d achievements.

Clearly the framework is skeletal in m a n a g e m e n t terms. In relation to the work o f schools a n d colleges there is no indication of how tensions between individual, t e a m a n d whole institution objectives might be reconciled. Nor is there a n y reference to tangible support for training a n d development needs which arise from the target-setting process. Nevertheless, the l a n g u a g e of the framework is indicative o f a n attempt to address the issues contributing to potential antipathy we discussed earlier. In t h a t sense 'the a p p r o a c h is readily applicable in the education sector because, used appropriately, it values both professional " v o i c e " a n d m a n a g e r i a l responsibility' (O'Neill, 1 9 9 4 a , p. 2 1 7 ) . (ii) Managerial competences If M B O c a n be defined as a n internal institutional vehicle for agreeing targets a n d measuring progress towards meeting those targets, then the m a n a g e r i a l competences m o v e m e n t offers a different perspective on the m a n a g e m e n t of performance because it relies on a, largely external, detailed analysis o f the tasks which might be carried out by people at various levels of responsibility within the 'typical' school or college. Task analysis is also perceived to help identify differences in levels of performance from, say, a d e q u a t e to outstanding. The analysis leads to a statement o f tasks or competences a g a i n s t which individual or t e a m performance a n d quality of performance might be measured. Earley ( 1 9 9 3 ) implies that, whilst the competences are deemed to be derived from, a n d relate to, actual workplace activities, the a p p r o a c h offers considerable possibilities when used for developmental rather t h a n accountability purposes: 18

4

The management implications

•

it emphasises workplace performance

•

it establishes a n infrastructure which encourages a n d enables development to take place

•

it is driven by practitioners rather t h a n trainer providers

•

it allows for better identification of training a n d development needs

•

it provides a higher profile for career or personal development planning

•

it empowers a n d motivates individuals to use the standards in ways which reflect their own needs

•

a n d those of the schools in which they work it enables external inputs to b e identified a n d tailored to a n individual's or a school's development plan (Earley, 1 9 9 3 , p. 1 1 0 ) .

However, 'tasks' is a limiting conception o f competences, a n d subsequent developments o f the a p p r o a c h (e.g. NPQH) h a v e raised debates a b o u t the analysis also o f traits, abilities a n d attributes as relevant. Detailed studies for posts a t various levels including headship (e.g. Jurasinghe a n d Lyons, 1 9 9 6 ) strongly support the approach for development purposes. Whilst the a p p r o a c h is seen to h a v e some advantages, critics argue t h a t a t a n operational level it is time-consuming a n d expensive both to set up a n d to administer, a n d generic rather t h a n customised in its approach. More significantly, perhaps, competences are seen a s a problematic vehicle for identifying or developing the higher order, creative, adaptive m a n a g e m e n t skills which will be a t a premium in a u t o n o m o u s schools a n d colleges. As Ouston ( 1 9 9 3 , p. 2 1 7 ) notes, ' i f the model is very skills based, rather t h a n qualities based, it is likely to reflect the present rather t h a n the future.' (iii) Inspection frameworks In England a n d W a l e s , both the inspection authorities (Ofsted a n d FEFC) encapsulate attempts to define generic criteria a g a i n s t which performance might be assessed both within a n d between institutions. The purpose of inspection is to identify strengths and weaknesses in schools so that they may improve the quality of education offered and raise the standards achieved by their pupils. Particular attention is paid to pupils' standards of achievement which are better or worse in any subject or area of learning than the average for their age and to reasons for such differences (Ofsted, 1995, p. 4). The emphasis of the framework is on the contribution o f teaching a n d m a n a g e m e n t to e n h a n c e d educational outcomes whilst the criteria explicitly focus on norm-referenced standards o f student a t t a i n m e n t . In this sense staff performance is evaluated in terms o f 'the quality of teaching provided a n d its effects o n the quality o f learning a n d standards o f pupils' achievements' (ibid., p. 2 7 ) . Since 1 9 9 7 , in England a n d Wales, individual teachers h a v e been graded for their classroom performance. The perspective is clearly o n e of external accountability in which priority is given to educational attainments, or outcomes, rather t h a n to the process of teaching a n d learning in its own right. In Drucker's ( 1 9 8 8 ) terms the quality of education is measured according to results n o t good intentions. However, assessments o f performance which are based purely on raw data or normative criteria c a n be misleading. Riches ( 1 9 9 7 , p. 17) summarises the basic problems which need to be considered before h u m a n perform a n c e c a n be understood: 1.

The reliability o f performance or consistency or stability over time. Are the best (or worst) performers a t time 1 the best or (worst) performers a t time 2 ? Psychological evidence indicates t h a t this is not necessarily so because people are inconsistent in their performances or conditions in which the performances take place m a y vary (Cascio, 1 9 9 1 ) .

2.

The reliability o f j o b performance observations in which different methods m a y result in markedly different conclusions a b o u t performance. The dimensionality of job performance: a great variety o f predictors c a n be used but most empirical studies a n d people in practice use only a global measure or criterion (Ronan a n d Prien, 1 9 7 1 ) . In performance the moderating effects o f situational variables, such as organisational c h a r a c teristics or leadership influences, invariably c o m e into play.

3. 4.

19

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges Another critical c o m m e n t to be m a d e concerns the weight, or relative importance, of the various components within a n y one assessment o f performance system. How is it decided, a n d who decides, which one is more important t h a n another? These general points are made to demonstrate that there is a good deal of subjectivity surrounding the evaluation of performance. A system of performance-related pay, for instance, would need to b e based upon a n assessment o f performance in which all potential recipients h a d confidence. (iv) Value-added measures The argument for value-added approaches to the measurement o f teaching a n d m a n a g e m e n t effectiveness relates to the, quite logical, notion that student attainment, whether on entry to formal schooling a t 4 + or on completion at 16, is extremely varied. In this sense the use of raw data to measure institutional or individual teacher effectiveness is too crude a n approach. Hence there is the need to develop procedures which assess a t t a i n m e n t on entry in order to measure 'distance travelled' by students, rather t h a n simply linking effectiveness with student

outcomes. Such procedures are 'achieved through

sophisticated

statistical modelling, allowing only for those variables which c a n be consistently measured across all schools a n d which c a n be relatively objectively assessed' (Schagen a n d Morrison, 1 9 9 7 , p. 1). However, the difficulties of applying value-added approaches to the assessment of staff performance are considerable. They also create the potential for disenfranchisement of certain categories of student: For a number of management functions within a school or college, including staff appraisal, it is useful to know whether an abnormal level of achievement by students is partially explained by the students' prior ability. And if performance-related pay is introduced for teachers and lecturers, the use of value-added evaluations may help prevent perverse effects. If performance-related pay were determined without reference to initial attainment, teachers and lecturers with less promising intakes would receive less bonus than their counterparts in other schools or colleges. This would make teachers and lecturers less willing to work with less promising students, and institutions serving such students would become doubly disadvantaged (Ofsted and Audit Commission, 1993, pp. 64-5).

Activity Consider the extent to which the four possible performance-centred approaches are used within your school or college. For what particular purposes are the various approaches used? List the advantages a n d disadvantages of each approach as used within your institution.

• Comment Most schools a n d colleges are likely to use a combination of approaches, either by coincidence or by design. The effectiveness o f each approach, a n d the extent to which it is used, depends on: • •

its acceptability to the staff concerned the availability of valid a n d reliable data to inform assessments

•

an understanding of the ways in which performance m a y be e n h a n c e d via assessment.

E§3 Please

Reading read Colin Riches'

E d u c a t i o n , pp. 15-22. aspects 20

of the management

chapter

'Managing

This explores

for people and performance'

the notion

of HRM values

of people in schools and

colleges.

in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n

and processes

underpinning

all

4

The management implications

• People-oriented approaches Elliott a n d Hall ( 1 9 9 4 ) offer a critique of the way in which, in their view, ' h a r d ' HRM approaches, which categorise people a s just a n o t h e r resource to be m a n i p u l a t e d in pursuit o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l objectives, h a v e apparently been adopted with enthusiasm by senior m a n a g e r s within the further education sector, postincorporation. T h e y point to deteriorating conditions of service for full-time staff a n d potential exploitation o f hourly-paid staff a s indicators o f a n inappropriate emphasis o n outcomes, or performance, at t h e expense of people. Similarly, Hoyle a n d Jones ( 1 9 9 5 ) argue t h a t control over teachers h a s b e c o m e more overt, 'helped by the rise of m a n a g e r i a l i s m as a significant force at the school level' (p. 74). At the s a m e time, the emergence o f educational institutions a s wild or open organisations which h a v e to compete a n d survive in a n increasingly turbulent e c o n o m i c , demographic a n d educational environment reinforces our basic premise (p. 5) t h a t schools a n d colleges depend for their success on t h e people who work there. People-oriented, as opposed to performance-oriented, perspectives m a y b e likened to a 'soft' HRM approach, which suggests a 'spirit which values employees as h u m a n beings a n d enables t h e m to do extraordinary things' (Riches, 1997, p. 1 7 ) . In addition, the general m o v e towards HRM approaches, with a consequent emphasis on the role o f t h e line m a n a g e r , h a s considerable implications for the development o f higher order interpersonal a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n skills in all types of organisation (O'Neill, 1 9 9 4 b ) . In schools a n d colleges, particularly in the light o f trends towards flexible, independent a n d life-long student learning, these skills are a t a p r e m i u m not only in staff-staff relationships, but also in interactions between staff a n d students, a n d between staff a n d the host o f other stakeholders who form part o f the institution's educational community. (i) T h e importance o f motivation In our introduction we set out our understanding o f the symbiotic relationship between individual performance a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l effectiveness. W e also suggested t h a t o p t i m u m levels of c o m m i t m e n t a n d performance were entirely contingent o n m a n a g e m e n t effectiveness: c o m m i t m e n t a n d performance h a v e to be actively m a n a g e d rather t h a n simply be assumed or left to c h a n c e . Underpinning this notion o f affecting a n d improving t h e performance capability o f individuals is t h e concept o f motivation. Riches ( 1 9 9 4 a ) implies t h a t the concept is multi-faceted and, as such, eludes satisfactory definition. Nevertheless, h e argues, the importance of motivation to a u t o n o m o u s schools a n d colleges lies b o t h in the recognition t h a t people are the key resource a n d in a n awareness t h a t training a n d development are key elements in promoting e n h a n c e d levels of motivation amongst, a n d contributions from, staff. For a detailed consideration o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f motivation, please see the later section o n this topic. It is significant that, in linking motivation to m a n a g e m e n t strategies, Riches highlights challenging goals, a d e q u a t e support a n d training a n d feedback on performance as essential elements for promoting j o b satisfaction. Each o f these, a s we discuss later, is a n important part o f effective schemes for the induction, mentoring a n d appraisal o f staff. People-oriented a p p r o a c h e s are significant in educational m a n a g e m e n t b e c a u s e they advocate the use o f a r a n g e o f m o t i v a t i o n a l strategies depending on the needs o f the individual. For some those needs will be satisfied by purely pecuniary rewards, for others responsibility a n d a u t o n o m y will a c t a s motivating factors, for yet others it will be regular a n d tangible recognition o f performance within the t e a m which will b e p a r a m o u n t . For s o m e teachers the prospect o f negotiating individual j o b descriptions a n d performance targets with performance-related p a y will b e a n appealing prospect. For others the quality o f welfare, grievance a n d professional association support will i m p a c t significantly o n their perceptions a b o u t the quality o f their working environment. O'Neill ( 1 9 9 4 a ) identifies a range o f factors which a r e a v a i l a b l e to individual institutions to respond to the needs o f individuals a n d groups o f staff within the school or college. These are shown in Figure 4 . 1 . Equally people-oriented approaches acknowledge the extrinsic nature o f motivation in t h a t it depends on feedback a n d support from others within the t e a m or wider institution. The key m a n a g e m e n t issues m a y 21

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

Remuneration

Welfare

Development

Starting salary Salary progression Performance-related pay

Incapacity benefits Career-break entitlements Child-care provision Security of tenure Grievance and discipline mechanisms Counselling Working conditions Union recognition Redundancy

Induction Mentoring Appraisal Opportunities for career and professional development

Figure

4.1

Factors

in the management

of staff commitment

(O'Neill, 1994a,

p.

215)

therefore be those of (a) the appropriate m a n a g e m e n t style a n d (b) a structure which enables this support a n d feedback a t all levels through a teams-based approach. (ii) Implications for managers in schools and colleges W e conclude this section with a n assessment of the issues which need to be addressed by schools a n d colleges in their attempts to resolve the people versus performance debate. W e end this section by returning to the m a n a g e m e n t of learning implications of the debate. 1.

Drucker (1988, p. 362) argues that the guiding principle for any policy or action in the m a n a g e m e n t of staff has to be that of integrity; decisions which relate to the m a n a g e m e n t of staff have to be consistent with the values espoused by the institution, and not, by implication, governed by considerations of expediency. This is a significant polemic in educational m a n a g e m e n t because schools a n d colleges are subject to powerful external financial and accountability constraints which, at times, conflict with historical staffing structures a n d accepted norms concerning conditions of service. There are considerable potential hazards in a m a n a g e m e n t approach which emphasises efficiency a n d outcomes at the expense of individual welfare. Equally, however, Drucker explicitly links integrity with a concern for high performance standards. Inappropriate standards o f performance, he suggests, should not be ignored but must be actively confronted a n d addressed, so that organisations develop a norm of high expectations of performance and achievement.

2.

Riches (1997, p. 17) points out the inevitable subjectivity involved in assessing performance standards t h a t are dependent on context a n d a host o f organisational a n d environmental variables which militate against the simplistic comparison of performance both within a n d between institutions. At the heart o f the process of defining performance standards lies the issues of ownership a n d fitness-for-purpose, i.e. whether the performance is of the appropriate quality to achieve w h a t is required.

• Building on key learning points

22

•

External forms of accountability a n d published performance standards are routine aspects of the m a n a g e m e n t of autonomous schools a n d colleges; studies of m a n a g e m e n t effectiveness suggest t h a t empowerment a n d a u t o n o m y for staff are important contributors to internal organisational effectiveness.

•

An insistence on high standards of performance a n d a concern for the differing needs of individual staff are complementary, rather t h a n conflicting, aspects o f the effective m a n a g e m e n t of h u m a n resources.

•

Optimum levels of individual performance are contingent upon effective m a n a g e m e n t which is characterised by support, feedback on performance and higher order interpersonal skills.

•

Individual motivation to perform is informed a n d constrained by a n understanding of organisational values a n d norms.

4

The management implications

E§3 Reading You have already read the first part of Colin Riches' chapter, in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n E d u c a t i o n . Now, please read the remainder, pp. 22-8, which shows how the underlying values balancing concern for people and performance can apply to managerial processes.

The individual and the organisation This section considers: • •

how individual a n d organisational development need to be integrated some of the issues affecting this integration.

• Introduction The existence of a causal relationship between optimum individual performance a n d a n effective framework o f organisational support is central to the principles of h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t . Whilst the m a n a g e m e n t o f classroom teaching a n d learning at the point of delivery m a y , in your experience, be largely a solitary professional role, the broader range of administrative a n d m a n a g e r i a l tasks which you undertake within the institution are collaborative activities; you will normally work as a m e m b e r of one or more groups or t e a m s in the pursuit of c o m m o n objectives. Professional development in this context will be part of t h a t framework of organisational support, the objective of which is to help integrate the development of individuals within the work of the organisation. (i) T h e importance o f integration There are several reasons which help to e x p l a i n the emergence of integration as a key m a n a g e m e n t issue in both individual a n d organisational development. 1.

In a u t o n o m o u s schools a n d colleges, traditional staffing structures a n d historical divisions between professional a n d other types of work are increasingly being called into question (e.g. Saran a n d Busher, 1 9 9 5 ) .

2.

External accountability a n d resource efficiency factors have led to organisations in all sectors being less tolerant o f w h a t Riches ( 1 9 9 4 a ) labels organisational 'slack', thus schools a n d colleges are exhorted to ensure appropriate levels o f contribution from all individuals a n d groups within the organisation. The emphasis on target-setting (e.g. DfEE, 1 9 9 5 ) reinforces the notion of m i n i m u m requirements for the institution a n d the individuals who work in it.

3.

T h e increasing complexity of the m a n a g e m e n t of learning in the 1990s, reflected in the use of a m o r e diverse range of teaching a n d learning styles, rapid developments in the content a n d skills specifications for areas of learning a n d greater sophistication in the assessment a n d recording of individual student learning, creates significant organisational difficulties in terms of m a n a g e r s attempting to simultaneously support individual, curriculum a n d whole institution development.

4.

T h e massive increase in information processing demanded of a u t o n o m o u s schools a n d colleges, c o m b i n e d with the very real need for higher order interpersonal a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n skills in working relationships, serve to underline the importance of effective c o m m u n i c a t i o n networks a n d procedures in educational organisations. In this sense the concept o f integration embraces both the relationships between people within the school or college a n d the work they do.

W e begin this part of the section by looking briefly a t the range o f tensions associated with organisational development identified by Dalin (1993), a n d then proceed to e x a m i n e how the work o f the school or 23

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

college might be organised to facilitate such integration a n d development. The relationship between teamwork a n d development is analysed in depth. The latter parts o f the section consider issues associated with the m a n a g e m e n t o f accountability a n d development. (ii) Organisational development Dalin's-extensive work on institutional development in northern Europe, principally in Norway, the Netherlands a n d Germany, has identified effective h u m a n relations between all members o f the school c o m m u n i t y as a key determinant of school quality. Certain institutional ' d i l e m m a s ' are enumerated: •

How c a n ' m e m b e r s h i p ' really be felt, even when personal values, personality a n d norms are different from those o f the majority?

•

How are feelings expressed? Can a school accept all forms of feelings (and their expression)? And how c a n one be fair? (For e x a m p l e , do we treat boys a n d girls alike?)

•

Do we accept t h a t all members, students as well as leaders, have the right to influence, a n d how c a n we deal with unacceptable ways o f using influence (by leaders, teachers a n d students)?

•

Does the school h a v e a n open a n d constructive c o m m u n i c a t i o n process a t all levels, or is energy blocked because people do not talk to each other?

•

How does the school deal with conflicts a n d problem-solving? Does it h a v e acceptable procedures a n d norms or are these ad hoc or non-existent?

•

Is the school working with its own culture a n d climate, a n d are 'process' issues accepted, as well as discussions o f content? (Dalin, 1993, p. 9)

These m a n a g e m e n t dilemmas, albeit expressed in 'broadwash' terms, provide a useful a g e n d a for individual a n d organisational development from a n HRM perspective. In particular they reinforce the importance of the following issues: • •

appropriate a n d effective c o m m u n i c a t i o n processes full i n t e g r a t i o n of all organisational members

• • •

positive r e s o l u t i o n o f c o n f l i c t a c o d e o f c o n d u c t which reflects the organisation's c u l t u r e appropriate degrees o f i n v o l v e m e n t i n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g .

Such issues are c o m p l e x in terms of overall school a n d college m a n a g e m e n t . Decisions, for e x a m p l e , about the form a n d content o f induction, mentoring a n d appraisal schemes m a y challenge existing values a n d norms within the institution. However, integration occurs as individuals take on meaningful work within various groups within the institution. Individual a n d organisational development are seen to be symbiotic: •

the c o m m o n p r o c e s s is effective group or teamwork

•

the c r i t i c a l s u c c e s s f a c t o r in terms of organisational development is the linking together of the work of different operating units (see Figure 4 . 2 ) .

Everard a n d Morris ( 1 9 9 0 ) argue t h a t it is at the level of inter-team practice that c o m m u n i c a t i o n networks a n d procedures are most significant, whilst within individual teams consensus around goals, purposeful leadership a n d higher-order interpersonal skills are called for. These latter issues are discussed in t h e later section on a teams-based approach. Official integration occurs through induction a n d mentoring schemes, existing departmental t e a m structures, membership of working groups, a n d cross-school or college groups involved with the m a n a g e m e n t of, for e x a m p l e , pastoral care, assessment a n d record-keeping or student support. Unofficial integration m a y well arise from friendship networks a n d voluntary activities such as a school trip or fundraising event. It is i m p o r t a n t to realise t h a t the way individuals a n d groups develop within the institution will be influenced b y both official a n d unofficial processes. Equally it is important to note t h a t integration 24

4

The management implications

Increasing organisation effectiveness with time

Figure

4.2

Training

and organisation

development

matrix

(Everard

and Morris, 1990, p.

173)

a n d development can, a n d do, take place outside formal training programmes. This consideration of the whole picture or culture of the organisation is discussed in the later section on culture. (iii) Organisational size and complexity Empirical studies in schools in England a n d Wales have demonstrated the difficulties, in particular, o f ensuring the integration o f different t e a m s within the one organisation. One of the criteria by which senior staff identified effective middle managers, and a quality which was highly valued, was the ability to take a wide perspective and see subject or area concerns in the context of the whole school. Middle managers who fought for their own comer regardless of the needs of colleagues in other departments and whole school policies were regarded unfavourably (Earley and Fletcher Campbell, 1992, p. 192). This notion is reinforced by B o l a m et al (1993) whose study of m a n a g e m e n t practice in primary a n d secondary schools emphasised the importance of organisational size a n d c o m p l e x i t y a s contributory factors to the level of integration a n d general organisational effectiveness. Primary schools have relatively small and simple structures which are probably relatively easy to co-ordinate, whereas secondary schools are relatively large, complex and less easy to co-ordinate at school level, but probably more tightly structured and easier to co-ordinate at department level. It may well be the case, therefore, that primary headteachers and teachers are more likely to have a shared understanding of the various aspects of school management than their secondary colleagues, whereas the latter are more likely to have that understanding at departmental level. There was some evidence that subject departments were the key management structures in secondary schools but there was little evidence of inter-departmental collaboration (Bolam et al, 1993, pp. 124-5). In their study of effective a n d ineffective departments in secondary schools, S a m m o n s , T h o m a s a n d Mortimore (1997) found that different departments even within the s a m e school achieved markedly differently. While they identified a n u m b e r of factors contributing to the effectiveness of individual departments, the one that is most relevant here was the quality of the Senior M a n a g e m e n t Team's leadership, particularly in the relationship between the SMT a n d the Heads of Departments. 25

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

Activity List those features of size a n d complexity which help a n d hinder integration of the various working units within your school or college. W h a t would now be your priority for action?

• Comment You will perhaps h a v e concluded that numbers of staff, their relative physical isolation from e a c h other, timetable arrangements a n d competing work demands are negative aspects of size which hinder both development work a n d more general integration. The great a d v a n t a g e o f size is that it c a n provide some economies of scale in terms of m a n a g e m e n t a n d administration. The features of complexity you have identified m a y be related to competition for resources, interpersonal or group relationships and m a n a g e m e n t or organisational structures. Your priority for action might be the most significant issue or, conversely, the most readily changed feature. But which would be the most effective? (iv) Organisational improvement and individual development Implicit throughout our discussions in this section h a s been the a r g u m e n t that individual a n d organisational development are closely intertwined. This is evident in the normative m a t r i x provided by Everard a n d Morris (p. 25) which is conceptually useful but fails to acknowledge the difficulties of integrating the work of individuals within t e a m s or of marrying the priorities of various t e a m s within the institution. The polemic returns us to the arguments we originally discussed in relation to the HRM versus personnel m a n a g e m e n t debate. In the context of educational organisations, is individual development the responsibility o f the individual, the professional tutor, the t e a m leader or the institution a s a whole? Up to the late 1980s, it could be argued t h a t the m a n a g e m e n t o f individual performance was routinely characterised by evaluation a n d target-setting m e c h a n i s m s , but lacked a n y systematic a p p r o a c h to support for the work of the individual: All the emphasis is on evaluation with some on performance planning but very little, if any, attention is directed towards coaching or supporting and helping employees win (Blanchard and Peale, 1988, p. 100). The School M a n a g e m e n t Task Force (SMTF) for England a n d Wales argued for support a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t being at the heart o f effective development of school leaders a n d m a n a g e r s . Day ( 1 9 9 5 , p. 123) argues the case for 'active e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f critical friendships which m a y be defined as practical partnerships entered voluntarily, based upon a relationship between equals a n d rooted in a c o m m o n task or shared concern'. Such friendships decrease isolation a n d through stages move the individual from reflection to confrontation of, for e x a m p l e , the need for c h a n g e s in practice. A m o n g the advantages of critical friends listed by Day (1995) are: • • •

being used to check against bias in self-reporting contribute to policy development act as a resource which teachers a n d others m a y use at times appropriate to the needs perceived.

The key responsibility for developing such communities within which these friendships prosper lies with leaders, according to D a y ( 1 9 9 5 ) . (v) A coherent human resource strategy A strategic perspective o f m a n a g i n g h u m a n resources in the school or college is essential if the perform a n c e o f the individual is to be successfully integrated into the essential focus upon organisational effectiveness. Three broad coherent h u m a n resource strategies m a y be described, e a c h o f which h a s implications for organisational leadership a n d m a n a g e m e n t . 26

4

The management implications

1.

I n d u c e m e n t S t r a t e g y . This approach relates effective individual performance to being achieved through motivation by reward (and the opposite). Organisations pursing this strategy m a y h a v e features o f restrictive role behaviour a n d job descriptions, selection on the basis of narrow, highly specified requirements a n d m a n a g e m e n t would tend to be controlled or supervisory.

2.

I n v e s t m e n t S t r a t e g y . Organisations following this strategy emphasise staff development a n d expect employees to exercise some initiative a n d creativity in carrying out tasks. Key values would be personal growth, justice, security a n d respect.

3.

I n v o l v e m e n t S t r a t e g y . Autonomy a n d responsibility would be a t the heart o f organisations following this strategy. Staff would be expected to show flexibility, to a d a p t to c h a n g e as well as demonstrate considerable initiative. Team-based work would be central a n d m a n a g e m e n t ' s supervision would be facilitative.

S i v a s u b r a m a n i a n a n d R a t n a m ( 1 9 9 8 ) , in their study of companies in India, suggested t h a t inducement strategy appeared to be most suitable when efficiency was seen as the key to success. Investment strategy was most applied where service differentiation (making the organisation 'special') was needed. Involvement strategy was best suited where the need was for continuous innovation and high quality. In the current context of self-managing schools a n d colleges, m a n a g e r s of h u m a n resources m a y find it helpful to explore the notion o f which strategy is most likely to e n a b l e t h e m to deliver the goals required o f t h e m . The fact t h a t these goals m a y be increasingly decided centrally c a n be a significant factor in determining the extent to which a u t o n o m y a n d empowerment are possible. W h a t is certain is that the integration o f individual effort a n d performance with the overall effectiveness o f the organisation remains the key quest for HR m a n a g e r s .

Activity W h i c h o f the three HRM strategies above do you see most evidence of in your own organisation? List the specific areas of HRM m a n a g e m e n t which seem most relevant to your evidence.

(vi) Developments in training The School M a n a g e m e n t Task Force report (DES, 1 9 9 0 ) provides a concise chronology of the changes in m a n a g e m e n t development approaches in education. In particular they focus on: • • •

a m o v e a w a y from knowledge-based, off-site courses a more explicit linkage between training or development a n d actual work undertaken the m a n a g e r i a l support t h a t institutions need to provide as a matter of course for individuals in the workplace.

The c h a n g e of emphasis is illustrated in Figure 4 . 3 .

Current emphasis

Redirected emphasis

Tutor-directed courses

Support for self-directed study by individuals, school teams, peer groups

Off-site training

In-school and near-to-the-school training

Predetermined times

Flexitime study

Oral presentations

Distance learning materials, information packs and projects

Provider-determined syllabus

School-determined agenda

Knowledge acquisition

Performance enhancement

Figure

4.3

Changing

priorities

in management

training

provision

(DES, 1990, p. 21) 27

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

Their perspective reinforces the idea that individual and organisational development should be synonymous: It becomes possible to regard the achievement of corporate goals and meeting the individual's needs more as matters of mutual benefit than of competing demands. For example, succession planning to forecast job vacancies and to meet future organisational requirements can improve individual career opportunities. Recognition of the need to match corporate and individual needs results in a more sharply focused approach to the selection of learning opportunities of benefit to both. School management development seen from this perspective is directly related to the effectiveness of the school and its management, as well as to the experiences of teachers and pupils. It is no longer a marginal activity. Training and development activities must be planned and implemented in the broader context of the organisation (DES, 1990, pp. 8-9). It is possible to draw on our discussions throughout this section a n d suggest t h a t effective individual development requires the following preconditions to exist in schools a n d colleges: • • •

a strong a n d supportive organisational culture a clearly defined a n d accepted role for line m a n a g e r s or t e a m leaders a review a n d development process which integrates the development of individuals within the routine work of the school or college.

• Building on key learning points •

Individual a n d organisational development are symbiotic; working in t e a m s is likely to provide a n effective vehicle for the development of both.

•

Effective development is constrained by potential tensions in inter-team practice, definitions of the role o f the line m a n a g e r or t e a m leader, a n d the closeness o f the link between training a n d a c t u a l performance.

•

Effective development is dependent on a n appropriate process to support review together with higher order c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d interpersonal skills to promote meaningful analysis of practice.

•

The ability of individuals and organisations to develop is determined by existing norms concerning institutional culture a n d the overall approach to m a n a g i n g h u m a n resources in the organisation.

28

Section Β

5. Managing the school or college and its staff Introduction The first section took a n overview in considering the role of m a n a g i n g people in educational organisations, a n d the different approaches which could be taken to h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t . It established t h e importance o f achieving the best possible performance from all who work within the school or college, a n d b e g a n to explore some general principles for m a n a g i n g people. This section e x a m i n e s policy a n d practice in key areas. W e open with consideration of a n overarching concept, t h a t of the learning organisation, a n d consider what such a concept m a y m e a n to a school or college a n d how it could b e achieved. W e then explore a n u m b e r of areas which are critical to achieving successful performance: equal opportunities, motivation, a n d stress/time m a n a g e m e n t . Finally we look a t some of the ways in which people m a y work together, exploring how t e a m s a n d teamwork could b e achieved, the roles a n d structures within which people work, a n d in conclusion, the overall culture of a n organisation a n d how it c a n contribute to performance. Overall, this section a i m s to suggest ways in which individuals a n d groups o f people c a n be supported to give of their best, creating a synergy by working together effectively.

The concept of the learning organisation This section considers: • • • •

t h e reasons for interest in the concept of the learning organisation definitions of the concept the n a t u r e o f learning steps to achieve a learning organisation.

• Interest in the concept Interest in the concept of the learning organisation h a s grown steadily in both education a n d business since it was coined a r o u n d 1 9 8 8 (Jones a n d Hendry, 1 9 9 4 ) . The technology revolution a n d ever increasing d e m a n d s o n education h a v e rendered incremental development a n insufficient response. If the speed o f innovation m e a n s t h a t the problems a n d solutions of the past are n o longer a n adequate basis on which to plan, then new ways o f coping with c h a n g e are imperative. A c h a n g e in approach which is qualitatively different m a y be needed. Put a n o t h e r way, new forms o f learning are needed, a n d the concept o f the learning organisation appears a n enticing goal. Schools a n d colleges aspire to achieving such a n organisation, not only because of a possible link between success in this a r e a a n d school effectiveness ( S a m m o n s , Hillman a n d Mortimore, 1 9 9 5 ) but also because of a c o m m i t m e n t to demonstrate the centrality o f learning in people's lives, as part of a learning c o m m u n i t y a n d learning society.

• Defining the learning organisation The attractiveness of the concept m a y relate to a lack of precision in its definition. Some h a v e attempted to describe a m i x o f factors which through synergy would lead to a learning organisation. The prescription includes variations of both particular characteristics of m a n a g e r s , such as flexibility, a m o r a l a n d ethical approach, etc., a n d a r a n g e o f structural features such as teamworking a n d linking individual developm e n t to organisational objectives (Beard, 1 9 9 3 ) . Other writers h a v e viewed such definitions as superficial 31

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

a n d unlikely to lead to transformation. They have focused on a more fundamental reconsideration o f w h a t the relationship between individual a n d organisational learning m a y be, a n d how learning is experienced (Jones a n d Hendry, 1 9 9 4 ; West, 1 9 9 4 ) .

• Individual and organisational learning West draws on Argyris a n d Schon ( 1 9 7 8 ) to argue that simply increasing the a m o u n t o f individual learning will not lead to a transformation of the organisation: There can be no organizational learning without individual learning, but the individual learning is a necessary but insufficient condition for organizational learning (West, 1994, p. 32). Several writers explore the p a r a d o x t h a t a n abstract, 'the organisation', c a n n o t learn, a n d yet the sum o f individual learning m a y in some sense, under certain conditions, result in whole organisation evolution. The two key factors a p p e a r to be firstly that all individuals focus their learning on the s a m e goal, or vision (Senge, 1 9 9 0 ; West, 1 9 9 4 ) a n d secondly that individual learning is c o m m u n i c a t e d to others a n d sufficiently absorbed as to b e c o m e embedded, that is, resulting in a consistent c h a n g e in behaviour by a critical mass o f people. T h e questions t h a t arise are: • •

How c a n all staff be helped to learn? How can t h a t individual learning be shared a n d embedded?

• The nature of learning Exploration of the process of learning in organisations suggests t h a t even in schools a n d colleges where learning is central, staff learning m a y be blocked or h a p p e n i n g in ways which are not helpful. As Honey asserts: People learn whether we want them to or not. The trouble is that most organisations are unwittingly designed to encourage the acquisition of behaviours and practices they wish they had less of (Honey, 1991, p. 30). Jones a n d Hendry ( 1 9 9 4 ) describe 'hidden learning' which is the unconscious adoption o f norms, values a n d practice of the job. They further define learning using a 'second a g e n d a ' : People know when to speak and when to keep quiet, they begin to understand how the communication and other social systems operate (Jones and Hendry, 1994, p. 157). People m a y be adopting behaviours which perpetuate ineffective practice, inappropriately protecting others from confronting development needs, or preventing t h e m personally from moving outside a comfort zone. Jones a n d Hendry argue that this learning which falls outside the formal systems for staff development is a critical feature, a n d t h a t until understanding is increased o f the role of culture a n d emotions in staff's learning a n d their subsequent performance, learning will continue to risk being inadequate or negative in its i m p a c t on the organisation. Argyris ( 1 9 9 1 ) goes further, a n d reasons that professionals, above all, become very skilled in resisting learning. He believes t h a t the very success o f professionals in achieving their position weakens their capacity to think critically o f their own performance, to deal with criticism a n d mistakes, a n d to dismantle a faulty self-image which acts as a barrier between self a n d accurate self-assessment: Even if we feel uncertain or ignorant, we learn to protect ourselves from the pain of appearing uncertain or ignorant. That very process blocks out any new understandings which might threaten us. The consequence is what Argyris calls 'skilled incompetence' - teams full of people who are incredibly proficient at keeping themselves from learning (Senge, 1990, p. 25). Argyris ( 1 9 9 1 ) also argues that where learning occurs it m a y be too limited. He contrasts 'single-loop' learning, t h a t is learning which compares progress with the agreed indicators o f success a n d adjusts to 32

5

Managing the school or college and its staff

keep things on track, with 'double-loop learning' where the goals a n d routes themselves, the definitions o f success, are challenged a n d transformed. He suggests t h a t failure in single-loop learning leads professionals to defensive b e h a v i o u r with b l a m e directed at other individuals a n d groups, or to inconsistency between what is declared a n d what is enacted: Teaching people how to reason about their behaviour in new and more effective ways breaks down the defences that block learning (Argyris, 1991, p. 100). In other words, the first lesson o f consideration of the concept o f the learning organisation is t h a t success in a career, even in education, is n o guarantee of a n ability to learn, a n d t h a t staff m a y need a great deal more help t h a n h a s previously been recognised in learning how to learn. The fast c h a n g i n g environment m a y h a v e e x a c e r b a t e d the difficulties in achieving learning. Kelly ( 1 9 9 5 ) , researching the learning a n d m a n a g e m e n t style o f 3 1 0 school heads, deputies a n d middle m a n a g e r s in primary a n d secondary schools, suggested t h a t the pressures experienced in the 1990s h a v e led to a move a w a y from reflection a n d analysis, a n d towards a n activist a p p r o a c h to learning. School leaders were reacting rather t h a n reflecting a n d planning. Drawing together all these concerns about the nature o f learning in organisations, it is clear t h a t staff development processes m a y need to focus not just on the a r e a o f development, whether it b e classroom-based skills or m a n a g e m e n t skills, but on the process o f learning itself if they are to be effective.

Activity You m a y wish to reflect on the quality a n d effectiveness of staff learning in your organisation. List the m e a n s by which individual learning is disseminated a n d shared. Assess whether the systems for sharing learning really engage staff. How far is the hidden learning referred to by Jones a n d Henry ( 1 9 9 4 ) inhibiting learning? Ask colleagues if they feel free to openly discuss both positive and negative views o f developments in the organisation.

• Achieving a learning organisation A universal c o m m i t m e n t to development a n d c h a n g e c a n n o t be assumed. Some m a y view a move to significant learning as deeply threatening: Whittington (1993) suggests that managers 'refuse to learn because they understand perfectly well the implications for their power and status.' Resistance to change may not be 'stupid' . . . but based on a very shrewd perception of the consequences (West, 1994, pp. 35-6). Achieving learning m a y be therefore, as Garratt (1994) suggests, ' a n essentially political process'. Before a n y consideration o f how learning is taking place in a n organisation c a n b e achieved, a sufficient n u m b e r of people must be persuaded of the necessity o f such a process. Southworth (1994) in his study of 'The Learning School' concluded t h a t the headteacher is the leading learner, a n d must establish the central focus on every level o f learning from t h a t o f the pupils to all the staff, the organisation, a n d his or her own. Several writers including Argyris ( 1 9 9 1 ) , Garratt ( 1 9 9 4 ) a n d Senge ( 1 9 9 0 ) agree t h a t establishing learning as central is a strategic imperative for the leader of a n y organisation. If creating c o m m i t m e n t is the foundation, t h e n a l i g n m e n t o f goals is the n e x t step: You cannot have a learning organization without shared vision. Without a pull toward some goal which people truly want to achieve, the forces in support of the status quo can be overwhelming. Vision establishes the overarching goal (Senge, 1990, p. 209). Achieving such a vision m a y b e problematic (Foreman, 1 9 9 7 ) but without it, learning m a y follow different paths in a n u m b e r o f directions, precluding the critical mass of c h a n g e d behaviour needed to result in o r g a n i s a t i o n a l a n d not just individual evolution. Holding in view a vision o f w h a t t h e goal o f the organisation is, all staff c a n attempt to analyse a n d improve the quality of their learning, recognising the 33

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

need to address the hidden as well as the overt. W e take a more detailed look at staff development issues in the final section.

• Building on key learning points •

The definition of the concept of the learning organisation is varied and sometimes inexact, but it m a y nevertheless be a powerful ideal to guide action.

•

The concept challenges some of the widely held beliefs of educational professionals, that they are good at learning, a n d that increasing individual development activity will necessarily develop the whole school or college.

•

Aligning individual development goals against organisational strategic goals m a y not be the most important initial focus for staff development. Rather the headteacher or principal m a y need to focus on establishing a culture which allows people to analyse with others the holistic a n d bounded nature of their learning.

•

Although this section has concentrated on the m a n a g e m e n t of staff, the focus on learning to learn m a y be most effective when it is universally applied to students/pupils as well as all staff.

•

The concept m a y not be appropriate to all schools and colleges. Political, cultural or external factors m a y indicate that it is not the m o m e n t to attempt this approach.

Reading Jacky Lumby's chapter, 'The learning organisation', in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n E d u c a t i o n , offers a more detailed consideration of how the learning of individual staff can be supported and of the structural and process changes which may lead to the achievement of a learning organisation.

Managing for equal opportunities This section considers: • • • • •

the definition of equality o f opportunity the importance of working towards equality of opportunity the current position in schools and colleges the causes of inequality possible ways forward.

Ask people working in education if they endorse equality of opportunity for both students a n d staff, a n d the vast majority would assert their wholehearted support. At the level of general concept, there is n o problem in achieving consensus. But, as with m a n y concepts in education, closer definition m a y uncover uncertainties a n d disagreement. Perhaps the range of views of those working in education might reveal itself most strongly when people are asked what a n educational institution which had achieved equality of opportunity would look like. Would the school or college have proportions of women and men, both overall a n d in senior positions, reflecting the percentages o f e a c h in the population, or the proportion employed in that educational phase? Would the n u m b e r a n d diversity of minority ethnic staff reflect the local community or n a t i o n a l demography? 34

5

Managing the school or college and its staff

Would the staff not necessarily display these statistical parallels, but simply be a n outstanding group o f people, indicating t h a t recruitment ensured t h a t the most talented a n d skilled were attracted a n d recruited, irrespective o f gender, race or disability? Does m a n a g i n g for equality o f opportunity m e a n all staff are treated the s a m e , or according to their individual need? Does the latter imply treating some m o r e favourably t h a n others to overcome previous a n d / o r current disadvantage? Most people focus on the i n p u t s o f equality o f opportunity, a n d m a y be proud o f their policy documents, their training for interviewers, their on-site nurseries, etc. Fewer focus on the o u t p u t s , t h a t is the indicators of success. Monitoring staff by ethnicity, gender a n d disability is the only current widespread measure o f 'success'. This numerical a p p r o a c h to equal opportunities m a y relate to the legislative b a s e within the UK, Europe a n d North America which does not attempt to radically c h a n g e the organisations in which people work. Rather it takes a n 'equal slice o f the pie' approach, without questioning the nature o f the pie. This implied definition o f equality o f opportunity h a s been criticised on two counts. Firstly, it defines success in terms of the current system, the values a n d practice o f which m a y be unsatisfactory or even abhorrent to some. As Acker ( 1 9 9 4 ) points out, more radical approaches using concepts such a s racism, patriarchy a n d oppression are largely excluded from the discourse of education on equal opportunity. Secondly, it focuses m a n a g e r s on certain forms o f discrimination, ignoring others. For e x a m p l e , H e a s m a n ( 1 9 9 3 ) , writing o f the experience o f m e m b e r s o f the N a t i o n a l Association o f Teachers in Further a n d Higher Education, argues that: The form of harassment and discrimination which affects the highest proportion of our members is ageism (to which we will all be subject in due course) (Heasman, 1993, p. 28). M a n a g i n g for equality o f opportunity c a n be defined in a negative way as removing all forms o f unfair discrimination, or positively, as attracting a n d using to the full the talents a n d experience o f all parts of t h e c o m m u n i t y . It c a n be seen as minimalist complying with legal requirements, or as a radical attack on racism a n d patriarchy. Action which plans to move beyond a rhetorical c o m m i t m e n t m a y find it useful to start with achieving individual a n d organisational clarity on w h a t exactly not only the inputs but also t h e outputs o f a n equal system would be.

Activity Write your own definition o f equality o f opportunity. Avoid generalisations a n d try to describe what success would look like, how you might measure it, a n d w h a t changes in your organisation would need to h a v e taken place to h a v e reached this point.

• Why pursue equality of opportunity? W h a t e v e r the individual or organisational definition of equality o f opportunity, there are a n u m b e r o f reasons, b o t h ethical a n d pragmatic, compelling schools a n d colleges to work to achieve it. Firstly the law demands it, a n d employees' recourse to industrial tribunals h a s b e c o m e both more frequent a n d more successful in recent years. Such cases, though rare, are both very expensive a n d embarrassing for the organisation. Also emphasising the p r a g m a t i c approach, in some a r e a s o f education a predicted shortage of labour will m e a n organisations need to work hard a t retention a n d attraction: At a time of labour shortages equal opportunities becomes more a matter of self-interest for the employer than one of altruism (Wagstaff, 1994, p. 102). Beyond fear o f prosecution a n d self-interest, there is a relationship between the learning o f students a n d equality o f opportunity for staff. Men a n d w o m e n in schools a n d colleges a c t as role models, and, for e x a m p l e , a s Marshall ( 1 9 9 4 , p. 3) points out, it is no good telling girls they c a n b e c o m e doctors or astronauts if: 35

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

they can see in their schools that women who break sex-role stereotypes encounter barriers, lack of support, and marginalization. Similarly, if minority ethnic children are encouraged to raise their aspirations but, as Clay, Cole a n d George report: Many believe that minority teachers get a raw deal - and (that) pupils know it (Clay, Cole and George, 1995, p. 22) the hidden curriculum will powerfully undermine the relatively weak force of the intended curriculum. The involvement o f a diverse staff is also likely to ensure t h a t the knowledge a n d experience from which the curriculum is m a n a g e d does not rest too uniformly on t h a t o f white, middle-class, able-bodied m e n . Finally, there is growing evidence that the overall m a n a g e m e n t of a school or college m a y benefit from the different strengths o f both women a n d m e n (Hall, 1 9 9 6 ; Coleman, 1996) a n d from those o f different ethnic groups (Davidson, 1 9 9 7 ) .

• The current position There is not space to present a full range o f supporting statistics, but even a cursory glance a t the figures collected by the Department for Education a n d Employment (DfEE) will show that women in the UK are under-represented a t senior level in all phases of education a n d are paid less t h a n m e n (DfEE, 1 9 9 5 ) . The higher the status o f the institution, the more this is apparent, with, for e x a m p l e , only 5.5 per cent of professors in universities being women (AUT, 1 9 9 5 ) . Coleman's chapter, ' W o m e n in educational m a n a g e m e n t ' in The Principles of Educational Management offers a more detailed picture of the current situation. Figures from outside the UK demonstrate a similar level o f under-representation (Rujis, 1 9 9 3 ) . W o m e n employed in education are often assigned particular roles considered appropriate to their gender, take longer to achieve promotion (Coleman, n.d.) a n d feel impelled to cultivate what Hall ( 1 9 9 6 ) calls ' a perfect front'. In the developing world. Freeman ( 1 9 9 3 , p. 12) reported that women in education: work longer hours than men, and have little, if any, free time. They have the additional burden of lack of adequate food/calories. Despite optimism t h a t progress h a s been made, women in education world-wide are

disadvantaged

compared to m e n . The representation of minority ethnic staff in the UK is difficult to evidence, given that no n a t i o n a l figures are collected for staff in schools a n d colleges, but the Swann Report (DES, 1985), the Commission for Racial Equality survey ( 1 9 8 8 ) a n d the tiny n u m b e r entering teacher training indicate the persistent degree of under-representation (Clay, Cole a n d George, 1 9 9 5 ) . Once employed, they are likely to be treated in different ways to majority ethnic staff: In many ways our presence within the education system acts as a buffer: we are used in a conciliatory fashion to contain dissatisfaction and diffuse potentially volatile situations, with black pupils and parents. Black teachers are often called upon to fill pastoral and disciplinary roles in situations where they have little control and are usually asked to intervene on behalf of the school rather than in the interests of black pupils or parents. A school can deflect allegations of racism by using its black staff to deal with situations or tensions, and even by citing their existence as proof of its commitment to challenging racism (Bangar and McDermott, 1989, p. 141). Further e x a m p l e s could be given of other forms of discrimination, the grim experience of h o m o s e x u a l s (Vosper a n d Smith, 1993), the attribution of certain stereotypical characteristics to those who t e a c h in certain subject areas, the failure to reach the UK suggested target of 3 per cent of disabled employees, but even this brief snapshot evidences the fact that schools a n d colleges are still far from places where the existence of equality of opportunity c a n be assumed. 36

5

Managing the school or college and its staff

• The causes of inequality Understanding the theory of the causes o f inequality m a y be a support for m a n a g e r s attempting to achieve their own vision of equal opportunity. However: The politics of race and gender is characterised by a diversity of perspectives and profound disagreement about what the problems are, their causes and solutions. Indeed, what defines the new politics of race and gender is dissatisfaction with conventional liberal solutions, and the search for new policy alternatives, and the ensuing dissension over ends and means (Marshall, 1994, p. 1). The d o m i n a n c e of the liberal approach in this area, avoiding radical change, m a y be partly because other approaches m a y b e perceived as more threatening a n d therefore provoke more resistance, but also because, however unsatisfactory, it does offer a n agenda for action. Positive action training for women, minorities a n d those with disabilities, anti-discriminatory training for those appointing staff, a n d monitoring against criteria of statistical representation is at least a practical agenda. Theorists who espouse alternative approaches would suggest t h a t the 'progress achieved by these m e a n s is in fact no such thing, simply a perpetuation of the previous norms, a n d to truly achieve progress, a different a n d more profound understanding of the causes o f inequality is needed. Theory falls into three broad categories: 7

1· E c o n o m i c t h e o r i e s - suggest t h a t the position o f w o m e n a n d minorities relate to their role in the e c o n o m y . W o m e n are primarily needed for their reproductive, rather t h a n productive role, a n d will consequently b e less v a l u a b l e in the workplace. Similarly, minority ethnic people are perceived as a n additional workforce to be used in a r e a s not attractive to the majority ethnic population. The position o f a n y individual r e m a i n s subordinate until their e c o n o m i c value equals t h a t of the d o m i n a n t group. 2 . R a d i c a l t h e o r i e s - suggest t h a t w o m e n a n d minorities are oppressed, a n d t h a t even were they to undertake a representative proportion o f jobs at senior level or in areas from which they h a v e b e e n traditionally absent, they would still be valued less. The reproducers of oppression are fundamentals such as the use o f space, l a n g u a g e a n d s e x u a l relations. 3 . C l a s s , r a c e a n d g e n d e r r e l a t e d t h e o r i e s - suggest t h a t n o one cause o f discrimination or oppression c a n be seen in isolation from the others. As Freeman ( 1 9 9 3 ) points out, where gender acts as a b a r to the majority of Indian w o m e n in m a n y areas, if the class o f the w o m a n is nigh, enough, the b a r is overruled. Similarly, a white w o m e n t e a c h e r m a y stand in a d o m i n a n t power relation to a black, m a l e t e a c h e r (Liddle a n d Joshie, 1 9 8 7 ) . The understanding o f the causes o f inequality will influence how the individual m a n a g e r plans to remedy the situation. A radical theorist would see little point in striving to encourage w o m e n senior m a n a g e r s if the style o f m a n a g e m e n t , including the use of l a n g u a g e a n d relationships with other staff, were not congruent with the predilections o f the w o m e n concerned. A m a n a g e r with a race, class a n d gender perspective would see the growth o f n u m b e r s o f white w o m e n in senior positions, while b l a c k staff were still confined to junior positions, as a regressive step, simply reinforcing the d o m i n a n c e o f the majority ethnic group. The choice o f m e a n s to achieve progress relates to the theoretical understanding o f the cause. The only certainty is t h a t the widely used, liberal equal opportunities a p p r o a c h h a s failed to achieve the equal representation o f w o m e n a n d minority ethnic people to which it aspires. Consequently, m a n a g e r s m a y need to progress further in their thinking a n d their action, despite the fact that alternative theories offer n o single a n d obvious a g e n d a for action.

Activity How would you characterise the discourse on equal opportunities in your organisation? List the actions which your organisation h a s taken to promote equality of opportunity. W h i c h theoretical frameworks appear to underpin them? Has the organisation moved beyond the traditional liberal approach?

37

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

• Taking action The experience of teachers a n d associate staff in the system is that a real, rather t h a n a rhetorical, c o m m i t m e n t to equal opportunity would d e m a n d that issues are addressed in a n holistic a n d consistent fashion over time. The one-off drive or project is unlikely to have a n y effect: It is so often assumed that fighting racism involves taking a few decisions, making a few concessions and then ticking anti-racism off the list as a job well done. The ingenuity and versatility of the racist system in subverting each new measure employed to counter its racism is rarely understood (Bangar and McDermott, 1989, p. 149). Equality of opportunity for students relates to equality for staff, as the hidden messages are inevitably part of learning. Changing the culture of a n organisation to one in which no assumptions are m a d e about people on the basis o f their gender, race or class, disability or a n y other irrelevant factor will, as with a n y culture change, require long-term effort a n d consistent support from those in power. The difficulty in the a r e a of equal opportunity, as Freeman (1993) points out, is that it c a n n o t be taken for granted that those in power will be motivated to work towards a situation in which their own power a n d preferred norms m a y be threatened. Wagstaff ( 1 9 9 4 ) asserts optimistically that: The combination of labour shortages, major shifts in employment legislation and some move in values should lead to the employment of a workforce more representative of the whole population (Wagstaff, 1994, p. 102). As h a s been discussed, this m a y not be viewed by some as a great triumph. The experience of black m e n a n d women who h a v e achieved senior positions is that they still suffer under a burden of disadvantage (Osier, 1 9 9 7 ) . The a r g u m e n t that greater numbers o f women, black or disabled people in the system, particularly at senior levels, will eventually bring about culture c h a n g e m a y convince you. If on the other hand, you feel t h a t those succeeding are likely to do so by adopting wholly, or in part, the norms a n d behaviour o f the d o m i n a n t group, or to be distracted by opposition to such, a sustained determination to c h a n g e not only the demography of people in schools a n d colleges but also the values a n d culture of all will be needed if equality of opportunity is to be achieved.

• Building on key learning points

[§2

•

Equal opportunities is a concept with universal support a t the general level, but at the operational level o f defining goals a n d the practical action to achieve them, is very contested.

•

Theories analysing the underlying causes o f inequality offer very different interpretations of the goals a n d the m e a n s to achieve them.

•

The liberal a p p r o a c h h a s dominated to date, but in its own terms o f achieving representative n u m b e r s o f 'disadvantaged' groups within every organisation, h a s failed to achieve its a i m .

•

More radical a n d holistic solutions m a y be required, but this will entail a political approach which seeks to enrol all, particularly those with power, in long-term cultural c h a n g e .

Reading

Marianne Coleman's chapter, 'Managing for equal opportunities: the gender issue' in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n E d u c a t i o n , offers a detailed consideration of the causes of inequality amongst men and women in education and reviews individual, organisational and national strategies to address inequality.

38

5 Managing the school or college and its staff

Managing stress This section considers: • • • • •

the rising concern at stress in education definitions of stress the causes of stress remedies to reduce stress time m a n a g e m e n t .

• Concern at the effects of stress in education The m a n a g e m e n t o f stress h a s b e c o m e a n issue of urgency in m a n y schools a n d colleges. Managers h a v e recognised t h a t a degree of stress is required to achieve optimum performance, but t h a t too m u c h stress c a n result in a range of psychological, physiological a n d behavioural symptoms which m a y h a v e a negative effect on the individual m e m b e r of staff, the organisation a n d ultimately the pupils/students. Put simply, the consequence o f stress which is out o f control m a y b e people who: cannot cope with the demands of their job and their willingness to try drops dramatically (Travers and Cooper, 1996, p. 24). The impact on the individual m a y be health problems which span a m i n o r to life-threatening spectrum. The i m p a c t o n the organisation m a y include high absenteeism, high labour turnover, rising health-related early retirement, industrial relations difficulties and, of course, impaired teaching a n d learning (Travers a n d Cooper, 1 9 9 6 ) . A survey of further education staff found very high levels o f stress (see Figure 5.1). The concern is shared world-wide. In Western Australia (Punch a n d Tuettmann, 1990), Hong Kong ( C h a n a n d Hui, 1995), New Zealand (Galloway et al., 1986) a n d m a n y other countries, surveys h a v e identified the negative i m p a c t o f symptoms of high stress levels a m o n g s t those working in education. Within Europe there is a legal obligation for the employer to provide a safe environment (EU, 1 9 8 9 ) including taking reasonable steps to avoid exposing employees to pressures which m a y d a m a g e health. Much more exigent is the belief t h a t unless stress is controlled, the d a m a g e to individuals a n d to learning in schools a n d colleges will be increasingly destructive.

• Defining stress Those who seek to understand stress better as a foundation for their personal or organisational response are h a m p e r e d by the a b s e n c e o f agreement on exactly w h a t stress is. A myriad studies h a v e failed to reach consensus. A useful framework for distinguishing three different approaches to understanding stress is given by Rees ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 1.

The e n g i n e e r i n g m o d e l describes stress as pressure exerted on a n individual b y the environment . . . Pressure t h a t is excessive or too frequently applied, takes the individual beyond the limits of his

Never %

On a few occasions only

Some of the time

Most of the time

All the time

Number

All staff

0

8.8

49.9

35.8

5.5

385

Full-time staff

0

7.6

47.3

38.7

6.3

315

Figure

5.1

The degree

to which 'stress at work' is felt (Farley,

1994, p. 9) 39

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

or her flexibility a n d results in a break or p e r m a n e n t d a m a g e . . . the state o f p e r m a n e n t d a m a g e caused by prolonged or repeated stress is often described as 'burnout'. 2.

T h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l m o d e l . . . which concentrates on the manifestations o f stress in the individual (i.e. loss o f sleep, increased heart rate, etc.).

3.

Definitions which focus on the discrepancy between demands a n d ability h a v e been described as t r a n s a c t i o n a l models.

(Adapted from Rees, 1 9 8 9 , pp. 6 - 7 . ) Travers a n d Cooper ( 1 9 9 6 ) simplify the concept o f stress further by describing s t r e s s a s a r e s p o n s e to some factor in the environment, s t r e s s a s a s t i m u l u s , t h a t is the factors or 'stressors' in the environment which provoke a response, a n d s t r e s s a s a n i n t e r a c t i o n , a c o m p l e x process involving synthesis of both of the previous concepts. Most now agree t h a t focusing on just the individual response or just the environment causing stress m a y not be helpful. The interaction concept m a y help e x p l a i n why individuals experience different stress levels when faced with the s a m e level o f pressure, a n d consequently m a y help those faced with m a n a g i n g stress.

• The causes of stress Much of t h e thrust o f research to date h a s been concerned with understanding why individuals experience stress differently, with attempts to find a correlation between personality traits, gender, age, types of school/college, organisational factors a n d stress levels. No such correlation h a s been definitively identified. Analysis c a n focus on the factors in society, in the organisation a n d in the individual. There is n o doubt that there is a general belief that society h a s generally become more stressful, with longer work hours a n d a n increased pace of c h a n g e . From the perspective of the organisation, several researchers provide lists of possible stressors. An e x a m p l e is Rees (1989) who includes a m o n g s t stressors: • • • • • • • • •

pupil attitude a n d behaviour poor career prospects poor physical environment constraints on resources excessive workload a n d time pressures poor organisation a n d m a n a g e m e n t within the school conflict in relationships pace of c h a n g e interface between work a n d h o m e .

A further dimension m a y be understanding the impact of stress over time as integral to the role o f the teacher a n d to other professions which deal with people, such as the police a n d h e a l t h services. As Kyriacou (1987) points out, it is not the unique highly stressful event which m a y lead to breakdown, but the: insidious day-to-day sources of stress with their cumulative effect . . . the general level of alertness and vigilance required by teachers in meeting the potentially threatening variety of demands made upon them that constitutes the essence of why the experience of stress and burnout is so prevalent (Kyriacou, 1987, p. 148). Specific roles h a v e also been identified as a potential source o f stress, with middle m a n a g e r s particularly at risk due to the ubiquitousness of role conflict a n d role ambiguity (Döring, 1 9 9 3 ) . The relationship between personality a n d stress h a s also been studied. However, the fact t h a t teachers are a self-selecting group a n d that those studied are the survivors h a v e undermined attempts to draw strong connections. Type A personalities have been suggested as being particularly vulnerable to stress. Travers a n d Cooper suggest that we would recognise type A teachers by the fact t h a t they: • 40

work long hours constantly under deadlines a n d conditions of overload

5 • • • • • •

Managing the school or college and its staff

take work h o m e on evenings a n d at weekends; they are u n a b l e to relax often cut holidays short to get b a c k to work, or m a y not even take a holiday constantly compete with themselves a n d others; also drive themselves to meet high, unrealistic standards feel frustrated in the work situation are irritable with work efforts a n d their pupils feel misunderstood by their headteachers (Travers a n d Cooper, 1 9 9 6 , p. 6 8 ) .

often

This personality type is one of the two m a j o r areas o f exploration in relation to stress a n d personality. T h e second is the i m p a c t o f belief as to where the 'locus of control' resides. Put simply, those who believe they h a v e control over their lives, t h a t the locus of control is with t h e m as individuals, m a y b e more resistant to stress t h a n those who believe t h a t they h a v e little control a n d t h a t the locus o f control is external to t h e m (Kyriacou, 1 9 8 7 ) . The belief in ability to control one's life m a y be o n e of the factors resulting in 'hardiness' (Pierce a n d Molloy, 1 9 9 0 ) , t h a t is a resistance to stressors. Although exploration o f these two factors is the most prevalent in research to date, there are m a n y analyses of other traits. It is not possible to define which traits m a k e it likely that individuals will experience stress, but it m a y be possible to b e forewarned t h a t personality traits m a y inflate the degree of stress experienced: As regards the question of personality variables, therefore, it is not possible to say that particular traits will lead to stress although they have been identified as associated with it. A more convincing hypothesis is that there may be a 'vicious circle' of interaction between stress and certain personality traits, with one tending to exaggerate the other (Rees, 1989, p. 19)

• Alleviating stress Attempts to minimise stress overload h a v e a p p r o a c h e d the problem from two angles: w h a t the individual c a n do a n d w h a t the organisation c a n do. Rees ( 1 9 8 9 ) identifies two types of coping pattern open to the individual: direct action (by which the individual attempts to reduce the perceived threat by reducing the demands on him or herself); and palliative action (by which the individual attempts to moderate his or her perception of threat or emotional response to demands) (Rees, 1989, p. 8). Palliative action is often most difficult when help is most needed. The more stressed a m e m b e r o f staff m a y be, t h e harder it becomes for h i m or her to adjust attitude a n d response. In extreme cases, only when ill h e a l t h results in a period of absence does the individual have a release o f pressure which allows t h e m to rethink their position. Such rethinking is possible but difficult when remaining subject to the sources of stress. Direct action c a n also be problematic. Workshops sometimes focus on staff removing some pressure by 'saying n o ' or cutting down the work they do. However, reducing the work level c a n bring its own penalties a n d pressures: Even if you say to yourself, 'Well I'm not going to do it this weekend, I'm not going to work, I'm not going to prepare that,' you seem to pay a price for it later because you are disorganised or you can't do something you want to do because you haven't got the materials together and you haven't thought it out properly (Cockburn, 1994, p. 383). Similarly, withdrawal from particularly stressful situations m a y reduce the pressure, but also removes contact with the support o f colleagues a n d the satisfaction a n d pride of working with students: Some individuals try to cope by withdrawal from situations which are seen as stressful, although this seems to be an unsuccessful long-term coping strategy for the individual . . . One reason for this may be that the teacher who withdraws from potential demands of pupils is also withdrawing from potential sources of satisfaction and reward, while withdrawal from relationships with colleagues precludes the possibility of social support (Rees, 1989, p. 4). This is not to say t h a t direct a n d palliative action are of n o use to the individual, but it does suggest that simplistic a p p r o a c h e s which depend on the action o f the individual a l o n e m a y be limited in success. 41

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges Types of action which c a n be undertaken by the organisation are defined by Rees (1989) in a similar way to that of individuals: Mirroring the distinction between direct and palliative coping techniques is the distinction between 'instrumental' and 'emotional' support. In the former category come various aspects of organisational and career structure; in the latter, such actions as the development of 'pastoral care' for staff to support the formation of good relationships (Rees, 1989, p. 46). The response of the individual to stress is likely to be complex, culturally sensitive (Gaziel, 1 9 9 3 ) and related to factors both within a n d outside work. If the organisation is to keep stress at a level where it is likely to enthuse a n d invigorate staff, then Travers a n d Cooper (1996) argue that the response of m a n a g e r s must be a 'multi-dimensional approach to teacher stress alleviation' (p. 157). They offer a list of possible stress m a n a g e m e n t interventions suggested by teachers. Not all of the actions suggested will be open to every organisation, but some will be possible. A whole organisation approach which attempts to operate a variety of palliative a n d direct actions at individual a n d organisational level m a y be a way of halting the epidemic of stress overload.

E3

Reading

Megan Crawford's chapter, 'Managing stress in education', in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n E d u c a t i o n , explores the range of strategies which individuals and organisations can take to manage stress. She offers many further ideas on how managers can tackle inappropriate levels of stress, whether too much or too little.

• Managing time Time management is often seen as a subset of managing stress, as work overload appears frequently in studies on the causes of stress. Workload appears to have increased considerably. A survey of further education staff confirmed this trend, though self-reported figures must be treated with some caution (see Figure 5.2). Jim Campbell a n d Sean St J. Neill's chapter on m a n a g i n g teachers' time in Managing People in Education offers some useful insights into how the way teachers spend their time has changed in the last two decades. Both individuals a n d organisations have taken action to try to m a n a g e their time better (Cockburn, 1 9 9 4 ; Blanchard et al, 1 9 9 0 ) . Books a n d courses continue to offer ideas. 'Time M a n a g e m e n t ' techniques usually centre around a n u m b e r of themes: •

Time planning Identifying prime objectives Listing a n d prioritising tasks Allocating blocks of time Eliminating prevarication a n d butterflying from job to job Keeping a diary a n d reviewing how time is actually used against planned use

Workload has increased by

%

Ν

About a tenth About a quarter About a third About a half About three-quarters About double More than double

15.8 37.7 24.5 11.9 2.3 5.5 2.3

49 117 76 37 7 17 7

Figure 42

5.2

The extent of increase

in workload

(Farley,

1994, p. 7)

5

•

Managing the school or college and its staff

Controlling personal contacts Finding ways of signalling availability a n d non-availability Preventing interruptions Controlling telephone calls

•

Delegation Using staff, both associate a n d teaching, to undertake tasks which it is appropriate to delegate Getting the best out o f administrative support

•

Managing meetings Ensuring the purpose a n d intended outcomes of meetings are clear Eliminating unhelpful diversions Ensuring follow up to ensure time spent in meetings is productive

However: time management is a potentially dangerous concept in practice. Faced with absurdly demanding expectations, class teachers who do not meet them all effectively should not be made to feel that the reason for not meeting them is their failure to manage their own time properly. This would be to blame the victim (Campbell, 1992, p. 27). There comes a point when no a m o u n t of time m a n a g e m e n t will help individuals achieve what is simply too much work. Equally, teachers' capacity to m a n a g e their time m a y be very impaired by the nature of teaching: In teaching there are a lot of what we call 'time bandits'. No matter how well you prepare, how well organised you are, things happen during the course of the day that you haven't planned for, that eat into your time (Cockburn, 1994, p. 377). The c o m b i n e d effect of too great demands a n d the interrupted nature of work m a y explain the almost universal experience o f crisis m a n a g e m e n t as the norm (Earley a n d Fletcher-Campbell, 1 9 9 2 ) . Time m a n a g e m e n t courses m a y not h a v e the desired effect, as such techniques as the ability to prioritise, order a n d delegate work m a y result in the perceived capacity for more work to be loaded on: I told him I had even taken a seminar on time management. Frankly, I think the course made things worse. In the first place, attending it got me two days further behind in my work. Moreover, even though it helped me become a bit more efficient, I think my increased efficiency merely made room for more work because no matter how much I did there was always more to do (Blanchard et al, 1990, p. 21). There is no easy answer to reducing work overload and creating time. Superficial palliative techniques m a y bring short-term relief, but for long-term benefit, a culture c h a n g e , relating to perceptions a n d expectations, is required. If a n individual's ability to handle over-large workloads, willingness to limit time with the family, willingness to take on all the 'extras' are met with approval, admiration a n d even promotion, those who resist such a pattern will be penalised. Senge (1990) argues that individuals a n d organisations should explore if d e m a n d s are self or organisation imposed a n d find leverage for cultural c h a n g e at both levels, b e c a u s e unless time is created, there is n o possibility o f achieving a learning organisation, a n d stress levels m a y b e c o m e intolerable.

• Activity Reflect o n the attitudes towards workloads a n d time m a n a g e m e n t in your organisation. How would you characterise the culture? How are those who work very long hours viewed? How would someone who did not take work h o m e a n d who worked the contractual hours only b e viewed? Canvass the views o f colleagues.

43

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

• Comment Your own views a n d those o f colleagues will indicate to you the current culture a n d how far attitudes are likely to promote a sustainable level o f work. You m a y have found t h a t those in senior positions feel impelled to set a n e x a m p l e of working harder or longer hours t h a n others, or that they attempt to set a standard o f a reasonable b a l a n c e of work with other commitments a n d activities. Resisting a culture of 'incessant busyness' (Senge, 1 9 9 0 , p. 3 0 5 ) m a y provoke a n unfavourable response a n d even criticisms concerning level o f commitment, but without such culture c h a n g e Senge argues that a learning organisation will not be achieved a n d stress levels m a y b e c o m e detrimental to the individual a n d the organisation.

• Building on key learning points •

There is n o universally agreed definition o f w h a t stress is, but the current consensus a m o n g s t researchers seems to be t h a t the notion o f a n interaction between a n individual a n d the environment is the most fruitful basis for understanding stress a n d planning to m a n a g e it.

•

Research into the causes of stress in the individual a n d in the school or college environment have led to a myriad a n d sometimes contradictory conclusions.

•

Personality traits do h a v e a n effect on a n y individual's experience of stress a n d their ability to m a n a g e it, but a n y simple equation of stress level with particular traits is not possible.

•

Action c a n be direct or palliative, a n d taken at individual a n d / o r organisational level. A multi-dimensional long-term approach is most likely to be of real help to staff.

•

More effective time m a n a g e m e n t will not deal with issues o f overload. The nature o f teaching m e a n s t h a t time will always a p p e a r insufficient. Individual time m a n a g e m e n t techniques m a y be helpful, but in the long term, rewarding a n d praising those who control their workload, rather t h a n admiring those who cope with unreasonable loads, m a y begin to undermine the universal expectation t h a t those in education work over-long hours.

Managing motivation This section considers: • • •

the importance of motivation theories o f motivation approaches to motivating staff.

The purpose of an organisation is to enable ordinary human beings to do extraordinary things. No organisation can depend on genius; the supply is always scarce and unreliable. It is the test of an organisation to make ordinary people perform better than they seem capable of (Drucker, 1989, p. 155). Drucker's quotation neatly encapsulates the foundation o f a m a n a g e r ' s effectiveness, the ability to ensure t h a t all the people with w h o m he or she works fulfil their potential, achieving a performance which delights themselves a n d the organisation. The capacity to achieve such performance levels is bound up with the concept o f m o t i v a t i o n , relating to individual behaviour, a n d m o r a l e , relating to the general motivation a m o n g s t a group o f people. Managers search for ways o f ensuring t h a t staff w a n t to stay in the organisation a n d w a n t to achieve in a way which is aligned to the organisation's objectives. There are a host of theories analysing the possible correlation between motivation a n d performance, a i m e d at providing a basis for the m a n a g e r to influence the strength and direction o f staff actions. 44

5 Managing the school or college and its staff A simple start point of belief t h a t improving the nature of a job role a n d the conditions of work will increase motivation c a n n o t be assumed. Staff c a n b e highly motivated even when working in conditions o f great adversity a n d sometimes b e c a u s e of the adversity. M w a m w e n d a ( 1 9 9 5 ) concludes that, in keeping with surveys in C a n a d a , J a p a n , Singapore, G e r m a n y a n d Albania, the majority o f teachers in his sample in South Africa, despite extremely difficult conditions, are satisfied with their job a n d still consider teaching 'a fine a n d challenging profession'. Any simple equation which assumes t h a t motivation decreases in ratio to poor conditions or increased adversity does not take account of the h u m a n spirit. Theorists m a y disagree on much, but the fact that motivation is a c o m p l e x a n d individual process is not in dispute.

• Major theories of motivation M a n a g e r s in education h a v e sought to understand motivation a n d the degree to which they c a n influence it. As Turner summarises: The question is not whether staff are motivated, but whether anything the manager does will make any difference (Turner, 1992, p. 8). To answer this question a sophisticated understanding is needed, synthesising the work of theorists to date. O n e of the earliest a n d best known theorists was Maslow ( 1 9 4 3 ) , who argued t h a t motivation related to meeting a hierarchy o f needs (see Figure 5 . 3 ) .

/

Self- \ fulfilment

Prestige

Belonging

Security

Survival

Figure

S.3

Maslow's hierarchy

of

needs

The most i m p o r t a n t aspect of his theory is t h a t satisfaction o f needs is sequential, and, for e x a m p l e , t h a t people will not be motivated by self-actualisation needs when lower levels are unmet. The absolute nature of this theory ignores individual response, a n d though there m a y be some value for m a n a g e r s in recognising the different range of needs, the belief t h a t needs are met in strict hierarchical order is discredited. As outlined in more detail in Colin Riches' chapter on motivation in The Principles of Educational Management, McGregor ( 1 9 7 0 ) built on Maslow's ideas by suggesting t h a t there were two ways o f viewing the motivation o f people, the ' X ' a n d Ύ ' theory. Theory ' X ' suggests t h a t people generally seek to avoid work a n d must b e pressured by m a n a g e r s and/or driven by the need to m a k e a living. Theory Ύ ' views people as wanting to take responsibility for themselves a n d be self-directed. Theory ' X ' a n d Ύ ' c a n be a useful m e a n s of analysing the underlying assumptions a b o u t the way people b e h a v e implicit in a n y policy or approach. Herzberg ( 1 9 6 6 ) approached motivation differently, suggesting t h a t m a n a g e r s must work in two ways, to m a k e staff positively satisfied a n d to remove the factors which dissatisfy. Although this m a y seem obvious, the important addition to theory was Herzberg's belief t h a t the effects of these two were independent. 45

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

Herzberg drew some important conclusions: (1)

The things which make people happy at work are not simply the opposites of the things which make them unhappy, and vice versa. The two sets of things are different in kind. You will not make people satisfied, therefore, simply by removing the causes of dissatisfaction.

(2)

The things that make people dissatisfied are relafed to the job environment. The things that make people satisfied, on the other hand, are related to job content.

(3)

While those who have a satisfying job may have a higher tolerance of dissatisfiers, the dissatisfying factors can be so strong that the job becomes intolerable.

(4)

Managers must therefore be concerned with ensuring both that the causes of dissatisfaction are removed and that opportunities for satisfaction are increased - that, in Herzberg's terms, the job is 'enriched' (Everard and Morris, 1990, p. 29).

This dual approach h a s proved both helpful a n d confusing for m a n a g e r s . The conflation o f the concepts of motivation a n d satisfaction h a v e led to flawed assumptions: • • •

that staff who are satisfied must be motivated that staff who are satisfied work harder that measures of satisfaction equate to measures of motivation.

In fact satisfaction a n d motivation are quite different. Motivation describes the impetus to take action, the direction a n d persistence of the action (Turner, 1 9 9 2 ) . Satisfaction is: a function of the gap between the rewards actually granted and the rewards an individual thinks he/she deserves (Kremer-Hayon and Goldstein, 1990, p. 287). Consequently Herzberg's use of the terms 'satisfier' a n d 'dissatisfier' h a s perhaps proved more confusing t h a n helpful. Both of these theories focus on motivation as action to meet needs. Other theories approach the concept from the angle of understanding how people decode the probable results of their action, a n d whether this encourages t h e m to instigate or continue particular behaviour. E x p e c t a n c y t h e o r y (Handy, 1 9 9 3 ) assumes that e a c h individual makes a personal calculation of the costs a n d benefits of choices o f action, a n d responds accordingly. The a d v a n t a g e of this theory is that it encompasses the very personal nature of motivation. Related to this is g o a l t h e o r y , which argues that people will be motivated by a goal which they see as stretching t h e m to the degree they wish a n d in a direction they endorse. The important factors for m a n a g e r s using this theory is t h a t goals should be agreed a n d at a level which is appropriate to the individual. McClelland (1961) studied the relationship o f goals a n d motivation. He estimated t h a t a b o u t 10 per cent of the population have a highly developed motivation to achieve, but a s this is likely to be found more in m a n a g e r s a n d in the professions, it is likely to be present in a m u c h higher percentage of staff in education. He identified certain characteristics of high achievers: 1.

Achievers like to set their own goals, a n d are quite selective about the goals they adopt, a n d so are unlikely to a u t o m a t i c a l l y accept the goals suggested by others, including their m a n a g e r s . They prefer to be fully responsible for their own success or failure, a n d only seek help from experts or those who c a n provide useful information.

2.

They tend to choose moderate goals, avoiding those which are very difficult or easy. The g o a l which stretches will be chosen, but not one where gaining it is doubtful or a matter o f luck.

3.

The achiever prefers tasks which provide more or less immediate feedback.

(Adapted from Everard a n d Morris, 1 9 9 0 , pp. 3 3 - 4 ) . 46

5

Managing the school or college and its staff

The high percentage of people with such characteristics in the professions, a n d in education specifically, m a y go some way towards e x p l a i n i n g why the motivation a n d m a n a g e m e n t of staff c a n n o t replicate t h a t in industry a n d business, but must take a c c o u n t of the parameters that are likely in influencing people's performance. Finally, e q u i t y or e x c h a n g e t h e o r y suggests t h a t people will b e motivated by a sense o f fair play, a n d t h a t perceptions of being treated less favourably t h a n others will demotivate. M u c h of this writing is based on research which took place in America quite a while ago, a n d which m a y not have adequately addressed issues of gender, race a n d culture. Hofstede's ( 1 9 8 0 ) research showed t h a t the sort of leadership which empowers a n d which h a s been interpreted as leading to motivation in t h e West (Peters, 1 9 8 9 ) is not always perceived as appropriate or motivating in other cultures. Theory provides a range of ideas which m a y be helpful, but c a n n o t substitute for approaching motivation through a n understanding o f the individual, a n d the organisational context within which he or she works.

• Motivating staff M a n a g e r s c a n seek to influence the factors which i m p a c t on motivation at different levels: Variables affecting motivation can be found at three levels in organisational settings: •

variables unique to the individual (e.g. attitudes, interests, specific needs),

•

variables which arise from the nature of the job (e.g. degree of control over the job, level of responsibility), and

•

variables related to the organisational environment (e.g. peer group relations, supervisory practices, system-wide rewards and organisational climate) (Vandevelde, 1988, p. 12).

At t h e level o f t h e individual, t h e intrinsic m o t i v a t i o n to enjoy relations with pupils a n d colleagues, to pursue specific interests a n d to feel c o m p e t e n t a n d o f worth c a n be promoted. T h e a c t u a l j o b c a n b e s h a p e d in ways which a r e likely to increase m o t i v a t i o n . T h e degree o f clarity/ambiguity, a u t o n o m y / direction, a n d t h e n a t u r e o f goals c a n b e moulded to the individual a s far a s is p r a c t i c a b l e within o r g a n i s a t i o n a l objectives. At o r g a n i s a t i o n a l level, the reward systems c a n be m a d e t r a n s p a r e n t a n d a s far a s possible equitable, the physical e n v i r o n m e n t improved, a n d social cohesion e n a b l e d through structures to p r o m o t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Some actions m a y not b e a v a i l a b l e . For e x a m p l e , p a y m a y b e determined, the buildings old a n d unattractive, but t h o u g h all measures m a y not b e possible, a good r a n g e will. In a survey o f 3 , 0 1 9 teachers, the factors seen a s very i m p o r t a n t in safeguarding their own personal m o t i v a t i o n were: •

job satisfaction

•

good relations with pupils

•

being a b l e to give pupils a sense o f a c h i e v e m e n t

•

h a v i n g sufficient time for family a n d private life

•

well-managed school

•

good school discipline (Vaarlem, Nuttall a n d Walker, 1 9 9 2 , p. ii).

Actions to promote these general conditions are open to all. If motivation is to be predicated on understanding individuals, it is also clear t h a t the responsibility must lie with sufficient people to e n a b l e t h e m to relate to a small enough group of people to allow a personal strategy to motivate the individual to be evolved. This has implications for the line m a n a g e m e n t structure, a n d for the role delineation a n d training of m a n a g e r s throughout the organisation. The organisation c a n put in place a n u m b e r o f activities a n d structures likely to increase motivation, but this c a n n o t replace a n a p p r o a c h which recognises the complexity of motivation in each unique individual, a n d which avoids a h o m o g e n e o u s a p p r o a c h to h u m a n motivation. 47

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

Activity You m a y wish to reflect on your own motivation over time. Have the s a m e things motivated you throughout your career or h a v e different factors c o m e to the fore at different times? Have those who have m a n a g e d you motivated you a n d if so how? Are there c o m m o n patterns or h a v e different strategies proved successful as your career developed?

• Building on key learning points

E£3

•

Motivating people is one of the keystones of achieving a successful organisation.

•

Researchers on motivation offer no one comprehensive theory, but do suggest that although motivation is a c o m p l e x individual p h e n o m e n o n , there are a variety o f actions which are likely to increase motivation a n d remove the barriers which inhibit motivation.

•

Any plan to motivate staff will need to take account of the complexity of e a c h individual's response.

Reading

Colin Riches' chapter, 'Motivation', in T h e P r i n c i p l e s o f E d u c a t i o n a l M a n a g e m e n t , offers a more extensive explanation and critique of the main theories of motivation. It also suggests a model of motivation where the mental and physical health of the individual may override any other motivating factors to the detriment of performance. In this way a clear link is drawn between managing stress and motivation.

Developing a team(s)-based approach This section considers: • • •

possible criteria for t e a m s ' effectiveness types o f t e a m s t e a m development a n d leadership factors.

T e a m s for various reasons have increasingly become attractive to m a n a g e r s as a m e a n s of organising organisational work to achieve organisational objectives. Coleman a n d Bush ( 1 9 9 4 , p. 2 6 6 ) suggest this attraction is 'because they encourage the participation o f teachers in decision-making, leading to a sense of ownership a n d a n e n h a n c e d prospect of successful innovation. One o f the m a i n features o f collegiality is its emphasis on teamwork.' Some of the specific reasons, based on advocates of t e a m s such as Peters ( 1 9 8 7 ) a n d Handy (1993), are:

48

•

Teams are more suitable to represent the range of interests in a n organisation t h a n is a n y individual.

•

T e a m s are likely to produce more creative solutions t h a n a n individual, because o f the pooling a n d

• • •

harnessing o f several talents. T e a m m e m b e r s are more likely to understand a n d support decisions m a d e by 'their' teams. T e a m membership improves communication a m o n g members. T e a m m e m b e r s h i p c a n offer valuable opportunities for personal and professional development.

5 Managing the school or college and its staff Widespread use of teams is as evident in schools a n d colleges as it is in other organisations, but the effective m a n a g e r needs to be aware also o f the possible limitations o f what a t e a m approach can achieve. Firstly, there is the challenge to the assumption that teams must inevitably be better t h a n individuals, graphically described by Sinclair (1992) as 'the tyranny of t e a m ideology'. Leithwood (1996, p. 21) adds t h a t 'relatively little is known about the processes through which t e a m s actually learn to accomplish their tasks'. Secondly, O'Neill ( 1 9 9 4 b , 1 9 9 7 ) a n d Little (1990) have been a m o n g those pointing out that the core activity of staff (i.e. teaching) in schools a n d colleges is essentially a 'private', largely autonomous a n d individualistic one a n d that therefore the notion of teamwork with its demands for openness a n d c o m m i t m e n t to peers m a y be threatening or at least uncomfortable to individuals. Thirdly, it c a n be agreed that there exists a lack of accountability for the performance of teams. Appraisal in schools a n d colleges concentrates mostly upon individuals and/or the whole organisation. Arrangements begun in 1 9 9 8 in England a n d Wales that the performance of governing bodies of schools be included (and graded) in the inspection of schools provide a n interesting exception to this since it is the governing body (or t e a m ? ) alone, not individual governors, who are inspected a n d assessed. Finally, a n d linked with the previous point, is that the notion o f establishing effectiveness criteria for t e a m performance is not widespread either in theory or in practice in education.

E£3

Reading

John O'Neill's chapter, 'Managing through teams', in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n E d u c a t i o n , discusses the question of whether teams are 'natural' for teachers and argues that conflict needs to be seen as inevitable and positive if such teams are to be effective.

• Team effectiveness If the m a n a g e r ' s c o m m i t m e n t to a t e a m approach is to be based on more t h a n theory - or wish-fulfilment it needs to include a clear idea of what constitutes a n effective t e a m . Katzenbach a n d Smith (1993) argue that introducing t e a m approaches will be meaningless 'unless the organisation h a s a robust performance ethic' (p. 2 4 ) . Essentially, the t e a m members h a v e to be convinced t h a t performance truly matters, otherwise t e a m s could at worst b e c o m e a shelter for excuses for weak performance. With this in mind, a n d linked with the work of Leithwood (1996), we suggest a workable set of c r i t e r i a f o r t e a m e f f e c t i v e n e s s might be: 1.

the extent to which the quantity a n d quality of specified outcomes for the t e a m h a s been achieved

2.

the extent to which the working of the t e a m h a s e n h a n c e d its future capacity as a t e a m

3.

the extent to which the capacity of individual t e a m members has been enhanced.

• Types of teams in schools and colleges The rational or bureaucratic perspective of Scott (1987) that a t e a m is a group of three or more people pursuing a specific set of goals within the context of a formalised set of structures is not tenable in 'open systems organisations which schools a n d colleges h a v e become. Particularly, the enormously increased interaction with parents a n d the community m e a n s t h a t goals a n d interests of these organisations shift, are regularly negotiable a n d are usually influenced by environmental factors. 7

We suggest t h a t broadly there are three different types of teams in schools a n d colleges: (a)

T h e s t a t u t o r y t e a m : these bodies are required to exist as groups and must therefore reach 'team' decisions. Governing bodies of schools and colleges in England and Wales, site councils in some US 49

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges regions, community college councils, student councils are examples from various countries of such bodies. Membership and roles are usually clearly specified but ambiguity can remain around general purposes, specific goals and working procedures and the circumstances of the bodies do not 'lend themselves to the idea of a team' (Leithwood, 1996, p. 8). Two particular problems can be identified: (i) (ii) (b)

Infrequency of meeting a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n militate against opportunity for t e a m learning a n d individual development, Membership b y role is for a prescribed period for individuals filling that role so t h a t the t e a m ' s future capacity c a n rarely be developed.

T h e ' s t a n d i n g ' t e a m : by this, we m e a n the t e a m s which are established, membership through role, to co-ordinate the work either o f peers (e.g. senior m a n a g e r s (SMT)), or middle m a n a g e r s (heads of faculties), or those teaching the s a m e subject or the s a m e students (e.g. primary curriculum subject teams, school or college departmental teams). This is easily the largest category a n d the one which most readily springs to mind in thinking of t e a m s in schools a n d colleges. Research on SMT (Wallace a n d Hall, 1994), on departmental leadership of teams (Earley a n d Fletcher-Campbell, 1992), a n d effective secondary school departments ( S a m m o n s , T h o m a s a n d Mortimore, 1 9 9 7 ) have all focused on these teams, because they are the ones most directly concerned with the day-to-day activity of the organisation a n d therefore the delivery of its performance. Because membership of these teams is automatically via role or status, interest in the team's ability to perform a n d to develop its future capacity is considerable. In education, this focus a n d its relationship to t e a m composition has led to interest in the e x a m i n a tion of role typology, the best known e x a m p l e being that of Belbin ( 1 9 8 1 , 1993, p. 6 6 ) .

Es3 Reading and QBBS Please read pages 266-72 of the chapter 'Managing with teams' by Marianne Tony Bush in P r i n c i p l e s o f E d u c a t i o n a l M a n a g e m e n t .

Coleman

and

Analyse a t e a m o f which you are a m e m b e r by applying Belbin's typology. How m u c h correspondence to his model is there in your t e a m ? Do you think such a n approach to t e a m composition might be helpful?

(c)

T h e ' p r o j e c t ' o r ' t a s k ' t e a m : this is the t e a m with a strictly defined goal, to be achieved within a defined period of time. Its goal, often related to solving a problem, is necessarily a whole school/ college one, or a t least a cross-sectional one. The issues addressed m a y be curricular, pastoral, or anything which affects students or staff as a whole (transport, communications, environment). Membership will tend to be based upon those with a n 'interest' in the issue, although how individual members are 'selected' remains a key m a n a g e m e n t concern. Should members be volunteers, a representative sample, e.g. of area, experience, or chosen by a leader for 'expertise'?

Roade School in Northamptonshire, pursuing a n industrial model, devised the system of Quality Improvement T e a m s (QUITS). Those teams h a d a n agreed set of rules, including a life-span o f 3 - 4 months, membership open to a n y o n e who shared the problem, but total membership not exceeding 12 (ideally 8 ) , a n d a 'non-interested' facilitator. A key c o m m i t m e n t was that the instigator o f the QUIT must accept the recommendations o f the team!

• Composition of teams As the work o f Belbin a n d other research mentioned above has shown, a n d probably for all of us experience of working with other people has also indicated strongly, the factors affecting the composition of a n effective t e a m are by n o m e a n s all to do with technical ability. Clearly a t e a m (as the organisation of which it is part) will succeed partly through the knowledge, abilities a n d skills of those who work in it ('technical' aspects) a n d also though the degree of commitment, motivation a n d effort with which they 50

5 Managing the school or college and its staff apply these attributes ('functional' aspects). The latter are clearly affected by the character a n d personality of the individual, as well a s the culture a n d structure o f the school or college. While the technical aspects o f a t e a m m e m b e r are relatively easily discerned a n d assessed (team m e m b e r s will h a v e been selected to work in the school or college primarily because o f technical competence, e.g. in teaching itself, or librarianship, etc.), the functional aspects are more c o m p l e x . The latter involve judgements a b o u t how people will 'fit', or how A will get on with B , or whether A a n d Β are motivated b y different things, for e x a m p l e . However, this difficulty is relevant to c r i t e r i o n 3 mentioned above (p. 4 9 ) . An effective t e a m will b e o n e which eventually (i.e. a t full performance) h a s e n a b l e d individual t e a m members to develop as individual professionals a n d learn from e a c h other in the process, i.e. t e a m learning. Before discussing this aspect o f t e a m development, something vital for m a n a g e r s to address, we need to note one o f the factors, often seen a s one o f the biggest obstacles to developing effective t e a m s in schools a n d colleges. This is t h e contribution to schools a n d colleges of part-time staff in particular a n d more generally t h a t of all those who work in schools a n d colleges who are not full-time, fully paid teachers a n d lecturers. How does this i m p a c t upon a team-based a p p r o a c h ? If meeting regularly, b o t h formally a n d informally, developing a n ethos of sharing b a s e d on sound relationships a n d l e a r n i n g to 'give a n d t a k e ' with colleagues is central to developing a t e a m , t h e m a n a g e r h a s to address the issue o f integrating part-time staff as important; if not, the risk o f a n i n n e r t e a m (full-time staff) plus others (part-time staff) is considerable. Research a s s i g n m e n t s b y students o n t h e M B A in E d u c a t i o n a l M a n a g e m e n t a t Leicester University h a v e explored this issue in primary, secondary a n d further e d u c a t i o n situations. The findings h a v e a l m o s t always indicated t h a t part-time staff feel less valued, less considered in decision-making, a n d less socially accepted (unless they h a d previously b e e n full-time). At the s a m e time, they felt they were expected to do proportionately more work! There are e x c e p t i o n s such as C a m p i o n School, Bugbrooke, where conscious decisions h a d b e e n t a k e n to integrate part-time staff such a s ensuring they h a d p e r m a n e n t contracts a n d could apply for i n t e r n a l promoted posts. As the possibility o f individually negotiated contracts increases, M a c F a r l a n e (1998) suggests 'it is feasible to envisage a 1,000 pupil school with a core o f full-time permanently employed teachers a n d a further 6 0 or so employed a n d supplied, either by a n a g e n c y or a pool system run by the local authority' (p. 2 7 ) . This situation is close to w h a t already exists in further education colleges a n d provides the biggest threat to some o f the assumptions a b o u t t e a m s in schools a n d colleges. While most t e a m s in schools a n d colleges would consider it essential for associate staff to be automatically members o f their t e a m s (e.g. bursars in SMT, technicians in faculty teams), it is worth noting t h a t 'project' t e a m s m a y need to do m u c h more. For e x a m p l e , a t e a m e x a m i n i n g a transport difficulty should surely include representatives(s) from the transport firm a n d a parent a n d a n y t e a m exploring homework should probably h a v e teachers a n d parents in equal measure.

• Team development Because t e a m s necessarily involve individual members joining together a n d bringing their personal characters a n d abilities to create the collective effort a n d performance o f the t e a m , it is obvious t h a t t e a m effectiveness does not emerge immediately. Each m e m b e r learns as the t e a m progresses, both a b o u t himself/herself a n d a b o u t other members; but there is also a ' t e a m learning' process taking place. T u c k m a n ' s model of t e a m growth, devised in 1 9 6 5 a n d described by O'Neill ( 1 9 9 7 ) as 'remarkably enduring' (p. 8 0 ) , suggests four m a i n stages, described in m n e m o n i c terms as: forming storming 51

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

norming performing It c a n be a useful exercise for t e a m m a n a g e r s to reflect or systematically analyse at which stage the t e a m members perceive the t e a m is at a n y time. The model c a n be to m a n a g e r s a reassuring one by envisaging t h a t ultimately performing teams are likely to go through a 'storming' stage. O'Neill himself argues t h a t conflict between t e a m m e m b e r s is not only inevitable in schools a n d colleges where the individual works mostly 'in private', but actually desirable a n d healthy. Since openness a n d candour in relationships a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s would seem to be a prerequisite for individuals eventually having conviction in a n d c o m m i t m e n t to a c o m m o n cause, this seems reasonable. W h a t must surely bind people together, to e n a b l e t h a t conflict not to be ultimately destructive, is what West-Burnham (1992) calls explicit a n d shared values. In schools a n d colleges these are certain to include certain professional values, including that the needs of the learning are p a r a m o u n t . The need for these values to be 'explicit' suggests a n assumption t h a t individuals will disagree. Leithwood ( 1 9 9 6 ) describes the process o f t e a m learning as 'mutual adaptation' (p. 13) and, although the phrase c a n h a v e weak contextual implications (e.g. Ί will do less so she c a n do more!'), he claims t h a t research indicates that 'multiple, mutual adaptations by t e a m members, even of a quite conservative sort individually, h a v e combined effects on a team's learning capable of producing radical changes in its collective mind a n d patterns of action' (p. 15).

• Team leadership Leadership as a topic is fully explored in a parallel book in this series. Leadership

and Strategic

Management.

However, it is clearly an important factor in t e a m effectiveness. The value of work such as Belbin's, discussed earlier, is that it challenges the a u t o m a t i c assumption, for e x a m p l e , t h a t Senior Role = C h a i r of Meeting = T e a m Leader. West-Burnham ( 1 9 9 2 ) suggests t h a t situational leadership is what is significant, i.e. where the person who h a s the abilities for a particular situation will lead in that situation a n d the leader by role's task is to facilitate. This is supported by Leithwood's ( 1 9 9 6 ) model o f T e a m Learning Processes, where the task o f T e a m Leadership is to offer, for e x a m p l e , expert problem-solving processes, a n d practices which facilitate transformation rather t h a n to be involved in the transactional processes of the t e a m . With t h a t in mind. Figure 5.4 c a n be offered as a s u m m a r y which attempts to address the effectiveness criteria proposed earlier. Team culture

Conditions for team learning

• encouragement of divergent views • open expression of ideas • awareness of limitations • recognition of members' • discussion of collective doubts

Leadership

Team learning

Mutual adaptation

Patterns of action

• client satisfaction • future group capacity • individual member capacity

Figure 52

5A

Team learning

and action processes

(based

on Leithwood,

1996)

5

Managing the school or college and its staff

• Building on key learning points •

T e a m s should not be seen as a p a n a c e a for all staff issues.

•

Clear criteria for assessing the effectiveness o f t e a m s are important.

•

Different types of t e a m s m a y be expected to operate a n d achieve in different ways.

•

Managers need to be aware of what they expect in terms of the team learning and development.

Roles and structures This section considers: • • •

the multiplicity of roles within educational organisations the significance of structures the relevance o f structures to organisational c h a n g e .

• Roles In the previous section on teams, we h a v e discussed roles which individuals m a y h a v e in those teams. In the earlier section on stress, we also noted the potential harmful effects o f role conflict. Of course, all those who work in a school or college undertake or are given specific roles the whole time. Individuals are appointed to fill a particular role (teacher, lecturer, librarian, bursar, site supervisor, etc.) but, just as t e a m m e m b e r s m a y h a v e b o t h t e c h n i c a l a n d functionalist roles, most people take on informal roles in their general work. Brain ( 1 9 9 4 , p. 9 7 ) suggests t h a t in further education the lecturer is also 'learning facilitator/ supporter, learning resource producer, information technology specialist, pastoral worker, marketeer, course/programme m a n a g e r , deliverer of integrated core skills, raiser o f European awareness, t e a m worker, tester, assessor, e x a m i n e r , deliverer of open/flexible/distance learning, administrator a n d increasingly m a n a g e r . ' These could all be seen as developments or extensions of the formal role. In addition, staff will inevitably take on various incidental or unofficial roles in the course of their daily work interacting with students a n d other staff. A group o f headteachers o f small primary schools listed a m o n g their roles those o f electrician (replacing bulbs), goldfish feeders a n d guardians, toilet attendants, furniture removers a n d traffic controllers (TES, 1 9 9 3 ) !

Activity You m a y find it useful to list the various roles that you are called upon to fill during your time a t work. Then, choose a n o t h e r staff m e m b e r (e.g. m e m b e r o f office staff) a n d list their various roles. You m a y wish to check your second list out by actually asking t h a t person. It is almost certain you will h a v e missed some!

• Comment This diversity o f roles m a y be both threatening a n d exhausting on the one h a n d a n d exciting a n d fulfilling on the other. Valerie Hall in her chapter on ' M a n a g e m e n t roles' in Managing People in Education e x a m i n e s the c o m p l e x i t y a n d growth o f these roles in education but points out t h a t Tt isn't all b a d news' (p. 72). She m a k e s a distinction between the role-taJcer a n d the opportunities t h a t exist in the appropriate environment 53

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges for individual staff to shape their roles (i.e. role-makers). provides that scope most significantly.

The trend towards decentralised m a n a g e m e n t

E£3 Reading and Please read Valerie

Hall's

Q Q ]

chapter.

W h a t scope do you h a v e in your current role for being a 'role-maker'? You m a y find it helpful to list those areas of your work where you must always refer to a line m a n a g e r a n d those where you feel confident o f taking your own initiative.

• Structures The formal relationships between the official roles which are held by staff in schools a n d colleges are shown in the structure of the organisation. These structures are often depicted by charts which show the official pattern of the relationships, often placing a stress on who is accountable to whom. These charts are most usually shown as linear (see Figure 5.5).

Activity If your college h a s such a chart (and schools will h a v e similar ones), we suggest you e x a m i n e it a n d assess its effectiveness in relation to what happens in most of your school or college's daily activities. Do communications, for e x a m p l e , always flow through the c h a n n e l s indicated on the chart? Is your own position accurately indicated? You m a y also like to try to depict the structure in a concentric rather t h a n linear way, by placing the key person a t the centre of a circle a n d working outwards. Models that we have seen range from those placing the head/principal at the centre to those putting the students there!

• Purpose of structures Whatever the particular form of structure, the m a n a g e r needs to be clear what it is the structure is trying to achieve. Its overall function is clearly to achieve effectively a n d efficiently the organisation's key purpose. Given that, in schools a n d colleges, this key purpose is high quality learning, a n y criticism o f a structure or proposal for restructuring should presumably ask the question: 'will/does this aid or improve learning?' Other functions o f structures (based on Mullins, 1989) m a y be: • •

to enable the work of separate individuals a n d teams to be to ensure the accountability of individuals a n d teams

monitored

Principal

I

I

Figure

54

5.5

Example

V. P. (staff)

V. R (curriculum)

Personnel Manager

Section Managers etc.

of an organisation

structure

chart

V. P. (resources)

5 Managing the school or college and its staff • • •

to give staff job satisfaction a n d opportunity to be flexible enough to be adapted to c h a n g i n g circumstances, internal a n d external to enable communications a n d decision-making to be effective.

The list of emphasised words above m a y be seen as a set of criteria against which to assess the effectiveness of a n y school or college structure. If you use the criteria in analysing your own organisation's current structure, you will, of course, find t h a t it is not perfect. The analysis m a y show, however, a weakness in o n e particular area.

Reading

Ei3

Please read the chapter on 'Management structures' in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n E d u c a t i o n . Tony Bush suggests that integration is as important as differentiation for managers in developing structures. He also points out that salary issues in education have a powerful influence upon structures, so that flatter structures, for example, may lead to demotivation for some staff.

• Variations in structures Although α set of functions m a y be agreed for structures in general, there will also be special 'determinants' which affect a n y particular school's or college's structure. Some o f the determinants, m a y include: •

size, e.g. larger organisations tend to develop a network of interrelations between a n u m b e r o f different specialist groups

•

h i s t o r y , e.g. the existence of highly paid senior staff m a y provide a n obstacle to proposed restructuring because their abilities do not m a t c h new requirements

•

g e o g r a p h i c d i s p e r s i o n , e.g. split-site further education colleges a n d secondary schools m a y feel obliged to h a v e more vice-principals or deputies because of the need to m a n a g e different sites

•

t e c h n o l o g y , e.g. the growing influence of ICT m a y assume greater ease of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s .

Are there aspects of the current structure in your school or college which you believe exist because of special factors such as these?

• Structures and change Changing the structures to influence how the organisation is intended to be m a n a g e d is attractive to leaders a n d managers. A new headteacher or principal, for example, will often restructure in the early period of her/ his tenure in the attempt to improve effectiveness. Clearly, such changes are perceived to be helpful in improving practice. Those who believe in this mode of change are proposing that the order is firstly, get your structures right so that they support your educational goals, then get practice to conform to them. Werner (1991) argues that such structural changes are politically popular (for reasons such as the place needing a 'shake-up') but that they underestimate the traditions, assumptions and working relationships which profoundly shape existing practice. These traditions m a y be both positive a n d negative. As Hargreaves (1994, p. 351) points out, 'beliefs a n d practices are grounded not only in expertise a n d altruism, but also in structures in which considerable self-interest m a y be invested'. Change m a y therefore depend not only on releasing staff energy a n d ability but on controlling vested interests. Hargreaves suggests that sometimes it is necessary to m a k e changes in structures to 'increase opportunities for meaningful working relationships and collegial support' (ibid., p. 351). For schools, he asserts that 'it is a challenge of redesigning school structures away from nineteenth a n d early twentieth-century models' (ibid., p. 3 5 1 ) .

• Key learning points •

T h e diversity of roles m a y be exciting a n d threatening. 55

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

•

Structures need to be assessed according to functions they are designed to fulfil.

•

Reasons for structures need to be e x a m i n e d in relation to their capacity to help or hinder change.

Perhaps the most important issue for managers to realise about structures is that they are a m e a n s to a n end and that restructuring therefore is not the end of a n y problems that m a y have existed but the beginning of a n approach to their solution. The longer-term a i m m a y be the establishment of a more appropriate culture, which will be discussed in the next section.

School and college cultures This section considers: • • •

the recognition o f cultures as a n important factor in school/college m a n a g e m e n t of HRM the features of culture in this context the capacity of m a n a g e r s to develop an appropriate culture.

• Importance of culture Disaffection with rationalising approaches to business m a n a g e m e n t paved the way for a series o f books about m a n a g e m e n t (notably Corporate Cultures by Deal and Kennedy, 1 9 8 2 a n d In Search of Excellence by Peters a n d W a t e r m a n , 1982) which attempted to articulate a softer, people-oriented strategy for improving performance. The notion that successful companies (especially in the USA a n d Japan) h a d strong cohesive cultures, linked with the notion of schools a n d colleges needing to become more business-like, led to acceptance of the culture of educational organisations as being a n important factor in their effective m a n a g e m e n t . Similarly, Bush (1998) suggests that interest in culture ' m a y be explained, in part, as dissatisfaction with the limitations of the traditional, bureaucratic model' (p. 3 2 ) . Sergiovanni (1984) described schools as 'culturally tight a n d managerially loose' with the implication t h a t influencing the culture will be at least as important as designing effective structures. The large n u m b e r o f c h a n g e s t h a t schools a n d colleges h a v e h a d to undergo in the late 1980s a n d in the 1990s have accentuated the emphasis on organisational culture because o f the increased understanding of the complexity of c h a n g e m a n a g e m e n t in education. The increased awareness t h a t real c h a n g e only occurs through the extent of the staff's 'absorption' of the changes underlines the importance o f those factors which constitute culture. Van Velzen a n d Robin (1985) argue t h a t the reason t h a t external or government demands were filtered and/or ignored by schools and colleges was that these organisations Owned themselves' with separate and distinct cultures. Certainly, in the context of Total Quality M a n a g e m e n t a n d the consideration of its relevance to educational organisations, Atkinson (1990) says that organisations 'need to consider organisational culture a n d values as being the real issue for c h a n g e in the 1990s' (Atkinson, 1990, p. 5 2 ) .

• What is culture and its relevance to HRM? Culture m a y most simply be defined in a n y single organisation as 'the way we do things around here' (Deal, 1985). It tries to capture the informal, implicit - often unconscious - side of a n organisation. Plant's (1987) 'iceberg' model emphasises those aspects of a n organisation which are 'below the water' but which, if not taken account of, c a n undermine the formal a n d visible ones. Culture consists of patterns of thought, behaviour a n d artefacts which symbolise and give meaning to the place of work. For the people who work in organisations such as schools a n d colleges therefore: 56

5

Managing the school or college and its staff

Meaning derives from the elements of culture: shared values and beliefs, heroes and heroines (and villains), ritual and ceremony, stories and an informal network of cultural players (Deal, 1985, p. 607). Rituals, for e x a m p l e , c a n demonstrate to members what is important about the c o m m u n i t y to which they belong (Bush, 1 9 9 8 ) . Schools are rich in rituals such a s assemblies a n d prize-givings but, equally, schools a n d colleges are likely to h a v e rituals concerned entirely with staff behaviour which are powerful indicators of culture. These might take the form of certain presentations or social events, for e x a m p l e . H u m a n resource m a n a g e r s therefore need to be aware t h a t some behaviour a n d rituals m a y h a v e m u c h greater significance for the people involved t h a n is at first apparent.

Activity At this point, you m a y find it helpful to note down a n y special features, in terms o f ceremonies or rituals, for e x a m p l e , o f your own school or college a n d consider why these exist a n d to what extent they typically represent for you the norms of the organisation, in terms of how people are expected to b e h a v e .

• Effective and ineffective cultures Handy a n d Aitken ( 1 9 8 6 ) pointed out t h a t particular cultures were not inherently good or bad, because they are situational. The important point was t h a t cultures should be appropriate to the organisations a n d the people w h o work in t h e m . Nevertheless, it is important for the m a n a g e r to b e clear a b o u t features o f cultures which m a y contribute to t h e m being more or less effective. (i) Existence o f sub-cultures Perhaps related to the size o f the school or college, the possibility exists of the development o f sub-cultures and, inevitably, t h e possibility of poor c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d relationships or even conflict between t h e m . In their research into effective departments in secondary schools, Sammons, T h o m a s a n d Mortimore (1997) found that the culture o f individual departments was one of the key indicators of the differences between more effective a n d less effective departments, sometimes even in the same school. Significantly, in the more effective schools, 'the school a n d departmental cultures mirror a n d reinforce one another' (ibid., p. 1 7 2 ) . (ii) Balance o f pressure and support Schools c a n be criticised for placing a n emphasis on 'caring' at the expense o f achievement often especially in socially deprived areas. The investigations into a n u m b e r o f schools in poor areas which m a n a g e d to g a i n high a c h i e v e m e n t was recorded in Success Against the Odds (NCE, 1 9 9 3 b ) . Different e m p h a s e s in school cultures was found to be a key factor in improving achievement, notably a stress o n self-esteem, high expectations a n d a 'you c a n do it!' approach. Culture m a y be seen as specifically related to a stated vision or purpose o f w h a t the school or college is for. S a m m o n s , T h o m a s a n d Mortimore ( 1 9 9 7 ) found t h a t where heads o f departments (HODs) thought 'creation of confident, articulate people' was important, 'English results were significantly better t h a n predicted' (p. 173), compared with departments where HODs did not h a v e t h a t a i m . Towards w h a t m i g h t b e described a s the other end o f the scale, Hopkins, Ainscow a n d West ( 1 9 9 4 ) identified 'the p r o m e n a d i n g school' a s one which h a d a culture o f not being interested in c h a n g e because the school did well a n d was over-subscribed. A school with a favoured intake m a y be in d a n g e r o f a culture of c o m p l a c e n c y a n d therefore be ineffective. Stoll a n d Fink (1998) describe the 'cruising school' as having some of its cultural norms: Reactive Conformity Nostalgia

'Let's wait a n d see' 'Don't rock the b o a t ' 'Things used to be great round here' 57

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

Avoidance o f c o m m i t m e n t B l a m i n g others

'Let's send it to a committee!' 'They are pushing new ideas down our throats' (Stoll a n d Fink, 1998, p. 1 9 4 - 7 )

Each o f the two types of schools described above h a d developed cultures which, for different reasons, placed insufficient emphasis on improving students' achievement. From the m a n a g e r ' s point o f view, action needed would involve challenge or pressure o f some degree. However, Elliott's ( 1 9 9 6 ) research in further education colleges m a y suggest t h a t too m u c h pressure at senior level m a y lead to a g a p in cultures between those operating directly with the students (i.e. teaching) a n d those responsible for m a n a g i n g systems in the organisation. In the chapter on ' M a n a g i n g staff development' in Managing

People in Education,

Middlewood argues t h a t a

culture of extended professionality a n d planned development opportunities will be most likely to be effective in moving staff forward.

• The management of culture If the culture of α school or college is so important, what are the possibilities for m a n a g e r s in affecting a n d developing that culture? Bush (1998) suggests t h a t one tangible way for leaders to generate culture is to focus upon the a i m s o f a school or college since these are m e a n t to be the key ways in which values a n d beliefs of a n organisation are reinforced. In their study o f effective schools and departments, S a m m o n s , T h o m a s a n d Mortimore ( 1 9 9 7 ) identified three broad categories o f culture at both levels which could usefully act as guidelines for the m a n a g e r to focus upon in influencing culture in schools a n d colleges. These are: (i)

O r d e r (behaviour - policy a n d practice). This encompasses a c o m m o n vision a n d goals to develop a positive environment, both within and outside the classroom. Patterns of attendance, punctuality, behaviour a n d motivation will be examples of ways through which this order is effected.

(ii)

T a s k a c h i e v e m e n t (or a c a d e m i c emphasis). The key emphasis a g a i n is on a shared a g r e e m e n t that a c h i e v e m e n t outcomes (such as e x a m i n a t i o n results) are important in assessing effectiveness. High expectations a n d consistency in approach (e.g. in homework in schools) are typical features o f this emphasis. R e l a t i o n s h i p s (a student-focused approach). This focuses on the students' actual experience of

(iii)

learning a n d indeed of being a t school or college. Students feeling valued as people, feeling cared for, a n d being satisfied with the experiences are all aspects of this. S a m m o n s , T h o m a s a n d Mortimore ( 1 9 9 7 ) summarise these aspects a n d their importance by suggesting (p. 174) t h a t 'Task a c h i e v e m e n t (enabled by a n a c a d e m i c emphasis a n d a n orderly environment) needs to be supplemented by a n acknowledgement o f the importance o f individuality, the quality o f the learning experience a n d positive patterns o f attendance a n d behaviour.'

• Building on key learning points •

School a n d college cultures with their emphasis on values, behavioural relationships

are

important

indicators of whether

human

resource m a n a g e m e n t

contributing to organisational effectiveness.

58

norms

•

Such cultures are likely to have specific features.

•

It is possible for m a n a g e r s to identify features upon which they wish to focus.

and is

Section C

6. Key areas of application .

Introduction This section of the book recognises the fact that, whatever the diversity in culture or attitudes towards c o m m i t m e n t , there are certain processes c o m m o n to all schools a n d colleges which m a n a g e r s have to address. This is because they are m a n d a t o r y (manifestly, staff have to be appointed!) or very nearly so (for e x a m p l e , all new staff undergo induction whether it is formally recognised or not). In e x a m i n i n g the applications o f m a n a g i n g h u m a n resources to actual practice, we consider t h e m in chronological stages. This is for convenience only, since as a m a n a g e r of people performance in school or college, you are likely to be concerned with t h e m all a t once. Unless a m a n a g e r h a s the luxury o f starting from scratch with a b r a n d new school, or department, he/she will 'inherit' staff who will be a t different stages already. This section deals in turn with the m a n a g e m e n t of: Recruitment: Selection: Induction: Performance review and Staff development:

appraisal:

i.e. m a n a g i n g to get the most appropriate people to apply i.e. m a n a g i n g to obtain the most appropriate person for the job i.e. m a n a g i n g to e n a b l e appointees to h a v e the most effective start i.e. m a n a g i n g to gain the best kind of performance from people i.e. m a n a g i n g to train a n d develop people for both personal a n d organisation effectiveness.

Managing recruitment and selection This section considers: • • •

the issues influencing strategic recruitment t h e procedures involved in m a n a g i n g recruitment the factors involved in rational approaches to m a n a g i n g selection.

At school o r college level, a strategic approach to staff recruitment is desirable. The organisation will or should h a v e a vision, through its strategic thinking (see Middlewood, 1998), o f how it m a y be in, say, five or six years time, including its curriculum a n d w h a t approaches to learning a n d teaching m a y be operating. To e n a b l e t h a t vision a n d curriculum to be effectively delivered, what kind of workforce (teaching a n d associate) will be needed? W h a t m i n i m u m level of ICT skills will be needed by staff, for e x a m p l e ? Knowing t h a t continuing c h a n g e is almost certain, is the ability to be flexible a n d c h a n g e jobs, learn new a s yet unknown skills, a prerequisite for thqt staff? At a n o t h e r level, Colne C o m m u n i t y School in Essex, England, for e x a m p l e , is a m o n g those schools which h a s specified that all associate staff should h a v e a first aider qualification or must obtain it within six m o n t h s o f appointment. This is not only practical b u t illustrates some forward thinking to a staff where first aid is not something teachers are involved in, leaving t h e m more free to focus on teaching. As m e n t i o n e d in the Introduction (p. 2 ) , the distinction between 'associate' a n d 'teaching' staff is less rigid t h a n once was the case. In a n FE college, for e x a m p l e , a workshop supervisor m a y be engaged in supporting student learning in a n open learning centre. This blurring o f roles is likely to increase as the emphasis in the twenty-first century moves from teaching to learning. 61

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

Hall ( 1 9 9 7 a , p. 149) suggests t h a t there are some strategic approaches to recruitment which m a n a g e r s need to address: •

how m a n y a n d what types o f people are required

•

which o f those needs c a n be satisfied by transfer a n d development o f existing staff

•

anticipated problems in recruitment

•

the need for a recruitment timetable, so that posts do not remain v a c a n t unnecessarily.

In considering these issues, we suggest five contexts within which recruitment is m a n a g e d :

• 1. Growth and survival Herriott ( 1 9 8 9 ) identified five trends which were seen as critical in determining whether organisations survive: •

the q u a l i t y imperative

•

the i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y imperative (especially IT support for decision-making)

•

the e v o l u t i o n imperative (evolving c h a n g e s in organisational structures)

•

the c o m m u n i c a t i o n imperative (response to external environment)

•

the c h a n g e imperative (ability to respond to c h a n g e quickly).

• 2. Succession planning The second c o n t e x t is the s u c c e s s i o n p l a n n i n g policy o f the organisation. Autonomous schools a n d colleges are b e c o m i n g more aware of the importance o f succession planning. This is the process of m a n a g i n g h u m a n resources to e n a b l e the organisation's strategic plans to be met. Succession p l a n n i n g involves more t h a n recruitment a n d selection. It is concerned with anticipating d e m a n d a n d supply a n d depends on a n audit which addresses the organisation's current supply of staff in terms of: •

skills

•

experience

•

age

•

status

•

turnover, and, o f course,

•

cost.

In schools a n d colleges, where the most important a n d expensive resource is the staff, the auditing is less easy t h a n in s o m e other types of organisation. For e x a m p l e , good teachers will improve with experience whereas equipment will depreciate with age. Some of the issues involved in the succession p l a n n i n g aspect of recruitment include: •

R e t r a i n i n g - is there likely to be a need for existing newly appointed staff to be retrained to meet future d e m a n d s ?

•

I n t e r n a l p r o m o t i o n - is there a likelihood o f existing or newly appointed staff having to be promoted to more senior posts in the s a m e school or college?

•

R e d u n d a n c y - will people recruited now be c a p a b l e of finding new e m p l o y m e n t in the light of possible redundancies in the future?

A popular method of forecasting is known as 'scenario p l a n n i n g ' where the school or college anticipates its best a n d worst scenarios by asking questions such as:

62

•

W h a t if a new rival school were to be opened n e a r us in four years time?

•

W h a t if our staying-on rate doubled in the n e x t six years?

6

Key areas of application

• 3. Labour market The third context is the l a b o u r m a r k e t which requires a n awareness of who is available for recruitment. It is tempting for m a n a g e r s to: (a)

root recruitment a n d selection procedures in the labour market conditions of yesterday without

(b)

questioning likely changes in the labour market; a n d assume t h a t macro-employment issues are of m a r g i n a l relevance to m a n a g e r s in education.

In Britain, for e x a m p l e , although the total working population is forecast to r e m a i n relatively stable to the year 2 0 0 0 , there will be a large reduction in the n u m b e r of young people in the working population, with a consequent decrease in young qualified staff for schools a n d colleges, a n d a corresponding increase in older people. This c h a n g i n g emphasis is highlighted by Fidler ( 1 9 9 3 , pp. 9 - 1 0 ) who gives statistics for the increased n u m b e r of re-entrants to the teaching profession: In 1980-81 re-entrants made up 37 per cent of the inflow. This had risen to 48 per cent by 1983-84 and has remained at around or just over 50 per cent of the inflow since then. Also, women will a c c o u n t for a n increasing proportion of the working population. (See, for e x a m p l e , M a r i a n n e C o l e m a n , ' W o m e n in educational m a n a g e m e n t ' , in The Principles of Educational

Management.)

In addition, given the possible increased competition for graduates from other European countries in the 1990s one c a n suggest t h a t schools a n d colleges in Britain will need to ensure their recruitment policies a n d procedures address this situation.

• 4. Legislation M a n a g i n g recruitment a n d selection must be carried out within the framework o f the relevant legislation, which includes legislation involving discrimination. In Britain, the Sex Discrimination Act, the Race Relations Act a n d the Disabled Persons (Employment) Acts all have to be adhered to at the recruitment stage a n d r e m a i n key issues in m a n y areas of m a n a g i n g people. In the USA discrimination on the basis o f a g e is forbidden by law at the recruitment stage. Some European countries h a v e similar legislation. Bearing in mind the points m a d e earlier a b o u t the presence of more older people a n d women in the workforce, recruitment m a n a g e r s need to be alert to a n y assumptions they m a y h a v e concerning the a g e profile of candidates for selection they might like to appoint.

Activity Look a t the advertisements for posts in a n y one issue of one educational publication a n d ask yourself whether a n y of t h e m imply assumptions about the gender, race or a g e of the person sought and, if so, how?

• 5. Local conditions The fifth c o n t e x t is the local or situational one, a l t h o u g h ' l o c a l ' is a relative term, geographically. An i m p o r t a n t task here is the identification o f likely c o m p e t i t o r s for the s a m e candidates, a n d the effect o f t h a t knowledge on recruitment, especially the advertising o f v a c a n c i e s . A second issue is t h a t of c o s t : •

the cost of the post itself; a n d

•

the cost involved in the a c t u a l process o f recruiting a n d selecting a person to fill the v a c a n c y .

Undertaking the analytical exercise below should help to clarify your own ideas concerning cost factors in recruitment. 63

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

Activity Choose α 'middle m a n a g e m e n t ' post within your own school or college. • •

Establish or estimate the a n n u a l salary a n d on-costs for this post. Estimate the total cost to the organisation i f the person appointed remains on payroll for 5 years.

•

T a k e into a c c o u n t a n y other cost factors you m a y be aware of, e.g. settling in expenses, increments, etc.

You then h a v e the cost o f the post in terms o f what the school or college is investing in over t h a t period. • •

Now calculate the cost options involved in advertising (where? in what form?), documentation production and postage, travel a n d subsistence expenses for interviewees a n d interviewers,

•

time o f interviewers, etc.

This gives you the cost of m a k i n g the appointment. The key cost issue for m a n a g e r s is in weighing the two totals against each other to reach a decision about how m u c h to spend on recruitment. It will be helpful to repeat the above for appointing a m e m b e r of the support staff.

• Recruitment policies and procedures A useful starting point is for us tQ consider a n e x a m p l e o f a n actual recruitment policy taken, in this instance, from a local authority in England. R e c r u i t m e n t Policy OUR POLICIES ARE: 1.

To recruit the most suitable applicant for the job.

2.

To recruit ensuring that no one receives less favourable treatment on the grounds of race, colour, nationality, ethnic or national origins, disability, gender or marital status or is disadvantaged by conditions or requirements which cannot be shown to be justifiable.

3.

To treat applicants as valued people keeping them informed of the processes involved and the current state of their application.

4.

To use the best methods of assessment available in order to compare applicants' abilities against the job's requirements.

5.

To collect and hold only sufficient data to enable the processes to be undertaken and not to use the data for any other unrelated purpose.

6.

To undertake all such activities in a professional manner observing the highest possible standards of security, confidentiality and objectivity, whilst operating within the limits of available resources. (Northamptonshire County Council, 1993)

Such a policy s t a t e m e n t h a s implications for the information provided for potential applicants, a r r a n g e ments for de-briefing o f unsuccessful candidates, the personnel specification for the v a c a n c y concerned and, also, the t r e a t m e n t of internal candidates for the post. 64

6

Key areas of application

• Procedures involved in managing recruitment 1. Defining the vacancy There are two basic areas to be m a n a g e d in denning the vacancy: • •

describing the j o b ('job description') describing the person who would best fill the job ('person specification').

Several writers on personnel issues suggest a n 'exit interview' (i.e. interviewing the person who is leaving to create the v a c a n c y ) in order to ascertain why the person is leaving a n d establish whether the existing job a n d person specifications are still relevant. You must focus on the job to be done, not on the person who used to do it, on the needs of the children and the community, and the balance within the teaching staff as a whole - in the light of your educational aims and the school's development plans. The discussions that take place at this point will set the scene for the whole selection process. Working together as a team with the head, you (the governors) must reach decisions on what exactly you are looking for (Taylor and Hemmingway, 1990, p. 8). T h o m s o n ( 1 9 9 3 , p. 12) suggests the following a s ways of ascertaining what the job actually involves a n d enabling the job description to be written: • • • • • • • •

Question the present job-holder about the job using a written questionnaire. Give the present job-holder a list of possible tasks and ask him/her to select those that apply to this job. Interview the job-holder. W a t c h the job-holder performing the job. Ask other people w h a t they think the job entails. Ask the job-holder to keep a diary of everything he/she does in performing the job. Do the j o b yourself for a few days a n d keep a detailed record. Involve the job-holder a n d his/her supervisor in determining which tasks contribute positively to satisfactory completion o f the job a n d those which inhibit satisfactory job completion (critical incident technique).

2. Person specification A checklist of competencies associated with effective performance c a n be devised. W e will e x a m i n e this a t the selection stage later. However, Hackett ( 1 9 9 2 , p. 35) draws attention to the importance o f the behaviour expected of the person when they are actually appointed, rather t h a n personality traits or intellectual capability: A more direct approach to establishing just what you need to look for is to consider what the job-holder must be able to do - that is, what abilities he (sic) needs. If you can match these against the demands which the job will make, you are less likely to find that you have recruited someone who is incapable of performing to the required standard. If you also give some thought to the rewards which the job offers, in terms of pay and benefits, relationships and job satisfaction, you can then work out what individual needs these are likely to satisfy. If you recruit someone whose needs are met by the rewards which the job offers, he (sic) is much more likely to stay and work hard. This sort o f specification provides the c r i t e r i a on which the selection will actually be based. An interesting a n d challenging exercise would be to devise a specification for the person required to fill your current post if you were to leave it! Does it have to be someone like you? 3. Other issues Other issues in recruitment involve: •

the nature of the c o n t r a c t (permanent or fixed-term? full-time or part-time? job share?) 65

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

•

advertising

•

i n f o r m a t i o n to be sent to applicants.

Apart from the importance of this information for recruitment purposes, it is important to realise that: a request for an application form represents a major opportunity to market the school . . . this opportunity must be firmly grasped (Hume, 1990, p. 40). In addition, part o f the purpose o f sending good information is for unsuitable applicants to de-select themselves, for: the more information you send to candidates, provided it's relevant and well-presented, then the better able they will be to decide for themselves whether it's the kind of job they're suited for. This can save you - and them - a lot of wasted time (Taylor and Hemmingway, 1990, p. 15). It is worth emphasising a g a i n t h a t in the m a n a g e m e n t o f h u m a n resources, the recruitment o f effective staff is inevitably concerned with certain formal procedures, some o f t h e m demanded by legislation a n d some by organisational 'rules'. Although this is so, the concern for q u a l i t y , c o m m i t m e n t a n d p e r f o r m a n c e r e m a i n s central to effective m a n a g e m e n t o f these procedures. Procedures offer frameworks within which effective m a n a g e r s perform. Equally, all kinds o f key m a n a g e m e n t principles are related which affect the school or college's culture, structure a n d environment. Hall ( 1 9 9 7 a , p. 1 5 1 ) stresses the need for m a n a g e r s to be clear whether they are seeking ' h u m a n resources' or 'resourceful h u m a n s ' .

• Issues in managing staff selection The whole process which begins from the m o m e n t α potential v a c a n c y is identified is best seen as a continuous one. Selection processes will be m a n a g e d within the context of a n organisation's recruitment policy a n d induction will b e most effective if it is already planned to begin the m o m e n t a n a p p o i n t m e n t is confirmed. W e suggest there are three issues to be addressed in m a n a g e m e n t of s e l e c t i o n : 1. Acknowledgement o f technical and functional aspects o f the roles o f staff By this we m e a n t h a t the selection h a s to recognise t h a t it is concerned with: •

w h a t a n organisation does; a n d

•

h o w it does it.

An organisation will succeed through the knowledge, abilities a n d skills o f those who work in it ('technical' aspects) a n d the degrees o f commitment, motivation a n d effort with which they apply these attributes ('functional' aspects). The latter are clearly affected by the character a n d personality o f the individual a n d the culture a n d structure o f the organisation. If both these aspects have to be considered in m a n a g i n g the selection processes, the key question for the organisation's m a n a g e r s is the extent to which b o t h the technical a n d functional aspects of roles c a n be determined or assessed. (a)

T e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s . These a r e more easily assessed since, for e x a m p l e , the qualifications of c a n d i d a t e s will inevitably be based upon knowledge a n d skills required to o b t a i n them, e.g. t h r o u g h

e x a m i n a t i o n s . There are also well-established tests o f abilities which

can

be used ( a l t h o u g h the key choice for selection m a n a g e r s m a y lie in determining which tests for which abilities will be appropriate). This question of 'selection instruments' will be dealt with later. (b)

66

F u n c t i o n a l a s p e c t s . The question of assessing the functional aspects of a person, however, is far more c o m p l e x . It involves judgements about whether the person will 'fit in', their ability to work well in a t e a m or the factors which will motivate t h e m as individuals. Does, for e x a m p l e , the person s h a r e the values of the organisation, not merely say so? The earlier section on ' T e a m s ' e x a m i n e s m u c h of this issue.

6

Key areas of applica tion

2. T h e need for objectivity in a potentially very subjective process Although it is tempting to assume that a n y subjectivity is bound to be related to functional aspects of the applicant's role (i.e. to their personality), it c a n easily be found in a failure to be objective about technical aspects. For example, one selector m a y be in favour of one candidate because he or she has a particular qualification rather t h a n another. Alternatively, too much weight m a y be given altogether to academic achievement at the expense of other qualities which might be more relevant to effective performance of the job. The need to bring objectivity to selection m a n a g e m e n t touches upon important a r e a s regarding selection personnel: • • •

W h o should be involved in the process? Is training o f selectors essential or desirable? If training is needed, what skills are required?

M a n a g e r s will need to assess how helpful is the involvement of lay personnel, such as governors. In selfm a n a g i n g schools a n d colleges it is c o m m o n practice for governors, for e x a m p l e , to be involved in staff selection. However, it c a n be argued t h a t professional m a n a g e r s need training in selection just as m u c h as lay selectors. If we e x a m i n e some of the traditional practices which c a n distort a selection process, it is possible to identify a strong element o f subjectivity involved. These practices include: • • •

basing judgements upon intuition rather t h a n facts m a k i n g ' s n a p ' judgements insisting on a personal stereotype o f what is a 'good' candidate

•

c o m p a r i n g candidates with the previous post-holder or with other candidates rather t h a n the agreed criteria preferring a candidate in one's own i m a g e .

•

Selection interviews, for e x a m p l e , h a v e been demonstrated to b e unreliable as predictors of performance b y psychologists a n d researchers since the 1920s. T h o m s o n ( 1 9 9 3 ) summarises the shortcomings as follows: •

Interviewers often m a k e up their minds about a candidate within the first five minutes of the interview and - consciously or unconsciously - spend the rest o f the interview trying to justify their judgement.

•

Interviewers' judgements of candidates c a n be affected by their appearance, speech, gender a n d race either positively or negatively; people tend to favour others whom they perceive to be like themselves.

•

Few interviewers h a v e undertaken a n y training in interview skills.

•

Research on m e m o r y shows t h a t we r e m e m b e r information we h e a r at the beginning a n d end of a n interview and, thus, tend to forget vital details a n d facts given in the middle.

•

It is impossible for the h u m a n brain to concentrate a t the s a m e level over a prolonged period; thus i f you are interviewing several candidates on the s a m e day, they m a y not receive equal a m o u n t s o f your attention.

•

Finally, the British Psychological Society h a s found t h a t even well-conducted interviews are only 2 5 per cent better t h a n choosing someone by sticking a pin in a list o f candidates! (Thomson, 1 9 9 3 , p. 3 0 )

It is noteworthy t h a t the above list not only refers to individual prejudices t h a t m a y occur but also to h u m a n factors such as m e m o r y a n d concentration. Hackett ( 1 9 9 2 ) notes some o f the c o m m o n forms of unconscious intuitive responses as: 67

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges (α)

T h e h a l o e f f e c t . This occurs where one feature of the interviewee becomes a n overriding factor which governs our perception of the person. A c o m m o n pitfall is to assume that someone who is attractive a n d articulate is also intelligent.

(b)

P r e j u d i c e / b i a s . We tend to pre-judge people, either favourably or unfavourably, because they belong to a particular group or remind us o f a particular person. C o m m o n prejudices include the assumption that members of one race are more hard-working t h a n those of another, or that women are less reliable t h a n men. These preconceptions will colour our interpretation of a n y c o m m e n t s they m a k e .

(c)

S t e r e o t y p e s . These take two forms:

(d)

(i)

Good worker stereotypes. We m a y build up a picture in our minds o f what a good worker is like, a n d then use the interview as a m e a n s of finding someone who matches that rather t h a n the personnel specification. We will be favourably disposed to those who appear to match, a n d will be more critical of those who do not m a t c h . The most c o m m o n stereotypes of the good worker are the 'boy scout' stereotype (who is a do-gooder a n d pillar o f the community), a n d the ' h u m a n relations' stereotype (who is a jolly good c h a p whom everybody likes). Neither m a y be right for the job.

(ii)

Physical trait stereotypes. We m a y identify one physical characteristic and assume that everyone who possesses that trait will be alike in character. Examples are the assumption t h a t people with red hair have quick tempers and that people whose eyes are close together are not to be trusted. These unfounded assumptions will a g a i n colour our judgement a n d m a k e it more difficult for us to evaluate information in a well-balanced way.

U n f a v o u r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n . Most of us are more heavily influenced by people's b a d points t h a n by their good ones. Once we have formulated a n adverse impression we are slow to c h a n g e our minds (Hackett, 1 9 9 2 , p. 70).

All these elements of subjectivity indicate the critical need for selection to be m a n a g e d as objectively as possible. Any process involving h u m a n s can never be completely free from some of the above elements, but they can be recognised as such a n d nullified as m u c h as possible by the process m a n a g e m e n t . 3. Equal opportunities Legislation will need to be taken account of in: • • •

advertising job description person specification.

Similarly, all parts of the selection procedure h a v e to be m a n a g e d to be sure no candidate is disadvantaged because of race, religion, gender or disability by, for example, requiring application letters to be handwritten which might discriminate against certain disabled candidates. Equally, it is arguable that a test of physical strength for a caretaking post involving portering would discriminate against female candidates. You might like to consider these a n d other similar questions to help you formulate ways of ensuring equal opportunities are provided throughout the selection process m a n a g e m e n t .

Activity Devise a m e t h o d of checking all stages of the recruitment a n d selection processes to ensure that: (i) (ii) 68

no candidate will be discriminated against prejudices of selectors will be minimised.

6

Key areas of application

For e x a m p l e , you m i g h t devise a checklist of certain criteria against which all procedures are assessed. You m a y find it helpful to i m a g i n e specific scenarios, e.g. a n interview candidate who is pregnant, a n d see if your checklist would hold good.

• Managing the process of selection David Middlewood s chapter on ' M a n a g i n g recruitment and selection' in Managing gives the background to a n d details of research undertaken in this field. ;

People

in

Education

We suggest t h a t the key issues to be considering in the m a n a g e m e n t of selection processes are: • • • • •

Personnel, i.e. w h o shall be involved in the process? Criteria, i.e. a g a i n s t w h i c h s t a n d a r d s shall candidates be assessed? Weighting, i.e. the r e l a t i v e importance o f the different criteria. Instruments, i.e. h o w shall the candidates' performance be assessed? Matching, i.e. d e c i d i n g on which person is best suited to the post.

1. Personnel The a c t u a l involvement o f personnel m a y be determined through a n organisation's selection policy or by the selection procedures n o r m a l l y followed. A h e a d o f department or curriculum a r e a m a y , for e x a m p l e , automatically be involved when the v a c a n c y is in their own area. Equally, deputy heads or vice-principals m a y be involved for some or all of the process, whilst middle m a n a g e r s m a y be included in order to gain experience of selection a n d b e c o m e proficient in it. As mentioned earlier, the involvement o f lay personnel such as governors m a y be m a n d a t o r y but, in a n y case, the appropriate criteria for participation are the particular perspectives t h a t the personnel involved m a y bring to the process. The involvement of lay personnel c a n often bring a valuable, different perspective from t h a t o f the professionals working within the organisation. Finally, the issue o f training for those involved in selection needs to be considered. 2. Criteria and weighting Criteria for selection m a y include: • • • • •

b i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a such as qualifications a n d experience s k i l l s - technical, m a n a g e r i a l , etc. k n o w l e d g e , e.g. of current legislation, health a n d safety, curriculum requirements a t t i t u d e s a n d v a l u e s , e.g. personal ambition, loyalty o t h e r s such as interests.

It is in the weighting o f the relative importance o f the various criteria t h a t the analysis of the job requirements will b e a r fruit. Bringing together the job description a n d person specification enables the drawing up of a checklist o f selection criteria for all selectors to use c o n s i s t e n t l y .

Activity Devise a criteria checklist - with weightings - for use by selectors in appointing: (a) (b) (c)

a deputy h e a d or vice-principal of your organisation a classroom teaching post a secretarial or clerical assistant post.

69

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

You will probably find the devising o f weightings difficult because o f the need to rank elements o f the work - it is easy to say t h a t one task is more important t h a n a n o t h e r but rather more difficult to give it a value. However, this is one way in which we c a n overcome some o f the inconsistencies in the selection process. 3. Instruments 'Instruments' are those devices or tools used in structuring the selection process. In t h a t sense, some h a v e already been referred to, such a s job descriptions a n d application forms. W e will confine ourselves here to four o f the most important: •

interviews

•

tests

•

exercises

•

assessment centres.

(i) Interviews. We suggest that the effective m a n a g e m e n t of interviewing acknowledges the following key principles: I n t e r v i e w i n g is a t w o - w a y p r o c e s s . Since candidates can only be appointed on the basis of past performance a n d potential for future performance, it is important t h a t they have a n opportunity to relate their performance to date to the proposed job by, for e x a m p l e , being enabled to concentrate during the interview on describing past life and experience which is relevant to what is needed for the post available (Bolton, 1 9 8 3 ) . C o n s i s t e n c y i n a p p r o a c h b y i n t e r v i e w e r s . This has m a n a g e m e n t implications for choice o f personnel involved, training of interviewers, a n d a clear organisational policy on selection. I n t e r v i e w i n g i n v o l v e s s p e c i f i c skills. Since face-to-face interviewing is obviously a c o m m u n i c a t i o n process, the skills involved are primarily those o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Riches (1994b), M o r g a n ( 1 9 8 9 ) a n d Middlewood (1997b) all refer to the limitations o f interview processes. A good question is one that encourages the interviewee to answer freely and honestly. A bad question is one that inhibits the interviewee from answering freely or produces distorted information (Southworth, 1990, p. 134). Interviewing, however, is only part o f the selection process. Historically, interviews h a v e been seen a s by far the most important part of the process and, in some cases, all important. Remembering the inadequacies o f interviews, the inevitable risk is t h a t the person appointed m a y be the person who performs best a t interview, not the person who will perform best in the job, although statistically these will sometimes be the s a m e person! In m a n a g i n g selection processes, therefore, we suggest it is important to h a v e a n idea of the relative importance (or weighting) of the interview, compared with other evidence upon which the assessment for selection will be based, e.g. application letter, reference(s) informal discussion, exercises, etc. (ii) Tests. Psychometric tests (which can include work sampling, tests o f ability or o f personality) c a n be more reliable t h a n interviews as long as two important conditions are fulfilled: firstly, that the test is relevant to the job and, secondly, that the people using the test are trained in its use. In education, psychometric tests h a v e not been widely used in the past but their use is growing. Technical ability tests are increasingly being used in appointments of technical support staff, for e x a m p l e . In the appointment of senior m a n a g e r s , personality diagnostic tests such as these based on Belbin's work, for e x a m p l e , are used to ascertain the suitability of leaders or potential leaders for working with others. Our brief extract below comes from a much fuller actual, but for obvious reasons a n o n y m o u s , report on a candidate for a senior post in the educational world: 70

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Key areas of application

Strengths: Strong on critical thinking and objectivity, scoring in the top percentile for verbal reasoning. Weaknesses: May be hypercritical and seen as intense by others, who may not be inspired by his/her level of drive and management style. (iii) Exercises. T h e use o f exercises o f various kinds is developing in the educational world a n d e x a m p l e s include: •

I n - t r a y e x e r c i s e : candidates are asked to sift a n d prioritise a n d decide action upon a sample o f documents.

•

W r i t t e n r e p o r t : having been given certain information, candidates are asked to write a report for a particular audience.

•

R o l e p l a y s i m u l a t i o n : candidates are asked to e n a c t the j o b applied for in a particular situation.

•

O r a l p r e s e n t a t i o n : candidates are asked to present formally to the interviewers a brief (usually 5 or 1 0 minutes) synthesis o f their views or a p p r o a c h to a particular issue. Usually, candidates m a y use visual aids in support o f their oral presentation, e.g. slides or overhead projections.

•

L e a d e r l e s s g r o u p d i s c u s s i o n : candidates are grouped together to discuss a topic or reach a decision on a question. Selectors are involved only as observers o f individuals performances with the group's processes. Situations in which the groups are placed are usually co-operative (e.g. the group must c o m e to a consensus on a n issue), but operate within a competitive framework. ,

(iv) Assessment centres. An assessment centre is a variety of testing techniques designed to allow candidates to demonstrate, under standardised conditions, the skills and abilities most essential for success in a given job (Joiner, 1989, p. 182). [our emphasis] Joiner claims t h a t good assessment centres ' c a n greatly improve a selection or promotional process particularly for jobs requiring a variety o f skills in a variety o f situational contexts' (p. 1 7 3 ) . Most people would recognise t h a t teaching, for e x a m p l e , fits the job described here! The centres therefore involve a series o f individual a n d group exercises, observed by trained assessors. All the exercises are set within a c o m m o n frame o f reference (e.g. a set o f stated criteria a s to suitability for headship), a n d focus on assessing potential for success a t a higher level t h a n t h e assessee's current j o b demands. In summarising the whole issue o f instruments a v a i l a b l e to m a n a g e r s o f the selection process, we need to stress a g a i n t h a t selection is a person-to-person process a n d therefore subject to h u m a n fallibility. Technical assessment methods are becoming more available a n d offer scope for greater impartiality, yet the culture a n d ethos o f a particular organisation confirms the necessity for t h a t organisation's representatives to be involved on a personal level via, for e x a m p l e , interviewing. M o r g a n ( 1 9 8 9 ) uses the phrase ' b l a c k b o x ' to describe the criteria in the process which selectors use but h a v e not explicitly agreed. He concludes t h a t the challenge in m a n a g i n g selection processes is: how to accommodate requirements which can appear conflicting: the management need for impartial technical assessment methods to gather evidence on candidate fitness for headship; and the need to satisfy the demand for a visible democratic accountability and social legitimation by the local community. The application of the management perspective to selection in other public services has resolved this 'conflict' by ensuring that only those candidates who have satisfied the most rigorous technical assessment and found to be capable of doing the job to a satisfactory minimum level of performance are offered to the 'democratic controllers' for appointment decision (Morgan, 1989, p. 169). 71

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

4. Matching Finally, we c o m e to the stage in the selection process o f m a k i n g a decision a b o u t which candidate best m a t c h e s the requirements of the job. Here the selectors are a s s e s s i n g the p e r f o r m a n c e o f the candidates, through the i n s t r u m e n t s used. At this stage, the selectors will need to assess the e v i d e n c e t h a t h a s been derived from the instruments. Southworth ( 1 9 9 0 ) has stressed the importance of applying the following notions to the evidence: • • •

a d e q u a c y (how sufficient is it?) i n t e g r i t y (how truthful a n d accurate is it?) a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s (how relevant is it?).

Ultimately, as both Middlewood (1997b) a n d Morgan (1997) point out, the real difficulty lies in establishing a relationship between the selection process as a predictor of effective performance a n d the actual performance after appointment. Both writers advocate follow-up discussions both informal a n d formal, because it needs to be recognised that it m a y be the job that has changed, not necessarily the performer.

• Building on key learning points •

Schools and colleges should try to adopt a strategic approach to the m a n a g e m e n t of recruitment a n d selection.

•

A rational approach to m a n a g i n g recruitment a n d selection is more likely to be effective, although the subjective element c a n never be totally eliminated.

•

Fitness for purpose should be the guiding principle in assessing which methods are used for staff selection.

ES9 Reading Now please read David Middlewood's chapter, 'Managing recruitment and selection' in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n E d u c a t i o n . This chapter emphasises the need for rational approaches in what is potentially a very subjective area of management judgement.

Induction This section considers: • • •

what induction is a n d what are its purposes what factors affect induction's effectiveness the role of the mentor in induction.

Induction is essentially a n initiation into the job a n d the organisation. In the case o f newly qualified personnel entering their first posts, it is clearly also a n initiation into the profession. It could be argued that schools a n d colleges have a moral responsibility to new entrants to the profession: to provide effective induction because of the implications for the education of pupils a n d students generally, a n d also because of the costs involved in initial training. In addition, the notion of effective induction a n d mentoring acquire a n additional significance with the move towards school or college-based initial teacher training (ITT) which is discussed in a n earlier section. 72

6

Key areas of application

We believe t h a t a n y school or college committed to effective m a n a g e m e n t o f h u m a n resources needs to m a n a g e quality induction for all employees taking up new posts. However, it is true to say t h a t m o r e attention h a s been given to the induction of beginners (NQTs) t h a n other new post-holders (e.g. Earley a n d Kinder, 1 9 9 4 ) . The School M a n a g e m e n t Task Force (DES, 1 9 9 0 ) recommended t h a t in England a n d Wales a p r o g r a m m e o f induction for senior m a n a g e m e n t be one o f the key issues in implementing its r e c o m m e n dations for m a n a g e m e n t development. The focus on senior staff was primarily a n acknowledgement t h a t induction for all new post-holders was not possible to achieve quickly a n d the process should therefore begin 'at the top'.

• Purposes of induction It is possible to identify three m a j o r purposes o f induction in schools a n d colleges. These are: • • •

socialisation achieving competence exposure to institutional culture.

1. Socialisation The so called 'socialisation' o f inductees is perhaps the most important issue in induction in effective organisations. Schein ( 1 9 7 8 ) identified five elements in this process: (i)

Accepting the reality o f the organisation (i.e. the constraints governing individual behaviour).

(ii)

Dealing with resistance to c h a n g e (i.e. the problems involved in getting personal views a n d ideas accepted by others).

(iii)

Learning how to work realistically in t h e new job, in terms o f coping with too m u c h or too little organisation a n d too m u c h or too little j o b definition (i.e. the a m o u n t o f a u t o n o m y a n d feedback available).

(iv)

Dealing with the boss a n d understanding the reward system (i.e. the a m o u n t o f independence given a n d what the organisation defines as high performance).

(v)

Locating one's place in the organisation a n d developing a n identity (i.e. understanding how a n individual fits into the organisation (Schein, 1 9 7 8 , pp. 3 6 - 7 ) .

Two implications for m a n a g e r s arise from this. The first is t h a t the influence, reactions a n d attitudes o f peers, m a n a g e r s a n d other employees h a v e a significant i m p a c t on the success or otherwise o f the induction. Secondly, the performance o f the new person, a n d thereby the performance o f the organisation, will be affected by the success of t h a t induction. 2. Achieving competence In learning how to perform in the new post, Kakabadse, Ludlow a n d V i n n i c o m b e ( 1 9 8 7 ) suggest t h a t the inductee's cycle will h a v e three stages: (i)

G e t t i n g u s e d t o t h e p l a c e , i.e. overcoming the initial shock a n d immobilisation o f the new organisation a n d job demands.

(ii)

R e - l e a r n i n g , i.e. recognising t h a t new skills h a v e to b e learned or how learned skills h a v e to b e re-applied.

(iii)

B e c o m i n g e f f e c t i v e , i.e. consolidating one's position in the organisation b y applying new behaviours a n d skills or integrating newly formed attitudes with ones held from the past (Kakabadse, Ludlow a n d Vinnicombe, 1 9 8 7 , p. 8 ) .

3. Exposure to institutional culture Hunt ( 1 9 8 6 ) argues t h a t the most important facet of induction is the 'transfer of loyalties to the new o r g a n i s a t i o n ' (p. 2 1 3 ) . The issue o f loyalties is associated with the school or college's culture a n d values 73

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

and, as such, it will h a v e been addressed in the m a n a g e m e n t of the recruitment a n d selection process. For the successful candidate, the induction process begins immediately after accepting the post. This aspect of induction is probably m u c h less c o m m o n , however, for support staff in schools and colleges. As Paisey ( 1 9 8 5 ) remarks: 'Regrettably, for non-teaching staff this approach is rarely pursued. There is a dearth of provision' (p. 175). Mortimore et al. (1994) also found provision very spasmodic. Similarly, induction is rarely provided for temporary or part-time staff: 'in the misguided belief t h a t they will not care m u c h about the organisation a n d that they are just there to do the j o b ' (Thomson, 1 9 9 3 , p. 1 1 0 ) .

Activity You m a y find it useful at this stage to note down: (1)

how you felt a n d how you were helped at the start of your first post;

(2) (3)

how you felt a n d how you were helped at the start of your present post; how your school or college inducts newly qualified staff.

You might b e helped by using the Kakabadse et al. typology as a framework. To see how others feel about the s a m e organisation, interview two recently appointed full-time a n d part-time colleagues about their experience of induction. In all probability you will find that the larger the organisation the more varied the experience - a reflection of the way in which interpersonal relationships build up. There are, however, ways of overcoming this hit-and-miss approach. It is to these we now turn.

• Managing effective induction Induction m a y involve some or all of the following: • • • • • •

preparatory visits to the school or college prior to starting obtaining information a b o u t the school or college identifying the needs o f the inductee in order to plan to meet t h e m offering guidance a n d support over personal (e.g. family) issues related to taking up the new appointment allocating a specific person (mentor) to support the person during induction (in larger institutions) arranging off-site programmes for all new employees together.

Schools a n d colleges need to m a k e decisions about the m a n a g e m e n t of induction which reflect their own values a n d priorities as organisations: S o c i a l i s a t i o n a n d c u l t u r a l i n t e g r a t i o n . The degree to which this should be part o f a n y formal programmes is debatable a n d is a sensitive area. Issues such as appropriate forms of dress, how people are addressed, a n d informal c o m m u n i c a t i o n s networks within the institution are less contentious a n d will also arise during the early period in the post. H o w l o n g s h o u l d t h e i n d u c t i o n l a s t ? Employment legislation in m a n y countries m e a n s that all appointments a r e m a d e on a probationary or trial basis, pending satisfactory performance. Schools a n d colleges need to decide whether the induction period should coincide with this or, alternatively, end naturally when the need for support is deemed to be no longer there. A s s e s s m e n t . Linked with the above point is the issue of whether induction should involve assessment of performance or whether policy should specify that the two b e kept separate. 74

6

Key areas of application

I n t e r n a l p r o m o t i o n s . People who c h a n g e posts within the s a m e school or college m a y be considered to have a need for a n d entitlement to some form of induction. This form of induction m a y well differ from that provided for those new to the organisation. There are also particular issues with regard to teaching which affect the m a n a g e m e n t of induction: • • •

Teaching is essentially a n a u t o n o m o u s job. However strong the support, the new person is 'on their own' a n d classes c a n n o t be set aside while the inductee learns. There is insufficient time to offer support, especially O n the j o b support. Mistakes m a d e in teaching c a n n o t be t a k e n b a c k a n d wiped out. ;

We suggested earlier that ensuring effective performance was a central issue for those managing induction. Kakabadse (1983) argues that performance is directly related to attitudes to learning, both of the new person and of those around them. Indeed, outside education, numerous studies have shown that the induction method affects both the rate of turn-over in the first six months and the rate of integration (Hunt, 1986, p. 213).

• Mentoring One of the c o m m o n e s t ways in which schools a n d colleges attempt to m a k e induction effective is by using mentors. In her chapter ' M a n a g i n g induction a n d mentoring' in Managing People in Education, M a r i a n n e C o l e m a n explores this in detail. If induction works well, the performance of the newly appointed member of staff will be effective as soon as possible (no precise time period can be specified, of course). The need for the staff member to be managed so that effective performance is maintained and developed is now the issue for the manager. Table 6.1 sets out the different issues involved in the process of mentoring and that of the line m a n a g e r responsible for performance. The a r g u m e n t for mentoring in terms o f effective h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t depends upon the following assumptions: • • • • •

The best context for growth is where a person is valued as a n individual a n d as a colleague. Individuals do not develop in isolation - feedback is essential. Each step in development begins with a review of where a person is now. It is not a sign of weakness to ask for help. Rather, a request for help is a n indication of a healthy climate of trust a n d c o m m i t m e n t to personal growth. 'Mutual learning' relationships in a n educational organisation are of benefit to individuals and to the schools a n d colleges in which they work.

Table 6.1

Distinction

between

mentor and line

manager

Mentoring

Line M a n a g e m e n t Line manager/superior Summative Judge performance To own superior Head of institution Tendency to accord with required practices

Data accumulated Agenda topics

Colleague/peer Formative Facilitate development of new skills To mentee Responsibility of mentee Trusting to experiment and practice, including risk of failure Belong to mentee Determined by mentee

Value judgement Role of partner Involvement Communication

Drawn out from mentee Negotiated with mentee Togetherness/partnership Two-way, questioning

Who Nature Purpose Accountability and reporting Decisions arising Climate

Filed in personnel records May be negotiated but agreed within context of organisation's requirements Made by line manager Determined according to line manager's role Supervisor/subordinate relationship Report, commenting etc. (Adapted from Middlewood, 1994)

75

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges However, while mentoring is often linked with the process of induction, it is important to note that mentoring as a support and developmental process c a n have value throughout a n organisation. 'All teaching and non-teaching staff would benefit from a n effective system of mentoring which provides workrelated guidance a n d support' (Smith, 1993, p. 2). As C o l e m a n (1997, p. 161) notes, mentoring is used in so m a n y different contexts that there is n o universal agreement on how the role is developed. Research on mentoring of middle m a n a g e r s (Bush et a/., 1996) included its use to encourage interdependent working. It could legitimately be seen to offer potential in HRM terms to move towards a n involvement strategy, as discussed earlier. It is likely that using whole institutional mentoring in this way should be seen as a n evolutionary process. Ehrich (1994), in pointing out some of the difficulties of institutionalised mentoring, highlights unwilling participation as a potential problem and recommends a programme which is not imposed a n d not threatening. Megginson and Clutterbuck (1997, p. 236) suggest that mentoring best grows Organically - out of natural processes of affiliation a n d support that develop between people, and out of small pilot schemes.'

Activity Consider the following questions: How are mentors chosen in your own institution? W h a t skills do they appear to need a n d do some do the job more effectively t h a n others? Does mentoring exist apart from the induction process?

• Building on key learning points • • •

EI3

Induction involves both professional competency a n d social adjustment. Structured induction is more likely to be effective. Mentoring is different from line m a n a g e m e n t .

Reading

Please read Marianne Coleman's chapter 'Managing induction and mentoring' in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n E d u c a t i o n . This chapter concentrates mainly on the induction of newly qualified teachers but also examines evaluations of induction schemes.

Performance review and appraisal This section considers: • • • •

the place of appraisal in a n y overall m a n a g e m e n t of performance the usual components of appraisal schemes the tensions inherent in such schemes issues affecting its effective application in education.

The educational world was slow in coming to incorporate formal appraisal systems into its m a n a g e m e n t operations, compared with the business world. Appraisal schemes for school teachers a n d for lecturers in further a n d higher education in England a n d Wales were not introduced until the 1990s. The effectiveness 76

6

Key areas of application

of such schemes was limited, largely because, owing to their being statutory a n d therefore imposed, they were introduced essentially as 'bolted-on' features of m a n a g e m e n t . Evaluations of the teacher scheme (Barber, Evans a n d Johnson, 1 9 9 5 ; Middlewood et al, 1 9 9 5 ; Wragg et al, 1 9 9 6 ) showed t h a t only in a s m a l l n u m b e r of schools was appraisal properly linked with school development planning a n d staff development programmes. The failure to share individual targets at school level highlighted the tension between the individuals' fear of loss of confidentiality a n d the obvious need for the organisation to know how individual a i m s fitted with its overall direction. Any appraisal scheme, therefore, is best seen as part of the m a n a g e m e n t of performance o f individuals in the school or college. The need for such review of performance is clear a n d based on a few common-sense assumptions about people m a n a g e m e n t , i.e. t h a t most people perform best when: • • • •

E§3

they they they they

know what is required o f t h e m receive guidance a n d support when necessary receive feedback about their performance are clear a b o u t the outcomes of the feedback.

Reading

Please read the chapter 'Managing appraisal' in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n E d u c a t i o n by David Middlewood which examines the components of appraisal schemes in detail. Both this chapter and 'Managing individual performance' by Keith Foreman conclude that it is the management of staff as people/persons that is crucial if performance management for the organisation is to be effective, whether by ensuring appraisal is Hilly integrated into other aspects of managing the organisation's people (Middlewood, 1997a, p. 183) or by reconciling the concerns for teacher as professional and as person (Foreman, 1997, p. 218). M a n a g e m e n t o f p e r f o r m a n c e then c a n be described as consisting of these broad stages: 1.

P l a n n i n g . The overall objective at this stage is to e n a b l e staff to be clear a b o u t w h a t is expected o f t h e m a n d why, e.g. a performance contract.

2.

M a n a g i n g . At this stage, the m a n a g e r ' s objective is to encourage the staff m e m b e r to deliver w h a t h a s been agreed, through both monitoring a n d supportive strategies, e.g. 'developmental mentoring' (Cardno a n d Piggot-Irvine, 1997).

3.

A p p r a i s i n g / r e v i e w i n g . Here, the m a n a g e r takes stock of what h a s been achieved but with a n emphasis on future performance.

4.

F o l l o w - u p . This stage m a y involve specific 'rewards' but specific action plans are essential to ensure the process is continuous.

• Reviewing/appraising performance In developing effective m a n a g e m e n t of the actual process of appraising performance, m a n a g e r s should be conscious o f tensions inherent in the process which they need to reconcile. The f i r s t m a y be described as 'evaluation for accountability versus personal development'. Staff in schools or colleges must be a c c o u n t a b l e for their performance as professionals - to line managers, to school or college governors, to regional authorities, to taxpayers, but, above all, to their students. This accountability h a s to be assessed in some way through actual 'results' o f their actions. At the s a m e time, they have a n entitlement to personal professional development which is a vehicle through which they will continue to improve their performance. Cardno a n d Piggot-Irvine (1997) argue that only a n approach which integrates the two will be effective, a n d suggest elements in schemes which tend to focus on one or the other (see Figure 6.1). 77

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges Accountability Performance contracts Job descriptions Targets Appraisal interviews Student evaluation Figure 6.1 The tension between accountability lrvine, 1997)

Development Professional development Plans Developmental mentoring Self-evaluation Peer evaluation and development

(adapted

from Cardno

and

Piggot-

We should note, of course, that some accountability issues, involving those of basic competence a n d misconduct, are m a n a g e d separately (see Keith Foreman's chapter in Managing People in Education for a discussion of these). The s e c o n d tension relates closely to this and concerns the kind of data which are relevant a n d fair to gather for a review of performance, i.e. quantitative versus qualitative. Quantitative data, such as e x a m i n a t i o n results a n d retention rates, are easy to gather a n d superficially easy to analyse. The relationship between such data a n d rewards, for e x a m p l e , c a n be straightforward. However, the process o f teaching a n d learning involves m a n y factors which do not lend themselves to this a n d relationships with students, for e x a m p l e , which are essential to effective learning need to be considered. The t h i r d tension is what David Middlewood in his chapter on ' M a n a g i n g appraisal' in Managing People in Education calls 'transactional versus transformational'. In other words, the overall process of education (transformation), especially in statutory schooling, is greater t h a n the sum of all the individual lessons (transaction) a n d some acknowledgement of this needs to be there in the review o f overall performance. The key to this probably lies in the context within which appraisal takes place. Hodgson (1996) found that appraisal was more likely to support school improvement where 'it is seen as individual review in the context of school/department/key stage review' (p. 3 3 ) .

Activity At this point, you would find it helpful to analyse the appraisal situation in your own school or college, asking yourself: • • • •

Is our system m a i n l y evaluation or developmental or integrated? Which elements relate to accountability? Which to development? W h a t data are collected a n d what is the b a l a n c e between quantitative a n d qualitative? How is individual appraisal linked with organisational or sectional review?

Does the total picture received from appraisals miss out some of the overall educational (transformational) elements expressed, for example, in the organisation's aims?

• Different forms of appraisal The most c o m m o n form is where appraisal is carried out by the person who has responsibility for the overall performance of the individual, i.e. a line m a n a g e r . Another form is that of peer appraisal, a n d a third is known as ' 3 6 0 degree' evaluation. 'In this situation not only feedback from staff (including nonteaching staff) who work for you is sought but also those who are your colleagues as managers, a n d your superiors. Such a n approach gives a full picture of a n individual's performance' (Cardno a n d Piggot-Irvine, 1997, p. 1 0 6 ) . 78

6

Key areas of application

It is worth stressing that, whoever are the appraisers, the method o f choosing t h e m is critical to the success of the eventual pairing. Whichever method is used, it should be open, publicly documented a n d consistently applied.

• Components of appraisal systems While schemes vary considerably, whether they be evaluative or developmental, or a mixture of both, there is almost universal a g r e e m e n t t h a t a n y appraisal will need to include the following: (a)

S o m e f o r m o f s e l f - r e v i e w through which the appraisee m a k e s judgements a b o u t his or her own performance. This c a n be verbal but c a n m a k e use o f a n organisation's standardised pro-forma. This pro-forma m a y be merely a set of prompt questions or a detailed checklist. It m a y also include the appraisee's own ideas for improving future performance.

(b)

S o m e c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a a b o u t t h e a p p r a i s e e . These c a n include both q u a n t i t a t i v e (e.g. a t t e n d a n c e a n d punctuality records) a n d q u a l i t a t i v e (e.g views o f other people affected by the appraisee's performance) data. Sensitive m a n a g e m e n t issues here concern appropriate sources of information, the type a n d detail of information sought, a n d the need to avoid 'gossip'.

(c)

O b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e a p p r a i s e e a t w o r k . It would seem foolish to envisage appraising someone's performance without actually s e e i n g t h e m a t work, but there are difficulties. The essentially passive nature of some activities (e.g. working at a keyboard!) a n d the private nature o f others (e.g. t e a c h i n g ) clearly affect the validity of conclusions drawn from a n y observation o f them.

(d)

I n t e r v i e w m e e t i n g b e t w e e n a p p r a i s e r a n d a p p r a i s e e . This interview serves quite a different purpose from the selection interview we e x a m i n e d earlier. Here, three different types o f interview c a n be identified (after Maier, 1 9 7 6 ) : -

-

In the ' t e l l a n d s e l l ' method, the m a n a g e r directs the interview a n d gains the acceptance o f the appraisee to take steps to improve performance. T h e ' t e l l a n d l i s t e n ' style requires the m a n a g e r to give authentic feedback but then to allow the appraisee to respond. C o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d understanding m a y be m u c h improved. C h a n g e s in performance, however, depend upon a c h a n g e o f attitude following improved communication. T h e ' p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g ' style as the n a m e implies requires both appraiser a n d appraisee jointly to acknowledge problems a n d to work on t h e m together (Fidler, 1 9 8 8 , p. 1 0 ) .

(e)

T a r g e t s b e i n g s e t . In the introduction to this unit, we identified t a r g e t s under both 'Commitm e n t ' a n d 'Performance' as being one o f the crucial elements in the effective m a n a g e m e n t o f h u m a n resources in educational organisations. Targets being set as part of a n appraisal scheme are v a l u a b l e because they are recognised by the organisation a n d carry a n explicit c o m m i t m e n t to action related to t h e m .

(f)

F o l l o w u p . Unless action is taken to follow up issues identified through the appraisal, there c a n b e n o improvement in performance. Clearly, this h a s resource implications, in both financial a n d h u m a n terms. As far as appraisal o f teachers is concerned, advice was given in various local education authorities in England a n d Wales, t h a t a sum o f m o n e y should be earmarked to m e e t outcomes of the appraisal process.

• Special issues for appraisal in education Six significant issues arise for the m a n a g e m e n t o f appraisal in educational organisations. W e need to e x a m i n e these carefully in considering how to appraise performance most effectively in schools a n d colleges. 1.

T e a c h i n g is a very a u t o n o m o u s a n d individual task. No two teachers are the same; teaching is a n occupation in which performance is affected very m u c h by the individual nature a n d personality o f the person concerned. 79

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

2.

Teaching is a multi-task job. There are, therefore, particular difficulties in assessing the effectiveness o f carrying it out.

3.

Education involves uncertainty over m e a s u r e m e n t of results. Outcomes are unclear and, furthermore, are dependent not upon the staff directly but upon the achievements of those for whom the organisation exists, i.e. the students, however those achievements are measured.

4.

In education there are no clearly defined 'rewards' in the business sense.

5.

There are no simple m e a n s of attributing the 'results' obtained by students to specific teacher performance. The concept o f value-added measures of performance (see P e o p l e o r P e r f o r m a n c e ) remains controversial in education.

6.

There are a considerable number of stakeholders in education and, even where a teacher has a line manager, there are a number of other people who have a direct interest in the teacher's performance.

Prior to teacher appraisal being introduced in England a n d Wales, research projects a n d pilot studies strongly emphasised the need for positive approaches. In a s u m m a r y of these studies, Montgomery a n d Hadfield (1989) found that: • • •

a n emphasis on being positive a n d constructive in comments on teaching performance was critical to the success o f appraisal because a teacher's personality a n d self-image were so evident in classroom performance, a n y c o m m e n t s were inevitably construed as very personal in nature a concentration on weaknesses rather t h a n identified strengths simply led to hostility a n d negative reaction.

• Conditions for effective performance review and appraisal Poster and Poster ( 1 9 9 3 ) suggest that no single system of appraisal c a n ever achieve all the potential benefits. 'The climate a n d circumstance o f the organisation will determine which of the potential benefits might realistically be achieved a n d which could not be a c c o m m o d a t e d ' (p. 153). Hodgson (1996) suggests t h a t the explicit support o f the head/principal, the resourcing a n d a realistic action plan are critical. The climate in which it takes place is vitally important. If data, for e x a m p l e , are to be collected from a variety of sources it is critical that staff understand why, e.g. (Jones a n d Mathias, 1 9 9 5 , p. 3 3 ) : • • • •

Teaching is a complex activity and performance needs to be appraised from a number of perspectives. Performance on a single occasion may not be representative of overall performance. The process of triangulation allows for a cross-check of performance. The process of data collection should reflect the balance of the job description.

We would add, implied by much written above, that the training of appraisers in the relevant skills is essential. The development gained through such training - in observation, interviewing, for example - is of course of benefit to the appraiser as well as appraisee, and therefore the school or college as a whole gains anyway.

• Managing unsatisfactory performance Situations will inevitably arise where, after support and remedial measures have been tried, a m a n a g e m e n t decision has to be reached that the employee's poor performance is damaging the organisation a n d the contract needs to b e terminated. Similarly, where relations between employer a n d employee deteriorate, the employee m a y feel threatened or victimised and be in 'grievance' against the organisation. The whole area therefore of grievance a n d discipline is one which a m a n a g e r needs to be aware o f a n d be ready to address. If the principal, senior m a n a g e m e n t and lay personnel involved, such as governors, fail to m a n a g e unsatisfactory performance adequately, the overall quality a n d effectiveness of staff m a n a g e m e n t will be impaired. Therefore, a n organised approach is necessary a n d should incorporate elements such as: •

80

An appreciation of the need for well-constructed, regularly revised grievance and disciplinary procedures introduced after consultation with staff members a n d trade unions and professional associations.

6

• • • •

Key areas of application

Correct operation o f these procedures, including full understanding a n d agreement on the roles each party (e.g. school m a n a g e m e n t a n d governing bodies) will play in these procedures. An understanding of the rules of n a t u r a l justice a n d how they apply in these situations. An awareness t h a t grievance a n d disciplinary procedures a r e essentially problem-solving tools. An a p p r o a c h to dealing with dismissal cases based on reasonable belief, reasonable grounds a n d reasonable investigation. (Adapted from Hume, 1 9 9 0 , pp. 4 8 - 9 . )

Grievance a n d discipline issues do not take place in isolation a n d failure to m a n a g e t h e m effectively m a y have far-reaching effects on staff morale, c o m m i t m e n t a n d motivation. For e x a m p l e , the context of t h e labour market m a y m e a n t h a t there is pressure on m a n a g e r s to m a k e the best of current members of staff and, where there are inadequacies, to take positive steps to help the individuals overcome t h e m . Drucker (1988, p. 1 4 0 ) argues t h a t service institutions, such as schools a n d colleges, should not employ their ablest people to defend t h a t which h a s n o purpose, e.g. poor performance. Service institutions c a n n o t afford to be paid for 'promises or, a t best, for efforts' (ibid.). A high concern for performance is a s relevant to the health o f service institutions as other organisations. It is essential that dealing with unsatisfactory performance within the school or college is perceived as a positive m a n a g e m e n t action a n d not t h e negative one t h a t it is a u t o m a t i c a l l y deemed to be. Drucker implies that the true test of a n organisation is the w a y in which it m a n a g e s , a n d is seen to m a n a g e , unsatisfactory performance.

E§2 Reading and ] Activity Please read pages 203-12 of Keith Foreman's M a n a g i n g People in Education.

chapter

'Managing

individual

performance'

in

List the approaches taken towards m a n a g i n g unsatisfactory performance in your own institution. W e suggest you divide t h e m into formal a n d informal. How m u c h consistency do you find in the informal processes?

• Building on key learning points •

Appraisal by its nature c a n create a tension between evaluation a n d development.

•

Appraisal in schools a n d colleges is most effective if it is concerned with growth and development.

•

Performance is reviewed informally as well a s in formal processes.

•

Performance needs to be m a n a g e d so that there is evidence o f achievement.

•

M a n a g e r s need to analyse under-performance carefully to understand reasons for it.

•

Unsatisfactory performance needs to b e m a n a g e d in a way t h a t sees its outcomes as positive.

Staff development This section considers: • • •

t h e context within which staff development thrives t h e m a n a g e m e n t issues in formal staff development programmes more informal ways in which staff development occurs.

81

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges If schools and colleges are to b e c o m e effective learning organisations (see earlier section on T h e Learning Organisation'), then the m a n a g e m e n t of the organisation to e n a b l e staff to learn effectively is central. Morally, since learning is the core purpose o f schools a n d colleges, the imperative might be said to be even greater t h a n in some other types of organisations. The link with the preceding section on reviewing and appraising performance is also clear. If such a review is to lead to continuous improvement, from whatever base, then the provision of effective professional development for staff is both a n entitlement for the individual and a prerequisite for the organisation. Since a number of terms are used in connection with training or development in teaching, it will be useful to summarise them: •

T e a c h e r c o m p e t e n c y refers to a n y single knowledge, skill or professional value position, which is relevant to successful teaching practice.

•

T e a c h e r c o m p e t e n c e refers to the repertoire of competences a teacher possesses. Overall competence is a matter of the degree to which a teacher h a s mastered a set of individual competencies.

•

T e a c h e r p e r f o r m a n c e refers to what a teacher does on the job rather t h a n to what he or she c a n do. Teacher performance is specific to the job situation.

•

T e a c h e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s refers to the effect that a teacher's performance has on students.

•

E f f e c t i v e n e s s depends not only on competence and performance but also on the response students make.

• Culture and values of staff development The development of individual staff, whilst important, needs to be seen by the m a n a g e r of staff developm e n t in the context of whole school/college development. Increasingly a u t o n o m y for schools a n d colleges, whilst offering opportunities for growth a n d independence, also holds the threat of fragmentation between organisations which proves so damaging within them. Aspinwall and Pedler (1997, p. 2 4 0 ) , noting this, state that 'Schools that develop the learning potential o f individuals a n d of teams, h a v e a n understanding of the whole school as a n organisation and are also aware of their place in, a n d responsibilities to, the wider community will have m u c h to contribute.'

ES9 Reading Please read David Middlewood's chapter, 'Managing staff development', in M a n a g i n g P e o p l e i n E d u c a t i o n . He argues that the culture created in a school or college is the vital factor in professional development. This culture will provide opportunities for development, some very structured, some informal. The manager's task may be to ensure that structured opportunities for development are in place and relevant through policies and programmes, and also to support and encourage the informal ones. As with any management process, there needs to be a set of values which underpin the school's or college's approach to the development of the staff who work in it. This approach will guide the stated rationale for the organisation's policy, the planned implementation and evaluation of its formal programmes and also indicate something of the way in which it is believed informal learning can occur. Perhaps these values can be ascertained by asking questions as in the following activity.

Activity Consider your answers to these questions: •

Does our organisation support the development of individual staff as

•

Is there a n inclusive organisational approach which includes associate staff as well as teaching staff?

82

persons?

6

Key areas of application

•

Is equal emphasis placed on those who are enthusiastic for development a n d those most needing help or persuasion?

•

Is critical self-reflection encouraged?

•

Is there a b a l a n c e between individual career development a n d organisational improvement?

•

Is the underlying message on supporting development and/or remedying deficiency?

•

W h a t e v e r the answers to these questions a n d other similar ones, they will give a n indication of the coherence - or lack o f it - of values underpinning the school's or college's staff development.

• Management of provision The two aspects here will be what is provided a n d how it is provided. Middlewood (1997c) argues that recognition of adult learning attitudes a n d styles is essential for managers, because, for adults 'unlearning' is difficult a n d present practice is embedded in experience which m a n y staff will have seen as effective until now. This argument, of course, supports the notion of a n appropriate culture for development but m a y also h a v e to b e acknowledged in aspects o f the provision of the formal p r o g r a m m e . (a) Formal programmes This process for m a n a g e r s m a y be seen to consist of: • • • •

identifying needs a n d prioritising planning programmes a n d activities i m p l e m e n t a t i o n a n d monitoring evaluating the programmes.

(i) I d e n t i f y i n g n e e d s a n d p r i o r i t i s i n g . Whose needs? Needs for development m a y exist at institutional a n d individual levels a n d also within 'sub-units' (Bush, 1 9 9 5 a , p. 4) involving faculties, departments, t e a m s a n d groups in the external environments. Additionally, there m a y be a need for the training a n d development o f school or college governors (Esp, 1 9 9 1 ) . The issue o f where these needs are best located, and subsequently prioritised, is not straightforward. Some teachers will h a v e various roles in their schools and colleges. W h i c h should take priority? T h e potential for role conflict is therefore considerable (Hall, 1 9 9 7 b ) . In the case of associate staff who are located in specialist areas, such as Learning Support, there m a y be some occasions when their need is for technical development a n d others where their needs as members of a group of staff who are 'non-teaching' are paramount. These issues raise questions of values which m a y underpin the overall strategy for m a n a g i n g h u m a n resources. Additionally, imperatives arising from government requirements m a y be seen as having to override those needs which the individual school or college feels are crucial.

Know/can do

Don't know/can't do

Know Don't know

Figure

6.2

identifying

development

needs

(adapted

from

Oldroyd and Hall, 1991, p. 67) 83

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

How are needs identified? At all levels, needs are most likely to be acted upon if they are recognised by the individuals or groups concerned. Diagnostic documents, adaptations of the organisational or departm e n t a l audit, questionnaires a n d personal interviews are all methods used successfully. Oldroyd a n d Hall (1991) offer a n adaptation of the Johari window to help people recognise their needs (see Figure 6 . 2 ) .

Activity Try to complete the b o x e s in Figure 6.2 in this way: (i) (ii)

List in the top left b o x some aspects of your knowledge a n d competence that you are confident you h a v e (i.e. what you know a n d c a n do). List in the top right b o x those areas of knowledge a n d competence that you know you do not have (i.e. w h a t you know you don't know/can't do).

This is a useful starting point. If possible, share with a colleague or mentor his/her perceptions o f what might go in the other boxes (i.e. bottom left: what I don't know/can do, bottom right: what I don't know that I don't know/can't do). It is, o f course, the bottom right that is the most challenging!

Prioritising. Given the range o f needs mentioned above a n d pressures from various directions, it is essential that the staff development programme is part of the school's or college's overall strategic plan (long-term) a n d development/business plan (short/medium-term.) This assists the m a n a g e r in prioritising. Ryan's model, described in David Middlewood's chapter on ' M a n a g i n g staff development', is a simple e x a m p l e of a school prioritising school, professional a n d individual development a n d a n y such model c a n be helpful in demonstrating to staff the school's or college's priorities. The explicitness of such models is important, reinforcing the point t h a t improving learning a n d teaching is the ultimate purpose of all development. (ii) P l a n n i n g p r o g r a m m e s a n d a c t i v i t i e s . Research by Joyce a n d Showers ( 1 9 8 0 ) a n d Kinder, Harland a n d Wootten ( 1 9 9 1 ) suggest a link between the method a n d content o f activities provided with regard to their effectiveness. The recognition of different learning styles for adults m a y thus be critical in planning the overall programme, which therefore m a y include a full range of activities, including: • • • • • •

staff-led workshops paired observations seminars projects visits courses (external a n d institution-based).

(iii) I m p l e m e n t i n g a n d m o n i t o r i n g . Monitoring the implementation is basically asking the question: 'Are we carrying out what we planned to do?' but m a y carry elements of formative evaluation: 'Do we need to adjust our p l a n s ? ' Areas to be monitored include satisfaction with the activity, suitability of the provider, cost-effectiveness, a n d appropriateness of the actual facilities. (iv) E v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o g r a m m e s . The aspects above are relatively easy to evaluate, even a t the summative stage, but, since the ultimate purpose relates to improvement in practice related to learning a n d teaching, consideration needs to be given to this. This h a s proved elusive for m a n y schools and colleges because (a) effective learning is covert not overt a n d (b) such improvements m a y take a long time to show their true effect. You m a y wish to reflect upon what methods are used in your organisation to monitor a n d to evaluate the process of the staff development programme and, more challengingly, whether those areas are ones where 84

6

Key areas of application

α longitudinal m e t h o d o f assessing the i m p a c t o f certain training or development activities upon student learning could be devised! (b) More informal programmes Outside of formal programmes, planned a n d m a n a g e d , lie m a n y other opportunities for staff development. Collaborative cultures, widely accepted as the most effective for student learning, involve strong professional relationships between staff, teachers talking to each other about students regularly, self-reflection a n d other daily activities which help to build the critical communities within which professional learning m a y be ' a natural process which is often unplanned, unremarked a n d undocumented (Day, 1995, p. 110). 7

However, there are a n u m b e r o f ways in which m a n a g e r s c a n encourage development for staff in semistructured ways which are essentially 'in-house', a n d which, with support, lead individuals to contribute towards t h a t critical c o m m u n i t y .

• Mentoring and critical friendships Mentoring was discussed earlier in the section on induction a n d c a n play a crucial role. Above all, mentoring should not be seen as 'soft'. Megginson a n d Clutterbuck (1997, p. 13) define mentoring as ' "offl i n e " (by which is m e a n t " n o t line m a n a g e m e n t " ) help by o n e person to a n o t h e r in m a k i n g significant transitions in knowledge, work or t h i n k i n g / They suggest t h a t skilled mentors c a n m a k e the distinction between getting i m m e d i a t e results a n d taking a wider view. 'The message becomes clear as the meeting progresses' (ibid., p. 1 4 ) . O n e o f their powerful a r g u m e n t s is t h a t a mentor c a n provide stability in a n unstable situation. For e x a m p l e , where o n e person c h a n g e s jobs within a n institution, the m e n t o r does not c h a n g e b e c a u s e h e or she is linked with induction into the n e w post but r e m a i n s the stable point o f support for the person who m a y now h a v e a new line m a n a g e r (ibid., p. 2 3 7 ) . If a m e n t o r is, according to T h o m s o n ( 1 9 9 3 , p. I l l ) , someone, usually a work colleague a t the s a m e or a higher level t h a n the individual, for w h o m h e or she is responsible, to w h o m the individual c a n go to discuss work-related issues, there is a sense in which the mentoring relationship is similar to that of the 'master-pupil' relationship in medieval times; the pupil is learning from the mentor's experience a n d the mentor's role is to encourage a n d nurture his or her protege. Mentors c a n pass on practical insight derived from experience a n d c a n pick up on new ideas a n d attitudes. They c a n help their proteges to set themselves realistic expectations a n d steer t h e m in the right direction as far as their career aspirations are concerned. It c a n , a n d should, be a m u t u a l l y rewarding experience. M a n y people value being a b l e to pass on w h a t they know, particularly when this is appreciated a n d others benefit from their knowledge a n d experience. Clearly the whole organisation c a n benefit from a system o f mentoring. M a n a g e r s , however, would h a v e reservations about institutionalised mentoring because o f unwilling participants, a n d the relationship between the individuals concerned is critical. T h e earlier table ( 6 . 1 , p. 75) on the differences between m e n t o r a n d line m a n a g e r suggests t h a t some different skills will be needed b y mentors in their different contexts. In a n y case, a p a r t from the support for development of individual staff, critical friendships, defined by D a y ( 1 9 9 5 , p. 1 2 3 ) as 'practical partnerships entered voluntarily, based upon a relationship between equals', c a n bring to the whole organisation a d v a n t a g e s such as those listed earlier. However, m a n y o f these informal processes demand* time a n d Healy a n d Calveley (1998, p. 30) are clear t h a t 'mentoring will not achieve its objectives unless there are clear time a l l o w a n c e for such activities; since time equates to resources, it is questionable whether such resources will be m a d e a v a i l a b l e . ' As m e n t i o n e d in the section on reviewing performance, such support c a n be more specific, such as Cardno a n d Piggot-Irvine's 'developmental mentoring'. Here the a i m is for the mentor to work with the appraisee to help h i m / h e r achieve specific targets. Here the activity is likely to include: • •

observation of t e a c h i n g or other performance analysis o f data collected 85

Human Resource Management in Schools and Colleges

• •

discussion of the setting goals

findings

(based on Cardno a n d Piggot-Irvine, 1 9 9 7 ) . However, the essential link between all these strategies is t h a t they are voluntarily entered into. The m a n a g e r ' s task is to encourage as appropriate and, when they are entered into, ensure the professional relationship a n d agreement h a s structure and relevance. There m a y be verbal or even written agreements in some cases.

• Practitioner research Often as part o f accredited programmes offered by higher education institutions, a n u m b e r o f staff m a y carry out 'in-house' research into some aspects of their or their t e a m ' s work. This research m a y be classroom focused, a n d Hopkins, Ainscow a n d West ( 1 9 9 4 ) , for e x a m p l e , argue t h a t this is the key to school improvement. Alternatively, it m a y be a n investigation into a n y aspect o f m a n a g e m e n t or leadership, curriculum, external relations or resourcing of the school or college. T h e i m p a c t on the individual c a n be twofold. Firstly, t h e staff m e m b e r learns something o f his/her or t e a m practice which c a n form the basis for a n improvement and, equally important, the individual T e a m s how to learn', reflecting on current practice a n d applying the process to other aspects o f work. Additionally, if such research becomes widespread in a n organisation, the impact upon its culture c a n be considerable. Middlewood a n d Parker (1998) describe such a n i m p a c t on a n 1 1 - 1 8 secondary school, drawing attention to the spread o f enthusiasm a n d self-motivation a m o n g staff, the collaborative spirit engendered a n d the huge increase in confidence of staff 'as learners'.

• Building on key learning points •

Staff development provision a n d opportunities will be significantly influenced by the general culture a n d values of the school or college.

•

How provision is m a d e is as important as the provision itself.

•

Formal programmes should be carefully structured.

•

Informal processes play a n equally important role.

•

Your own piece o f research will play a n important part in your development a n d probably in your organisation's!

86

7. Conclusion The final paragraphs of the preceding section will, we hope, provide for m a n y of you the encouragement to apply what you h a v e read in this book to the m a n a g e m e n t of people in schools a n d colleges. We would stress t h a t the most important people in these schools a n d colleges are, of course, the children, pupils a n d students themselves! Schools a n d colleges exist for t h e m a n d their learning a n d the task o f all adults who work in these places is to facilitate a n d e n h a n c e that learning. This applies equally to those who provide the food, keep the place c l e a n a n d m a i n t a i n the buildings a n d to those who lead, m a n a g e , teach a n d tutor. W e h a v e deliberately not put in a separate section on the m a n a g e m e n t of staff Other t h a n teachers', a n d we believe you will find t h a t most of the sections h a v e relevance to all members of staff whatever their role. Certainly, our premise a t the beginning o f the book concerning q u a l i t y , c o m m i t m e n t and p e r f o r m a n c e h a s no exceptions. The effectiveness of h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t in its broadest terms obviously needs to be monitored a n d evaluated but is beyond the scope of this book, although we h a v e addressed the monitoring a n d evaluation of specific aspects throughout. In terms of your school or college context, monitoring a n d evaluation will take place a g a i n s t the priorities a n d objectives which h a v e been set within your institution. W e suggest, however, t h a t HRM processes in schools a n d colleges are only successful to the extent that: • •

m o n i t o r i n g demonstrates a consistency o f approach between strategy, policy a n d implementation; and e v a l u a t i o n demonstrates quantifiable improvements in the quality of teaching a n d learning.

The process of HRM is, quite rightly, open to interpretation, assimilation and development according to t h e needs of the individual institution. In the final analysis, however, the outcomes h a v e to be measured in terms of how HRM practice h a s contributed to the quality o f learning.

87

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Author Index Acker, S 35 Argyris, C 32, 33 Argyris, C and Schon, ü A 32 Armstrong, Μ 14 Aspinwall, Κ and Pedler, Μ 82 Atkinson, Ρ 56 AUT 36 Bangar, S and McDermott, I 36, 38 Barber, M, Evans, A and Johnson, Μ 77 Beard, D 31 Beare, H, Caldwell, Β and Millikan, R 6 Beibin, Μ 50, 52 Blanchard, K, Oncken, W and Burrow, Η 42, 43 Blanchard, Κ and Peale, Ν 26 Blunkett, D 12 Bolam, R, McMahon, A, Pocklington, Κ and Weindling, D 25 Bolton, G 70 Brain, G 53 Buchan, J, Pearson, R and Pike, G 12 Bush, Τ 11, 17, 55, 56, 57, 58, 83 Bush, Τ and Middlewood, D 7, 10 Bush, Τ and West-Burnham, J 2 Bush, T, Coleman, M, Wall, D and West-Burnham, J 76 Campbell, J 43 Campbell, J and St J Neill, R 42 Cardno, C and Piggot-Irvine, Ε 77, 78, 85, 86 Cascio, W 19 Chan, D and Huie, Ε 39 Clay, J, Cole, Μ and George, R 36 Cockburn, A 41, 42, 43 Coleman, Μ 36, 38, 63, 75, 76 Coleman, Μ and Bush, Τ 48, 50 Commission for Racial Equality 36 Crawford, Μ 42 Dalin, Ρ 23, 24 Davidson, Μ J 36 Day, C 26, 85 Deal, Τ 56, 57 Deal, Τ and Kennedy, A 56 DES 27, 28, 36 DfEE 23, 36 Döring, A 40 Drucker, Ρ 5, 19, 22, 44, 81 Earley, Ρ 18, 19, 39, 42 Earley, Ρ and Fletcher-Campbell, F 25, 43, 50 Earley, Ρ and Kinder, Κ 73 Ehrich, L 76 Elliott, C 58 Elliott, C and Hall, V 14, 21 Esp, D 83 EU 39 Everard, Β and Morris, G 24, 25, 26, 46 Fagg,V 13 Fidler, Β 63, 79 Foreman, Κ 7, 33, 77, 78, 81 Fowler, A 10 Freeman, A 36, 37, 38

Galloway, D, Panckhurst, F, Boswell, K, Boswell, C and Green, Κ 39 Garratt, Β 33 Gaziel, Η 42 Goss, D 9 Grace, G 17 Hackett, Ρ 65, 67 Hall, V 10, 36, 53, 54, 62, 66, 68, 83 Handy, C 6, 7, 46, 48 Handy, C and Aitken, R 57 Hargreaves, A 55 Healy, G and Calveley, Μ 13, 85 Healy, G and Kraithman, D 18 Heasman, Κ 35 Herriott, Ρ 62 Herzberg, F 45, 46 Hodgson, F 78, 80 Hofstede, G 47 Holland, G 8, 12 Honey, Ρ 32 Hopkins, D, Ainscow, Μ and West, Μ 57, 86 Hoyle, Ε and Jones, Κ 21 Hume, C 66, 81 Hunt, J 73, 75 Ironside, Μ and Seifert, R 13 Jenkins, Η 17 Joiner, D 71 Jones, A and Hendry, C 31, 32 Jones, J and Mathias, J 80 Joyce, Β and Showers, Β 84 Jurasinghe, D and Lyons, G 19 Kakabadse, A 75 Kakabadse, A, Ludlow, R and Vinnicombe, S 73, 74 Katzenbach, A and Smith, D 49 Kelly, Μ 33 Kinder, K, Harland, J and Wootten, Μ 84 Kremer-Hayon, L and Goldstein, Ζ 46 Kyriacou, C 40, 41 Leithwood, Κ 49, 50, 52 Levacic, R 13 Liddle, J and Joshi, R 37 Little, J 49 Lumby, J 34 MacFarlane, J 51 Maier, F 79 Marshall, C 35, 37 Maslow, A 45 McClelland, D 46 McGregor, D 45 Megginson, D and Clutterbuck, D 76, 85 Middlewood, D 61, 69, 70, 72, 75, 77, 78, 82, 83, 84 Middlewood, D, Blount, J, Sharman, Μ and Fay, C 77 Middlewood, D and Parker, R 86 Montgomery, D and Hadfteld, Ν 80 Morgan, C 7, 70, 71, 72 Mortimore, P, Mortimore, J with Thomas, Η 7, 13, 74 Mullins, L 54 Mwamwenda, Τ S 45 95

Author Index NCE 7, 12, 57 Northamptonshire County Council 64 O'Neill, J 7, 11, 13, 15, 18, 21, 22, 49, 51, 52

OFSTED 19 OFSTED and Audit Commission 20 Oldroyd, D and Hall, V 83, 84 Osier, A 38 Ouston, J 19 Paisey, A 74 Peters, Τ 47, 48 Peters, Τ and Waterman, R 56 Pierce, Μ and Molloy, G 41 Plant, R 56 Poster, C and Poster, D 80 Punch, Κ and Tuettmann, Ε 39 Rees, F 40, 41, 42 Riches, C 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 45, 48, 70 Riches, C and Morgan, C 10 Ronan, W and Prien, Ε 19 Rujis, A 36 Sammons, P, Hillrnan, J and Mortimore, Ρ 31 Sammons, P, Thomas, S and Mortimore, Ρ 25, 50, 57, 58 Saran, R and Busher, Η 23 Schagen, I and Morrison, J 20 Schein, Ε 73

96

Scott, W 49 Select Committee 13 Senge, Ρ 1 7 , 3 2 , 3 3 , 4 3 , 4 4 Sergiovanni, Τ 56 Sinclair, A 49 Sivasubramanian, Ν and Ratnam, C 27 Smith, Ρ 76 Southworth, G 33, 70, 72 Squire, V/ 18 Stoll, Land Fink, D 57, 58 Taylor, F and Hemingway, J 65, 66 Thomson, R 65, 67, 85 Times Educational Supplement 53 Travers, C and Cooper, C 39, 40, 41, 42 Tuckman, Β 51 Turner, C 45, 46 Vaarlem, A, Nuttall, D and Walker, A 47 Vandeveld, Β 47 Van Velzen, W and Robin, D 56 Vosper, Κ and Smith, Ρ 36 Wagstaff, f 35, 38 Wallace, Μ and Hall, V 50 Warner, D and Crosthwaite, E l l Werner, W 55 West, Ρ 32, 33 West-Burnham, J 6, 52 Whittington, R 33 Wragg, E, Wikeley, F, Wragg, C and Haynes, G 77

Subject Index Accountability and external stakeholders 17 and performance review and appraisal 77-8 Bureaucratic styles of management 17 Commitment of staff 5-6, 8 development of 6 Competencies and tasks 19 managerial 12, 17, 18-19 professional 12, 17 Competition between institutions 17, 21 Critical friendship 26, 85 Culture 56-8 definitions of 56-7 gap in 58 importance of 56 in effective schools and departments 58 management of 58 sub-cultures 57 Departments 25, 50 Empowerment 27, 47 by development of authority 17 Enhancement educational outcomes 19 management performance 11 of teaching performance 11 Equal opportunities 34-8 and causes of inequality 37 and staff selection 68 and theories 37 current position 36 Goals 18, 27, 32, 33, 46 Human resource management approaches 9-10 origins of 9 strategies 26 Individual development and integration with organisational development 23-4 vs organisational development 26 Induction 72-5 and institutional culture 73 and non-teaching staff 74 achieving competence 73 effective management of 74 purposes 73 J socialisation 73 Initial Teacher Training and induction 72 and institutionally based models 12 Integration in individual and organisational development 23-4 Learning as professionals 32 definition of 31 hidden 32 process 33 organisation 31-4

Line managers 9, 21, 28, 47 and appraisal 78 and mentoring 75 and staff management 10, 47 Management by objectives 18 Management of support 5, 8, 11, 12, 23 Management training changing priorities in provision 27 Mentoring and induction 75-6 and staff development 85 Motivation 21, 44-7 and goals 46 and morale 44 and satisfaction 4 5 - 6 and staff 47 and training and development 21 management of 44 theories of 45-7 Organisational development 2 4 - 5 and human relations 24 and individual development 26 improvement 26 integration with individual development 23-4 size and complexity 25 People as a source 21 in educational organisations 7 orientated approaches to management 21 other than teacher 7, 13, 15, 23 Performance centred approaches 17 of staff 6-7, 8 and accountability 7, 17 and standards 6, 17, 22 orientated approaches to management 18 by competencies 18 by objectives 18 inspection frameworks 19 value-added measures 20 review and appraisal 76-81 and accountability 77-8 and conditions for effective review 80 and management of performance 76 and managing unsatisfactory performance 80-1 and professional development 77-8 and special issues 80 components of 79 different forms of 78 Personnel management compared to HRM 9-10 Quality of staff 5, 8 and recruitment 13 and specification 5 of working environment 21 Recruitment and selection 61-72 and the labour market 63 and legislation 63 and succession planning 62 97

Subject Index management of 61-72 policies and procedures 64 recruitment procedures 65 selection process 69 assessment centres 71 exercises 71 interviewing 70 tests 70 staff selection issues 66 strategic plan for 61 Roles 53-4

alleviating 41-2 cause 40-1 definition 39-40 effects 39 management 39-44 personality and 40-1 whole organisation response 42 Structures 54-6 and accountability 54 purpose 54-5 variations in 55

Self management of schools and colleges 15 and HRM policies 14 and HRM strategies 10,11 and pay and conditions 13, 14, 21 Staff development 81-6 and critical friendship 85 and identifying needs and prioritising 83 and management of provision 83 and mentoring 85 and practitioner research 86 culture and values 82 Staffing 13 Stress and time management 42

Target-setting 18, 23 Teams 24, 48-53 and part-time staff 51 composition 50-1 departmental 50 development 51-2 effectiveness 49 increase in use as organisational unit 48 leadership 52 limitations 49 types of 49-50 Time management 42

98

Value-added measures 20