Horizons in Earth Science Research [1 ed.] 9781612094885, 9781611227635

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Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Horizons in Earth Science Research, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Horizons in Earth Science Research, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,

HORIZONS IN EARTH SCIENCE RESEARCH

HORIZONS IN EARTH SCIENCE RESEARCH

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

VOLUME 4

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HORIZONS IN EARTH SCIENCE RESEARCH

HORIZONS IN EARTH SCIENCE RESEARCH

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

VOLUME 4

BENJAMIN VERESS AND

JOZSI SZIGETHY EDITORS

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

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Copyright © 2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works.

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CONTENTS vii 

Preface Chapter 1

Chapter 2

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Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Planetary Conditions at the Hadean and Archean Transition: Possible Scenarios for the Origin of Life Julio Valdivia-Silva , Maria Colin-Garcia, Fernando Ortega-Gutierrez, Alicia Negron-Mendoza , Jose Luis Garcia-Martinez and Sergio Ramos   Shield Volcanoes of Siberian Flood Basalts: Dynamics of Lava Sheets Formation V.N. Sharapov, A. N. Cherepanov, V.N. Popov  and I.F. Rakhmenkulova  P Cycling And Biogeochemistry In Well Drained And Flooded Venezuelan Savannas Danilo López-Hernández and Ismael Hernández-Valencia  Strategy for Lava Flow Disaster Mitigation: Implications of Numerical Simulations Eisuke Fujita 

1 

61 

99 

127 

Chapter 5

Kryosphere – Hydrosphere Relationship Wojciech Dobinski 

Chapter 6

Savanagua: A Spatially Explicit Competition Modeling of Savanna Ecosystems J. Segarra, J. Raventós and M. Acevedo 

173 

The Hidden Value of Water Flows: The Chemical Exergy of Rivers Antonio Valero, Javier Uche and Amaya Martínez 

213 

The Chemistry of Precipitation and Groundwater in a Coastal Pinus Pinea Forest (Castel Fusano Area, Central Italy) and its Relation to Stand and Canopy Structure Paola Tuccimei, Mauro D'Angelantonio, Maria Chiara Manetti,  Andrea Cutini, Emilio Amorini, and Giuseppe Capelli 

231 

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

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145 

Contents Chapter 9

Thermal Enhancement of Radon Emission From Geological Materials. Implications for Laboratory Experiments on Rocksunder Increasing Deformation P. Tuccimei, M. Castelluccio, S. Moretti, S. Mollo,  S. Vinciguerra and P. Scarlato 

Chapter 10

Oxygen Genesis in the Early Earth Atmosphere Robert F. Mahfoud 

Chapter 11

Will European Sustainability Standards on Bioenergy be Effective to Protect Savannas? Klaus Josef Hennenberg 

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Index

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257 

267  275 

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PREFACE At the crossroads of mathematics, operations research, and computer science, linear programming has become a mature and well-understood tool to address problems in science, engineering, economics and mathematics itself. This tremendous success is based on three key components: intuitive modeling, powerful algorithms and the availability of practical solver packages. This new book is a collection of new advancements in the field of LP. It includes theoretical contributions about extensions of LP, as well as reports on applying LP in different settings: in agriculture, in different engineering disciplines and for deriving mathematical results. Chapter 1- Earth’s primordial conditions at the beginning of geologic history (Hadean Eon) witnessed several fundamental processes, including cooling and crystallization of a magma ocean, the Moon-formation impact event, the faint young sun paradox, the late heavy bombardment (LHB), origin of pre-biotic molecules and probably life itself, as well as the transition from reduced to oxidized outer Earth’s layers, all of which have not been fully explained because of the scarce or absence of geological record preserved to support the evolutionary models throughout this time. However, these conditions stabilized somewhat during the Early Archean (3.9-3.5 Ga), creating a propitious environment for the definite origin and evolution of life. Although, currently the prevailing view favors a moderately neutral atmosphere during that time, the model does not explain many processes that occurred under highly reducing conditions and several questions remained unresolved. The LHB and its role in the appearance, destruction or preservation of life also constitute a major unresolved problem because these processes are surprisingly coincident in time. This chapter assesses and analyses the latest and hopefully most relevant information about the primitive Earth’s environments in the Hadean to Archean transition (4.5-3.5 Ga), including the faint young sun paradox, possible reservoirs of pre-biotic molecules, early carbon cycle, and the most favorable niches for the emergence of life Chapter 2- The analysis of distribution functions for effusive rock compositions in lava sheet profiles of Permian-Triassic LIP of the Siberian Platform (SP) shows that the local dynamics of volcanic processes has two types of periodicity: 1) tectonic activity cycles (within the southern border of the Khatanga rift there are 5 tectonomagmatic cycles); 2) periodical appearance of variously contaminated basic magma sources in this area. Numerical analysis for 2D model of hydrodynamics of Permian-Triassic SP flood basalts allows us to suggest that the main factors for anomalously thick lava sheets are wide feeders and intense decompression boiling of lava flows. For SP LIP fissure eruptions are typical, with a ‘fissure

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net’ existing over all the area of lava flows and explosions; the step of the net is about 20-40 km. Such distances between the feeders and relatively flat (moderately rugged) relief can result in ‘joining’ of lava flows and therefore in the formation of lava covers having practically constant thicknesses up to 60-100 m and extending up to 100 km. Relatively thin contact zones in the covers can be due to low heat conductivity of froths in moving heterophase media. Regressive lava vitrification near vesicles in the central parts of lava flows is because of viscosity increase of the residual liquid during its fractioning in crystallizing cells. Chapter 3- Third part of Venezuelan territory is occupied by savannas, where differences in environmental conditions lead to different savanna types. Soil characteristics can differ among savannas, ranging from savannas located on excessive well drained coarse-textured soils to waterlogged clayey-textured soils. However, as a common chemical characteristic, savanna’s soils are generally acids and poor in nutrients. Another factor strongly associated with the existence of savannas is fire burning, which is used as a management tool to renew pastures. Despite their predominance on nutrient poor soils and the seasonality of precipitations, savannas are key production areas in Venezuela, Colombia and Brazil. In tropical savannas, phosphorus has been recognized as one of the most limited nutrients for plant production because of soil acidity and the high reactivity of phosphate with iron an aluminum sesquioxides. However, P content and P dynamics can differ in well drained and flooded savannas; the main differences in this case can be ascribed to soil texture and redox conditions. In this contribution a comparison of the biogeochemistry and P cycling in two sites dominated by well drained and flooded savannas is presented. A comprehensive study of P-cycling in both environments indicates that although Pinputs are similar (0.50-0.75 kg ha-1yr-1) in flooded and unflooded (Cerrado type) savannas, the output fluxes differ according with the particular condition of the zone. In effect, fire is particularly important accounting for P losses in burned Trachypogon savannas, while in the flooded condition, particulate P (erosion) is an important source of P output. P losses by cattle extractions, in both case, is just related to the size of the herd. The result for burned savannas highlights the role of fire as a net exporter of P. None-the-less, fire timing could be an easy way to face this situation, since, if fires were produced on a biennial or triennial basis, the P losses caused by it could be compensated by inputs through precipitation. On the other hand, in the case of the flooded savannas, diking have allowed a prolongation of soil humidity conditions even during the dry season, and a biomass accretion, with the dominance of grass species more palatable and with higher P requirements, which are responsible for an increase in nutrient uptake and immobilization. Therefore, a convenient use of the floodgate is the key for a better sustainable management of the diked agro ecosystem Chapter 4- Lava flow sometimes damages farms, forests, houses, roads, and harbors around volcanoes, and the recovery of the inundated area is difficult. Many trials have been conducted in an effort to mitigate the damage (e.g., controlling the flux path using barriers and bombs, and cooling the lava by water jets). Lava flow is one of the easiest volcanic hazard phenomena to manage, since it is usually not as fast as pyroclastic flows and lahars. Nevertheless, lava flow, which is multiphase, is a complicated phenomenon. Lava is emitted at a fissure or crater at temperatures as high as 1000°C; then, with the downward flow, it is cooled by the atmosphere and ground, and a crust gradually forms at the surface of the flow. In addition, some parts of the solidified wall may be broken by the pressure of

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successive flow and/or re-melting that may occur. Inside the lava flux, convection of crystal and melted parts regulates the flow speed. The viscosity of the lava is also a function of temperature, associated with percentage of crystallization. Therefore, the formulation of lava flow must include these mechanisms, and we can evaluate the phenomena of lava flow, as well as perform artificial trials to control lava flow using barriers and water cooling. In this study, we formulate a lava flow using a solid-liquid two-phase flow in 3D and construct the characteristics of lava flows. Based on these numerical simulations, we introduce a quantitative strategy to control lava flow. Chapter 5- The most visible and the most commonly studied problems in the field of earth sciences are those that translate into practical applications in people’s lives. This refers in particular to the problems hidden in the notions of climate warming, global change, human impact, etc. While these complicated problems are being solved, the progress observed in basic sciences, which are currently developing in the shadow of those major issues, is fading into the background. It can be easily noticed however, that earth sciences, which also include such disciplines as geography, cartography, geology and many others, as well as the kryosphere and the hydrosphere, have found subjects for their scientific studies beyond the Earth. Achievements of the research into other planets allow better understanding of the environment and processes occurring on the Earth. In order to maintain the unity of science, as the synthesis of the whole knowledge, it seems necessary to extend the notion of uniformitarianism, which in J. Hutton – C. Lyell’s view refers to time. Nowadays, it has to be used as a notion referring to space. This applies to the Earth as a planet in particular. The knowledge about other planets proves that the Earth is exceptional not only in terms of life existing on it. It also concerns the occurrence of water on the Earth. H2O is a substance that only exists on the Earth in three phases: solid, liquid and gaseous. On other celestial bodies known to us it does not occur in a tri-phase state. An analysis of the definitions of water, ice, hydrosphere, kryosphere shows that in this context they lack cohesion. They result from the experience gained exclusively in the research of our planet. Their verification with reference to both older and contemporary achievements leads to ice being perceived as mineral and rock and thus classified as an element of the lithosphere. Alongside ice, with its varied material forms in nature, another constituent of the kryosphere is temperature, in which , commonly, cold is understood as the temperature below 0 oC. Those two elements create the kryosphere (kryolithosphere). Their characterization in consequence, is the characterization of ice and permafrost presented in the aforementioned context. As a result of the analysis, kryosphere should not be included as a part of hydrosphere. Such a holistic approach enables better understanding of the Earth’s spheres and their interaction as well as a critical analysis of some processes attributed to both elements of kryo(litho)sphere. Chapter 6- Soil water availability is possibly the most important determining factor in the ecological dynamics of tropical savanna. Depending on to their geographical, climatological and ecological, situation this biome lies between forest and the desert. For this reason, ecological models of the savanna are helpful in developing strategies to combat the advance of desertification. In this chapter, we first review some of the existing models of soil water dynamics in the savanna, and then we introduce our own model, SAVANAGUA. The mathematical structure of SAVANAGUA rests on two cornerstones: a matrix model to rebuild the aerial structure of

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the plants growing in this type of savanna, and the technique of convolution, which enables the distribution of water among plants on a given surface area to be calculated easily. The advantage of this ratio is that it allows for rapid and precise modeling of communities formed by a large number of individuals, as the calculations can be done using all the individuals comprising each population, as if it were a single unit, while not disturbing the morphology of the plants in the model. Taking into account the transpiration rate of different phenological and architectural savanna grasses, the stochastic precipitation rate and the characteristics and evaporation of the ground, SAVANAGUA calculates soil moisture, which is the criterion to estimate the birth and death rate of every plant’s tiller. To evaluate the model, we compare transpiration and production rates of neotropical savanna grasses with the modeled rates. Although this model could be used in all kinds of ecosystems, it has been developed to simulate plants whose shoots grow directly from the ground. So, it is especially appropriate for modeling savanna where the herbaceous stratum predominates Chapter 7- The hydroelectricity potential of rivers is a very well-know parameter used to characterize the availability of a river as a function of its flow and its altitude. However, the chemical potential of water flowing through the rivers is commonly ignored. In its source, water presents high quality and, therefore, it owns an important availability that can be expressed through its chemical exergy value. On the opposite, when it flows into the sea and reaches the thermodynamic equilibrium, it can not be further used and it is converted into a null exergy value. Within these two limit values, the exergy state of the river at its different stages can be assessed. On the other hand, water availability for specific uses depends on its quality. In this way, the almost always hidden value of water, its chemical potential, is highlighted and can be compared to the potential component, since they are expressed in the same units (energy units). In this paper, it is shown that potential and chemical exergy values of rivers rise up with values with the same order of magnitude. That is, the chemical value of a river is, from a thermodynamic perspective, as much as its potential value. The main difference lies in the current available technologies to take advantage of those physical disequilibrium: while hydro-power turbines are a completely proved technology, there are not yet commercial devices to take advantage of the hydro-chemical potential. Results of those estimations for a small Spanish river, the Muga river, are presented in this paper in order to prove the accuracy of the methodology. It is shown that the potential exergy of that river ranges from 2.37 to 7.15 MW, while its chemical exergy is comprised between 2.30 and 8.78 MW for the present state of the river. In addition, several exergy indexes are defined as basic parameters to provide information about the advantage taken from the river, that is, about the water uses within the watershed Chapter 8- Chloride and sodium contents of net precipitation (throughfall + stemflow) and groundwater below a Pinus Pinea coastal forest (Castel Fusano, central Italy) are strongly dependent on the barrier-effect accomplished by canopies to the wind-transported sea salt aerosol. During dry periods, forest canopy holds marine aerosol, successively discharged by rainfall: the longer the dry period, the higher the amount of salts accumulated and released to groundwater. Main winds direction and regimes of precipitation are important variables influencing the chemistry of net precipitation and groundwater. Stemflow is a point-source input and its contribution to groundwater recharge and chemistry is spatially relevant, even if it represents only a small fraction of net precipitation. Chloride and sodium concentration of

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stemflow and groundwater was very high in the portion of the forest directly exposed to sea winds and decreased progressively at increasing distances from the coastline. The drop was very marked just few tenths of metres from the forest face and the rate of reduction was less significant further inland, where below-canopy enrichment was negligible. Stand and canopy structure differences within the forest (created by a wild fire occurred in the year 2000 and by successive localised practices of forest thinning) had strong effects onto chloride and sodium contents of stemflow and groundwater. On the contrary, chloride and sodium abundance of throughfall was not notably influenced by precipitation regimes and by stand structure, being a diffuse input to ground, only moderately intercepted by canopies. However, forest thinning increased volumes of throughfall. Chapter 9- Radon gas is the subject of a great deal of research because its concentration builds up into indoor air and the long-term radon exposure is considered the second cause of lung cancer, after smoking. In addition to that, the release of radon from soil is under investigation in active volcanic and seismic areas because radon anomalies are believed to occur before earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Several papers report results of laboratory experiments on the effects of activity concentration of 222Rn and 220Rn precursors, humidity content and grain size of geological materials over the radon emission. However no correspondent studies have targeted the effect of the temperature on radon release. The present contribution focuses on the influence of temperature, varying from 20 to 60 °C, on 222 Rn and 220Rn emission from two volcanic rocks, a tuff and a lava flow. The experimental apparatus consists of a small accumulation chamber coupled to solid-state alpha spectroscopy; it also allows to keep constant the experimental temperatures applied to the rock sample. The effect of ambient temperature on detection efficiency is also investigated. Results show a significant enhancement of radon emissions from rocks with increasing temperature. The results of these experiments suggest that thermal enhancement of radon emission can be used to investigate more precisely the correlation between physical mechanisms determining damage in stressed rocks and radon release, taking advantage of the improved radon emission. Experimental test with a better resolution are the key to interpret radon anomalies preceding earthquakes or volcanic eruption. Chapter 10- Photosynthesis by the Archean-Proterozoic blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), observed as small specks within the chert of the Precambrian banded iron formations, and within stromatolites, was suggested, by many geologists, as the cause which generated the oxygen in the early atmosphere. This work rejects this restriction by presenting more solid evidences for the oxygen—genesis which include: the desilicification of the Archean— Proterozoic silicates in peridotites and basalts; the reduction of magnetite (Fe3O4) present with those silicates; the alpha, gamma-rays released during the decay of then common radioactive nuclides; and the effect of the ultraviolet light before the ozone layer was formed in the atmosphere. Adequate chemical formulas are included to clarify these processes. Chapter 11- Bioenergy demand is supposed to increase during the next decades. This increase is significantly driven by national targets, e.g., the European blending target (10% biofuels or other renewable energies for transportation until 2020). Some biofuel pathways may negatively impact, e.g., food security and biodiversity, including savannas. In December 2008, the European authorities passed the Renewable Energy Source Directive (RED; EUDirective 2009/28/EG) considering mandatory criteria to mitigate risks related to areas of high biodiversity value and areas of high carbon stock. The protection of savannas is directly

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and indirectly addressed by some of these criteria: ‘reduction of greenhouse gas emissions’; ‘primary forest and other wooded land’; ‘nature protection areas’; ‘highly biodiverse natural and non-natural grassland’; ‘wetlands’; and ‘continuously forested areas’. The evaluation of the effectiveness of these criteria revealed the protection of areas of high carbon stock and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions are rather week in light of the protection of savannas. Effects of the protection of land of high biodiversity value are supposed to be much higher. However, the effectiveness of these regulations to protect savannas will strongly depend on the outcome of the ongoing European Consultation Process regarding highly biodiverse grasslands where the Commission will define respective criteria and geographic ranges. Further more, positive spill-over effects on the production of other commodities as well as negative indirect land-use change effects due to displacement of former crops are discussed.

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Chapter 1

PLANETARY CONDITIONS AT THE HADEAN AND ARCHEAN TRANSITION: POSSIBLE SCENARIOS FOR THE ORIGIN OF LIFE Julio Valdivia-Silva 1,2, Maria Colin-Garcia 3,4, Fernando OrtegaGutierrez 4, Alicia Negron-Mendoza 2, Jose Luis Garcia-Martinez 2, and Sergio Ramos 2

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1

Space Science Division, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, 94035 USA 2 Instituto de Ciencias Nucleares, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, DF, 04510, Mexico 3 Centro de Astrobiologia, Madrid, España 4 Instituto de Geologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, DF, 04510, Mexico

ABSTRACT Earth’s primordial conditions at the beginning of geologic history (Hadean Eon) witnessed several fundamental processes, including cooling and crystallization of a magma ocean, the Moon-formation impact event, the faint young sun paradox, the late heavy bombardment (LHB), origin of pre-biotic molecules and probably life itself, as well as the transition from reduced to oxidized outer Earth’s layers, all of which have not been fully explained because of the scarce or absence of geological record preserved to support the evolutionary models throughout this time. However, these conditions stabilized somewhat during the Early Archean (3.9-3.5 Ga), creating a propitious environment for the definite origin and evolution of life. Although, currently the prevailing view favors a moderately neutral atmosphere during that time, the model does not explain many processes that occurred under highly reducing conditions and several questions remained unresolved. The LHB and its role in the appearance, destruction or preservation of life also constitute a major unresolved problem because these processes are surprisingly coincident in time.

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Julio Valdivia-Silva, Maria Colin-Garcia, Fernando Ortega-Gutierrez et al. This chapter assesses and analyses the latest and hopefully most relevant information about the primitive Earth’s environments in the Hadean to Archean transition (4.5-3.5 Ga), including the faint young sun paradox, possible reservoirs of pre-biotic molecules, early carbon cycle, and the most favorable niches for the emergence of life.

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I. INTRODUCTION What modern science is trying to address is a problem, which has baffled the mind of man from almost the very dawn of time. One of the few things to affirm is that the complexity of the problem requires a mayor contribution from many disciplines. Consequently, this matter is subjected to many speculations that have been presented in all possible and different ways. As John D. Bernal (1951) pointed out, a general solution to a problem of cosmic proportions demands a multidisciplinary approach. The study of the origin of life has been in the realm of the theology and philosophy for generations; and surely, there has been a switch from metaphysics to science. Up to now, still we do not have a completed understanding of a subject of such transcendental importance. This quest still remains in the dark despite the impressive scientific and technological advances of the last decades, such as the Viking missions to look for life in Mars, the new and spectacular discoveries of possible organic fossils in Martian meteorites (McKay et al., 1996; Gibson et al., 2001), and the hundreds of new planets found in the present century outside the Solar System (Sasselov, 2008). The reconstruction of the physical and chemical conditions that prevailed in the surface layers of the Earth (oceans, lands, and atmospheres) in epochs that immediately preceded the emergence of life in our planet, should be based on the geological record and theoretical environmental models that comply with the coexistence of the trinity liquid water, nutrients and a source of free energy to do work. An additional, but often overlooked parameter for the feasibility of life, is time because the three essential conditions of life may have been met repeatedly in many places of the Universe, but for periods of time that were too short to enable matter reaching the levels of order and chemical complexity that characterize a living system. The times and conditions when life emerged on Earth date back to billions of years before the present, and given the dynamic nature of our planet including all of her global physical layers, the core, mantle, crust, ocean and atmosphere, the oldest a given geologic record is, the poorer its preservation. In fact, discovered rocks older than 4 Ga only represent about 0.00002 % of the surface of the Earth, a figure that for practical purposes is next to nothing. And yet, the mere nature and existence of these rocks (Bowring and Williams, 1999) reveal an already mature planet fully recovered from the catastrophic internal and external processes that made it growth, melt and differentiate in the previous few hundred million years since the birth of the Solar System, and indeed a planet ready to receive and nurture the last of its global layers: the biosphere. The aim of this work is to bring together relevant and updated information regarding the earliest nature of the external global layers of our planet that contributed to create the surface conditions for the appearance of life, namely, the upper mantle, the crust, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere, and to draw, from the critical analysis of these data, some conclusions that may be useful for the further advance of our understanding about the central questions on the origin or origins of life in a living planet, the Earth.

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Planetary Conditions at the Hadean and Archean Transition

3

II. HADEAN EARTH

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II.1. Temporal Limits The Hadean Eon in the history of the Earth is considered an informal unit of geologic time that elapsed from the formation of the planet to the beginning of the Archean Eon. However, none of these two time-markers in the natural history of our planet are well constrained: what is the true age of the Earth, and when did the Archean Eon begin? The first question depends on the definition of the Earth as a planet in terms of its proportion of accreted mass, or on the degree of differentiation into its present core, mantle, and crustal layers. The second question still remains open because the International Commission on Stratigraphy fixed the upper limit for the Archean at 2.5 Ga, but the lower limit, although it is set at 4 Ga in the most recent edition of the International Stratigraphic Chart (International Commission on Stratigraphy, 2008), is also marked at 3,850 Ma based on the oldest preserved sedimentary rocks (Gradstein et al., 2004, p. 95), and there is not a generally accepted time boundary to separate these first two eons in the life of the early Earth. For example, Kasting and Howard (2006) presented a geologic time scale where the Archean-Hadean boundary is set at 3,800 Ma and extended the lower limit of the later Eon to the origin of the Solar System. Mooorbath (2005) also discussed the issue referring to the Hadean-Archean transition as an epoch when geologic processes changed from “non-uniformitarian” to uniformitarian, spanning a time interval with boundaries of 4.0 to 3.8 Ga, and proposed a time scale setting limits for that transitional epoch between 3.85 Ga (termination of the Late Heavy Bombardment based on the Moon record) and 3.82 Ga (oldest known magmatic and sedimentary rocks on Earth). He named this period the “Hadeo-Archean”; however, in as much as rocks as old as 4.002-4.012 Ga are known in the Acasta Gneiss Complex of northwestern Canada and rock formations older than 3.82 Ga elsewhere in Greenland, Africa and Antarctica (see below for references), perhaps a preferable and natural upper limit for the Hadean Eon would be at 3.9 Ga, which marks the more commonly accepted age when the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) rapidly waned throughout the inner Solar System (Kring and Cohen, 2002). The formation of the Earth’s core based on U-Pb, Hf-W and Sm-Nd isotopic systematics, and hence of its global differentiation has been commonly taken as the true age of the Earth (e.g. Halliday, 2003 Jacobsen and Harper (1996), using Hf-W isotopes, proposed an age for the Earth to be less than 15 Ma younger than the origin of the Solar System, which is given at 4,567-4,565 Ma based on the age of primitive refractory inclusions (CAIs) and chondrules from Allende and Efremovka carbonaceous meteorites (Amelin et al., 2002). Boyet and Carlson (2005) more recently also suggested on the basis of 142Nd/144Nd ratios in meteorites compared with the accessible Earth that it differentiated 4,530 Ma ago. In contrast, other researchers using the same isotopes (e.g. Touboul et al., 2007; Wood and Halliday, 2005) constrained the age of the Earth to the time when the Moon probably formed 45 to 60 Ma years after the condensation of the first Solar System solids, in which case the age of the Earth would be between 4,530 and 4,505 Ma. Another fundamental event in the history of the Earth was the formation of its only satellite, the Moon, which is currently considered the product of a catastrophic event when a Mars-sized planet collided with the Earth and formed the satellite by condensation of part of

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the volatized mantles of collided planets (Ida et al., 1997; Canup, 2004). This event definitely marked the end of the accretion of the Earth and accelerated its differentiation into mantle and core. According to several authors (Yin et al., 2002; Schoenberg et al., 2002) the cosmic collision that formed the Moon occurred soon after the collapse of the iron core to the innermost region of the Earth based on isotopic data, which place this age only 30 Ma after the origin of the Solar System. Therefore, in the light of these data, and for the general purposes of this paper we take 4,530 Ma as the older limit for the age of a differentiated and cooled Earth, and the Hadean Eon to extend from this time to an upper limit of 3,900 Ma at the end of the LHB, thus comprising about 630 Ma years of barely registered geologic history after the formation of the Earth-Moon system. The 40 Ma elapsed from the origin of the Solar System (4,570 Ma) to the beginning of the Hadean (4,530 Ma) does not properly apply to the history of the Earth as a formed planet, but it may be termed informally as the pre-Hadean time.

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II.2. Magma Ocean The existence of a deep ocean of magma in the structure of the early planets and protoplanets was established since the discovery of the anorthositic nature of the Moon’s highlands and the exposed lunar crust in deep basin of its nearside by Apollo missions (Smith et al., 1970; Wood et al., 1970), and was further substantiated by studies of meteorites and the geochemistry of igneous rocks of the Moon (e.g. Snyder et al., 1992) or in the Earth (Münker et al., 2000; Drake and Righter, 2002). The very ancient ages of lunar anorthosites (4,456 ± 40 Ma, Norman et al., 2003) finally corroborated the old age of the Moon comparable with that of the Earth, indicating that both bodies formed at the same time, as propounded by the impact origin of our unique satellite. A globally and melted mantle structure near to or reaching the planetary surfaces would have profound consequences on the nature and subsequent evolution of its outermost shells, such as silicate crusts, water oceans, atmospheres and biospheres. Indeed, the common availability of heat sources capable of partially melting substantial parts of the growing planets, such as short lived radioactive elements (mainly 26Al), greenhouse effects of a thick, reducing atmosphere, core segregation, and very large asteroid and cometary impacts, make unavoidable the early existence of deep magma oceans in the terrestrial planets, including the Moon (Matsui and Abe, 1986) and Mars (Sleep, 2000), that certainly would delay the appearance of life on Earth. Heat associated with each of those mega impact events may raise the temperature of the entire planet 3000-5000K above the melting or vapor points for most silicates and iron alloys (e.g. Tonks and Melosh, 1993), probably causing total loss of volatiles from the inner shells (Albarede, 2009), unless they were trapped in trace amounts (tens of ppm) by nominally anhydrous silicates such as perovskites, olivine, garnet and pyroxenes. The duration of such magma depends critically on the preservation of a thick atmosphere, which would be able to insulate the molten surface and preserve it for tens of millions of years (Abe, 1997); otherwise, magma oceans would cool and crystallize by radiation within a few thousand years (Sleep et al., 1989). On the other hand, the excess of siderophile elements such as platinum and palladium in the mantle of the Earth has been ascribed to an external (i.e. chondritic) source during an event called "the late veneer " that occurred after the formation of its core, rather than as a consequence of high-pressure fraccionation and preferential partitioning of

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those elements into the core at the bottom of a thick magma ocean (Holzheld, et al., 2000). Importantly, this late veneer would have been the new carrier of volatiles that our planet lost during the Moon-forming event. The transitory presence of an ocean of magma up to1,500 km deep in the early Earth or proto-Earth has been proposed (Rubie et al., 2003) to explain many of the geochemical paradoxes that characterize further evolution of our planet. In this ocean, metal and silicates fractionated, creating the ideal conditions for the separation of the reduced metallic core from its relatively oxidized silicate mantle.

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II.3. Late Heavy Bombardment After the Moon-forming event, which occurred about 4,540 Ma ago (Schoenberg et al., 2002; Jacobsen, 2003), the Hadean Eon, as defined above, ended with the peak of the LHB catastrophic impact event, whose main activity extended from 4.0 to 3.9 Ga (e.g. Cohen et al., 2000; Kring and Cohen, 2002; Cohen and Grinspoon, 2007) and was characterized by frequent impacts of bodies with diameters exceeding 440 km (Kasting, 1993). However, the beginning and termination of this epoch in the evolution of the inner Solar System is currently under debate within a time frame that extends from 4.5 to 3.5 Ga (e.g. Koeberl, 2006), including significant events occurring well into the Archean (Cohen et al., 2000; Glikson, 2001). The importance of this violent Hadean epoch resides in the dual nature of the impact events playing a destructive or constructive role for the origin and evolution of life in the terrestrial planets (e.g. Ryder, 2003). The timing of the entire process, the energy levels and its distribution across the impacted planets are crucial factors that necessarily influenced the appearance and preservation of life, with some authors that view this force as entirely negative (e.g. Sleep et al., 1989, 2001), whereas other consider the mega impacts as a blessing for the development of earliest life on Earth (Bada et al., 1994; McKay and Borucki, 1997; Abramov and Mojzsis, 2009) and specifically for the planet Mars (e.g. Segura, et al., 2002), where the necessary liquid water was probably more severely limited by the cold climatic conditions established there early in the Noachian (eon in Mars equivalent to the Hadean on Earth), and thus an extraordinary heat source was required to melt the frozen water and make life possible. For velocities of about 20 km/s the energy released by largest impacts event was of the order of 2-3 x 1028 J, namely sufficient to substantially erode the atmosphere and evaporate the entire ocean, which would require an impactor of 440 km in diameter hitting the Earth at 17 km/s (Sleep et al., 1989). Life under these conditions would hardly survive, except perhaps in its most primitive states and at specific and protected niches. Abramov and Mojzsis (2009), on the other hand, and on the basis of numerical modeling, concluded that even extreme impact events with masses up to 2x1022 kg and velocities up of 50 km/sec still would be unable to entirely sterilize life in the habitable zone (upper 3 km of the crust) of the Hadean Earth.

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II.4. Redox State of the Primitive Mantle The oxidation state of the bulk mantle was essentially fixed during the formation of the metallic core of the Earth in the presence of a magma ocean (Rubie et al., 2003). This mantle controlled the oxidation state of the early atmosphere if degassing from the interior produced it. Unfortunately, the partitioning of oxygen between silicates and metals is not well known at very high pressures (Rubie et al., 2003, 2004), and the core of the Earth may still contain up to 8% oxygen, implying a more reduced state of the primitive mantle than commonly believed. The oxidation state of the pre-biotic atmosphere is fundamental to the emergence of life, as experiments have demonstrated that complex organic molecules forming the building blocks of life can be more readily synthesized under reduced (Oparin, 1938; Urey, 1952; Miller and Urey, 1959) than in neutral atmospheres. Nonetheless, the prevalent view now is that the primitive atmosphere was neutral in composition, namely dominated by N2 and CO2 (Cleaves et al., 2008). Oxidation states of Hadean mantle are central for models advocating a primitive reduced mantle in equilibrium with an atmosphere dominated by CH4, NH3, H2S, and H2O, versus the more oxidized state of present mantle-derived volcanic gases dominated by H2O, CO2, SO2, and N2. For many years, it has been held that the primitive mantle gave birth to a methane-rich atmosphere (Catling et al., 2001), and yet at present the oxidation state of the mantle based on studies of xenoliths is rather oxidized, with mid ocean ridge basalts (MORB) showing a constant value around -0.9 log units relative to the magnetite-fayalitequartz buffer (Wood et al., 1990). In fact, the present mantle is chemically and petrologically heterogeneous resulting in an extremely wide band of oxidation states varying in the lithospheric upper mantle from log fO2 = -19 to -14 (Canil et al., 2006). Unfortunately, the oxidation state of the Hadean mantle is not well known because the geologic register for those times is almost totally missing. From a primitive reduced state of the growing Earth, the gradual loss of H by dissociation of water (Frost and McCammon, 2008), and the segregation of its core most certainly changed this bulk-reduced state towards a more oxidized one. In any case, the primitive mantle would have been less oxidized than at present because plate tectonics has been recycling the oxygen-rich post-Archean atmosphere into the mantle (Lécuyer and Ricard, 1999); yet, recent studies indicate that the oxidation state of the mantle has not changed much since the Archean (Li, et al., 2004). All considered, a neutral, rather a reduced endogenous atmosphere would be more in chemical equilibrium with a mantle of the Hadean-Paleoarchean Earth.

II.5. Primitive Lithosphere The earliest rigid outermost layer of the primitive Earth that formed after the Moon was born was probably formed by extrusive komatiite and small differentiates of plutonic tonalitetrondhjemite. The first rock-type essentially consists of olivine and glass characterized by spinifex texture (skeletal-acicular olivine or more rarely pyroxene), and a chemistry with 1830 MgO wt% derived from the large proportions of mantle melting at temperatures exceeding 1,400ºC (i.e. Kröner and Layer, 1992; Arndt, 2003), associated with a hot, primitive Earth richer in U, K and Th. Nevertheless, the oldest rocks exposed in the surface of the Earth (~80 km2) are not komatiites but tonalitic gneisses that occur in the Acasta Gneiss Complex of

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northwest Canada, where non-inherited U-Pb zircon igneous ages of 4,002 ± 4 and 4,012 ± 6 Ma (Stern et al., 1997; Bowring and Williams, 1999) represent the only known example of differentiated Hadean crust. The oldest komatiites (3.5-3.2 Ga), on the other hand, occur in the cores of Early Archean of all continents (Arndt and Nisbet, 1982), although a much more ancient but buried mafic crust probably exists in the Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt of northern Quebec, Canada (O’Neil et al., 2008). Moreover, recent studies in the Late Archean Jack Hills Conglomerate of southwestern Australia discovered detrital zircons with ages as old as 4.4 Ga (Compston and Pidgeon, 1986; Wilde et. al., 2001), with stable isotopes (Peck et al., 2001; Mojzsis et al., 2001; Cavoise et al., 2005) that suggest crystallization from granitic magmas in the presence aqueous fluids at low magmatic temperatures (4.53 Ga) Global Differentiation of the Silicate Earth. Science. 309: 576-581. Brack A. (2007). From Interstellar Amino Acids to Prebiotic Catalytic Peptides: A Review. Chem Biodiversity. 4: 665–679. Brasier, M.D., Green, O.R., Jephcoat, A.P., Kleppe, A.K., van Kranendonk, M., Lindsay, J.F., Steele, A., and Grassineau, N. (2002). Questioning the Evidence for Earth’s Oldest Fossils. Nature. 416: 76–81. Brasier, M.D., Green, O.R., Jephcoat, A.P., Kleppe, A.K., van Kranendonk, M., Lindsay, J.F., Donaldson, D.J., Tervahattu, H., Tuck, A.F., and Vaida, V. (2004). Organic Aerosols and the Origin of Life: an Hypothesis. Orig. Life Evol. Biosph. 34: 57–67. Brasier, M.D., Green, O.W., Lindsay, J.F., McLoughlin, N., Steele, A., and Stoakes, C. (2005). Critical testing of Earth's oldest putative fossil assemblage from the ~3.5 Ga Apex chert, Chinaman Creek, Western Australia. Prec.Res. 140: 55-102.Buick, R. (1992) The antiquity of oxygenic photosynthesis: evidence from stromatolites in sulfatedeficient Archean lakes. Science. 255: 74–77. Butlerow, A. (1861). Formation Synthétique d’une substance Sucree. Compt Rend Acad Sci 53: 145–147. Cady, S.L. and Noffke, N. (2009). Geobiology: Evidence for early life on Earth and the search for life on other planets. GSA Today. 19: 4-10. Cairns-Smith, A.G. (1966). The Origin of Life and the Nature of the Primitive Gene. J. Theor. Biol. 10: 53-88. Calvin, M. (1969). Chemical Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 278 pp. Canil, D., (2002). Vanadium in Peridotites, Mantle Redox and Tectonic Environments: Archean to Present. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 195: 75-90. Canil, D., Johnston, S.T., and Mihalynuk M. (2006). Mantle Redox in Cordilleran Ophiolites as a Record of Oxygen Fugacity During Partial Melting and the Lifetime of Mantle Lithosphere. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 248: 106–117. Canup, R.M. (2004). Simulations of a late lunar forming impact. Icarus 168:433–56. Castillo, S, Negron-Mendoza, A, Draganic, Z.D. and I. Draganic (1985). The Radiolysis of Aqueous Solutions of Malic Acid. Rad. Phys. Chem. 26: 437-443. Catling, D.C., Zahnle, K.J., and McKay, C.P. (2001). Biogenic Methane, Hydrogen Escape, and the Irreversible Oxidation of Early Earth. Science. 293: 839-843. Cavosie A.J., Valley, J.W., and Wilde, S.A. (2005). Magmatic δ18O in 4400–3900 Ma detrital zircons: a record of the alteration and recycling of crust in the Early Archean. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 235:663–81. Cech, T.R. and. Bas B.L. (1986). Biological Catalysis by RNA. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 55: 599629. Cerf, C. and Jorissen A. (2000). Is Amino Acid Homochirality due to Asymmetric Photolysis in Space? Space Science Reviews. 92: 603-612. Chang, S. (1982). Prebiotic Organic Matter: Possible Pathways for Synthesis in a Geological Context. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. 29: 261-280. Chang, S. (1994). The Planetary Setting of Prebiotic Evolution. In: Early Life on Earth. Nobel Symposium No. 84. (Nobel Symposium and S. Bengtson Eds.) Columbia University Press. New York. Pp. 10-23. Choppin G. and Rydberg J. (1980). Nuclear Chemistry: Theory and Applications. Pergamon, Oxford. 630 pp.

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Zaia, D.M. Thaïs, C., Zaia, V., and de Santana H. (2008). Which Amino Acids Should be Used in Prebiotic Chemistry Studies? Orig. Life Evol. Biosph. 38: 469-488.

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Chapter 2

SHIELD VOLCANOES OF SIBERIAN FLOOD BASALTS: DYNAMICS OF LAVA SHEETS FORMATION V.N. Sharapov1, A. N. Cherepanov2, V.N. Popov2, and I.F. Rakhmenkulova1 1

2

Institute of Geology and Mineralogy, Novosibirsk, Russia Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Novosibirsk, Russia

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ABSTRACT The analysis of distribution functions for effusive rock compositions in lava sheet profiles of Permian-Triassic LIP of the Siberian Platform (SP) shows that the local dynamics of volcanic processes has two types of periodicity: 1) tectonic activity cycles (within the southern border of the Khatanga rift there are 5 tectonomagmatic cycles); 2) periodical appearance of variously contaminated basic magma sources in this area. Numerical analysis for 2D model of hydrodynamics of Permian-Triassic SP flood basalts allows us to suggest that the main factors for anomalously thick lava sheets are wide feeders and intense decompression boiling of lava flows. For SP LIP fissure eruptions are typical, with a ‘fissure net’ existing over all the area of lava flows and explosions; the step of the net is about 20-40 km. Such distances between the feeders and relatively flat (moderately rugged) relief can result in ‘joining’ of lava flows and therefore in the formation of lava covers having practically constant thicknesses up to 60-100 m and extending up to 100 km. Relatively thin contact zones in the covers can be due to low heat conductivity of froths in moving heterophase media. Regressive lava vitrification near vesicles in the central parts of lava flows is because of viscosity increase of the residual liquid during its fractioning in crystallizing cells.

INTRODUCTION The largest continental LIP of the earth, Permian-Triassic traps of the Siberian Platform (SP), contains almost all types of volcanic processes and volcanic apparatus known for the subaerial and shallow-depth subaqual eruptions of basic magmas [54]. Shield trap SP volcanism is known for its specific features: exceptionally wide manifestation of explosive

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processes, the formation of muldes (volcanic troughs) and the extensive Tunguska syncline (TS) instead of lava sheets, as well as the presence of extremely thick covers of tholeiitic lavas (having homogeneous internal structure and morphology of the bodies) in practically all the parts of volcanic mulde profiles. The TS sheets are traced for hundreds of kilometers [83]. The characteristic features of these sheets are the typical ‘bubbly’ structure of their upper parts and the presence of rope lava surfaces at the upper contact with a thin quenching rim. According to recent data [54, 63], the cover profiles contain homogeneous fully crystallized rocks without vitrification. Thin flows sometimes contain bubbles along all the profile; these lavas, when solidified, usually show regressive lava vitrification in the vicinity of vesicles.

Figure 1. Distribution of structural-substance zones of Permian-Triassic SP trap formation []:1 – SP boundaries; 2 – outcrops of crystal basement rock; 3 – boundaries of Tunguska syncline; 4 – Mesozoic troughs and depressions; 5 – zone of pyroclastic trap formation rocks; 6 – diatremes of magnomagnetite deposits and breccia pipes; 7 – areas of lava flows; 8 – sills (а) and large dykes (b); 9 – volcanic muldes: 1 – Vogochansk, 2 – Norilsk, , 3 – Kharayelaksk, 4 – Ikonsk, 5 – Bolsheavamsk, 6 – Delkansk); 10 – areas of petrochemical profiles: S – sg19, L – Lama Lake, D – Dupkun Lake, M – Maymecha-Kotuy province; 10 – locations of profiles: S – sg19, L – Lama Lake, D –Dupkun Lake.

The dynamics of formation of volcanic muldes was qualitatively understood during the study of mango-magnetite ore deposits in diatremes of the Angaro-Ilim iron-ore SP province and the study of thermal conditions of basic melts intrusion into carbonate and evaporate layers of the SP platform cover and basement. It was shown [70] that basic melts intruded mainly into the horizons of dolomitized limestones, dolomites, salt-bearing deposits containing brines, oil-field waters, oils, bitumen, and coal-bearing deposits. Thermal interaction between magma and host rocks inside the intrusive chamber results in carbonate dissociation [70], salt melting and rock dissolution due to heated brines and oil-field waters [28, 48, 56, 61, 62], as well as due to melt heterogenization [48, 70]. Gas and liquid phases removal from the chamber caused the processes of local roof breakdown and the earth crust sagging above the area of the interaction between basic melts and host rocks [28, 48]. Fissure explosive eruptions occurred due to a number of faults having a ‘structural step’ of 20-40 km; between the faults tuff materials and tuffites accumulated [66, 89]. Explosive eruptions

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happened due to both the appearance of a dyke platform at the surface and gently sloping silllike bodies [54]. The distribution of structural-substance features of trap magmatism of the Permian-Triassic SP event is given in Figure 1. Table 1. gives a scheme of stratigraphic correlation for local tuff-lava units of PermianTriassic SP traps System

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Triassic

Permian

Horizon

Suite, unit

Putoransk sm sm, mm hr, nr, dl mk hn, kg2 Dvurogin mr, sk an, jr, dv, kg1 Tutoncha nd, nsk ar tk hk, pb gd sv Gagaryeo iv strivsk

Volca nic cycle

High-magnesian lavas Nor TS WE

NE

EaE

Sub-alkaline and alkaline lavas Kam Nor TS K MaymWE NE EaE a Kot m

Maym -Kot

V + +

IV

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+ +

-

+

III

II I

+

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Notes: suits: iv - Ivakinsk; sv - Syverminsk; pb - Pravoboyarsk; hk - Khakachansk; nd - Nadezhdinsk; tk – Tuklonsk; ar - Arydzhansk; mr - Morongovsk; an - Akuchansk; jr - Yupyachsk; dv Dvuroginsk; kg1 – Lower Kogotoksk; mk - Mokulaevsk ; hn - Khonnomakitsk; kg2 – Upper Kogotogsk ; hr - Kharayelaksk; nr - Nerokarsk; dl - Delkansk; sm - Samoedsk; mm – Maymechinsk; ‘+’ means the presence of rocks, ‘-’ means the absence of rocks; empty cells mean that the profile contains tholeiitic basalts.

Despite the extensive geologic, geophysical and petrogenetic data on Permian-Triassic SP traps, many aspects of their nature still remain unclear. In this work we discuss the following problems: 1) the types of distribution functions for petrogenic and trace elements and their relationships with the separated cycles of local volcanic events; 2) hydrodynamics of formation of extremely thick lava covers; 3) the nature and kinetics of regressive vitrification of residual liquids in crystallization cells of lava flows.

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1. GEOLOGIC-TECTONIC AERIALS OF PERMIAN-TRIASSIC SP TRAPS LIP of Siberian Permian-Triassic flood basalts has the following typical spatial and substantial zoning (Figure 1) [20, 24, 26, 28, 55, 59, 61-64, 66, 73, 74, 96-98]. 1. From the west and the east the area of effusive rocks is practically coextensive with the area of the Devon sea depressions. 2. Tuff-lava layers of the Tunguska syncline are bounded by the zones of variously differentiated intrusive basic bodies, denuded and grouped in the areas of arc and linear faults. 3. The area of effusive rocks has a structural-substation zoning: a tholeiitic ‘supersheet’ (the Putorana plateau is in the central part of the Tunguska syncline), local lava muldes (where lavas are more magnesian, titanium and alkaline) limiting this ‘super-sheet’ from the west, the northwest and the north. 4. Successive structural-substation zones are located at the southern part of this lava plateau: a zone of layered tuffogene rocks having various numbers of lava flows in the upper part; a more southern zone, where in shallow depressions, between the net of fissures and central volcanic structures, redeposited tuff material is located; the most southern zone composed of dyke-diatreme structure swarms having typical ring near-vent depressions. 5. A specific total petrochemical melt zoning can be distinguished in the SP LIP: from the Norilsk mulde to the Angaro-Ilim ore-bearing province the magnesian content of basic rocks decreases, while their titanous and alkaline properties increase.

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2. CYCLICITY OF EFFUSIVE PROCESSES DURING THE FORMATION OF TUFF-LAVA SP TRAPS The Permian-Triassic SP LIP along the southern border of the Yenisey-Khatanga rift is known for its most various types of volcanic structures (explosive pipes, sheets, lava flows, both simple and complex dykes, cone stratovolcanoes) and compositions of igneous rocks [54, 64, 65]. The western and eastern parts of the rift show maximum volcanism volumes, while the explosion coefficients for the discharges are minimal. These SP zones are known for their rather complex antidromal cyclicity of effusive rock compositions and their great variety of melt compositions. The data on substance compositions of effusive muldes were used to develop the schemes of cyclicity for volcanic processes. The results [54, 97] show that the troughs have the following dynamic features: 1) there is a certain succession of volcanic events, namely – the formation of tuffogene deposits, eruption of covers of greenstone basalts which change to relatively fresh basalts; 2) in volcanic suites there are geochemical variations for lava compositions. There are three types of lava profiles in this LIP [74, 96]: 1) the profiles where tholeiitic compositions change only slightly within a few successive suites (the Putorana plateau); 2) the profiles where lava compositions change periodically, from trachybasalts to picritoids; in this case there is a certain petrochemical trend, both in separate ‘magma cycles’, and as the whole, along the local effusive profile (northwestern and northern LIP parts); 3) the profile of the ‘sandwich type’, when alkaline or other rocks are included into a monotonous profile of

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low-potash tholeiitic rocks; there are also reverse profiles (the Maymecha-Kotuy ‘province’). The transitions between there zones are not clearly understood, because even in the central part of the platform (the Tunguska syncline), within the zone of large latitudinal fault, there is also the third type of the profiles [64]. In the zones of maximum manifestation of magma processes, within the muldes of the northwestern SP border, total thicknesses of lava covers and tuff horizons are about 3.5 km; within the profile of volcanogenic rocks there are 30 tuff horizons and more than 200 lava covers. These volcanogenic layers can be divided into 11 suites grouped into 5 large cycles (Table 1). Variations of suite thicknesses and compositions of basalts for the Norilsk region containing a few muldes [63, 64, 96-98] (Norilsk, Volgochansk, Kharayelakhsk, Ikonsk) are given in Table 2. It should be noted that sometimes within the suites less structural units (subsuites) are distinguished. Table 2. Stratigraphy of the tuff-lava complex for the Norilsk region Cycle V

IV III

II

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I

Suite T1sm Samoedsk T1km Kumginsk T1hr Kharayelaksk T1mk Mokulaevsk T1mr Morongovsk T1nd Nadezhdinsk T1tk Tuklonsk T1hk Khakachansk T1gd Gudchikhinsk T1sv Syverminsk P-T1iv Ivakinsk

Size, m > 600 160-210 380-620 400-690 240-700 150-530 0-220 15-260 0-250 0-195 0-330

Petrochemical and structural types of basalts tholeiitic, aphyric, porphyric tholeiitic, glomeroporphyric tholeiitic, subalkalic, porphyric, glomeroporphyric tholeiitic, aphyric, porphyric tholeiitic, subalkalic, ankaramites, aphyric tholeiitic, porphyric, glomeroporphyric, tuffs tholeiitic, picritic tuffs, tuffites, tholeiites tholeiitic, picritic, glomeroporphyric tholeiitic subalkalic, trachybasalts, trachyandesite-basalts, tuffs

Such structural scheme of SP LIP dates back to the time when the province was mapped; geologic-structural and structural-petrographic methods to study magmatogene rocks were predominant at that time [96-98]. These methods are still widely used for the last decade, when voluminous geochemical data started to accumulate [2, 9, 18, 19, 22, 23, 40-42, 53, 67, 78, 91]. The processing of this data using variation diagrams showed that the separated suites are rather inhomogeneous geochemically [24]. The time period of this LIP formation is very short for the existing methods of ‘absolute’ dating of magmatic events, so it is impossible to estimate quantitatively the duration of the formation of separate suites, as well as the time intervals between their formations [33, 34]. Moreover, there are no data on stratigraphic correlation for the suites and cycles for such distant muldes as those of the Norilsk region and the Maymecha-Kotuy province; by its structure, the latter cannot be regarded as a typical mulde [20]. The study of age succession for the intrusions of the SP cover gives much longer time intervals between separate intrusive phases [92]. Without current data on petrochemical and geochemical variations for effusive rock compositions it is difficult to understand how to separate suites and cycles and how to locate the boundaries between cycles and suites, as well as the boundaries within suits. This way to describe cyclicity allows us to distinguish only geodynamic factors and variations of heterophase fractions of lavas during magma discharge. On the other hand, the analysis of geochemical information showed that there is petrochemical cyclicity in the appearing of ‘contaminated’ and ‘non-contaminated’ basic melts of changing petrochemistry [24]. In other words, volcanic profiles change in composition in a certain repeated succession due to the

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influence of a number of physicochemical factors; the combination of these factors determines the type of variations. Therefore the successions of volcanic rocks under consideration can be regarded as periodical time series having various generators of periodicity. So it is necessary to analyze rock successions quantitatively and to find additional criteria to understand the nature of the generators of repeated variations for the eruption time series.

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3. METHODOLOGY OF THE DIGITAL ANALYSIS FOR CYCLICITY OF EFFUSIVE PROCESSES IN TIME SERIES OF VOLCANIC EVENTS This methodology appeared when petrochemical cycling of the volcano Pu’u ’Ō’ō – Küpaianaha (Hawaii) eruption was studied [76, 77, 86, 93]. Lavas for separate episodes of this continuous eruption were sampled at equal discrete time intervals for 20 years [36]. To obtain a continuous distribution function for any petrogenic or trace element we used an envelope as a uniting curve. Distribution functions for petrogenic elements can be correlated for separate events unequal in duration, only if we use a dimensionless (reduced) scale. A general distribution function for a number of successive events can be constructed using the same principle. The combination of both submarine and subaerial data for Kilauea Volcano (Hawaii) allowed us to study variation periodicity of lava compositions during the whole period of its eruption [76, 77]. We think that this approach can be also productive for numerical description of volcanic events of unknown qualitative chronological structure. Any profile of effusive rocks can be regarded as a fixed substance succession of magma events. The duration of hiatus intervals between magma events and the duration of separate episodes cannot be estimated, if we do not take into account historical or other time ‘markers’. For example, in the case of Permian-Triassic SP LIP the dispersion for separate episodes is estimated as the whole time of TC effusive rocks formation [33, 34, 67, 92]. To describe numerically effusive profiles of SP Permian-Triassic traps we regarded them as restricted time series having discontinuities (hiatus intervals) [80]. To construct this time series we should complete the following: 1) each volcanic unit (a lava flow, a tuff horizon) is represented by the weighted average of chemical composition (sample); 2) a succession of these events is constructed; 3) it is supposed that the duration of hiatus intervals between sampling points, within the succession of magma bodies under consideration, is equal (∆τ1 = ∆τ2 = ∆τ3= ∆τn = t; Σn = 1). In this case the combination of the successions of sampling points gives rise to a dimensionless (reduced) ‘continuous’ distribution function having uniform time scale (Σ∆τn/t = 1). The approach we propose allows us to correlate uniformly constructed distribution functions of volcanic profiles for different LIP parts using any measurable parameters – petrogenic and trace element contents, magnetic properties, densities, etc. If the frequency spectra of constructed distribution functions for particular parameters are cyclic, we can reveal real parameters for their periodicity. However, this method can be restricted in use, if we do not have a sufficient number of volcanic events or our data on sampling points for volcanic profiles are not complete. Therefore the most important are the data for the wells drilled in the volcanic muldes where main suites can be revealed. We studied the distribution functions of petrogenic elements for the following profiles: Kharayelaksk moulde, wells #sg9

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(n = 62); #sg19 (n = 258) (database of A.I. Al’muchamedov and A.Ya.Medvedev). The comparison of the number of samples for these two profiles shows that the second profile is more detailed than the first. For the Maymecha-Kotuy province only a ‘composite’ profile could be constructed [22, 24], n =50; for south-western part of the Tunguska syncline, eastern part of Lama Lake, n = 67 (database of Yu.R. Vasyiliev and O.N. Laguta); for the central part of the Putorana Plateau, eastern border of Dupkun Lake, n-53 (database of V.V. Ryabov and A.Ya. Shevko). It is evident that for these profiles only thick covers were sampled. For these profiles petrochemical data are more complete than geochemical: well sg19 – REE, isotopes Nd, Sr, Pb ~ 5%, other trace elements ~ 25%; well ag9 – isotopes Nd, Sr, Pb ~ 15%; the Maymecha-Kotuy province – isotopes Nd, Sr, Pb ~ 30%. Therefore the comparison of 47 petrochemical and trace elements, which contents were determined for various parts of profiles, could be obtained using a restricted number of components only for sg19: Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P, Ag, B, Ba, Be, Co, Cr, Cu, F, Li, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sn, Sr, V, Zn, Zr.

4. INITIAL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS OF PETROGENIC ELEMENTS IN SP LAVA PROFILES For our statistical data processing we used the available petrochemical and geochemical analytical data on Permian-Triassic traps [73], as well as the unique database of A.I. Al’muchammedov and A.Ya. Medvedev on TC effusive rocks and the Norilsk region; the latter has not been published yet and its main statistical parameters are given in [74]. As the existing published data on analytical study of SP traps show, only the above-mentioned profiles are suitable to estimate periodicity of volcanic events for the above-mentioned parts of SP LIP.

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Table 3. Rock groups represented in the profile of the well sg19 SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O n %

Х1 48,09 1,53 10,42 10,35 0,135 10,89 8,49 1,54 0,16 11 4,1

σ 1,1 0,23 1,3 0,45 0,02 1,4 1,2 0,07 0,07

Х2 43,4 1,44 9,41 11,8 0,18 14,48 8,67 1,11 0,34 13 5

σ 1,96 0,3 0,9 0,87 0,02 2,43 2,46 0,3 0,85

Х3 48,46 1,2 14,97 11,24 0,118 7,14 11,07 2,23 0,4 116 45

σ 0,48 0,12 0,45 0,66 0,02 0,47 0,83 0,3 0,32

Х4 46,74 1,24 15,05 11,54 0,19 7,34 11,15 2,06 0,21 56 21,7

σ 0,61 0,04 0,69 0,62 0,03 0,55 0,76 0,26 0,11

Х5 50,88 1,1 14,9 9,96 0,15 6,31 10,37 2,32 0,89 38 14,7

σ 1,07 0,02 0,7 0,56 0,02 0,55 1 0,3 0,28

Х6 50,24 1,4 14,3 10,9 0,15 6,66 7,47 3,5 1,48 27 10,5

σ 1,57 0,5 0,62 1,23 0,03 1,8 0,95 0,8 0,92

Notes: Х – average contents of petrogenic elements for separate clusters; σ – standard deviation, n – the number of samples, % - percent content in total sampling.

Consider the evolution of local magma system of Permian-Triassic SP formation from the viewpoint the change of petrogenic and trace elements in magma portions formed subsequent lava sections. The well sg19 is taken as the example of this evolution because it is the profile most studied statistically. This profile gives the results of 8 from 11 known in the Norilsk region suites located using structural-geologic and petrochemical data. The compositions of rock groups of this profile are given in Table 3.

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Take the statistical analysis of the time series of petrogenic elements of sg19, denoting there suite boundaries obtained using a combination of geologic and petrographic methods [54, 63, 96-98]. As a cyclicity criteria the following factors can be taken: 1) recurrence of both large and minimum amounts of component contents; 2) the presence of trends for maximum and minimum values in frequency sequences; 3) the trend sign change within local parts of time series. The next problem is to analyze the degree of cross-correlation for the series of petrogenic components. It is evident that we can locate any petrochemical boundaries in the lava profile only if at least two parallel series of petrogenic elements correlate to each other. In this case the importance of these separate petrogenic and trace elements for petrogenetic analysis should be taken into account. As far as petrogenesis is concerned, TiO2, MgO, K2O, and SiO2 are the most informative components for basic melts [96-98]. As to rock groups separation, petrogenesis of SP traps for the last decade is regarded through the ratios of TiO2 and Nd, Sr, Pb, Th/U isotopes, as well as the ratios Sm/Yb, La/Sm, Gd/Yb, and so on [4, 9, 18, 19, 40, 42, 53, 78]. We studied cross-correlations between distribution functions for all petrogenic elements. Our data show, that the choice of titanium as a ‘base’ component is correct, because its distribution function has meaningful crosscorrelations with all petrogenic elements for rather large positive and negative lags, excepting Na2O. Therefore the TiO2 periodicity character of lava compositions for the sg19 profile qualitatively reflects distribution functions for other petrogenic elements, which can be illustrated by Table 3. However, as Table 3 shows, not complete coincidence of main frequency bands inevitably results in mutual discordance for certain boundaries of periods and cycles, if we compare the results of cyclicity for separate distribution functions of petrogenic and trace elements. The next problem is to understand how the series of petrogenic elements are mutually correlated. It is evident that in order to locate any petrochemical boundaries within a lava profile we should correlate them for at least two series of petrogenic elements (Table 4). It is clear that the petrogenic and trace elements chosen should be informative for petrogenetic analysis. For petrogenetic analysis of basic melts the most informative components are TiO2, MgO, K2O, and SiO2 [96-98]. For the last decade the ratio of TiO2 and Nd, Sr, Pb, Th/U isotopes, as well as the ratios Nd, Sr, Pb, Th/U, etc., are thought to be suitable for separation of rock groups in petrogenesis of SP traps [24]. We studied crosscorrelations between distribution functions for all the petrogenic elements.

5. PETROCHEMICAL PERIODICITY OF LAVA PROFILES FORMATION FOR THE MULDES OF THE NORILSK REGION Our approach to choose the boundaries of separate ‘periodicity units’ for petrochemical evolution of magma system (for time sequence of events reflected in the profiles: cyclic stage, cycle, cycle period) is given below. Denote time petrogenetic cyclic stages such units of time series, where periodic changes of content values for at least one component are much greater than for the rest of the profile. Denote as petrogenetic cycles the repeated sequences of the component content changes, where there are maximum values greater than the rest for the given variation series. The periods inside the cycles are the repeated fields for content frequencies, greater than the white noise boundary.

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Table 4. Frequency bands for contents of petrogenic and trace elements in lavas of the Kharayelaksk mulde profile, well sg19 Elements/ frequencies 0,01

Si

Ti

Al

Fe

Mg

Ca

+

Na

K

P

Ag

B

+

Ba

Be

+

0,11

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

0,15

+

+

V

+

+

+ +

+

+

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

+ +

+

0,19 +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+

+

+ +

+ +

+

+

+

+

0,18

+

Zr

+

+ +

Zn

+

+ +

0,16

Sr

+

+

+ +

Sn

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

0,12

0,14

Rb

+

+

+

0,13

Pb

+

+

0,1

+

0,22

+ +

+ +

+ +

0,26

+

+

0,28 0,28

Ni

+ +

+

0,25

Li

+

0,09

0,24

F

+

0,08

0,2

Cu

+

+

0,07

0,17

Cr

+

0,03 0,04

Co

+ +

+

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Table 4. (Continued) Elements/ frequencies 0,3

Si

Ti

Al

Fe

0,32

Mg

Ca

Na

+

+

+

+

K

P

Ag

B

Ba

Be

Co

F

Li

Ni

Pb

+

Rb

Sn

+ + +

+

+

+ +

0,39 +

+

041

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

0,44

0,47

+

+

0,42

0,46

+

+

0,4

+ + +

V

+

0,38

0,43

Zr

+

0,36 0,37

Zn

+ +

+

Sr

+

+ +

+

Cu

+ +

0,33 0,35

Cr

+

0,5

otes: main frequency bands for oxide contents of petrogenic and trace elements are marked.

+

+

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Figure 2 shows the cyclicity scheme for the profile under consideration, using the results of TiO2 distribution function processing. SiO2, MgO, СаО, and K2O distribution functions give practically the same results. FeO, Al2O3, and Na2O show the coincidence to the abovementioned cyclicity, both for the stage and cycle boundaries. As to the distribution functions of petrogenic and trace elements – two cyclic stages can be located: I – Ivakinskgudchikhinsk, and II – Nadezhdinsk-kharayelaksk. Within every stage there are few cycles which can be located based on the variations of most petrogenic elements. Every cycle has the following characteristics: • • • •

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•

Within the cycles the period boundaries for FeO do not coincide for a few spatial steps with the period boundaries for SiO2, MgO, СаО, and K2O. For СаО there is a partial correlation within the cycle I; within the cycle II of the second stage the obtained period boundaries do not coincide for other components. For Na2O period boundaries are not quite coincident with the boundaries, both for the first and the second cycles. The most coincident boundaries of periodicity are found for SiO2, TiO2, MgO, and K2O. The distribution for Al2O3 shows the greatest difference (Figure 2). For this component periodicity both for the first and the second stages of volcanism is different for all other petrogenic elements.

Thus the periodicity of variations for lava compositions along the profile is, as a whole, its fundamental property. The cycle and suite boundaries located on the basis of geologic and petrographic characteristics of the profile and statistical analysis of petrochemical series for distribution contents correlate partially. According to petrochemical and geochemical data, the profiles for wells sg19 and sg9 can be divided into two substantially different cyclic stages. In this case within the Ivakinsk-gudchikhinsk stage three cycles can be located; the boundaries between the cycles are closer than the boundaries inside the suites, rather than the boundaries separated the Syverminsk and the Gudchikhinsk suites [63, 96-98]. Within the Triassic profile after the Khakachansk time (stage II) two distinctive petrochemical cycles can be located: 1) the Nadezhdinsk-morongovsk; 2) the Mokulaevsk-Kharaeylaksk. There are three periods within each cycle. The boundary of the second cycle does not coincide to the boundary of the Mokulaevsk suite; it is logically to locate this boundary in the upper part of the Morongovsk suite. The boundaries of separate periods within the cycles are close to the boundaries of some suites. It is possible that deeper statistical processing of the qualitatively studied profiles for different parts of muldes will result in closer location of geological and petrochemical boundaries So far it is clear that the study of initial and transformed distribution functions of petrogenic elements together with periodograms allows us to understand the integral scheme of magma system petrochemical evolution. At the northwestern SP part, within the borders of the Khatanga rift, there were two volcanic stages, different in the volumes of liquids and gases extracted from magma sources. During the Upper-Triassic volcanic stage the formation of volcanic muldes in the vicinity of the Khatanga rift finished with the appearance of the

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Gudchikhinsk suite. During this stage three cycles having the increase in amplitudes of petrogenic element contents in lavas can be distinguished.

Figure 2. D-1 Haar wavelet for content distribution functions of TiO2, K2O, and Al2O3 within the profile of Kharayelaksk mulde along the well sg19: S – initial distribution functions; d2 – decomposition of function S for the coefficient 2. Symbols: ▲ – geological boundaries of suites; ▼ – geological boundaries of cycles (see Table 1); ┼ – boundaries of petrochemical stages of volcanism;   – boundaries of petrochemical cycles; · – boundaries of petrochemical periods; · – boundaries of petrochemical subperiods; I, II, III, IV – sequence of geologically and petrochemically located cycles of volcanism. n – the number of observations (samples) within volcanic profile, from its basement to the base level of erosion. % – element content in the rock.

Geochemical data (Figure 3) show that during the first cycles of this stage rather inhomogeneous contaminated melts were discharging. The sequences of the forming suites show a certain periodicity of the evolution of magma compositions: final compositions of lavas within each cycle are less enriched than initial (Figure 3). During the second, Triassic stage of magmatism typical for the whole LIP territory the same evolution of magma system can be seen. During the second stage of volcanism the volumes of lava discharge increase

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(Table 2), but the above-mentioned trend in magma compositions within the cycles does not change either petrochemically, or geochemically (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Trend directions for the sequences of suites of the first (iv-sv-gd) and the second (tk-nd-mrmk-kh-sm) petrochemical stages in the coordinate system of 143Nd/114Nd – 87Sr/86Sr, and main geochemical ‘reservoirs’.

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Petrochemically this evolution is revealed in negative SiO2, Na2O, and K2O trends, positive FeO and TiO2 trends, as well as Al2O3, MgO, and CaO trends changing for separate cycles. The other muldes of the eastern border of this Rift show similar situation (Figure 4 εNd –Sr).

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Figure 4. Variations of REE contents in lavas of the first (4_а) and the second (4_b) petrochemical cycles.

The TS situation is less clear, because lower parts of lava profiles are covered with lake waters. There are only two incomplete profiles continuous in sampling: 1) the profile of the eastern part of Lama Lake (northwestern part of TS); 2) the profile of the eastern border in the eastern part of Dupkun Lake (Putorana plateau). There are various tendencies in content changes with time for these LIP areas, when average lava compositions of these profiles are close (the average contents of Al2O3 are much less, while the values of MgO, Na2O, and K2O are slightly higher in the basalts of the Dupkun Lake profile). Namely, for the Lama Lake profile all the petrogenic elements have positive trends, excepting K2O – 0,56-0,005х. For the Dupkun Lake profile the situation is contrary: negative trends are typical for all the components, excepting SiO2 and K2O, having positive trends. Frequency spectra of petrogenic elements for these profiles are different. For Lama Lake frequency values are similar for SiO2, TiO2, MgO, and K2O, both in values and in the meaning: 0.11, 0.44, 0.33, and 0.39 respectively. For the Dupkun Lake profile these values are 0.36, 0.14, 0.105, and 0.38. It is clear that in the former case average frequency variations are predominant; in the latter case – wide frequency variations. Autocorrelation study for distribution functions of petrogenic elements for these profiles also revealed some differences. For example, for variations of petrogenic elements for the Lama Lake lavas, within the ‘white noise’ field, the contents for SiO2, Al2O3, MgO, and K2O vary; positive autocorrelation for the first lag is noted for TiO2, FeO, and Na2O. For the lavas of the Dupkun Lake profile positive autocorrelation is found up to the fourth lag in TiO2 and K2O variations. More southern parts of TS trap profiles are not studied in detail. The study of the profiles using wavelet-analysis also reveals substantial differences in the character of cyclicity for lava profiles (Figure 5). For the northwestern TS part two cycles within the tholeiitic profile can be found: I – the first cycle having a negative TiO2 trend, in the lower third part of the profile; II – the second cycle in the upper part of the profile having a positive TiO2 trend. Within the first cycle two

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periods can be distinguished, while within the second – three. In the central part of the Putorana plateau the volcanic profile has two cycles including three periods in each.

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Figure 5. D-1 Haar-wavelet for distribution functions of TiO2 content in lava profiles of the MaymechaKotuy province (MKP) and Tunguska syncline for the regions of Lama Lake (L) and Dupkun Lake (D) (see Figure1). Symbols are similar to those in Figure 2.

For muldes and TS we were able to obtain only general ratios for compositions of petrogenic and trace elements within the suites-analogs [74]. Therefore all the current petrogenetic discussions concerning the nature of Permian-Triassic SP traps are confined by the above-mentioned muldes bordering TS (Figure 1). The continuous profiles of the Maymecha-Kotuy region are less detailed and representative as compared to the above-mentioned zones of effusive magmatism. Since there are no wells there, petrochemical cyclicity of volcanism can be studied only using a ‘combined’ profile of effusive rocks [22]. Three stages of volcanism can be distinguished there: I – the Pravoboyarsk stage; II – the Onkuchansk stage; III – the Maymechansk stage (Figure 5). According to our criteria they are typical petrochemical stages. It is difficult to study in detail the periodicity of this SP LIP region within the above-mentioned stages, without more detail consideration of volcanic profiles in layers. This can be seen from Table 1. The comparison of geochemical characteristics for the Kharayelaksk mulde and the Maymecha-Kotuy province according to the units from this table [63, 64] allows us to suggest that the initial substrates for melted magmas in the latter case cannot be regarded as the only rank for basic rock variations typical for the northwestern SP part. Therefore we can estimate the cyclicity of volcanic processes for the Permian-Triassic trap formation only for the northwestern and central SP parts:

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V.N. Sharapov, A. N. Cherepanov, V.N. Popov et al. 1. Petrochemical and geochemical cyclicity for lava composition changes is the fundamental feature of dynamics of evolution of magma chambers feeding fissure volcanoes. 2. Subsequent decrease of magma contamination degree is the main feature of evolution of lava compositions during the period of volcanism. 3. The character of evolutionary trend for the first and the second volcanic stages varies in the coordinates of different isotope ratios. 4. Petrochemical cyclicity inside magma system does not coincide with the time sequence of magma feeder ‘opening’.

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6. HYDRODYNAMIC CONDITIONS OF FEEDING OF FISSURE VOLCANOES FOR PERMIAN-TRIASSIC SP TRAPS DURING THE FORMATION OF ANOMALOUSLY THICK LAVA SHEETS Within the Putorana plateau sheet there is an alteration of extremely thick covers (up to ~100 m) having homogeneous microdoleritic texture, and much thinner (less than 20 m ) basalt covers having coarse-grained taxite-ophite and poikilophitic, intersertal texture; bubbly upper zones in thick covers take 10-25% of all the profile with the amount of vesicles ~ 3044%; inside the cover profiles band-like and bubbly accumulations are found. The morphology of anomalously thick covers along the borders of graben lakes in the western part of the Tunguska syncline [63, 83] shows that the geometry and the heights of igneous bodies do not change for many tens of kilometers. Such covers are similar to lava lakes of the Hawaiian Islands [86, 93]. However, the covers are much larger in sizes (tens and hundreds times as great) than the parts of empty craters filled by lava, at the surface of this lava sheet. As the results of the study of explosive structures show [54, 66], lava exploded to the platform surface both from dyke feeders, and from sloping sill-like magma bodies. The absence of the crust hummocking structures at the covers surfaces and the presence of rope lavas indicate that the melts were very fluid along all the length of the covers and lavas were bubbling intensively up to the interruption of the flows movement. We can usually observe gradual decrease in the quantity of vesicles from the roof of the sheet to its center [45]; however, in some cases inside some covers there are inhomogeneities of bubbly zones of type [54, 63], or bending zones under the upper contact of lengthened vesicles. Hydrodynamic features of shield volcanoes feeding can explain the above-mentioned phenomena; these features are different from those for the most common types of eruptions in modern and ancient zones of basic volcanism [29] or rift structures of the lava sheets (Hawaii). The hydrodynamic scheme of formation of thick covers for British Columbia cannot be used to describe SP lava covers, because their internal structure results from the dynamics of cooling, different than that for SP traps (see before). The study of lava rivers for Kilauea Volcano (Hawaii) allows us to formulate hydrodynamic conditions for basic lava flows of the pahoehoe type, where crystalline crust does not form at the upper flow contact [36]. The other feature of the formation of thick lava covers of SP traps is the spreading of gas-rich liquid of rather low contents of porphyry crystals. The absence of mantle xenoliths and fragments of crystal platform basement in lavas indicates that fissure volcanoes were fed from intermediate magma chambers located above the Achaean non-carbonate layers of the

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earth crust. Statistical study of the thicknesses and the lengths of sill-like intrusions in the SP cover and the Taymyr Peninsula [21, 73] shows that average thicknesses of such intrusions are coextensive with those of the thickest lava covers, if they extend for more than 100 km. The largest of them have thicknesses of more than 1000 m [91].Our structural-dynamical scheme of magma system for Permian-Triassic SP trap formation was constructed using that for the volcanic sheet of the Big Island of Hawaii [93] (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Model scheme of dynamics of movement and solidification of basic melt in SP trap magma system for the case of melt intrusion from feeding source, during the formation of sills (IIa) and lava flows of fissure volcanoes (II b) [21, 72]: Tl – liquidus temperature, Tr – temperature of host rocks; Plit – lithostatic pressure; Pom – initial pressure in magma source; xo – zero ordinate; fs – the content of solid phase in the melt; ξE – the boundary of magma solidification; ξf – the boundary of the appearance of the solid phase in the melt; ξ۠۟ ۟- the boundary of fluidity absence in heterophase zone; G – temperature gradient in host rocks at the contact of magma feeder; right-inclined hatching – host rocks; left-inclined hatching – erupted rocks forming when magma flow cools.

7. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE FORMATION OF ANOMALOUSLY THICK TS LAVA COVERS Setting up a hydrodynamic problem for the formation of thick lava covers can result in the following difficulties: 1) the widths of the sheets are unknown; 2) in practically all

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Permian-Triassic SP trap zones there are both monogenic and polygenic volcanic structures [28, 54, 66], but there are no cases of anomalously thick covers fed by fissure channel; 3) it is not clear how the thicknesses of the covers change with the distance from the fissure source of lava. Some information concerning possible dynamic parameters of the formation of thick covers can be obtained from the study of cover thicknesses within the eastern rift zone of Kilauea Volcano [36, 86, 93], and from the parameters of the Great Tolbachik fissure eruption [29]. The analysis of this information resulted in our hydrodynamic scheme of the formation of thick sheets, similar to the scheme of flooding of plains after breakage of dams [75, 90]. Since every geologic cycle of SP trap volcanism starts with explosions, we constructed the following qualitative scheme of the process. The fissure opening starts with the discharge of tuffs forming a rim along magma feeder. After gas discharge lava containing approximately 40% of carbon dioxide (as gas phase) erupts from the chamber [47, 70]. On the surface lava fills the ditch along the fracture zone in slag structure. Under lava pressure the slag wall breaks, lava flows down the volcanic structure slope and floods the plateau. Our mathematical model for the feeding of fissure volcanoes is given in detail in our previous publications [16, 21, 72]. Temperature estimates at the exit of fissure magma feeder are used as the lower boundary condition to solve the problem of lava spreading. Take the Cartesian coordinate system (x, z) with the z-axis located in the plane of magma feeder and directed upward from the base of the lava plateau. The positive х-axis coincides with the direction of lava flow from the feeder to the plateau slope. Here we take into account two cases, when the volume of the discharged lava is defined by the following: 1) the level of the crater filling when its roof breaks down; 2) the crater lake is fed by magma feeder, so the level of lava is constant above the low rim of the crater wall breakage. The St Venant equation describing non-stationary liquid flow in channels of open river beds is the following [82]: ∂v ∂Q + = q, ∂t ∂x

⎛ QQ Q 2 ⎞⎟ ∂Q ∂ ⎛⎜ P+ + = − gω⎜⎜ i − ∂t ∂x ⎜⎝ ω ⎟⎠ K2 ⎝

⎞ ⎟ + R, ⎟ ⎠

(7.1)

h

h

h

0

0

0

ω(x, h ) = ∫ B( x, ξ )dξ , P ( x, h ) = ∫ ( h − ξ) B ( x, ξ )dξ , R ( x, h ) = g ∫ (h − ξ )

Here

Q( x, t )

is

volume

discharge;

ω( x, z )

is

the

∂B ( x, ξ ) dξ ∂x

flow

cross-section;

h = z ( x, t ) − z 0 (x, t ) is the liquid depth; z(x, t ) , z 0 ( x, t ) are ordinates of free surfaces for flow and flow bed, taken from the horizontal plane; B( x, h ) is the width of the flow cross/ section; i ( x ) = − z 0 ( x,0) is the bottom slope (accent means x derivative); q( x, t ) is

direction influx for the length of flow bed unit; g is the gravity coefficient; R( x, y ) is the wall reaction force due to non-prismal shape of the channel or flow bed;

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79

K (x, h ) = ωC R0 is the discharge modulus; C is the Chézy coefficient; R0 is the hydraulic radius.

For a wide flow bed ( B( x, h) >> h) the equation of continuity and movement for the

system (1) can be written as the following [1, 82]:

∂h ∂ (vh) + = 0, ∂t ∂x

(7.2)

∂h ∂h v|v| ∂ (vh) ∂ (vh) + 2v + ( gh − v 2 ) = [ z 0/ ( x, t ) + ]v 2 − g ∂x ∂τ ∂x ∂x C2

(7.3)

where v ( x, t ) is the velocity of flow. The ordinate of the flow z0 ( x ) is the determined by the following:

H 0 , 0 ≤ x < L1 , ⎧ ⎪ z 0 ( x) = ⎨ H 0 − xtgα, L1 ≤ x < L2 , ⎪ 0, x > L2 , ⎩

(7.4)

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where Н0 is the height of the breakage lower border in the wall of tuff structure (arch) above the level of the lava plateau; L1 is the half-width of the crater; L2 = H 0 / sin α is the slope length. To estimate maximum parameters for lava spreading we numerically solved the equation system (1), (2) taking into account the expressions (3), (4), using the following boundary conditions: v(0, t ) = 0,

h( x,0) = h0 , 0 ≤ x ≤ L1. According to the model of formation

of flood basalts [79], the movable boundary was regarded as a slight breakage, having velocity

gh.

For numerical experiments the Chézy coefficient is a very important parameter. It is quite difficult to determine С for hydraulic problems. Most of well-known empiric formulas give unsatisfactory results if used for the conditions different from experimental. The generalized dependence is the most universal, meeting the requirements of the similarity theory and having the appropriate theoretical basis [3]:

⎛ ⎞ h ⎟ C = 20 lg⎜ ⎜ ε + 0,385ν / ghi ⎟ ⎝ ⎠

(7.5)

ν = μ / ρ is the kinematical viscosity of lava; ε = 0,143k; k is the height of surface irregularities at the volcano slope, where lava flows.

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80

For rather rugged flow bed surfaces, when ε ghi >> 0,385ν (which agrees with the conditions of the problem under consideration), the formula (5) takes the form

C = lg(h ε)

(7.6)

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For lava plateaus of the Siberian Platform, Decan or British Columbia [43, 79; 83] typical values for ε can vary within rather great interval, depending on the thickness of the flow of moving lava. For effusive SP traps ε30% tree cover (Art. 17.4b): Land spanning more than one hectare with trees higher than five metres and a canopy cover of more than 30%, or trees able to reach those thresholds in situ Canopy cover of between 10 -30% (Art.17.4c): Land spanning more than one hectare with trees higher than five metres and a canopy cover of between 10% and 30%, or trees able to reach those thresholds in situ Peatland (Art. 17.5) No definition given (of minor importance regarding savannas).

Final definitions of “highly biodiverse grasslands” are still under discussion. Most likely, the Commission will consider savannas as grassland, as demanded in Recitals No. 69 of the Horizons in Earth Science Research, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Klaus Josef Hennenberg

RED. However, though the RED names the criteria “natural species composition” and “ecological characteristics and processes” to identify highly biodiverse natural grassland and “species-richness” and “not degraded” for highly biodiverse non-natural grassland, it is still questionable, which criteria will finally be applied.

Will Requirements Regarding Land of High Biodiversity Value Protect Savannas? Especially the criteria for the protection of highly biodiverse grassland can have a significant positive effect on the protection of savannas. How strong this effect will be depends mainly on the (still open) interpretation of grassland types. Many savannas can be seen as natural vegetation formations. They often harbor natural species composition and they their ecological characteristics and processes are mostly intact though they are influenced by, e.g., anthropogenic fires and extensive livestock grassing instead of grassing by wild herbivores [10]. This interpretation would mean that many savanna areas couldn’t be used for biofuel production for the European market. However, in case of a less strict interpretation such effects will be much smaller.

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Box 2. Overview on allowed land use on protected area types according to the RED [7] Primary forest and other wooded land (Art. 17.3a): Land use completely excluded Nature protection areas (Art. 17.3b): If evidence is provided that the production of the raw material did not interfere with those nature protection purposes, biomass can come from these lands. Natural highly biodiverse grassland (Art. 17.3c (i)): Land use completely excluded. Natural highly biodiverse grassland (Art. 17.3c (ii)): Unless evidence is provided that the harvesting of the raw material is necessary to preserve its grassland status, biomass can come from these lands. Wetlands (Art. 17.4a): Biomass production is allowed, if an area is still wetland when the material is taken. Continuously forested areas >30% tree cover (Art. 17.4b): Biomass production is allowed, if an area is still considered as continuously forested areas with a tree cover >30%. Continuously forested areas 10-30% tree cover (Art.17.4c): Biomass production is allowed, if an area is still considered as continuously forested areas with a tree cover of 10-30%. Conversion to other area types is allowed in case that thresholds for greenhouse gas savings are achieved Peatland (Art. 17.5): Biomass production is allowed, if no draining of an previously undrained area occurs compared to the reference date January 2008.

The protection effect regarding primary woodlands (savannas) can be seen to be rather small, especially due to the fact that in most savannas human activity is visible. Regarding nature protection areas, the amount of legally protected areas will not increase due to the RED. However, some additional areas for the protection of rare, threatened or endangered

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271

ecosystems or species may be recognized by the Commission. Here several important savanna areas that are currently not protected may be included. In case that a savanna area is covered by one of the upper categories, the protection of such an area is rather strict. For primary woodlands and natural grasslands, no biomass production for biofuels is allowed on these areas. For the others, biomass productions must respect nature protection purposes (see Box 2).

Land of High Carbon Stock The aim of Art. 17.4 of the RED is the protection of areas with high carbon stock to avoid the emission of high amounts of GHG. Nevertheless, many savanna areas show a tree cover of 10-30% or even of more than 30% or they belong to wetlands due to regular folding.

Will Requirements Regarding Land of High Carbon Stock Protect Savannas? The protection of carbon stock does not necessary mean that a savanna is protected against conversion. For example, a wetland must stay wetland, but its species compositon mut not be considered. Similar, a forested area (>30% tree cover) can be converted to a monocultural tree plantation as long as the tree cover is still above 30%. Further more, areas with a tree cover of 10-30% can be completely converted to, e.g., sugar can plantations as long as the GHG emission reductions are achieved (Box 2). Thus, the effect on the protection of savannas due to Art. 17.4 of the RED is estimated to be rather low.

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Greenhouse Gas Savings According to Art. 17.2 of the RED, biofuel production must comply with a GHG saving of 35% in 2008 that increase up to 60% in 2018 (Box 1). The calculation rules for GHG emissions specified in Art. 19 and Annex V of the RED must consider the full live cycle including land use changes such as the conversion of savannas to sugar cane plantations.

Will Required GHG Savings Protect Savannas? The GHG-balance of biofuels is mainly influenced by the productivity of the cultivated crop (amount of energy), the amount of GHG-emissions during production and processing, and GHG-emissions in case of direct land-use change (dLUS). Greenhouse gas emissions from dLUC mainly depend on the carbon stock of an area before conversion and the carbon stock of the new cultivation system. Default values for the carbon stock of savannas (e.g., vegetation of stands with a tree cover of 10-30%) are rather low with values of about 20-45 t of carbon per hectare [11]. In case that a wet savanna is converted to a palm plantation (default carbon stock of 60 t/ha) no negative GHG-effects from dLUS occur and the production of biodiesel is likely to fulfill the required reduction of GHG-emissions. If savannas are converted for the production of bio-ethanol from sugar-cane (carbon stock of 45 t/ha), high yields of this crop are likely to compensate the GHG-emissions from dLUC, and reductions of GHG-emissions can be achieved (see [12]). In total, the required GHG-savings under the RED will have no or only week effects on the protection of savannas.

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Klaus Josef Hennenberg

SUMMARY The protection of areas of high carbon stock and the GHG emission reduction under the RED are evaluated to have rather low effects on the protection of savannas. The main reason is that savannas have a relative low carbon stock in relation to the productivity of respective biofuel crops like sugar cane. Further more, savannas can be converted towards other forested areas or wetland types without being a breach of the RED. Protection effects for savannas due to the protection of land of high biodiversity value are supposed to be much higher. However, the effectiveness of these regulations will strongly depend on the outcome of the ongoing Consultation Process regarding highly biodiverse grasslands where the European Commission will define respective criteria and geographic ranges. Another important aspect is that the RED only addresses direct effects of a single agricultural sector. Some producers of other commodities may also respect the requirements of the RED because they are not sure weather they will gain higher prices in the food, feed or fuel market. However, indirect land-use change (iLUC) effects are supposed to be of much higher relevance. This means that biomass for biofuel production may be produced on uncritical areas displacing former crops that may than be cultivated on problematic areas [13, 14]. Such iLUC effects are not jet covered by the RED and may partly reduce the effectiveness of the RED to protect savannas.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

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Warm thank to M. Bertzky, U. Fritsche and R. Herrera for their valuable contribution and comments to this chapter.

REFERENCES [1] [2]

[3] [4] [5] [6] [7]

[8]

M. Junginger, et al., Biomass and Bioenergy 32, 717-729 (2008). GBEP (Global Bio-Energy Partnership). A review of the current state of bioenergy development in G8 + 5 countries. GBEP Secretariat, Rome (2007), at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1348e/a1348e00.pdf (accessed July 2010). K. J. Hennenberg, et al., Conservation Biology 24, 412-423 (2010). R. J. Scholes and B. H. Walker, An African Savanna: Synthesis of the Nylsvley Study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1993). R. Marchant, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2, 101-108 (2010). R. P. White, S. Murray and M. Rohweder, Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems. Grassland Ecosystems. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC (2000). RED (Renewable Energy Source Directive), EU Directive on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (Directive 2009/28/EG), (2009) at http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:140:0016:0062:EN:PDF (accessed July 2010). See http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/biofuels (accessed July 2010).

Horizons in Earth Science Research, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Will European Sustainability Standards on Bioenergy be Effective … [9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

Draft Consultation paper definition highly biodiverse grasslands: http://ec.europa.eu/ energy/renewables/consultations/2010_02_08_biodiverse_grassland_en.htm (accessed July 2010). K. J. Hennenberg and I. Lübecke, Comments on Draft Consultation paper definition highly biodiverse grasslands, WWF European Policy Office and Oeko-Institut e.V. (2010) at http://panda.org/downloads/wwf_oeko_response_grasslandconsultation ___final_1.pdf assets (accessed July 2010). Commission Decision of 10 June 2010 on guidelines for the calculation of land carbon stocks for the purpose of Annex V to Directive 2009/28/EC, at http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:151:0019:0041:EN:PDF (accessed July 2010). Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU), Future Bioenergy and Sustainable Land Use, WBGU, Berlin (2009), at http://www.wbgu.de/wbgu_jg2008_en.pdf (accessed July 2010). Renewable Fuels Agency (RFA). The Gallagher Review of the indirect effects of biofuels production. RFA, St. Leonards-on-Sea, United Kingdom. (2008) T. Searchinger, et al., Science 319, 1238–1240 (2008).

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[14]

273

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INDEX # 20th century, 168

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A abatement, 216 access, 39 accounting, viii, 99, 113, 215, 217, 218 acetaldehyde, 26 acetic acid, 30 acetonitrile, 30 acid, 17, 27, 28, 30, 33, 34, 38, 58, 103, 259, 261, 263 acidic, 29, 34, 107, 108, 245, 263 acidity, viii, 99, 100, 102, 258 adenine, 22, 29, 30 adenosine, 23, 31, 34, 38 adenosine triphosphate, 23 ADP, 32, 59 adsorption, 21, 33 advancements, vii adverse conditions, 22 aerosols, 39, 58, 233, 241, 243 Africa, 3, 105, 160, 163, 167 age, 3, 4, 8, 14, 40, 42, 65, 92, 93, 157, 158, 163 aggregation, 18, 148, 152, 161, 162, 168 agricultural sector, 272 agriculture, vii, 109, 268 air showers, 12 air temperature, 161, 162 alanine, 22, 27, 28 Alaska, 158 alcohols, 21 aldehydes, 27 algae, 258 algorithm, 81, 176, 177 alkalinity, 258

alters, 163 amino, 15, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 32, 34, 35, 36, 58 amino acid, 15, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 32, 34, 35, 36 amino acids, 15, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 32, 34, 35, 36 ammonia, 9, 13, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 147 ammonium, 24, 30, 35 ancestors, 23 aqueous solutions, 22 aquifers, 39 Archean-Proterozoic, xi, 257, 262, 263, 264 arginine, 36 argon, 8 Aristotle, 148, 168, 169 aromatics, 21 Arrhenius law, 86 Asia, 95, 161, 167 aspiration, 155 assessment, 101, 216, 220, 228, 229 assets, 273 assimilation, 117 asymmetry, 35 atmosphere, vii, viii, xi, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 41, 43, 52, 57, 80, 81, 102, 103, 106, 113, 127, 130, 135, 141, 146, 148, 149, 160, 161, 233, 257, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263, 265 atmospheric pressure, 27, 248 atoms, 14, 16, 25, 35 ATP, 23, 32, 33, 38, 59 attribution, 168 authorities, xi, 267 authority, 269 automata, 130 avian, 117

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Index

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B bacteria, 40, 258, 260 barriers, viii, ix, 34, 38, 127, 128, 130, 135, 140, 141, 142, 243 base, 10, 23, 31, 68, 72, 78, 163, 174, 177, 179, 183 bending, 76, 82 beneficial effect, 20 benign, 43 beryllium, 11 bicarbonate, 103, 110, 258 Big Bang, 11 biochemistry, 42 biodiesel, 271 biodiversity, xi, 227, 267, 268, 269, 272 bioenergy, 268, 272 Bioenergy demand, xi, 267 biofuel, xi, 267, 268, 270, 271, 272 biological activity, 8, 40 biological processes, 17, 37 biological systems, 35, 37 biomass, viii, 100, 103, 104, 107, 110, 111, 112, 114, 123, 176, 193, 197, 198, 211, 267, 270, 271, 272 biomolecules, 38 biosphere, 2, 33, 40, 148 biotic, vii, 1, 2, 6, 36 birds, 108, 109, 113, 117 boils, 152 Boltzmann constant, 81, 87 bonds, 16, 23, 32, 33, 34, 261 branching, 175, 202, 209 Brazil, viii, 99, 100, 114 breakdown, 38, 62 breeding, 18, 109 building blocks, 6, 12, 25, 37 burn, 199

C calcium, 32, 103, 233, 259 calculus, 176, 178 canals, 160, 224 carbohydrate, 105 carbohydrates, 23, 25, 29, 32, 36, 258 carbon, vii, xi, 2, 10, 11, 14, 15, 20, 21, 22, 27, 28, 32, 38, 40, 78, 90, 100, 106, 115, 117, 262, 263, 264, 265, 267, 268, 269, 271, 272, 273 carbon atoms, 38 carbon dioxide, 10, 15, 22, 78, 90 carbon monoxide, 10, 27 carbonaceous chondrites, 19, 21 carboxylic acid, 21

carboxylic acids, 21 carnivores, 268 cash, 164 cash flow, 164 casting, 93 catalysis, 24, 33, 34 catalyst, 29 catalytic activity, 33 catalytic system, 38 catchments, 118, 237, 243 cation, 115 cattle, viii, 99, 101, 106, 113 CEC, 118, 120 celestial bodies, ix, 145, 146, 147, 158, 168 cell division, 41 ceramic, 92 challenges, 37 chemical, viii, x, xi, 2, 6, 7, 9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 47, 58, 59, 66, 96, 99, 100, 151, 152, 163, 210, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 238, 241, 243, 248, 257, 258, 263 chemical properties, 26, 238, 248 chemical reactions, 9, 14, 16, 17, 24, 34, 35, 40, 210 chemicals, 37, 39, 47 Chicago, 25 chiral molecules, 36 chirality, 29, 35 chlorine, 243 cholesterol, 38 chondrites, 13, 21 circularly polarized light, 28 circulation, 10, 150, 162, 263 civilization, 228 clarity, 225 classification, 152, 159, 234 cleavage, 152, 158 climate, ix, 43, 100, 101, 112, 145, 149, 157, 162, 163, 234 climates, 160, 174 clusters, 67 CO2, 6, 9, 12, 19, 28, 34, 51, 55, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263 coal, 62 codominant, 177 collisions, 8, 19, 255 Colombia, viii, 99, 100, 108 color, 133, 152 combustion, 101 commercial, x, 213 common rule, 151 common sense, 156

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Index communities, x, 113, 173, 176, 177 community, 175, 178, 188, 198, 211 compaction, 254 competition, 174, 175, 178, 186, 189, 194, 198, 211, 212 competitive advantage, 198 complement, 32 complexity, 2, 14, 37, 41, 42, 203 compliance, 169 composites, 84 composition, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 23, 28, 34, 39, 65, 66, 76, 85, 86, 87, 89, 96, 100, 101, 107, 110, 114, 117, 167, 215, 221, 223, 241, 269, 270 compounds, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 36, 41, 47, 105, 106, 107, 113, 155, 156, 260, 263 comprehension, 36 computation, 82 computer, vii, 143, 175, 209, 211 conceptual model, 233 concordance, 104 condensation, 3, 24, 25, 29, 32, 34, 156, 263 conduction, 211 conductivity, 83, 130, 135, 162, 191, 200, 201, 232 conductor, 152 configuration, 29, 36 consensus, 12, 148 conservation, 129, 210, 211 constituents, 37, 41 construction, 107, 214 consumers, 108 consumption, 108, 216, 220, 261 contaminated basic magma, vii, 61 contamination, 41, 76, 89, 90 Continental, 55, 59, 96, 167 contour, 242 controversial, 8, 40 convention, 35 convergence, 106 conviction, 36 cooling, vii, viii, ix, 1, 13, 76, 80, 82, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 92, 93, 127, 128, 130, 141, 143, 162, 163, 166 cooperation, 147, 245 coordination, 38 copper, 116 correlation, xi, 63, 65, 68, 71, 232, 240, 247, 250 correlations, 68 cosmic rays, 11, 259, 262 cosmos, 149 cost, 214 covering, 131, 235 cracks, 128, 254 creep, 157, 164, 165, 168, 170

critical analysis, ix, 2, 146, 148, 168 critical value, 89 crop, 101, 104, 271 crops, xii, 111, 115, 267, 272 crown, 175, 209, 234, 237, 244 crowns, 234 crust, viii, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 13, 16, 40, 45, 55, 62, 76, 82, 83, 89, 90, 92, 94, 95, 127, 129, 130, 147, 152, 158, 167, 168, 265 crystal growth, 85 crystal structure, 84, 158 crystalline, 76, 89, 103, 153, 254 crystallites, 85 crystallization, vii, ix, 1, 7, 18, 58, 63, 83, 84, 85, 87, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 127, 150, 152, 161, 166 crystallization kinetics, 89 crystals, 33, 35, 76, 84, 85, 90, 152, 166 cultivation, 271 cumulative distribution function, 189 current prices, 222 curriculum, 149 cyanamide, 31 cyanide, 27, 30 cycles, vii, 38, 61, 63, 64, 65, 68, 71, 72, 73, 74, 101, 104, 115 cycling, viii, 66, 99, 100, 101, 105, 106, 108, 109, 112, 113, 114, 116, 124, 125, 175, 211 cytoplasm, 41 cytosine, 22, 26, 29, 30, 31

D damages, viii, 127, 128 Darwinian evolution, 14 data processing, 67, 91 data set, 196 database, 67, 142, 143, 176 death rate, x, 173 decay, xi, 8, 10, 90, 249, 250, 257, 259 decomposition, 16, 22, 72, 104, 105, 112, 114 deformation, 7, 131, 142, 144, 164, 170, 248, 254 degradation, 22, 23, 34, 41, 42, 162, 215, 216, 223 dehydration, 24, 32, 38 Delta, 245 deoxyribonucleic acid, 23 deoxyribose, 23, 29 deposition, 40, 41, 102, 108, 233, 243, 245 deposits, 39, 41, 62, 64, 90, 93, 94, 95, 96, 101, 260 depression, 106 depth, 12, 17, 61, 78, 82, 90, 91, 103, 106, 110, 113, 131, 148, 162, 187, 190 derivatives, 23 destruction, vii, 1, 216

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278

Index

detectable, 103 detection, xi, 18, 27, 39, 247, 248, 249, 253 developing countries, 214 deviation, 187, 201 diffusion, 255 digestion, 103 dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine, 38 disaster, 141 discharges, 17, 19, 23, 27, 28, 30, 64, 91 discontinuity, 15 discordance, 68 discrimination, 35 disequilibrium, x, 213, 220, 222 dislocation, 85 dispersion, 66, 101, 108, 205, 216 displacement, xii, 95, 267 dissociation, 6, 62, 90, 258, 263 distribution, vii, x, 5, 33, 41, 61, 63, 66, 68, 71, 72, 74, 75, 85, 94, 100, 112, 115, 130, 147, 148, 162, 173, 176, 177, 178, 179, 187, 188, 196, 197, 204, 237, 239, 242, 252 distribution function, vii, 61, 63, 66, 68, 71, 72, 74, 75 diversity, 24, 117 DNA, 15, 23, 29, 32, 37, 42, 50 DOI, 143 dominance, viii, 12, 100, 103, 114, 268 double helix, 33 drainage, 101, 102, 107, 108, 109, 113, 224 drug release, 215 drying, 24, 249 durability, 165 dykes, 62, 64, 84, 89, 91, 95

E earthquakes, xi, 247, 248, 254 earthworms, 105, 112 ecology, 117, 169, 210, 211 economics, vii ecosystem, viii, 100, 103, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 116, 117, 174, 176, 197, 199, 215, 227, 233, 268 editors, 44, 46, 55 education, 149 efficiency of use, 186 effluent, 39 effusion, 82, 132, 141, 142 election, 36 electrical conductivity, 232, 242 electricity, 152, 214, 216, 221, 222 electron, 28 electrons, 11

e-mail, 145 emergency, 141, 179, 194, 215 emergency relief, 215 emission, xi, 13, 21, 82, 236, 247, 248, 250, 254, 255, 268, 269, 271, 272 emitters, 18 enantiomers, 35, 36 encapsulation, 38 energy, x, 5, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 32, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 54, 100, 117, 129, 141, 209, 213, 214, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 225, 227, 228, 258, 261, 267, 268, 271, 272, 273 energy input, 17, 32, 36 engineering, vii, 171, 176, 215 England, 245 enlargement, 84 entropy, 216 environment, vii, ix, 1, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 23, 24, 27, 30, 37, 38, 39, 42, 59, 108, 115, 128, 145, 150, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 162, 165, 168, 169, 170, 221, 228, 234, 246, 261, 265 environmental change, 38 environmental conditions, viii, 22, 23, 99, 100, 180, 188, 248 enzyme, 38, 39 enzymes, 39, 105 equilibrium, 6, 14, 19, 26, 58, 84, 91, 215, 222, 249 erosion, viii, 7, 72, 99, 107, 113, 210, 211 ethanol, 271 EU, xi, 267, 268, 272 Europe, 115, 214 European Commission, 268, 272 European market, 270 European Parliament, 268 evacuation, 141 evaporation, x, 13, 41, 156, 173, 174, 177, 190, 191, 192, 199, 200 evidence, 8, 13, 14, 15, 29, 39, 40, 42, 45, 55, 94, 171, 258, 269, 270 evolution, vii, 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 29, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 46, 47, 48, 51, 67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 76, 84, 90, 95, 155, 178, 179, 195, 196, 227 excitation, 28, 90 exclusion, 212 experimental condition, 25 exploitation, 211 explosive activities, 90 explosives, 128 exporter, viii, 100, 106, 113 exposure, xi, 171, 247, 248 extraction, 106, 113, 119, 120

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Index extracts, 103 extrusion, 94

fusion, 135

G

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F faint young sun paradox, vii, 1, 2 farms, viii, 116, 127 fatty acids, 23, 25, 33 fertility, 104, 110, 116 fertilization, 100 fertilizers, 101, 104, 111 films, 28 filters, 233 financial, 209, 228 financial support, 228 Finland, 118 fires, viii, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 113, 199, 232, 270 fission, 39 fixation, 15, 40 flame, 236 flank, 132, 134, 141, 142 flooding, 24, 78, 84, 90, 107, 111, 112, 161, 199 floods, 78, 107, 108 flour, 214 flowers, 177 fluid, 59, 76, 84, 92, 130, 164 flux diagram, 176 food, xi, 108, 215, 258, 267, 268, 272 food industry, 215 food security, xi, 267 force, 5, 38, 78, 129, 148, 164, 258 forest ecosystem, 115, 232 formaldehyde, 24, 25, 29, 31 formamide, 28 formation, vii, viii, 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 22, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, 41, 42, 50, 51, 56, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 71, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 84, 87, 89, 90, 93, 94, 95, 97, 150, 159, 165, 166, 193, 223, 258, 259, 260, 262, 263 formula, 80, 87, 151 fossils, 2, 39, 40, 42 fractures, 95 fragments, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 76 France, 256 free energy, 2, 16, 23, 221 freezing, 9, 30, 41, 150, 152, 156, 158, 159, 161, 162, 166 freshwater, 148, 166 friction, 20, 91 frost, 150, 155, 157, 162, 165 functional analysis, 203 funding, 245

Galileo, 169 gamma rays, 259 gel, 259, 260, 263, 265 genetic code, 37, 49 genetic information, 23, 32 genetics, 15 genomics, 37 geography, ix, 141, 145, 149, 171 geology, ix, 89, 95, 96, 97, 145, 150, 170 geometry, 76, 164, 183 Germany, 210, 233, 267 Gibbs energy, 223 global scale, 100, 161 glutamic acid, 27, 32 glycine, 22, 27, 28, 30, 34 grain size, xi, 247, 248, 252 grants, 43 graph, 154, 188, 192, 194, 198, 204, 206, 207, 253 graphite, 263 grass, viii, 100, 101, 108, 112, 114, 116, 174, 177, 196, 209, 210, 211, 212 grasses, x, 100, 101, 108, 110, 111, 114, 173, 174, 176, 177, 188, 198, 199, 211, 212, 268 grasslands, xii, 267, 268, 269, 271, 272, 273 gravitation, 161 gravitational force, 222 gravity, 78, 164 grazing, 117, 123, 209, 210 Greeks, 150 green alga, xi, 257, 258, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265 greenhouse, xii, 4, 9, 55, 111, 267, 268, 269, 270 greenhouse gases, 9 grids, 81, 91, 199 groundwater, x, 102, 149, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 238, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 246 groundwater recharge, x, 231, 232, 233, 238, 243, 246 growth, 2, 38, 85, 89, 93, 100, 101, 174, 175, 177, 179, 180, 189, 198, 199, 203, 211, 212, 249, 254, 258 growth dynamics, 93 GSA, 45, 49, 93 guanine, 22, 29, 30 guidelines, 273 Guinea, 161

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H habitat, 117 habitats, 39 half-life, 18, 22 halogen, 245 harbors, viii, 127, 268 hardness, 152, 158 hardwood forest, 245 harvesting, 269, 270 Hawaii, 66, 76, 96, 97, 128 hazards, 142 heat capacity, 83 heat conductivity, viii, 61, 81, 82, 83, 128 heat loss, 82, 91 heat release, 83 heat transfer, 80, 92, 130 heavy metals, 107 height, 79, 91, 108, 128, 135, 148, 183, 184, 203, 219, 221, 222 helium, 10, 11 hemisphere, 159, 160, 161, 163 highlands, 4 histidine, 28, 36 history, vii, 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 16, 36, 43, 58, 59, 169, 209, 228 host, 62, 77, 80, 81, 83, 90, 92, 95, 234 hot spots, 259 hot springs, 16 House, 51 human, ix, 100, 128, 145, 220, 227, 269, 270 human activity, 269, 270 humidity, viii, xi, 100, 105, 113, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 199, 201, 247, 248 humus, 107 hydrocarbons, 28, 40 hydroelectric power, 224 hydroelectricity potential, x, 213 hydrogen, 10, 13, 14, 15, 24, 25, 31, 151, 152, 156, 265 hydrogen cyanide, 31 hydrolysis, 17, 23, 27, 30 hydrosphere, ix, 2, 12, 17, 19, 34, 41, 145, 146, 148, 149, 153, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 161, 163, 167, 168, 169, 171 hydrothermal activity, 17 hydrothermal process, 40 hydrothermal system, 17, 34, 35, 41 hypothesis, 15, 19, 24, 39, 84, 223, 224

I Iceland, 128, 143 ideal, 5, 15, 24, 235 image, 35 images, 35 immobilization, viii, 100, 104, 105, 107, 114 impurities, 260 incidence, 18 income, 100 indirect effect, 273 individuals, x, 173, 176, 179, 187, 194 industrial revolution, 267 inferences, 94 ingredients, 7, 23, 42, 158, 164 initiation, 15, 160 injections, 129 injury, 128 interface, 34 interference, 211, 235 intermediaries, 30 internal field, 10 Internal structure, 170 internode, 184 interstellar dust, 20, 28 intervention, 269 intrusions, 65, 77, 92, 94 ionizing radiation, 23, 25 ions, 9, 11, 31, 39, 241, 245, 259, 263 iron, viii, xi, 4, 17, 21, 40, 52, 62, 90, 93, 94, 99, 100, 102, 111, 257, 258, 259, 260, 263 irradiation, 22, 27, 31 irrigation, 214, 224 Islam, 17, 19, 50 islands, 167, 259 isoleucine, 22 isomers, 27, 31, 36 isotope, 40, 57, 76, 92 issues, 164, 224 Italy, v, x, 128, 231, 232, 233, 248, 249 iteration, 178 Ivory Coast, 105

J Japan, 127, 128, 131, 143 joints, 95, 128

K K+, 263 Kenya, 161, 163

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Index kerogen, 40 kinetics, 10, 63, 84 kryosphere, ix, 145, 146, 148, 150, 155, 157, 158, 163, 169, 171

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L laboratory studies, 255 lactic acid, 22 lakes, 10, 13, 19, 24, 45, 76, 90, 97, 149, 152, 260 laminar, 164 landscape, 101, 106, 108, 110, 209 landscapes, 39, 82, 101, 210 languages, 155, 165 late heavy bombardment, vii, 1, 10, 43 late heavy bombardment (LHB), vii, 1 Lava flow, viii, 127, 128, 131, 132, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 143 leaching, 103, 106, 107, 109, 233 lead, viii, 7, 8, 14, 33, 36, 43, 99, 100, 141, 164, 238, 262 leakage, 191, 192, 200 leucine, 22 LHB, vii, 1, 3, 4, 5, 13, 20, 21 lifetime, 19 light, xi, xii, 4, 18, 24, 27, 28, 31, 35, 39, 58, 168, 228, 257, 259, 261, 267 linear function, 84 linear programming, vii lipids, 33, 38 liposomes, 38 liquid chromatography, 27 liquid phase, 62, 87, 89, 152, 156 liquidity, 135 liquids, 63, 71, 84, 90, 94, 96, 164, 166, 168, 211 lithium, 11 livestock, 270 local conditions, 34 Louisiana, 257 low temperatures, 21 luminosity, 10, 34, 55 lung cancer, xi, 247, 248 lysine, 36 lysis, 105

M machinery, 23, 35 macromolecules, 42 magazines, 147 magnesium, 31, 259 magnet, 10

281

magnetic field, 10, 11, 16 magnetic properties, 66 magnetosphere, 10 magnitude, x, 12, 22, 38, 203, 213, 220, 225 major issues, ix, 145 majority, 14, 19, 20, 152, 267 Malaysia, 167 man, 2, 156, 157 management, viii, 99, 100, 101, 114, 210, 211, 233, 244 mantle, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14, 16, 52, 76, 89, 90, 92, 94, 95, 167, 259 Mars, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, 44, 53, 56, 57, 146, 147, 170, 257, 259, 263, 264 mass, 3, 10, 97, 129, 149, 157, 159, 165, 187, 215, 221, 224, 233, 243, 246, 249, 250, 252 mass loss, 157 materials, xi, 21, 24, 28, 35, 62, 92, 105, 109, 130, 155, 164, 215, 247, 248, 252, 256, 268 materials science, 215 mathematics, vii matrix, ix, 37, 103, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 208 matter, 2, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 24, 40, 101, 103, 104, 105, 152, 158, 165, 168, 215, 217, 218, 222 measurement, 198, 222, 236, 249 measurements, 103, 104, 149, 158, 185, 194, 220, 249, 250 media, viii, 61, 141 Mediterranean, 233, 234 melt, 2, 5, 46, 62, 64, 77, 80, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 93, 95, 129 melting, ix, 4, 6, 10, 62, 85, 90, 93, 127, 130, 141, 157, 161, 166, 259 melting temperature, 85 melts, 62, 65, 68, 72, 76, 82, 84, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 143, 157, 163, 259 membranes, 23, 38 mercury, 157 metabolism, 15, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 49 metals, 6, 93, 118, 164 metamorphosis, 159 meteorites, 2, 3, 4, 12, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 28, 36, 58 meter, 128, 198 methodology, x, 66, 94, 146, 213, 220, 224 Mexico, 1, 54 microbial communities, 40 microbiota, 106 micronutrients, 107 microorganisms, 40, 41, 103, 105, 106, 258 microstructures, 41

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migration, 108, 142 mineralization, 59, 103, 105, 106, 112, 116, 158 Ministry of Education, 209, 228 missions, 2, 4 mixing, 12, 221 model system, 89 modelling, 186 models, vii, ix, 1, 2, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15, 19, 36, 38, 46, 128, 164, 173, 174, 175, 176, 179, 180, 199, 211 modern science, 2 modules, 183, 184 modulus, 79, 85 moisture, x, 151, 173, 174, 176, 177, 188, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 198, 200, 201, 210, 248 moisture content, 190 mole, 261 molecular structure, 22 molecular weight, 18, 32 molecules, vii, 1, 2, 6, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 52, 87, 255, 262, 263 momentum, 129 monomers, 22, 33, 36, 42 Moon, vii, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 13, 48, 49, 58, 59, 171 morphology, x, 40, 62, 76, 173, 176, 178, 201, 203 mortality, 175, 177, 193, 194, 199, 211 mortality rate, 193, 194, 199 Moscow, 92, 96 mucus, 105 multiplication, 168 muons, 12

N Na+, 263 native species, 111, 211, 269 natural habitats, 268 natural resources, 216 natural selection, 37, 38, 51 Nd, 3, 67, 68, 94 Netherlands, 59 neutral, vii, 1, 6, 9, 13, 14, 19, 22, 28, 29, 43 neutrons, 18 nicotinamide, 23 nitrogen, 10, 14, 22, 27, 30, 32, 116, 233, 262, 265 nitrogen dioxide, 262 North America, 167, 170, 245 nucleation, 96, 170 nuclei, 11, 87, 249 nucleic acid, 22, 23, 24, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38 nucleons, 12 nucleotides, 20, 31, 33 nucleus, 87

nuclides, xi, 257 null, x, 42, 198, 213, 219, 221, 227 nutrient, viii, 38, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 114, 117, 245 nutrient concentrations, 102 nutrients, viii, 2, 99, 100, 103, 105, 106, 107, 109, 116, 174, 222, 233, 245 nutrition, 105

O oceans, 2, 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 41, 147, 148, 149, 161, 167, 171, 221, 227, 259, 262, 263 OH, 260 oil, 62, 90, 96, 268 old age, 4 oligomerization, 17, 34 oligomers, 15, 22, 32, 33 operating costs, 214 operations, vii, 143 operations research, vii optical activity, 25, 35, 37 orbit, 11, 12 ores, 90, 260 organ, 104 organic compounds, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 34, 35, 36, 41 organic matter, 9, 12, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 40, 42, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 117, 122, 211, 217, 218, 221, 223, 229, 265 organism, 23, 32, 35, 37, 38, 39 oscillation, 87 osmosis, 215, 217, 227, 228 osmotic pressure, 215 overlap, 150, 188 oxidation, 6, 9, 59, 260 oxygen, xi, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 28, 56, 151, 152, 156, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265 ozone, xi, 257, 261

P palladium, 4 parallel, 68, 219, 233, 268 pasture, 111, 117 pastures, viii, 99, 100, 101, 174 pathways, xi, 9, 14, 25, 30, 37, 42, 238, 267 peptide, 17, 29, 32, 33, 34 peptides, 33, 39 percolation, 109, 177, 190, 200 periodicity, vii, 61, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 75

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Index permeability, 38, 103 permeable membrane, 215 Permian-Triassic SP flood basalts, vii, 61 permission, 224 permit, 105 Peru, 161 pH, 22, 24, 25, 31, 56, 105, 107, 118, 120 phase transformation, 156, 161, 166 phenylalanine, 28 phosphate, viii, 31, 32, 33, 99, 100, 107, 109, 111, 113, 116 phosphates, 29, 32, 103 phospholipids, 23, 38 phosphorus, viii, 99, 100, 103, 105, 106, 107, 109, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 119, 122, 124, 125 phosphorylation, 31 photolysis, 13, 16, 27, 30 photometric measurement, 236 photons, 22 photosynthesis, 45, 193, 199, 257, 262, 263, 265 physical features, 157 physical mechanisms, xi, 247 physical phenomena, 128 physical properties, 152, 162, 163 physicochemical properties, 167 physics, 149, 169 Physiological, 210 pigmentation, 41 planets, ix, 2, 4, 5, 8, 13, 18, 21, 45, 58, 93, 145, 146, 147, 168 plant growth, 104, 106, 174, 183, 199 plants, x, 104, 105, 106, 111, 113, 149, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 208, 211, 212, 216, 218, 226, 227, 232, 236, 237, 238, 243, 268 plastic deformation, 164 plasticity, 164, 165, 166, 168, 171 platform, 33, 62, 65, 76, 89, 90, 95, 96 platinum, 4 playing, 5 Pliocene, 235 PNA, 33, 47 Poland, 145 polar, 12, 158, 166, 169 polarity, 11 polarization, 23 policy, 233 pollinators, 268 pollutants, 245 pollution, 246 polonium, 249 polymer, 36

polymerization, 16, 27, 30, 32, 42 polymerization process, 42 polymerization processes, 42 polymers, 17, 22, 23, 24, 32, 34, 38, 42 polyphosphates, 31 ponds, 16 pools, 19, 43, 107, 142 population, x, 21, 41, 173, 176, 179, 207, 212, 224 porosity, 200, 248, 249, 254 porous materials, 151 porous media, 175, 209, 211 porphyrins, 23 positive correlation, 250 power generation, 214, 215 pre-biotic molecules, vii, 1, 2 precipitation, viii, x, 41, 100, 101, 102, 104, 106, 107, 108, 113, 117, 173, 176, 177, 189, 190, 200, 222, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 248 preparation, 41 preservation, vii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 42 probability, 42, 82, 179, 180, 200, 202, 244, 250, 252 producers, 272 profit, 226, 263 project, 143, 184, 228, 232, 233, 245 prokaryotes, 39, 40, 258 protected areas, 270 protection, xi, 11, 12, 22, 23, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272 protective role, 34 proteins, 15, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 32, 37, 38 proteomics, 37 protons, 11, 18, 38 public health, 256 PUMA, 51 pure water, 223 purines, 15, 25, 30, 31 pyrimidine, 22, 31, 32 pyrite, 260, 261 pyrolysis, 28

Q quartz, 6, 7, 47, 150 quasi-equilibrium, 82

R race, 27, 28, 29, 35 radiation, 4, 10, 11, 13, 16, 18, 22, 24, 27, 41, 47, 162 Radiation, 16, 18, 47, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 246

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radio, 169 radium, 248 radius, 11, 79 radon, xi, 247, 248, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254, 255 Radon gas, xi, 247, 248 rainfall, x, 100, 102, 108, 159, 175, 177, 189, 190, 192, 200, 210, 212, 224, 231, 233, 235, 245 rangeland, 209 raw materials, 36 reactants, 9, 26, 30, 34 reactions, 15, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 263 reactivity, viii, 99, 100 reading, 264 reagents, 20, 21, 36 real time, 91, 142 realism, 228 reality, 155, 168 reasoning, 151, 181, 201 recalling, 187 recession, 160 recombination, 27, 252 reconstruction, 2 recovery, viii, 127 recreation, 23 recurrence, 68 recycling, 6, 7, 45, 112 regulations, xii, 267, 272 rejection, 148 relevance, 32, 39, 224, 243, 272 reliability, 176 relief, viii, 61, 84, 90, 147 renewable energy, 268 repetitions, 250, 252 replication, 15, 32, 33, 36, 39, 42 requirements, viii, 79, 100, 105, 111, 114, 115, 162, 203, 208, 272 researchers, 3, 9, 24 reserves, 110 residuals, 218, 220, 226 residues, 226 resilience, 233 resistance, 80, 82 resolution, xi, 175, 247, 254 resource availability, 212 resources, 148, 149, 215, 216, 220, 227, 228, 232 respiration, 38 response, 111, 142, 210, 254, 273 restoration, 217 rheology, 93, 96 ribonucleic acid, 23 ribose, 22, 29, 31, 33 ribozymes, 33, 37

rings, 12 risk, 233, 268 risks, xi, 267, 268 RNA, 15, 19, 22, 23, 29, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38, 39, 42, 45, 48, 50, 51, 52, 54, 56 root, 110, 186, 187, 197, 199, 200, 203, 245, 250 roots, 176, 178, 186, 188, 199 rotation axis, 11 routes, 27 Royal Society, 50, 170, 171 rules, 271 runoff, 107, 175, 210, 211, 212 Russia, 61, 92, 93, 94, 95, 155

S salinity, 161, 166, 242 salts, x, 18, 152, 156, 218, 221, 223, 225, 231, 243 saltwater, 148, 235 samplings, 240 saturation, 190, 191 SAVANAGUA, ix, x, 173, 175, 176, 178, 180, 196, 197, 198, 199 savannas, viii, xi, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, 122, 175, 209, 211, 212, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272 savings, 269, 270, 271 schema, 217 science, vii, ix, 2, 14, 37, 145, 148, 155, 156, 164, 168, 169 scientific investigations, 169 scope, 146, 147, 224 sea level, 12, 101, 222, 235 seasonal changes, 190 seasonal flu, 169 seasonal growth, 211 seasonality, viii, 99, 100, 107 security, 214, 268 sediment, 157, 161 sedimentation, 107, 159, 161 sediments, 7, 9, 19, 23, 102, 109 seedlings, 233 segregation, 4, 6 self-sufficiency, 226 services, 268 shade, 199 shape, 78, 85, 194, 224, 242 shear, 164 shock, 17, 23, 28 shock waves, 17, 28 shoot, 184, 185, 186, 188, 193, 194, 199, 200, 202, 212

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Index shoots, x, 174, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 188, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203 shoreline, 24, 236, 243, 244 showing, 6, 107, 110, 176, 188, 198, 244, 264 shrubs, 174 Siberia, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 158, 162 Siberian Platform (SP), vii, 61 signals, 40 signs, 39 silica, 7, 35, 258, 259, 260, 263, 265 silicon, 167, 248, 252, 255 simulation, 17, 22, 34, 36, 128, 129, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 175, 192, 210, 211, 220 simulations, ix, 23, 35, 37, 52, 127, 128, 132, 142, 143 single chain, 260 SiO2, 67, 68, 71, 73, 74, 82, 258, 260 skeleton, 161 slag, 78, 95 smoking, xi, 247, 248 sodium, x, 35, 103, 231, 232, 233, 236, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244 sodium hydroxide, 103 software, 82, 83, 220 soil erosion, 210 soil type, 108, 110, 199 solar system, 13, 147 solid phase, 77, 84, 85, 86, 88, 90, 156 solid state, 150, 161, 168, 169, 249 solid surfaces, 93 solidification, 77, 80, 84, 89, 91, 93, 97, 128, 135, 141, 143, 152, 156, 165, 166 solution, 2, 17, 22, 27, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 81, 82, 91, 95, 103, 111, 141, 166, 194 sorption, 34, 105, 109, 111, 117 South Africa, 8, 59, 258 South America, 100, 117, 161, 167 sowing, 233 Spain, 173, 213, 224, 229, 246 specialists, 33, 146, 245 specialization, 168 speciation, 59 species, viii, 7, 8, 18, 19, 34, 100, 101, 102, 107, 108, 111, 112, 114, 117, 174, 177, 178, 179, 180, 185, 186, 187, 188, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 209, 211, 212, 269, 270, 271 specific gravity, 152 specific heat, 152, 221 spectroscopy, xi, 247, 248 spelling, 155 Spring, 48

stability, 19, 22, 23, 32, 33, 34, 36, 39, 52, 92, 171, 233 standard deviation, 67, 250, 255 state, ix, x, xi, 6, 7, 9, 13, 14, 18, 21, 22, 34, 59, 85, 89, 91, 117, 145, 148, 149, 151, 154, 156, 158, 161, 162, 163, 164, 168, 170, 213, 215, 217, 219, 220, 221, 223, 225, 226, 247, 248, 252, 255, 263, 272 states, 5, 6, 8, 10, 52, 152, 158, 223, 227 statistical processing, 71 steel, 249 stemflow, x, 231, 232, 233, 236, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246 sterile, 12 sterols, 33 stochastic model, 212 stomata, 192, 193, 200 storage, 23, 33, 37, 104, 105, 111, 132, 268 stress, 95, 110, 164, 209, 210, 212, 233, 243 stromatolites, xi, 40, 42, 45, 49, 257, 258, 262, 263 structure, ix, xi, 4, 7, 10, 12, 26, 33, 35, 37, 62, 64, 65, 66, 76, 78, 79, 94, 100, 101, 152, 155, 159, 160, 173, 174, 176, 178, 183, 184, 185, 187, 199, 203, 231, 233, 234, 235, 237, 240, 241, 244 style, 254 subgroups, 260 substrates, 41, 75, 90 succession, 40, 64, 65, 66, 209 sulfate, 45 sulfur, 10, 14, 40 Sun, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 21, 23, 57 supercooling, 85, 89 suppliers, 103 suppression, 198 surface area, x, 149, 173, 186, 199 surface layer, 2, 7, 171 surface tension, 87 survival, 212 sustainability, 268, 273 sustainable development, 228 Sweden, 171, 228 symmetry, 26 symptoms, 233 synthesis, ix, 9, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 39, 41, 42, 53, 58, 145, 153, 168, 170 Syria, 264

T tar, 166 target, xi, 142, 220, 267, 268 teachers, 149

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techniques, 141, 210, 211, 222 technological advances, 2 technologies, x, 213, 216, 217 technology, x, 143, 213, 214, 215, 216, 219, 222, 226, 227 tectonic activity cycles, vii, 61 temperature, ix, xi, 4, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 34, 39, 40, 77, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 96, 101, 107, 112, 127, 128, 130, 132, 133, 135, 142, 143, 145, 146, 147, 151, 152, 153, 158, 160, 161, 162, 163, 166, 169, 177, 221, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255 territory, viii, 72, 90, 99, 101 testing, 45 textbooks, 148, 152, 155, 156, 159, 167 texture, viii, 6, 76, 99 thermal energy, 16, 18, 41, 252, 255 thermodynamic equilibrium, x, 151, 213, 220 thermodynamics, 215, 216, 222, 223 thinning, xi, 231, 233, 234, 236, 243, 244 thorium, 18, 248 three-dimensional model, 93 thymine, 22, 29, 30 time frame, 5 time series, 66, 68 titanium, 64, 68 total energy, 27 trace elements, 63, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 75, 243 transformation, 105, 156, 166 transformations, 38, 103, 117, 210 translation, 35 translocation, 104, 106 transparency, 152 transpiration, x, 173, 174, 177, 185, 186, 188, 190, 191, 192, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 208, 209 transport, 38, 97, 109, 129, 243, 255, 268 transportation, xi, 267 treatment, 215, 218, 226, 227 trial, 42, 128, 141 tropical forests, 174 tropical savannas, viii, 99, 100, 102, 104, 106, 115 tryptophan, 28 tuff, xi, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 79, 82, 84, 247, 248, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254 turnover, 104, 112

U U.S. Geological Survey, 143 UNESCO, 116, 156 uniform, 16, 66 uniformitarianism, ix, 145, 146, 147, 168, 258 United Kingdom (UK), 116, 209, 273

United States (USA), 1, 44, 46, 47, 51, 52, 53, 54, 117, 173, 214, 257 universe, 11, 35, 36, 41, 146, 147, 151 universities, 148 uranium, 18 urban, 218, 221 urea, 25, 26, 30, 31 USSR, 92, 93, 94, 96 UV, 13, 16, 17, 18, 23, 25, 30 UV light, 17, 23, 25 UV radiation, 16, 18, 23

V vacuum, 28, 58 Valencia, v, 99, 106, 108, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 123 validation, 210 valine, 22 valuation, 229 vapor, 4, 13, 149, 153, 261 variables, x, 194, 231 variations, 47, 64, 65, 71, 74, 75, 96, 107 varieties, 89, 90, 97 vector, 81, 177, 178, 179, 182, 183, 184, 186, 189, 194, 202, 204, 205, 206 vegetation, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 113, 115, 162, 174, 175, 176, 233, 237, 270, 271 vein, 162 velocity, 79, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 89, 91, 129, 221 Venezuela, viii, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 107, 110, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 174, 177, 196, 210, 211 Venezuelan territory, viii, 99 Venus, 10, 11, 193, 199, 209 vesicle, 38 Viking, 2 viscosity, viii, ix, 61, 79, 85, 86, 89, 127, 129, 132, 142, 165, 168 vision, 219, 220 vitrification temperature, 86, 88, 89 volatilization, 101

W Wales, 245 Washington, 170, 245, 272 waste, 214, 216, 217, 218, 226, 227 waste treatment, 226 waste water, 218, 226, 227 wastewater, 215 water absorption, 178, 186, 188, 197, 199, 201, 203

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Index wood, 234, 241 woodland, 174 World Health Organisation, 256 worldwide, 211

Y Yale University, 58 yield, 22, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 110, 164

Z zeolites, 7, 35 zinc, 116

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water chemistry, 240 water policy, 228 water quality, 228 water resources, 222 water supplies, 149 water vapor, 24, 149, 151, 152, 259, 263 watershed, x, 213, 216, 217, 219, 220, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229 wavelengths, 16 wavelet, 72, 74, 75 weakness, 11 wells, 66, 71, 75, 235, 248 Western Australia, 43, 45, 46, 49, 59 Western Siberia, 95 wetlands, xii, 267, 271 WHO, 248, 256 Wisconsin, 115

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