'Home is Where the Hearth is': The Spatial Organisation of the Upper Palaeolithic Rockshelter Occupations at Klithi and Kastritsa in Northwest Greece 9780860549277, 9781407349992

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Contents
Acknowledgements
List of maps
List of figures
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. Theoretical and methodological approaches to spatial variation in Upper Palaeolithic sites
Chapter 3. Setting out the methodology
Chapter 4. The ethnoarchaeological evidence
Chapter 5. The spatial organisation of Klithi
Chapter 6. The spatial organisation of Kastritsa
Chapter 7. Comparisons between Kastritsa and Klithi
Chapter 8. Spatial organisation in Upper Palaeolithic caves/rockshelters: the broader picture
Chapter 9. 'Home is where the hearth is': Upper Palaeolithic use of space in confined locations
Appendix I
References

Citation preview

'Home is Where the Hearth is' The Spatial Organisation of the Upper Palaeolithic Rockshelter Occupations at Klithi and Kastritsa in Northwest Greece

Nena Galanidou

BAR International Series 687 1997

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 687 'Home is Where the Hearth is' © Nena Galanidou and the Publisher 1997 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860549277 paperback ISBN 9781407349992 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860549277 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1997. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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C on ten t s i v

A cknow ledgemen t s L i s to f map s L i s to ff i gu r e s

v i i

L i s to ft a b le s Chap ter 1 .I n troduc t ion

1

1 . 1 R e sea rch o b jec t ive s

1

1 . 2 S e t t lemen ta r chaeo logy a nd t h eP a laeo l i th ic r e co rd

3

1 . 3 R a t iona le a nd o rgan isa t ion o ft h is b ook

4

Chap ter 1 T heore t ica l a nd me thodo log ica l a pproaches t os pa t ia l v ar ia t ion i n Upper P a laeo l i th ic s i tes 2 . 1 S t ra teg ie sf o ri n te rp re ta t ion

7 7

2 . 2 S t ra teg ie sf o rp a t ter nr e cogn i t ion

1 0

2 . 3 I den t if ica t ion o fs i te -fo rma t ion p roce s se s 2 . 4T he p rope r t ie so ft h eP a la eo l i th ic r e co rd a nd t h ec ha rac te ro f i n ve s t iga t ion so fi n t ra -s i te s pa t ia lv a r ia t ion

1 4 1 5

2 . 5 S umma ry

1 7

Chap ter 3 .S e t t ing o u tt he me thodo logy

1 9

3 . 1 As i te -s t ruc tu ra l a pp roach

1 9

3 . 2 .A f i ve -s tep s t ra tegy f o rs pa t ia l a na lys i s

2 0

3 . 3V iew ing s i te s ca le p a t ter n sf r om a ni n te r -s i te p e r spec t ive

2 1

3 . 4 S umma ry

2 1 2 3

Chapter 4 .T he e thnoarchaeo log ica l e v idence 4 . 1 I n t roduc t ion

2 3

4 . 2T he e v idence

2 3

4 . 3 C onc lus ion s

3 1 3 3

Chapter 5 .T he s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i 5 . 1 T he s i te

3 3

5 . 2T he a genda f o rs pa t ia l a na ly s is a tK l i th i

3 5

5 . 3 T he s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage

3 6

5 . 4 G ene ra l d i scus s ion

8 4

5 . 5 C onc lus ions

9 8

Chapter 6 .T he s pat ia l o rgan isa t ion o f Kas tr i t sa

1 01

6 . 1 T he s i te

1 01

6 . 2T he a genda f o rs pa t ia l a na lys is a tK a s t r i t sa

1 05

6 . 3 T he u n i t so fa na lys is

1 06

6 . 4L i t lüc a r tefa c tr ef i t t ing

1 06

6 . 5 T he s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fl i th ic a r tefac t s

11

6 . 6 G ene ra l d i scuss ion

15

6 . 7 C onc lu s ion s

18

Chap ter 7 .C ompar isons b e tween K l i th ia nd Kas tr i t sa

19

7 . 1 G ene ra l d i scus s ion

19

7 . 2F rom i n t ra -s i te s pa t ia lp a t ter n st or eg iona l s e t t lemen to rgan i sa t ion

1 20

7 . 3 S umma ry

1 22

Chap ter 8 .S pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion i n Upper P a laeo l i th ic c ave s /rock she l ter s : t he b roader p ic ture

1 23

8 . 1 S e lec t ing t h ec ompa ra t ive s amp le

1 23

8 . 2I bex -hun t ing s i te s

1 23

8 . 3 Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic s i te s t ruc tu re i nt h eB a lkan s

1 28

Chap ter 9 .' Home i s where t he h ear th i s ' : Upper P a laeo l i th ic u se o fs pace i nc onf ined l oca t ions 9 . 1 As ynop s i s o ft h ee v idence

1 37 1 37

9 . 2 S pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion : t h e Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic a nd t h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic c ompa red

1 39

9 . 3 C onc lud ing t hough t s

1 40

Append ix . C on tempora ry u se o fc ave s a nd r ock she l te r sb yh un te r /ga the re r s a nd h or t icu l tur is t s

1 41

R efe rence s

1 45

i l l

A cknow ledgemen t s

F i r s t a nd f o remos t Iwou ld l i ke t ot hank G eof fB a i ley f o rh i s

s t ore room l o ng a f te rn o rma l w o rk ing h our s , a nd n eve rf a i led

e ncou ragemen ta nd a dv ice t h roughou tt h ec our se o ft h is s t udy .

t o p rov ide m e w i th l u nch a nd c of f ee . Ic ou ld n o t h ave b een

C l ive G amb le h a sa l so b een ac on t inua la nd i nva luab le s ource

more g ra tefu l . Iwou ld a l so l i ke t ot hank A lexand ra a nd V ay ia

o fi n sp ira t ion . T h is b ook i sb a sed u pon t h e P hD d i sse r ta t ion

N iko la idou a nd t h ef am i ly o fY iann is Z is i sf o r mak ing my l o ng

t ha t Ic omp le ted i ns u mme r 1 996 . I t sr e v is ion t ook p lace d ur -

s t ays a tA r is t i b o th p o ss ib le a nd e n joyab le .

i n gt h ef i r s ty ea ro f my r e sea rch f e l low sh ip a tC la re H a l l ,C am b r idge . Iw ou ld l i ke t ot hank t he p re s iden ta nd membe r so f my

F ur the r t h ank s a r e d ue t o Dora K emp a nd Geof fB a i ley f o r

c o l lege f o rc r ea t ing t h es t i mu la t ing a cadem ic a tmo sphe re t ha t

h e lp ing m e w i th t h e i lus t ra t ion s , a nd t oT odd Wh i te law f o r

e ncou raged me t or e turn t o ap i ece o fw o rk w i th wh ich Iw a s

h i sa s s is tance w i th t h eb i b l iog raphy .F o rp rac t ica lh e lp o fv a r i -

t ho rough ly f ed u p .

o us s or t s , Ia m g ra tefu l t o S of ia V ou t sak i , And rew B le loch ,

T jee rd v an A nde la nd C h roms T zedak is h ave b een k ind e nough

B erman , S a rah Wr igh t , a nd i np a r t icu la rR osamund A nne t t s .

Rosema r ie L uf f , Me lan ie L egga t t , E lena R af t i , G regory t or ead a nd c ommen tu pon p a r t so f my wo rk .P . Go reck ia nd P . Ktrequ in h ave s hared w ith me t he r esu lts o f t he ir e t hnoa rchaeo log ica lr e sea rch i nN ew Gu inea .W i th e qua lg en -

Iam g ra tefu lt oC la re H a l lf o r my t h ree -yea rr e sea rch b u r sa ry , a nd t ot h e H e l len ic F ounda t ion ( London ) , t h e P sycha s F oun -

e ros i ty ,J .K oz lowsk ih a sp rov ided me w i th i n forma t ion a bou t

d a t ion ( A thens ) ,t h eB r i t ish F ede ra t ion f o r Women G radua te s

B acho K iro a nd T emna ta , a nd g ran ted me p erm iss ion t o r e -

( London ) a nd t h eC amb r idge P h i losoph ic S oc ie ty f o rv a r iou s

p roduce p l an s o ft h ef o rmer .

s cho la r sh ip sa nd g ran t s . Iw ou ld a l so l i ke t ot hank t h e Do ro thy Ga r rod F und ,t he J .P re ss land F und a nd t h eC la re Ha l lT u to r s '

My v i s i t st oF rance a nd t h e USA b enef i ted my r e sea rch c on -

F und f o rc ove r ing t h ee xpen ses o f my f i e ldwork .

s i de rab ly .V a luab le i n s igh t si n to c ur ren tF rench t h ink ing i n my f i e ld c ame f r om C a ther ine P e r ls o ft h e Un ive r s i ty o fP a r is X

P a r t so fc hap ter s 5a nd 6o ft h is b ook f i r s ta ppea red i n as l igh t ly

a t Nan te r re a nd J acque s P e leg r in o f CNRS . T hank s t o B ob

d ife ren t v e r s ion i nc hap te r s 1 5 a nd 2 6 o f t he K l i th i mono -

Wha l lon Ie n joyed n o to n ly t he h osp i ta l i ty o ft h e Museum o f

g raph e d i ted b yG .B a i ley . Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank t he MacDona ld

An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan , b u t a l so many s t i mu -

I n s t i tu te f o rA rchaeo log ica lR esea rch f o rg ran t ing me p erm is -

l a t ing d i scu ss ion so n s pa t ia l a na lys is .

s i on t or e p roduce t h is ma te r ia l h e re .

T he a r chaeo log is t so ft h eI BE pho ra te o fP reh is tor ic a nd C la s -

My g rea te s td eb to fa l l ,h oweve r ,i st o Sma ro ,Y ianna ,K o s ta s ,

s i c An t iqu i t ie s ( Agge l ika N touzoug l i a nd K os ta s Z acho s d e s erve s pec ia l men t ion) a nd t he s t af f o f t he I oann ina

t he ir u nfa i l ing emo t iona la nd p rac t ica ls uppor tt h roughou t my

a r cha eo log ica l museum g ran ted m ep e rm is s ion t ow o rk i nt h e ir

y ea r s o fs t udy a b road .

S tefano s a nd C h r is tos G a lan ides , a nd t oS pyros Dane l l is , f o r

i v

L i s to f map s Map o fE p irus ( nor thwes tG r eece )w i th P a laeo l i th ic s i tes . ( Af t er B a i ley I 997a ; C our tesy o ft h e McDona ld 8 . 1 .

I n s t i tu te f or A rchaeo log ica lR esear ch .) Map o ft h eB a lkan ss how ing P a laeo l i th ic s i tes .

2 1 24

L i s to ff i gures 4 . 1 . 4 .2 .

P lan so ffo ur S ou th A f r ican c ave sa nd r ock she l ter s . ( Af t er P ark ing ton & M i l l s 1 991 .) P lan so fY unguba l ibanda 1 -3 ( r ock she l ter s u sed f or h ab i ta t ion ) , W es tern D eser t ,A us tra l ia .

2 4

( Af t er N icho l son & C ane 1 991 .)

2 5

4 . 3 .

P lan a nd s ec t ion o fB ig E lephan tC ave ( u sed b yt h eB erg Dama ) , E rano Moun ta in s , N am ib ia . ( Af t er C lark & W a l ton 1 962 .)

2 6

4 . 4 .

P lan o fY e lene -W ang -Kob - Me r o ck she l ter , I ndones ia . ( Af t er P d tr equ in & P d tr equ in 1 988 .)

2 7

4 . 5 .

P lan so fN ip a nd T emb inde r ock she l ter ( u sed b y t h e Me lpa ) , J im iv a l ley , N ew Gu inea . ( Af t er G or eck i 1 991 .)

2 7

4 .6 .

P lan so fR i tamauda , L uanana ,A i legun a nd K anamap in r ock she l ter s ( u sed b y t h eP ina i ) , Y ua tg orge , P apua N ew Gu inea . ( Af t er G or eck i 1 988 ; 1 991 .) P lan so fP akara , Ad j iga a nd Mar ind j i la r ock she l ter s ( u sed b yt h eS auros ) , C hu iga ih i l l s , P apua N ew G u inea .

2 8

4 . 7 .

( Af t er G or eck i 1 991 .)

2 9

5 . 1 . 5 . 2 .

K l i th i , s i te p lan . O verv iew o fs t ra t igraphy , s how ing t h ed i s tr ibu t ion o fs t ra ta a nd t h ep r inc ipa l r ad iocarbon d a tes .

3 4

( Af t er B a i ley & W oodward 1 997 )

3 4

5 . 3 .

S moo th ing me thod .

3 8

5 . 4 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ie s i ns t ra tum 5 .

3 8

5 . 5 . 5 .6 . 5 . 7 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 5 . P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 5 . D i s t r ibu t ion o f 4c l us ter so n s i te p lan f or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum5 .

3 8 4 0 4 0

5 . 8 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or N ISP b yt axon i ns t ra tum 5 .

4 1

5 . 9 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 4c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or N ISP b yt a xon i ns t ra tum 5 .

4 1

5 . 10 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 5 .

4 3

5 . 11 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i t ep lan f or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 5 .

4 3

5 . 12 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea t u t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 5 .

4 4

5 . 13 . 5 . 14 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 5 . D i s tr ibu t ion o fp e rf ora ted o b jec t s i ns t ra tum 5 .

4 4 4 5

5 . 15 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o fb one a r tef ac t s i ns t ra tum 5 .

4 5

5 . 16 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 6 .

4 6

5 . 17 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 3c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 6 .

4 6

5 . 18 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 6 .

4 8

5 . 19 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 6 .

4 8

5 .20 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or N ISP b yt a xon i ns t ra tum 6 .

4 9

5 .21 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 5c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or N ISP b y t a xon i ns t ra tum 6 .

4 9

5 .22 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 6 .

5 0

5 .23 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 6 .

5 0

5 .24 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea t u t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 6 .

5 1

5 .25 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o fc l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 6 .

5 1

5 .26 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o fp e lf ora ted o b jec t s i ns t ra tum 6 .

5 2

5 .27 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o fb one a r tef ac t s i ns t ra tum 6 .

5 2

5 .28 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 5

5 .29 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 5c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 5

5 .30 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 6

5 .31 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 6

5 . 32 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or N ISP b yt a xon i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 7

5 .33 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 5c l us ter so n s i te p lan f or N ISP b yt axon i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 7

5 .34 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 8

5 .35 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 4c l us ter so ns i t ep lan f or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 8

5 . 36 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea t u t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 9

5 .37 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 4c l us ter so n s i te p lan f or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 9

5 .38 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o fp e rf ora ted o b jec t s i ns t ra tum 7 .

6 0

5 .39 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o fb one a r tef ac t s i ns t ra tum 7 .

6 0

5 .40 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ie s i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 2

5 .41 . 5 .42 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so n s i te p lan f or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 8 . P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 2 6 3

5 .43 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so n s i te p lan f or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 3

5 .44 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter s ,f or N ISP b yt a xon i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 4

5 .45 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 4c l us ter so n s i te p lan f or N ISP b yt a xon i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 4

5 .46 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 5

5 .47 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 5

5 .48 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga in s tn umber o fc l u s ter sf or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 6

5 .49 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 6

5 .50 .

D is tr ibu t ion o fp e rf ora ted o b jec t s i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 7

5 .51 .

D is tr ibu t ion o fb one a r tef ac t s i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 7

5 .52 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ie s i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 0

5 .53 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ie s i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 0

5 .54 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 1

5 .55 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 1

5 .56 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or N ISP b yt a xon i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 2

5 .57 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 5c l us ter so n s i te p lan f or N ISP b yt a xon i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 2

5 .58 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 3

5 .59 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 3c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 3

5 .60 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea t u t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 4

5 .61 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 3c l us ter so n s i te p lan f or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 4

5 .62 .

D is tr ibu t ion o fp e rf ora ted o b jec t s i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 5

5 .63 .

D is tr ibu t ion o fb one a r tef ac t s i ns t ra tum 9 .

7 5

5 .64 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ie s i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

7 7

5 .65 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ie s i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

7 7

5 .66 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

7 8

5 .67 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so n s i te p lan ,f or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

7 8

5 .68 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or N ISP b yt a xon i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

7 9

5 .69 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 5c l us ter so n s i te p lan f or N ISP b yt a xon i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

7 9

5 .70 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

8 0

5 .71 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 3c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

8 0

5 .72 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea t u t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

8 1

5 .73 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

8 1

5 .74 .

D is tr ibu t ion o fp e rf ora ted o b jec t s i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

8 2

5 .75 .

D is tr ibu t ion o fb one a r tef ac t s i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

8 2

5 .76 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or N ISP b yt a xon a nd a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

8 6

5 .77 . 5 .78 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 6c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or N ISP b yt a xon a nd a l ll i th ic c a tegor ie s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 . P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea t

8 6

u t i l i ty a nd a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

8 7

5 .79 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f 7c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty a nd a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

8 7

5 .80 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or l i th ic a nd b one s i ze i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

8 8

5 .81 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 8c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or l i th ic a nd b one s i ze i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

8 8

5 .82 .

H i s togram o ft h ed ens i ty o fp e rf ora ted o b jec t s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

8 9

5 .83 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o fp e rf ora ted o b jec t s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 ; d ens i ty r ange f rom F igur e5 . 82 .

8 9

5 .84 .

H i s togram o ft h ed ens i ty o fb one a r tef ac t s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

9 0

5 .85 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f moda la nd h ighes td ens i t ies o fb one a r tef ac t s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 ; i n f orma t ion f rom F igur e5 . 84 .

9 0

5 .86 .

D is tr ibu t ion o fn eed les i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

9 1

5 .87 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o fb ones w i th i n c is ion s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

9 1

5 .88 .

H i s togram o fb one d ens i ty i ns t ra ta 5 -10

9 2

5 .89 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o fb one d ens i ty i ns t ra ta 5 -10 ; i n f orma t ion f rom F igur e5 .88 .

9 2

5 .90 .

H is togram o fl i th ic a r tef ac td ens i ty i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

9 3

5 .91 .

B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fl i th ic a r tef ac td ens i ty i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

9 3

5 .92 .

L i th ic a r tef ac td ens i ty v ar ia t ion i ns t ra ta 5 -10 ; i n f orma t ion f rom F igur e5 . 91 .

9 3

5 .93 .

H is togram o fd ens i ty o fb urn tl i th ic a r tef ac t s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

9 4

v i

5 .94 .

B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fd ens i ty o fb urn tl i th ic a r tef ac t s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

9 4

5 .95 .

t ra ta 5 -10 ; i n f orma t ion f rom F igur e5 .94 . B urn tl i th ic a r tef ac td en s i ty v ar ia t ion i ns

9 4

5 . 96 .

B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fl i th ic s i ze A b yc l us ter ( 2 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

9 5

5 . 97 .

B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fl i th ic s i ze B b yc l us ter ( 2 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

9 5

5 .98 .

B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fl i th ic s i ze C b yc l us ter ( 2 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

9 5

5 .99 .

B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fl i th ic s i ze D b yc l us ter ( 2 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

9 5

fl i th ic s i ze E b yc l us ter ( 2 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 . 5 . 100 . B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o

9 5

5 . 101 . B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fb one s i ze ab y c l us ter ( 4 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

9 6

5 . 102 . B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fb one s i ze bb yc l us ter ( 4 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

9 6

5 . 103 . B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fb one s i ze cb yc l us ter ( 4 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 . 5 . 104 . B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fb one s i ze db yc l us ter ( 4 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

9 6

5 . 105 . B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fb one s i ze eb yc l us ter ( 4 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

9 7

9 7

6 . 1 .

Kas tr i t sa , s i te p lan .

1 0 1

6 .2 .

L ong i tud ina ls ec t ion a tK as tr i t sa , i n corpora t ing s t ra t igraph ic i n f orma t ion f rom t h e 1 966 a nd 1 967 f i e ld s easons .

1 03

6 . 3 .

S take h o les a nd a ssoc ia ted h ear th sa tK as tr i t sa Y 12 s p i t s6 1-62 .

1 04

6 . 4 .

B ar c har ts how ing p er cen tage o fr ef i t ted s pec imen sp er r e c tang le .

10

6 . 5 .

H i s togram o ft h el i th ic a r tef ac tf r equency , s t ra tum 5( Y 14-15 ) .

11

6 . 6 .

F r equency o fl i th ic a r tef ac t s , s t ra tum 5( Y 14-15 ) .

11

6 . 7 .

P r esence/ ab sence o fb urn tl i th ic a r tef ac t s , s t ra tum 5( Y 14-15 ) .

11

6 .8 .

H i s togram o fl i th ic a r tef ac t sf r equency , s t ra tum 9( Y 2I-26 ) .

12

6 .9 .

F r equency o fl i th ic a r tef ac t s , s t ra tum 9( Y21-26 ) ; i n f orma t ion f rom F igur e6 .8 .

12

6 . 10 .

P r esence/ absence o fb urn tl i th ic a r tef ac t s , s t ra tum 9( Y21-26 ) .

12

6 . 11 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc lus ter sf or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 5( Y 14-15 ) .

13

6 . 12 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 4c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 5( Y 14-15 ) .

13

6 . 13 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 5( Y 14-15 ) .

13

6 . 14 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 5c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 5( Y 14-15 ) .

13

6 . 15 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc lus ter sf or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 9( Y 21-26 ) .

14

6 . 16 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 3c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 9( Y21-26 ) .

14

6 . 17 .

P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc lus ter sf or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 9( Y2I-26 ) .

15

6 . 18 .

D i s tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or l i th ic s i ze g roups i ns t ra tum 9( Y21-26 ) .

15

6 . 19 .

K as tr i t sa 1 967 , h ear ths o ns urf ace o fY 16 -18 a nd s ome h ear ths o f YI5 .

16

6 .20 .

Kas tr i t sa 1 967 , o ccupa t ion i nY 15 .

16

6 . 21 .

K as tr i t sa 1 967 , o ccupa t ion i nY 14 a nd Y 15 .

17

8 . 1 .

a .E xcava t ion g r id s i nB acho K iro c ave . b .B acho K iro l a yer 6 a/7 : d i s tr ibu t ion o fa r tef ac t sa nd b ones . ( Af t er K oz lowsk ie ta l . 1 982 .)

1 27

8 .2 .

a .E xcava t ion g r id s i nB acho K iro c ave . ( Af t er K oz lowsk ie ta l . 1 982 .) b . Map o fB acho K iro l a yer 1 c u l tura l

8 . 3 .

a .E xcava t ion g r id s i nB acho K iro c ave . ( Af ter K o z low sk ie ta l . 1 982 .) b .B acho K iro l a yer 1 c u l tura ll e ve lI I : d i s tr ibu t ion o fl i th ic a r tef ac t s . ( Af t er K oz lowsk i 1 984b .)

1 31

8 . 4 .

B acho K iro l a yer I c u l tura ll e ve lI I : d i s tr ibu t ion o fb one s b yt a xon . ( Af ter K oz low sk i I 984b .)

1 32

8 . 5 .

B acho K iro l a yer 1 c u l tura ll e ve lI : d i s tr ibu t ion o fl i th ic a r tef ac t s . ( Af ter K oz low sk i I 984b .)

1 33

8 .6 .

P lan o fr e cen te xcava t ions a tB adan j . ( Af ter Wha l lon 1 989 .)

1 34

l e ve lI V ( Af t er K oz lowsk i I 984b .)

1 29

L i s to ft ab le s 4 . 1 .

V ar iab le sf or d escr ib ing e v idence c oncern ing c on temporary u se o fc ave s/ rock she l ter sb yh un ter / ga ther er s a nd h or t icu l tur is t so n t h e ir f orag ing e xped i t ions .

2 3

5 . 1 .

T he v ar iab les .

3 6

5 .2 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d ens i t ie so fa l ll i th ic c a tegor ies b yc l u s ter f or 2c l us ter si ns t ra tum 5 .

3 9

5 . 3 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d ens i t ie so fl i th ic s i ze c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 4c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 5 .

3 9

5 . 4 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ie so ft axa b yc l u s ter f or 4c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 5 .

3 9

5 . 5 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ie so fb one s i ze c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 5 .

4 2

5 .6 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ie so fa na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty b yc lus ter f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 5 .

4 2

5 . 7 . 5 .8 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa l ll i th ic c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 3c l u s ter s i ns t ra tum 6 . Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa l ll i t h ic s i ze c a tegor ie sb yc l u s t er f or 2c l u s t er si ns t ra tum 6 .

4 2

5 . 9 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa l lt a xa b yc l us ter f or 5c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 6 .

4 7

5 . 10 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fb one s i ze c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 6 .

4 7

v i i

4 7

5 . 11 .

Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa na tom ica le l emen t sb ym ea tu t i l i ty b yc l us ter f or 3c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 6 .

4 7

5 . 12 .

Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa l ll i th ic c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 5c l u s ter s i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 3

5 . 13 .

ens i t ies o fl i th ic s i ze c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 7 . Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d

5 4

5 . 14 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o ft axa b yc l us ter f or 5c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 4

5 . 15 . 5 . 16 .

ens i t ies o fb one s i ze c a tegor ie sb yc l us ter f or 4c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 7 . Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ie so fa na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty b yc l us ter

5 4

f or 4c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 7 .

5 4

5 . 17 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa l ll i th ic c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 1

5 . 18 .

ens i t ies o fl i th ic s i ze c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 8 . Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d

6 1

5 . 19 .

6 1

5 .20 .

ens i t ies o ft a xa b yc l us ter f or 4c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 8 . Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fb one s i ze c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 8 . Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d

5 .21 .

Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty b yc l us ter

6 8

f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 8 .

6 8

5 .22 .

Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa l ll i th ic c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 9 .

6 8

5 .23 .

ens i t ies o fl i th ic s i ze c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 9 . Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d

6 8

5 .24 .

ens i t ies o ft axa b yc l us ter f or 5c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 9 . Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d

6 9

5 .25 .

ens i t ies o fb one s i ze c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 3c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 9 . Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d

6 9

5 .26 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty b yc l us ter f or 3c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 9 .

6 9

5 .27 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa l ll i th ic c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

6 9

5 .28 .

ens i t ies o fl i th ic s i ze c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 1 0 . Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d

7 6

5 .29 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o ft axa b yc l us ter f or 4c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

7 6

5 .30 .

Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fb one s i ze c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 3c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 1 0 .

7 6

5 .31 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty b yc l us ter 7 6

f or 2c l us ter s i ns t ra tum 1 0 . 5 .32 .

Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o ffa una lt axa a nd l i th ic c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or

5 .33 .

Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fa na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty a nd l i th ic

5 .34 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ie so fl i th ic a nd b one s i ze c a tegor ies b yc lus ter f or 8c lus ter s

6c l us ter s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

8 3

c a tegor ies b yc l us ter f or 7c l us ter s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

8 5

i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

8 5

6 . 1 .

S t ra t igraphy a nd r ad iocarbon d a tes a tK as tr i t sa . ( Af t er B a i ley e ta l . 1 983b .)

1 02

6 .2 .

P r esence o fh ear ths i nt h ec on tex t se xam ined a tK as tr i t sa .

1 05

6 .3 .

P rovenance o fr ef i t ted l i th ic a r tef ac t sf rom K as tr i t sa s t ra ta 5a nd 9 .

1 07

6 .4 .

R ef i t t ing r e su l tp er s t ra t igraph ic u n i t . J o in , c on jo in a nd s ame r educ t ion s equence f i gur e s o u t s ide b racke t s

6 .5 .

N umber sa nd p er cen tage s o fr ef i ts e t sa ccord ing t om in imum a nd max imum e x ten to fv er t ica ls epara t ion

r epr e sen tn umber so fr ef i t ted s e t s ;f i gur e s i nb racke t s r epr esen tn umber so fr ef i t ted s pec imens .

1 09

( per cen tages e va lua ted a ga ins tt o ta ln umber o fr ef i ts e t sp er s t ra tum ) .

1 09

6 .6 .

V ar iab les i nt h e l i th ic a ssemb lage .

10

6 .7 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive f r equenc ies o fa l ll i th ic c a tegor ie sb yc l us ter f or 4c l us ter s ( s tra tum 5Y 14-15 ) .

12

6 .8 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive f r equenc ies o fs i ze g roups b yc l us ter f or 5c l us ter s( s tra tum 5Y 14-15 ) .

13

6 .9 .

Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive f r equenc ies o fa l ll i th ic c a tegor ie s b yc l us ter f or 3c l us ter s ( s tra tum 9Y 21-26 ) .

14

6 . 10 .

Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive f r equenc ies o fl i th ic s i ze g roups b yc l us ter f or 2c l us ter s ( s tra tum 9Y 21-26 ) .

15

8 . 1 .

S ome o ft h ec harac ter is t ic so fi b ex -hun t ing s i tes .

1 25

8 .2 .

S ome c harac ter is t ic so fU pper P a laeo l i th ic c ave/ rock she l ter s i tes i nt h eB a lkans .

1 35

v i i i

Chap ter 1 .I n troduc t ion Wha tw e a r e c once rned w i th , t h en , i st h e l ong h i s to ry o fs pace , e ven t hough s pace i s n e i the r a' s ub jec t ' n o r a n ' o b jec t ' b u t r a the r as oc ia l r ea l i ty — t ha t i st o s ay , as e t o f r e la t ion s a nd f o rm s . H . L ef ebv re , 1 974 . T he P roduc t ion o fS pace , 16 .

1 . 1 R e search o b jec t ive s

g a the re rs i te sh a st r ad i t iona l ly b een r e con s t ruc t ion is t :i ts e ek s t oi d en t ify a c t iv i ty a r ea s a nd i nd iv idua l a c t ions ( u se o f ac e r -

Am id s tt h ec on s ide rab le d eba te t ha te x is t sa st oh ow t od ef ine

t a in a r ea b y ak nappe r , f o r i n s tance ) o n s u r face s r e la t ing t o

a r ch i tec ture a nd i t s many p o ss ib le f orm s ,i ti sn a tu ra lt ha tP a l -

d i s t inc te ven t s o fo ccupa t ion ,f o l low ing , i ng ene ra l , t h ep a ra -

a eo l i th ic a r chaeo log is t ss hou ld b ea sked t oa ccoun tf o ri t so r i -

d i gm sf o rs pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion d er ived f r om B inford 's ( 1978a ,b )

g ins . A cco rd ing t o o ne d ef in i t ion , a r ch i tec ture i s as e t o f

e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l work . Once i d en t if ied , t h ese a c t iv i ty a r -

r e cur r ing p roce sses i n vo lv ing c oncep tua l isa t ion , p lann ing ,

e a s a r e t yp ica l ly e xp la ined f unc t iona l ly , i nt e rm s o f s i ze o f

c ons truc t ion a nd ma in tenance . A cco rd ing t oa no the r , i t' c re -

l i v ing s pace a nd h uman g roup , b ody mechan ics , o r c l ima t ic

a t es b ounda r ie s o u t o f o therw ise u nbounded s pace ' ( Ken t

c ond i t ions . Ii n tend t o s how t ha t t h e a c t iv i ty a r ea mode l i s

1 990 ) . I ti sa l so s a id t ob e ' f ounded o nt h ed i sc ip l ine a nd i m p era t ive s o fg eome t ry ' (W i l son 1 988 , 1 52 ) , s o t ha t i t s eme r -

e n t ire ly i napp rop r ia te t ot h e s t udy o f mo s t P a laeo l i th ic s i te s . S pa t ia l a na lyse s , Is ha l l a r gue , h ave a dded l i t t le t oo u ri n te r -

g ence i si d en t if ied w i th t h e c apac i ty t or ep re sen t g eome t r ic

p re ta t ion o fP a laeo l i th ic s i te s n o t b ecause w e l a ck s en s i t ive

f o rm s .T he u se made a t Mezh ir ich a nd Y ud inovo o ft h ep r inc i -

a na ly t ica lt e chn ique sf o rp a t te rn i d en t if ica t ion ,b u tb ecau se o u r

p l es o fs ymme t ry a nd t h em ir ro ri mage ( Sa fe r 1 985 )d emon -

u n i t so fa na lys is ,e xpec ted s ca le o fs pa t ia lr e so lu t ion a nd w o rk -

s t ra tes t ha t t h e a na tom ica l ly modern h umans o f t h e Upper

i ng h ypo the se s h ave n o t a lways b een r e a l is t ic . A c t iv i ty a r ea

P a laeo l i th ic h ad ad eve loped n o t ion o fg eome t ry . T hese Up -

r e sea r ch i s mo s tv a luab le i ns i te so fl ow d en s i ty a nd h igh r e so -

p er P a laeo l i th ic d we l l ing so ft h ec en t ra lR us s ian p l a in a r et h e re -

l u t ion whe re r ap id s ed imen ta t ion h a sp re served p r is t ine l i v ing

f o re d eemed t ob et h ef i r s tu nequ ivoca le xamp le o fa r ch i tec tu re .

f l oo r s ( Bo rdes 1 972 , 1 975 ; Ma rdaga -Campbe l l 1 986 ) . G rea t

T he v a s tm a jo r i ty o f Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic s i te s ,h oweve r ,l e f tn o

t hough t h e s cope o fa c t iv i ty a r ea r e sea rch f o r r e cons t ruc t ing

a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s . T yp ica l ly , t h e p roce ss o f dwe l l ing e i -

s pec if ic momen t s i nt h e p a s t may b e , i ti sg ene ra l ly f e l t t h a t

t h e r p roduced n o c or re spond ing a r tefa c t o r p roduced a n o r -

t h ei s sue o fs pace c anno tb e d i sm issed a l toge the r when i n te r -

g an ic a r tef a c tt h a td id n o ts u rv ive i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd .

p re t ing s i te so fl owe ri n teg r i ty . I nc ave sa nd r ock she l te r sw i th s t ra t if ied s equence s ,f o re xamp le ,i n tac th ab i ta t ion s u r f a ce so r

P a laeo l i th ic s i te s a r e t h e refo re s ca t te r s o f a r tefac t s a nd f ood r e s idue si nt h eo pen a i ro ri nn a tu ra l s he l te r s ,o f ten a s soc ia ted

a c t iv i ty a r ea s a r eu n l ike ly t oh ave s u rv ived a nd s ea rch ing f o r

w i th h ab i ta t ion f ea ture s s uch a s h ea r th s . I td oe s n o t f o l low ,

h igh re so lu t ion p a t tern ing i sl i ke ly t ob e af u t i le e xe rc ise .T h is

h oweve r , t h a tu se o fs pace d ur ing t h e Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic w a s

d oes n o t m ean t ha t s pa t ia l a na lys is s hou ld b e a bandoned i n

' p r im i t ive ' o r l a cked i n ter na l s t ruc tu re . T he c ha l lenge i st o

t h e se c a ses .T he o bv ious a l ter na t ive i st or e -exam ine t h ec on -

d ef ine t h ec ha rac ter is t ic so ft h is s t ruc tu re ,a nd t of i nd o u t wha t g ene ra ted i ta nd wha ti th a st ot e l lu sa bou tt h el i ve so fp reh is -

c ep tua lf r amewo rk sw i th in wh ich w eg i ve m ean ing t oo u rf i nd s a nd t op u r sue a l terna t ive a pp roache s mo re r e levan tt ot h ed i s -

t o r ic h un te r /ga the re r s .

c uss ion o fs i te sc on ta in ing p a l imp ses t so fc u l tu ra l ma ter ia l .

T he a im o ft h is s t udy i st oe xam ine p a t tern so fs pa t ia lo rgan i -

T h is s t udy w i l la dop to ne s uch a l ter na t ive a pp roach , d e scr ib -

s a t ion i nr o ck she l te r si nhab i ted d ur ing t h e Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic .

i ng o ve ra l l s i te c onf igu ra t ion b ya na lys ing t h ea s soc ia t ion b e -

My d i scu s s ion w i l lb eb a sed u pon t wo s uch s i te si nn or thwe s t e rn G reece : K l i th i , as i te i nt h e s t eep -s ided V o idoma t is g o rge

t ween e v iden ta nd l a ten ts t ruc tu re s( Le ro i -Gourhan 1 970-77 ) : i no the r wo rd s ,t h er e la t ion b e tween h ea r th sa nd o the rh ab i ta -

u sed d ur ing h i gh ly s pec ia l ised e xped i t ion s t o h un t t h e i b ex

t i on f ea tu re s i d en t if ied d u r ing e xcava t ion ( t he e v iden t s t ruc -

a nd e xp lo i tl o ca ll i th ic r e sou rce s ,a nd K a s t r i t sa , as i te i no pen t e r ra in o nt h es hore o ft h el a ke P amvo t i sh av ing ad i ve r se s u i te

t u re s ) a nd a ny r obus t p a t ter n s i nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f c u l tu ra l ma te r ia l t h a t e merge f r om s pa t ia l a na lys is ( t he l a ten t s t ruc -

o f l i th ic s a nd a n ima l s pec ie s , w i th r ed d ee r d om inan t ( Map

t u re s ) . Ic a l lt h is as i te -s truc tura l a pp roach . I td if e r sf r om t h e

1 . 1) . Is ha l la l so e xam ine t h ee v idence f o rs pa t ia lv a r ia t ion i n an umbe ro ff unc t iona l ly a nd g eog raph ica l ly c ompa rab le Up -

r e con s t ruc t ion is t a pp roach i nt ha t i tl o ok s f o r h ea r th re la ted d i s t r ibu t ion s r a the r t han f o r a c t iv i ty a r ea s , a nd s eek s r edun -

p e rP a laeo l i th ic s i tes i np hy s ica l ly c onf ined l o ca t ion s . Is ha l l

d an t ' p a t ter n so fs pa t ia l s t ruc tu re t ha t may t r an scend mu l t ip le

b ea sk ing t h ree q ues t ion s : ( a )C an t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tefac t s

e ven t s i n s tead o f t r y ing t o r e con s truc t s pa t ia l a r rangemen t s

a nd f ood r e s idue st e l lu sh ow l i f ew a so rgan i sed i nt h e se c amp s?

d u r ing as i ng le b ehav iou ra l e ven t . I td oe s n o t , mo reove r , a s -

I fs o , wha t d eg ree o fr e so lu t ion i sp o s s ib le? ( b ) Do t h e s i te s

s ume t ha t a ny c ommon h uman p r inc ip le h a s d i rec ted t h e o r -

s how a ny c ommon p a t te rn s o fs pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion? I fs o , d o

g an isa t ion o fs pace , i n s tead l ook ing f o rc u l tu ra l v a r iab i l i ty i n s i te s t ruc tu re .

t he se e xh ib i ta ny t empo ra lo rr eg iona lv a r ia t ion? ( c ) Wha tu n d e r l ie sv a r ia t ion i np a t ter n so fs i te s t ruc ture? Do s i te f unc t ion a nd i t s s oc ia l ,s ea sona l a nd d emog raph ic c o ro l la r ie sd o s oi n -

Ak ey p rob lem h a s b een h ow t o d ec ide u pon b ehav iou ra l ly

d ependen t ly o ft ime a nd p l ace , o r a r e o the r c u l tu re -spec if ic

s i gn if ican tu n i t so fa na ly s i sw i th in a r chaeo log ica lp a l imp se s t s ,

f a c to r s i n vo lved?

t h ec umu la t ive p roduc t so fi n te rm i t ten te p isode so fd epo s i t ion r e su l t ing f r om h i gh r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty . T he s t ra tegy t h a t I

R e sea rch i n to t h e s pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion o f p reh is tor ic h un ter /

h ave d eve loped t od ea lw i th t h is i d en t if ie sr edundan tp a t tern s

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Map 1 . 1 . Map o fE p irus ( nor thwes tG r eece )s how ing P a laeo l i th ic s i tes . ( Af ter B a i ley I 997a ; C our te sy o ft h e McDona ld I n s t i tu te f or A r chaeo log ica lR esear ch . ) o fs i te s t ruc tu re b y i n teg ra t ing r e f i t t ing , q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is

f o re f u r the ra na lys is t ob ei nd ispensab le . Ia l so b e l ieve , h ow -

a nd v i sua l i n spec t ion . T he t heo ry u nde rp inn ing t h is s t ra tegy

e ve r ,t h a ta bso lu te c on tempo rane i ty i sa c tua l ly a ni lus ion t h a t

i sf ounded u pon c ross -cu l tura lc onc lus ion st ha t Ih ave r eached

s hou ld n o t r es tr ic t o ur me thodo logy ( Bordes 1 980 ;

b ys urvey ing e t hnoa rchaeo log ica lo b serva t ion so nt h ec on tem -

P apakon s tan t inou 1 986 ) . My a ppa ren tp reoccupa t ion w i th r e -

p o ra ry u se o fc ave a nd r ock she l te r s pace b y h un te r /ga the re r s

d undan t p a t te rn s s t em s f r om my b e l ief t ha t t h e P a laeo l i th ic

a nd h or t icu l tur is t s . Is ha l l a rgue t ha ti ti sp o ss ib le t od escr ibe

r e co rd i ss o a mb iguous a sv e ry r a re ly t op e rm i t t he i s o la t ion

s i te s c on ta in ing p al impse s t s i nt e rm s o ft he ir s pa t ia l p roper -

o fs ha rp ly d ef ined e p isode so fo ccupa t ion . E ve ry P a laeo l i th ic

t i e sa nd t hus t oo b ta in ag ene ra lp i c tu re o ft h eo rgan isa t ion o f

s i te i s ap a l imp se s to f( amongs to the rt h ing s )d eb r is r e su l t ing

t h e ir s pace , a l be i t a td eg rees o f r e so lu t ion l owe r t han t ho se

f r om a n u nknown n umbe r o fk napp ing e p i sode s a nd mea ls ,

of e red b y s i tes r e co rd ing s i ng le b ehav ioura le p isodes .

a nd a l though r ef i t t ing s t ud ie sc an i d en t ify i nd iv idua li n s tances o fb u tche r ing a n a n ima lo r mak ing as t one t oo l , i ti sv i r tua l ly

My v i ews o nc on tempo rane i ty a nd o nr edundancy i ns i te s t ruc t u re a r e c ruc ia l t o my a rgumen t . T he re a r e i n te re s t ing c om -

i mpo ss ib le t oe s tab l ish t h ed eg ree o fc on tempo rane i ty b e tween t h e se l e sse re ven t si nt h ec on tex to fa ne p isode o fo ccupa t ion .

p a r ison s t ob e d rawn b e tween d epos i t s t ha t c anno tb e s hown

Ou rt e chn ique s of e ru st wo s ca les o ft empo ra lr e so lu t ion :t ha t

t ob eo fa b so lu te c on tempo rane i ty ,e spec ia l ly o nt h et ime s ca le s

o b ta ined u s ing r ad iome t r ic d a te si sr a the rc oa r se -g ra ined , wh i le

i n vo lved i nP a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy .T h is d oe sn o t mean t ha t

t ha tp rov ided b yr e f i t t ing a nd s ea sona l i ty s t ud ie si sf i ne r . N e i -

Iam n o t i n te res ted i n e s tab l ish ing c on tempo rane i ty . O n t h e

t h e ro f f e r s ac l ear p i c tu re o f ab ehav iou ra le p isode o fo ccupa -

c on t rary , Ib e l ieve t h e u se o fr e f i t t ing a nd s ea sona l i ty s t ud ies

t i on . T rac ing t h e l i f e h i s to ry o f as t one t o o l t e l ls u s s ome th ing

t oe s tab l ish t h et empo ra lr e so lu t ion o fe ach a na ly t ica lu n i tb e -

a bou t ak napp ing e ven t ,b u tn o tm uch a bou tt h ee p i sode o fo ccu 2

I n troduc t ion p a t ion d u r ing w h ich i tt ook p l ace . E ach b ehav iou ra l e p i sode o f

s ha l l a sk whe the r t h is wou ld n ece ssa r i ly h ave b een t h e c a se

o ccupa t ion m ay c on s is to f an umbe ro f' mapp ing e ven t sl i ke t h is

d u r ing t h e Upper P a laeo l i th ic ,a nd s ha l l s eek e xp lana t ion sf o r

o ne , s o t ha t i tw i l l n o t u sua l ly b e p os s ib le t o i den t ify i t s s pa t io tempo ra lb ounda r ie sw i th a ny c er ta in ty ,a tl e a s tw i th in a

t h e d ife rence s b e tween t he s pa t ia l s i gna tu res l e f t i nt h e t wo s i te s .A l though Id on o tc l a im t oh ave f ound d ef in i te a n swe r s ,

s t ra t if ied s equence .A sw es ha l l s ee i nC hap te r4 ,t h er e la t ion -

Is ha l la rgue t ha ti ti sl im i t ing me re ly t oe xp la in h uman s e t t le -

s h ip b e tween e p i sode so fd epo s i t ion o fm a te r ia la nd b ehav iou ra l

men t i nt e rm s o f r e sponses t o a va i lab le r e sou rces ; w e mus t

e p i sode s o fo ccupa t ion i sa mb iguou se ven w he r ec on tempo ra ry

a l so a t temp tt od ec iphe rt he s oc ia l s t ra teg ie st ha tu nde r l ie r e -

b ehav iou ri nc a ve sa nd r ock she l te r si sc once rned .I ti st h e refo re

g iona l a dap ta t ions .

c l ea rt ha ti nl o ca t ions o ft h is s o r tw ec an a na ly se u se o fs pace i nr e la t ion t ol a rge u n i t s o ft ime . My r e sea rch s hou ld d emon -

My w o rk d ea ls w i th t h e o rgan i sa t ion o fl i v ing s pace b y a na -

s t ra te t ha t t h i s i s af r u i tfu l w ay i n wh ich t oa pp roach P a laeo -

t om ica l ly mode r n h umans o ccupy ing c onf ined l o ca t ions ,

l i th ic i nves t iga t ion .

ma in ly i n s ou thea s t E urope . K l i th i w a s o ccup ied b e tween

W i th t h is b ook , Ih ope t o make t h ep o in tt h a tw ec an i mp rove

( 2 1 ,80019 ,900 B P ) d a te f r om b efo re t h e L a s t G lac ia l Max i -

1 6 ,000 a nd 1 0 ,000

B P ,

wh i le t h e l a ye r s e xam ined a tK a s t r i t sa

o u ru nde r s tand ing o ft he P a laeo l i th ic r e cord o n ly b y l o ok ing

mum . B e tween t hem ,t h eo the rs i te s d i scussed s pan t h ee n t ire

a ga in a tt h e a va i lab le e v idence a nd r e a s se ss ing o ur r e sea rch

Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic p er iod . Ac ompa r ison w i th M idd le P a laeo -

g oa l s . C ave s a nd r ock she l te r s a r e a n i mpor tan t s ou rce o fi n -

l i th ic i n t ra -s i te s e t t lemen tp a t ter n si s at emp t ing p rospec t ,b u t

f o rma t ion a bou tp reh is tor ic h un te r /ga the re r sb ecause t h ey a r e

f o rr e a son s o fs pace Ih ave h ad t or e s t r ic t my se lf t ot h eb r ief

z one so fh igh a r chaeo log ica lp re se rva t ion .A l though t h ey h ave

d i scuss ion o ft h is p oss ib i l i ty t ha tc an b ef ound i n my c onc lud -

t r ad i t iona l ly b een s een a s s ource s o f ma te r ia l f o r c l ima t ic ,

i ng c hap te r .

c h rono log ica lo re conom ic r e con s t ruc t ion , Ip ropo se t ha tt h ey

1 . 2S e t t lemen ta rchaeo logy a nd t he P a laeo l i th ic r ecord

s hou ld a l so b ep e rce ived a sw indow so n to p a s ts e t t lemen t s .T he s i t e s truc tu ra la pp roach , w h ich w i l lb ed i scu s sed i nt h ef i r s tp a r t o ft h i s s t udy ,c omp lemen t st h ea na ly s i so fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r i a l ( l i th ic s , f a una , a nd o rgan ic a r tef a c t s ) s o a st og i ve a n i n te -

A rchaeo log ica l o bserva t ion s o n s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion b egan t ob e

g ra ted v i ew o fi n t ra -s i te v a r ia t ion t h a t a l lows u s t oc on s ide r

made d ur ing t h e Mon te l ian e ra , i nt h e l a s t c en tury , when t h e

s i te si nt h e i rr e g iona lc on tex t .T he i n fo rma t ion r e turn f r om t h e

me thodo logy o fp reh i s tor ic a r chaeo logy w a s f ounded o n t y -

d e s t ruc t ive p roce ss o fe xcava t ion i st h e reby max im ised .

p o log ica l c l a ss if ica t ion t oge the rw i th t h es t udy o fg eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion ( T r igge r 1 989 ) . S e t t lemen to rs pa t ia la r chaeo logy

A l though t h e s e cond p a r to f my s t udy ( t he s pa t ia l a na ly s is o f

a s ab ranch o fa r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , h oweve r , h ad i t s g en -

K l i th i a nd K a s t r i t sa , i nC hap te r s 5a nd 6 )r e l ie s h eav i ly u pon

e s is w e l l a f te r Wo r ld Wa r I , when s pa t ia l s t ruc tu re w a s r e -

p a t ter nr e cogn i t ion , Is e et h ed e scr ip t ion o f as i te 's s pa t ia lp a t -

g a rded a s ar ef lec t ion o f t he s oc ia l , e conom ic o r p o l i t ica l

t e rn s n o t a s a n i ndependen t g oa l p er s e , b u t a s am ean s o f

o rgan isa t ion o f t h e o ccupy ing h uman g roup ( C la rke 1 977 ) .

c om ing t oc e r ta in c onc lus ion sa bou tt h eP a laeo l i th ic s oc ie t ies

T oday ,u nder t h ei nf luence o fG iddens ' wo rk o n s oc ia lt h eory

t h a tg ave r i se t ot hose p a t tern s . S i te -sca le c a se s t ud ie sa r et h e

( 1981 , 1 984 ) , s pa t ia l s t ruc ture i sr ega rded a s s imu l taneous ly

k ey t o a n u nde r s tand ing o f t e r r i to r ia l b ounda r ie s a nd i n te r -

e xp re s s ing a nd s hap ing s oc ia l r e la t ion s a nd i d eo logy r a the r

r e g iona l s e t t lemen tp a t tern s . I n my v i ew t h e mos ti n te re s t ing

t han mere ly r ef lec t ing t hem . A rchaeo log is ts a nd e thno -

p ar to f as t udy o fs pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion b eg in so nce t h ea na lys is

a r chaeo log is t s , t ak ing u p t h is i d ea , h ave p roduced a l a rge

i t se lf h a sb een c omp le ted , a si n t ra -s i te s pa t ia l p a t ter n s a r er e -

n umbe ro fc a se s t ud ie s t ha tr e info rce i td e sp i te t empo ra l a nd

e xam ined t o ge the rw i th t h ep a t ter no fs i t es i nt h er e g iona ll a nd -

g eog raph ic v ar ia t ion ( s ee Don ley -Re id 1 990 ; P a rke rP ea r son

s cape , o r w i th i n tra -s i te s pa t ia l p a t terns i n o the r s i tes . C ompa r ison so ft h i ss o r t ,s e ldom a t temp ted h i ther to ( a l though

&R icha rd s 1 994a ; S am son 1 990a ) . T hese s t ud ie s , t yp ica l ly i d en t if ied w i th t h ep o s t -p roce ssua l a pp roach , e xam ine t h e a r -

s e eK ind 1 985 ) ,w i l lo ccupy t h et h i rd p a r to f my s t udy .I nt h is

r angemen t o fb u i ld ing s a nd c u l tu ra l ma te r ia l i nt he a r chaeo -

s e c t ion Is ha l lb u i ld u pon t h er e su l t s o f my a na ly se s o fK l i th i

l og ica lr e cord so fs eden ta ry p eop le .H e re t h ep re sence o fw a l ls

a nd Ka s t r i t sa ,f i r s te xam in ing t h ei mp l ica t ion so ft he se r e su l t s f o ro u ru nde r s tand ing o f Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic s e t t lemen ti nn or th -

a nd o t he rs t ruc tu ra lf e a tu re s ,a nd t h e mo re i n tense ma in tenance a c t iv i ty ( w i th d i sca rd l o ca t ions o u t s ide t h e l i v ing a r ea s ) d e -

w e s t G reece , t h en c ompa r ing t h e s i te -s t ruc tu re a t t r ibu te s o f

manded b y p ermanen t o ccupa t ion , g i ve a r chaeo log ica l c on -

t h ese s i te sw i th t hose o f( a )i b ex -hun t ing s i tes i nE urope ,a nd ( b ) o the rU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic s i te si nt h eB a lkan s .

t e x t s o fo ve ra l l h igh r e so lu t ion wh ich d i rec t t h e a na lys is . A s i no the rs t ud ies o fa r ch i tec tura l s pace ,b u i ld ing sa r et r ea ted a s

T he u sua l a pp roach t oP a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy i nn or thwe s t

t ween p eop le ( H i l l ier & H an son 1 984 ) .

a r tefac t s wh ich o rde r s pace a nd t hus o rde r t h e r e la t ion s b e G reece h a sb een ap a laeoeconom ic o ne ( s ee G a lan idou 1 996 f o rd i scu s s ion ) . I ti st h e refore i n te res t ing t oc on s ide rt h er e la -

A sL ev i -S t rauss h a sp o in ted o u ti nh i sr ev iew o ft h ee v idence

t i onsh ip b e tween t h e p resen t s t udy a nd e a r l ie r r e sea rch i n to t h eP a laeo l i th ic h i s tory o ft h is r eg ion . My w o rk i n t roduce si n to

f o rl i nk sb e tween s oc ia la nd s pa t ia ls t ruc ture ,h oweve r ,w i th in c er ta in g roup s ag rea t d ea l o f s oc ia l mean ing i si n ve s ted i n

t h e c anon t h e i d ea o fu nde r s tand ing s i te f unc t ion i nt e rm s o f

s pace , s pa t ia l c onf igu ra t ion b e ing a lmos t ap ro jec t ive r ep re -

s pa t ia l o r gan i sa t ion . I ta l so t r ea t s s i te s t ruc tu re a s at ype o f

s en ta t ion o ft he s oc ia ls t ruc tu re ,w he rea si no the r st h is i sc l ea r ly

e v idence g e rmane t ot h eu nde r s tand ing o fr eg iona ls e t t lemen t .

n o t t h e c a se ( 1963 , 2 92 ) . H is r ema rk s l e ad u s t o a sk wh ich

B ecause a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch i nn o r thwes tG reece h a st a ken

w a st h ec a se d ur ing t h e Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic . I ti s aq ue s t ion t o

t h ec ou r se t h a ti th a s ,a nd b ecause o ft h ep rox im i ty o ft h et wo

wh ich w e h ave a sy e tn o a n swe r .

s i te s t o o ne a no the r , K a s tr i t sa a nd K l i th i a r e a u toma t ica l ly t hough t o fa sp ar t s o ft h e s ame r e g iona l u n i t . I n t h is s t udy I

I nb u i l ts e t t lemen t st h eb u i ld ing ,t h eh ab i ta t ion 's s he l l ,i sc on 3

C hap ter I s tn ic ted a cco rd ing t os oc ia l ,c u l tura la nd f unc t iona ln eed s ,a nd

a bou t r eg iona l s e t t lemen t , w e s hou ld b ea ri nm ind f ou ri n te r -

c an t hus i ni t se lf t e l l u s s ome th ing a bou t s pa t ia l c onf igu ra t i on s .C ave sa nd r ock she l te r s ,h oweve r ,a l ready h ave t h e ir o wn

t w ined p rob lem st od ow i th t h er e la t ion b e tween a r chaeo log i -

s pa t ia l c ons t ra in t s , t o wh ich p eop le mus t a dap t i nw ays s u i t -

f ea ture ( ac ave , f o re xamp le ) , o r mo re p a r t icu la r ly t h ep a r to f

a b le t ot h ef u lf i lmen to ft h e i rn eed s . I nt he Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic

i tt ha t h a s b een s ub jec ted t o e xcava t ion ( t he a r chaeo log ica l

c a l s pace a nd p reh is tor ic s pace . T he f i r s t i st ha t al a nd scape

t h e ir a dap ta t ions ,i n tended t oc r ea te as ense o fp lace ,p robab ly

s i te ) , d oes n o t n ecessa r i ly c or respond t o ap reh i s to r ic s e t t le -

i n vo lved n o t o n ly ma te r ia l t r ansforma t ion o ft h e h o s t f ea ture

men tu n i t ( i . e . ac amp ) . T he s econd i st h a t a ny c onf ined l o ca -

( by mak ing h ea r th s ,p av ing ,c ons truc t ing w a l ls o re ven b u i ld -

t i on t ha t w e e xcava te w i l l a l ready h ave u ndergone o ther

i ng a r t if ic ia l s he l te r s )b u ta l so s ymbo l ic r e -c rea t ion o fc u l tu r -

s amp l ing p roce sse s , e f ec ted b y Qua terna ry g eo log ica l p roc -

a l ly f am i l ia rf o rm so fs pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion .T he s t udy o fs pa t ia l

e s ses o rb yo the rc u l tu ra la nd n a tura ls i te -fo rma t ion p roce sses

o rgan isa t ion i nP a laeo l i th ic s i te ss eek st od ec ipher t h e se a dap -

o ver wh ich w eh ave n oc on t ro l . T h ird ,t h e re i sg ood r e a son t o

t a t ions .I th e lp sc ons ide rab ly t ha tt he s i ze sa nd s hape so ft he se

s u spec t t ha tt h e i mpor tance o fc ave s a nd r o ck she l te r s i nP a l -

l a nd scape n i ches u nde rgo o n ly l im i ted c hange , s o t ha t t h ey

a eo l i th ic a r chaeo logy may b eo u to fp ropo r t ion t ot h e i ri mpo r -

c ons t i tu te as e to fc on s t ra in t sw i th in wh ich s pa t ia l c onf igu ra -

t a nce i n aP a laeo l i th ic s e t t lemen ts y s tem .E thnoa r chaeo log ica l

t i on c an b e e xam ined . I ts e ems l i ke ly t ha t t he re w a s mo re t o

s t ud ies s how t ha t h un te r /ga the re r s d o n o tn ecessa r i ly o ccupy

t h e u se o f t h ese n i che s d ur ing t he Upper P a laeo l i th ic t han

s i tes o ft h is s or tp ref e ren t ia l ly . F our th , o u rr eg iona l u n i t s f r e -

mere ly f u lf i l l ing t h e b a s ic h uman n eed f o r s he l te r . T he l ong

q uen t ly c or re spond t o mode rn g eog raph ic d i v is ion s , ' w h ich

s equences o fc u l tu ra l ma ter ia l s ugge s tt ha tt he u se o fh ea r th s

may w e l lc u ta c ross t h ep reh is tor ic h un te r /ga the re rs e t t lemen t

h e lped t o d omes t ica te t he emp ty ' space ' o f c aves a nd

s y s tem s ' r eg iona l b ounda r ie s . T hese p rob lem s o ugh tt o make

r ock she l te r s , e xper ience a nd memory e ndow ing t h em w i th

i tc l ea r t ha t o u r v i ews o n w ha t c on s t i tu te s aP a laeo l i th ic r e -

v a lue s ot h a tt h ey b ecame ' p lace s ' v i s i ted r epea ted ly o ve rt h e

g iona l s e t t lemen t mus tb eb road e nough t ot a ke t h e se b i a s ing

y ea r s ( Tuan 1 977 ) .

f a c tor s i n to a ccoun t .

T he a r chaeo log is t wo rk ing o nt h e s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion o fP a l -

T er r i tor ia l i ty , au sefu lc oncep t wh ich may h e lp u st oo ve rcome

a eo l i th ic l i f e space f a ce s at h eo re t ica l d i lemma h av ing l e ss t o d o w i th p rocessua l a nd p os t -p roce ssua l a genda s t han w i th

o f i nd iv idua l s t o d ef ine t h e i r o wn d oma in . A l though i tu l t i -

s o me o ft h e se d if icu l t ie s , i st he b io log ica l ly d r iven t e ndency

ma in ta in ing r ea l is t ic e xpec ta t ions t ha t t ake i n to a ccoun t t h e

ma te ly e xp re sses s im i la r i ty , i ti so f ten m an if e s ted i nt e rm s o f

i nheren t l im i ta t ion s o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic r e co rd . I ti sn o t b y

d if e rence : w e e s tab l ish o u r t e r r i to ry b y mak ing e xp l ic i t o r

c hance t ha ti n terp re ta t ion s o ft h eu se o fs pace i nP a laeo l i th ic

s i gna l l ing o u rd if e rences f r om o u rn e ighbou r s( Ca s im i r1 992 ) .

c amp s h ave u sua l ly b een f unc t iona l , wh i le v e ry f ew a t temp t s h ave b een made t o d i scus s s oc ie ty , i d eo logy , s ymbol i sm o r

Hun ter /ga the re rs oc ia lo rgan isa t ion h a s as t rong t e r r i to r ia ld i -

g ende rd if e ren t ia t ion ( bu ts e eP igeo t 1 984 , 1 987 ;P loux 1 991) .

t o r ia lb ounda r ie si s al ong te rm c ha l lenge i nU ppe rP a la eo l i th ic

A ccord ing t o Wh i te law ,t he t e ndency t ov iew t h eo rgan isa t ion

s e t t lemen t s t ud ie s . One w ay o fp u r su ing t h is i sb y m app ing

mens ion ( Lay ton 1 986 ; S e rv ice 1 966 ) .T he d ef in i t ion o ft e r r i -

o fh un te r /ga the re r s pace f unc t iona l ly a nd t he o rgan isa t ion o f

s t y l is t ic v a r ia t ion i n ma te r ia lc u l ture ,g i ven t h a ts t y le p l ay sa n

s pace b y a g r icu l tura l g roup s s ymbo l ica l ly me re ly r ef lec t s b i -

i mpor tan tp a r ti n' s oc ia li n te rac t ion ,c ompa r ison a nd n ego t ia -

a ses i n t h e o r ien ta t ion o f e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l a nd a r chaeo l og ica l r e sea rch , wh ich c on t inue t oo pera te a cco rd ing t ot h e

t i on ' ( Conkey 1 990 , 1 5 ) .A no the ri sb yv i ew ing f o rma lv a r ia -

V ic tor ian n o t ion o fs oc ia le vo lu t ion ism ,d i s t ingu ish ing b e tween

t r ad i t ions . Ie xpec t t h ese t r ad i t ions , a l ong w i th f unc t ion a nd

' p r im i t ive 'a nd ' c omp lex 's oc ie t ies ( 1994 ,2 17 ) .A l though t h is

d emog raph ic c ompo s i t ion ,t og ene ra te d i s t inc tp a t te rn so fs i te

t i on i ns pa t ia l c onf igu ra t ion a st he r e su l to fd ife ren tc u l tu ra l

i sa n i mpo r tan t i n s igh t , p a r t icu la r ly w i th r ega rd t o e thno -

s t ruc tu re ( h ea r th t y pe a nd l o ca t ion ,s i te m a in tenance )w h ich c ou ld

a r chaeo logy ,i ti s my c on ten t ion t ha tt he p ar t icu la rp roper t ies

i nd ica te t e r r i to r ia lb ounda r ie s ,o rt h eh ome r a nge o fe a ch g r oup .

o ft h ese a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s a dd a no the rd imen s ion t ot h e

1 . 3 Ra t iona le a nd o rgan i sa t ion o ft h i sb ook

p rob lem .L ack ing a r ch i tec tu re 'i nt he c onven t iona ls en se ,a nd c ompr is ing h o r izon ta la nd v e r t ica lp a l imp se s t so fa r chaeo log i c a l ma te r ia la ccumu la ted o ve ra ny th ing f r om af ew m inu te st o

My i n i t ia l i n ten t ion w a s t os ea rch f o rt h eo r ig ins o fa r ch i tec -

t housand s o f y ea r s , t h e P a laeo l i th ic r e co rd i su n l ike t ha t o f

t u re i nt he p a t ter n sr evea led b y Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic u se o fs pa ce .

a ny l a te rp e r iod .

S ince t h e p a l imp se s t e f ec t i sf ound i nt h e v a s t ma jo r i ty o f Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic s i tes , Ih ad f i r s tt ow o rk o u t wh ich b ehav -

T he s pa t ia l b ehav iour o f h un te r /ga the re r g roup s c an b e d i s -

i oura l i s sue s m igh t b e i lum ina ted b y s t udy ing p a l imp se s t s . I

c u s sed o n a tl e a s t t h r ee l e ve l s ( Gamb le 1 984 ) : ( a ) s i te , ( b ) r e -

d id t h is b y e xam in ing c r i t ica l ly t he a im sa nd m e thod so fs pa -

g i ona l ( ag roup 's h ome r ange , i n c lud ing a l l s ea sona l t e r r i to r ie s

t i a la na lyse so fP a laeo l i th ic s i te st of i nd o u tw hy t h ey h ad f a i led

t h a t may b ev i s i ted w i th in a na nnua lc yc le ) ,a nd ( c )i n te r reg iona l

t oh ave a ny g rea te ri mpac tu pon p a laeoan th ropo log ica li n te r -

( l i f e t ime t e r r i to ry : ag roup 's max imum a r ea o fc on tac t ,m a in ta ined

p re ta t ion s . Ia l so c o l lec ted e t hnoa rchaeo log ica le v idence c on -

b y mean s o fa l l iance n e two rk s ) . A ny a t temp tt ou nde r s tand t h e

c ern ing t he u se o fc ave sa nd r ockshe l te r sb y mob i le p eop le si n

s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l b ehav iou ro fp reh is to r ic h un te r /ga the re r s r e -

o rder t oc omp i le a ni n ven tory o fp oss ib le e xp re ss ion so fs pa -

q u i re s t ha t v a r iab il i ty s hou ld b e c on s ide red i n l a rge s ampl ing

t i a lb ehav iour w i th in t h ep hys ica lc on s t ra in t si mposed b yc ave s

u n i t s , a nd t h a t d i ve r se i n forma t ion s hou ld b e c omp i led . T he

a nd r ock she l te r s .W i th t he se s t ud ie s a sb ackg round , Iu sed a n

t r ad i t iona lu n i to fa r chaeo log ica l o b serva t ion ,t h es i te ,r e ta in s

i n teg ra t ive s t ra tegy t oi d en t ify a nd i n te rp re t s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion

i t si mpor tance ,b u ti ti sc ompa ra t ive s t udy ,b o th i n te r -s i te a nd i n te r -reg iona l ,t ha tc an l e ad t os i gn if ican tg ene ra l isa t ion s .

a tK l i th i a nd K a s t r i t sa . T he s i te -s truc tu re p a t terns w e re c om p ared w i th e ach o the r a nd w i th p a t ter n s i no t her Uppe r P a l a eo l i th ic s i te so fs im i la rf unc t ion a nd g eog raph ic p o s i t ion ,a nd

I np roceed ing t oi n te r -s i te c ompa r ison sa nd t og ene ra l isa t ion s

a s ar e su l t Ic ame t oc er ta in g ene ra lc onc lu s ions a bou tt h eu se 4

I n troduc t ion o fs pace i nc ave s a nd r ock she l te r s d u r ing t h e Uppe r P a laeo -

c ompa re K l i th i a nd Ka s t r i t sa , d i scuss ing s im i la r i t ie s a nd d i f -

l i th ic , a nd a bou tt h e c en t ra l r o le o fh ea r ths i ns t ruc tur ing h u -

f e rence si ns i te s t ruc tu re b e tween t h et wo s i te s . My d i scu ss ion

man l i fe . T h is b rough t me b ack t ot h e o r ig ina l q ue s t ion : t he

r a ise st he i s sue o ft he r e la t ion o fs i te s t ruc tu re t ot a phonom ic

o r ig ins o fa r ch i tec ture .

h i s tory a nd s i te f unc t ion . F ina l ly Ip u t f o rwa rd t h ree mode ls t ha t c ou ld e xp la in t h e d if e rence s b e tween t h ese s i tes . T he

T h i sb ook i so r gan ised a r ound t h ree t h eme s :p rob lem so ft h eo ry a nd me thod ( Chap te r s 2 , 3a nd 4 ) , i n t ra -s i te s pa t ia l a na lys is

n a tu re o ft h e se mode ls r ef lec t s my v i ew t ha t s e t t lemen t p a t t er n s a r e n o t am e re e xp re s s ion o f e conom ic b ehav iou r , b u t

( Chap te r s 5a nd 6 ) ,a nd i n te r s i te c ompa r i son s( Chap te r s7 -9 ) .

t h e r e su l t o f amore c omp lex s y s tem o f s oc ia l a nd s ymbo l ic b ehav iou r w i th in wh ich r e sou rce e x t rac t ion i si n co rpo ra ted

C hap ter 2r e v iews p rev ious r e sea rch i n to s pa t ia l v ar ia t ion i n

(Wh i te 1 985 ) .

P a laeo l i th ic s i tes . I n t he f i r s t p a r t o f t h e c hap te r Id i scuss e t hnoarchaeo logy ,t he ma in s ou rce o fe xp lana to ry mode ls a nd

I nC hap te r 8Ib roaden my s ca le o fc ompa r ison f ur the rt oe x -

u n i t sf o rs pa t ia la na lys is . Is ugge s tt ha ts ho r t te rm mode l sb a sed

p lo re t wo t h eme s : t h e e fec t s o ff unc t ion a nd o f g eog raph ic

o no n -go ing b ehav iour h ave i n sp i red t h er e con s t ruc t ion is ta p -

p rox im i ty u pon s i te s t ruc tu re . I nt h ef i r s tp ar to ft h ec hap te rI

p roach ,a nd a r gue t ha tt h is i si n app rop r ia te t ot h es t udy o f mos t

i n ve s t iga te w he the ri b ex -hun t ing s i te si nE u rope s ha re a ny s im i -

P a laeol i th ic s i t e s . It hen s u rvey t he v a r iou s me thodo log ie su sed

l a r i t ie s i n s pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion . I n t h e s e cond p a r t Ie xam ine

i ns pa t ia la na ly s is a nd i nt h es t udy o fs i te -forma t ion p rocesses ,

t h e s i te s t ruc tu re s o f an umbe ro f Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic s i te s i n

c onc lud ing t h a t d esp i te r ef inemen t s t oo u rt e chn ique s t he i s -

t h e B a lkan s . N o s e t o fc on s is ten t r e la t ion s i so bse rved w i th

s ue so fc on tempo rane i ty a nd i ns i tu d epo s i t sr ema in u n re so lved .

r e spec t t ot ype o fh ab i ta t ion f ea tu re s a nd p a t ter n s o f ma in te -

T he c hap te rg oes o nt od i scuss t he d i ff icu l t ies a s soc ia ted w i th

n ance a c t iv i ty e i the ri nt a sk spec if ic o ri ng eog raph ica l ly a d -

mode l l ing t h eu se o fs pace i nc ave sa nd r ock she l te r s ,i n wh ich

j a cen t s i te s . T he s e cond s t udy , h oweve r , s hows u p ap a t ter n

mu l t ip le s upe r imposed o ccupa t ions h ave t yp ica l ly o ccur red .

c ommon t oa l t h es i te s s t ud ied : a no ve ra l ls im i la r i ty i nt h ed en -

I nC hap te r 3Il a y o u tt h e me thodo logy o f my s t udy . T he f i r s t

t i on s .T h is s ugge s t st h ei mpo r tance i nU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic c amp s

p ar to ft h ec hap te rd esc r ibe st he s ys tema t ic f r amewo rk f o ri n -

o fh ea r th s ,w h ich r ema in ,i re spec t ive o ft h ea moun to fs pa ce a va i l -

v e s t iga t ing i n t ra -s i te s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion i nt he se s i te st ha ti so f -

a b le ,t h ef e a tu re t h a ts hape sh uman a c t iv i ty a nd s oc ia ll i f e .

s i ty a nd c ompo s i t ion c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o fh ea r th re la ted d i s t r ibu -

f e red b y t h e s i te -s truc tu ra l a pp roach . T he s econd p a r t o ft he c hap te ri n t roduces my s t ra tegy f o r s t udy ing i n t ra -s i te a nd i n -

My c onc lud ing d i scuss ion , i nC hap te r 9 ,r ound s u p t h e c on -

t e r -s i te v a r ia t ion a tK l i th ia nd Ka s t r i t sa .D es igned t o mee tt he

c l us ions o ft h ep r ev iou sc hap te r s .T he a t t r ibu te s o fs pa t ia l o r -

r e qu iremen t s i d en t if ied i nC hap te r s 2a nd 3 ,a nd i n corpora t -

g an isa t ion c ommon t ot h eU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic s i te s e xam ined

i ng s ome o ft h ea na ly t ica la nd emp ir ica lt e chn ique sd i scussed

a r et h en b r ief ly c ompa red w i th t hose c harac te r is t ic o fF rance 's

i nC hap te r2 ,t h is s t ra tegy i sa pp l icab le t ov i r tua l ly a ny s pa t ia l

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te s ,t op u tt h em i nt empora lp e r spec t ive .

a na lys i s o fp a l impses t s .

I nt h is c hap te r Ir e s ta te t h e q ue s t ion s d e se rv ing o ff u r the ri n -

I nC hap te r4 1e xam ine e t hnoa rchaeo log ica le v idence c oncern -

b ook w i th af ew s ugge s t ion s a st of u tu re r e sea rch .

v e s t iga t ion t ha t h ave e me rged f r om my a na lys is , c l o s ing t h e i ng t he u se o fs pace i nc ave s a nd r ock she l te r s b yh un te r /ga th e r e r s a nd h or t icu l tur is t s i nt r op ica l a nd a r id r e g ion s , a nd a sk

Iam c onf iden tt h a tp a l imp se s t sh ave as i gn if ican tc on t r ibu t ion

wha t c ave / rock she l te r a r chaeo logy c an l e a rn f r om i t .I n p a r -

t o make t o o u r u nde r s tand ing o f p reh is tor ic h un te r /ga the re r

t i cu la r , Ii n ve s t iga te t h ec au se so fv a r iab il i ty i ns i te f u rn i tu re ,t h e

s e t t lemen tb ehav iour . I ti sc l ea rt ha tt h e re a r e many p rob lem s

r o le o fh ea r th s ,p a t te rn si nt h e s eg rega t ion o ra gg rega t ion o fa c -

a s soc ia ted w i th a na lys ing p a l impses ts , a nd t ha t n o t a l l

t i v i t ie s ,a nd w he the ro rn o ti ti sp o ss ib le t oi d en t ify a c t iv i ty a r ea s .

p a l imp se s t s c an c on t r ibu te t oo u r d i scu ss ion o f p a s t b ehav -

A st h ed i scu s s ion e vo lve s , Ic ha l lenge m any o ft h ea s sump t ion s

i ou r . Ih ope , h oweve r , t h a tb yt h e e nd o ft h is b ook t h er e ade r

o n wh ich t h er e cons t ruc t ion is ta pp roa ch i sf ounded a nd d em -

w i l l h ave b een c onv inced t h a t i fo u rt h eore t ica l e xpec ta t ions

o ns tra te t h ev a lue o fs t udy ing r edundan tp a t ter n so fc amp o r -

a nd o ur r e sea r ch s t ra teg ie sa r ea pp ropr ia te w e may y e te x t rac t

g an isa t ion a r ound h ea r th s .T h is c hap te rs ows t h es e ed so f many

ag rea td ea lo fn ew i n fo rma t ion f r om t h e P a laeo l i th ic r e co rd .

o ft he i d ea sp u r sued t h roughou tt h is s t udy .

N o te s

C hap ter s 5a nd 6 d ea l w i th t h e s pa t ia l a na lys is o fK l i th i a nd K a s t r i t sa .T he a na lys is o fK l i th i i s ma in ly q uan t i ta t ive , u s ing

1 . T he t e rm ' r edundan t ' i su sed i nt h is s t udy t os i gn ify as pa -

Uncons t ra ined C lus ter ing ,v i sua li n spec t ion o fp lo t sa nd s im -

t i a lp a t ter nw h ich r e cu r sd e sp i te b ackg round n o ise , a nd i s

p l e d e sc r ip t ive s t a t is t ics .A t K a s t r i t sa Ia ga in t r ea ted t he d a ta

t hus r obu s t . S uch ap a t ter n may r e su l t e i ther f r om r epe t i t i ve h uman s pa t ia la nd ma in tenance b ehav iou ro rf r om p o s t -

q uan t i ta t ive ly ,b u ta l so e xp lo red t h es pa t ia li n teg r i ty o ft he l a y -

d epo s i t iona ld i s turbance .

e r s e xam ined b y mean s o fr ef i t t ing . O u to ft h ep a l imp ses t s o f ma te r ia l a tb o th s i tes c er ta in r obus t p a t ter n s eme rged wh ich

2 . T he a b sence o fs t one b u i ld ing si s ,o fc ou r se , at r a i to f many

d emons t ra ted t he s i gn if icance o fh ea r th si ns t ruc tu r ing h uman

mob i le l i f es ty les r a the r t han o f a mode o f p roduc t ion

a c t iv i ty a nd i nt he d epo s i t ion o fc u l tu ra l d ebr is . T hese c hap -

( I ngo ld 1 986 ) . 3 . F o re xamp le ,a l though w ea r ec e r ta in t ha tp a r to fw ha tw e c a l l t h e P a laeo l i th ic s e t t lemen t o fn or thwe s t G reece i si n

t e r sl e ad u st os o me u sefu lc onc lus ion sr ega rd ing b o th t he a na l y t ica l t e chn iques emp loyed a nd t h e p oss ib i l i t ie s f o r f u ture

A lban ia , a nd t h a t many k ey st ou nde r s tand ing i ta r et ob e

r e sea rch a te ach s i te .

f ound t h e re ,f u r the re xp lo ra t ion w a si mpo ss ib le u n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly .

I n C hap te r 7 Imove o n t o t h e r eg iona l s ca le o f a na lys is t o

5

Chap ter 2 .T heore t ica la nd me thodo log ica la pproache st os pa t ia l v ar ia t ion i n Upper P a laeo l i th ic s i te s H ow t h e s ame g roup a dap ted t o c on st ra ined ( r ock she l te r ) a nd u ncon s t ra ined ( open l o ca t ions ) c ond i t ion s p resen t s af a sc ina t ing p rob lem a nd ap o ten t ia l k ey t ou n lock ing t h e v a r iab le u se o ft h e c u l tu ra l ly c r ea ted l a ndscape b y e xam in ing t h e i n terp lay o fr e g i ona l c ons t ra in t o n l o ca l b ehav iou r . C . G amb le , 1 991 . An i n t roduc t ion t ot h e l i v ing s pace s o f mob i le p eop le s , 1 .

2 . 1 S tra t eg ie sf or i n terpre ta t ion

( s ee C hap ter 4 ) ,i tu ndoub ted ly p rov ide s af r ame o fr e fe rence ,

A s s igna t ion so f mean ing t op a t terns i nt h eP a laeo l i th ic r e co rd

a nd make st he c ruc ia l d i s t inc t ion b e tween d i rec t ly a na log ica l u se a nd o the ru ses o fe t hnog raph ic e v idence i na r chaeo log ica l

a r e g ene ra l ly p romp ted b y t he o bserva t ion o fr egu la r i t ie s o r

r e sea rch .

i r regu la r i t ie s i nt h e p re sen t d u r ing e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l , e x p e r imen ta l o rs o c iob io log ica l r e sea rch . I nt he c a se o fs pa t ia l

2 . 1 :1 D irec ta na log ica l r eason ing v er su s

p a t ter n s t h i s c onnec t ion f i r s t a ro se d u r ing t he e a r ly d ay s o f s e t t lemen ta r chaeo logy , when a rgumen t si nf a vour o ft h eh or i -

e thnoarchaeo logy

z on ta l a pproach were f ounded o n e thnograph ic a nd

I fa ny p a r t o f a r chaeo logy c an b e s a id t oh ave s uf e red s i de e f f ec t s f r om d i rec ta na log ica lr e a son ing i ti ss pa t ia l a r chaeo l -

e t hnoh is tor ic e v idence s ugge s t ing ac or re spondence b e tween t h el a you to fs e t t lemen t s a nd t he s oc ia la nd e conom ic o rgan i -

o gy . D irec t a na log ica l r ea son ing o pe ra te s o n t h e a s sump t ion

s a t ion o f t h e c ommun i t ie s i nhab i t ing t h em ( T r igge r 1 967 ) .

t ha te t hnograph ic d a ta c an b eu sed a sp a rad igms f o rt h ee xp la -

S ince t h en , d i ssa t isfac t ion w i th t h e k ind o f i n forma t ion r e -

n a t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l p a t tern s , a sl o ng a sf o rma l s im i la r i -

c orded i nt r ad i t iona l e thnog raph ie s h a s l e d a r chaeo log is t s t o

t i e sa r ed emon s t rab le b e tween a r chaeo log ica l ly r e cove red a nd

s e ek o u t c on tempora ry g roup s o fh un te r /ga the re r s w i th t h e ir

e t hnog raph ica l ly d ocumen ted e n t i t ie s . W i th in t h is a pp roach

o wn q ues t ion s ,l o ok ing f o rl i nk sb e tween a r chaeo log ica lf i nd s

t h e p rob lem o fa r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion c ome s d own t o

a nd t h eb ehav iou r sr e spons ib le f o rt he i rp roduc t ion , mod if ica -

s e lec t ing a na pp rop r ia te e t hnog raph ic a na logy .T h i ss or to fu se

t i on a nd d i spo sa l ( B info rd 1 978a ,b , 1 983 ;Y e l len 1 977 ) . P a r -

o fa na logy ,p ivo ta lt o' a n th ropo log ica l a r chaeo logy ' , i sb a sed

t i c ipan t s i nt h e se e xped i t ion s h ave g ene ra l ly r ega rded t he

o n t h e a s sump t ion t ha t l i v ing c u l tu re s c an p rov ide a na logue s

m ean ing a nd i n te rp lay o fs pa t ia l s t ruc tu re s ( bo th r eg iona la nd

f o rp a s tc u l ture s( Ken t 1 987 ) .T ha tt h is a s sump t ion i sw rong i s

i n t ra -s i te ) a so fp r ime i mpor tance . I nr e cen ty ea r s , a r chaeo lo -

c ogen t ly d emon s t ra ted b yn ume rou se t hnog raph ic o b serva t ion s

g i s t sw ork ing o nt h eP a laeo l i th ic h ave c on s ide rab ly e xpanded

i nd ica t ing c u l tura l d i ve r s i ty a nd t h ence v a r iab i l i ty i n ma te r ia l

t h e s cope o ft h e ir e nqu ir ie s i n to s pa t ia lb ehav iour , o bserv ing

c u l tu re e ven u nde r v e ry s im i la r e conom ic o r e nv ironmen ta l

n o t o n ly m oder nh uman s , b u t a l so p re sen t -day A f r ican a pes .

c ond i t ions , l e ta l one b e tween t h ep re sen ta nd t he p a s t( s ee t h e

F o r e xamp le , w hen a t temp t ing t od eve lop a l terna t ive b ehav -

d i scus s ion o f h or t icu l tu ra l is t s i te s i n P apua N ew Gu inea i n

i o u ra l mode l sf o rt he f o rma t ion o fe a r ly h om in id s i te si nE a s t

C hap te r4 ) .

A f r ica S ep te xam ined n e s t ing b ehav iou ra nd p oss ib le modes At yp ica l e xamp le o fi n f e ren t ia l a r gumen t b y a na logy i st h e

o fd eb r is a c cumu la t ion a mongs tc h impanzees ( 1992 ) .

i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e v a r ia t ion i nh ear th a r rangemen t s a tt h e Ab r iP a taud d ur ing d if e ren tp ha ses o ft h e Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic

T he t e rm ' e thnoa rchaeo log ica l a pp roach ' h a s more t han o ne i n te rp re ta t ion . K en th a s i d en t if ied t h ree d if e ren tt ype s o fr e -

a s ma rk ing t he d eg ree o fs oc ia ld eve lopmen to ft h ec ommun i -

s e a r ch u nde rt h eh ead ing o fe t hnoa rchaeo logy : ' a n th ropo log i -

t i e si nhab i t ing t h er ock she l te r( Mov ius 1 966 ) . T he s ma l lo va l

c a la r chaeo logy ' , ' a rchaeo log ica l ly o r ien ted e thnog raphy 'a nd

d i s t r ibu t ion s o fc u l tu ra l ma ter ia l i nt h e v i c in i ty o fh ea r th s i n

' e thnoarchaeo logy ' ( 1987 , 3 4-6 ) . ' An th ropo log ica l a r chaeo l -

t h eA ur ignac ian l a ye r sa r et a ken t os ugge s t ar e s iden t ia lc amp

o gy 'd esc r ibe st h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd b yr e f e rence t ov a r i -

u sed b ya ne xpanded n uc lea rf am i ly .I nt h eU ppe rP er igo rd ian

o u s a r ea s o fa n th ropo logy . T h is a pp roach i sc ha rac ter ised b y

l a ye r h ear th s a l igned a t 2m i n terva ls a l ong t he s he l te r w a l l

c u l tu re -h i s to r ica l g oa ls a nd r e l ie s u pon d i rec t e thnog raph ic

a nd a s soc ia ted w i th al ong , n a r row d i s tr ibu t ion o f f i nd s a r e

a na logy . ' A rchaeo log ica l ly o r ien ted e t hnography ' i nvo lves

t a ken t or ep re sen ta no the rt ype o fr e s iden t ia l c amp s im i la rt o

u s ing t h er e su l t s o fe thnog raph ic o re xpe r imen ta l r e sea rch t o

t h ee t hnog raph ica l ly d ocumen ted l ong -house ' ,c ha rac te r is t ic

d e r ive a na logue s wh ich may h e lp t o a n swe r a r chaeo log ica l q ue s t ion s . T h is a pp roach i sp a r t icu la r ly u sefu l a s as ou rce o f

o ft h el i neage t ype o fs oc ia l o rgan isa t ion .A f te ro bserv ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , Mov ius s ough t e t hnog raph ic p a ra l le ls

c r o ss -cu l tu ra l a na logue s . T thnoa rchaeo logy ' , a ccord ing t o

w i th t h ed a ta t oh and a nd ,w i th in as imp le e vo lu t iona ry s cheme ,

K en t , i se t hnog raph ic r e sea rch d e s igned t oc on s truc t a nd t e s t

h ypo the s ised s oc ia l d eve lopmen t f r om a n e xpanded n uc lea r

a r chaeo log ica l me thod sa nd mode ls .I ti sa s soc ia ted w i th m id -

f am i ly i n to a l i neage type g roup . S uch a n a pp roach c an b e

d l e -range r e sea rch ( B info rd 1 981) . I dea l ly i ts hou ld i nvo lve a

c r i t ic ised o n t h ree f r on t s . F i r s t , i tv i ews t ime i nc oa r se s l ice s

t h ree s tep s t ra tegy b eg inn ing w i th c l a r if ica t ion o ft he a r chaeo -

a nd t hu sn eg lec t s a ny p os s ib le t empo ra lv a r ia t ion w i th in e a ch

l o g ica l p rob lem , p roceed ing t o c o l lec t ion o fr e levan t e t hno -

l a ye r , a s sum ing c on tempo rane i ty b e tween h ear th s . S econd , i t

g raph ic d a ta , a nd e nd ing i n ar e turn t ot h e s i te t oi mp lemen t

make su n jus t if iab le t empo ra ll e ap st ol i nk t h ep re sen tw i th t h e p a s t a nd i st hu s a h is to r ic . T h ird , i ti mpo se s au n iform i ta r ian

a r chaeo log ica l ly t he k now ledge g a ined f r om e thnog raphy .

p e r spec t ive u pon s oc ia la nd c u l tu ra lb ehav iou r ,e xpec t ing t h a t

A l though o ne may n o te n t i re ly a g ree w i th t h is s cheme ,o r may , a s i n my c a se , b e u nab le t of i t o ne 's a pp roach i n to i te a s i ly

u nde r ac ommon d enom ina to ro fe conom ic mode ( e .g . h un t 7

C hap ter 2 i ng /ga ther ing ) p a r t icu la r s hapes o f s pa t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion w i l l

s a t ion g i ve sr i se t ot h ree a dd i t iona lt ype so fs i te :t h ef i e ld c amp ,

c o r respond d i rec t ly t op a r t icu la rt ype s o fs oc ia l o rgan isa t ion .

t h es t a t ion a nd t h ec ache .T a sk g roup sa way f r om t h er e s iden t i a lc amp m a in ta in t h em se lve si nf i e ld c amp s .S ta t ion sa r eu sed

T he r e levance o fe t hnog raph ic a na log ie st ot h ee xp lana t ion o f

f o r o bserva t ion a nd i n forma t ion -ga ther ing . F ood r e sources

a r chaeo log ica lv a r iab i l i ty h a sb een t h es ub jec to fl ong a nd f e r -

o b ta ined i nt h ef i e ld may b es t ored t empo ra r i ly i nc aches .T he

v en td eba te a mong b o th p roce s sua la nd n on -p roce ssua la r chae -

B ushmen a nd A us t ra l ian a bo r ig ines a r et yp ica lf o rage r s , wh i le

o log is t s ( B info rd 1 967 ;C hang 1 967 ; Gou ld 1 980 ; K en t 1 987 ;

t h e Nunam iu t E sk imo s a r e t yp ica l c o l lec tor s . B info rd c on -

K le jn 1 973 ; Mu r ray & Wa lke r1 988 ; Wobs t 1 978 ; Wy l ie 1 985 ) .

c l uded t h a tr e s iden t ia la nd l og is t ica lv a r iab i l i ty may b ef ound

F rom as oc ia l -an th ropo log ica lp o in to fv i ew , Moo re p o in t so u t

among h un te r /ga the re r si n' v a ry ing m ixe si nd if e ren ts e t t ing s '

t ha t a ny e xp lana t ion i se s sen t ia l ly ap roce ss o ft r ans la t ion i n

( i b id . , 1 8 ) .

t h e s ense t h a tu nfam i l ia rt e rm s a nd c oncep t s a r er ende red u s i ng t e rm s a nd c oncep t s s i gn if ican tw i th in o ur f r ame o f mean -

T he f o rage r /co l lec to r mode ld e scr ibe sh un te r /ga the re ro rgan i -

i ng ( 1982 ) . S he f u r the rc on tend st ha tt h ec u l tura lb ackg round

s a t ion a r ound r e sou rce s ,i gnor ing t h eo rgan isa t ion o fp roduc -

o fi nd iv idua lr e sea rcher sp rofound ly a f ec t st he ir o b serva t ion

t i on a round s oc ia l r e la t ions b e tween i nd iv idua ls (W iessne r

a nd e xp lana t ion o f emp ir ica l d a ta . I n f e rences a bou t t h e p a s t c an , o fc ou r se , o n ly b e made b y mean s o fs ome k ind o fa na l -

e l led t h ea r chaeo log ica li mp l ica t ion so fd if e ren ts oc ia ls t ra te -

1 982 ) .W ie s sne rh a se l abo ra ted u pon t h el a t ter i s sue a nd mod -

o gy ; a s Moo re s ugge s t s ,t h is n eed n o tb e ap rob lem i fo u re x -

g ie s among h un te r /ga there r s f or r educ ing r i sk , d raw ing a

p lana t ions a r e b a sed u pon s t ruc tura l a nd o rgan isa t iona l

d i cho tomy b e tween c ommun i ty r i sk sha r ing a nd s t o rage . S o -

s im i lar i t ies r a the r t han f o rma l o nes ( i b id . , 7 5 ) . Mur ray a nd

c i e t ie sp r ima r i ly r e ly ing u pon s ha r ing a r ee xpec ted t oh ave a n

Wa lke r , r e add re ss ing t h e i s sue o fa na log ica l r ea son ing , h ave

o pen s i te l a you t ,r egu la rb u tcher ing p rac t ice sr e su l t ing i nd i s -

f o rmu la ted w ha t s eem s t o m e as en s ib le f r amewo rk f o r a s -

t r ibu t ion o f b ones , n o d rama t ic c hange w i th i n c rea s ing d i s -

s i gn ing mean ing t oa r chaeo log ica l p a t terns :

t a nce i nt h e n umbe r o fe xchange i t ems p re sen t , a nd l im i ted

I ti sp ropo sed h e re t ha t a r chaeo log i s t s , f a r f r om d i spen s ing

s t y l is t ic v a r ia t ion . S oc ie t ies r e ly ing u pon s t orage a r ee xpec ted

w i th a na log ica l i n f e rence s w hen a rgumen t s a r e e l abo ra ted , s hou ld r a the r e nsu re t h a t w o rk ing h ypo these s d rawn f r om

t oe xh ib i tt h eo ppos i te c ha rac ter is t ics w i th r ega rd t ot h e se v a r i a b les ( i b id .) .

a na log ica li n f e rence sb ep ref e ren t ia l ly a ccep ted i na smuch a s t hey ( a )m ay b er e fu tab le w i th in t h eu n ive r se o fd a ta t h ey a r e

I n te r -s i te a nd i n t ra -s i te s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion c an mo s t c ohe ren t ly

i nvoked t o i n te rp re t , a nd ( b ) a n t ic ipa te t h e l i ke l ihood o f

b el i nked w i th t h ea dap t ive a nd s oc ia lo rgan isa t ion o ft h es ys -

c hanges i no ne ( o r mo re )p a rame te r sv i s -a -v i st h ea na log ica l

t em i n wh ich t h e s i tes p a r t ic ipa te w i th in af r amewo rk c on -

c a se (s ) , t h ed e tec t ion o fw h ich ( i .e . t h ec hanges )i ss u scep t i -

s t ruc ted b yc omb in ing W ies sne r 's i d ea sw i th B in fo rd 's f o rage r /

b le t ot h e s t ra tegy i n( a ) . T he i mp l ica t ion s o ft h e p roposa l s

c o l lec tor mode l . A long

a r e c on s ide red w i th r ega rd t oc onf l ic t ing n o t ions a bou t a r -

t hese

l i nes ,

a n umber o f

e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s h ave e xam ined t h e i mpac t u pon

c haeo log ica lm ean ingf u lnes s ( 1988 , 2 51-52 ) .

s i te s t ruc tu re i nh un te r /ga the re ro pen -a ir s e t t lemen t so fd ife r -

I na smuch a s t h e c r i t ic ism c oncer n ing t h e u se o f d i rec t a na -

e n tp a t ter n so ff ood p rocu remen ta nd r ed i s t r ibu t ion ,o fd eg ree

l og ica lr ea son ing i sj us t if ied ,t h e re h a sb een ama rked s h if ti n

o f mob i l i ty , o fa n t ic ipa t ion o f mob i l i ty , o fp reda to r p re ssu re

t h ea genda o fe t hnoa rchaeo logy ( Ga l lay 1 988a ) .T he v a lue o f

o r o f e co log ica l c ond i t ion s ( B info rd 1 987 ; Gou ld & Y e l len

e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l a nd o t he ra c tua l is t ic s t ud ies i st oday r e c -

1 987 ; K en t 1 991 ; K en t & V ier ich 1 989 ; O 'Conne l l 1 987 ;

o gn ised l e ss i nt h e ir a b i l i ty t op rov ide d i rec ta na log ie st han i n

Wh i te law 1 989 , 1 991) .

t h e i rc apac i ty t or e vea lt h es ou rce so fv a r iab i l i ty i nt h ea r chaeo l og ica l r e co rd f r om ac ro ss -cu l tura l p e r spec t ive ( s ee Gamb le &B o ism ie r 1 991 ; K ro l l &P r ice 1 991 f o re xamp les ) .

2 . 1 :3 A c t iv i ty a rea r e search

2 . 1 :2 L ink ing i n ter -s i te w i th i n tra -s i te p a t terns o fs pa t ia l

B info rd i n t roduced t h e n o t ion o fs i te s t ruc ture i n to t h e s t udy

v ar ia t ion

o fi n t ra -s i te s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion . H e h a s s ugges ted t ha t i tb e d e scr ibed i nt e rm so ft wo modu les :t h ea c t iv i ty a r ea ,a nd h ea r th -

B info rd 's wo rk o n t h e N unam iu t E sk imo s o fA la ska a nd h i s

r e la ted a c t iv i t ie s /d is t r ibu t ions ( 1983 ) .T he c oncep to fa c t iv i ty

e x ten s ive k now ledge o ft h ee t hnog raph ic e v idence i n sp ired h i s

a r ea s ,u sed l o o se ly i nh i se a r l ie rw r i t ing s( 1978a ,b ) ,w a sg radu -

f o rage r /co l lec to r mode l f o rh un te r /ga the re rs ubs is tence s t ra t -

a l ly d eve loped t o mean ' p lace s , f a c i l i t ie s , o r s u r face s whe re

e g ies a nd s e t t lemen t s ys tem s , i n co rpo ra t ing as cheme f o ri n -

t e chno log ica l , s oc ia l , o r r i tua l a c t iv i t ie s o ccu r ' ( 1983 , 1 48 ) .

t e rpre t ing i n t ra -s i te s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion . H e p roposed t ha t s ubs is tence s t ra teg ie s s hou ld b e s een a s as pec trum b e tween

A c t iv i ty a r ea s s hou ld b e r ecogn isab le b y t he ir a s soc ia ted

t h e e x t reme s o f p ure ( s imp le ) f o rag ing a nd p u re ( c omp lex )

t a sk ' ( i b id . , 1 47 ) . T he p lace whe re t oo lk i t s a r e d i sca rded i s

c o l lec t ing ( B info rd 1 980 ) .F o rage r sa r ec ha rac te r ised b y ah igh

e xpec ted t ob e i d en t if iab le b y mean s o fp a t ter n r e cogn i t ion ,

t oo lk i t s , w h ich a r e s e t s ' o f t oo ls u sed i nt h e e xecu t ion o f a

d eg ree o fg roup mob i l i ty i ns ea rch o ff ood a nd r aw ma te r ia l s ,

mak ing i tp o s s ib le t o map t h e s i te 's a c t iv i t ies . T h is e xpec ta -

a nd b y t he a b sence o ff ood -s tor ing . T hey a r e e xpec ted t ou se

t i on a s sume s t h a t a c t iv i t ie s a r e s pa t ia l ly s e g rega ted a nd t ha t

t wo t ype so fs i te : r e s iden t ia lb a se c amp sa nd r e sou rce e x t rac -

t he re i s al i nea r r e la t ionsh ip b e tween p er formance o fa c t iv i -

t i on l o ca t ion s . I nt he f orme r ,v a r iab il i ty i nc on ten tw i l lr e f lec t

t i es a nd d epo s i t ion o fc a tegor ie s o fr e fu se . T he me thodo log i -

d ife rence s i n s ea son a nd d u ra t ion o f o ccupa t ion . T he l a t te r

c a l i mp l ica t ion i st h a t s pa t ia l a s soc ia t ion b e tween d ife ren t

w i l lp roduce a ggrega te s ,l a ck ing i n ter na ls t ruc tu re ,o fa r tefac t s

t ype so ff i nd i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lc on tex ti nd ica te st h e ir mu -

s ca t te red o ve r t h e l a nd scape . C o l lec to r s a r e mo re s eden ta ry , t he ir s t ra teg ie s c harac te r is t ica l ly i n c lud ing f ood -sha r ing , t e r -

t ua la s soc ia t ion w i th as i ng le t a sk i nt h es y s tem ic c on tex t .P rac -

r i tor ia l i ty a nd p e rhap ss ome k ind o fe t hn ic i d en t i ty .R esou rce s

a s s ign ing t h er i gh tf unc t ions t oc u l tura ld ebr is a nd i d en t ify ing

a r ee x t rac ted b y mean s o fe xped i t ion s who se l og is t ic o rgan i -

s pa t ia l a s soc ia t ion sb e tween i t s c omponen t s .

t i ca l ly , t h e refo re , t h e g oa l o f s pa t ia l a na ly s i s c ome s d own t o

8

T heor e t ica la nd m e thodo log ica la pproaches Y e l len 's s t udy o fs pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion among s tt h e ! Kung S an

b e more i nforma t ive a bou t c er ta in a c t iv it ies . R ecen t

i nt he K a laha r i d eser td escr ibe s ar i ng p a t te rn i nt h e a r range -

e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ies , h oweve r , make i tc l ea r t ha t t h e

men t o fs he l te r s a nd a c t iv i t ie s w i th in ac amp ( 1977 ) . Y e l len u ses t h ea c t iv i ty a r ea n o t ion ,b u td i s t ingu ishe sb e tween i n ten -

mus t a l so b e t h e a r ea i n wh ich i t s a s soc ia ted r e l ics w e re d i s -

a s sump t ion t ha tt h e a r ea i n wh ich a n a c t iv i ty wa s p e r formed

s i ve ly a nd e x ten s ive ly u sed a r ea s a nd b e tween i nd iv idua la nd

c a rded a nd e xcava ted l a rge ly n eg lec t st h ei s sues o fs econda ry

c ommuna la c t iv i t ie s .H ei d en t if ie st h ree ma in t ype so fa c t iv i ty

r e fu se ( Mur ray 1 980 ; S ch if f e r 1 972 ) a nd c ura t ion ( B info rd

a r ea ,o nt h eb a s is o fs oc ia lc on tex t ,f unc t ion a nd l o ca t ion .T he

1 979 ) . E thnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ies a l so s how t ha t a c t iv i t ie s

f i r s ti st h ec ommuna l c en t ra l a r ea whe re c ommuna l a c t iv i t ie s

i n ac amp may ( e .g . A lyawa ra , Nunam iu t ) o r may n o t ( e .g .

s uch a sd anc ing a nd p r ima ry f ood d i s t r ibu t ion a r ep er formed ,

! Kung ,H adza )b es pa t ia l ly s eg rega ted ( O 'Conne l le ta l . 1 991) .

c ha rac te r ised b yt h ea bsence o f ma te r ia lr ema in s .T he s econd D e sp i te Y e l len 's w a rn ing t ha t

i st he n uc lea ra c t iv i ty a r ea , ad omes t ic u n i tc omp r is ing as he l t e r a nd i t s a s soc ia ted h ear th a nd c u l tu ra l d ebr is . T h is i st h e

. . the s e em ing ly e a s ie rs t ep o fr e con s t ruc t ing s pec if ic a c t iv i -

mos ti n ten s ive ly u sed p ar to f ac amp . H e re a ccumu la t ing c u l -

t i e s b a sed o n a s soc ia t ion o f s t one t oo l s a nd o the r t ypes o f

t u ra l ma te r ia l i ss ub jec t t op e r iod ic ma in tenance wh ich c r e -

r ema in s may p rove mo re d if i cu l t a nd n o t s e rve , a s many

a t es d i s t inc td ump ing l o ca t ion s . T he t h i rd i st h ea c t iv i ty a r ea ,

h ave s u spec ted ,a s an ece ssa ry s t ep o rb u i ld ing b lock f o r mo re a b s t rac tk ind s o fs pecu la t ion ( 1977 , 9 7 ) ,

o n t he p e r iphe ry o ft he c amp , d evo ted t o s pec ial i sed a c t iv i -

t h e u l t ima te g oa l o f s pa t ia l a na ly s is o f a r chaeo log ica l s i te s

t i es ; h e re ,f o re xamp le , h ide s a r et anned .

b ecame t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f a c t iv i ty a r ea s , more o r l e ss a c c a ted t h an B info rd 's i n t ha t i tt ake s i n to a ccoun t t h e s oc ia l

c o rd ing t oB info rd 's d ef in i t ion ( H ie ta la 1 984b ;N ewe l l &D ek in 1 978 ) . B ecause t h is mode l wa s f undamen ta l ly i ncompa t ib le

c on tex t so fa c t iv i t ie s .Y e l len e xpec t st of i nd s epa ra te a c t iv i t ie s

w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , n ume rous s t ud ies o fs pa t ia l o r -

o ve r lapp ing s pa t ia l ly a round d ome s t ic h ea r th s , s o t ha t t h e ir

g an isa t ion i nt e rm so fa c t iv i ty a r ea sf a i led t oa ch ieve c onv inc -

r e su l tan t d ebr is may a gg rega te i n as i ng le l o cus . B info rd 's

i ng r e con s t ruc t ion so fp reh is to r ic l i f e space ( Fo rd i scus s ion s ee

a pproach i ss chema t ic i na s sum ing t ha tr e fu se i sf ound whe re t h e a c t iv i t ie s t ha t c r ea ted i tt ook p lace , a nd i ni n va r iab ly e x -

S imek 1 984b ; Wha l lon 1 978 ) .

p ec t ing s pa t ia l s eg rega t ion o fa c t iv i ty a r ea si n ah uman s i te . I

B ecau se t h e n o t ion o ft h e a c t iv i ty a r ea i sp rob lema t ic , many

c on tend t h a t t h e a r chaeo log is t c anno t h ave c onf idence i ne i -

r e cen t e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s h ave s ough t t o r ef ine i t ,

t he ro fB info rd 's a s sump t ion s . My o b jec t ion s a r eb o th e p is te -

c on s t ruc t ing c omp rehen s ive mode ls t h a tt ake i n to a ccoun ts i te

mo log ica la nd me thodo log ica l .

r eoccupa t ion a nd o the rt e chnoeconom ic ,d emog raph ic o ri d eo -

T he n o t ion o ft h e a c t iv i ty a r ea i mp l ic i t ly a s sume s t h e e x is t -

N ewe l l 1 987 ; O 'Conne l l e ta l . 1 991) . T h is s or to fr ef inemen t

Y e l len 's mode l l ing o f a c t iv i ty a r ea s i s much mo re s oph is t i -

l og ica l v a r iab le s ( Brook s &Y e l len 1 987 ; K en t 1 984 , 1 99 1; e nce o f al i v ing f l oo r : as u r face o n wh ich p eop le l i ved a nd

( now , i tw ou ld s e em , r ega rded b y e t hnoa rchaeo log is t s a s a n

p er formed a c t iv i t ie s ( Borde s 1 975 ) . Al i v ing f l oo ri ss pa t ia l ly d i s t inc t f r om i t s o ve r ly ing o r u nde r ly ing d epo s i t s a nd c o r re -

e nd i ni t se lf ) h a s made l i t t le c on t r ibu t ion t o t he P a laeo l i th ic

s pond s t empo ra l ly t o a n e p isode o fo ccupa t ion . W i th in e ach

a r chaeo log is t sh e s i ta te t oi n corpora te t h ee t hnoa rchaeo log is t s '

l i v ing f l oo r a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s a nd s i te f e a tu re s s uch a s

d eve lopmen t s i n to t h e i r r e sea rch s t ra teg ies , b u t b ecause t h e

h ea r th s a r e a s sumed t ob e c on tempo raneous . T he n o t ions o f t he l i v ing f l oo r , t h e a c t iv i ty a r ea a nd t h et oo lk i ta r e u ndoub t -

t ha t ma in ly c oncerns c ompressed e xpanses o f t ime .

e d ly r e levan t t ot h e d i scu ss ion o fe t hnog raph ica l ly o bserved

E thnoa rchaeo logy , o f c ou r se , u sua l ly o b se rves e ven t s i n t h e

s pa t ia lb ehav iou r ,a nd p e rhap st ot he f ew p r is t ine P a laeo l i th ic

mak ing .

r e sea rch i tw a s o r ig ina l ly i n tended t of a c i l i ta te , n o t b ecau se

a c t iv i ty a r ea mode lc anno ta ccoun tf o rt h ep roper t ie so f ar e co rd

s i tes whe re t h e P ompe i i p rem ise i sm e t , r ap id s ed imen ta t ion 2 . 1 :4 H ear th -re la ted d i s tr ibu t ion so fc u ltura l ma ter ia l

h av ing s ea led a nd p re served t h eo r ig ina ll a you t . Howeve r ,t h e a s sump t ion s u pon wh ich t h e se n o t ion s r e ly c anno t s a f e ly b e

B info rd h a sf u r the ro b served t ha tc e r ta in u n ive r sa lp r inc ip les ,

made o fp a l imp se s t s , a nd t hus o ft h e v a s t ma jor i ty o fP a laeo l i th ic s i te s .T he i d en t if ica t ion o fa ne xcava ted s u r face a s al i v -

g ove rned b yt h es i ze a nd mechan ics o ft h eh uman b ody ,o pe r -

i ng f l oo r mu s tb es uppo r ted b y a r tefac ta nd b one r ef i t t ing a nd

a t ei nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fd ebr is c r ea ted b y a c t iv i t ie s t ha tt a ke

b ys ea sona l i ty s t ud ie s ,a nd e ven s or ema in sp rob lema t ic ,s i nce i n corpo ra t ion o f ma te r ia l f r om p rev iou s o r s ubsequen t o ccu -

p lace a round h ea r th s ( 1983 ) . Sma l l s pec imens a r e d ropped w i th in ab and i mmed ia te ly a round t h e h ea r th , t he d rop z one ,

p a t ion si sa lways p oss ib le ,s ot ha tt h ee v idence f o rs pa t io tem p ora l i n tegr i ty c anno t b e u nequ ivoca l ( i b id .) . I n t h e l i gh t o f

wh i ls t l a rge r s pec imen s a r e t o ssed f u r the r a way i n to v acan t

r e cen t s ea sona l i ty s t ud ie s , e ven s i te s o fh igh s pa t ia l i n teg r i ty

a s s ome k ind o f ' p reven t ive ma in tenance ' , k eep ing t he a r ea

s uch a sP inceven ta r en o l onge rt hough tt or ep re sen t as i ng le

i mmed ia te ly a round t h e h ea r th c l ea r o fl a rge s pec imens t ha t

a r ea si nf r on to fo rb eh ind t he h ea r th ,t h et o s sz ones .T h is a c t s

m igh to the rw ise i mpede h uman a c t iv i ty ( i b id . , 1 53 ) . Ah ea r th -

b ehav iou ra le p isode o fo ccupa t ion ( s ee b e low ,2 . 2 :1) .T he a s s oc ia t ion o ft h et oo lk i t w i th t he a c t iv i ty a r ea i se qua l ly p rob l ema t ic .U sewea ra na ly s is o fl i th ic a r tefac t sh a sc a s td oub to n

r e la ted d i s t r ibu t ion i st hu s l a id o u t i n t wo c oncen t r ic z ones w i th t h eh ea r th a tt h ec en t re .T he d rop a nd t o ss z ones c an s how

t he u t i l i ty o ft h e t r ad i t iona l t ypo log ie s i nu nde r s tand ing p a s t

v a r ia t ion i ns i ze a nd s hape a cco rd ing t ot h en umbe ro fp eop le

h uman b ehav iou r ; mo reove r , r e cen t d eve lopmen t s d emand a

u s ing t h eh ea r th ,t h ep a t ter ni n wh ich t h ey h ab i tua l ly s i ta r ound

r e con s ide ra t ion e ven o ft h e f unc t iona l c l a ss if ica t ion o ft oo l s

i t ,a nd t h ep re sence o ra bsence o fs i te f ur n i ture . I n many e t h -

(Mos s 1 986 ) .T he u ncer ta in ty o fo u ra s soc ia t ion so ft oo l sw i th

n og raph ic s e t t ing sb o th t h eu sua ls i t t ing p a t ter na nd t h ed i s t r i -

f unc t ion ss ugges t st ha to u ri n te rp re ta t ion so ft oo lk i t sa r ei n ad -

b u t ion o fc u l tu ra ld eb r is a r ee i the rc i rcu la ro rs em ic ir cu la r .

e qua te t oa ccoun tf o rt h e a c t iv i t ies p e r formed a t as i te . O the r S t even son ( 1985 ) h a s e l abo ra ted u pon B inford 's t heme b y

c a tegor ie so ff i nd ( bone a r tef ac t s ,f o re xamp le ) may ,o fc ou r se , 9

C hap ter 2 mode l l ing s i te -forma t ion p roce sse s t oa ccoun tf o rp a t terns i n

e na . Is e e f unc t iona l o r e co log ica l a nd s ymbo l ic o r c u l tu ra l

t h ec ompo s i t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fc u l tu ra l ma ter ia li no pen -

e xp lana t ion sn o ta s mu tua l ly e xc lus ive ,b u ta sc omp lemen ta ry

a i r w o rk shop /hab i ta t ion s i tes o ccup ied f o r b r ief p er iod s . H e

p e r spec t ive s u pon t he s ame p rob lem .

p os tu la tes a ni n te rmed ia te c oncen tr ic z one o fr e fuse d i sp lace m en tf o rmed b e tween t h ed rop a nd t h et o ss z one a s ar e su l to f

B eyond t h eo re t ica l p o lem ics , e t hnoa rchaeo logy c on t r ibu tes

i n tens ive a c t iv i ty o rh ea r th r e -u se d u r ing s ubsequen te p isode s

s i gn if ican t ly t ot h ree a r ea s o fs e t t lemen ta r chaeo logy . F i r s t ly ,

o fo ccupa t ion .T h is d i sp lacemen tz one i sc ha rac te r ised b yi t em s

i ta n ima te s t he s oc ia l a nd i d eo log ica l c on tex t s w i th in wh ich

d i sp laced f r om t h e a r ea s i n wh ich t h ey w e re o r ig ina l ly d i s -

s pa t ia l p a t ter n s a r e p roduced . S econd ly , i ts heds l i gh t u pon

c a rded b ecause t h eb u i ldup o fr e fu se i nt h ed rop z one b ecame

p a t tern s o f i nd iv idua l o r c ommuna l a pp ropr ia t ion o f s pace ,

d i srup t ive ( i b id .) . T he g rea t v i r tue o ft h is a mended mode l i s

a nd u pon t h ei n terp lay b e tween d if e ren ts ca les o fs pa t ia lv a r i -

t ha ti tt ake si n to a ccoun tt h ep o ss ib i l i ty o fh ea r th r e -use ,l ong t e rm h ab i ta t ion , a ccumu la t ion o fl a rge amoun t so fr e fuse ,a nd

i n c omb ina t ion w i th e xpe r imen ta l r ep l ica t ion o f f orma t ion

v a r ious u n in ten t iona l a nd r andom p roce sse s o fr e fuse f o rma t i on a r ound h ear th s ,s uch a ss cuf f age a nd s caveng ing .A l though

d i s tor t ion o ft he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a nd e xp l ic i t ly o ri m -

S t evenson h a s a pp l ied t h is mode l s pec if ica l ly t o s hor t term

p l ic i t ly l e ad s u s t ot ho se u n i t s o fo bserva t ion a nd o fa na ly s is

a t ion ( i nd iv idua l ,c ommun i ty a nd r eg ion ,f o re xamp le ) .F ina l ly , a genc ie s i tr e vea l s p o ss ib le s ources o fs pa t ia l v a r iab i l i ty a nd

o pen -a i r s i te s , i ts e em s t om e a pp rop r ia te t oa ny c on tex t , i n -

mos t l i ke ly t o h e lp u s d raw p laus ib le i n f e rence s a bou t p a s t

c l ud ing ac ave o rr ock she l te ru sed l o nge r term .

b ehav iou r .

T he B info rd a nd S t evenson mode ls f o rr e fu se b u i ldup a round

E thnoa rchaeo logy a nd n ew r ead ings o fo ld e t hnog raph ie ss ug -

h ea r ths a r e b o th f ounded u pon t h e f a c t t h a t s i ze i s as or t ing

g e s t t h a t c er ta in e xpec ta t ions c ommon i na r chaeo log ica l r e a -

f a c to r . T h is o b serva t ion c an b e i n co rpo ra ted i n to ar e sea rch

s on ing ( c oncern ing , f o r e xamp le , t h e o pe ra t ion o ff unc t iona l

s t ra tegy f o r s t udy ing h ear th re la ted d i s t r ibu t ion s i na r chaeo -

p r inc ip le s i nt h e o rgan isa t ion o fs pace )r e su l tf r om as imp l is -

l og ica l s i te s . Howeve r , h ea r th s a r en o to n ly magne t s f o rs o r t -

t i c v i ew o f ac omp lex r e a l i ty . Hun te r /ga the re r s e t t lemen t o r

i ng c u l tura l ma ter ia l b y s i ze . T hey a r e p r ima r i ly t h e f ocus o f

c amp s t ruc tu re i sn o tj u s t au t i l i ta r ian a r rangemen to fo b jec t s

s oc ia l a c t iv i ty , a nd a r chaeo log ica l mode ls mus t t h e refo re b e

i nt h ree d imens ion s ;i ti sa l so a na r rangemen td i c ta ted a nd r e -

b road e nough t oa ccoun tf o ro t he rd imen s ions o fs pa t ia l v a r i a b i l i ty a round h ea r th s a sw e l l .

p roduced b yc osmo log ica l , s ymbo l ic a nd c u l ture -spec if ic b e l i ef s( Pa rke rP ea r son & R icha rd s 1 994 b ;O hnuk i -T ie rney 1 972 ; Wh i te law 1 994 ) . I td oe s n o t f o l low f r om t h i s t ha t w e s hou ld

2 . 1 :5 The c on tr ibu t ion o fe thnoarchaeo logy t os pa t ia l

emb race c u l tura lr e la t iv ism . Wh i te law 's s t udy o f aw o r ldw ide

a rchaeo logy

s amp le o f h un te r /ga the re r s e t t lemen t s h a s s hown t ha t t h e ir

E thnoa rchaeo logy h a sb een a tt h eh ea r to ft h ep roce ssua l /po s t -

t h e s oc ia l a nd i nt h e e co log ica l c on tex t ( 1991) . T he u l t ima te

p roce ssua l d eba te , a nd h a s b een u sed b y e ach s i de t o make a

c ro ss -cu l tu ra lo bse rva t ion o nu se o fs pace i st ha ts pa t ia ls t ruc -

c a se f o r i t s o wn a genda ( s ee B info rd 1 987 v i s -à -v is Hodde r

t u re d oe sn o ts imp ly r e f lec ts oc ia lr e la t ion s ,b u t i ss oc ia lr e la -

1 987 ) . T he p roce ssua l a pp roach , s e e ing ma ter ia l c u l tu re a sa

t i ons .T he a c t ive r o le o fs pa t ia la r rangemen t si nt h ep roduc t ion

r e su l to fa dap ta t ion t ot he e nv ironmen t a nd r ega rd ing t h e d e -

a nd r ep roduc t ion o fs oc ia lo rde ri sd ocumen ted i n an umbe ro f

s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion h a s c e r ta in c ommon d imen s ion s , b o th i n

v e lopmen t o fl aw l ike g ene ra l isa t ion s a s ap r ior i ty , h a s u sed

s t ud ies ( Chang 1 962 ;P au l son 1 952 ) . Wh i te law p o in t so u tt ha t

e t hnoa rchaeo logy a s a means o f d eve lop ing c ross -cu l tura l

d esp i te d ife rence si nc u l tura lc oncep t s ,a nd e ven i nt h ed e ta i l

mode ls c apab le o fe xp la in ing v a r iab i l i ty i nt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . I ti st hu s p reoccup ied w i th f unc t iona l o r e co log ica l

o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion , t h e m embe r s o fd if e ren t c u l ture s a p p ea rt ou se s pace a s am ed ium f o r man ipu la t ing s oc ia li n te rac -

a spec t s o fh uman s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion . W i th in t h is a pp roach ,

t i on i nc ompa rab le w ays ( 1991 , 1 81) .

e t hnoa rchaeo logy h a sp rov ided d e scr ip t ive a nd a na ly t ica lt oo ls wh ich h ave b een u sed t ob r idge t h eg ap b e tween t he a r chaeo -

B ecause o ft h e ir mob i le l i fe s ty le ,h un te r /ga the re r s 'u se o fs i te s

l og ica l r e co rd a nd t h e b ehav ioura l r e a lm . T h is t r ansfe rence ,

i ss een i n as pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l c on t inuum . O b se rva t ion o f

a s w e h ave s e en w i th r ega rd t o a c t iv i ty a r ea s , h a s n o t b een

o n -go ing b ehav iour r e vea ls t h a tt h es pa t ia lb ounda r ie sb e tween

w i thou t i t s p rob lems , a nd l a y s u s o pen t ot h e d ange r o fd i s -

c on tex t s a r e o f ten l oo se , a nd t ha t t h e t r ad i t iona l u n i t o f a r -

m iss ing t h e p rope r t ies o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e cord o rc oun t -

c haeo log ica l r e f e rence , t h e s i te , may c or re spond d i rec t ly n o t

i ng i tas econd -c la ss s ou rce o fe v idence .

w i th as e t t lemen tu n i tb u tw i th p a r to fo ne . C e r ta in i mpo r tan t a c t iv i t ie s ,s uch a sp roce ss ing a n ima lc a rca s se so rc ook ing , may

T he p os t -p roce ssua l a pp roach , v i ew ing ma te r ia l c u l tu re a s a

h ave t aken p lace o u t s ide t h ea c tua lr ock she l te r( Go reck i 1 988 ) .

' t ex t ' p erm i t t ing o f mu l t ip le r e ad ings b o th i nt h e p re sen ta nd

T h is c a l l sf o r ar eg iona la pp roach t oa r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie so f

i nt h ep a s t ,h a su sed e t hnoa rchaeo logy t od econs t ruc tt h ec a se

s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion wh ich w i l lp erm i tl i nk sb e tween i nd iv idua l

f o r a ny c ross -cu l tu ra l g ene ra l isa t ion o fr ea l v a lue . I t s a dhe r -

s i te sa nd t h eb roade rs e t t lemen ts y s tem t ob es e en mo re c l ea r ly .

e n t sj u s t ify t h i s w i th t he o b serva t ion t ha tt h e u se o fs pace i s

I ti se s sen t ia lt ha ta r chaeo log is t so ve rcome ' my s i te s ynd rome '

n o to n ly c u l tu re -spec if ic ,b u ta l so v a r ie ss i gn if ican t ly b e tween

i nt he i n tere s to fa cqu ir ing r eg iona lp er spec t ive s u pon s pa t ia l

i nd iv idua ls , a nd b e tween g ende r o r s t a tu s c a tegor ie s w i th in

v a r ia t ion . O n ly b yo b se rv ing p a t ter n so n amacro s ca le c an w e

t h e s ame g roup ( Hodde r 1 987 ) . S pa t ia l p a t te rn s a r e s e en b y

i mp rove o u ru nde r s tand ing o ft hose o n am ic ro s ca le .

t h ep os t -p roce ssual i s t sa se xp re ss ion so fs ymbo l ic t hough ta nd

2 . 2S tra teg ie sf o rp a t tern r ecogn i t ion

i deas s ha red b y i nd iv idua ls w i th in a c u l tura l u n i t . T he p roce ssua l /po s t -p roce ssua l d i cho tomy c oncer n ing t h e u se o f s pace i st h e s o r to fi n te l lec tua l a n t i thes is t ha ti sc ha rac te r is t ic

S t ra teg ie sf o rd e te rm in ing whe ther s pa t ia ld i s tr ibu t ion so fa r -

o fc on tempo ra ry a r chaeo logy r a the rt han o fr ea l l ife p henom -

c haeo log ica l ma ter ia l e xh ib i t a ny p a t tern ing c an b e e i the r 1 0

T heor e t ica la nd m e thodo log ica la pproaches emp ir ica lo ra na ly t ica l . Emp ir ica ls t ra teg ie si n vo lve v i sua li n -

o pen -a i rc amp s ,s uch a sP inceven t( Le ro i -Gou rhan & B r6z i l lon

s pec t ion o fs pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion s ,a nd r ef i t t ing . Ana ly t ica ls t ra t -

1 966 , 1 972 ) , Mee r ( No ten 1 978 ) , V e rbe r ie ( Audouze e ta l .

e g ie sp ur sue t h ed e l inea t ion o fr obus tp a t tern s i nt h e l o ca t ion

1 981) , E t io l les ( P igeo t 1 984 , 1 987 ; T abor in 1 984 ) a nd

o r a s soc ia t ion o fc a tegor ie s o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l u s ing

Ma r sangy ( Schnüde r 1 984 ) . V isua l i n spec t ion o fe xcava t ion

q uan t i ta t ive o ri mage -p rocess ing me thod s . A l though t h e t wo

p lan sh a sb een u sed t oi d en t ify s pa t ia lp a t ter n ing i nc ave sa nd

a r eb yn o mean s mu tua l ly e xc lus ive ,t h ey h ave v ery r a re ly b een

r ock she l te r s , n o tab ly a tL aza re t ( Lum ley 1 969 ) , a tG ro t te d u

i n teg ra ted i n to as i ng le c ohe ren ta pp roach t os pa t ia l a na ly s is .

R enne a tA rcy su r -Cu re ( Le ro i -Gourhan 1 982 ) , a tS a lp8 t r ire

T h is i sl a rge ly d ue t od ife rence sb e tween t h ev a r iou sn a t iona l a nd l i ngu is t ic t r ad i t ions o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch w i th in

( Esca lon d e F on ton & Onora t in i 1 982 ) , a t B acho K iro ( Koz lowsk ie ta l . 1 982 ) a nd a tT emna ta ( S irakov e ta l . 1 994 ) .

wh ich me thodo log ie sf o rs pa t ia la na ly s i sh ave b een d eve loped . Mo reove r , s pec ia l is t s i na r chaeo logy o f ten t end t o ' e n t rench '

P inceven ti su ndoub ted ly u n ique i nt h eh i s tory o fP a laeo l i th ic

t h em se lve si ne xc lus ive a nd n a r row a r ea so fi n te re s t . ' On ly i n

a r chaeo logy . I th a s s e ts t anda rd s f o re xcava t ion , h a s b een t h e

r e cen t y ea r s h ave a t temp t s b een made t oe xp lo re h ow d ife r -

s ub jec to fa nd t h ep rov ing g round f o r aw ide r ange o fd e scr ip -

e n t s t ra teg ie s f o rp a t ter ni d en t if ica t ion c an b e i n teg ra ted i n to

t i ve ,i mage -p roce ss ing o rq uan t i ta t ive s t ud ies o fs pa t ia ld i s t r i -

t h e s t udy o fs pa t ia l v a r ia t ion i n as i ng le s i te ( e .g . R igaud & S imek 1 991) .

b u t ion ,a nd h a sa c ted a s ar e f e rence p o in tf o rt h ei n terp re ta t ion o fo the r Magda len ian o pen -a i rc amp s . ' D esp i te ap l e thora o f

2 . 2 :1 Emp ir ica l s t ra teg ies

t i on s t ha t h ave b een p ropo sed f o r t h e s i te a r e b a s ica l ly t wo .

a na ly se s o ft h e P inceven t p lans , t h e b ehav iou ra l r e con s t ruc A f te rc a refu lc on s ide ra t ion o ft h eh ab i ta t ion f ea ture s a nd d i s I nF rance ,t h ef o rme rS ov ie t Un ion a nd t h e ir r e spec t ive i n te l -

t r ibu t ion s o fc u l tu ra l ma te r ia l ,t he e xcava to r s h ave a rgued f o r

l e c tua l s a te l l i tes ( Nor th A f r ica a nd e a s te rn E urope ,f o re xam -

ar e s iden t ia lb a se c amp c on ta in ing t h ree p a r t ly i n terconnec ted

p l e ) , s pa t ia l p a t tern r e cogn i t ion h a s b een c omb ined w i th t h e

d omes t ic u n i t s t ha t w e re u sed c on temporaneous ly ( Le ro i Gou rhan & B r6z i l lon 1 966 , 1 972 ) .O b se rv ing t h es t r ik ing c or -

e xcava t ion me thod o f l a rge -sca le h o r izon ta l e xposu re , w i th p i ece p lo t t ing , w i th v i sua l i n spec t ion o f d i s t r ibu t ion s o f a r -

r e spondence b e tween h ea r th s ,t h ee dge so fo ch re d i s t r ibu t ion s ,

c haeo log ica l ma ter ia l ,a nd w i th r ef i t t ing .A se a r ly a st h e 1 930 s

a nd a r cs o fc u l tu ra l d eb r is , t h ey h ave r e con s t ruc ted t h e p o s i -

t h is me thod wa sw ide ly u sed t os t udy t h er e l ics o fP a laeo l i th ic d we l l ings o nt he p la ins o fe a s tern E u rope a nd S ibe r ia ( Sk lenä r

t i on s o fh ea r th si n s ide s he l te r ing s t ruc tu re s made o fs k in a nd

1 975 , 1 976 ; Sa fer 1 985 ) . I nF rance t h et e chn ique o fg rand s

i n s ide a nd o u t s ide t h e s he l te r s o nt h eb a s is o ft he d en s i ty a nd

d dcapage s ,d eve loped b yA .L e ro i -Gou rhan a nd r ef ined b yh im a nd M . B r6z i l lon d ur ing t h e e xcava t ion o ft h e Magda len ian

c ompo s i t ion o ff i nd s . B info rd , o nt h e o ther h and , i n sp ired b y

c amp o fP inceven ti nt h eP a r is b a s in ( 1966 , 1 972 ) , ma rked t h e

d educ t ive mode l -bu i ld ing p rocedu re t oa r gue f o r ama in ly o u t -

p o le s , a nd i d en t if ied z one s w i th d if e ren td ome s t ic f unc t ion s

e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l p a rad igms o f s i te s t ruc ture , h a s u sed a

t r an s i t ion f r om t he c u l tu re -h is tor ica l a pp roach t ha t h ad h i th -

d oo r l og is t ic c amp ( B info rd 1 983 ) . H e i n te rp re t s t wo o ft h e

e r to p reva i led ( Sacke t t 1 981) t o ap a laeoe thno log ica l o ne . G rand sd dcapages a im a tp rog re ss ive ly p ee l ing of t h in s l ices

t h ree h ear th s a s o u tdoo r m en 's h ea r th s , a nd , u s ing ap ure ly f unc t iona l e xege s is , a t tr ibu te s t h e l o ca t ions o f t he o u tdoo r

o fd epos i t si no rde rt oi s o la te m in imum s pa t io tempo ra lu n i t s u pon wh ich r e cons t ruc t ion so fp a s th uman b ehav iou ra r et hen

h ea r th s t o a d jus tmen t s o fh uman p os i t ion t o s u i t c hange s i n

b a sed . T he e xcava t ion p roceed s o ve r aw ide a r ea , f o l low ing

may h ave b een u nde r at e n t .I n te re s t ing ly ,d i f f e rence sb e tween t h e se s t ud ies a r eo b servab le n o t o n ly i nt h e f i na l b ehav iou ra l

w ind d i rec t ion . B info rd m a in ta in s t ha t o n ly t h e t h ird h ea r th

t h em icro topog raphy o ft h e s ed imen t s ,a nd t he c oo rd ina te so f a l l f i nd s a nd c u l tu ra l f ea tu res a r e r e co rded b efo re r emova l .

mode ls , b u t a l so i nt h e manne r o f t h e i r a u tho r s ' r e a son ing ,

T h is f i e ld s t ra tegy , t hough t ime -con sum ing , e n su re s t h a t a s

L ero i -Gourhan a nd B r6z i l lon a dop t ing a n i nduc t ive a nd

much c on tex tua l i n forma t ion a sp o s s ib le i sr e ta ined , a nd c r e -

B info rd ad educ t ive mode ( Audouze 1 984 ) . B o th mode ls a s -

a t es t h eb e s tp oss ib le c ond i t ions f o rf u r ther e xp lo ra t ion o fs pa t i a lp a t te rn s i nt he d i s t r ibu t ion s o fc u l tu ra l ma te r ia l .

wh ich t h ey v i ew f r om as i ng le s ynch ron ic p e r spec t ive .

s ume c on tempo rane i ty i nt h eu se o fd if e ren ta r ea so ft h es i te ,

R ef i t t ing i sal ong -e s tabl i shed a r chaeo log ica lt e chn ique ,p a r t icu l a r ly r e levan tt os t ud ie s o fl i th ic t e chno logy , t h a ts e ek se i the rt o

I n ar e a sse ssmen t o f t h e e v idence f r om P inceven t , C a r r r e -

r e con s t ruc tt h el i fe h i s to r ie so fs pec imen st h a ta r el i nk si n ac ha in

t h ep o ss ib i l i ty o ft empo ra l v a r ia t ion i ns i te s t ruc ture b e tween

ma rk su pon P inceven t 's u ncer ta in c on tempo rane i ty a nd u pon

( e .g . al i th ic r educ t ion s equence )o rt or e s to re f r agmen t st ot h e i r

a nd w i th in e p i sode s o f o ccupa t ion ( 1991) . H e s ugge s t s t ha t

o r ig ina l u n i t ( e .g . a n a n ima l c a rca s s ) . T he r ef i t t ing o fa r chaeo -

t h er e su l t so fl i th ic a r tefac tr ef i t t ing a nd t h es ea sona l i ty s t udy

l o g ica l ma te r ia l p rov ide s ar el iab le i n d ica t ion o fi t s movemen t

o n a n ima l b one s p o in tt od i scon t inuou s u se o ft h e c amp d ur -

w i th in a nd b e tween s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t s ,a nd i so ne o ft h ea r chaeo -

i ng w in te ra nd l a te s p r ing , a nd t od if e rence s i nt h e p er form -

l o g ica ls ou rce su sed i na s se s s ing s t ra t ig raph ic i n teg r i ty a nd p o s t -

a nce o fv a r ious k ind so fa c t iv i ty . C a r rc onc lude st ha tb o th t h e

d epo s i t iona ld i s tu rbance ( e .g .C z ie s la e ta l . 1 990 ;H ofman 1 981 ;

e xcava tor s 'r e con s t ruc t ion a nd B info rd 's , wh i le s ub jec tt on u -

V i l la 1 982 ) . Moreove r , c on jo in ing s t ud ie s o fl o ng s equence s i n

me rou s u nce r ta in t ie s , m er i t f u r the r a t ten t ion ( i b id . , 2 52 ) . I n

h i gh in teg r i ty s i te sh ave made i tp o s s ib le t oi d en t ify i nd iv idua l s '

s uppor t o f t h e e xcava to r s ' h ypo the s is a r e t h e r e cen t c onc lu -

d eg r ee so fc ompe tence i nc h ipp ing s t one ,a nd t hu st o make i n f e r -

s i on so fa ni n te re s t ing s t udy wh ich a dd re sse st h ei s sue o fi nd i -

e nce sa bou tt h ed emog raph ic c ompo s i t ion ( ma in ly b ya ge )o ft h e

v idua lk nappe r sa nd s ugge s t st h a tt h es i te w a su sed b y an uc lea r

g roups o fp reh is tor ic h un te r /ga the re r sw ho c amped a tt h es i te s

f am i ly r a the r t han b y ag roup o f h un te r s ( Bodu e ta l . 1 990 ;

i nq ues t ion ( P igeo t 1 984 , 1 987 ; P loux 1 991) .

P loux 1 991) . V iew ing l i th ic t e chno logy a st he r e su l t o f as e r i es o f r esponses , t hough ts , d ec is ions a nd a c t ions

A na pp roach c omb in ing h o r izon ta le xpo sure w i th r ef i t t ing h a s

( p sychomo tr ic i te " ) ,P loux a r gue sc onv inc ing ly t ha tt h ree t ype s

b een a dop ted t os t udy n umerous E uropean Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic

o fk nappe rw o rked f l in to n s i te : c h i ld ren p lay ing o ri m i ta t ing 1

C hap ter 2 r ende r f u r the r r ev iew r edundan t , s o Is ha l l h e re c onf ine my -

a du l ts , b eg inners , p robab ly a do lescen ts , a nd c ompe ten t

s e lf t o ab r ief s u rvey o ft h ea ims a nd modes o fo pe ra t ion o ft h e

k nappe r s .

f our c a tego r ie s o ft e chn ique t ha t a ppea r mos tp rom is ing . T he P inceven te xemp l if ie st h ev i r tue so fd e ta i led r e cove ry a nd t ho r o ugh p ub l ica t ion . We h ave s e en t h a tt h eb ehav iou ra li n te rp re ta -

f i r s t c a tegory d ea ls w i th a ggrega t ion o r s egrega t ion b e tween

t i on s s ugge s ted b yt h e many e x i s t ing a na ly se s o ft h eP inceven t p lans h ave c er ta in l im i ta t ion s . Mo re i n te re s t ing i n te rp re ta t ion s

g loba lm ea su re o fa r tefac tc l a ss a s soc ia t ion . Mu l t ip le R e spon se

w i l l b eg in t o eme rge i fw e t a ke ah o l is t ic v i ew o f v a r ia t ion ,

D ens i ty A na lys is ( J ohnson 1 984 ) c an b o th b e c r i t ic ised f o r

i n teg ra t ing i ndependen ts ou rce so fe v idence i n to o u ra t temp t s

o pera t ing o nt h ea s sump t ion t ha ta l la r tefac tc l a sse sa r eo rgan -

d i s tr ibu t ion so fc a tegor ie so ff i nd a nd i n vo lve se va lua t ion o fa P e rmu ta t ion P rocedures ( Ber ry e ta l . 1 980 , 1 984 ) a nd L oca l

t ou nde r s tand s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion .I ti sc er ta in t h a ta so u r em -

i s ed i nt h es ame manner a cro ss t h ew ho le s i te ,t h u sd i sm iss ing

p i r ica l a nd a na ly t ica l t e chn iques u ndergo f u r the r r e f inemen t

p o ss ib le l o ca l p a t ter n s o fa s soc ia t ion o r c ova r ia t ion b e tween

t h is s i te w i l lc on t inue t oc l a im t h ei n te re s to ft h ep r eh i s to r ian s .

d if e ren tc a tegor ie s o ff i nd ( Ca r r 1 987 ) . T he s e cond c a tegory

2 .2 :2 Ana ly t ica l s t ra teg ies

j ec t ive o ft h e se me thod si st oi d en t ify s pa t ia lc l u s te r sa nd t h e i r

o f me thod s d ea ls w i th t h is p rob lem mo re ef i c ien t ly . T he o b c omponen t s .K -mean sc l us ter a na ly s is , wh ich c oncen t ra te so n a r tefac t d en s i ty a nd l o ca t ion ( K in t igh & Ammerman 1 982 ) ,

V isua li n spec t ion o fa r tefa c td i s t r ibu t ion sd epend sl a rge ly u pon i n tu i t ion . T he n eed t oc omp lemen t o r c o r robo ra te p a t tern ing

a nd Uncon s t ra ined C lus ter ing , wh ich a dd re sse s s pa t ia l v a r ia -

r e cogn ised b y e yeba l l ing , a nd t oc l a r ify p a t te rn so b scu red b y

t i on i na s semb lage c ompos i t ion (Wha l lon 1 984 ) ,b e long t ot h is

ah igh d en s i ty o fc u l tu ra l ma te r ia l , s oon d emanded mo re s o -

g roup . B o th t e chn ique s h ave b een t e s ted o n e t hnoa rchaeo -

p h is t ica ted ,c oun te r in tu i t ive m e thod s .I nA ng lo -Saxon a r chae -

l og ica l d a ta t od emons t ra te t he ir c apac i ty t oi d en t ify a c t iv i ty

o logy t h e c omm i tmen t t o s c ien t if ic r i gou r e mb raced b y t h e

a r ea s( B lankho lm 1 99 1 ;G regg e ta l . 1 991 ;K in t igh 1 990 ) .T he

p roces sua ls choo lo ft hough tp romp ted aq uan t i ta t ive a pp roach

t h ird c a tego ry o ft e chn ique s e xp lo re s t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o fd ea l -

t ot h e i d en t if ica t ion o fp a t te rn s i nt h e h or izon ta l d i s t r ibu t ion

i ng w i th t h e p rob lem o f mu l t ip le o ver ly ing o ccupa t ions a na -

o fc u l tura l ma te r ia l . T he p e r iod b e tween 1 950 a nd 1 975 w a s

l y t ica l ly , emp loy ing F our ier me thods , s pec t ra l a na lys is o r

ma rked b yt h ei n t roduc t ion o fa na ly t ica lt e chn ique so f ten u sed

k -means a na lys is i n t h ree d imens ions ( Graham 1 980 ; C an

i nd i sc ip l ine s s uch a s g eog raphy a nd e co logy , t h e i r c ommon

1 987 ; K oe t je 1 989 , 1 991) . T he f our th c a tego ry ,t h e R ing a nd

c ha rac te r i s t ic b e ing t h a tv a r iab il i ty i nt h e i re mp i r ica l d a ta h a s a

S ec to r me thod , e xam ine s t h e c ha rac ter is t ics o f d i s t r ibu t ion s

c l ea rs pa t ia ld imens ion ( Dacey 1 963 ;H agge t te ta l . 1 977 ;P i e lou

a round h ea r th so ro the rf i xed h ab i ta t ion f ea ture s( Boek scho ten

1 969 ) . I tmay b eo b served o ft h i sp e r iod t h a ti t sm e thod si ng en -

&S taper t 1 993 ) .

e r a ld i c ta ted t h eq ue s t ion sa sked ,r a the rt h an v i ce v e r sa .T he q uan t ia t ive b r anch o fs pa t ia la r chaeo logy w as f o rt h ef i r s tt ime a b le t o

W i th af ew e xcep t ion s , t h e t e chn ique s men t ioned a bove a r e

a va i l i t se lf o f s t a t i s t ica l p rog ramme s , r un o n ma inf rame c om -

n o t s t r ic t ly s peak ing n ew . T he se me thod s t a i lo r e l emen t s o f

p u te r s , c apab le o fh and l ing a nd p roce ss ing l a rge d a ta s e t s .

o the rc ommon q uan t i ta t ive me thod st os u i tp a r t icu la ra r chaeo -

W i th ab ody o fl i t e ra tu re g row ing , i n crea s ing c oncer n a bou t

t ha tt h ey e ven tua l ly r e ly u pon v i sua li n spec t ion o fp lo t s . Many

t h ese ' b o r rowed ' me thod sa nd t h et e chn ica la s sump t ions u pon

o ft h em a r e a tp re sen t c a r r ied o u t b y means o fu se r -f r iend ly

wh ich t h ey r e l ied , i napp ropr ia te t ot h e ma jo r i ty o f a r chaeo -

p rog rammes s pec if ica l ly i n tended f o r a r chaeo log is t s ( e .g

l og ica l s i tua t ion s , l e d a r chaeo log is t s t o a dap t t h e ir p a t ter n -

A rco space 3 [ B lankho lm 1 991] ,R ing s&S ec to r s[ Boek scho ten

l og ica l p rob lem s . Mos t s t i l l c on ta in a n i n tu i t ive e l emen t i n

s ea rch ing t e chn iques t os u i tt h e n a tu re o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta

&S taper t 1 993 ] ) .A l terna t ive ly , s pa t ia lp a t tern sc an b ei d en t i -

a nd p rob lem s( Car r 1 984 , 1 985 b ;H ie ta la 1 984a ) .T he i n c rea s -

f i ed b y mak ing i ndependen t o r c omb ined u se o f u n ivar ia te ,

i ng a va i lab i l i ty o fp e r sona lc ompu te r sb oos ted t h is t r end . Du r -

b iva r ia te o r mu l t iva r ia te a na lys is ( Cr ibb & M innega l 1 989 ;

i ng t h e l a te 1 970s a nd t h e 1 980 s q uan t i ta t ive me thod s o f

W inde r 1 997b ) .

i n t ra -s i te s pa t ia la na lys is d eve loped a l ong t h el i ne s s ugge s ted b y

mode ls

a nd

u n its

o f

a na lys is

g enera ted

b y

Mu l t ip le R e sponse P ermu ta t ion P rocedure s ( MRPP ) of e r a

e t hnoarchaeo log ica l r e sea rch , w i th a c t iv i ty a r ea s t h e p r ime

g loba l mea su re f o ra s se ss ing s im i la r i t ie so rd if e rence sb e tween

i n te re s t( Newe l l &D ek in 1 978 ) .E thnoa rchaeo log ica ld a ta s e t s

d i s t r ibu t ion s o ft wo o r mo re c a tegor ie s o ff i nd , a nd f o rd iag -

h ave f ur the r l e n t t hem se lve s t o a s sess ing t h e s en s i t iv i ty o f

n os ing whe the rd if erence sa r ec au sed b ys eg rega t ion ,b yc on -

q uan t i ta t ive t e chn iques i ni d en t ify ing b ehav iou ra l ly s i gn if ican t

c en t ra t ion w i th u nequa l d i sper s ion , o rb y d if e rence s i nb o th

p a t ter n s ( B lankho lm 1 991 ; G regg e ta l . 1 991 ; K in t igh 1 990 ;

s eg rega t ion a nd c oncen t ra t ion ( Be r ry e ta l . 1 984 ) .T he me thod

Wha l lon 1 984 ) .V isua li n spec t ion o fe xcava t ion p lan sr ema in s

u se s q uad ra to re xac tc oo rd ina te d a ta i no ne , t wo o rt h ree d i -

a n e s sen t ia lp a r to fa ny mu l t i -s tep a na lys is ,b u tn ow i n vo lve s

men s ion s a nd i sa b le t od ea l w i th n on -con t iguous e xcava t ion

c ompu te r -gene ra ted d en s i ty -con tou r o r h a tched map s o fd i s -

l a you t( i b id . ,5 4 ) . MRPP e va lua te t he a ve rage d i s tance b e tween

t r ibu t ion so ff i nd s .S imu la t ion s t ud ie sh ave b een u sed t or ep l i -

t h e a r tefac t s w i th in e ach c l a ss . T hey a l so c a lcu la te s i x v a r i -

c a te c ond i t ion s o f d i s turbance a nd t hus t op rov ide e v idence

a b le s( t e s ts t a t i s t ic ,d i s tance a d jus te r ,o bserved d e l ta ,v a r iance

w i th wh ich a r chaeo log ica l d i s t r ibu t ions c an b e c ompa red

o fd e l ta ,s kewne ss o fd e l ta ,a nd p robab i l i ty v a lue )t ha ta c ta sa

( G regg e ta l . 1 991) .I mage -p roce ss ing t e chn ique s ,d e sp i te t h e i r

b a s is f o rd e term in ing t h e c ha rac ter is t ics o fd i s t r ibu t ion s a nd

a ppa ren tp o ten t ia l ,h ave n o ti ng ene ra lb een a pp l ied t ot h ee x -

i d en t ify ing l o ca t iona l d ife rence s i nt he d i s t r ibu t ion o fv a r i -

p lo ra t ion o fi n t ra -s i te s pa t ia lp a t ter n ing ( bu ts e eL ang 1 992 ) .

o us c a tego r ie so ff i nd ( Rodge r s 1 988 ) . C oncen t ra t ion o rs epa r a t ion w i th in c a tegor ies o ff i nd s ugges ted b y t h e se v a r iab le s

T he c omp rehen s ive r ev iews o ft h eg amu to fq uan t i ta t ive t e ch -

c an s ubsequen t ly b e e xam ined b y i n spec t ing p lo t s v i sua l ly .

n ique sf o rs pa t ia l a na lys is i nB lankho lm ( 199 1) ,C an ( 1984 ) ,

T he ma in p rob lem w i th MRPP i st ha tt h ey a r eu nab le t od ea l

Hodder & O r ton ( 1976 ) , O r ton ( 1982 ) a nd K in t igh ( 1990 )

e ff ic ien t ly w i th d a ta s e t s c on s is t ing o f n ume rou s p o in t s a nd 1 2

T heor e t ica la nd m e thodo log ica la pproaches v a r iab les . At r ia l u s ing t h e d a ta f r om K l i th i h a s s hown t h a t

c l us ter ing ar andom ised d a ta s e t wh ich h a st h es ame o ne -c lus -

MRPP a r e mo re ef ic ien t w hen v a r iab le s a r e t r ea ted i np a ir s

t e r S SE ( i .e . t h e s ame t o ta l a nd t h e s ame mean a nd s t anda rd

( Ga lan idou 1 993 , 3 60 ) . Af u r the rd if i cu l ty i st ha t w i th l a rge

d ev ia t ion ) a st h e o r ig ina l d a ta ( K in t igh 1 990 , 1 85 ) . K -mean s

d a ta s e ts c ompu ta t ion t imes t e nd t o b e e xce ss ive , s o t ha t a

h a s a l l t h e a dvan tage s o fn on -h ie ra rch ica l p a r t i t ion ing me th -

s amp l ing t e chn ique i sr e commended ( Be r ry e ta l . 1 984 , 6 9 ) ;

o d s , i np a r t icu la rt h e f l ex ib i l i ty t or ea ss ign p o in t s t oc lus te r s

t h ea na ly s is w i l lt h en ,h oweve r ,b eb u rdened w i th a l lt h ep rob l em sa s soc ia ted w i th s amp l ing b ia se s . Ir e ga rd t h is me thod a s

a sc l us te rc ompos i t ion c hange s w i th t h e a dd i t ion o fn ew d a ta p o in t s ( Shennan 1 988 ) . C ompa r ison o fc l us ter ing r e su l t s f o r

mo s tu sefu lw hen u sed i nl ow -den s i ty s i te sa t amo re a dvanced

d ife ren tv a r iab les i st h en b a sed o ni n spec t ion o fp lo t so fc l us -

s t age o fs pa t ia la na lys is t oc onf i rm o rs t reng then p a t tern st h a t

t e r s . Ag loba lv i ew o fh ow d if e ren tc a tegor ie so ff i nd a r ed i s -

h ave eme rged f r om o the r me thod s , r a the r t han a tt h e i n i t ia l

t r ibu ted t h rough as i te c an o n ly b ea cqu ired b yo ve r lay ing t h e

e xp lo ra tory s t age .

map so ft he i rr e spec t ive c l us ter s o lu t ion s .H ence ,e ven t hough i t sc o re i sc l us te ra na lys is ,t he me thod a so r ig ina l ly d escr ibed

L oca l Den s i ty A na ly s is ( LDA ) a im st od ef ine a n i ndex o fa s -

o pe ra te sn o ti n amu l t iva r ia te b u ti n au n iva r ia te manne r , p er -

s oc ia t ion f o r t wo c a tegor ies o f f i nd w i th in a f i xed r ad ius

f o rm ing s epa ra te a na ly se sf o re ach c a tego ry o ff i nd ( D j ind j ian

( J ohnson 1 984 ) .T h is i sc a lcu la ted b yd i v id ing t he mean l o ca l

1 988 ) . A s w i th mos t a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s i n vo lv ing c l us ter -

d en s i ty o fc a tego ry ji nt h ev i c in i ty o fo b jec t so fc a tegory ib y

i ng , t h e ma in p rob lem r ema ins t ha t o f s e lec t ing t he o p t ima l

t h eg l oba ld en s i ty o fc a tegory j( i b id . ,8 4 ) .T he r e su l t sa r ep re -

c l us te r ing s o lu t ion . Ano the rd rawba ck i st ha tk -means c r ea te s

s en ted i n ama t r ix o fa s soc ia t ion c oe f i c ien t s . Av a lue g rea te r t han 1 . 0 i nd ica te s s pa t ia l a s soc ia t ion b e tween t wo d i s tr ibu -

c i rcu la r c l u s te r s , wh ich i sq u i te p rob lema t ic w hen t he a c tua l

t i on s , whe r ea s av a lue b e low 1 . 0s ugge s t ss pa t ia l s eg rega t ion .

d i s t r ibu t ion s a r eo fa no the r s hape .A sk -mean s a na lys is c l a r i f i e s d i s t r ibu t ion s o f i nd iv idua l v a r iab le s , i ti sp robab ly b es t

T he ma t r ix o fb i va r ia te c oe f ic ien t si si ni t se lf i n forma t ive a s

u sed a s as t ra tegy f o ra c t iv i ty -a rea -o r ien ted r e sea rch .

t o t h e d eg ree o f s egrega t ion /agg rega t ion , a nd mu l t iva r ia te a na ly s is c an t h en b e p er formed u pon i tt o e x t rac t g roup s o f

Uncon s t ra ined C lus te r Ana lys is ( UCA )i s amu l t is tep s t ra tegy

f i nd ss how ing s im i la r i t ie si nd i s t r ibu t ion . LDA u se se i the rc e l l -

p a r t i t ion ing a r ea s a cco rd ing t ot h e i rp ropor t iona l a s semb lage

f r equency o rp o in t loca t ion d a ta . T he ma in a dvan tage o ft h e

c ompo s i t ion .D eve loped b y Wha l lon ( 1984 ) ,i ti st he r e su l to f

me thod i st h a t , s i nce i tp e rm i t s e xp lo ra t ion o ft h e d eg ree o f

r e sea rch d i rec ted t owa rd st h ed eve lopmen to fa na ly t ica lt e ch -

a s soc ia t ion o fc a tegor ie s o ff i nd o ve r ar ange o f n e ighbou r h ood r ad i i , i ti sc apab le o f r evea l ing p a t ter n ing a td if e ren t

n iques i n a cco rdance w i th t he t r a i t s o f t he a r chaeo log ica l

s ca les o fr e so lu t ion . D e sp i te i t s a ppa ren t s imp l ic i ty i no pe ra -

c l us te r s o ve r a n a r ea i ns uch aw ay t ha t s i ze , s hape , d ens i ty ,

t i on , LDA h a s b een c r i t ic ised o n t wo p o in t s . F i r s t , t h e l o ca l

c ompos i t ion ,a nd p a t ter n so fa s soc ia t ion o rc ova r ia t ion a r en o

d en s i ty c oef f i c ien tc anno t' d is t ingu i sh a symme t r ic a s soc ia t ion s f r om o ne si n wh ich t h es pa t ia la s soc ia t ion sa r e mu tua l ' ( K in t igh

l onge rc ons t ra in ing f a c to r s ,b u ta r ev a r iab les i nt e rm so f wh ich t h e s pa t ia l s ca t te r s o r c l us te r s may b e d escr ibed ' (Wha l lon

1 990 , 1 83 ) . S econd , a nd mo re i mpor tan t ly , d ue t ot he w ay i n

1 984 , 2 44 ) . UCA c an b e a pp l ied t od a ta c o l lec ted a s c oun t s

wh ich t h ea s soc ia t ion i ndex i sc a lcu la ted t he l o ca ld en s i ty c o -

p e rg r id o rp iece -p lo t ted t oe xac tc oo rd ina te s .I td epend su pon

ef i c ien t b e tween t h e d i s t r ibu t ion s o ft wo c a tegor ie s o f f i nd may b e l a rge rt h an t h e l o ca l d ens i ty c oe f ic ien tf o rt h ed i s t r i -

c l a ss if ica t ion a nd v i sua l i n spec t ion , t wo e l emen t st ha ta ppea r

r e co rd . T he ma jo r o b jec t ive i st o ' d ef ine s pa t ia l s ca t te r s o r

i nv a r ious o the r s pa t ia l a na ly t ica l me thod s , b u t make s n o a s -

b u t ion o f as i ng le c a tegory ( G raham 1 980 ) . I n o the r w o rd s ,

s ump t ion s a bou tt h e s i ze , s hape , d en s i ty a nd s t ruc tu re o fs pa -

t h ei ndex o fs im i la r i ty may s ugge s tt h a tt wo d i s t r ibu t ion s a r e

t i a l s ca t te r s . UCA s t ar t s b y c a lcu la t ing t he d en s i t ie s o fe ach

mo re s im i la rt oe ach o the rt han o ne i st oi t se lf .

c a tegory o ff i nd f o re ach p o in to rg r id c e l l .T he s moo thed d en -

T he u se o f k -mean s n on -h ie ra rch ica l d iv is ive c l us te r ing o n

s i ty c on tou r sf o re ach c a tegory o ff i nd a r et hen c a lcu la ted a nd p lo t ted i no rde rt ob r ing o u tg ene ra lt r end si nl o ca ld ens i t ie so f

s pa t ia lc oo rd ina te st od e tec ts pa t ia lp a t te r n si nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion

a ny t ype o fi t em a ta ny s pec if ic p o in t . Abso lu te d en s i t ies a r e

o f c a tego r ie s o f a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l w a s i n t roduced b y

c onve r ted i n to r e la t ive d en s i t ie sa nd s ub jec ted t oc l u s te ra na ly -

K in t igh & Ammerman ( 1982 ) . 4I nr e cen ty ea r si th a sb een t h e

s i s . C lu s te r s a r e d e scr ibed i nt e rm s o fs i ze , c ompos i t ion , a nd

d om inan tm e thod i ni n t ra -s i te s pa t ia la na lys is ,a nd h a sp roved

i n ter na l p a t ter n s o fc ova r ia t ion , a nd a r e mapped o n to t he s i te

amenab le t o an umbe ro fu sefu l mod if ica t ion s ( Koe t je 1 987 ;

p lan t ob ei n spec ted f o ra ny s pa t ia lt r end s . I nd eve lop ing t h is

S imek 1 984a ,b ;S imek & L a r ick 1 983 ) .K -mean sa na lys is u se s

me thod Wha l lon h a s r ema ined f a i thfu l t o t h e l ong -s tand ing

e xac tc oo rd ina te d a ta .F o re ach c a tego ry o ff i nd e xam ined t h e

t r ad i t ion o fc ommun ica t ion b e tween a r chaeo logy a nd q uan t i -

me thod ' i den t if ie s l o ca t ion , s i ze , c ompos i t ion a nd membe r s

t a t ive g eog raphy , e spec ia l ly w i th r ega rd t o t h e s econd s t ep :

o ft h e c l u s te r s ' ( K in t igh 1 990 , 1 89 ) . K -mean s c l us te r ing r e -

d escr ib ing t h e s i ng le d i s t r ibu t ion s b y m ean s o fd en s i ty c on -

q u ire st ha tt h en umbe ro fc l us te r so fi n tere s t( k )b ed e term ined

t ou r map su s ing at wo -d imen s iona lr unn ing mean ( Co le & K ing

a tt h eb eg inn ing . I ta s s ign sp o in t st o as phe ro id c l us te rs ot ha t

1 968 ) . R a the rt han ame thod t ob ef o l lowed r i g id ly , UCA i sa

t h es um o ft h es qua red d i s tance s( SSE )f r om e ach p o in tt ot h e

f r amework f o rc ons ide r ing s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion t ha ti n co rpo ra tes

c en t re o ft h ec l us ter t o wh ich i ti sa s s igned i sm in im ised .T h is

u n iva r ia te ,b i va r ia te a nd mu l t iva r ia te a na lys is ,s ot ha te ach a na -

i sa ch ieved b y mean so f as e r ie so fi t e ra t ive r e loca t ion sd u r ing

l y t ica ls t ep c an b es ub jec ted t oi nd iv idua la d jus tmen t so r mod i -

wh ich e ach d a ta p o in t i sa l loca ted t o ac l us te r ( s ta r t ing f r om

f i ca t ion s .D ec is ion sa r ee xpec ted ,f o re xamp le ,c once rn ing t h e

o ne c l us te r ) .T he n ew c en t ro id so fc l u s ter sa r et h en c ompu ted ,

s ca le o fs moo th ing , a nd i ndeed i t su t il i ty ( K in t igh 1 990 ) . I n i -

c l us ter sb e ing u pda ted o n ly when ac omp le te p a ss t h rough t h e

t i a t ives c an a l so b e t aken r ega rd ing c lus ter ing me thods .

d a ta h a s b een made ( A ldende rf e r&B la shf ie ld 1 984 , 4 5 ) .A s

Wha l lon h a su sed t h eh i e ra rch ica la gg lome ra t ive Wa rd m e thod

i tw ou ld t a ke a ne no rmous amoun to ft ime t oe xam ine a l lt h e

( 1984 ) , wh i le K in t igh h a ss hown t ha tq u i te s im i la rr e su l t s may

p oss ib le p a r t i t ions ,t h eb es tp o s s ib le a loca t ion i sa s se ssed a f -

b eo b ta ined u s ing k -mean s( i b id .) .D j ind j ian h a sp ropo sed t ha t

t e rc ompa r ison o f ac l us te rr e su l tw i th t he r e su l tg ene ra ted b y

c or re spondence a na lys is b eu sed i nt h ep lace o fc l us te ra na ly 1 3

C hap ter 2 s i s ( 1988 ) . B lankho lm h a s a dop ted t h e s ame f r amework t o

o logy s e lec ted i sd i c ta ted b y t he p rob lems a dd re s sed , a nd a s

a na lyse p r e sence /absence d a ta ( 1991 , 1 993 ) . T he ma in c r i t i c i sm o f UCA c oncerns t he u se o fs moo th ing , wh ich p reven t s

many t e chn ique sr equ ire d a ta i n as pec if ic f o rma tt h ec ho ice i s

t h ed e tec t ion o fe dges i ns pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion s( Or ton 1 992 , 1 38 ) . T h is may i ndeed b e as e r ious p rob lem , e spec ia l ly where t h e

t ua l i n forma t ion . T h is w i l l b e b a sed o n ag r id , o n e xac tc oo r -

d el inea t ion o f a c t iv i ty a r ea s i st h e p r ime c oncern . A l though

o f me thod i nr e co rd ing a l l c a tegor ie s o fe v idence , e spec ia l ly

UCA w a s o r ig ina l ly d eve loped i n t he c on tex t o f t he r e -

i fd a ta a na lys is i st ob ee xp lora tory , a r gues i nf a vou ro fu s ing

f u r the r n a r rowed d own b y t h e s ys tem u sed t or e co rd c on tex d ina te s ,o ro n ac omb ina t ion o fb o th .T he n eed f o rc on s is tency

c on s truc t ion is t a pp roach w i th t he a im o fi d en t ify ing a c t iv i ty

s ma l l q uad ra t s ( e .g . 2 5cm x2 5cm o r5 0cm x5 0cm ) . I nh igh -

a r ea s ,h oweve r ,t h ef a c tt ha ti th a so cca s iona l ly b een u sed i na

d ens i ty s i te s i ti s more a dvan tageous t ou se q uad ra t s t han t o

n umbe ro fs t ud ie sr e f e r r ing t oo the rb ehav iou ra l mode l s ,i n c lud -

r e cord f i nd st ot h en ea re s tc en t ime t re ,s i nce t h is w i l lb o th s ave

i ng t h ep re sen t s t udy ( Chap ter s 5& 6 ) , s hows i t s f l ex ib i l i ty .

t ime d ur ing e xcava t ion a nd a l low e a s ie r man ipu la t ion o fd a ta

I ncrea s ing c oncern a bou tt h ep a l imp ses te f ec ti na r chaeo log i -

where f i e ld l og is t ics p erm i t p o in t -p lo t t ing i ti st yp ica l ly em -

c a l s i te s h a s l e d s ome r e sea rche r st ot r yt od i ssec to r ` unpee l '

p loyed o n ly w i th l a rge s pec imens , w h i le c h ip s f r om d eb i tage

p a l imp se s t sb y mean so fv a r ious a na ly t ica lt e chn ique s .G raham ( 1980 )a nd C a r r( 1987 )h ave p roposed t h eu se o fs pec t ra la na ly -

o r m inu te b one f r agmen t s a r e r eg is te red t o aq uad ra t ( e .g . a t

s e t s d ur ing a na ly s is . I n t hose med ium o r l ow -den s i ty s i te s

P inceven ts ma l ls pec imen sa r er e co rded t ot h en ea re s t2 0cm x

s i s , F our ie r a na lys is a nd s pa t ia l f i l te r ing i n t he p rocess o f

2 0cm c e l l ) .C omb in ing r e co rd ing me thod s may t h e refo re l e ad

s c reen ing c omp lex d en s i ty d i s t r ibu t ion s . 'K oe t je h a sd ea l tw i th

t od i sc r im ina t ion b e tween l a rge a nd s ma l l s pec imen s i na ny

t h e s ame p rob lem b y u s ing k -means t oc l us te rt h e s pa t ia l c o -

a na ly t ica l t r ea tmen t , s ma l l s pec imen sr e ce iv ing l e ss o rn oa t -

o rd ina te s o f a l l c a tego r ie s o f f i nd r e co rded i n t h ree d imen -

t e n t ion ; t h e i mp l ica t ion s o ft h is s or t o fd i scr im ina t ion f o rb e -

s i ons ( 1987 , 1 989 , 1 991) . T here a r e f undamen ta l d ife rence s

h av ioura lr e con s t ruc t ions a r eo bv iou s .T he p rob lem w i th mos t

i nt he s cope a nd p r inc ip le s o fo pe ra t ion o ft h e se t e chn ique s .

q uad ra t -ba sed a na lyse s i st ha t t hey ' f a i l t oe xp lo i t e i the r t h e

C a r rh a ss ugges ted t h eu se o fF our ie rt r ansform sd u r ing i n i t ia l

i n forma t ion l o cked u p i n t h e s pa t ia l r e la t ionsh ips b e tween

d a ta s c reen ing t oi d en t ify v a r ia t ion i nd en s i ty o fa r chaeo log i -

c o l lec t ion u n i t s ( c e l ls ) o rt h e f u l l i n forma t ion a va i lab le f r om

c a l ma te r ia l ( 1987 ) . F i l ter ing i nt he F our ie r d oma in may b e

t h e c e l l ' ( J ohn son 1 984 , 7 6 ) . Howeve r , an umbe r o f s t ud ies

v a luab le w hen t h eo b jec t ive o fa na lys is i st or educe t h e n o ise o fd a ta p lo t ted t oe xac tc oo rd ina te s .W i th d a ta r e co rded t og r id

h ave s hown t h a t t h e r e su l t s o fa na lys ing d a ta r eg is te red t oa

c e l ls ,h oweve r ,s imp le rq uan t i ta t ive o ri mage -p rocess ing t e ch -

d if e rg rea t ly f r om t ho se o b ta ined b ya na ly s ing c oo rd ina te d a ta

s ma l l -sca le g r id , n o tw i th s tand ing s ome l o s s o fd e ta i l , d o n o t

n i ques ( e .g .K o t sak is 1 989 ;L ang 1 992 ;R ing rose 1 988 )w i th in

( i b id . ; Wha l lon 1 984 ) .T he re i st h e refo re ac on sen sus t ha ts ma l l

t h ef r amewo rk o fe xp lo ra to ry d a ta a na ly s is a r eq u i te a dequa te .

q uad ra t s r e so lve s i gn if ican tb ehav iou ra lp a t te rn ing .

I ft he i n ten t ion i st oi s o la te d i scre te e p isodes o fd epo s i t ion ,a s E ven i n h igh in tegr i ty s i te s s uch a s P inceven t , q uan t i ta t ive

K oe t je c l a im s( 1991 , 1 95 ) ,t h ea pp l icab i l i ty o ft h e se t e chn ique s t o a r chaeo log ica l s t ra ta i sh ampe red b y t h e v e ry u n iform i ty

me thods h ave f a i led t o d e l ive r c l ea r b ehav ioura l i n te rp re ta -

a nd l ow d i ve r s i ty i na r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s u pon wh ich

t i on s . Ib e l ieve t ha tt h i s h a s more t od o w i th t h e b ehav iou ra l

t h e emp ir ica ld ef in i t ion o ft h es t ra tum a s ac h rono s t ra t ig raph ic

mode ls t ha tw ee xpec to u rd a ta t of i tt han w i th a ny i nab i l i ty i n

u n i t i sb a sed . A l though t h ree -d imen s iona l s c reen ing s hou ld

t h ese me thod s t oi d en t ify r obus t p a t te rn s . A l l o ft h ese m e th -

p rove e x t reme ly v a luab le i ne xam in ing a r tefac t d i s t r ibu t ion s

o d s e xcep t f o rt ho se t ha t a t temp t t od i s sec tp a l imp se s t s h ave

f o re ven o ru neven s t ruc ture ,p rac t ice h a ss hown t ha ti tc anno t

t yp ica l ly b een u sed o n t h e i mp l ic i t a s sump t ion t ha t t h e s u r -

s ucceed i nd e l inea t ing b ehav ioura l e p isode so fd epo s i t ion .

f a ce s a na lysed c omp r ised ma ter ia l f r om as i ng le e p isode o f o ccupa t ion , a nd t ha ts pa t ia lc l u s ter ing o fa r chaeo log ica lf i nd s

F o l low ing B info rd 's mode lo fd rop a nd t o ss z one s( 1983 ) ,t h e R ing a nd S ec to r me thod wo rk sb yp a r t i t ion ing t h ea r ea a round

c an r ep re sen t a c t iv i ty a r ea s . A s Is ugge s ted e a r l ie r , t h is i sa

af i xed c en t re i n to r i ng s a nd s ec tor s ( Boe scho ten & S taper t

f ur the rw i th mak ing v a l id i n f e rence s a bou tt h ep a s t . Ib e l ieve ,

1 993) . T he me thod 's f i r s t p a r t , t he R ing , a im s t o d i scove r

mo reover , t ha t u n t i l q uan t i ta t ive t e chn ique s f o r i d en t ify ing

s imp l is t ic a nd d ange rou s a s sump t ion w h ich g e t su s v e ry l i t t le

whe the rt h e h ear th i nq ues t ion w a s o r ig ina l ly i ndoo r s o ro u t -

s pa t ia lp a t tern sa r ei n teg ra ted w i th t he o t he rs pec ia l is ts t ud ie s

d oo r sb yi n ve s t iga t ing w he the rt h ef r equency o f ma te r ia la r ound

o f v ar ia t ion t h e s i tua t ion w i l l n o t c hange much a nd s pa t ia l

i ts hows u n imoda lo rb imoda ld i s tr ibu t ion . Au n imoda ld i s t r i -

a na lys is w i l lb eu n l ike ly t ol e ad t oc l ea ri n te rp re ta t ions .

b u t ion i se xpec ted o fa no u tdoor h ear th . Ab imoda lo rt r imoda l o ne i se xpec ted o fa ni ndoo rh ear th b ecause o ft h eb a r r ie re f f e c tc r ea ted b yt h eh u to rt e n t ( one mode c or respond ing t oa n

2 . 3I den t if ica t ion o fs i te -forma t ion p rocesse s

i nne r d rop z one , a no the rt o ap eak a ccumu la t ion o f ma te r ia l

T he t a c i t a s sump t ion o f s pa t ia l a r chaeo logy i st ha t mapp ing

n ea rt he b a r r ie r , t h et o ss z one , a nd t h et h ird mode ,i fa ny ,t oa

a r tefac t si ns pace c an l e ad t o mapp ing p a s th uman b ehav iou r ,

d i sca rd l o ca t ion o u t s ide t h es he l te r ) .T he s econd p a r t ,t h eS ec -

o r a tl e a s t t ho se a spec t s o f i tt ha t we re a s soc ia ted w i th t h e

t o r ,r evea l sa symme t r ica ld i s t r ibu t ion sa r ound o pen -a ir h ea r th s .

o b jec t sr e cove red .I t s ma jo ra s se ti st ha tt h ev a r iab les o fi n te r -

T h is i sa ch ieved b yp o s i t ion ing as ec tor g raph a round t he c en -

e s t , t h e s pa t ia l c oo rd ina te s o ff i nd s , c an b e m ea sured o b jec -

t r ea nd e xam in ing t he f r equency o fe ach c a tego ry o fa r tefac t s f o re ach s e c to r . T he me thod 's s imp l ic i ty make s i tv a luab le i n

t i ve ly . Howeve r ,o b jec t iv i ty i n mapp ing f i nd sg oe sh and i nh and

e xp lor ing h ea r th -re la ted d i s t r ibu t ion s i ns i tes h av ing as i ng le c en t ra l h ab i ta t ion f ea tu re .

t ha t e ncompa ss t h e f i nd s . B info rd c a l led t h e a r chaeo log ica l

A tf i r s ts i gh t ar ange o fq uan t i ta t ive t e chn ique sf o rs pa t ia la na ly -

t h e P a laeo l i th ic r e co rd f o rbade i ngenuou s e xpec ta t ions o fr e -

s i s a ppea r s t ob e a va i lab le . I np rac t ice , h oweve r , t h e me thod -

c ons truc t ion s o fp a s tw ays o fl i f e ( 1975 ; B o rdes e ta l . 1 972 ) .

w i th u nde r s tand ing t h et a phonom ic c ond i t ion so ft h es ed imen t s r e co rd ' a" foss i l r e co rd" o ft h e a c tua l o pe ra t ion o fa n e x t inc t s oc ie ty ' ( 1964 , 4 25 ) . B o rde s w arned t ha tt h e u ncer ta in t ie s o f

1 4

T heor e t ica la nd m e thodo log ica la pproaches Y e t i tw a s S ch if f e r , h imse lf ap rocessua l i s t , who p o in ted o u t

I n a t temp t ing t o d e te rm ine t h e d egree o f r e so lu t ion t o b e

t h a t many o ft h ec her ished a s sump t ion so ft h eN ew A rchaeo l -

e xpec ted o f p a laeoe thno log ica l r e con s t ruc t ion , me thod s o f s t udy ing s i te f o rma t ion h ave r e cen t ly u nde rgone a l l s or t o f

o gy r e qu i red r e con s idera t ion i n t he l i gh t o f t h e many p roc e s se s t h a t i n tervene wh i le ap lace o nce u sed b y h umans i s

e l abo ra t ions , e spec ia l ly w i th r e ga rd t o P a laeo l i th ic c on tex t s ( And rews 1 990 ;C our ty e ta l . 1 989 ;G o ldbe rg e ta l . 1 993 ;S t e in

b ecom ing a n a r chaeo log ica l s i te ( 1972 , 1 976 ) . Q u i te s imp ly , a s s ign b ehav iou ra lc auses t ot he p a t tern so bse rved ;t h ei mpac t

&F a r rand 1 985 ) .A l though o u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h ea genc ie s t h a t may d i s to r t b ehav iou ra l p a t ter n s o r c r ea te s pur iou s p a t -

o fn on -cu l tu ra l a genc ies u pon v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion s

t er n sh a sb een c l a r if ied c on s ide rab ly ,t wo i s sue so fp r ime i m -

o f f i nd s mu s t b e i d en t if ied a nd a s se ssed b efo re a ny r e l iab le

p or tance i n mak ing a r chaeo log ica li n f e rence s ,i ns i tu d epos i t s

i n f e rence s c an b e made .

a nd c on tempo rane i ty ,r ema in u n re so lved .

S ch if f e r 's mode lo ft he t r ansfo rma t ion o ft h es ys tem ic i n to t he

2 . 4T he p roper t ie so ft he P a laeo l i th ic r ecord a nd t he c harac ter o fi nve s t iga t ion so fi n tra s i te

i np e r fo rm ing s pa t ia la na ly s is a r chaeo log i s t sc anno ti n va r iab ly

a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t , i n i t ia l ly s imp le ( 1972 ) , g radua l ly d e v e loped i n to ab roade r r e sea rch a genda u nde r t h e r ubr ic o f

s pa t ia lv ar ia t ion

b ehav ioura l a r chaeo logy , wh ich v iews t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a s ac omp l ica ted t r ansfo rma t ion o f p a s t b ehav ioura l

Ih ave a l ready s a id t ha te xam ina t ion o fs pa t ia lv a r iab i l i ty h a s s of a rc on t r ibu ted l i t t le t ot h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fP a laeo l i th ic s i te s ,

s y s tem s ( 1976 , 1 987 ) . B ehav ioura l a r chaeo logy t a ke s aw ide p e r spec t ive u pon s i te -forma t ion p roce sse s ,i n co rpo ra t ing b o th c u l tu ra la nd n a tu ra lt r ansforma t ion s ,a nd s e ek ing t ou nde r s tand

e spec ia l ly whe re t h e se a r e c ave s a nd r ock she l te r s r evea l ing s t ra t if ied s equence s . T h is i sd ue t ot wo f a c tor s : ( a )t h en a ture o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd w i th in t h ese c onf ined l o ca t ions

t h e se t r ansfo rma t ions b efo re f ormu la t ing a ny i n f e rence sa bou t p a s t b ehav iou r ( DeBoer 1 983) . B inford t ook i s sue w i th S ch if f e r 's v i ew t h a ts i te -fo rma t ion p roce sse sh ad ab ia s ing e f -

( ar e co rd c on ta in ing n o b u i l t r ema in s , b ea r ing w i tne ss t or e -

f e c t o n t h e o r ig ina l a r rangemen t o f ma ter ia l o n t h e g round s

p ea ted i n term i t ten t o ccupa t ion o ve r l ong t ime s ca le s , a nd t o

t h a ti td i rec t ly i mp l ied t ha to nce t he se p roce s se sh ad b een i d en -

v a r ious t aphonom ic p roce s se s ) a nd ( b )t h ea r chaeo log ica l i n -

t i f ied t h e b i a se s c ou ld b e r emoved , l e av ing t h e a r chaeo log is t

v e s t iga t ion s t ra teg ie s ( i . e . mode s o fd a ta a cqu is i t ion a nd a na -

t or e con s t ruc tp a s th uman b ehav iour a si fd ea l ing w i th P ompe i i

l y t ica l mode l s )i nc ommon u se .

( 1981) .H is c r i t ic ism o fS ch if f e r 's a genda w a sv e ry much l i ke t h ep o tc a l l ing t h ek e t t le b l ack ,s i nce e a r l ie ro nh eh ad h im se lf l a rge ly d i sm issed t he i s sue s o fp re se rva t ion a nd c on tempo ra -

H igh r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , t h e d om inan t t r a i t o f p reh is to r ic h un te r /ga the re rb ehav iou ri nt r op ica l ,s ub t rop ica la nd t empe r -

n e i ty when mode l l ing a c t iv i ty a r ea s( B info rd 1 978 ) .S ch if f e r 's

a t ec l ima te s ,i st yp ica l ly man if e s ted i nt h ea bsence o fa ny p e r -

work ma rked t he i ncep t ion o f s ys tema t ic s tud ies o f

manen td ome s t ic s t ruc tu re s . 6T h is r e su l t si na na r chaeo log ica l

a n th ropogen ic , n on -human b io log ica l a nd g eomorph ic s i te -

r e cord d if e ren t i nt ype f r om t h a t o f a ny l a te r p reh is tor ic o r

f o rma t ion p roce sses , i nco rpo ra t ing e xpe r imen ta l r ep l ica t ion , e t hnoa rchaeo logy a nd g eoa rchaeo logy ( Sch if f e r 1 983 , 1 987 ;

h i s to r ic p er iod , p re sen t ing t h e s t uden to fs pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion

Wood & J ohn son 1 978 ) . W i th in t h is t r end , c on tex ti sd ef ined

f o rh ab i ta t ion e i the rr egu la r ly ( p e rhap s a cco rd ing t ot h e s ea -

w i th au n ique r ange o fp rob lem s . Mob i le p eop le u se p lace s s on ) o rs po rad ica l ly ( a cco rd ing t oc i rcum s tance s ) , d epend ing

a s af ou r -d imens iona l s pa t ia l tempo ra l m a t r ix t h a t c ompr ise s

o n t h e r o le o fe ach p l ace w i th in t h e b roade r s e t t lemen t s y s -

b o th ac u l tu ra l e nv ironmen t a nd an oncu l tu ra l e nv i ronmen t

t em .A s ar e su l t , a r chaeo log ica l ma t r ice sr e la t ing t ot h em e n -

a nd t ha tc an b e a pp l ied t o as i ng le a r tef ac to rt o ac on s te l la -

c ompa ss u nknown n umbe r so fe p isode so fh uman o ccupa t ion ,

t i on o fs i te s ( Bu tze r 1 982 , 4 ) .

s ot ha tt he t empo ra lp a t ter no fs i te u se i so ne o f many m iss ing c l ue sf o ra r chaeo log is t s .E ven i ns i te so fh igh s pa t ia li n tegr i ty , c on tempo rane i ty b e tween f e a tu res s uch a sh ea r ths w i th in t he

T he p rofound i mp l ica t ion s o f s uch ap e r spec t ive w e re t ob e s e en i n t h e a pp l ica t ion o ff i e ld t e chn ique s . We t s i ev ing wa s i n t roduced ,s o i ls amp l ing b ecame i n ten s ive ,a nd e ven t h es ma l l -

s ame s t ra t ig raph ic u n i ti su nce r ta in a nd s i ng le e ven t so fo ccu -

e s ts pec imen sw e re r ecove red .A tt h ep os t -excava t ion s t age a n

p a t ion c an r a re ly b e i s o la ted . I na ny P a laeo l i th ic s i te , a ny a t -

i n teg ra t ive s t ra tegy , i n co rpo ra t ing r ef i t t ing , m ic roscop ic a nd

t emp t t o d e te rm ine t he n umbe r o f e p isodes o f o ccupa t ion

macroscop ic e xam ina t ion o f t he c ond i t ion o f a r tefac t s a nd

r equ i re st ha ts e ve ra li ndependen tt ype so fe v idence b es t ud ied

b ones ,c hem ica la na lys is t or evea lt h ee fec t so fd i agen ic p roc -

i nc omb ina t ion ( r e f i t s ,s ea sona l i ty ,m icro s t ra t ig raphy ,a nd o r i -

e s ses , a nd t h e u se o fp e t rog raph ic t h in s e c t ions t or e co rd t he

e n ta t ion o fs pec imen s ,f o re xamp le ) . Wha teve rt h ee fo r t s made ,

s equence o fd epo s i t iona la nd p os t -depo s i t iona le ven t s ,b ecame

t h e n a tu re o ft h eP a laeo l i th ic r e co rd i si nhe ren t ly s o amb igu -

e s sen t ia lt ot h ed ec iphe r ing o f as i te 's h i s to ry .

o u s t ha t i tw i l l r a re ly p rov ide c onc lu s ive e v idence a bou t t h e r e la t ion o fl a ye r s t oo ccupa t iona l e p isode s . I n i n t ra -s i te s pa -

T he t aphonom ic a pproach t os i te -forma t ion p roce sse s ,d epa r t -

t i a l a na lys is i ti se s sen t ia l t od emon s t ra te r a the rt han t ake f o r

i ng f r om as t ar t ing p o in to the rt han S ch if f e r 's ,e xam ines n a tu -

g ran ted t he ' o ne to -one ' , ' o ne to -many ' o r ' many to -one ' r e -

r a lt r ansfo rma t ions a l one ,v i ew ing t h em a st a phonom ic e ven t s .

l a t ion sh ip b e tween l a ye r s a nd e ven t so fo ccupa t ion .

I np a laeon to logy , t aphonomy i st h e s t udy o ft h ep a ssage o fa T he p rob lem i se xace rba ted i nc ave sa nd r ock she l te r si nl ime -

l i v ing o rgan i sm f r om t h eb io sphere t ot h el i tho sphe re ( Ef remov 1 940 ) .I na r chaeo logy t a phonom ic s t ud ie sd on o tc onf ine t h em -

s t one k a r s t e nv ironmen t s , who se t opog raphy i sb o th ab le ss -

s e lve s t ot h ep rocesse st ha ti n tervene b e tween t h ed ea th o fa n

i ng a nd ac ur se .O nt h eo ne h and ,t h e se n i che si nt h el a nd scape

a n ima l a nd i t sr e cove ry i n ab one a s semb lage , b u ta dd re ss a l l

a c ta ss ed imen tt r ap s ,p erm i t t ing g ood a r chaeo log ica l v i s ib i l -

t h e n on -behav ioura l p roce sse s a f ec t ing t h e l o ca t ion o f a ny

i t y . O n t h e o the r h and , w i th in t h e i r c onf ined s pace mu l t ip le

c a tegory o f c u l tura l ma ter ia l i n a n a r chaeo log ica l ma t r ix

o ver lapp ing o ccupa t ions g enera te t he p a l impses t e f fec t .

( Berman 1 988 ;B ra in 1 981 ; G if f ord 1 980 , 1 981) .

S t ra t ig raph ic u n i t s t yp ica l ly i n co rpo ra te d ebr is f r om n umer 1 5

C hap ter 2 o us e p isode so fo ccupa t ion ,a si nL eF lageo le t I( Koe t je 1 99 1) ,

s i te s , s pec ia l ised r e source -p rocu remen t s i te s ) . I ti sa pp ropr i -

o rt r anscend s i ng le e p isodes o fo ccupa t ion , a sf o re xamp le a t

a t e n o to n ly t oh igh re so lu t ion s i tes ,b u ta l so t ol owe r -re so lu -

t h eH e lga -Abr i( Hahn 1 984 ) .I nv e ry many c a se sl a ye r sp re sen t

t i on p a l imp se s t so f mu l t ip le o ccupa t ion s ,s ol o ng a st a phono rn ic

i no ne t r ench c anno tb et r aced e l sewhe re i nt h es i te .T he o ve r p r in to fp roce s se ss uch a sr oof c o l lap se ,a ccumu la t ion o fb l own -

t e rn s ( K ind 1 984 ;K oz lowsk i 1 984a ;R igaud & G ene s te 1 989 ;

b ia se s h ave n o t e n t i re ly d es t royed t he o r ig ina l c u l tu ra l p a t -

i ns ed imen t ,d r ipp ing o rp e rco la t ing w a te ra nd a n ima la nd b i rd

S imek 1 989 ) . A s s imu la t ion s t ud ie s h ave d emon s t ra ted , i ti s

n e s t ing o f ten d i s tor t s t h e o r ig ina l l a you t o fc u l tu ra l d epos i t s .

p oss ib le t oi d en t ify t he u nde r ly ing s pa t ia l s t ruc ture o f ah u -

A l though w e c an t o s ome e x ten t d e l inea te t h e se c hange s b y

man s i te e ven i fs ome d i s tu rbance h a so ccu r red d ur ing i t st r an s -

m ean so fc a refu le xcava t ion a nd s t udy o fs i te -forma t ion p roc -

f o rma t ion i n to a na r chaeo log ica l d epos i t( G regg e ta l . 1 991) .

e s ses ( Far rand 1 985 ; Woodwa rd 1 997 ) , o ur a b i l i ty t oi d en t ify t he i mpac t o f n on -cu l tura l p roce sse s u pon a r chaeo log ica l

E ach a pp roach h a s i t s o wn mer i t s , i lum ina t ing d if e ren t a s -

s ed imen t sd oe sn o ti mp ly t ha tw ec an c oun te rac tt h ep rob lem s

p ec t so fp a s tb ehav iour . T he t wo d if e r ma in ly i nt h e ir d eg ree

a s soc ia ted w i th t aphonomy a nd p re serva t ion ,e spec ia l ly when

o ft empo ra l r e so lu t ion . T he r econ s t ruc t ion i s t a pp roach s e ek s

w e a t temp t t od ec iphe rp reh is tor ic e p isodes o fo ccupa t ion i n

p r ima r i ly t oi d en t ify i nd iv idua l a c t ions a nd a c t iv i ty a r ea s o n

t e rms o fl i v ing f l oo r s .

s u rface s u sed d ur ing d i s t inc t e ven t s o f o ccupa t ion . S t r ic t ly s peak ing , i tt hus o pera tes o n ly s ynch ron ica l ly . Howeve r ,

I n c ave s a nd r ock she l te r s e xcava t ion s a r e f r equen t ly o fl im -

s ynch ron ic c on tex t sa r e ,a sw eh ave s een ,e x t reme ly r a re ,o ra t

i t ed h or izon ta le x ten t , s ot ha tt h e ir ma in o b jec t mus tc on t inue t ob e t h e s t udy o fv a r iab i l i ty t h rough t ime . S ome t ime s t h i s i s

l e a s td if i cu l tt oe s tab l ish , i nt he v a s t ma jor i ty o fP a laeo l i th ic s i te s .

t h er e su l to f ad e l ibe ra te s t ra tegy o fv er t ica l s amp l ing ( a sw i th t h ee xcava t ion o fd eep t r enche so rs o -ca l led ' t e lephone b oo th s ' ,

I n mode l l ing s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion ama jo r c oncer n s hou ld b e

i n tended t oc on t ro ls t ra t ig raphy a nd d a te s ,t h a ti ss t anda rd p ra c -

t h ep rob lem o ft ime . T he magn i tude o ft h ep rob lem o fr ep re -

t i ce i n Au s t ra l ian a r chaeo logy ) a nd s ome t ime s i ti si mpo sed b yf i e ldwo rk t ime /budge tl o g is t ic s .S ome t ime s ,o fc ou r se ,t h e re

o bse rve t h ep l an sb y mean so f wh ich e t hnoa rchaeo log is t s map

i sn o o the ro p t ion , r ock fa l ls i n s ide ac ave o rr ock she l te rh av -

h uman a c t ion a nd s pa t ia l r e la t ion s . T hese p lan s a r e an ece s -

s en t ing t ime i n a r chaeo logy i sb e t te r a pp rec ia ted w hen w e

i ng made e x ten s ive h or izon ta le xcava t ion i mpo ss ib le ( Lav i l le

s a ry o ve r s imp l if ica t ion o f amo re c omp lex r ea l i ty i no rde rt o

e ta l . 1 980 ) .

c r ea te g ene ra l , a nd t hus t ime less , mode ls o fs pa t ia l o rgan isa t i on . W i th in a ny s i ng le e p isode o fo ccupa t ion t h e re i s ac on -

I nt hose c a se s w he re s pa t ia l q ue s t ion s a r ep a r to ft h e a genda ,

t i nuou s f l ux o fp eop le a nd a c t iv i t ie s a td if eren tt ime so fd ay ,

t h e a r chaeo log is t o f ten h a s i nm ind t h e s o r t o fp a t te rn s t h a t

o r a ccord ing t o s pec if ic c i rcums tance s ( e .g . a c t iv i t ie s , p re s -

c an b e o bserved b y v i s i t ing moder n h un te r /ga the re r g roup s .

e nce o fv i s i to r s ) . B info rd h a s a dm i t ted h ow d if i cu l th ef ound

T hese i n sp i re e xpec ta t ion s t ha t c anno t r ea l ly b e me t b y a r -

i tt ow o rk o u th ow t od raw s i te p lan st ha tw ou ld c on ta in a l lt h e

c haeo log ica l d a ta , l e a s t o f a l l t hose r e la t ing t o P a laeo l i th ic

e v idence o b ta ined f r om t h e Ma sk s i te ( 1978b ) . H i s c omm i t -

p a l impse s t s .A s S t er no bse rve s :

men t t o t h e a c t iv i ty a r ea c oncep t l e d h im t o d raw d if e ren t p lans f o rd if e ren ta c t iv i t ie s ,o cca s iona l ly r e co rd ing t h et imes

S omehow s t ud ie s o fc on tempo ra ry s oc ie t ies , o n -go ing e co l og ica l c ommun i t ie s , a nd o bservab le g eomorph ic p rocesse s

o f d ay a t wh ich s ome o f t hem t ook p lace . Nt requ in a nd

a r e s uppo sed t op rov ide as e to fd a ta t h a tc an b eu sed t oc o r r e c tf o rb i a ses i nt h ep reserva t ion o f ma te r ia lr ema in s a nd t o

P 6 t requ in , mak ing e thnoa rchaeo log ica l o bserva t ions o n r ock she l te rs pa t ia la r rangemen t si nN ew Gu inea ,h e ld t h et ime

t r ansform p i le so fd ebr is a ccumu la ted o ve rt e ns o ft hou sand s

f a c tor c ons tan t , p roduc ing an umbe ro fp l ans r e la t ing t od i f -

o f y ea r s i n to an ea t a r ray o f d ebr i s w i th a s pec if ic c on tex t

f e ren ta c t iv i t ie st ha tt ook p lace i nt he s ame s i te ( 1988 ) .G a l lay ,

a nd p u rpo se ,a st hough ac a tac lysm ic e ven th ad r emoved t h e

i nh i ss t udy o ft h eT ua reg n omad so fn or th A f r ica ,d rew mu l t i -

a c to r s b u tn o th ing e l se f r om t h e s t age ( 1993 , 2 15 ) .

p le p lans o f t h e s ame s i te a t d if feren t t imes ( 1988b ) . I f

Two a pp roache s t ot he s pa t ia l a na lys is o f Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic

e t hnoa rchaeo log is t s , who o bserve b ehav iour a s i th appen s ,

s i tes c an b e i d en t if ied . I n t une w i th t h e ' Pompe i i p rem ise '

c onf ron ts uch p rob lems ,i si tn o tu t te r ly u n rea l is t ic f o ra r chae -

( B inford 1 981) , t h e r e cons t ruc t ion is t a pp roach a t temp t s t o

o log is t st oe xpec tt ob ea b le t or e cons t ruc t af r ozen momen to f

e x t rapo la te a n a ccoun t o fh uman a c t iv i ty a nd a n u nde r s tand -

s pa t ia la r rangemen t s i n aP a laeo l i th ic s i te?

i ng o fd emog raphy a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion f r om a n i s o la ted , w e l lp reserved s e t t lemen te p isode ,r a the ra se t hnog raph ic s t ud -

T he t h eo re t ica lo b jec t ion st ha t Ih ave r a ised r ega rd ing t h eu t i l -

i e sd o .W i th in t h is a pp roach ,i n t ra -s i te s pa t ia la na lys i sc an o n ly

i t y o f ar e con s t ruc t ion is t a pp roach t oa r chaeo log ica l p al imp -

b e u nder taken i nh igh -re so lu t ion c on tex t s . I n E u rope , o pen a i r s i tes h ave p roved f a r b e t te r s u i ted t o t h is a pp roach t han

mode l p a s t a c t iv i t ie s . Human a c t iv i t ie s c an b e g rouped i n to

s e s t s a r en o t i n tended t oi mp ly t ha t w e s hou ld n o t a t temp tt o

h ave c ave s a nd r ock she l te r s( Cahen & K ee ley 1 980 ;C ahen e t

t h ree b road c a tegor ies a cco rd ing t o t h e ir a r chaeo log ica l c o r -

a l . 1 979 ;J enny e ta l . 1 989 ;L eonova & M in 'kov 1 988 ;P igeo t

r e la te s .F i r s t , t h e re a r ea c t iv i t ie st ha tl e ave b eh ind n or e l ics o r

1 984 ) . T he i n he ren tl im i ta t ion so ft h eP a laeo l i th ic r e co rd i m -

h ave n o c l ea r c o r re la te s ( e .g . i n forma t ion e xchange , r i tua ls ,

p o se s e r ious c on s t ra in t s u pon a ny a t temp t t or e con s t ruc t b e -

p lay , s l eep ) ; o n ly t h e p re sence o fh ea r th s p e rm i t s u s t oi n f e r

h av iou r ' b y p roxy ' . A s w e s aw e a r l ie r , e ven h igh -re so lu t ion

t ha t s ome o ft h e se h ave p robab ly t aken p l ace . S econd , t h e re

s i te s s uch a sP inceven t c onf ron t u s w i th mu l t ip le a l te rna t ive

a r ea c t iv i t ie st h a tl e ave b eh ind o n ly p e r ishab le r e l ic s ,a nd t h o se

o rc omp lemen ta ry i n te rp re ta t ion s .T he s i te s t ruc tu ra la pp roach

t ha t a r e d ocumen ted b y a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l , b u t a bou t

p r inc ipa l ly i n vo lve sr e co rd ing as i te 's h ab i ta t ion f e a tu re s ,a l ong w i th t he ir a s soc ia ted s ca t te r so fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l .T h is

who se l o ca t ion t h e re r ema in sc on s ide rab le amb igu i ty ( e .g .t oo l

a pp roach w a s p romp ted b y t h e n eed t ob u i ld u p a ni n ven to ry

c on sump t ion , p roce ss ing o fa n ima l b y -p roduc t s f o r c l o th ing

o fs pa t ia l -o rgan isa t ion d a ta f o rv a r iou st ype so fs i te ( e .g .c amp -

a nd b one t oo l manufac tu re ,p e r sona lo rnamen ta t ion ,a r t ) .T h i rd ,

manufac ture , h a f t ing a nd u t i l isa t ion , a n ima l b u tche r ing a nd

1 6

T heor e t ica la nd m e thodo log ica la pproaches

N o te s

t h e re a re d i sca rd a nd ma in tenance a c t iv i t ie s d ocumen ted b y r edundan tp a t te rns i nt he a r rangemen t o fa r chaeo log ica l ma t e r ia l a nd i nt h eo ve ra l l s i te s t ruc tu re .

1 . T h is r e f lec t s amore g ene ra lp henomenon i nt h er e cen th i s t o ry o fa cadem ic d i sc ip l ine s , i n mos t o f wh ich t h e a r che -

2 . 5S ummary

t ype o fs pec ia l isa t ion i n as i ng le n a r row f i e ld h a sr ep laced

Ib egan t h is c hap te rb y e xam in ing t h et h eo ry t ha th a sh i the r to

t h eo ld i d ea l o fv e r sa t i l i ty . 2 . S tud ies o f s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion a tP inceven t c an b e f ound i n

u nder la in s pa t ia la na lys is o fP a laeo l i th ic s i tes . It h en s urveyed

B inford 1 983 ; C a r r 1 985a , 1 991 ; E n loe 1 992 ; J ohnson

t h e me thodo log ie sc ommon ly u sed t oi d en t ify s pa t ia lp a t te rn s .

1 984 ;J u l ien e ta l . 1 984 ;K in t igh & Amme rman 1 982 ;L ang

Is ugges ted t h a t o u r i nve s t iga t ion s o fs pa t ia l v a r iab i l i ty h ave

1 992 ; L e ro i -Gourhan & B r6z i l lon 1 972 ; S imek 1 984a ;

l a rge ly i gno r ed t h ep a r t icu la rs pa t io tempo ra lp rope r t ie so ft h e

S imek & L a r ick 1 983 .

P a laeol it h ic r e co rd i n c onf ined l o ca t ion s . Ia s cr ibed t o t h is om iss ion t h e f a i lure o f t h e a c t iv i ty a r ea mode l t o make a ny

3 . T he d ef ic iency o ft h is p rog ramme i st ha ti tl a ck st h eg raph i c sn ece ssa ry t o map s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion s .

g rea te rc on t r ibu t ion t ot h ei n terp re ta t ion o fp a s ts pa t ia lb ehav -

4 . A s ac l us te r ing me thod i ti sn o t n ew i n t h e l i t e ra tu re o f

i o u r . F ina l ly , Ia r gued t ha t i tw a s i mpo r tan t t ha t w e s hou ld

a r chaeo logy ;b efo re i t si n t roduc t ion i n to s pa t ia la na ly s is i t

i n corpo ra te t h e p a l impse s t e f ec t r e su l t ing f r om mu l t ip le s u -

w a su sed i nt a xonom ic e xe rc ises d ur ing s t udy o f morpho -

p er impo sed o ccupa t ion s o f c ave s a nd r ock she l te r s i n to o ur

l og ica la t t r ibu tes i na r tefac ta s semb lage s( Do ran & H od son

t h eore t ica le xpec ta t ion s a nd me thodo log ica l s t ra teg ie s ,r a the r t h an t r ea ti ta sa nu nfor tuna te d ef ec ti nt h er e co rd .

1 975 , 2 29-41) . 5 . T h is f am i ly o ft e chn ique s wa s f i r s ti n t roduced i n to t h e a r -

B ea r ing t h e se c on s ide ra t ion s i nm ind , t h en , i n my n ex tc hap -

c haeo log ica ll i tera ture b y S co l la r( 1970 ) . he dwe l l ing sb u i l to nt h ec en t ra lR uss ian p la in a nd i nS i 6 . T

t e r Is ha l l a r gue i n f avou r o f as i te s truc tu ra l a pp roach , a nd

b er ia d ur ing t he Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic s ugge s t , h oweve r ,t ha t

p re sen t my r e sea rch d es ign f o re xam in ing s pa t ia lv a r ia t ion i n

t h is i sn o t ag loba l p a t tern , a nd t ha t i ti sl a rge ly l i nked t o

t h e c on tex t s o ft h e o ccupa t ion s r e co rded a tK l i th i a nd K a s -

d eg ree o f s eden t ism a nd s ea son o f o ccupa t ion ( Sk lenä r

t r i t sa .

1 975 ; Sa f e r 1 985 ) .

1 7

Chap ter 3 .S e t t ing o u tt he me thodo logy e ing i nc on t ro l o fl a rge a moun t s o f t ime E ven t hough a r chaeo logy p r ide s i t se lf f o r b r chaeo logy l a ck s p rocessua l ly s ens i t ive w h ich o the r s oc ia l s c ience s l a ck , a tp re sen ta s t , 1 983 . P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy w ay s o f a na lys ing l a rge u n i t s o f t ime . M .Wob 24 . s ome p rob lem s w i th f o rm , s pace a nd t ime , 2

3 . 1 As i te s truc tura la pproach

i n t ra -s i te s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion may b e l i nked t ot h e r o le o f as i te w i th in ab roade r s e t t lemen t s y s tem , w i thou t l o s ing s i gh t o f

A l though w ec anno tc hange t h ep roper t ie so ft he P a laeo l i th ic

t h et a phonom ic o ve rp r in to fn a tu ra lf o rma t ion p roce s se s . I ti s

r e co rd , n o tab ly i t s l ong t ime s ca le s , a l ong w i th t h e e fec t s o f

e s sen t ia lt h a ta ny s cheme f o rt h es pa t ia la na ly s is o fp a l imp se s t s s hou ld n e i the re xp l ic i t ly n o ri mp l ic i t ly a s sume p r ima ry d epo -

g eo logy a nd o ft h e t aphonom ic p roce sse s t ha t t ake p lace i n c ave s / rock she l te r s ,w ec an a d ju s to u rs t ra teg ie sf o ri nve s t iga t -

s i t ion o fr e fu se ,i n s tead e ncompa ss ing t h ep o ss ib i l i ty t h a ts e c -

i ng s pa t ia lv a r ia t ion a nd a l te rt h ea genda o fo u rs pa t ia la na ly -

o nda ry d epo s i t ion may h ave t aken p lace ( Sch if f e r 1 972 ) . A s

s e s i na cco rdance w i th t h e se p rope r t ies . I ti so bv ious t ha tt h e

C a r rh a sp o in ted o u t ,

many P a laeo l i th ic s i te s i n wh ich t a phonom ic p roce sse s h ave

p a t tern s o f c ova r ia t ion o r a ssoc ia t ion ( i .e . o rgan iza t ion )

h ad at r auma t ic e fec tu pon t h e o r ig ina l c u l tu ra l p a t terns w i l l

a mong a r t ifac tc l a sses t ha tw e re u sed a nd d epo s i ted t o ge the r

n o tr ead i ly l e nd t h em se lve st oa ny c ons ide ra t ion o fs i te s t ruc -

i n t h e b ehav iou ra l d oma in c an v a ry f r om o ne p o r t ion o f a

t u re . ( Qu i te o f ten ,o fc ou r se ,t h ef a c tt ha t as i te h a su nde rgone t h is s o r to fu pheava li sr evea led o n ly a s ar e su l to fs pa t ia la na ly -

s i te t oa no the r , a s ar e su l t o f s ubg loba l v a r ia t ion i nb ehav i ou ra l , d epos i t iona l , o rd i s tu rbance p roce sses ( 1987 , 2 41) .

s i s , a s i n t h e c a se o f t he Abr i Dufaure [ Pe t rag l ia 1 993 ] . )

E p isode so fd epos i t ion a r en o to fi nd iv idua li mpo r tance ,s i nce

P a l imp ses t s c anno t , h oweve r , s imp ly b e n eg lec ted , n o t o n ly

t h e a im o ft h is a pp roach i st oo b ta in ag l oba l v i ew o ft h e o r -

b ecau se t h e re a r es o many o ft h em ,b u ta l so b ecause t h ey c on -

g an i sa t ion o fs pace a tv a r ious l e ve l so fr e so lu t ion . We a r ed ea l -

t a in c ruc ia li n fo rma t ion a bou tp a s tw ays o fl i f e . I fw ef i nd o u r

i ng n o t w i th i s o la ted o ccupa t ion e ven t s , b u t w i th t h e s pa t ia l

d a ta p e r s i s ten t ly f r us t ra t ing ,w es hou ld a sk o u r se lves whe the r

p a t te rn sr e su l t ing f r om r epea ted u se o f as i te .I t may t h e refo re

w e may n o tb ee xpec t ing t h ew rong t h ing sa nd a sk ing t h ew rong

b ea pp rop r ia te t oe xam ine s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t so fl owe rr e so lu -

q ues t ions .

t i on t han w ou ld f orme r ly h ave b een t hough t s u i tab le , o r i n

As i te s t ruc tu ra la pp roach i n vo lve so bserv ing p a t ter n sa ts ca le s

i ni s o la t ion , b u ta st h ey r e la te t op hy s ica lf ea ture so ft h ec ave

o fr e so lu t ion o the rt han t ha t o ft h ei nd iv idua l e ven to rt ha to f

o rr ock she l te rs uch a si t s s i ze , a ny r ock fa l ls , a nd t h el i gh ta nd

s ome c a se s t h ee n t ire s i te . ' S pa t ia l a r rangemen t s a r e s e en n o t

t h e l i v ing f l oo r . If a vou rs uch a n a pp roach f o rt wo r ea son s :

s he l te r t ha t i t of e r s . S i te s t ruc tu re i sc on s ide red i nt e rm s o f

• E thnoa rchaeo log ica le v idence c once rn ing c on tempo ra ry u se

t wo c omponen t s :e v iden ts t ruc tu re sa nd l a ten ts t ruc tu re s( Le ro i Gourhan 1 970-77 ) .

o fc ave sa nd r ock she l te r ss how st ha tt h e re i sn os uch t h ing a s aw e l l d ef ined l i v ing f l oo r t ha t c an b e d i s t ingu ished

' Ev iden t s t ruc tu re s ' a r eh ea r th s ,p o s t -ho le s a nd o t he rc u l tu ra l

f r om p rev ious o r s ubsequen t e p isodes o f o ccupa t ion ( Chap ter 4 ) . T he i s sue o f c on temporane i ty a nd o f

f ea tu re s i d en t if ied d ur ing e xcava t ion .

s ynch ron ic d epos i t ion o fc u l tu ra l ma te r ia l t hus r ema in s u n re so lved e ven i n c onf ined l o ca t ions o ft h is t ype t ha t

' La ten ts t ruc tu re s ' i s ag ene r ic t e rm u sed o fd i sc re te a ccumu -

a r e i nu se t oday . P a laeo l i th ic s i te s , e ven t hose o f h igh

l a t ion s o f f i nd s , a s soc ia t ion s o f d ife ren t c l a sse s o f f i nd , o r

s pa t ia l i n teg r i ty , a r e n o d if e ren t f r om modern o ne s i n

c on jo ined s equence s wh ich a r e n o t c l ea r ly o b ser ved d ur ing

t h is r e spec t .

r e cove ry , b u t a r e d e tec ted b y mean s o f s pa t ia l a na ly s is a nd

• R e con s t ruc t ing i n d iv idua le ven t ss uch a s ak nappe r 's p o s i t ion ,

r ef i t t ing .I den t ify ing t h el a ten ts t ruc ture ss hou ld h e lp t oc l a r ify

h oweve r i n te r e s t ing i t may b e , p rov ide s l i t t le i n forma t ion

t h ed eg ree o fe ne rgy i n ve s ted i ns i te ma in tenance ,p a t tern so f

a bou tt h eg roup i nhab i t ing ac amp . O n ly o ve ra l ls i te s t ruc -

r e -use o fe x is t ing f a c i l i t ie s ,t h ec ha rac te r is t ic so fd i s t r ibu t ion s

t u re c an d ot h i s ,o rr e vea ll o ng te rm p a t te rn so fs i te u se .

r e la ted t oh ea r th sa nd t h ec ompos i t ion o ft h ea r ea sa d jacen tt o o the r s t ruc tu r ing f ea tu re s ( s uch a sw a l ls , r ock fa l ls o r h ab i ta t i on s t ruc ture s ) .O ve ra l ls i te s t ruc tu re i sd el inea ted b yd e scr ib -

T he s i te s t ruc tura l a pp roach p ropo sed h e re a l lows t h e u se o f b roade rb ehav iou ra l mode l s a nd u n i t s o fa na ly s is , a nd make s

i ng h ow t h e l a ten t s t ruc ture s r e la te t ot h e e v iden to ne s a nd t o

av i r tue o fr edundan t p a t ter n ing . I ti ss u i tab le t o ac on s ide r -

t he r ock she l te r 's t opog raphy .

a b ly l a rge rn umbe ro fs i te s , s i nce t h eq ues t ion si ta sk s c an b e a dd re ssed i ns i te s o fh igh a sw e l la so fl owe rs pa t ia li n teg r i ty .

H ea r th s a r e o f p ar t icu la r i mpor tance b ecause t h ey a r e f o ca l

T h is a pp roach i sn o t s upposed t or e su l t i n c i nema tog raph ic

p o in t sa round wh ich h uman a c t iv i ty a nd s oc ia li n te rac t ion a r e

s ho t s o f e ve ryday l i f e i n t h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic . I n s tead , i t

o rgan ised . T h is i s ac ross -cu l tu ra l p a t ter n t ha t c on s is ten t ly

s e ek s r edundan t p a t tern s i n s i te s t ruc ture , a ny c hange s t h ey

eme rge si ne t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s ( Chap te r4 ) .T hey a r e a l so e n t i t ie s w i th s pa t io tempo ra l a t t r ibu te s a nd b ehav ioura l

may h ave u nde rgone t h rough t ime , a nd a ny c l ue s t hey may h ave t oo f e ru sc oncer n ing s i te f unc t ion ,d eg ree o fs pec ia l isa -

c oro l la r ie s ,a nd a r et hus al i nk b e tween t h ea r chaeo log ica la nd

t i on a nd i n ten s i ty o fo ccupa t ion , a nd o the r n a tura l f a c tor s i n

t h eb ehav iou ra l c on tex t . S tudy ing h ow h ea r th sa nd h ea r th re l a ted d i s t r ibu t ion sv a ry i nl o ca t ion a nd t ype i sa na l terna t ive t o

t h e f o rma t ion o f d epos i t s . I n o the r w ord s , i te xam ines h ow

1 9

C hap ter 3 s t udy ing a c t iv i ty -re la ted d i s t r ibu t ion s .

T he c u r ren ts t a te o fr e sea rch w i th r ega rd t ot he s pa t ia l a na ly -

Ac ave / rock she l te r m igh t w e l l u nde rgo s eve ra l o ccupa t ions ,

t a in ty a st ow h ich v a r iab les a nd wh ich s pa t io tempo ra l u n i t s

b y g roup s v a ry ing i n n umbe r a nd i nc ompos i t ion b y g ende r a nd /o r a ge , d u r ing t he s pan o f t ime r ep resen ted b y as t ra t i -

may p rove t h e mo s tv a luab le t ot he s t udy o fp reh is tor ic u se o f

g raph ic u n i t . I ft he o ccupy ing g roup s a l l b e longed t o as i ng le

u n i t so fo b se rva t ion a nd a na ly t ica l s t ra tegy a pp rop r ia te t ot he

c u l tura l g roup e xh ib i t ing t e r r i tor ia l i ty , h oweve r , t hey a r e a l l

p re sen ts t udy w a s ,u nsu rp r is ing ly , al e ng thy p rocess .A l though

l i ke ly t o h ave l e f t b eh ind t h em t r ace s t ha t r e info rce as i ng le

my me thod i sh e re p re sen ted i nt h ef o rm o f ac l ea rl i nea rp ro -

s i s o f mob i le p eop le s ' c amp s i te s i sc ha rac te r ised b y u ncer -

s pace ( Gamb le 1 99 1) . T he s e lec t ion o ft h e u n i t s o fa na lys is ,

b a s ic p a t te rn o fs pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion .T h is i st h ec a se b o th w he re

c edure , i ti st h e e nd p roduc t o f ag rea t d ea l o f e xpe r imen ta -

o ccupa t ion h a so ccur red s y s tema t ica l ly a nd where i th a sb een

t i on .

s hor te r te rm a nd o ppor tun is t ic , a l though t h ere may b e s ome 3 .2 :1 The u n i t so fa na lys is

d ife rence i n t h e s pa t io tempora l e x ten t o f t h e t r ace s . E ven where s ome v er t ica l a nd h or izon ta l d i sp lacemen t o f o b jec t s h a s t aken p l ace r epe t i t ive b ehav iou r o f t h is s or t c an b e e x -

I ti se s sen t ia l t ha t a n e xam ina t ion o fs pa t ia l v ar ia t ion s hou ld

p ec ted t oc r ea te o ve ra l lr edundan tp a t ter n so fs pa t ia lo rgan isa -

b eg in w i th d a ta s c reen ing i no rde r t h a t t h e d eg ree o f s pa t ia l

t i on t ha t s hou ld b e a r chaeo log ica l ly i d en t if iab le , a tl e a s t i n

r e so lu t ion a nd t h ea pp rop r ia te c on tex tua lu n i tf o ra na lys is may

r e la t ion t ot h er ock she l te r 's t opog raphy a nd t oh ea r th s . S ince

b ee va lua ted .T o make s u re t ha tt he c on tex tua lu n i tw ec hoose

p a t tern s o fs pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion r e la t ing t ot he r e -use o fp re -

i st h e s ma l le s to ne t ha tc an b ed ef ined , w e mus tt ake i n to a c -

e x is t ing f a c i l i t ies s uch a sh ea r ths a r ed e term ined p r ima r i ly b y

c oun tt h es t ra t ig raphy a nd m ic ros t ra t ig raphy o ft h es i te ,r ad io -

c u l tura lp e r cep t ion sa nd o n ly s e conda r i ly b yp rac t ica ld emand s ,

me tr ic d a tes , p a t terns o f t empora l v ar iab il ity i n t he

t h ed i scove ry o fa ny s uch p a t te rn i na na r chaeo log ica lc on tex t

a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s a nd r ef i t t ing r e su l t s . R ef i t t ing , a s

s hou ld s ugge s t s ome th ing t ou s a bou tt h e c u l tura l i d en t i ty o f

a n emp ir ica l m e thod o f b reak ing a p a l imp ses t i n to s ma l le r

t h ep reh is to r ic g roup c oncer ned . R e -u s ing f a c i l i t ie s i sn o t , o f

c omponen t s ,i se spec ia l ly v a luab le a nd c an g ive au sefu li nd i -

c our se , t h eo n ly w ay o fe xp re ss ing r edundancy i ns pa t ia lb e -

c a t ion o ft h e mo s ta pp rop r ia te l e ve lo fa na lys i s .I tc anno t ,h ow -

h av iour ;r edundancy c an a l so a ppea ri nt h e ways i n wh ich p eo -

e ve r ,h e lp u st oi d en t ify i nd iv idua le p isode so fo ccupa t ion ,s i nce

p l ea r range t h em se lve sa round h ea r th s ,o rd i sca rd t h e i rr e fuse .

r ef i t s may b er e la t ive ly f ew , a nd i na ny c a se c an l e ad o n ly t o

I fw e w ish t oa s sess t h ep o ten t ia l u sefu lne ss o ft he s i te -s truc -

r e cons truc t ion o f ar educ t ion s equence o ra n ima l c a rca s st ha t

t u ra l a pp roach i ni n ve s t iga t ing t he se ma t ter s , w e mu s t b eg in

w a s n o mo re t han af r ac t ion o fa n e p isode o fo ccupa t ion .

s ys tema t ica l ly t or e co rd p a t tern s o fs i te s t ruc ture , u s ing t h em t o make c ompa r ison s b o th b e tween s t ra ta f r om as i ng le s i te

3 .2 :2 The u n i t so fo bserva t ion

a nd b e tween s t ra ta f r om mo re t han o ne s i te . T rad i t iona l ly s pa t ia l a na lys is h a s r e s t r ic ted i t s i n ve s t iga t ions I nt h is b ook , my s t ra tegy f o rd escr ib ing t h e s pa t ia lp rope r t ies

t o af ew c l a s se so ff i nd , ma in ly t oo lt ypes , wh ich c an b ea s so -

o f Kl i th i a nd K a s t r i t sa w i l lb ea ni nduc t ive o ne . Is ha l lb eg in b y

c i a ted w i th a c t iv i ty a r ea s . Many c a tegor ie so fi n forma t ion h ave

u s ing ac omb ina t ion o fe mp i r ica l a nd q uan t i ta t ive t e chn ique st o

s imp ly b een d i sm issed , a na ly s is b e ing p er formed e i the ro n ly

d i sce r ns i te s t ruc tu re a nd i d en t ify s pa t ia lv a r ia t ion . Is ha l lt h en

o n s e lec ted p a r ts o f t he a rchaeo log ica l a s semb lage ( e .g .

a sk whe the rt h e s pa t ia l p a t ter n s i d en t if ied h ave a ny r e levance

Doman ska 1 991) o r o n e xce ss ive ly s imp l if ied c a tego r ie s o f

t os i te f unc t ion ,i n ten s i ty o fo ccupa t ion a nd c u l tu ra li d en t i ty .F i -

f i nd (W inde r1 997b ) .I nr e cen ty ea r sa t temp t sh ave b een made

n a l ly ,w i th t h es ame q ue s t ion i nm ind , Is ha l lb roaden t h es cope

t o i n corpo ra te i n to t he a na lys is mo re v a r iab le s f r om t h e a r -

o f my e nqu ir ie s b y e xam in ing ac ompa ra t ive s amp le o fo the r

c haeo log ica l a s semb lage , a s h appened a t G ro t te V auf rey

E uropean r o ck she l te r so ccup ied d ur ing t h e Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic .

( R igaud & G enes te 1 989 ; S imek 1 989 ) . My d ec is ion t oe x p lo re s pa t ia lp a t te rn ing i ndependen t ly o ft h en o t ion o ft h ea c -

3 .2 A f i ve -s tep s t ra tegy f or s pa t ia la na lys i s

t i v i ty a r ea m ean tt h a t In eeded : • t oc hoo se v a r iab le s r e la ted b o th t oc u l tu ra l b ehav iou r a nd

My me thod o fs pa t ia la na lys is i so ne p o ss ib le i mp lemen ta t ion

t on a tu ra ls i te -forma t ion p rocesse s ;

o ft h e s i te -s truc tu ra l a pp roach d i scus sed a bove ( 3 .1) . I tc on -

• t ot h ink i nt e rm so fr e la t ion sh ip sb e tween f i nd s ,s ee ing e ach

s i s t so ff i ve s t ep s : ( a )E va lua te s t ra t ig raph ic i n teg r i ty a nd i d en -

f i nd a so ne e l emen to f as y s tem .

t i fy t he u n i t s o f a na lys is t ha t w i l l g ive t he b es t p oss ib le s pa t io tempo ra lr e so lu t ion .( b )S e lec tt h eu n i t so fo bserva t ion :

L i th ic a r tef ac t s a r e s e en a sc omponen t s o ft e chno log ica l s y s -

t hose v a r iab le s i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage t ha t a r e a p -

t em s . T he c oncep to f ac ha ine o pera to ir ei st h e refo re u sed t o

p rop r ia te t ot h e q ue s t ions a dd ressed . ( c ) D escr ibe t h e h ab i ta -

a s s ign t h em t os t age s i nt he r educ t ion s equence l e ad ing f r om

t i on f ea tures i den t if ied d ur ing e xcava t ion ( t he e v iden t

r aw ma te r ia l t of i n ished t oo l ( Pe leg r in e ta l . 1 988 ) . Da ta o n

s t ruc tu re s ) . ( d ) S ea rch f o r p a t te r n s i nt h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion

b urn tf l in t s a r ei n c luded a sa ni nd ica t ion o ft h e movemen to f

o ft he s e lec ted v a r iab le s ( t he l a ten t s t ruc tu re s ) . ( e ) C on s ide r

ma te r ia l a way f r om h ear th s . T he s i ze o fs pec imens h a s b een

p oss ib le r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween e v iden t a nd l a ten t s t ruc tu res

a na ly sed b ecau se o fi t s s en s i t iv i ty t ot a phonom ic p roce sse s .

a nd t h er ock she l te r 's t opog raphy , a nd a cqu ire a no ve ra l lv i ew

T he s t udy o fK l i th iu ses al a rge rn umbe ro fi ndependen tl i ne s

o fs i te s t ruc ture a nd i t sv a r ia t ion t h rough t ime .A se ach o f my

o f e v idence ( l i th ic a nd f auna l a s semb lages , b one a r tefac t s ,

s i te s h a s i t so wn a genda f o rs pa t ia la na lys is a nd p re sen t s s pe -

p er fo ra ted s he l l s a nd t e e th , s i ze c ha rac ter is t ics a nd e v idence

c if ic me thodo log ica l p rob lem s , e ach c a se s t udy i st a i lo red t o

c oncern ing b ur n ing )t han t ha to fK a s t r i t sa ,w here Ih ad a cce ss

s u i tt h ep a r t icu la ri s sue si nq ues t ion a nd t h ec ha rac te r is t ics o f

o n ly t ot h e l i th ic a s semb lage .A s w e s ha l l s ee , s o me o ft h e se

e ach r e co rd .D ec i s ion s made i no rde rt od ea lw i th s pec if ic p rob -

v a r iab le sh ave p roved mo re s en s i t ive t han o the r sa si nd ica to r s

l em s a r ed i scussed i nC hap te r s 5a nd 6 .

o fs pa t ia lp a t te rn ing . 2 0

S e t t ing o u tt h em e thodo logy Is ha l l t a ke t h e f o l low ing t r a i t s ( no t l i s ted i no rder o fs i gn if i -

3 .2 :3 Ana ly t ica ls t ra tegy

c ance ) i n to a ccoun ti nc ompa r ing s i tes : My c ho ice o fa na ly t ica l s t ra tegy w a s d e te rm ined b y t h e s i ze o ft he d a ta s e t s a nd b y t h e i n e scapab le f a c tt ha t t h e f i nd s a r e

S t ruc tur eo fs i te . ( See d i scu ss ion i n3 . 1 . )

r e corded a s c oun ts p er g r id . T he p a t te rn recogn i t ion p roce d ure a dop ted i n tegra tes v i sua l i n spec t ion w i th q uan t i ta t ive

D egr ee o fs pa t ia l i n tegr i ty . A t o ne e nd o ft he s ca le a r e s i te s

a na lys is . A l though Is t a r ted t h e i n i t ia l d a ta s c reen ing b y i n -

w hose c u l tu ra lr e l ics h ave b een p re served i ns i tu ; a tt h eo the r

s pec t ing u n iva r ia te a nd b i va r ia te d i s t r ibu t ion s ,t h is me thod s oon

a r e s i te s i n w h ich t aphonom ic p roce sse s h ave d e s t royed a l l

p roved i n ef f i c ien t d ue t ot h e v e ry l a rge n umbe r o fv a r iab le s

t r ace so ft h eo r ig ina lb ehav iou ra l p a t ter n s o fd epos i t ion .

s e lec ted f o ra na lys is . A f te r af ew p lan s h ad b een i n spec ted i t b ecame i mpo s s ib le t ok eep t r ack o fp a t ter n s o fd ens i ty v a r ia -

E nv ironmen ta l s e t t ing o fs i te . A s c ha rac te r , s ea son a nd d u ra -

t i on i np a r t icu la rc la sse so fs pec imen o ve rt h es i te ,e ven w hen

t i on o fo ccupa t ion a r e r e la ted t ot h e r e source s a va i lab le i na

a l lt he p lan sw e re s p read o u to nt h ef l oo r .F o rs ome c a tegor ie s

s i te 's c a tchmen t ,e nv ironmen ta ls e t t ing i se xpec ted t oh ave a n

o ff i nd , s uch a st h el ow -coun to rgan ic a r tefac t sa nd p er fo ra ted

e f ec tu pon ac amp 's s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion a nd u pon t h ec on ten t

o b jec t s a tK l i th i , n o a na ly s is b eyond e xam in ing h i s tog ram s

o fi t s a r chaeo log ica l i n ven to ry ( C la rke 1 977 ) .

a nd p lo t t ing t h e d iferen t modes o rf r equenc ie s o fe ach v a r i D egr ee o fs pec ia l i sa t ion o fs i te . T h is r e fe r st ot he r ange o ft h e

a b le o n to t h es i te p lan w a sn ecessa ry . My d ec is ion t oe xp lo re al a rge n umbe r o f a t t r ibu te s o f t h e l i th ic a nd f auna l a s sem -

a c t iv i t ie sp e r formed , a nd c an t os ome e x ten tb ed educed f r om

b lages mean t , h oweve r , t h a t Ih ad t o u se amu l t iva r ia te a p -

t h e d egree o f d iver s i ty i n t he a rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lage

p roach i n o rde r t o e x t rac t c e r ta in i mpor tan t d imen s ion s o f

( Cowg i l l 1 989 ) .T h is i si n ve r se ly p ropor t iona lt ot h es i te 's d e -

v a r iab i l i ty f r om my d a ta .A f te re xpe r imen t ing w i th an umbe r

g ree o f s pec ia l isa t ion . I n o the r w o rd s , t he more s pec ia l ised

o fs er ia t ion a nd c l a ss if ica t ion t e chn ique s ( s ee a l so G a lan idou

t h es i te i s ,t h el e ss d i ve r se i t si n ven tory w i l lb e .S i te st ha tw e re

1 993) , Io p ted f o r Uncon s t ra ined C lus te r Ana lys is ( UCA ) a s

h i gh ly s pec ia l ised f o rs pec if ic a c t iv i t ie s a r e e xpec ted t oy i e ld

t h e mos t s u i tab le s t ra tegy f o r p a r t i t ion ing a r ea s i n t e rm s o f t h e ir p ropo r t iona l a s semb lage c ompo s i t ion ( s ee 2 . 2 :2 f o rd i s -

al im i ted r ange o fa r tefac t s , wh i le mu l t ipu rpose s i te sa r ea s so -

c uss ion o ft h e me thod ) . UCA w a s a pp l ied t ot h e d a ta f r om

s amp le s i ze b e tween s i tes mus tb ec on t ro l led i fv a l id c ompa r i -

K l i th i a nd K a s t r i t sa w i th t h ea im o fe xp lor ing l a ten ts t ruc tu re s i nt he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l b y d ef in ing

s on so fa s semb lage d ive r s i ty a r et ob e made .

c i a ted w i th aw ide r ange o fa c t iv i t ie sa nd f i nd s .D if f e rence si n

a r eas w i th d i s t inc t a s semb lage c ompo s i t ion c ha rac ter is t ics .

T empora l c harac ter o fs i te u se . T h is c an b e d ea l t w i th mo re

S ince UCA i s af l ex ib le a na ly t ica lf r amewo rk f o rp a t ter nr e c -

e a s i ly i ns i te s o fh igh s pa t ia l i n tegr i ty t ha td o n o t s uf e rf r om

o gn i t ion r a the rt han af o rma l mu l t iva r ia te t e chn ique ,t h e re w e re

t h ep a l imp se s te f ec t . I np a l imp se s t sw ec an d escr ibe t h et em -

s o me v a r ia t ion s i n h ow i tw a s i mp lemen ted a tK l i th i a nd a t

p o ra la spec to fa no ccupa t ion o n ly i nt e rms o fs ea sona l i ty a nd

Ka s t r i t sa .T he se a re d i scu ssed i nt h er e levan tc hap te r s .

t ime d en s i ty . S ea sona l i ty s t ud ie s c an b eu sed t os how t ha to c c upa t ion w a s o f as ea sona l c ha rac ter . T i me d ens i ty i st h e

3 .3 V iew ing s i te s ca le p a t tern sf r om a ni n ter s i te

n umbe ro fa r tefac t sp e ru n i ta r ea p e ru n i tt ime [ N /m2/ ky r ] .T h is

p erspec t iv e

f o rmu la h a s t wo f l aws . F i r s t ly , i ta s sume s ac ons tan t r a te o f

I nt h is s t udy Ic on tend t h a ti n t ra -s i te s pa t ia l a na lys is i sn o ta n

magn i tude o ft h ef i gure o b ta ined i s af unc t ion o fv ar iab le st ha t

e nd i ni t se l f ,b u t a n e s sen t ia l c omponen to f ar e sea rch d es ign

w e a r e a s y e t p oo r ly e qu ipped t or e cogn ise . T he n umbe r o f

t ha tu l t ima te ly l e ads t ot h ei n te rp re ta t ion o f as i te .I ft h ec au se s o fv a r iab il i ty i ns i te s t ruc tu re a r et ob eu nde r s tood , s i te s mu s t

t h ea c t iv i t ie sc a rr ied o nt h e r e ,o nt h ep rope r t ie so ft h er aw ma te -

s ed imen ta ccumu la t ion t h roughou t as equence . S econd ly ,t h e

a r tefac t s l e f t b eh ind i n as i te w i l l d epend u pon t he n a tu re o f

b e s een w i th in ab roade r c on tex t , w he the r g eog raph ic , c u l t u ra l o r f unc t iona l . I ti st h e refo re i mpor tan t t ha t t he s o r t o f

r i a ls u sed , a nd o nc u l tu ra lc ho ice sr ega rd ing ma in tenance b e -

i n tra -s i te s p a t ia la na ly s i s Ia mp ropo s ing h e re s hou ld b ev i ewed

o u t s ide t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i te ) . T hese l im i ta t ions mean t ha t

f r om a ni n te r -s i te p e r spec t ive .

m ea su remen t so fg eome t r ic d en s i ty s hou ld n eve rb ea ccep ted u ncr i t ica l ly . No tw i ths tand ing t hese d if i cu l t ie s , h oweve r , i t

h av iou r( f o re xamp le ,c er ta in a r tefac t s may h ave b een d i sca rded

Chap ter 4 ' ss u rvey o fe t hnoa rchaeo log ica le v idence w i l ls how

s hou ld n orma l ly b e p oss ib le t o d i s t ingu ish ( a t l e a s t i n v e ry

t ha t d if e ren t s pa t ia l a r rangemen t s a r ec r ea ted a s ar e su l tp r i -

b road t e rm s )b e tween c amp st ha tw e re v i s i ted o n ly b r ie f ly a nd

ma r i ly o fc u l tu ra lp e rcep t ion sa bou ts pace ,a nd s e conda r i ly o f

c amp st h a tw e re i nhab i ted s ea sona l ly o rf o rl onge rp e r iod s .

t he n a tu r eo ft h ea c t iv i t ie sp e r fo rmed .A sw es ha l ls e e ,t h eo ccu -

3 . 4S ummary

p an t s o fc av e sa nd r ock she l te r so f t en c hoo se t oi n ve s te ne rgy i n s i te s t ruc tu r ei n av a r ie ty o fw ay st h a tm e re p rac t ica lc on s ide ra t i ons d on o td emand .T h i sa spec to f as i t et hu sl e nd si t se l ft ot h e

Ib egan t h is c hap te r b y i n t roduc ing a nd a rgu ing i nf a vou r o f

t e s t ing o fh ypo the se s c once rn ing r e g iona l a r t icu la t ion a nd c u l -

t h e s i te s t ruc tu ra l a pp roach . Ic on t inued w i th a n a ccoun t o f

t u ra l i d en t i ty . Of t en t h e c amp ing ' r i gh t s ' t o as p ec if i c s i t e n o r -

t h e p re sen t s t udy 's s t ra tegy f o r e xam in ing h or izon ta l v a r ia -

ma l ly b e long t o as i ng le c u l tu ra l / l ingu i s t ic g roup , a nd s i te su sed

t i on i nc onf ined l o ca t ion s c on ta in ing s t ra t if ied s equence s o f

b yp eop le w ho b e long t ot h es ame g roup t e nd t oe xh ib i tc ommon

a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l( as t ra tegy t ha ti n teg ra tes r ef i t t ing w i th

e l emen t s o fs pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion ( Chap te r4 ) . A s a r chaeo log i s t s

q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is a nd v i sua li n spec t ion o fp lans t oi d en t ify

w e may b ea b le t ou se t h e se g ene ra l i sa t ion s i nr e ve r se ,f i r s te x -

r edundan ts i te -s t ruc tu re p a t tern s ) . Ic on tended t ha ti fw ew e re

p lor ing w he the rt h es i te si n ac e r ta in r e g ion e xh ib i ta ny s im i la r i t i es i ns i te s t ruc ture ,t h en p roceed ing t od raw i n fe rence sa bou t

t oe x t rac tn ew i n fo rma t ion f r om s pa t ia ls t ud ie so fP a laeo l i th ic s i te s w e mu s t move ' b eyond t h e s i te ' i n o rde r t o o b ta in a n

t he g roup st h a tu sed t h e se s i te s .

i n te r s i te p e r spec t ive u pon p a t ter n so fs i te s t ruc ture . F ina l ly ,I 2 1

C hap ter 3 d i scu s sed t he a xe so fv a r iab il i ty t h a t Is ha l lu se t op u r sue i n t e r s i te c ompa r i son sf u r the r .

N o te s 1 . T ho rough e xam ina t ion o ft he a r chaeo log ica le v idence ( i n c l ud ing s pa t ia la na ly s i s )h a s made i ta ppa ren tt h a tK l i th ii s s uch ac a se ( Ba i ley 1 997c ) .

I nt h e n ex t c hap te r , b efo re p roceed ing t om y a r chaeo log ica l c a se s t ud ies , Is ha l l s urvey a nd e va lua te t he a va i lab le e t hnoa rchaeo log ica le v idence c once rn ing c ave a nd r ock she l te r u se b yh un te r /ga the r e r s a nd h o r t icu l tur is t s .

2 2

Chap ter 4 .T he e thnoarchaeo log ica le v idence

T he C ree t o ld o f as upe rna tu ra l w oman who t r ave led a head o f t h e h un te r s t os e t u p t h e i rt e n t s a nd p repa re c amp — s ot ha tn o ma t te rw he re t h ey moved , i tw a s a si ft h ey w e re s t ay ing i nt h e s ame p lace . C ree y oungs te r s w e re w a rned n o t t oc oun t t h e t e n t p o le si nt h e i rl odge so rh e r mag ic w ou ld f a i l .T he C ree a nd o the rg roup sa l so r e c rea ted t ha t" same p lace" b yc a refu l ly o b se rv ing r u le so fd ome s t ic e t ique t te .P .N abokov & R . E a s ton , 1 989 .N a t ive Amer ican A r ch i tec tur e , 3 3 .

4 . 1 I n troduc t ion

t h en e xp lo re t h e i mpac t o ft h e s he l te r 's c ons t ra in t s u pon s i te s t ruc ture ,s eek ing t ou nde r s tand h ow f unc t iona la spec t so ft he a dap ta t ion o fp eop le t oc onf ined l o ca t ion sa r ei n ter tw ined w i th

I nt h is c hap te r Ih ave c o l lec ted t oge the rt he s can ty e v idence a va i lab le t ou s , b o th p ub l ished a nd u npub l ished , c once rn ing

s oc ia l a nd s ymbo l ic d imens ions o fs pa t ia lb ehav iou r . F ina l ly ,

p re sen t -day u se o fr ock she l te r s( ma in ly d ur ing f o rag ing e xpe -

Is ha l l e va lua te t h ec r o ss -cu l tura l v a l id i ty o fc er ta in g ene ra l i -

d i t ion s )b yh un te r /ga there r sa nd h or t icu l tur is ts i nt r op ica la nd

s a t ion s a bou t mob i le p eop le 's u se o f s pace i n r ock she l ter s

a r id r eg ion s . ' My p urpo se i n d o ing s o h a s b een t o f i nd o u t

wh ich s e em l i ke ly t op rove u sefu l w hen w ec ome t oi n te rpre t

w ha tc on tempo ra ry s pa t ia la r rangemen t sa nd p a t ter n so fs ed i -

s pa t ia l p a t ter n ing i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e cord . T he wo rk i n

m en ta ccumu la t ion i nt he se c onf ined l o ca t ion sc an c on t r ibu te

t h is c hap te rd oes n o tf i tc l ean ly i n to K en t 's s cheme ( 1987 ; s ee

t oo u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h ep reh is to r ic r e co rd a ts im i la rs i te s .

d i scu s s ion i nC hap te r2 ) , f a ll ing s omewhe re b e tween a r chaeo -

A l though ,a sw es aw i nC hap te r2 ,s pa t ia ls t ud ies h ave a lway s

l o g ica l ly o r ien ted e t hnog raphy a nd t h el a s tt wo s t ep so fa ne t hno -

r e l ied h eav i ly u pon t he u se o f e thnograph ic a nd e thno -

a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch d es ign . Mos t o f my i d ea s a bou t h ow

a r chaeo log ica l i nforma t ion , u se o f s pace i n c aves a nd

t od ea lw i th t h ea r chaeo log ica lp rob lem o fs pa t ia lv a r ia t ion i n

r o ck she l te r s h a s h i the r to r e ce ived l i t t le a t ten t ion . As yn the s is

r ock she l te r s h ad t h e i rg ene s is i nt h is p a r to f my r e sea rch .

a nd e va lua t ion o ft h ee v idence w eh ave r e la t ing t ot h ese s t ruc t u re si so ve rdue .

4 . 2T he e v idence

A l though s ome o ft he ways i n wh ich c ave s a nd r o ck she l te r s

Ih ave c ho sen t oe xam ine e i gh teen v a r iab les ( Tab le 4 . 1) . T he

a r eu sed t oday b ea rn or e la t ion wha t soeve rt ot h ea c t iv i t ie so f

e v idence i sp re sen ted i nt h ef o rm o f an a r ra t ive wh ich s hou ld

P a laeo l i th ic h un te r /ga the re r s , w e a r e h e re l ook ing f o r s t ruc -

b er e ad i nc on junc t ion w i th Append ix Ia nd F igu re s4 . 1-4 .7 . I

t u ra la nd o rgan i sa t iona ls im i la r i t ie si no rde rt ol e a rn mo re a bou t

h ave g rouped t h e d a ta i n to t e n c a se s t ud ie s a cco rd ing t oc u l -

t h e w ays i n wh ich h uman s a dap tt ot h e se c onf ined l o ca t ion s .

t u ra l / l ingu is t ic g roup .I ti si mpor tan tt h a ts o me s uch g roup ing

B ecau se Iw an ted t o e xp lo re t h e e f f ec t o f g ene ra l l i f e s ty le s u pon s pa t ia l a r rangemen t s i nc onf ined l o ca t ion s , Id ec ided t o

s hou ld b e u sed b ecause t h e u se o fs pace v a r ies c ross -cu l tur a l ly e ven w i th in g roup so fs im i la re conom ic b a s is wh ich s ha re

c on s ide rb o th s i te su sed b yp eop le c ha rac ter ised b yh igh r e s i -

t h e s ame e cosys tem a nd n a tu ra l r e sou rces ( Goreck i 1 991) .

d en t ia l mob i l i ty ( t he h un te r /ga the re r s o f S ou th A f r ica a nd

C u l tu ra l n orm s i ns pa t ia l b ehav iour s t em f r om r e l ig ious b e -

A us t ra l ia ) a nd s i tes u sed b y s em i -seden ta ry p eop le ( i n N ew

l i ef s , t a boos , a t t i tude s t owa rd s c om for t a nd c l ean l ine ss , a nd

G u inea a nd T anzan ia , whe re g a rden ing g oe sh and i nh and w i th

c onsump t ion

h un t ing /ga the r ing ) .

W i th in e ach c u l tura l / l in -

h ab i ts .

g u i s t ic g roup ,d if e rence s a r e o bse rvab le b e tween

T he d a ta w eh ave a r eb ia sed t owa rd st h es ou ther nh em isphe re b ecau se o fi t s r i ch e thnograph ic r e co rd , a nd b ecause a bor ig i -

s i te sw ho se f unc t ions a r e

n a l p eop le i nt h is p ar to ft h e g lobe a r e s t i l l u s ing t h e se l a nd -

d i f fe ren t ( f or e xamp le ,

s c ape n i che st ol i ve i n .T he e v idence i sn o ta l le qua l ly d e ta i led ,

b e tween

s i nce n ume rou s s t ra teg ie s , r ang ing f r om e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l

a bo r ig ina ld we l l ing r o ck -

Aus tra l ian

a nd e t hnoh is to r ic a pp roaches t ot h e mapp ing o ff ea tu res a nd

s he l te r s a nd c eremon ia l

a r tefac t s i n d e se r ted s i te s , h ave b een u sed t o c o l lec t i t .D e -

r ock she l ter s [ N icho l son

t a i led a ccoun t s o f s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion h ave r e su l ted f r om

&C ane 1 991]) . Mo s t o f

e t hnoarchaeo log ica l r e sea rch i n t h e r ockshe l ter s o f N ew

my d i scu ss ion w i l l c on -

G u inea , n o tab ly t he s t ud ies b y Goreck i ( 1988 , 1 991) a nd

c e rn r o ck she l te r su sed f o r

P 6 t requ in & P d t requ in ( 1988 ) .T he se p a r t icu la re t hnoa rchaeo -

l i v ing i n .

l o g ica le xped i t ion sh ave t yp ica l ly p roduced i n forma t ion r e la t i n g t o t he a c t iv i t ies o f ma le g roup s , a nd h ence o u r i d ea s o f

C ave s a nd r ock she l te r s ,

g ende rd if e ren t ia t ion i nt he u se o fr o ck she l te rs pace a r ev e ry

whe re p r esen t ,a r ea ne s s en t ia l c omponen t o f

l im i ted .

p eop les ' men ta l map so f t he l a nd scape ( Go reck i

I nc o l lec t ing t oge the rt h is i n forma t ion , Is ha l lf i r s te s tab l i sh a f r ame o fr e fe rence r ega rd ing p o ss ib le s ou rce s o fv a r ia t ion i n

1 991) . O f ten a s soc ia ted

a r chaeo log ica ls i te s t ruc ture ,a nd s pa t ia lo rt empora lu n i t sa p -

w i th my th s a nd o ra l t r a -

p rop r ia te t ot h ec ons ide ra t ion o fh or izon ta l v a r iab i l i ty . Is ha l l

d i t ion s ,t h ey b ecome i m2 3

T ab le 4 . 1 . V ar iab le sf or d e scr ib ing e v id ence c oncern ing c on tempora ry u se o fc ave s / r ock she l ter sb yh un ter / g a ther er sa nd h or t icu l tur i s t so nt h e ir f orag ing e xped i t ion s . V ar iab le s 1 .H uman a nd p hy s ica l g eog raphy 2 .E conom ic mode 3 .T ype o fe v idence 4 .N umbe ra nd n ame so fs i t e s 5 .F unc t ion s 6 .D u ra t ion o fo ccupa t ion 7 .D emog raphy o fo ccupan t s 8 .R ock a r t 9 .S i te a spec t 1 0 . S i t e f u rn i tu re 1 .T o ta l n umbe ro fh ea r th sp e rs i te 1 2 . H ea r th t ype s 1 3 . H ea r th f unc t ion s 1 4 . L oca t ion o fh ea r th s 1 5 . S l eep ing a r rangemen t s 1 6 . D isca rd l o ca t ion 1 7 . A c t iv i ty a r ea s 1 8 . S i ze O the rf e a tu r e s

C hap ter 4 K ey t oa l lf i gure s

p or tan t p laces b ecause o f t he ir e ndur ing p re sence w i th in f am i l ia r

— •— —

• o

D r ip l ine

l a nd scapes . A ccord ing t on umer -

H ea r th

o us e thnoh is tor ic a nd e thno-

R ock

a r chaeo log ica l a ccoun t s , t h ey a r e

S l eep ing p l ace A sh d epo s i t

•

0

a nd a r e u sed wheneve r t h ey a r e

A c t iv i ty & s l eep ing a r ea

n eeded . A l though s i ze may b e a

B ru shwood

f o r r e l ig ious o r r i tua l p urposes

L og H ab i ta t ion u n i td ug i nr o ck she l te rf l oo r C ook ing o ven

7 _

•

l i v ing c ond i t ions t han ah u ti nt h e b ush ; t h ey a r e s imp ly a va i lab le ,

B edd ing

B ack w a l l o fs he l te r mom .

n o tt hough tt oo f e rb e t te ro rw o r se

A r t i f ic ia lr o o f ing P o s t -ho l e

c r i te r ion when as he l te ri ss e lec ted ( e .g . N icho lson & C ane 1 991) , t here i s n o p referen t ia l u se o f r o ck she l te r so fa ny s pec if i cs i ze o r o r ien ta t ion f o rh ab i ta t ion . Dur ing s hor t term e xped i t ions t o h un t g ame , o rt og a the ro the rs ea sona l f ood s ,a no ve rn igh ts he l te ri su su a l ly s e lec ted a ccord ing t o t he w ea ther a nd t o t h e e xped i t ion 's

F o re s t

i t ine ra ry . R ock she l te r s a r e o f ten u sed a s b ivouacs o n t h e w ay t o

rt r ad ing p lace s ( e .g . Go reck i 1 988 ) . v i s i tf r iend so I na dap t ing as i te , p eop le t e nd t o make s pa t ia l a r rangemen t s w i th wh ich t h ey a r ef am i l ia ro rf e e l c om for tab le . I no rde rt o a r r ive a tt h e se a r rangemen t s ,t h ey may d oa ny th ing f r om l e av i ng t he s i te j u s ta si ti s( F igu re s4 . 1 &4 .2 )t oi n ve s t ing ag rea t d ea l o f e ne rgy i nr e -enac t ing t h e f o rm o f ah ou seho ld u n i t ( F igure s 4 . 3 & 4 .4 ) . P a rk ing ton a nd M i l l s ( 199 1) h ave o b s e rved t ha t S ou th A f r ican h un te r /ga the re r s a dap t c ave s a nd r ock she l te r si nt h es ame w ay a st h ey d ob u sh c amp s , mak ing n o ma jo rc hange si nt h es u r round ing e nv i ronmen t( F igu re 4 . 1) . T h is p a t te rn o fu s ing s pace i sc on s is ten tw i th t h ew ay i n wh ich t he se p eop le g ene ra l ly u se n a tu ra l r e sources , w h ich i sc ha r a c ter ised b ym in imum mod if i ca t ion o ft h ee nv i ronmen t( i b id . , 3 59 ) . S im i la r ly , w i th r ega rd t ot h eP un tu t ja rpa r o ck she l te ri n t h e Aus t ra l ian We s ter n D e se r t Gou ld h a s o bserved t h a t t h e l a you to fa r chaeo log ica l l i v ing s ur face si nr ock she l te r si si n d i s t ingu ishab le f r om t ha t o ft h e o pen -a ir c amp s i te s o f mod e rn a bor ig ine s ( 1977 ) . I n t he i r h ou se s , t h e P ina i o fP apua N ew G u inea u se l og s a s p i l lows ; s im i la r f e a ture s h ave b een r e co rded i n o ne o f t h e r ock she l te r su sed b yt h is g roup ( N ip ) ( F igu re 4 . 5 ) ,b u ti n te r e s t ing ly n o ti na ny o ft h e o the r s ( Goreck i 1 991) . P eop le i n d igenous t o t h e h in te r land o f N ew I r e land who p rac t ise a s w idden e conomy a nd l i ve i ns t one -wa l led r i dge top v i l lage s a dap ta nd a me l io ra te l i v ing c ond i t ion si nr ock she l te r sb yc on s t ruc t ing a r t if ic ia lt e r race s a nd b u i ld ing s t one w a l l s ( i b id .) .

F igure 4 . 1 .P lan so ff our S ou th A f r ican c ave sa nd r ock she l ter s . ( Af t er P ark ing ton & M i l l s 1 991 . )

T he We s tD am h o r t icu l tu r i s t so fI ndone s ia o f e rt h e mo s tv i v id v i l lage , w ho s t o r et h e i rp e r sona lb e long ing si n s ide i t .A c t iv i t ie s

e xamp le o fh ow t h ec onf ined s pa ce i nr o ck she l te r sc an b ep e r c e ived s ymbol i ca l ly a nd mod if ied p hy s ica l ly i n am anne ra pp ro -

s uch a ss t one a nd b one wo rk ing ,r oa s t ing a nd s ha r ing o u tg ame

p r ia te t ot h ec ommun i ty ( 136 t requ in & P 6 t r equ in 1 988 ) .T he m a in h ab i ta t ion u n i t s a r ound wh ich l i f er e vo lve s a r ec i r cu la ro rr e c -

t a ke p l ace o u t s ide t h e se u n i t si nt h ec ommuna ls p ace ( i b id . ) .S im i -

t a ngu la rd ep re s s ion sd ug i nt h ef l oo ro ft h er o ck she l te r( F igu re

l a r c i rcu la r d ep r e s s ion s c on ta in ing h ea r th s a nd s l eep ing p l a ce s w e re mapped a tt h eB ig E lephan tC ave i nN am ib ia ( F igu r e4 . 3 )

4 . 4 ) . T he p er ime te ro fe a ch d ep re s s ion ma rk s t h eb ounda ry o f

( C la rk & Wa l ton 1 962 ) .2

t h ed ome s t ic d oma in ( i t sc en t re i st h ef i rep lace )t h a ti st h ep o in t o fr e f e r ence d u r ing t h eb r ief s t ay a way f r om t h ep e rmanen th ome .

T he a f o remen t ioned e xamp les s how t h a t p a t terns o f h uman

E a ch d ome s t ic u n i ta c commoda te s4 -5 i n d iv idua l sf r om t h es ame

a dap ta t ion t or ock she l te rc ons t ra in ts a r en o tu n ive r sa l .T h is i s 2 4

T he e t hnoar chaeo log ica le v idence

A

u n re touched f l ake

• u t i l ised a nd a dze f l ake • h amm e r s tone ( q ua r tz ) 1 4 w ood , ; p ebb le s . . . : :l im i to fs i l t

F igure 4 . 2 .P lans o fY unguba l ibanda 1 -3 ( r ock she l ter su sed f or h ab i ta t ion ) , W es tern D eser t ,A us tra l ia . ( Af ter N icho l son & C ane 1 991 . ) 2 5

C hap ter 4 o fh ea r th sf r om h un te r /ga the re rs i te s a r e o f t h is t y pe o n ly ( F igures 4 . 1 , 4 .2 ) . U se o fr ound o ro va l r oa s t ing p i t s a nd c ook ing s t one s i sp a r t icu l a r ly w ide sp read i n s i te s u sed b y p eop le w i th n op o t te ry ( F igures 4 . 44 .6 ) . T he r o ck she l te r s o ccup ied b y t h e S awo s o f P apua N ew Gu inea , who c ook w i th p o t s , c on ta in o pen h ear ths ( F igure 4 .7 ) . H ear ths i n r ock she l te r s u sed b y t h i s g roup a r e u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th ap i ece o f f urn i ture s uch a s ab ed o r t ab le ( Go reck i 1 99 1) .H ea r th sr i nged w i th s t one s a r ep r e sen t i nv a r iou s e xam p l e s , e spec ia l ly i nP ina i s i te s ; t he se r i ng s , w h ich a r e r ema rkab ly l a rge , a re l oca ted i n t he c en tre o f t he r ockshe l te r( F igure 4 . 6 ) . T he ir p u r p o se i st ok eep t h ea sh w i th in ac on F igure 4 . 3 . P lan a nd s ec t ion o fB ig E lephan tC ave ( u sed b yt h eB erg Dama ) , E rongo

f i ned s pace , a nd h ence t h e p lace

Moun ta ins , N am ib ia . ( Af ter C lark & W a l ton 1 962 .)

c l eane r .S t one l ined h ea r th s ,u sed f o r g ene ra l d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s a nd f o r

b ecause s pa t ia l p e rcep t ion s a nd f e e l ings a bou t c omfor t a nd

s l eep ing b es ide ,w e re t h eo n ly t ype f ound i nt h eB ig E lephan t

i mpur i ty ( a nd h ence t h e w ays i n wh ich p eop le s hape t h e ir

C ave ; e ach w a s i n s ide a l i v ing d ep re ss ion , t o t h e l e f t o f i t s

s pace ) a r e c u l tu ra l ly s pec if ic . R ock she l te r r n icro topog raphy

e n t rance ( F igu re 4 . 3 ) .L og l ined h ea r th s ,o n ly o bse rved i no ne

i sn o i n surmoun tab le o bs tac le t os pa t ia l a dap ta t ion ; i ti sc u l t u ra l p e rcep t ion s a nd d eg rees o f mob i l i ty t ha t c ons t ra in t h e

Me lpa s i te , a ppea rt ob e r e la ted t ot h ec ook ing o fl a rge g ame

u se s made o fr ock she l te rs pace . We h ave s een t ha th or t icu l tur -

t h e Me lpa u se l og s a sf ur n i tu re i nt h e ir p ermanen th omes . I n

i s t st e nd t or e c rea te w i th in c ave st h es eden ta ry c ond i t ion sc ha r -

h ab i ta t ion s i te sh ear ths a r eu sed n o to n ly f o rc ook ing ,b u tf o r

o ro fc u l t iva ted c rop s ( F igu re 4 . 5 ) . A s w e h ave a l ready s een ,

a c te r is t ic o f t he ir u sua l l i fes ty le , e i ther b y c ons truc t ing

w a rm th a nd l i gh t , a nd f o r s l eep ing b y ; r e laxa t ion a nd s oc ia l

p ermanen ts t ruc tu re so fs ome s o r t( wooden b ed so rs t one w a l ls ,

i n te rac t ion t a ke p lace a round t h em . I nN ew Gu inea , ac ro ss -

f o re xamp le ) , o rb yo rgan is ing t h es pace i nt h ec ave s ymbo l i -

c u l tura l p a t ter nf o rt h ea r rangemen to fi n d iv idua ls d ur ing l e i -

c a l ly s o a s t oi m i ta te s t ruc tu re s . I n o rgan is ing s pace a round

s ure t ime i s t ha t o f s i t t ing a round a f i re ( Goreck i 1 988 ;

s im i la r r ock she l te r c on s t ra in t s , f o rage r s a nd h or t icu l tur is t s

Nt requ in & Pa requ in 1 988 ) .

f o l low p a t tern st ha te xp ress t h e ir r e spec t ive d egrees o f mob i l i t y .W i th in t h eA us t ra l ian a nd S ou th A f r ican p a rad igm so fs i te

T he q ue s t ion h e re a r ise s o f w he the r a ny r e la t ionsh ip e x is t s

s t ruc ture , t h e q ues t f o r f l ex ib i l i ty i mp l ied b y t h e p a t tern o f

b e tween t h ef o rm a nd t he f unc t ion o fh ea r th s . S uch ar e la t ion -

h i gh r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty c ha rac te r is t ic o ff o rag ing g roup s i s

s h ip i so n ly d i scer n ib le f o r e a r th o vens a nd t h e i r a s soc ia ted

e xp re ssed b y mak ing l owe r i n ve s tmen t s i n s i te f urn i tu re a nd

c ook ing s t one s , a l l o ther t ype s b e ing m u l t ipurpo se . T he s im -

b ys how ing l e ss i n te res ti nb u i ld ing d u rab le s t ruc tu re s . 'S ome

p l es t t ype o f o pen h ea r th p er form s e ve ry f unc t ion t h a t c an

o ft h es pa t ia ls i gna tures l e f tb yt h eS awo so rb yt h e Wes t Dan i ,

p oss ib ly b ea s s igned t o ah ea r th , whe rea ss t one l ined a nd l og -

o nt h e o the rh and ,p o in tt o mo re s eden ta ry l i f es ty le s .

l i ned h ea r ths a r ec u l tura lr a the rt han m e re ly f unc t iona l ma rk e r s . T h is l a s t o bserva t ion may p rove p a r t icu la r ly u sefu l i n

W i thou t as i ng le e xcep t ion ,l i f ei nr ock she l te r su nfo ld sa round

a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch ,s i nce t h ed a ta t oh and p o in tt o ac l ea r

h ea r th s . S ources o f wa rm th a nd c omfor t , h ear th s ma rk b o th p hy s ica l ly a nd men ta l ly t h eb ounda r ie sb e tween t h ed omes t ic

Au s t ra l ian a nd S ou th A f r ican s i tes , f o r e xamp le , h ave o n ly

a nd t h e w i ld . T hey a r e t hus a n i mpor tan t e l emen t o f h uman

o pen h ea r th s wh i le i nP apua N ew Gu inea s t one l ined h ea r th s

a dap ta t ion t ot h ec ons t ra in t so fc ave s o rr ock she l te r s . Mo reo -

a r ef ound o n ly a ts ome o ft h eP ina i s i te s ( F igure 4 .6 ) .

a s soc ia t ion b e tween h ea r th t ype a nd c u l tu ra l g roup . A l l t h e

v e r ,h ea r th sp lay as t ruc tu ra lr o le i nt h es pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o f h uman s a nd t h e ir a c t iv i t ie s b y ma in ta in ing a nd r ep roduc ing

T he re i sl i t t le e v idence f o rc on tempo raneous u se o f mo re t han

t h ec oherence o fh uman g roup s .T he f i r s tt h ing t he Me lpa p eo -

o ne h ea r th d ur ing s i ng le e p isode so fo ccupa t ion .A l though t h is

p l e o fP apua N ew Gu inea d o u pon a r r iva l a t ar ock she l te ri s

i sl a rge ly b ecau se o ft h ew ays i n wh ich t h ee v idence h a sb een

k ind le af i re ,a nd t h el a s tt h ing t h ey d ob efore t hey g oi ss t ock p i le s ome f i rewood s ot ha tt h en ex tn ewcome r sw i l lb ea b le t o

c o l lec ted , i tu nde r l ine s t h e e qu ivoca l n a tu r e o f t h is k ind o f

d ol i kew ise ( Goreck i 1 991) .

r e co rded f o rt h ree t ypes o fs i tua t ion : ( a ) w hen as i ng le s oc ia l

q ues t ion .T he e v idence f o rc on temporaneou su se o fh ea r th si s u n i t o f ac u l tura l g roup i sp re sen t ( e .g . ag roup o f h un te r s ) ,

T he s hape sa nd f unc t ion so fh ear th sv a ry .F ou rt ype sh ave b een

h ea r th s f ound i nd ife ren tp a r t so f ar ock she l te r may r e la te t o

r e co rded :o pen h ea r th s ,s t one l ined h ea r th s ,l og l ined h ear ths ,

d ife ren t f unc t ions r e qu ired a td ife ren t t ime s o fd ay ( s leep -

a nd r oa s t ing p i t s ( o f ten a s soc ia ted w i th c ook ing s t one s ) . T he

i ng , c ook ing , l e isure t ime h ea r th ) ( Go r eck i 1 988 , N icho l son

s imp les tt ype ,p re sen ti na lmo s ta l lc a se s t ud ie s ,i s as ca t te ro f

& C ane 1 991) ; ( b ) when t wo s oc ia l u n i t s ( e .g . t wo n uc lea r

a sh a nd c ha rcoa l .T he S ou th A f r ican a nd Aus t ra l ian e xamp le s

f am i l ies ) f r om t h e s ame c u l tu ra l g roup u se as i te , as epa ra te 2 6

T he e t hnoar chaeo log ica le v idence

. e meme . o, me .e . › : 4 . • 7 . 1 . , . , . . e 0 7# . / o p o zem is re •

5m

T emb inde

r o ck a r t z ee ,A meme 4 . , : mee 4e » . m m e e me m e ,

F igure 4 .4 .P lan o fY e leme -W ang -Kob -M e r o ck she l ter ,I ndones ia . ( Af t er P d tr equ in &

' ,mew

P d tr equ in 1 988 . )

' , M

t h i rd h ea r th i su sed f o r s ha red a c t iv i t ie s ( Go reck i

at h i rd h ea r th may b e u sed i nt h e c ommuna l a r ea

e e

\\\ \ s l ope

1 991) ; ( c ) w hen t wo s oc ia l u n i t s f r om d if e ren t may mark t h ed omes t ic a r ea o fe ach g roup , wh i le

—

e me . , K . I .eme m •emee mee .,

h ea r th may s i gn ify e ach f am i ly 's s pace , w h i le a

c u l tura lg roup sa r eu s ing t h es i te , as epa ra te h ea r th

04

o

K ey

N

s m

* " .. .e , a c t iv i ty & s l eep ing a r ea

a s a bove ( P6 t requ in & Nt requ in 1 988 ) . I n N ew G u inea , h ea r th sn ea rt h e b ack w a l l a r e a lways f o r

F igure 4 . 5 .P lan so fN ip a nd T emb ind e r o ck she l ter s( u sed b yt h e Me lpa ) ,

s l eep ing b e s ide , wh i le t hose i nt h e t a lus a r e u sed

J im iv a l ley , P apua N ew G u inea . ( Af ter G or eck i 1 991 .)

f or a l l o ther k ind s o f a c t iv i ty ( Goreck i p er s . c omm . ) .T he l o ca t ion o fc ook ing a r ea si sc u l tu ra l ly s pec if ic ;a

( e .g . Pa requ in & Nt requ in 1 988 ) , wh i ls to the r s p refe rt os e t

g ene ra lo b serva t ion i st ha tw he the ri n s ide o ro u t s ide t h ed r ipl ine

u p n ew o nes i nd ife ren t p lace s ( Go reck i 1 988 ) . A s Go reck i

t h ey t end t ob e a way f r om t h e ma in p a ssageway s ( Go reck i

h a s o b served , h oweve r , e ven t hose c u l tura l g roup s wh ich a r e

p e r s .c omm . ) .I tmay b en o ted t ha ti nP apua N ew G u inea c ook i ng a nd o t he rf ood -proce ss ing a c t iv i t ie sf r equen t ly t a ke p lace

h appy r e -us ing e x is t ing f a c i l i t ie s i n ar ock she l te r d o s o o n ly when t h ey k now w ho made t hem ( pe r s . c omm . ) . Aga in , t h e

o u t s ide t h er o ck she l te r , i nc l ea r ing s i ni t s i mmed ia te v i c in i ty

i s sue o ft h e n umbe ro fh ea r ths p re sen ti s ac u l tu ra l ly s pec if ic

( Go reck i 1 988 ) .

v a r iab le .

T he t o ta l n umbe r o f h ear ths p resen t i n as i te d epend s u pon d emograph ic a nd s oc ia l p a rame te r s , t h e t n ic ro topog raphy o f

Nume rous e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s h ave s hown t ha t d i f f e ren t ia t ion a cco rd ing t og ende r ,t oa ge , a nd t os t a tus g over n s

t h e s he l te r , t h e l e ng th o f o ccupa t ion , t h e a c t iv i t ie s t h a t t a ke

s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o ft h ed omes t ic s pace o fb o th mob i le a nd

p lace o n s i te , a nd p a t te rn s o fr e -u t i l isa t ion o fe x is t ing f a c i l i -

s eden ta ry p eop le ( Bourd ieu 1 977 ; B rook s &Y e l len 1 987 ;

t i es . I nA u s t ra l ian r ock she l te r s t h e n umbe ro fh ea r th s r e la te s l a rge ly t ot h en umber o fo ccupan t s( N icho lson & C ane 1 991) .

E nge ls tad 1 991 ; Hodde r1 982 ; Humph rey 1 974 ; MOb je rg 1 991 ; Moo re 1 982 , 1 986 ;T anne r 1 991) .T he l i t t le e v idence w eh ave

I nP ina is i te so nt h eo the rh and ,o n ly o ne h ea r th i su sed d u r ing

c oncern ing r ock she l te ru se r e inforces t h is a r gumen t . Go reck i ,

e ach s t ay w ha teve rt he s i ze o fg roup ( Go reck i 1 988 ) . I ne t h -

i nP apua N ew Gu inea ,h a sn eve ro b se rved f r ee m ix ing o f men ,

n og raph ic c on tex t s ad i s t inc t ion c an u sefu l ly b e made b e tween

women a nd c h i ld ren when m embe r s o f a l l t h ree g roup s o c -

r e -use o f as i te 's e x is t ing h ab i ta t ion f a c i l i t ie s d u r ing s ub se q uen to ccupa t ion s , a nd r e -occupa t ion ( t ha ti s ,r epea ted u se o f

c upy a r ock she l te r t oge ther ; t he b e s t c orne r o f t he s i te i s i nva r iab ly r e served f or men ( pers . c omm . ) . T he e thno -

as i te w i thou ts pa t ia lc ongruency i nu t i l isa t ion o fp re -ex is t ing

a r chaeo log ica l s t udy u nde r taken b y Nt requ in a nd Pa requ in

f a c i l i t ie s ) ( Brook s &Y e l len 1 987 ; Wand sn ide r 1 992 ) .W i th in

i nI ndones ia ( 1988 )h a sr e vea led a no the rs ource o fs pa t ia lv a r i -

o u rs amp le s ome c u l tu ra lg roup st e nd t or e -u se e x is t ing h ea r th s

a b il i ty w i th in t h es ame s i te w hen t wo c u l tu ra l ly d if e ren tg roup s 2 7

C hap ter 4

R i tamauda : May 1 983

s t eep s l ope

R i tamauda : J u ly 1 983

0

L uanana , 747 "dge70 7 7 MM .g . . ,

3m

A i legun •

,

b u r ia l z a › ,7 . e e erweo mee o x y .a. 7 , 4W 77 , . . mm ulaz e • Arae • •, :me meeence me r /m o m • ‚ AM CM , 5 4 54 g am er merem e me men › . : mew ' . 1X 7 . MM IA :r Me le7WO Z : z . W .M, AMee 74 . 0 . , e r ~ , e ,er r . wee ; MM :M M 'ar i e74,49 . 7 7 4 4 7 4 745 44 . 4 7 7 X 7 " 4 5W . (Ne# ,Are ,M 07 4 ( Mirg » 4 44 4 4 55 4 45 45 4 45 4 ff l es e e e me em emer A f le A, V f l f l egf f l i fer g e MAT AM MSAW KO W l e g 4#4 54 4 . z um ee mze i germo,

s l ope

3m

K anamap in

• • . . . . . . ,. . . , . .. . " , . . , . . .... . . . . . . . .. 5 45 4 4, . 4 5 / 445 4 44 4

K ey

•. . . ,

S l e ep ing P andanu sb a rk ma t

c)

.

7 4 . 17 70WAr ; l 7 7 ~0 2 4,7 , : ? e '' '

t « . / \ 0 C2 \

. 4W 1 7 ,07 17 07 4e f l . , •7: 3 .. . •

c i

o ze e ey rowan : '

s l ope

/

5m

F igure 4 .6 .P lan so fR i tamauda , L uanana ,A i legun a nd K anamap in r ock she l ter s( u sed b yt h eP ina i ) , Y ua tg orge , P apua N ew G u inea . ( Af ter G or eck i 1 988 ; 1 991 .) 2 8

T he e t hnoar chaeo log ica le v idence

F igure 4 . 7 .P lans o fP akara , Ad j iga a nd Mar ind j i la r ock she l ter s( u sed b yt h eS awo s ) , C hu iga iH i l l s , P apua N ew G u inea . ( Af t er Gor eck i1 991 . ) 2 9

C hap ter 4 b oo s , a nd t ot he p re sence o r a b sence o f d ogs . S i te ma in te -

u se i ts imu l taneous ly .

n ance ,a l so a f ec ted b yt h e se f a c to r s ,i sf u r the rr e la ted t ol e ng th T he p laces i n wh ich p eop le c hoose t os l eep a nd t h e a r range -

o f o ccupa t ion . Gou ld h a s r epor ted t ha t c er ta in Aus t ra l ian

men t s t h ey make f o r s l eep ing a r e s ub jec t t oc u l tura l a nd d e mog raph ic p a rame te r s ,b u ta r ea lways a s soc ia ted w i th h ea r th s .

h un te r /ga the re r so ft h e We s te r nD ese r tc r ea te as u i tab le l i v ing

I n al a rge n umber o fc a se s t ud ies t h es l eep ing a r ea w a sf ound

l i t te red t h ef l oor o ft h er o ck she l te r( 1977 ) . I no the rs i tes i nt he

t ob eb yt h eb ack w a l lo ft h ec ave / rock she l te r( e .g . P a rk ing ton

s ame a r ea , s ed imen t f r om t he s he l te r f l oo r i su sed t o b u i ld

&M i l ls 1 991 ; C la rk & Wa l ton 1 962 ; Go reck i 1 988 , 1 991) . I n

a r t if ic ia l mound s t h a t p reven t wa te rf r om e n ter ing t h e l i v ing

a r ea , w her en ecessa ry , b y c l ea r ing u p a ny r ockfa l ls t ha t h ave

t he Aus t ra l ian e xamp les , s l eep ing w a s r epor ted t ot a ke p lace

a r ea ( N icho lson & C ane 1 991) . P .P d t requ in 's o bse rva t ion s

i nt he c en t re o fr ock she l te r s w i th in a r ea s c l ea red o fa r tefac t s

i d en t ify t wo ma jo rd i sca rd a r ea s :i nt h et a lus ( i nt h ep l ace where

( N icho lson & C ane 1 991) .T he We s tD an io fN ew Gu inea s l eep

f i rewood i sp i led a nd d og sa r et i ed )a nd i nt h eh ea r th s( Pd t requ in

a round h ea r ths w i th in d ep re ss ion s wh ich c or respond t o d o -

&P d t requ in 1 988 ) .H is s t udy h a ss hown t ha tc e r ta in r u le sg ov -

mes t ic u n i t s . A ccord ing t ot h e ir c u l tu ra l g roup , t h ey may o r

e rn w he re t h er ema in so fp a r t icu la ra n ima ls ,o rp a r t icu la rp a r t s

may n o tu se p andanus ma t s( Pd t requ in & P d t requ in 1 988 ) .T he

o f t h e s ame a n ima l , a r e d i sca rded . T he se p a t ter n s o f r e fuse

B e rgDama o fN am ib ia s c rape o u t t h e ir s l eep ing h o l lows i n -

d i sposa l p roduce as t rong p a t tern o f s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion i n t h e

s i de l i v ing d ep re ss ions b yt h er ea rw a l lo ft h es he l te r( C la rk &

t ype o ff a una lr ema in sp re sen t( i b id .) wh ich s hou ld b ei d en t i -

Wa l ton 1 962 ) . S ome c u l tu ra l g roup s , s uch a st he S andawe o f

f i ab le b y means o fs pa t ia l a na lys is .

T anzan ia a nd t h e S awo s o f P apua N ew Gu inea , c ons truc t wooden b ed s , b u t mo s t o the r s u se p lan t ma ter ia ls t o make a

T he c a se s o ft h e Me lpa a nd t he P ina i , t wo n e ighbou r ing l i n -

b edd ing f l oo r . T he i nd igenou s p eop le o fN ew I r e land c r ea te

g u is t ic /cu l tu ra lg roup si nP apua N ew G u inea ,g i ve t h ea r chae -

l e ve ls l eep ing t e r races o nt h ef l oor so fr ock she l te r sw he re n ec -

o log is tp ause f o rt hough t . R ock she l te r si n Me lpa t e r r i to ry a r e

e s sa ry ( Go reck i 1 99 1) .

t i d ie rt han t h ose i nP ina it e r r i tory ( Go reck i 1 991) .T he Me lpa d i sca rd t h e ir f ood d ebr is i nt he s i te 's a c t iv i ty a r ea s , o ri nt h e t a lus . B ecau se t h ey a r ea f ra id o ft h ed a rk , a nd b e l ieve t ha tt he

S i te s u sed b yt h e s ame c u l tu ra l g roup s s how c e r ta in s im i la r i t i es i nt h e i n ven tory a nd l a you to ft h e i rs i te f urn i ture . B yt h is

s moke t h a t a r ise s f r om b urn ing b one s a t t rac t s ma l ign s p ir i t s ,

t e rm , Imean a l l t hose e l emen t s t ha t a r e f ound , made o rb u i l t

t h ey d o n o tt h row b one s i n to t he h ea r th s a tn igh t ; o n ly i nt h e

o n t he s po t , o rb rough t i n to t h e r ock she l te ri no rde rt of a c i l i t a te h uman l i f e . T he r ock she l te r s s t ud ied r evea l aw ide r ange

morn ing , o rj u s tb efo re t h ey l e ave t h er ock she l te r , d ot h ey d o

o f i nve s tmen t s i n s i te f u rn i tu re . T he n a tu re o f t hese i n ve s t -

b one m a r row , l i t te rt h e i r s i te s w i th l a rge a moun t s o ff a una l d e -

men t si si n f luenced b yd eg ree o fr e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty ,f unc t ion

b r i s , s i nce e x t rac t ing ma r row f r om b one s c r ea te s al o t o ff r ag -

o fs i tes ,d ura t ion o fo ccupa t ion a nd d emog raphy o fo ccupan t s .

m en t s .T he a bove e t hnoa r chaeo log ica ls t ud ie ss ugge s tt h a tc au t ion

T he f undamen ta ld ife rence b e tween mob i le p eop le a nd mo re s eden ta ry p eop le i nt h e ir s pa t ia l a dap ta t ion o fc onf ined l o ca -

i se s sen t ia l i ft h e q uan t i ty o fc u l tu ra l r ema in s p re sen t i st o b e u sed a sa ni nd ica to ro fi n ten s i ty o fo ccupa t ion .I np rac t ice ,d ife r -

t i on s may b e o bse rved a r chaeo log ica l ly i nt he a bsence /p re s -

e n tc on sump t ion a nd r e fuse -d i spo sa l p a t ter n s r e su l t i ns i te s e x -

s o . T he P ina i , w ho h ave n o s uch b e l ief s a nd who l i ke e a t ing

e nce o fp e rmanen ts t ruc ture s .F u r the rmo re ,f r om t h em in ima l ly

h i b i t ing d if e r en t d en s i ty a nd c on ten t , a nd whe re t h e c u l tura l

f urn ished c amp s i d en t if ied a ss uch o n ly b y o pen h ea r th s ( e .g

c on tex t i su nknown t h e re i ss o me d ange r o f m is in te rp re t ing

S ou th A f r ican c ave s / rock she l te r s ) t os i tes w here al o t o fe n -

t h e f unc t ion o f as i te o rt h e d ura t ion o fi t s o ccupa t ion . F rom

e rgy h a s b een i n ve s ted i nc r ea t ing b u i l t in b ed s , s t o rage p l a t f o rms ,o ra r t if ic ia lt e r race s ,s i te f u rn i tu re a ppea r st ob e as t rong

a n a r chaeo log ica l p o in t o fv i ew , t he s o lu t ion t ot h is i st oo b t a in a ni n te r -s i te p e r spec t ive u pon i n t ra -s i te s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion .

c u l tura l ma rke r . I n mo s to ft h ec a se se xam ined i ti sd if i cu l t ,i fn o ti mpos s ib le , C u l tu ra lv a r ia t ion i nt h et ype a nd s pa t ia la r rangemen to f as i te 's

t o p a r t i t ion r ock she l te r s pace i n t e rm s o f a c t iv i ty a r ea s . A l -

f a c i l i t ies i se x t reme ly i mpor tan tb ecause i tb ea r s u pon t h ei s -

t hough t h ea r ea si nw h ich c er ta in a c t iv i t ie ss uch a ss l eep ing o r

s ue o ft he o wne r sh ip o fr ock she l te r s . S i te f ur n i ture a nd i t s a r -

c ook ing h ave t a ken p l ace may b e ma rked b y t he r ema in s o f

r angemen ta r ec u l tu ra l ly s pec if i cn o to n ly f o rc omfo r t ,b u ta l so

b edd ing ma ter ia l ,o rb yh ea r th s ,o vens a nd c ook ing s t ones ,t he

f o re s tab l ish ing a nd r e info rc ing t h e e x is t ing o wne r sh ip s t a tu s

e xac t a r ea s whe re in s pec if ic d omes t ic a c t iv i t ies h ave t aken

o ft ha tp a r t icu la rr e sou rce ( i . e . t h er ock she l te r ) . T he e v idence

p lace ( s tone -ch ipp ing ,t h ep rocess ing o fo rgan ic ma te r ia l s ,t h e

i n Append ix Ir e vea ls t ha to n ly o ne c u l tu ra lg roup ( s ome t ime s ,

b u tche r ing a nd d i v is ion o f mea t ,g r ind ing ,a nd t he p repa ra t ion

i ndeed , as i ng le f am i ly o r p e r son ) makes u se o f a ny o ne

o fp l an tf ood s )a r ea lmo s ti mposs ib le t oi d en t ify . O f ten t h is i s

r ock she l te r . Go reck ih a so bserved t ha tr ock she l te r sn ea rt r iba l

b ecause t h ev a r iou sd omes t ic a c t iv i t ie s h ave n op a r t icu la ra r -

b ounda r ie s a r e c l o se ly i n spec ted t oc heck w he the r a ny o the r

e a s r e se rved f o r t h em . I n o the r i n s tance s c er ta in a c t iv i t ies ,

t r ibe h a sb een mak ing u se o ft h em ,i mp ly ing t h ef to fr e sou rce

t hough s pa t ia l ly s eg rega ted ,a r ep er formed i nc l ose p rox im i ty

( per s . c omm . ) . I nt h e a bsence o ft h e p eop le who u se t h e s i te ,

t oo ne a no the rb ecause s pace i nt he r ock she l ter i ss o l im i ted .

t he ir s i te f u rn i tu re make s a n e xp l ic i t s t a temen t a bou t t h em .

I nb o th c a ses , ma te r ia lf r om s pa t ia l ly o ve r lapp ing a c t iv i t ie so r

T h is i sp a r t icu la r ly i mpor tan t where r ock she l te r s a r eu sed i n -

f r om a c t iv i t ie s p er fo rmed c l o se t oe ach o t he rw i l l e nd u pi na

t e rm i t ten t ly b yg roup st ha th ave at e r r i to ry t o ma in ta in .

m idden w h ich c an b et e rmed a na r ea o fg ene ra ld ome s t ic r e fu se . A f te rt h ea bandonmen to ft h es i te i ti si mpo ss ib le t o wo rk o u t

P a t ter n s o fr e fuse d i sposa l a nd s i te ma in tenance h ave ac on -

whe the rt h is a r ea c on ta in s ma te r ia li np r ima ry d epos i t ion o ve r -

s i de rab le i nf luence u pon t h ea moun to fc u l tu ra ld ebr is l e f ti na

l a pp ing w i th a na r ea o fg ene ra la c t iv i ty , ma te r ia li ns econda ry

s i te , a nd i t s a r rangemen t . A s w i th s i te f ur n i ture , r e fuse d i s -

d epos i t ion , o r ac omb ina t ion o fb o th .

p osa l i sh igh ly p a t ter ned a cco rd ing t o c u l tu ra l p e rcep t ion s c oncern ing c omfor ta nd c l ean l ine ss ,t or e l ig ious b e l ief so rt a -

Many h o r t icu l tu r is t g roup s i nN ew G u inea u se t he a r ea j us t 3 0

T he e t hnoar chaeo log ica le v idence p an t s i s ap o ss ib le s ou rce o f s pa t ia l v a r iab i l i ty . T h is s or t o f

i n s ide o ro u t s ide t h ed r ip l ine f o rd igg ing e a r th o ven sa nd c ook i n g( Go reck i 1 988 , 1 991) .I n Me lpa ,P ina ia nd We s t Dan is i te s

g ene ra l s t a temen ti su sefu l o n ly a s awa rn ing t ob ewa re s im -

e ven s l eep ing a r ea so ve r lap w i th t h el o c io fc e r ta in t a sk s( F ig u r e s 4 .4-4 .6 ) , w h i le s t one a nd b one wo rk a nd t h ep roce ss ing

p l if ica t ion . I ti sp os s ib le , h oweve r , t oo bse rve s ome c ommon

a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fr e sources t a ke p lace e i the ra r ound c ommu -

d imen s ion s o fv a r iab i l i ty i n s i te s t ruc ture a nd t o d i s t ingu ish b ehav iou ra l ly s i gn if ican tu n i t s o fa na lys is .

n a l h ea r ths o r o u t s ide t h e r ockshe l ter ( i b id . ; P e t requ in & Nt requ in 1 988 ) .T he S ou th A f r ican a nd A u s t ra l ian h un te r /ga th -

F i r s t ,h un te r /ga the re r sa nd h or t icu l tur is t s who u se r ock she l te r s

e r e r s u se t h e p a r t s o ft he r ock she l te r u nde r t h e o ve rhang f o r

i n ve s tv e ry d if e ren t amoun t so fe ne rgy i ns i te f u rn i ture . Ih ave

d omes t ic a c t iv i t ie s , p resumab ly b ecause t h ey a r e t h e b e s t l i t

s ugge s ted t ha t t h is may b e ar e su l t o fd i f f e rences i nt h e p er -

( F igu re s 4 . 1 &4 . 2 ) ( Pa rk ing ton & M i l l s 1 991 ; N icho lson &

c ep t ion a nd u se o fs pace b e tween h igh ly mob i le g roups a nd

C ane 1 991) .T o s umma r ise t h e a bove , a c t iv i ty a r ea s , a s mod -

mo re s eden ta ry g roup s .

u l e s d eve loped f o r mode l l ing h un te r /ga the re r s pa t ia l o rgan i s a t ion ( B inf o rd 1 983 ) , a ppea rt ob e i r re levan tt ot h e s t udy o f

S econd , h ea r th s a r et h es i ne q ua n on o fd ome s t ica t ing ac ave

h ow r ockshe l te r s pace i so rgan ised . T h i s i sb ecause t he c on -

o rr o ck she l te r . I nt h e c amp s i tes e xam ined , h ea r th s h ave b een

f i ned l i v ing a r ea a nd t he s upe r impos i t ion o f mu l t ip le e ven t s

f ound t ob e t h e c en t re o fc e remon ia l a nd d omes t ic a c t iv i t ie s

u pon o ne a no the ro bscure t h eb ounda r ie s , i fa ny ,b e tween t h e

a nd t h e refo re o fs oc ia li n te rac t ion .T hey s i gn ify t he m in imum

a r ea s i n wh ich v a r ious t a sk s w e re p e r fo rmed .

u n i t o f o ccupa t ion . H ea r th t ype a nd l o ca t ion , t oge the r w i th s l eep ing a r rangemen t sa nd p a t ter n so fr efu se d i spo sa l , a r et h e

F rom a d i ach ron ic p er spec t ive , i n r ock she l te r s o ccup ied b y

v a r iab le st ha t mos tr ead i ly r e vea lp a t terns o fc u l tu ra l a dap ta -

mob i le o r s em i seden tary p eop le t h e s pac ing o fi nd iv idua ls ,

t i on i nc onf ined l o ca t ion s .

a c t iv i t ie sa nd c u l tura l ma te r ia ls hows f l ux .R ock she l te rt opog r a phy , who se s t ruc tu ra lr o le i nt h eo rgan isa t ion o fs pace i ss im i -

T h ird , i no bserv ing a ny l i v ing s ur face , l e ta l one t h ef l oor o fa

l a r t o t ha t p l ayed b y wa l l s , r oof s , b enche s a nd y a rd s i nt h e

c ave o rr ock she l te r ,i ti sd if i cu l tt or e cogn ise t h e e l emen t s o f

l i ve s o f s eden ta ry p eop le , i so f ten s ub jec t t oc hange , d ue t o r oof c o l lap se o rt a lus e ro s ion . Human sc an ,h oweve r , a dap tt o

d i sc re te e p isode s o f o ccupa t ion e ven i ft h ey a r e o n ly af ew

t h is s or to fc hange s o a st or e ta in l i v ing c ond i t ion s o fa tl e a s t

t u ra l ma te r ia l a nd f ea tu re sf r om p rev ious o ccupa t ions ,a r ea c -

m in ima l c om for tb y mod ify ing t he m icroenv ironmen t o ft h e

t i ve ly o r p a ss ive ly i n co rpo ra ted i n to t he c amp f u rn i ture a nd

d ay so ld .T h is i sb ecau se t h es i te 's m icro topog raphy , a nd c u l -

r o ck she l te r o rb y s h if t ing t h e h ea r th 's l o ca t ion a nd t hu s t h e

i n to t h e c ur ren t l i v ing s ur face . T h is c r ea te s ap a l imp se s t , s o

u n i to fo ccupa t ion .I n many c a ses r ock fa l ls h ave b een r emoved t oc l ea r t h e l i v ing s pace , o r i n teg ra ted i n to e ve ryday l i f e a s

t ha to n ly r edundan tp a t ter n so fs pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion c an b ed e s c r ibed w i th c er ta in ty .

h ead r e s t s , s e a t s ,o rc ook ing s l abs ( Gou ld 1 977 ;N icho l son & C ane 1 99 1) . C o res l e f t o ve r f r om t h e manufac tu re o f s t one

F ou r th , q u i te o f t en a c t iv i t ie s a r e n o t s eg rega ted i ns pace . When

a xes h ave b een u sed a s c ook ing s t ones ( P6 trequ in &

t h ey a r e ,t y p ica l ly t h ree c a tego r ie sa t mo s ta r ei d en t if iab le : s l eep -

Ntrequ in 1 988 , 1 993 ) . R ock she l te r o ccupan t s f r equen t ly

i n g ,c ook ing ,a nd g ene ra ld ome s t ic a c t iv i ty . I n f e r r ing mo re s pe -

r e -use a nd r e cyc le a r tefac t s a sp a r t o ft he i r a dap ta t ion t ot h e

c i f i cd ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie sf r om t h e i ra s soc ia ted d eb r i s ,t h ough u se fu l w hen w e a r e t r y ing t ov i sua l i se d if e ren t a spec t s o fh uman b e -

r o ck she l te r ' sc on s t ra in t s .T h is p re sen t sa r chaeo log is t sw i th a n a dd i t iona ld if i cu l ty , s i nce w et yp ica l ly a t tach as i ng le s eman -

h av iou ra t as i te ,i so fl im i ted v a lue i nc on s ide r ing s pa t ia l v a r ia -

t i c mean ing t oe ach s pec if ic c a tego ry o f ma te r ia lr ema in s .T he

t i on , a nd i sn o t a n o b jec t ive w or thy o f a na ly s is . L ook ing f o r

o n ly mo re o rl e s sc ons tan ta t t r ibu te o f ar ock she l te ri si t so ve r -

p a t te rn so fs pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion a r ound h ea r th so ro t he rh ab i ta t ion

a l ls i te s t ruc tu r e .T h is ,a l though t he re may b e ac er ta in a moun t

f e a tu re si sf a r mo re a pp rop r ia te t oa r chaeo log ica l s i tes .

o fd ev ia t ion f r om t he n o rm , w i l l s how r edundan tc ha rac te r is F i f th , p eop le t r ansform n a tu ra l c av i t ies i n to d ome s t ic s pace s

t i cs wh ich t r an scend i nd iv idua l e p isodes o fo ccupa t ion , s i nce i tr epresen t st h ea dap ta t ion o f ac e r ta in c u l tu ra lg roup t os pe -

a cco rd ing t ot h e s oc ia l , s ymbo l ic a nd f unc t iona l c onven t ion s

c if ic c on s t ra in t s .

o ft h e i rc u l tu re . B ody mechan ic s , d u ra t ion o fo ccupa t ion a nd o the r c on tempo ra ry We s ter n f unc t iona l a t t r ibu te s c anno t b e

4 . 3 C onc lu s ion s

k eys t ot h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fs i te s t ruc tu re , a sB info rd h a s a r -

T he f o rego ing d i scuss ion d emon s t ra te s t ha t t h e u se o fs pace

r ock she l te rp eop le a r ed i rec ted b yt h e i ro wn men ta lt emp la te s

i nc ave sa nd r o ckshe l te r si s ad ynam ic p roce ss ,s t rong ly i nf lu -

a nd c u l tu ra l h ab i t s .

g ued ( 1983 ) , b ecause i n a dap t ing t o t he c ons t ra in ts o f a

e nced b y c u l tu ra l c ons t ra in t s . C ha l leng ing t h e c l a im s o ft h e p roce ssua l i s t s ( Chap te r 2 ) , i th igh l igh ts t h e d if i cu l ty o ff o r -

S ix th , t h et ype a nd a r rangemen to fs i te f ur n i tu re a nd t he p a t -

mu la t ing n o rma t ive a bs t rac t ion s o fc ro ss -cu l tu ra l s pa t ia l b e -

t er n so fr e fuse d i sposa l ,i na dd i t ion t or ec rea t ing c om for tab le

h av iour , e ven when t h e e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ion s r equ ir ing

o rf am i l ia rl i v ing c ond i t ion s ,e s tab l ish t h eo wne r sh ip s t a tu so f

h uman a dap ta t ion a nd t h et e chno logy u sed a r e i d en t ica l . O f -

t h e r ock she l te r , wh ich i s an a tu ra l r e source j u s t a s f ood a nd r aw ma te r ia ls a r e .

t e nt h is d if i cu l ty s t ems f r om v a r iab il i ty i nt h ep a t te rn so fs pa t i a l a r rangemen t s made a td if e ren tr ock she l te r s b y t h e s ame c u l tu ra lg roup ,a s ,f o re xamp le ,w i th t h eS awo sp eop le o fN ew

A s ar e su l to ft h el a s tt wo f a c t s , s i te s t ruc tu re i nn a tu ra l ly c on -

Gu inea ( Go reck i 1 991) . C ross -cu l tura l g ene ra l isa t ion s a r e p oss ib le o n ly a ts uch l e ve ls o fa b s t ra c t ion a st or ende rt h em o f

f i ned l o ca t ion s ( de sp i te t h e c on s t ra in t s i mposed b y t he ir t o -

l im i ted u se i na t temp t ing t og ive mean ing t o a r chaeo log ica l

d if e ren t ia t ion . I ti st h e refo re o ff undamen ta l i mpor tance t h a t

s pa t ia l p a t te rn s . F or e xamp le , w e h ave s een t ha t v a r ia t ion i n t h e d emog raphy , s t a tus a nd c u l tu ra l i d en t i ty o f as i te 's o ccu -

w es hou ld s eek t ov i ew i n t ra -s i te c ha rac te r i s t ics f r om a ni n te r -

p ography) i s af a ir ly s ens i t ive d e tec tor o f c u l tura l

s i te p e r spec t ive . 3 1

C hap ter 4

N o te s

Wob s th a s s ugge s ted t h a t : I f ma te r ia l p roduc t s a nd p receden t s o f b ehav iou r c a r ry e n e r gy i n ves tmen tb eyond t h e a dh oc f o rm o fu t i l i ta r ian f unc -

th a sb een c ommon p rac t ice i n mo s t Med i te r ranean c oun 1 . I

t i on ,t h ey s hou ld b er a the rs ens i t ive t or e g iona la r t icu la t ions ,

t r ies t h roughou th i s to r ic t ime s f o rr o ck she l te r s t ob e u sed

i fo n ly b ecau se t h ey a r e ac omm i t ted f o rm a nd w i l ll a s tl o nge r

a s a n ima l p en s o r f o ld s , a nd a l so s t ayed i no vern igh t b y

t h an t h e l o ca l u se c on tex t( 1993 , 2 ) .

p a s to ra l is t s . K l i th i , i ndeed , wa s u sed i nt h is w ay b efo re i t

O u rs u rvey o ft h ee t hnoa rchaeo log ica le v idence h a ss hown t ha t

wa s e xcava ted . A s t he s pa t ia l a r rangemen t s o f modern

s i te s t ruc ture i sa na spec to f ma te r ia lc u l tu re who se i n terp re ta -

p a s to ra l is t s a r e b eyond t he s cope o ft h is s t udy , Is ha l l n o t

t i ve p o ten t ia l i sh i ghe r t han h a s h i ther to b een t hough t . T h is

e l abo ra te u pon t h i sp o in t .

p o ten t ia lr e la tes r a the rt o mak ing l a rge -sca le c ompa r ison sb e -

n forma t ion o nt h eB ig E lephan tC ave ,p ub l ished i n1 962 , 2 . I

t ween s i tes t han t oa t temp t ing t oi d en t ify a c t iv i ty a r ea so nt h e

r e fe r st o wha tw a st h en S ou th We s tA f r ica a nd i sn ow Na m ib ia .

s ma l le rs ca le o f as i te .

3 . T he t h ird g roup o f h un te r /ga the r e r s i t e s ( t ho se u sed b y t h e B e rgDama p eop le )d oe sn o tf i ti n to t h i sp a t ter n . S i nce w ed o n o tk now w hen t h eB ig E lephan tC ave w a si nu se ,h oweve r , w ec anno tk now w he the rt h ep a t ter no fs i te s t ruc tu r e mapped b yC la rk a nd Wa l ton c o r re spond st o at ime b efo re o ra f te rt h is g roup made c on ta c tw i th o the r , mo r es e den ta ry p eop le .

3 2

Chap ter 5 .T he s pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion o fK l i th i I bex h un t ing i s as pec ia l iza t ion n eve ra s soc ia ted w i th f u l l -b lown , mu l t ipu rpo se , l o ng t e rm r e s iden t ia l o ccupa t ions c ha rac te r ized b y many c ons t ruc ted a r chaeo log ica l f e a t u re s a nd t h e f u l l g amu t o f t oo ls a nd k napp ing d ebr is . L .G . S t rau s , 1 987 . U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic I bex H un t ing i nS ou thwe s tE u rope , 1 76 .

5 . 1 The s i t e

i ng ' ( Couraud 1 983 ) . T he b one i ndus t ry , c on s is t ing o f n ee d l es , a w ls , p o in t s a nd s pa tu lae , ofe r s i ndependen t e v idence f or h ide p rocess ing a nd c l o th ing manufac ture ( Adam &

K l i th i i s al a rge r ock she l te r , w i th ac ommand ing v i ew t ot h e s ou thea s t , o nt h eb ank o ft h eV o idoma t is r i ve r . T he d i scove ry

K o t jabopou lou 1 997 ) . B y -p roduc t s o fo rgan ic too l manufac -

o f al a rge c one o fd epos i t ion l i t te red w i th p reh is tor ic a r tefac t s

t u re s ugge s t t ha t a tl e a s t s ome o f t h ese t oo ls w e re made o n

l e d t o a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion s , b e tween 1 983 a nd 1 988 ,

s i te . P er fora ted d ee rc an ine sa nd ma r ine mo l lu scs d ocumen ta

w h ich u nve i led d epos i t sr e su l t ing f r om h uman o ccupa t ion b e -

t r ad i t ion o f mak ing a nd w ea r ing o rnamen t s . G iven t ha t h ide

t ween 1 6 ,500 a nd 1 0 ,000

( F igure 5 . 1) . T he mo s ti n tens ive

p roce ss ing a nd c l o th s ew ing w e re i mpo r tan to n -s i te a c t iv i t ie s ,

u se o f t h e s he l ter , h oweve r , o ccur red b e tween 1 6 ,500 a nd

i ti sl i ke ly t ha t s ome o ft h e se p er fo ra ted s he l l s w e re b rough t

1 3 ,500

( Ba i ley & Woodwa rd 1 997 ) . S t udy o ft h e f a una l a s -

o n to t h es i te t ob es t i tched o n to c l o thes .T he r e cove ry o fs even

s emb lage h a s s hown t ha t i bex ( Capra i b ex ) a nd c hamo is

i n c ised b one s ,s of a rs t ud ied o n ly macro scop ica l ly ( i b id .) ,l e ad s

( Rup icapra r u p icapra ) w e re b rough tt oK l i th i i nv a s t ly g r ea te r

u s t oa sk whe the r s ome s y s tem o fn o ta t ion may h ave e x is ted

n umbe r st h an a ny o t he rh un ted s p ec ie s .R ed d ee r( C er vu se l aphu s ) ,

i nt h eG reek Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic ( Ma r shack 1 964 , 1 972 , 1 989 ;

b eave r( Ca s to rf iber ) ,l a gomo rph s ,c a rn ivo r e s( Can i sl u pu s ,V u lpe s

d 'E r r ico 1 989a ,b ) .

B P

B P

s p . ,F e l i sl y nx ,F e l i spardu s ,F e l i ss pe lea )a nd s ome f i sh v e r teb rae a r ep re sen ti nv e ry s ma l ln umbe r s ( Gamb le 1 997 ) . R oden t sa nd

L ooked a ti nt h el i gh to ft h en ew c ond i t ion se x is t ing i nn or th -

b i rd sf o rm ac on s ide rab le p a r to ft h ef a una la s semb lage .C ompo -

w e s tG reece d ur ing t h eL a te G lac ia l , w hen t h e Adr ia t ic p la in

s i t ion b ys p ec ie ss hows l i t t le v a r ia t ion o ve rt ime .T he t r an spo r ta t i on o fw ho le a n ima l s t ot h e s i te a nd t h e h i gh f r agmen ta t ion o f

w a s s ubme rged , l im i t ing r e source s f o r h uman s ubs is tence ,

b one sp o in tt oa ni n ten s ive b u tche r ing s t ra tegy f o ri mmed ia te b u lk

o us ly u nexp lo red a r ea sf o rs pec ia l ised h un t ing a nd p roce ss ing

K l i th i ma rk s t h e e xpans ion o f h uman s e t t lemen t i n to p rev i -

c onsump t ion . A cco rd ing t oG amb le , f a una l e v idence s ugge s t s

o ft h eb y -p roduc t so ft h eh un t .A l though much i sk nown a bou t

t h a t K l i th i w a s o ccup ied r e la t ive ly b r ief ly ,p robab ly d u r ing l a te

t h ea s semb lage c ompo s i t ion a nd t opog raph ic l o ca t ion o fi b ex -

s p r ing o re a r ly s umme r( i b id . ) . O ft h el i t h ic a s semb lage ,9 2% i s

h un t ing s i te s( S t rau s 1 987 ; Gamb le 1 997 ) ,v e ry l i t t le i n fo rma -

made o u to ft h ed a rk g r ey /b la ck f l in tf ound o nt h eb ank so ft h e

t i on h a sb een c o l lec ted o ns i te s t ruc ture . We d on o tk now much

V o idoma t i s a ss ma l l r i ve r ro l led p ebb le s . T he p r inc ipa l a im o f

a bou t h ow t h e se s i te s a r e o rgan ised s pa t ia l ly , whe ther t h e ir

t h e l i th ic i n du s t ry w a s t h e p roduc t ion o fb acked b l ade le t s . T he

s pa t ia lp a t ter n s c an b e l i nked t od emog raphy a nd d u ra t ion o f o ccupa t ion , whe the r t h e i r s i te -s t ruc tu re p a t tern s a r e d i s t inc -

t o o l i n ven to ry a l so i n c lude s e nd sc rape r s , s i de sc rape r s , b ur in s , a nd d eb i tage w i th l i nea rr e touch ( Roube t 1 997 ) .T he l o ca la bun -

t i ve , o rh ow much i n te r -s i te v a r iab i l i ty t h ey d i sp lay . Answe r s t os ome o ft h e se q ue s t ions w i l ln o tb eg in t oe me rge u n t i lc om -

d ance o ff l i n t ,w h ich made i tp o s s ib le t o manu fac tu r et o o l so nt h e

p a ra t ive c a se s t ud ie sh ave e nab led u st ov i ew i n t ra -s i te s pa t ia l

s po t , r e su l ted i ne xped ien t u se o ft o o l s ( B in fo rd 1 979 ) , wh ich

v a r iab il i ty f r om a n i n te r -s i te p e r spec t ive . As t a r t mus t n one -

s how n o s i gn s o f r e sha rpen ing o r r eha f t ing . T he m ic robu r in

t h e less b e made s omewhe re , a nd s o i nt h is c hap te r Is ha l l d e s c r ibe K l i th i i nt e rm so fi t s s pa t ia l p roper t ie s .

d en t icu la te s , n o tched p i ece s , t r unca ted p i e ce s , c ompo s i te t oo l s ,

t e chn ique f o r a d jus t ing t h e s i ze o ft h e b acked e l emen t s wa s w ide ly u sed . Among t h e ma in t e chno log ica l c ha rac ter is t ics ,

5 . 1 :1 The e nv ironmen ta l s e t t ing

t he u se o fc r e s t ing ,p repa ra t ion o fs t r ik ing p la tfo rm a nd b ipo l a rf l ak ing s hou ld b en o ted . O the rt ype so fr aw ma te r ia l ( s uch

4 50m a bove s ea l e ve l ,i n amoun ta inous e nv ironmen tw i th n u -

a sb rown f l in tf r om m id -Ju ra s s ic s ed imen t s ,j a spe r ,a nd c oa r se g ra ined c he r t s )w e re b rough tt ot h es i te e i the ri nt h ee a r ly s t ages

me rou s o the rs he l te r s i ni t s v i c in i ty , K l i th i i s ad om inan tf ea -

o fr educ t ion s equence s o r a s f i n ished t o o l s . L ike t h e f auna l

t u re o ft h e n a r row , c l if f l ined r i ve r v a l ley i n wh ich i tl i e s , i t s

a s semb lage , t h e l i th ic a s semb lage s how s v ery l i t t le v a r ia t ion

f l oo r a r ea b e ing g rea te r t h an 4 50 s qua re m e t re s a nd i t s r oof

t h rough t ime , e i the ri nt ypo log ica l f o rm s o ri nt e chno log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic s .T he o n ly s i gn if ican ta t t r ibu te i st h ea bsence o f

4 0m h igh .T he s i te w a sc on s iderab ly c l o se rt ot he v a l ley f l oo r d ur ing t he l a te P l e is tocene , b u t c ur ren t ly l i e s o n as t eep t e r -

c ompos i te t o o l sf r om s t ra tum 5 .

r a ce 3 0m a bove r i ve r l e ve l . T he r ugged t e r ra in s ur round ing

F unc t iona la na lys is o f as ma l ls amp le o ft o o ls s ugge s t sa c t iv i -

r i ve rV o idoma t i s c u t s . T he v a l ley i sf i l led w i th s ucce ss ive a l -

K l i th i i sc ha rac te r is t ic o ft h eV ikos g o rge , t h rough wh ich t h e t i e sd i rec ted p r ima r i ly t owa rd sh un t ing a nd s e conda r i ly t owa rd s

l u v ia l d epos i t s o fv a ry ing a ge a nd o r ig in . T he u ppe r p a r t o f

h ide p roce ss ing , w i th b acked b lade le t s mo s t ly u sed a sp ro jec -

t h e r i ve r 's b a s in , o n P a laeocene t oE ocene l ime s tone , s hows

t i le p o in t s o rb a rbs , p o in ted b i la te ra l ly b acked b lade le t s ( i .e .

e v idence o f g l ac ia t ion ( Ba i ley e ta l . 1 990 ) . T he m idd le a nd

m icrobo re r s ) f o r d r i l l ing o rb o r ing , a nd e nd scrape r s t o wo rk

l owe rp a r t so ft h eb a s in ,o nE ocene f l y sch , a l so h ave d epos i t s

h ide s ( Mo s s 1 997 ) . I ti sp o ss ib le b u t n o t p roven t ha t o ch re

o fl ime s tone g rave lf r om moun ta in g l ac ia t ion ( i b id .) .T he w e s t -

p ounded o n to t h ee dge so fs c rape r sa nd f l ake so rf ound i nl oose

e rn e nd o ft h eV iko s g o rge ,t h e s o -ca l led ' mou th ' , o pens o n to

l ump si nt h ed epos i t s may h ave b een u sed d ur ing h ide p rocess -

t h e K on i t sa b a s in s ome 8 km f r om t h e s i te . 3 3

C hap ter 5

F igure 5 . 1 .K l i th i , s i te p lan .

R /S 2 7 S P IT

2 6

2 5

1

2 4

2 3

2 2

1

1

2 1

1

2 0

A

1 0

2 0

3 0

S P IT

M

U

MODERN GOAT D UNG ( LAYER 2 0 )

ASHY D EPOS ITS

ra•M

r l •

r iI I II»M

r•

L IMESTONE

. 4 .1 6 .2

R AD IOCARBON -DATED S AMPLE I N K YR

1 7 .0

V IW 3 3

3 2

3 1

3 0

2 9

2 8

1

2 7

F igure 5 . 2 . O ver v iew o fs t ra t igraphy , s how ing t h ed i s tr ibu t ion o fs t ra ta a nd t h ep r inc ipa l r ad iocarbon d a tes . ( Af t er B a i ley & W oodward 1 997 .) 3 4

2 6

2 5

2 4

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i V ege ta t iona l r e con s truc t ion s f o rt h ep e r iod d ur ing wh ich h u -

h ave b een g rouped i n1 0l a rge rs t ra t ig raph ic p ha se s ,t h es t ra ta .

mans o ccup ied t h e s he l te ri n tens ive ly , b a sed o n ap o l len d i a -

A l though t h e ma in b u lk o ft h e c u l tu ra l ly g ene ra ted d epos i t s

g ram d er ived f r om t he s ed imen t so ft h el a ke T se rav ina s , s how

s hou ld b ep laced b e tween 1 6 ,500 a nd 1 3 ,500 BF ' , i nt h eb roader

a n a r id s t eppe d om ina ted b y c ommun i t ies o f s agebrush ( Ar tem is ia ) a nd c henopod s ( Chenopod iaceae ) , w i th s o me

a r ea o ft h eh ea r th r e l ic so fs po rad ic v i s i t st ot he s i te d u r ing t he l a te rs t age o ft h eY ounge rD rya sh ave b een i d en t if ied ( i b id .) .I t

g ra sse s( Gram ineae )( Turne r&S anchez -Gon i 1 995 ) .P rog re s -

i su nknown w he the rt h e se e ven t s t ook p lace o n ly a r ound t he

s i ve e xpans ion o fd ec iduous f o re s t so fo ak ( Quer cus )a nd b i rch

h ea r th o r whe the rs i gn st h a tt h ey i nf a c te x tended t oo t he rp a r t s

( Be tu la ) ,w i th s ome e ve rg reen s pec ie s ,i sa l so s een a f te r1 5 ,000 BP . T h is ma rk st h eL a te G la c ia lr eaf f o re s ta t ion ,d eemed t oh ave

o f t h e s i te h ave b een o b l i te ra ted b y p os t -depos i t iona l p roc -

e ndured u n t i l 1 ,000

BP

( o r 1 3 ,530

B P

e s se s .

i fw e a ccep t a' 4C d a te

f r om T se rav ina sa tf a ce v a lue ) .C ond i t ion so fo pen v ege ta t ion

T he r ock she l te ra r r ived a ti t sp re sen ts hape a f te r ag radua ld i s -

l a s ted f o ra bou t at hou sand y ea r s( e qua t ing mo re o rl e ss t ot h e

p l acemen to ft h er oof l i ne t owa rd st h en or th .A l though t h ea r ea

Y ounge rD rya s s t ad ia l ) , a f te r wh ich t empe ra te -fo re s t v ege ta -

o ft h ep resen t -day s he l te red p a r ti s 10 s qua re me t re s ( F igu re

t i on r e tur ned .

5 . 1) ,t h en ,K l i th i mu s to nce h ave p rov ided mo re s he l te red s pace

T he s i te 's p o s i t ion m idway u pt h eP indus moun ta in r ange a nd

b a re o fa ny h ab i ta t ion f e a tu re o the rt han al a rge h ea r th c om -

n ea rby g la c ia ls ed imen ta t ion s ugge s tt ha ti tmus th ave e xpe r i -

p l ex i nt h e w e l l p ro tec ted n o r thwe s te rn c or ne r ( F igu re 5 . 1) .

e nced c o ld c l ima t ic c ond i t ion sd ur ing t h eP le is tocene ( Ba i ley e ta l . 1 990 ) .K l i th iw a sn o to ccup ied b efo re t h ec l ima t ic ame l -

T h is i sa c tua l ly as e r ie s o fh ea r th s r epea ted ly k ind led i nt he

i n who se w e s t p a r t t h e d r ip l ine r a n n o r th— sou th . T he s i te i s

I nf a c t ,a r chaeo log ica le v idence f r om

s ame p lace o ve rt ime , i d en t if ied b y a shy l e nse s a nd b y b ur n t l i th ics a nd b one s . S ince n one o ft h e l i th ic manupo r t s3r e cov -

t he r ock she l te r s Mega la ld cos a nd B o i la ,a l so i nt h eV o idoma t is

e r ed f r om t h e b roade r a r ea o ft h e h ea r th s hows a ny t r ace s o f

v a l ley s y s tem , s ugge s t st h a tn o h uman o ccupa t ion t ook p lace

b ur n ing ,t h ey c anno th ave b een u sed t ol i ne t he h ea r th .

i o ra t ion a f te r 1 6 ,000

BP .

a nywhe re i nt h e v a l ley b efo re t h is d a te ( Ko t jabopou lou e ta l . 1 996 ) . T he v a l ley 's e co sy s tem d ur ing t h e e ar ly s t age s o ft h e

E Wenban -Sm i th 's r ef i t t ing p ro jec ta t Kl i th i ,i nvo lv ing 1 0 ,000

L a te G lac ia l eme rge s a s as t ony l a nd scape w i th o pen v ege ta -

l i th ic s pec imens f r om S 20 , T 21 , Q 22 , P 25 , P 26 , Q 24 , Q25

t i on a nd g ra s s land s uppor t ing ma in ly mon tane a n ima ls pec ies .

a nd Q 26 , h a s i d en t if ied o n ly 4 8 r ef i tg roup s o f9 7 s pec imens

T he l ow s pec ies d i ve r s i ty i nt he f a una l a s semb lage o f Kl i th i

( 0 .97% ) , made u po f1 2s ho r tc on jo in sa nd 3 6j o in so fb roken

s ugge s t s t h a tt h eV ikos v a l ley w a s ap red ic tab le r e source v i s -

s pec imen s ( 1997 ) . T he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o ft h e h ea r th h a s y i e lded o n ly t wo r ef i t ted g roup s .T h i ss how st ha tt h es ed imen t s

i t ed ,p robab ly s ea sona l ly , t oh un ti b ex .

t h e re h ave u nde rgone s ub s tan t ia l d i s tu rbance . A l though t he n umbe r o fr ef i t s i n c rea se s f u r the r a way f r om t h e h ea r th , t he

5 . 1 :2 A rchaeo log ica l d epo s i t sa nd s i te f ea tures

o ve ra l l p auc i ty o fr ef i t s s ugge s t s c on s ide rab le h or izon ta l a nd l e ss s e ve re v er t ica l d i s tor t ion o f t h e o r ig ina l d epo s i t s . T h is

E xcava t ion h a s e xposed 5 1 .5 s qua re m e t re s ( 13 .2 c ub ic me t r e s o fs ed imen t ) i nv a r ious a r ea s , s e lec ted u s ing j udgmen ta l

p robab ly r e su l ted f r om ac omb ina t ion o fi n ten s ive u se o ft he

s amp l ing s oa st op rov ide ar ep re sen ta t ive s amp le o fh or izon -

b roade ra r ea o ft h eh ea r th ,e ncou rag ing v a r ious s ed imen t -d is -

t a lv a r ia t ion ( F igure 5 . 1) .K l i th ih a sy i e lded o ve ra l le xcep t ion -

t u rbance mechan i sm ss uch a st r amp l ing a nd s cu f ing ,w i th t he

a l ly h igh d ens i t ies o f l i th ics a nd f r agmen ted b one s ( 26 ,424 l i th ic a r te fa c t s2 a nd 4 ,472 i d en t if ied b one s p e r c ub ic me t re ) .

l o o senes so ft h ed epos i t sa nd t he o ve ra l ll ow r a te so fs ed imen t a ccumu la t ion ( Ba i ley & Woodwa rd 1 997 ) .T he r ef i t t ing s t udy

T he d en s i ty o f e xcava ted s pec imen s i sl ow i n t h e t a lus a nd

s ugge s t st h a tK l i th i 's t a phonom ic h i s tory i sc omp lex ,a nd t ha t

h ea r th ,a ve rage t oh igh i nt h ee a s ta nd w e s tp a r t sa nd e x t reme ly

w e s hou ld n o te xpec t h i gh s pa t ia l i n teg r i ty i nt h e h ea r th a r ea

h igh i n t h e c en t ra l p a r t . P a laeo l i th ic s ed imen t s l i e i mmed i -

o rt ot h e s ou th .

a t e ly b e low as ea l ing a nd p ro tec t ing l a ye r o f d ung a ccumu l a ted when t h es he l ter w a su sed a s ag oa tp en .T he d epos i t s a t K l i th ia r eu ncon so l ida ted s c ree sw i th ah igh s t one c omponen t , f o rmed d u r ing g lac ia lc ond i t ions b yf r eeze thaw s ha t ter ing o f

5 . 2T he a genda f o rs pa t ia la na ly s i sa tK l i th i

t he s he l te r 's l ime s tone s ( Ba i ley 1 992 ) . T he s c rees a r e i n te r -

e xcava t ion sa tK l i th i( Ba i ley e ta L 1 997a ) .T h ree f e a tu r e se ncou r -

s pe r sed w i th f i ne s ed imen t s( c lay -g rade s ed imen t , a shy ma te r i a la nd f r agmen t so fc ha rcoa l )b rough ti n to t h es i te b yn a tu ra l

a ge c on s ide ra t ion o fs pa t ia lv a r iab il i ty .F i r s t ,t h er ock fa l l s , ma in ly c oncen t ra ted a tt h eu nexcava ted s u r f ace i nt h es ou thwe s ter np a r t

a nd c u l tu ra l mean s . C emen ta t ion i si n g ene ra l v e ry l im i ted a nd i nt h ef o rm o fc a lc i t ic c r us to na r tefac t sa nd s t one s , ma in ly

u nd i s tu rbed . S econd , t h e ma jo r l i t ho s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t s a r e p re -

E xam in ing t h eo rgan i sa t ion o fs pa ce w a s ap r ime o b je c t ive o ft h e

a nd i nt h et a lu s ,h ave l ef t aw ide a r ea i n s ide a nd o u t s ide t h ed r ip l ine

i nt h e s he l te red a r ea . H o r izon ta l v ar ia t ion i nt h e c ha rac te r is t i cs o ft h e s ed imen t s i sb road ly s peak ing p resen t . T he r e a ro f

d om inan t ly h or izon ta l ,w i th v e ry l i t t le s l op ing t owa rd st h eb ack

t he s i te i sc ha rac te r ised b y u nusua l ly d ry c ond i t ion s a nd b y a shy l a ye r s g ene ra ted b y h ea r ths . T he z one b e tween t he r ea r

o ft h er o ck she l te rs pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion mu s tb eh i gh ly r edundan t

w a l l .T h i rd ,t oj udge b yt h eh ea r th 's e ndu r ing p re sence a tt h er e a r a t ag ro s ss c a le o fo b ser va t ion .

a nd t h ed r ip l ine i sc ha rac te r ised b y mo re u n iform ma t r ix -sup p o r ted f a b r ic s . T he a r ea b eyond t h ed r ip l ine u pt oa nd i n c lud -

D e sp i te 3 ,000 y ea r so fo ccupa t ion ,K l i th i 's p a t ter n so fa n ima l

i ng t h et a lus i sc ha rac te r ised b y c l a s t -suppor ted f ab r ic s , w i th

a nd l i th ic r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion a r es t ab le .I n as en se t h ee n t ire

l a rge c l a s t s a nd b ou lde r s f r om r oof a nd v a l ley -s ide r ockfa l ls

s i te i st h e e qu iva len to f as i ng le l a ye rf r om o ne o ft h e l onger s equence sf ound e l sewhe re i ns ou thea s ter nE u rope .I ti si n te r -

( Ba i ley & Woodwa rd 1 997 ) .

e s t ing t on o te t ha tt h ep a t ter no fs i te f ur n i tu re i ss im i la r ly s t a T he a r chaeo log ica l ma t r ix c ons is t s o fn ume rou s l o ca l l a ye r s ,

b l e ,w i th as i ng le h ea r th ( t he o n ly e v iden ts t ruc tu re ) e ndur ing

i d en t if i ed o nt h e b a s is o fl i tho logy , t e x ture a nd c o lou r , wh ich

t h roughou t t h e s equence . I no rde rt oc omp le te o u rp i c ture o f 3 5

C hap ter 5 t h es i te 's s pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion w e mu s tp er fo rce r e ly u pon q uan -

f r om h ea r th s , e v idence c once rn ing b urn t b one h a s n o t b een

t ia t ive s pa t ia la na lys is t oi d en t ify l a ten ts t ruc tu re si nt h es pa -

i n corpora ted i n to t h is a na lys is b ecause i tw a s n o tr e co rded i n

t i a ld i s t r ibu t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l .

ac on s is ten t manne rt h roughou tt h e f a una l d a taba se .

A s we h ave s e en , an umbe ro fi ndependen t l i ne s o fe v idence

5 . 3 :2 The u n i t so fa na lys is

h ave s ugge s ted t ha tK l i th ii s as i te o fl ow s pa t ia lr e so lu t ion . I t t h e refore o f e r s a n o ppor tun i ty t oe xam ine t h e p o ten t ia l a nd

Dur ing e xcava t ion t wo t r enches , o ne i nt h e a r ea a round t h e

l im i ta t ion s o ft h e s t ra tegy f o r s pa t ia l a na ly s is i np a l impses t s p roposed i nC hap te r 3 .O u r s pa t ia l a na ly s is w i l l l o ok f o r a n -

p o se aw ide h o r izon ta l s ur face ( 27 s qua re m e t re s ) s u i tab le f o r

ma in h ear th a nd t he o the rt ot h e s ou th , w ere c onnec ted t oe x -

s we r s t ot h ef o l low ing q ue s t ions :

s pa t ia l a na lys is . T he o the r t r enches a r e n o t c on t iguous , b u t

• I st h e re a ny s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion i nt h e a s semb lage c ompo s i -

p rov ide s amp le sf r om t h et a lus a nd f r om t h ec en t ra l a nd e a s t -

t i on ,a nd c an a ny a r ea so fs pec ia l ised f unc t ion ,o rd i sca rd

e rn p ar t s o ft h e s i te . T h is f i e ld s t ra tegy h a s y i e lded as pa t ia l

l o ca t ion s , b e i d en t if ied?

t r ansec tf r om t h er ea ro ft h es he l te rt ot h et a lus wh ich i sa l so a

• How d oe s t h e s pa t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te -

t empo ra lt r ansec t( Ba i ley & Woodwa rd 1 997 ) .T h is i sb ecause

r i a l r e la te t ot h e h ea r th c omp lex a nd t ot h e r o ck she l te r 's

t h el i t ho s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t sg enera l ly f o l low ac on s is ten tc h rono l o g ica l s equence ( s t ra tum 1b e ing t h e e a r l ie s t a nd s t ra tum 1 0

t opog raphy?

t h e mos tr e cen t ) e xcep tt ha t mos t s t ra ta a r e r e s t r ic ted i na r ea .

• How d o d i s t r ibu t ions i ni nd iv idua l s t ra ta r e la te t oo ve ra l l

T he mos t r e cen t s t ra ta ( i . e . 8 , 9a nd 1 0 ) a r e c onf ined t ot h e

s i te s t ruc ture? • Wha th a s g ene ra ted t h e s pa t ia l p a t ter n s?

T ab le 5 . 1 .T he v ar iab le s .

5 . 3 The s pa t ia ld i s tr ibu t ion o ft he

L i th ic i ndus try

a rchaeo log ica la s semb lage

K l i th i ( T ab le 5 . 1) . Ih ave c r ea ted ad a taba se o f my o wn o b se r -

A l ll i th ic c a tegor ies — r educ t ion s equence N odu le ( i . e . r aw ma ter ia l b rough to n to t h e s i t e f o rk napp ing ) C o r e P r ima ry p i ece ( i . e . c r e s ted , c o r t ica l ) D eb i tage K napp ing d eb r i s B u rn td eb r i s E dge -damage p i ece P i ece w i th l i nea rr e touch S c rape r( i . e . e nd sc rape r , s i de sc rape r ) T runca t ion B u r in C ompo s i te t oo l N o t ched /den t icu la te B a ck ed b l ade le t B o r e r( i .e . p e rw i r , b ec , o rb i la te ra l ly p o in ted b a ck ed b l ade le t )

v a t ion s c oncer n ing l i th ic s i ze a nd a l l t h e s t age s o ft h e l i th ic

T echn ica l p i ece ( i . e . t n ic robu r in , b u r in s pa l l )

T he f o l low ing a na lys is w i l l s eek t oi d en t ify l a ten t s t ruc tu re s i n t he c ompo s i t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage . Once a ny s uch p a t terns h ave b een i d en t if ied ,t h e ir l o ca t ion i ns pace a nd t he ir a s soc ia t ion w i th t h eh ear th a nd w i th t h et o pog raphy o ft h er ock she l te rw i l lb ec on s ide red i na na t temp tt od escr ibe o ve ra l l s i te s t ruc ture . 5 . 3 :1 The u n i ts o fo bserva t ion E v idence f r om t h e l i th ic , f a una l a nd o rgan ic a r tef ac t a s sem b lages i si n corpo ra ted i n to my s t udy o f s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion a t

r educ t ion s equence . E ach t oo l c l a ss r ep re sen t s ab road f unc -

L i th ic s i ze A : 1x l cm ; B : 1 . 2 x2 . 5cm ; C : 2 . 5 x3 . 2cm ; D : 5x5 cm ; E : > 5x5 cm

t i ona l c a tego ry r a the r t han at ypo log ica l o ne b a sed o n mo r p ho log ica l a t t r ibu tes ( Mo ss 1 997 ) .

F auna l r ema in s

F o r t h e a n ima l b ones Ih ave u sed t he r ap id -scan v e r s ion o f

N ISP b yt a xon I b ex /chamo i s R ed d ee r C a rn ivo r e s B eave r F i sh B i rd s R oden t s

Gamb le 's f a una l d a taba se , s upp lemen ted b yW inde r 's r ap id s can o bserva t ions c oncer n ing t h e s amp le e xcava ted i n 1 988 ( Ba i ley 1 997b ) . T he f auna l d a ta a r e a r ranged a s n umber o f i d en t if ied s pec imens ( N ISP )b yt axon a nd b ys i ze ,a nd a sa na t om ica l e l emen t s g rouped a ccord ing t om ea t u t i l i ty ( Gamb le 1 997 ) .

A na tom ica le l emen t sb ym ea tu t i l i ty H igh : p e lv i s , f emu r ,t i b ia Med ium : s capu la , h ume ru s ,r ad iu s , u lna ,c a lcaneum ,a s t raga lu s , n a rv icu la rc ubo id , m e ta ta r sa l L ow :h yo id ,a t la s ,a x i s ,h o rn c o re ,t oo th , mand ib le ,m e taca rpa l ,p ha lange , s e samo id Med ium— low : c a rpa l , t a r sa l ;r e co rded a sf e e t

T he n a tu re o ft h ef auna l a nd l i th ic a s semb lage s a nd t h e w ays i n wh ich t h e o bse rva t ion s c oncer n ing t h e t wo d a ta s e t s w e re made r endered i ti mpo ss ib le t ou n ify t he s y s tem sa cco rd ing t o wh ich s i ze w a s mea su red .T he mea su remen t so fl i th ic sa r et he more a ccu ra te , s i nce t wo d imen s ion s ( l eng th a nd w id th )w e re t a ken , whe rea sf o rb one so n ly t h e max imum d imen s ion ( l eng th ) w a s t aken . T he p oss ib i l i ty t h a t ad ife ren tp a t te rn o fs i ze d i s -

B one s i ze a :< 3cm ;b :3 -6cm ; c :6 -9cm ; d :9 12cm ;e : >1 2cm

t r ibu t ion m igh t h ave a ppea red i fd if e ren t i n terva l g roup ing s h ad b een s e lec ted c anno tb ee xc luded .

O rgan ic a r te fac t s P e r fo ra ted o b jec t s ( i .e . ma r ine s he l l , d ee rc an ine )

Ih ave a l so l o oked a tb one t oo ls a nd a tb y -p roduc t s o ft h e ir

B one a r tef ac t s ( i . e . n eed le , a w l , p o in t , s pa tu la , o rb y -p roduc t o fp roduc t ion o fo ne o ft h e se ) I n c i sed b one

manufac ture ,a ti n c ised b one s ,a nd a tp er fo ra ted ma r ine s he l l s a nd d ee r c an ine s . A l though d a ta o n t he b urn ing o ff l in t s a r e i n c luded a sa n i nd ica t ion o ft h e movemen t o f ma ter ia l a way 3 6

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i b ack t r ench , a nd s t ra ta 6 a nd 7 make u p al a rge r a r ea i nt h e

f i n ing a r ea s w i th d i s t inc t a s semb lage -compos i t ion c ha rac te r -

c en t ra lp a r t ,w h i le s t ra tum 5i s ma in ly i nt h et a lu sa nd i n af ew

i s t ic s . S ince UCA i s af r amewo rk f o r s pa t ia l a na lys is r a the r

p a tche s i nt h ec en t ra l a r ea .

t han ame thod s ensu s t r ic to , Is hou ld a tt h e o u t se tc l a r ify my

T he c ho ice o f a pp ropr ia te u n i t s o f a na ly s is h ad t ot ake i n to

d ec is ion sc oncern ing s moo th ing ,t h eu se o fr e la t ive r a the rt h an a b so lu te d ens i t ie s ,s t anda rd is ing t h ed a ta b efo re c l u s ter ing ,a nd

a ccoun tt h ep a tchy l a you to ft h et r enches ,t h e h i gh d ens i ty o f a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l a nd t h ec on s iderab le u ncer ta in ty t ha t

t h ec r i ter ia u sed i ns e lec t ing o p t ima l c l us te rs o lu t ions .

e x is t s a s t ot h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween e p isode s o fo ccupa t ion

UCA b eg ins b y c a lcu la t ing s moo thed d ens i ty c on tour s . Smoo th ing i sa no p t iona l s t ep i n tended t oe nhance t h ep i c tu re

a nd s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t s .

o f d en s i ty v ar ia t ion b y m in im is ing t he e f ec t o f l o ca l n o ise I ti se v iden tt h a ti d en t ify ing ag loba lp a t te rn o fh o r izon ta lv a r i -

c au sed b ye x t reme ly h igh o rl ow v a lues ( s ee K in t igh 1 990 f o r

a t ion u nde r s u ch c i rcum s tance s p re suppo se s s ome d eg ree o f r edundancy i nt h eu se o fd if e ren ta r ea so ft h es i te .E lsewhe re

d i scuss ion ) . T here i s more s cope f or s moo th ing p o in t p rovenanced d a ta s e t st han g r id -ba sed o ne s .T he u sefu lne ss o f

Ih ave i n voked t h el a ck o fa ny s i gn if ican tb reak si nt h et e chno -

s moo th ing i ng r id -ba sed a na lys is l a rge ly d epend su pon t h es i ze

t ypo log ica l f e a tu res o ft h e l i th ic i ndus t ry o ri nt h e p a t te rn o f a n ima l r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion t o g roup a l l t h e s t ra ta t oge the r

o ft h eg r id ,t h el a you to ft h ee xcava t ion a nd t h es ca le o fs moo th i ng . I ft he g r id c e l ls a r e l a rge , s moo th ing c an d i s to r tt he p a t -

a nd t r ea tt h ew ho le s i te a so ne ma jo rs t ra t ig raph ic l e ve l , w i th

t e rn a nd c rea te ah omogeneou s d i s t r ibu t ion o ve ra ne x ten s ive

l m xlm m in imum p rovenance u n i t s( Ga lan idou 1 993) .H ow e ve r , f a i lu r e t op roduce a ny r obu s t p a t te rn ing a tt h i s l e ve l o f

e xcava t ion g r id ,p ar t icu la r ly w hen t h is c on s is t so fn a r row a nd

a na ly s is h a ss hown t he n eed t ow o rk w i th s ma l le ru n i t so fa na ly -

n on -con t iguous a r ea s . Ie xam ined an umbe ro fo p t ions t oa s -

s i s .A sv a r ious p oss ib i l i t ie sw e re e xp lo red i tb ecame a ppa ren t t ha t c omb in ing d a ta f r om c h rono log ica l ly o r s pa t ia l ly a d ja -

s e ss t h es u i tab i l i ty o fs moo th ing a nd t he mos ta pp rop r ia te s i ze o fs moo th ing t emp la te .A f te rc ompa r ing t h er e su l t so fa na ly s -

c en ts t ra ta ( e .g . s t ra ta 5a nd 6 ,o r 6a nd 7 )w ou ld r e su l ti nl o s s

i ng s moo thed d a ta w i th a' f loa t ing a ve rage 'o f 9g r id c e l l s ( i n

o f r e so lu t ion . F ina l ly , a s n o o ccupa t iona l s u r face s c ou ld b e i d en t if ied d u r ing e xcava t ion , t h e s t ra tum w a s r e ta ined a st h e

r ad iu s o f0 . 5m a r ound e ach g r id c e l l ) , a nd o f 2g r id c e l ls ( i na

a r ea . Smoo th ing i sa l so v e ry s en s i t ive t o t h e o u t l ine o f t h e

ar ad ius o f0 .75m a r ound e ach g r id c e l l ) , o f 4g r id c e l ls ( i n a

s ma l le s t s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t u sed d u r ing t h e f i r s t s t age o f t he e nsu ing a na ly s is a nd s t ra ta 5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,a nd 1 0 w e re t r ea ted

r ad iu s o f0 .25m a round e ach g r id c e l l ) , a nd u n smoo thed d a ta ,

i nd iv idua l ly . ' I ts hou ld n ever the le ss b e e mpha s ised t ha t e ach

f a c to ry s o lu t ion h e re ( F igu re 5 . 3 ) . Smoo th ing o nl a rge rs ca les

s t ra tum i s ap a l imp ses tc omp r is ing o n ly p a r to ft h e t o ta l a r ea

w a s p rob lema t ic b ecause t h e d ens i t ie s a tt h e e dge s o f e ach

o fo ccupa t ion . A l though u s ing s t ra ta a su n i t s o fa na lys is h a s

t r ench , e spec ia l ly i nt h e n a r row c en t ra l a nd e a s tern t r enche s ,

p roduced i n te res t ing r e su l t s , t h e l o ca l c ha rac te ro fe ach s t ra -

c ou ld o n ly b ea ve raged o ve rf ou ro rt wo q uad s .H ence f o re ach

Id ec ided t ha t s moo th ing i np a i r s o fc e l l s w a s t he mo s t s a t is -

t um p reven ted m ef r om a cqu ir ing ag l oba lv i ew o fs pa t ia lv a r i -

s t ra tum t h e s moo thed v a lue s o fe ach v a r iab le w e re o b ta ined

a t ion . I n t h e s e cond s t age o f my r e sea rch It h e refore h ad t o

b y c ompu t ing t h e a ve rage o fe ve ry t wo n e ighbour ing q uad s .

r e ver t t o a na ly s ing t he e n t ire s i te , s e ek ing o ve ra l l r edundan t

U s ing t h is me thod ,t h es moo thed g r id c on s is t so f mo re p o in t s

p a t tern ing b y c omb in ing t h e e v idence f r om s t ra ta 5 -10 a nd

t han t h eo r ig ina lo ne a nd e ach a r tefac ti sc oun ted 4t ime s( w i th

t hus h o ld ing t h e t ime f a c to r c on s tan t . C ompa r ison o ft h e r e -

t h ee xcep t ion o fg r id c e l ls a tt h ee dge s , whe re e ach i sc oun ted

s u l t s f r om i n d iv idua l s t ra ta w i th t h ose f r om t h e c omb ina t ion

t w ice ) . T he a na ly s is o fs moo thed d en s i t ies i sp re sen ted h e re

o fs t ra ta 5 10 h igh l igh t st h ee fec to fu s ing d if e ren ts ca le so f

b ecause i th a sy i e lded more s pa t ia l ly c oheren tr e su l t st han t h e

r e so lu t ion .T he f a c tt ha t Ih ave c omb ined s t ra ta a nd u sed s uch ac oa r se -g ra ined u n i t o f a na lys is d oe s n o t m ean t ha t Ih ave

mo s to ft h eo r ig ina lr e so lu t ion h a sb een r e ta ined .C on tou rp lo t s

a s sumed n oc hange ;i nf a c t ,v a r ia t ion i nt h ec ompo s i t ion ( gen -

w e re d rawn f o rt h e s moo thed v a lues o fe ach v a r iab le ,a nd t h e

d e r , a ge ) a nd s i ze o f t h e o ccupy ing g roup mu s t a lmo s t c e r -

i nd iv idua ld i s t r ibu t ions w e r ei n spec ted v i sua l ly .T hey w e re n o t

t a in ly h ave r e su l ted i n v a r iab le p a t terns o f s i te f o rma t ion .

p a r t icu la r ly i n fo rma t ive , d ue t ot h e n on -con t iguou s l a you t o f

Howeve r ,i ns i tes s uch a sK l i th it h ei nhe ren tl im i ta t ions o ft h e

t h et r enches , a nd h ave t h e refo re b een om i t ted .

a na lys is o fu n smoo thed o ne s , a nd b ecau se a tt h e s ame t ime

a r chaeo log ica lr ecord d on o ta l low c on s ide ra t ion o fv a r ia t ion S ince d ife ren t ia t ing a r ea so nt h eb a s is o fc ompo s i t ion i s mo re

a ta ny f i ne rs c a le o fr e so lu t ion .

r e levan t t o t he q ue s t ion s a dd re ssed h e re t han d if e ren t ia t ion T he d ep th o fe xcava t ion v a r ied f r om t r ench t ot r ench , s ot ha t

a cco rd ing t oo ve ra l ld en s i ty o f ma te r ia l ,t h ea bso lu te d en s i t ie s

t h eb a se o fe xcava t ion d oe s n o tn ece ssa r i ly c or re spond t ot h e

f o re ach g r id c e l lh ave b een t r an sfo rmed i n to r e la t ive o ne s b y

b a se o ft h el owermos ts t ra tum i ne ach t r ench .I no rde rt om in i -

s u mm ing a nd d i v id ing b y t h e t o ta l , a nd t h en e xp re ss ing t h e

m ise t h i se f ec t ,t he c oun t so fa r tef ac t sp e rg r id h ave b een c on -

r e su l ta s ap e rcen tage . 'C lu s te ra na lys is o na bso lu te v a lue sw a s

v er ted i n to d ens i t ies b y d iv id ing t hem b y t he d ep th o f

o fl i t t le u se b ecau se i te x t rac ted c l us te r sd ef ined b yd if e rence s

e xcava t ion . T he s e lec ted v a r iab le s w e re e n te red i nt h e a na ly -

i nd ens i t ies , w i th h igh d en s i ty p o in t s g rouped i no ne c l u s te r ,

s i s a sc oun t sp e r5 0cm x5 0cm g r id c e l l ( i . e . b y q uad ) . I nt he

med ium i na no the r ,e t c .A ss ome v a r iab le s( e .g .i b ex /chamo is )

f ew s qua re s o ft he t a lu s w he re f i nd s a r ep rovenanced o n ly t o

a r ec ons ide rab ly mo re n ume rou st han o the r s( e .g .c a rn ivo re s ) ,

t h en ea re s tr e c tang le ( 1m x1 m ) ,t h ed en s i t ies a r ed iv ided b y4

t he r e la t ive d ens i ty o fe ach v a r iab le wa s s t anda rd ised u s ing z s co re s t o r educe t h e e fec t s o f d if e ren t ia l s ca le a nd e nsu re

s ot ha ta ne qua l amoun ti sa t t r ibu ted t oe a ch q uad .

e qua l w e igh t ing d u r ing c l u s te r ing ( Shennan 1 988 ) . T he g r id p o in t s w e re t h en c l us te red u s ing Wa rd 's h i e ra rch ica l me thod ,

5 . 3 :3 Uncon s tra ined C lu s ter Ana lys is

wh ich u ses s qua red E uc l idean d i s tances a nd o p t im ise s t h e UCA w a s a pp l ied t ot h eK l i th id a ta w i th t h e a im o fe xp lo r ing

m in imum v a r iance w i th in c l u s te r s s o t ha t t hey r e ta in max i -

t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l b y d e -

mum h omogene i ty ( A ldender f e r&B la shf ie ld 1 984 ) . 3 7

C hap ter 5

u n smoo thed g r id c e l ls •

s moo thed g r id c e l ls = a ve rage o f t wo n ea res tu n smoo thed c e l l s

A gg lome ra t ion c oe f i c ien t

F igure 5 .3 . Smoo th ing m e thod .

1 9

1 7

1 5

1 3

1

9

7

5

Numbe ro fc l u s te r s F igure 5 . 4 .P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 5 .

F igure 5 . 5 .D is tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 5 . 3 8

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i UCA b yd e f in i t ion c r ea te sc l us te r s ,a nd t h e refo r ed emand st h a t

L i th ic s i ze : S ugge s ted c l us ter s o lu t ions : 2o r 4( F igu re 5 . 6 ) .

w e i d en t ify t h e o p t ima l c l us te r ing s o lu t ion a nd c on s ide r t h e

O p t ima l : 4( T ab le 5 . 3 , F igu re 5 . 7 ) . C lus te r s h ave t h e f o l low -

a pp ropr ia tene ss o ft h ec l us te r ing c r i ter ia t os pa t ia lp a t te rn r e c -

i ng c ha rac te r is t ic s :

o gn i t ion . L ook ing f o r ma jo r ' j ump s ' o n t h e p l o t o f t he a g g lomera t ion c oeff ic ien t ( i .e . t he c l us ter ing c r i ter ion ) i sa

• C lus te r 1( 12 g r id c e l ls ) : i nc en t ra lt r ench ,i nw es tern a r ea , i nt a lu s i n AA33 a nd a ts i ng le p o in ti n W31 . H igh mean

T he f i na l c ho ice o ft h e o p t ima l c l us ter ing r e su l t i s made b y

w e l l -known r u le o ft h umb f o rf i nd ing p robab le s o lu t ions ( i b id .) .

r e la t ive d en s i t ies o f s ma l l s pec imens ( A a nd B ) . L a rge s pec imen s ( D a nd E ) d ecrea se a cco rd ing ly .

e xam in ing t h e c ompo s i t ion o ft h e v a r iou s s o lu t ion s . I nt hose

• C lus te r 2( 14 g r id c e l ls ) : c on t iguous b lock i n t a lus . H igh

i n s tance s whe re d ife ren tn umbe r so fc l us te r sa r ee qua l ly p os s i b le , t h e c l us ter ing s o lu t ion wh ich r e ta in s max imum s pa t ia l

mean r e la t ive d en s i ty o fs i ze C . • C lu s te r 3( 6g r id c e l l s ) :o ns ou thwe s te rn e dge o ft a lus .H igh

r e so lu t ion a nd a vo id sr edundancy o fi n fo rma t ion i r re levan tt o

m ean r e la t ive d ens i t ies o fs i ze sAa nd B .L ow m ean r e la t i ve d en s i ty o fs i ze C .

o u r q ue s t ion s i ss e lec ted . I n o rde rt oe va lua te t h e s i gn if ican t

• C lu s te r4 (4 g r id c e l ls ) :Y 32 .H igh mean p ropor t ion so fl a rge

v a r iab le s i n c l us te r d ef in i t ion , A na lys is o f V a r iance i s em p l oyed ,a nd t h ea s semb lage c ompo s i t ion o fc l u s te r si sd e scr ibed

s pec imen s ( D a nd E ) a nd l ow mean p ropor t ion s o fs i ze s

i nt e rm s o ft h e means a nd s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s o ft he r e la t ive

Ba nd C .

d en s i t ie so ft h ev a r iab le s o ve rt h eg r id c e l ls . I nd ef in ing e ach T ab le 5 . 3 . Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d ens i t ie so fl i th ic

c l us te r , o n ly t ho se v a r iab le s who se mean r e la t ive d en s i ty i s

s i ze c a t egor ie sb yc l us t er f or 4c l u s t er si ns t ra tum 5 .

g rea te r t h an t h e i r s t anda rd d ev ia t ion a r e c on s ide red s i gn if i c an t .V isua li n spec t ion o fb ox a nd wh iske rp lo t si si n va luab le

S ize A

a tt h is s t age ; h e re ,b ecau se o fl im i ted s pace , Ih ave g i ven o n ly

C lu s ter 1 4 8 .76 ± 3 . 45 2 9 .00 ± 4 . 52 1 8 .08 ± 3 . 30 4 .00 ± 1 . 0 1 0 . 16 ±0 . 11

t wo e xamp les o f t h e ir u se ( F igu re s 5 . 96-5 .105 ) . L a s t ly , t h e c l u s te r s a r e p lo t ted o n to t h e s i te p l an a nd t h e i r c ompos i t ion a nd l o ca t ion a r e e xam ined .6

C lu s ter 2 3 4 .95 ± 4 . 52 2 6 .24 ± 1 . 89 2 3 .21 ± 3 . 48 1 3 .46 ± 1 . 78 2 . 14 ± 2 .45

C lu s ter 3 4 5 .52 2 8 .02 7 . 26 1 2 .90 6 . 30

±4 .27 ±4 .67 ±0 . 57 ±3 . 95 ±4 .42

C lus ter 4 2 8 .57 ± 0 .00 9 . 52 ± 0 .00 9 . 52 ± 0 .00 2 8 .57 ± 0 .00 2 3 .81 ± 0 .00

S t ra tum 5a na ly s is

T he 4 -c lu s te rs o lu t ion d i v ide st he t a lu si n to f ou rd i s t inc tg roup s

A l ll i th ic c a tegor ies : S ugge s ted c l us te rs o lu t ion s : 2o r 5( F ig -

t i on , ma rked b yh igh mean r e la t ive d ens i t ie so fs ma l l s i zes ( A

b y s i ze c ompos i t ion . C lu s ter s 1a nd 3a r eo fs im i la rc ompos i u re 5 . 4 ) . O p t ima l : 2( T ab le 5 . 2 ,F igu re 5 . 5 ) . C lus te r sh ave t h e

a nd B ) ;t hey a r ed if e ren t ia ted o nt h eb a s i so fv a r ia t ions i nt h e

f o l low ing c ha rac ter is t ic s :

d en s i t ies o fl a rge ra r tefac t s ( C , Da nd E ) .

• C lus te r 1( 1 1 g r id c e l ls ) : i ns ou thwe s t , n or thwes t a nd c en t r a l t r enches a nd i nt a lu s a t AA33 o n ly . H igh mean p ro -

N ISP b y t a xon : S ugge s ted c l us te r s o lu t ions : 2 , 4o r 6( F igure

p o r t ion so fd eb i tage , s c rape r s a nd b acked b l ade le t s .

5 . 8 ) . O p t ima l : 4( Tab le 5 .4 ,F igure 5 . 9 ) . C lus te r sh ave t he f o l -

• C lu s te r 2( 2 5 g r id c e l l s ) : s pa t ia l ly c on t iguou s , i nt a lu s o n ly .

l ow ing c ha rac ter is t ic s :

H igh m ean p ropo r t ion s o fn odu le s , c o re s , p r ima ry p ie ce s ,

•C lu s te r 1( 9g r id c e l l s ) :s ca t te red i nt a lus a nd c en t ra lt r ench ,

k napp ing d eb r i s , p i ece s w i th l i nea r r e touch a nd n o tched /

a nd a ts i ng le p o in t i nn or thwe s tt r ench . H igh mean r e la -

d en t icu la te s .C ompo s i te t oo l sa nd b ur in s pa sa b sen t .

t i ve d en s i t ie s o fi b ex /chamo is a nd r ed d ee r . • C lus te r 2( 2g r id c e l ls ) : i ns ou thwe s tern t r ench o n ly . H igh -

T ab le 5 . 2 . Means a nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t iv ed en s i t ie so fa l l l i t h ic c a tegor ie sb yc l u s t er f or 2c l u s ter si ns t r a tum 5 . L i th ic c a tegory Nodu le C o r e P r ima ry D eb i tage B u rn td eb r i s K napp ing d eb r i s M ic robu r in B u r in s pa l l E dge -damage p i ece L inea rr e touch No tched /den t icu la te S c rape r T runca t ion B u r in C ompo s i te B a ck ed b l ade le t B o re r -bec

C lu s ter 1 0 . 07 ±0 . 07 0 . 86 ±0 . 38 4 . 71 ± 1 . 82 7 9 .19 ±4 . 80 6 . 20 ±4 . 13 8 . 98 ± 8 . 38 5 . 26 ± 1 . 95 6 . 26 ±4 . 18 8 . 55 ± 3 . 78 1 3 .57 ±5 . 16 3 . 53 ± 3 . 62 1 5 .72 ±7 . 34 0 . 90 ± 1 . 26 3 . 27 ± 2 . 48 0 .06 ±0 . 12 4 0 .05 ± 6 . 96 2 . 84 ±0 . 80

e s t m ean r e la t ive d en s i t ie s o f b i rd s , c a rn ivo res a nd r o d en t s . I bex /chamo is d ec rea se a cco rd ing ly . • C lus te r 3( 5 g r id c e l ls ) : b lock o f c e l ls i n c en t ra l t r ench .

C lus ter 2 2 . 79 ± 2 .68 1 5 .31 ± 1 4 .41 6 . 45 ±4 .28 2 8 .26 ± 1 .55 2 . 89±4 .92 4 4 .30 ± 1 7 .03 0 . 81 ± 1 . 32 0 . 00 ±0 .00 4 . 2 1 ±4 .98 2 7 .0 1 ±1 .44 3 7 .44 ± 8 . 93 8 . 52 ± 1 3 .08 1 . 98 ± 3 .05 2 . 21 ± 3 . 16 0 . 00 ± 0 .00 1 6 .83 ± 1 0 .81 0 . 99 ± 1 . 53

B eave rp re sen t . H igh mean r e la t ive d en s i ty o fc ap r ine s . •C lu s te r 4( 19 g r id c e l ls ) : i nt a lus o n ly . M icrofauna a bsen t , h ence h i ghe s t mean r e la t ive d en s i ty o fc ap r ine s . T ab le 5 . 4 .M eans a nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ie so ft a xa b y c l u s t er f or 4c l u s t er si ns t ra tum 5 . I den t i f ied s pec ie s I b ex / chamo i s B eave r R ed d ee r

C lu s ter 1

C lus ter 2

C lus ter 3

C lus ter 4

9 8 .26 ± 1 . 16 0 .00 ±0 .00 0 . 82 ±0 . 37

9 0 .75 ± 1 . 55 0 .00 ± 0 .00 0 . 21 ± 0 . 30

9 8 .10 ±0 .81 9 9 .64 ±0 . 50 0 . 33 ± 0 .08 0 . 00 ±0 .00 0 .05 ±0 .06 0 . 00 ±0 .00

F i sh B i rd s

0 .06 ±0 . 12 0 .06 ±0 .12

1 . 22 ± 0 . 10 3 . 01 ± 0 .62

0 . 23 ± 0 .23 0 .09 ± 0 . 12

0 .00 ±0 .00 0 .00 ±0 .00

C a rn ivo r e s R oden t s

0 .08 ± 0 . 19 0 . 72 ± 1 . 14

1 . 22 ± 0 . 10 3 . 59 ± 1 . 43

0 . 30 ± 0 .23 0 . 92 ± 0 . 54

0 . 36 ±0 . 50 0 .00 ±0 .00

T he p ropor t ion s o fb ur n t d ebr is , p r ima ry p i ece s , t r unca t ion s

S ince c ap r ine s a r e p re sen t i n v ery h igh d ens i t ies i n a l l f ou r

a nd b ur in s o ve r lap c on s ide rab ly i nb o th c l us te r s . S ubs tan t ia l

g roup s ,c l u s te rd ef in i t ion i sb a sed u pon v a r ia t ion i na l lt h eo the r

o ve r lap i nt h ed i s tr ibu t ion o ft h ev a r iab les i sa l so s een i nt h e5 -

s pec ie s . C lus te r s 2a nd 3 , a s soc ia ted w i th m icrofauna , a r e

c l u s te r s o lu t ion . T he ma in a r ea o ft h e t a lu s ( w i th t he e xcep -

l a rge ly l o cal i sed i nt h e mo re p ro tec ted a r ea o ft h es i te ,t hough

t i on o f AA33 ) h a s y ie lded e a r ly s t ages o f t he r educ t ion

a l so p re sen ti nt h et a lu s .T he p oor p re serva t ion o ft h es ma l le s t

s equence a nd n o t iceab ly l ow p ropor t ions o fb acked b lade le t s ,

a nd mos t f r ag i le s pec imens i n t ha t p a r t o f t h e s i te t ha t h a s

m ic robu r ins a nd b urn td ebr is .

b een mo s te xpo sed t op os t -depos i t iona ld i s tu rbance ( i . e .w ea th -

3 9

C hap ter 5 1 00

8 0— c u

• O

6 0—

0 • < l

o

4 0—

—g b

2 0—

1 9

1 7

1 5

1 3

1

9

7

5

3

Numbe ro fc l u s te r s F igure 5 . 6 .P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 5 .

7 1

Ma in h ear th a rea S hade l i ne D r ip l ine

F igure 5 . 7 .D i s tr ibu t ion o f 4c l u s ter so ns i te p lan f or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 5 .

4 0

T he s pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion o fK l i th i 1 20

1 00 —

•• 8 0— c . ) 0 0

6 0—

t i e 4 0—

2 0—

2 0

I 1 8

1 1 6

i 1 4

1 2

1 0

8

6

4

2

1

Numbe ro fc lu s te r s F igure 5 .8 .P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o f c lus ter sf or N ISP b yt axon i ns t ra tum 5 .

C lu s ter s o 4 O3

1 8

T

1

1

1 9 I

2 0

* 2

I

I

1 -1 1 1

2 1

11 1 1. 1 1

e „

2 2

r

I

n

I

•

2 3

S hade l i ne

**

2 4

Dr ip l ine

2 5

I

2 6

1 1

2 7

A C )

2 9

11 1 1 11 1 1 11 1 I I 1

/ a nt M. 1 1. 1w

3 1 °

3 2

C

C P C 0 0

3 3

a go

c •• oe•••

O 0 E l

4 I

3 4 L

M

N P

Q

R

S

T U V

F I I 1 1- L 1 11 I 1 I

2 8

3 0

A rea so fe x cava t ion Ma in h ea r th a rea

W

X

Y

Z AABB CC DD EE FF GG HHI I

1 K I C L L M M NN P P QQ RR

F igure 5 .9 .D i s tr ibu t ion o f 4c l u s ter so ns i te p lan f or N ISP b yt axon i ns t ra tum 5 . 4I

C hap ter 5 e r ing , r ock fa l ls a nd r ough e xcava t ion ) a ppa ren t ly c ond i t ions

n or thwe s t t r enches . T he s pa t ia l p a t tern i nt h e t a lu s i sb a sed

t h e eme rg ing p a t te rn ing . I tc an b e a r gued t ha t t h e c l us te r ing

p r inc ipa l ly u pon t he ma ter ia l f r om t h is s t ra tum . T he s ou th -

r e su l td ep ic t s p a t tern ing a s soc ia ted w i th s i te -fo rma t ion p roc -

w e s ter na r ea o ft h et a lus i sc l ea r ly c ha ra c ter ised b yl i th ic s pec i -

e s ses r a the rt han w i th h uman b ehav iour .

m en sf r om e a r ly s t age so ft h er educ t ion s equence ,p i ece sw i th

B one s i ze : S ugge s ted c l u s ter s o lu t ion s : 2o r 4( F igure 5 . 10 ) .

o f s t ra tum 5 a r e c ha rac te r ised ma in ly b y b acked b lade le t s ,

Op t ima l : 2( Tab le 5 . 5 ,F igure 5 . 11) . C lus te r sh ave t h ef o l low -

b o re r s a nd m ic robur in s . A na lys is o fl i th ic s i ze a nd b one s i ze

i ng c ha rac te r is t ics : • C lus te r 1( 24 g r id c e l l s ) : mos t ly o n s ou thern e dge so ft a lu s

s hows t ha tt h is p a t ter ni sn o td ue s imp ly t os i ze s or t ing . AA33

a nd a tr ea r o f s i te b e tween d r ip a nd s hade l i nes . H igh

b o th l i t h ic s i ze a nd s t age s o f t h e l i th ic r educ t ion s equence .

mean r e la t ive d en s i ty o fs ma l lb ones ( a ) .

I bex / chamo i sa r et h ed om inan tt a xa t h roughou t ,b u tt h e re a r et wo

l i nea rr e touch a nd n o tched /den t icu la te s , w h i le t h eo the ra r ea s

a nd t h ei n ne ra r ea o ft h es i te a r ec l u s tered t oge the ri nt e rm so f

c oncen t ra t ion so fm ic rof auna i nt h e mo re s h e l te red i n ne ra r ea .I n

• C lus te r 2( 1 1 g r id c e l l s ) : i nt a lu s o n ly . H igh mean r e la t ive

t e rm so fm ea tu t il i ty a nd b one s i ze t h e re i sn od if e ren t ia t ion b e -

d en s i t ies o fs ma l lt o med ium -s ized b one s ( a , ba nd c ) .

t ween t h et a lu sa nd t h e mo re p ro tec ted a r ea . W i th t h ee xcep t ion T ab le 5 . 5 . Mean sa nd s t anda rd d ev ia t ions o fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o fb one

o f af ew s p ec imen s o fs i ze d ,l o ng b one f ragmen t s a r e l a rge ly

s i ze c a tegor ie sb yc l u s t er f or 2c l u s t er si ns t ra tum 5 .

a b sen t . V a r ia t ion i nl a rge s pec imen s d e term ines c lus ter ing i n

C lu s ter 1 9 4 .74 ±4 . 16 4 . 89 ± 1 . 50 0 . 36 ± 0 .4 1 0 . 0 1 ±0 .02 0 . 00 ± 0 .00

S ize a

l i th ics ,w h i le v a r ia t ion i ns ma l l s pec imens d e term ines c lus -

C lu s ter 2 8 5 .51 ± 2 . 74 1 3 .65 ± 2 . 73 0 . 81 ± 0 . 30 0 .03 ±0 . 11 0 .00 ±0 .00

t e r ing i nb ones . B one i mp lemen ts o n ly o ccur i n VW25 , i n t h ec en t ra lt r ench , wh i le p e r fo ra ted s pec imen sa r ea l so p re sen t i nt h et a lu s a nd t h e s ou thwe s ter nt r ench . S t ra tum 6a na lys is

W i th t he e xcep t ion o f af ew o f s i ze d ,l a rge b one -f ragmen t s a r e a lmo s t a b sen t f r om s t ra tum 5 .T he c l us ter s a r e t h e refo re

A l l l i th ic c a tegor ies : S ugge s ted c l u s te r s o lu t ion : 3o r 6( F ig -

d ef ined ma in ly b y v ar ia t ion i nt h e s ma l le r s i ze g roup s . T h is p a t tern c l ea r ly s hows t ha tp re serva t ion c ond i t ion s a nd r e cov -

t h ef o l low ing c ha rac te r is t ic s :

u re 5 . 16 ) . O p t ima l : 3( Tab le 5 . 7 , F igure 5 . 17 ) . C lus te r s h ave • C lus ter 1 ( 38 g r id c e l ls ) : s ca t te red i n w ide a r ea i n s ide

e ry me thod h ave h ad as i gn if ican ti mpac tu pon t h ef r agmen ta -

d r ip l ine ,b e tween d r ip a nd s hade l i ne sa nd a ts i ng le p o in t

t i on o fs pec imens i nt h e mo re e xpo sed a r ea o ft h e s i te .

i n W28 . H igh mean r e la t ive d ens i t ie so fd eb i tage ,p i ece s w i th l i nea rr e touch a nd b acked b lade le t s . Med ium mean

A na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty : S ugge s ted c l us -

r e la t ive d ens i ty o fb u rn td eb r is .

t e r s o lu t ion : 2( F igu re s 5 . 12 , 5 . 13 , T ab le 5 .6 ) . C lu s te r s h ave

• C lus ter 2 ( 2 1 g r id c e l ls ) : i n c en t ra l a nd s ou thwes tern

t h ef o l low ing c ha rac te r is t ic s : • C lus te r 1( 2 1 g r id c e l l s ) : s ca t te red i nw es tern t a lus a nd i n

t r enche s .H igh mean r e la t ive d ens i t ie so fd eb i tage ,p i ece s w i th u t i l isa t ion r e touch , s crapers a nd n o tched /

c en t ra l a nd n or thwes tern t r enche s . H igh mean r e la t ive d en s i ty o fa na tom ica lp a r t so fl ow mea tu t i l i ty .

d en t icu la te s . • C lu s te r 3( 6g r id c e l l s ) : c on t iguous b lock i nn or thern t a lus .

• C lus te r 2( 14 g r id c e l ls ) : s ca t te red i ne a s tern t a lus a nd i n

H igh m ean r e la t ive d en s i t ie so fb urn td ebr is ,b u r in s pa l ls ,

s ou thwes ter nt r ench . H igh mean p ropor t ions o fp a r t s o f

n o tched /den t icu la te s a nd b acked b lade le t s .

l ow mea t u t i l i ty . Med ium mean p ropor t ion s o f p a r t s o f med ium o r med iumlow m ea tu t i l i ty .

T ab le 5 . 7 . Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d ens i t ie so fa l l l i th ic c a tegor ie sb yc l u s ter f or 3c l u s t er si ns t r a tum 6 .

T hese t wo c l u s te r sa r eo fs im i la rc ompos i t ion . T he c l u s ter ing s o lu t ion d ep ic t s g rada t ion i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a na tom ica l

L i th ic c a tegory N odu le C o r e P r ima r y D eb i tage K napp ing d ebr i s B u r n td ebr i s M ic robu r in B u r in s pa l l E dge -damage p i ece L inea rr e touch N o tched /den t icu la t e S c rape r T runca t ion B ur in

e l emen t so fl ow m ea tu t i l i ty . T ab le 5 .6 . Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d ens i t ies o f a na tom ica le l emen t sg r ouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty b yc l u s t er f or 2c l u s ter si n s t ra tum 5 . Mea tu t i l i ty H igh Med ium L ow Med iumlow

C lu s ter 1 0 . 51 ±0 .62 1 . 17 ± 1 . 0 1 9 5 .59 ± 3 . 81 2 . 73 ± 2 .69

C lu s ter 2 2 .68 ± 0 . 56 9 . 96 ± 3 . 98 7 7 .45 ± 4 . 29 9 . 91 ± 2 . 16

O rgan ic a r tef ac t s . Mos to ft h e p er fora ted o b jec t s c ame f r om

C ompo s i te B a cked b l ade le t B o r e r -be c

t h e c en t ra l a r ea o ft h e s i te , o n ly o ne b e ing d i scove red i nt h e t a lus ( F igu re 5 . 14 ) . S im i la r ly , a l l o rgan ic a r tefac t s , i n c lud ing

C lu s ter 1 0 . 08 ±0 . 12 0 . 70 ± 0 . 37 4 . 99 ± 1 . 53

C lus ter 2 0 . 18 ± 0 . 12 1 . 05 ± 0 . 04 6 . 15 ± 1 . 35

C lus ter 3 0 . 14 ±0 . 17 2 . 24 ±0 . 8 1 6 . 98 ± 1 . 56

8 0 .95 5 . 02 8 . 25 5 . 38 5 . 32 9 . 97 1 5 .07

±6 . 56 ±5 . 25 ±3 . 48 ±4 .45 ±3 . 28 ±0 .63 ±4 . 59

8 6 .52 ± 4 . 39 1 . 74 ± 1 . 64 4 . 37 ± 2 . 64 4 . 86 ± 2 . 13 5 . 74 ± 3 . 26 1 2 .08 ±7 .84 9 . 56 ± 3 . 01

7 3 .33 ±5 . 97 3 . 48 ±0 .88 1 3 .83 ±4 . 32 0 . 17 ±0 .4 1 9 . 55 ±5 . 4 1 0 . 17 ±0 . 4 1 8 . 23 ±2 . 23

7 . 93 8 . 98 0 . 6 1 3 . 58 0 . 14 4 0 .71 2 . 31

±4 . 16 ±4 . 74 ±1 . 16 ±0 .48 ±0 . 35 ±1 2 .76 ±1 . 92

1 2 .06 1 4 .04 3 . 60 4 . 39 1 . 4 1 2 8 .18 3 . 05

1 4 .18 ±5 . 04 1 .96 ±4 . 17 1 . 05 ±0 .88 6 . 78 ±3 . 29 0 .94 ± 1 . 69 4 1 .93 ±5 . 24 5 . 04 ±2 . 77

±5 . 84 ±6 . 03 ±2 . 89 ±3 . 86 ±1 . 07 ±8 . 34 ±2 . 54

a n i n c ised b one , w e re c oncen t ra ted i n VW25 ( F igu re 5 . 15 ) . T he 3 c lus te rs o lu t ion s hows ad if e rence i nc ompos i t ion b e t ween t h et a lus a nd t h eo the ra r ea so fs t ra tum 6 .C lus te r s 1a nd

S tra tum 5s yn thes is

2ma in ly d if e ri nc ompos i t ion b yt oo lt ype . T hus p i ece sw i th S t ra tum 5 , wh ich h a s y i e lded t h e e a r l ies t r ad ioca rbon d a te s

l i nea rr e touch w e igh more i nd ef in ing c l us te r 1 , wh i le p ieces

( 15 ,460±26016 ,650±190 B p ) ,w a se xposed i nt he t a lu s ,i nt h e

w i th e dge d amage , s c rape r s ,n o tched /den t icu la te sa nd b acked

c en t ra l t r ench a nd i nv e ry s ma l l p a tches i nt h e s ou thwe s ta nd

b lade le t s a r e i mpor tan ti nd ef in ing c l us te r2 . 4 2

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i 7 0

A gg lome ra t ion c oe f i c ien t

6 0—

5 0—

4 0—

3 0—

2 0—

1 0—

0 2 0

1 8

1 6

1 1 4

1 1 2

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6

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Numbe ro fc l u s te r s F igure 5 . 10 .P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga in s tn umber o f c l us ter sf or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 5 .

I

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F igure 5 . 11 .D is tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or b one s i ze i ns t ra tum 5 . 4 3

C hap ter 5 1 20

A gg lome ra t ion c oef f ic ien t

1 00 -

8 0-

6 0-

4 0-

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1 6

1 4

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Numbe ro fc l u s te r s F igure 5 . 12 .P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter s f or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 5 .

F igure 5 . 13 .D is tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea t u t i l i ty i ns t ra tum 5 . 4 4

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i

F igure 5 . 14 .D is tr ibu t ion o fp e rf ora ted o b jec t s i ns t ra tum 5 .

F igure 5 . 15 .D is tr ibu t ion o fb one a r tef ac t si ns t ra tum 5 . 4 5

C hap ter 5 I 6 0

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= 0 ' C T S '

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8 2

4 2

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8

1 2

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Numbe ro fc l us te r s F igure 5 . 16 .P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ie s i ns t ra tum 6 .

C lus ter s x3 2 •1

1 8 1 9 1

2 0

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2 2

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A reas o fe xcavat ion

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S hade l i ne D r ip l i r te

1

2 5

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1

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2 7

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2 8

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3 2

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9

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1

1

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3 4 L

M

N P

Q R

S

T U

V W

X Y

Z AA B B CC DD E E F F GC HH 1 J KK L L M M NN P P QQ R R

F igure 5 . 17 .D i s tr ibu t ion o f 3c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra tum 6 . 4 6

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i L i th ic s i ze : S ugges ted c l u s te r s o lu t ion : 2o r 7( F igu re 5 . 18 ) .

• C lus te r 1( 34 g r id c e l l s ) :i nc en t ra lp a r to fs i te a nd i nt wo c e l ls

Op t ima l : 2( T ab le 5 .8 ,F igu re 5 . 19 ) .C lu s te r sh ave t h ef o l low -

n ea rh ea r th .H igh m ean p ropo r t ion o fs i ze a .S i ze ea b sen t .

i ng c ha rac te r is t ics :

• C lus te r 2( 3 1 g r id c e l ls ) : s ca t te red b e tween d r ip a nd s hade l i nes , n ea rh ea r th a nd i nn or ther nt a lus . H igh mean p ro -

• C lus ter 1( 3 8g r id c e l ls ) : s ca t te red i nc en t ra l , s ou thwes tern a nd n o r thwes tern t r enches . H igh m ean r e la t ive d en s i t ie s

p or t ion o fs i ze a .R e la t ive ly h igh p ropor t ions o fs i ze s b

o fs i ze s Aa nd B .O ve ra l ll ow v a lue sf o ra lo t he rs i ze g roup s .

a nd c .S ize ep resen t .

• C lus ter 2 ( 2 7 g r id c e l ls ) : i n n or ther n t a lus a nd i n s ou th -

B o th c l u s ter s a r e o ff a ir ly s im i la rc ompos i t ion a nd s i ze . G r id

w e s te rn a nd n o r thwe s ter n t r enche s . H igh m ean r e la t ive

c e l ls t ha t h ave y i e lded a lmo s t s o le ly s ma l l b one s a r e d i s t in -

d en s i t ie so fl a rge rs i ze g roup s( B , Ca nd D ) .C o r re spond -

g u ished f r om t ho se t ha t h ave a l so y i e lded af ew l a rge r o ne s .

i ng d ec rea se i ns i ze A .

T he a na lys is s hows t ha ti n s ide t h ed r ip a nd s hade l i nes t h e re i s n o p refe ren t ia l p re serva t ion o f b one s o f a ny p a r t icu la r s i ze

T ab le 5 . 8 .M ean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ions o fr e la t iv ed en s i t ie so fa l l l i t h ic s i ze c a t egor ie sb yc l u s t er f or 2c l u s t er si ns t ra tum 6 . C lu s ter 1 5 5 .94 ± 3 . 64 2 8 .11 ± 3 . 22 1 2 .96 ± 1 . 79 2 . 93 ±0 . 68 0 . 06 ±0 . 07

S ize A

( pa tche s w i th a ccumu la t ion so fb o th s ma l l a nd l a rge o ne s a r e f ound ) . Howeve r , t he n o r ther nt a lu s h a s c l ea r ly y i e lded s ome l a rge rb one s . T he s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion t hu s s ugge s ts t h a tt he p a t -

C lu s ter 2 4 3 .84 ± 5 . 93 3 5 .20 ± 5 . 34 1 6 .43 ± 2 . 79 4 . 32 ± 1 . 68 0 . 21 ±0 . 28

t e rn o fs pec ie s d i s t r ibu t ion may b e p a r t ly as i de e f ec t o ft h e c ond i t ion s o fp re se rva t ion , w i th s ma l l a nd f r ag i le b one s ( i . e . t hose o fm ic rofauna )b e t te rp re se rved i nt he s he l te red a r ea . T ab le 5 . 10 . Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d en s i t ie so fb one s i ze c a tegor ie sb yc l u s t er f or 2c l u s t er si ns t ra tum 6 .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs i ze c a tego r ie si sg ene ra l ly h omogeneous a nd o ve r lapp ing . T he o n ly v a r iab le w i th m in ima l o ve r lap i s

S ize a

s i ze A , a nd i t s v a r ia t ion i sr e spons ib le f o rt h e d if e ren t ia t ion

C lu s ter 1 9 6 .6 1 ±2 . 14 3 . 14 ± 1 . 99 0 . 24 ±0 . 26 0 .00 ±0 . 0 1 0 .00 ± 0 . 00

o ft he t wo c l u s te r s . T he a na lys is h a sd ep ic ted g rada t ion i nt h e m ean r e la t ive d ens i t ie s o fs i ze g roup s .

C lu s ter 2 8 9 .19 ± 3 . 73 9 . 81 ± 3 . 72 0 . 84 ± 0 .49 0 . 15 ± 0 . 16 0 .01 ± 0 .02

N ISP b yt a xon : S ugge s ted c l us te rs o lu t ion s : 2 ,5 , 6o r1 0( F ig u re 5 .20 ) . O p t ima l : 5( Tab le 5 . 9 , F igu re 5 . 21) . C lus ter s h ave t h ef o l low ing c ha rac ter is t ic s :

A na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty : S ugge s ted c l u s -

• C lus te r 1( 7g r id c e l l s ) :s i ng le p a tch i ns ou thwe s tern t r ench .

u re 5 . 25 ) . C lu s te r s h ave t h ef o l low ing c ha rac ter is t ic s :

t e rs o lu t ion : 2 ,3 , 5( F igu re 5 . 24 ) . Op t ima l : 3( Tab le 5 . 11 ,F ig -

H ighe s tm ean p ropo r t ion o fb i rd s .

• C lu s te r 1( 22 g r id c e l ls ) :i ns ou thwe s ter nt r ench a nd i n W30 .

• C lus te r 2( 44 g r id c e l l s ) :i na l lt r enche s .H ighe s tm ean r e la -

H ighes t mean r e la t ive d ens i t ie s o f b ones o f h igh a nd

t i ve d en s i ty o fc apr ine s .

med ium mea tu t i l i ty .

• C lus te r 3( 3g r id c e l ls ) : s ma l l p a tch o n s ou the rn e dge o f

• C lu s te r 2( 20 g r id c e l l s ) : s ca t te red i n a l l t r enches whe re

s ou thwe s tern t r ench . H igh m ean r e la t ive d en s i ty o fi bex /

s t ra tum 6p re sen t . Med ium mean p ropor t ions o fa l l mea t

c hamo is . R ed d ee rp r esen t .

u t i l i ty g roup s .

• C lus te r 4( 6g r id c e l l s ) : t wo a r ea s ,o ne i nc en t ra la nd o ne i n

• C lus te r 3( 23 g r id c e l ls ) : a sc l us te r 2i na l l t r enche s . H igh

s ou thwe s te rn t r ench . H ighe s t mean p ropo r t ion o fc arn i -

mean r e la t ive d en s i ty o fl ow mea tu t i l i ty a na tom ica l e l e -

v o re s . H igh mean p ropor t ion o fr oden t s .

men t s . L owe s t mean r e la t ive d ens i t ies o f h igh , med ium

• C lu s te r 5( 5g r id c e l l s ) : ma in ly i nn or thwes ter nt r ench ; i n

a nd med iumlow mea tu t i l i ty e l emen t s .

o ne c e l la t Q25 .H ighe s t mean p ropor t ions o fb eave ra nd T ab le 5 . 11 . Mean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t ive d ens i t ie so f a na tom ica le l emen t sb ym ea tu t i l i ty b yc l u s t er f or 3c l u s t er si ns t ra tum 6 .

r oden t s . T ab le 5 .9 .M ean sa nd s t andard d ev ia t ion so fr e la t iv ed ens i t i e so fa l lt am b yc l u s t er f or 5c l us ter si ns t r a tum 6 . I dent if ied

C lust er 1

C lus ter 2

C lu s ter 3

C lu s ter 4

Mea tu t i l i ty H igh Med ium L ow Med iumlow

C lus ter 5

s pec ie s I b ex /chamo i s 9 5 .70 ±0 .89 B eave r 0 . 00 ±0 .00

9 9 .20 ±0 . 96 9 8 .07 ±0 . 56 9 6 .56 ± 1 . 06 9 2 .86 ±2 . 88 0 . 02 ±0 . 06 0 . 00 ±0 . 00 0 . 10 ±0 . 16 1 . 07 ± 0 . 97

R ed d ee r

0 . 00 ±0 .00

0 . 00 ±0 . 00

0 . 33 ±0 . 08

0 . 00 ±0 . 00

0 . 00 ± 0 . 00

F i sh B i rd s

0 . 00 ±0 .00 3 . 72 ±0 .75

0 . 04 ±0 . 15 0 . 29 ±0 . 44

0 . 00 ±0 . 00 0 . 78 ±0 . 60

0 . 64 ±0 . 66 0 . 35 ±0 . 33

0 . 65 ±0 . 41 1 . 61 ± 1 . 23

C a rn ivo r es

0 . 12 ±0 . 15

0 . 00 ±0 . 03

0 . 00 ±0 . 00

0 . 74 ±0 . 15

0 . 00 ±0 . 00

R oden t s

0 . 46 ±0 . 52

0 . 45 ±0 . 72

0 . 82 ±0 . 12

1 . 61 ±0 . 64

3 . 81 ± 1 . 38

C lu s ter 1 1 0 .27 ± 2 . 09 1 7 .89 ± 4 . 85 5 8 .05 ± 0 . 51 1 3 .79 ± 4 . 09

C lus ter 2 4 . 78 ± 2 . 51 1 0 .02 ± 2 .98 7 6 .61 ± 3 . 45 8 . 59 ± 3 .48

C lu s ter 3 0 . 97 ± 1 . 11 2 . 24 ± 1 . 82 9 2 .13 ± 4 . 11 4 . 65 ± 2 . 27

T hese t h ree c l u s ter sa r ed ef ined b y ag rada t ion i nc ompos i t ion b y mea tu t i l i ty g roup . P e rhaps t h e mo s ti mpo r tan ti sc l us te r 1 , wh ich h a s ac l ea ra ccumu la t ion o fh igh a nd med ium mea tu t i l i t yb one s .

I bex /chamo i ss how v e ry l i t t le v a r ia t ion i nd ens i ty t h roughou t

O rgan ic a r tef ac t s . S t ra tum 6 i st h e s t ra tum t ha t h a s y i e lded

t h es t ra tum .C lus ter d ef in i t ion i st h e refo re b a sed u pon t h ev a r i -

t h e h ighe s t n umbe r o fp e r fo ra ted o b jec t s ( 4 1) , p re sen t i n a l l

a t ion i nd en s i ty o ft h e o t he r s pec ie s . I ti sp oss ib le t ha t , a si n

t r enche s a nd i nt h e n or the rn t a lus ( F igu re 5 .26 ) . T he 1 4 o r g an ic a r tefac t sa r es ca t te red ma in ly i nt h es ou thwe s ter nt r ench

s t ra tum 5 ,t h i sa na ly s is p r inc ipa l ly s ugge s t s ap a t ter no fb e t te r p reserva t ion o fm ic rofauna i n aw e l lp ro tec ted a r ea o fs t ra tum 6c l ose t oh ea r th s .

a nd o u t s ide t h es hade l i ne i n W28 , W29 a nd W31 ( F igu re 5 . 27 ) .

B one s i ze : S ugge s ted c l u s te rs o lu t ion s :2 , 3o r 5( F igu re 5 .22 ) .

S t ra tum 6s yn thes is

Op t ima l : 2( Tab le 5 . 10 , F igu re 5 . 23 ) . C lu s te r s h ave t he f o l -

S pa t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion i n t h is s t ra tum i sr a ther p a tchy i n a l l

l ow ing c ha ra c te r is t ic s : 4 7

C hap ter 5 1 40

4 0 -

2 0 -

0 6 4

6 0

5 ' 6

5 I 2

4 ' 8

4 4

4 0

3 6

3 2

2 8

I 2 4

2 0

1 6

1 1 2

Numbe ro fc l us te r s F igure 5 . 18 .P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l u s ter sf or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 6 .

F igure 5 . 19 .D i s tr ibu t ion o f 2c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or l i th ic s i ze i ns t ra tum 6 . 4 8

8

4

1

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i 1 40

1 20 —

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1 2

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Numbe ro fc l u s te r s F igure 5 .20 .P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or N ISP b yt a xon i ns t ra tum 6 .

F igure 5 . 21 .D is tr ibu t ion o f 5c l u s ter so ns i t ep lan f or N ISP b yt a xon i ns t ra tum 6 .

4 9

C hap ter 5 1 40

1 20 —

e1 0 0a ) .5

4 1 ( 4 .

a ) o

= o . — + c E. 1

N . ( I ) 6 0-

0 T o t o
• °: AA AA AA AÄ nPC I

2 6

A reas o fe x cava t ion

L

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F igure 5 . 77 .D i s tr ibu t ion o f 6c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or N ISP b yt a xon a nd a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

8 6

1

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i 1 000

8 00 -

5 a )

6 00 -

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4 00

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-

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0 __ _ __, 6 0 5 7

1

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I 3 6

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Numbe ro fc lu s te r s F igure 5 .78 .P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or a na tom ica l e l emen t sg rouped b ym ea tu t i l i ty a nd a l ll i th ic c a tegor ies i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

F igure 5 . 79 .D is tr ibu t ion o f 7c l us ter so ns i te p lan f or a na tom ica le l emen t sg rouped b ym ea t u t i l i ty a nd a l ll i th ic c a tegor ie si ns t ra ta 5 -10 . 8 7

' 6

' 3

II

1

C hap ter 5 6 00

5 00 —

* Z 3 4 00 — c u

. 0 3 00 — r e c u T1 )2 00 — a n

1 00 —

6 0

5 7

5 4

5 1

4 8

4 5

4 2

3 9

3 6

3 3

3 0

2 7

2 4

2 1

1 8

1 5

1 2

Numbe ro fc l u s te r s F igure 5 .80 .P lo to ft h ea gg lomera t ion c oef f i c ien ta ga ins tn umber o fc l us ter sf or l i th ic a nd b one s i ze i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

F igure 5 .81 .D is tr ibu t ion o f 8c l u s ter so ns i te p lan f or l i th ic a nd b one s i ze i ns t ra ta 5 -10 . 8 8

9

6

3

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i

0 .00

0 . 06

0 . 13

0 . 19

0 . 25

0 . 31

0 . 38

0 . 44

0 . 50

0 . 56

0 . 63

0 . 69

0 . 75

D ens i ty F igure 5 .82 .H i s togram o ft h ed ens i ty o fp e tf ora ted o b jec t si ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

F igure 5 . 83 .D i s tr ibu t ion o fp e tf ora ted o b jec t s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 ; d en s i ty r ange f rom F igur e5 .82 . 8 9

0 . 81

C hap ter 5 2 0

F igure 5 .84 .H is togram o ft h ed ens i ty o fb one a r tef ac t s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

F igure 5 .85 .D is tr ibu t ion o f moda la nd h ighes td ens i t ie so fb one a r tef ac t si ns t ra ta 5 -10 ; i n f orma t ion f rom F igur e5 .84 . 9 0

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i

F igure 5 . 86 .D i s tr ibu t ion o fn eed le s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

F igure 5 . 87 .D i s tr ibu t ion o fb ones w i th i n c i s ions i ns t ra ta 5 -10 . 9 1

C hap ter 5 4 0

5

3 5

6 5

9 5

1 25

1 55

1 85

2 15

2 45

2 75

3 05

D en s i ty

F igure 5 .88 .H is togram o fb one d ens i ty i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

F igure 5 .89 .D i s tr ibu t ion o f b one d ens i ty i ns t ra ta 5 -10 ; i n f orma t ion f rom F igur e5 .88 . 9 2

3 35

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i 2 00

Key t ob ox a nd wh i sker p lo t s *

E x t reme o u t l ie r

1 80 —

0

O u t l ie r

1 60 —

L a rge s to b served v a lue n o ta no u t l ie r 1 40 —

7 5 th p e r cen t i le —

Med ian 2 5 th p e r cen t i le

1 20 —

Sma l le s to bse rved v a lue n o ta no u t l ie r

1 00 — 8 0— 6 0— 4 0— 2 0— 0—

1 58

Q uad s F igure 5 . 91 .B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fl i th ic a r tef ac td ens i ty i n s t ra ta 5 -10 .

5

2 5

4 5

6 5

8 5

1 05

1 25

1 45

1 65

1 85

D en s i ty

F igure 5 .90 .H is togram o fl i t h ic a r tef ac td ens i ty i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

L i th ic a r te fac td ens i ty *> 180 o u t l iers •8 167 2 1-81 2 5 th t o7 5 th p ercen t i le c ,0 -21 u pt o2 5 th p ercen t i le

00 00 00 00 00

0 00 00 00 00 ••

o e • • • -• )

00 00 00 00 •o 00

F igure 5 . 92 .L i th ic a r tef ac td ens i ty v ar ia t ion i ns t ra ta 5 -10 ; i n f o rma t ion f rom F igur e5 .91 . 9 3

C hap ter 5

5 0 9 z i 2 /

4 0

4 2

2 0

4 0— 3 8—

1 0

3 6— 3 4— 0 . 5

3 . 5

6 . 5

9 . 5

1 2 .5

1 5 .5

1 8 .5

2 1 .5

2 4: . 5 2 75

3 0 : 5

3 3: . 5 3 65

3 9 .5

4 2: . 5 4 5 :5

3 2—

4 8 .5

3 0—

D en s i ty

2 8—

F igure 5 . 93 .H i s togram o fd ens i ty o fb urn tl i th ic a r tef ac t s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

2 6— . 9 . 2 4— f : 2 2g

2 0-

84 : 2 1 46

1 6-

2 2

1 2—

1 4L' 11 0-

8 6 4— 2 0 -

F igure 5 . 94 .B ox a nd w h i sker p lo to fd ens i ty o fb urn tl i t h ic

1 58

a r tef ac t s i ns t ra ta 5 -10 .

I

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1 8 1 9

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3 3

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Q

R

S

T

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V

W

X

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J I C I< LL M M NN PP QQ RR

F igure 5 . 95 .B ur n tl i th ic a r tef ac td en s i ty v ar ia t ion i ns t ra ta 5 -10 ; i n f orma t ion f rom F igur e5 .94 .

9 4

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i 8 0

7 0—

6 0

< 0— a . )5

4 0—

3 0—

2 0—

F igure 5 . 97 .B ox a nd

1 0

d en s i ty o fl i th ic s i ze B

w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive 1( 4 7 )

2( 6 4 )

C lu s t e rN o . ( G r id c e l l s )

b yc l us ter ( 2 -c lus ter

1( 4 7 )

s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

2( 6 4 )

C lu s te rN o . ( G r id c e l l s ) 1 2

F igure 5 .96 .B ox a nd w h i sker p lo t o fr e la t ive d en s i ty o fl i th ic s i ze A b yc l us ter ( 2 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) ,

1 0-

s t ra tum 7 .

8 —

F igure 5 . 99 .B ox a nd

2 -

w h i sker p lo to fr e la t ive d en s i ty o fl i th ic s i ze D b yc l u s ter ( 2 -c lus ter

1( 4 7 )

s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

2( 6 4 )

C lu s te rN o . ( G r id c e l l s )

0 . 04

0 . 03 —

" N 00 2— J A 1( 4 7 )

2( 64 )

C lu s te rN o .( G r id c e l l s ) F igure 5 .98 .B ox a nd w h i sker p lo t

0 . 0 1—

o fr e la t ive d en s i ty o fl i th ic s i ze C b yc l us ter ( 2 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

F igure 5 . 100 .B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive

0-

d ens i ty o fl i th ic s i ze E b yc l u s ter ( 2 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

1( 4 7 )

2( 6 4 )

C lu s te rN o . ( G r id c e l l s )

C hap ter 5 10

1 00 • • • • • • • ,

C

4 . )

0

9 0—

F igure 5 . 101 .B ox a nd w h isker p lo t o fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fb one s i ze a b yc l us ter ( 4 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) ,

8 0 1( 20 )

s t ra tum 7 .

2( 9 )

3 (57 )

4( 3 1)

C lu s te rN o . ( G r id c e l ls ) 1 6

1 4

1 2—

1 0—

2—

F igure 5 . 102 .B ox a nd w h isker p lo t o fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fb one s i ze b b yc l us ter ( 4 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

0— 1( 20 )

2( 9 )

3 ( 57 )

4( 3 1)

C lu s te r No . ( G r id c e l ls )

F igure 5 . 103 .B ox a nd w h isker p lo t o fr e la t ive d ens i ty o fb one s i ze c b yc l us ter ( 4 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

2( 9 )

3 ( 57 )

C lu s te rN o . ( G r id c e l ls )

4( 3 1)

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i

2( 9 )

3( 5 7 )

C lu s te r No . ( Gr id c e l ls )

F igure 5 . 104 .B ox a nd w h i sker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o f b one s i ze db yc l us ter ( 4 -c lus ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 .

2( 9 )

3( 5 7 )

4( 3 1)

C lu s te r No . ( Gr id c e l ls )

F igure 5 . 105 .B ox a nd w h isker p lo to fr e la t ive d ens i ty o f b one s i ze eb yc l u s ter ( 4 -c lu s ter s o lu t ion ) , s t ra tum 7 . 9 7

C hap ter 5 l a rge r ma te r ia l w a s mo re l i ke ly t ob e r emoved . T h is p a t ter n

c a tegor ie so f ma te r ia lf r om t h is p a r to ft h e s i te may b ed ue t o

c ompa re sw i th B info rd 's d rop z one ( 1983 ) .T he c en t re so fi n -

d if e ren t ia l d e s truc t ion , c aused b y r o ck fa l ls , b y e xpo sure t o

d i v idua lh ea r th sh ave y i e lded l ow d en s i t ie so f ma ter ia l ,w he rea s

e ros ion a nd w ea the r ing , a nd a l so p o s s ib ly b y r ougher r e cov -

s ome o ft h eh i ghe s td en s i t ie so ccu ri nt h e i ri mmed ia te v i c in i ty .

e ry me thod s ( Ba i ley e ta l . 1 997a ) . I nt h is a rea t h e c onfound i ng p rob lem (W inder 1 997a ) i s as er ious o bs tac le t o

A s t he d i s tance f r om t he h ea r th i n c rea se s , t h e p i c tu re i nt h e

i n terp re ta t ion .

s ou thwes ter nt r ench i sb lu r red b ym ix ing o f ma te r ia l ,a nd o n ly i n af ew l o ca t ions a r et h e re d i s t inc tp i les o fp r ima ry s t age s o f

T he h i ghe s t d en s i t ie s o fp er fora ted o b jec t s were d i scove red

r educ t ion s equences , k napp ing d ebr is , h igh mea t u t i l i ty i b ex

a round t h em a in h ea r th .I ti su nc lea rw he ther t he n eed le sf ound

b ones o r l a rge b one s a nd b one a r tefac t s . C lu s te rd ef in i t ion i s

w e re i np r ima ry o r s econda ry d epo s i t ion , b u tt he ir c on s is ten t

a l so b a sed o n r e la t ive ly h igh d en s i t ies o fr oden t s a nd b i rd s .

p re sence i nt h e c en t ra l a nd s ou thwe s ter n t r enche s s ugges t s

T hese c oncen t ra t ions a r e ma in ly b e tween t h e d r ip a nd s hade

e i the rt ha tm anufac tur ing o rr epa ir ing a c t iv i ty mus th ave t aken

l i nes a nd v a ry i n s i ze a nd s hape . I ti sn o t c l ea r w he the rt h ey

p lace s ome w ay a way f r om t he h ea r th o r t ha t n eed le s w e re

a re i np r ima ry o rs econda ry d epo s i t ion . T he h ighes td en s i t ie s

d e l ibe ra te ly d i sca rded i nt h e a r ea b eyond t he s hade l i ne . T he

o fb one o ccu ri nt h is t r ench . R edepo s i t ion o f ma te r ia l , w h ich c ou ld h ave b een c aused b y h ea r th -ma in tenance a c t iv i t ie sc a r -

f i r s t h ypo the s is i s mo re l i ke ly t ob e t r ue b ecause n eed le s a r e

r i ed o u ti na ni n ten s ive ly o ccup ied a r ea ,b yo the rf a c to r s s uch

wh ich t h ey w e re u sed . F ina l ly , i n c ised b ones , w i th t h ee xcep -

a ss cuff ing ,k i ck ing o ra n ima la c t iv i ty ,o rb y ac omb ina t ion o f b o th ,p robab ly a ccoun t sf o rt h em ix ture o fc u l tu ra ld eb r i sf ound

t i on o f o ne s pec imen , h ave b een f ound o n ly i n t h e c en t ra l

l i gh t a nd o ne wou ld e xpec tt hem t ob ed ropped i nt h e a r ea i n

t r ench .

i nt he a rea f u r the ra way f r om t he h ea r th . T h is r e ca l l s t h ep a t t e rn wh ich S t evenson d e scr ibed a nd i d en t if ied a s ad i sp lace -

B urn td ebr is ,b acked b lade le t sa nd m ic robur ins s how ar edun -

men t z one ( 1985) .

d an tp a t ter no fa s soc ia t ion i nv a r iou s s t ra ta a nd when t h e s i te

T he l i th ic a nd f auna lc ompo s i t ion a nd d ens i ty v ar ia t ion o ft h e

t he h ypo thes is t ha t a c t iv i t ies r e la ted t o b acked b lade le ts

i st r ea ted a so ne s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t . T h is o bserva t ion l e ad s t o c en t ra l t r ench a r e s im i la r t o t ho se o f t h e w e s tern t r enche s ,

( whe the r manuf ac ture , h a f t ing , o r t h e d i sca rd o fu sed p i eces

t hough t h ey a r e l e ss d i ve r se , ap a t ter nt ha t Ii n te rp re t a ss ug -

o fh un t ing g ea r ) mus t h ave t aken p lace p r edom inan t ly i nt h e

g es t ing t he p re sence o fa no the rh ea r th 3m a way f r om t h e ma j or h ea r th c omp lex , e i ther p oor ly p reserved o r n o t f u l ly

h ea r th a r ea .T he ma ter ia lp roduced b yt h e se a c t iv i t ie sw a st h en g radua l ly r edepo s i ted t oge ther a s ac on sequence e i the ro fd e -

i n W24 , W25 a nd V25 , a nd a l so b y t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb one

l i be ra te c l ea rance o f ma te r ia la way f r om t h eh ea r th a r ea ,o ro f a cc iden ta l movemen tb ecau se o ft he i n ten s i ty o fh uman t r a ff ic

a r tefac t s a nd p e rfo ra ted s pec imen s , a st he re i sn o s i gn if ican t

t oa nd f r om t h eh ea r th . B o th t he se p roce sse s a re af unc t ion o f

v a r ia t ion i nd ens i t ie s o ft h e se s pec imens b e tween t h e c en t ra l

r epea ted u se o f ac onf ined l o ca t ion , a nd w ou ld t end t or e su l t

a nd wes ter nt r enches ( F igu res 5 . 83 , 5 . 84 ) .

i n af a l l -of f i nq uan t i t ie s w i th i ncrea s ing d i s tance f r om t h e

e xcava ted . T h is i n terp re ta t ion i sc or robo ra ted b y a shy l e n se s

h ea r th . T h is p rov ide s as a t isfac tory e xp lana t ion f o rt h e s ha rp T he e a s te r nt r ench i sg rouped w i th t h ec en t ra l a nd s ou thwe s t -

d ec rea se i nb a cked b lade le t sa nd b u rn td ebr is i nt he t a lu sa r ea .

e rn t r enche s f o r a l l v a r iab les e xcep t mea t u t i l i ty . A l though

K ind ( 1985 , 2 36 )h a si d en t if ied as im i la rr e dundan tp a t ter no f

ma rg ina l t ot h e e xcava t ion , t h is p a r t o ft h e s i te s hou ld b y n o

a s soc ia t ion b e tween b acked b lade le t s ,b ur in s pa l ls ,b o re r sa nd

means b ec on s ide red ama rg ina la r ea i nt e rm so fd epo s i t ion o f

h ea r th a r ea si n al a rge s amp le o fE u ropean Upper P a laeo l i th ic

a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l , o r , p robab ly , o f h uman o ccupa t ion .

s i te s .

B o th t he c en t ra la nd t h ee a s tern t r ench r a ise p rob lem st h a tc an B ecau se o ft h e l ow d ive r s i ty o ft he s pec ie s i den t if ied , UCA

o n ly b er e so lved b y f ur the re xcava t ion .

h a s g rouped a r ea s o ft h e s i te i nt e rm s o ft h e p re sence o r a b T he t a lus of e r s ad if e ren t p i c ture f r om t h e r e s t o ft h e s i te .

s ence o fa n ima l s t ha t h ad n o ma jor r o le i ns ubs is tence . T he

T h is a rea i sn o t h omogeneous i ni t s c ompos i t ion . T he n or th -

d i s t r ibu t ion o ft a xa p o in t st op a t terns o ft a phonom ic v a r ia t ion

e rn p a r t ( i .e . W30-31) t yp ica l ly c lu s ter s w i th t h e i nne r a r ea s

( i . e . i ts ugge s t s t ha t s ma l l a nd f r ag i le b one s h ave b een p re -

o ft he s he l te r , wherea s t h e s ou ther np a r t t e nd s t of o rm s epa -

s e rved b e t te r i n s ide t h e d r ip a nd s hade l i ne s ) r a the r t han t o

r a te c lus ter s , c ha rac te r ised b y ama rked d ecrea se i np ropo r -

c u l tu ra l a c t iv i ty .T h is p a t te rn ing i sc onf i rmed b yt he d i s t r ibu -

t i ons o f b urn t d ebr is a nd l a rge b ones , t he a bsence o f

t i on o f b one s i ze c a tego r ies . T he s ou thwe s tern a nd c en t ra l

m icrofauna , a nd a n i n crea se i nr aw n odu le s , c o re s , p r ima ry

t r enche s h ave p rov ided b e t te rc ond i t ion s f o rt he p re serva t ion

p ieces , k napp ing d ebr is , s ma l l b one -f ragmen t s a nd l ow m ea t

o fm ic rofauna ( r oden t sa nd b i rd s )a nd ,i np l aces ,f o rt h ea ccu -

b ea r ing b one s . F our h ypo the se st oa ccoun tf o rt h ed i s t inc t ive

mu la t ion o f l o ng b one -f ragmen t s . No r oden t s o r b i rd s h ave

c ha rac ter is t ic s o f t he s ou ther n t a lus a ppea r p lau s ib le : ( 1 ) i t

b een i d en t if ied i nt h e t a lu s , e i the r b ecau se t here n eve r w e re

wa s ap r ima ry r e fuse a r ea whe re d ecor t if ica t ion , p repa ra t ion

a ny i nt h i sp a r to ft h es i te , wh ich l a ck ss he l te ra nd i st h e refo re

o fb lank s , a nd d i smembermen ta nd d i sca rd o fl ow mea tb ea r -

al e ss l i ke ly h ab i ta tf o ro w l s( a nd t he r ema in so ft he ir p rey ) ,o r

i ng b ones t ook p lace ;( 2 )i tw a s ap lace whe re s e conda ry r e fu se

b ecause t h e ir b one s h ave b een f r agmen ted b eyond r e cogn i -

a l one a ccumu la ted , a s ar e su l t o fh uman c l ea rance a c t iv i t ie s

t i on ( And rews 1 990 ) .

o r n a tura l p o s t -depos i t iona l p rocesse s wh ich g radua l ly b u t

5 . 5C onc lu s ion s

s e lec t ive ly s h if ted b one sa nd E th ic sf r om t h e ma in l i v ing a r ea a tt he r ea ro ft h es i te t owa rd st h ef r on t ;( 3 )i tw a sa na r ea mo re v u lnerab le t od e s t ruc t ive p roce sse s ; o r ( 4 ) s ome c omb ina t ion

A l though d ife ren tp a t ter n so fs pa t ia l v a r ia t ion eme rge a td i f -

o ft hese f a c to r s wa s i n vo lved . I ts hou ld b en o ted t ha te va lua t -

f e ren tl e ve l so fs t ra t ig raph ic r e so lu t ion ,t h el a ten tf ea tu re si d en -

i ng t he se h ypo the ses i sd i ff icu l tb ecause t h e a b sence o fs ome

t i f ied b y s pa t ia la na ly s is c an b es u mma r i sed a sf o l lows : 9 8

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK l i th i T he s i te c an b ed i v ided i n to t h ree z ones : t h e z one a round t h e

f ocused e p isode sa ppea rd e sp i te t he o ve ra l ll ow i n tegr i ty ,l e ad

h ea r th , wh ich w a s u sed mos t i n tens ive ly , t h e c en t ra l z one

me t ob e l ieve t ha ta l though t he t a phonom ic o ve rp r in ti ss t rong

( i nc lud ing t h e s ou thwes tern , c en t ra l a nd e a s tern t r enches a nd t he n o r the rn t a lus ) , wh ich wa s u sed l e ss i n tens ive ly ,

i ti sn o te n t ire ly r e spons ib le f o rt h ep a t ter no b served .

a nd t he s ou the rn t a lus , w h ich w a s t h e a r ea o f t h e s i te u sed

F ew s ugge s t ion sf o rf u tu re f i e ld s t ra teg ie s wou ld b ea pp ropr i -

l e a s ti n tens ive ly .

a t eh e re . Due t ot h en on -con t iguou s l a you to ft h ee xcava t ion s

T he ma in h ea r th i sc ha rac te r ised b y h i gh d en s i t ie s o f s ma l l

o ve ra l l s i te s t ruc ture .T he mo s tc ohe ren ts pa t ia l p a t ter n sh ave

s pec imens ,b a cked b lade le t s , b urn t l i th ic s , i b ex b one s o fl ow

b een o b se rved i nt h ec onnec ted t r enches i nt he w e s te rn p a r to f

m ea t u t i l i ty , a nd m icrofauna . T he a r ea a r ound t he h ear th i s

t h e s i te , c l ea r ly s ugge s t ing t he n eed t oe xcava te aw ide ra r ea

c ha rac te r ised b yt he s ame c a tego r ie sp lu sh i gh p ropor t ions o f

t ha tw i l lp e rm i t as i te -w ide v i ew o fc ause so fs pa t ia lv a r iab i l -

d eb i tage ,m ic robu r ins ,b u r in s pa l l s ,b u r in s ,s c rape r s ,p i ece sw i th

i t y . S t ra tum 7i so fr e la t ive ly h igh s pa t ia lr e so lu t ion c ompa red

l i nea rr e touch a nd e dge -damage p i ece s .H e re d en s i t ie so ff i nd s

t ot h eo the rs t ra ta , a nd s eem st oh ave b een t he mos te x ten s ive s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t . F u tu re w o rk a tK l i th i s hou ld c er ta in ly i n -

a tt h es i te ,s pa t ia la na ly s is c an o n ly o f e rl im i ted w indows o n to

a r eh igh o ve ra l l .

v o lve e xcava t ing t h e w ho le o f t h is s t ra tum , a nd p u r su ing a c ohe ren tv i ew o fs i te s t ruc ture b ye xp lo r ing t he h ypo the s is o f

T he c en t ra la r ea o ft he s i te i sc ha rac te r i sed b y ag enera lm ix t u re o fa l l c a tegor ies , b u t w i th c er ta in i s o la ted p a t te rn s , s uch

a dd i t iona l h ear ths b y t he n or thern wa l l . E s tab l ish ing t he

a ss ma l l c oncen t ra t ions o fh igh mea t u t il i ty b one s , k napp ing d ebr is , b one n eed les a nd i n c ised b one s .T he h ighe s td en s i t ie s

n umbe r o fh ea r th s p re sen t a nd t h e ir t empora l r e la t ionsh ip t o o ne a no the ri sf undamen ta lt ot h e a r t icu la t ion o fa ny h ypo th e s is o f s oc ia l d emog raphy . O fc ou r se , ' t he s pec ia l is t s t h em -

o fb one s o ccu r h e re . I n e f ec t , t h is a r ea r e vea l s n o t s imp ly a g enera l m ix o f ma ter ia ls , b u t ac omb ina t ion o f o cca s iona l

s e lves c anno t g ua ran tee c or rec t a nswer s , o r e ven t ha t a n

s ha rp ly f ocu sed e p isode s s t and ing o u t f r om t h e b ackg round

e xhaus t ive s hor t l is to fr ea sonab le h ypo theses f o r ag iven a r c haeo log ica l d a ta s e th a sb een d e te rm ined .T hey a r ef u l ly e n -

b l u ro fl ow r e so lu t ion p a l impses t s .

t i led t ob ounce b ack t h e a wka rd p rob lem s i n to t h e l a p o ft h e B road ly s peak ing , t he v i c in i ty o f t h e h ea r th a nd t h e c en t ra l

f i e ld a r chaeo log is t '( Mu r ray & Wa lke r1 988 ,271) . Whe re s pa -

a r ea s eem t oc o r respond t o ad rop z one ( B info rd 1 983 ) a nd a

t i a l a na ly s is a tK l i th i i sc once rned , many o ft he a n swe r s w e

d i sp lacemen tz one ( S teven son 1 985 ) .

s e ek s t i l ll i eb u r ied i nt h e s i te .

I th a sb een s ugges ted t ha tt h e re may b e as e cond h ear th i nt h e

N o te s

c en t ra lt r ench a r ea .T he c en t ra la nd e a s te rn t r enche sh ave s im i 1 . I n P a laeo l i th ic s i te s o ch re i st yp ica l ly f ound i nd omes t ic

l a r i t ies w i th t h e wes tern p a r t o ft h e s i te a nd d e serve f u r the r e xcava t ion .

c on tex t s ,a r ta nd b u r ia ls .I t sf unc t ion r ema ins u nc lea r ,h ow e ve r , s i nce i ti sv e ry d if i cu l tt od raw al i ne b e tween s ym -

T he s ou the rn t a lu si s ma rked b yp r ima ry s t age so ft h er educ t ion

b o l ic a nd p u re ly f unc t iona lr o le s .E xpe r imen ta lr epl ica t ion s

s e quence ,k napp ing d eb r i s ,l e s sb u rn td eb r i s ,a nd t h ea b sence o f

a t temp t ing t oe xp la in t h ep re sence o fo ch re o nb lades f r om

l o ng b one -f ragmen t s . I ti sn o t p o s s ib le t os ay w i th c onf idence

P inceven th ave s hown t ha ti th a s n o p rac t ica l s i gn if icance

w he the rt h e se p a t te rns a r ed ue t od if e r en t ia lp a t ter n so fd i sca rd o rp re ser va t ion o rt od if e rence si nt h er e cove ry m e thod su sed .

i n s t one too l manufac ture ( Ba ff le r e ta l . 1 991) . M ix ing m ine ra l c o lou r s w i th f a t s g i ve s p a s te s wh ich c an b e u sed t o s t ick s t one t oo l s t o o rgan ic h a f t s (Wreschner 1 980 ) .

B acked b l ade le t s , m icrobu r in s a nd b urn t l i th ic d ebr is s how a

O ch re c ou ld a l so h ave b een u sed f o rb ody a nd a r tefac td eco -

r edundan tp a t te rn o fd en s i ty v ar ia t ion ,d en s i t ie sd ec rea s ing w i th

r a t ion ,o rf o rf ood c onse rva t ion ( i b id .) . 2 . T he e xped ien tc ha rac te ro ft h em ic ro l i th ic t e chno logy ,a nd

i n crea s ing d i s tance f r om t h e h ea r th a r ea (s ) .

t h e f a c tt ha tt h eV o idoma t i s f l in t c on ta in s al a rge n umbe r o f i n te rna l f l aws , w h ich l e d t o w a s tefu lne s s , r e su l ted i n

S or t ing b y s i ze h a s a n e fec t u pon s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion a t Kl i th i . T he h ea r th i sc ha rac te r ised b y h igh p ropor t ion s o ft h e s ma l l -

t housand s o fs ma l lp roduc t s .

e s t a r tef a c t s a nd b ones , whe rea s l a rge b one s a r e c l us tered i n

3 . T he f unc t ion o f mo s to ft h e se manupor t s i su nknown .

t h e c en t ra l z one a tl e a s tt wo me t re s a way f r om t h e h ea r th ( s ) . T he t a lu sh a sy i e lded h i gh p ropor t ion so fl a rge l i th ic sa nd s ma l l

4 . T he e f ec to ft h ec on found ing p rob lem c au sed b yt h ee xcava t i on s t ra tegy u sed f o rt h ed eep t r ench i nt h et a lu s , d i scu s sed b yW inde r( 1997a ) ,h a sl a rge ly b een e l im ina ted b ye xc lud ing

b one -f ragmen t so ve ra l l .

mo s to ft h e 1 983 s amp le ( i . e . s t ra ta 1 -4 ) . Any r e s idua l c on A tt he e nd o ft h is s t udy w ea r el e f tf a c ing c on s ide rab le amb i -

f ound ing e f f ec t sw i l lb ee va lua ted i nt h ef i na li n te rp re ta t ion .

g u i ty ; s ome p rob lem s h ave b een s o lved , b u t mo re h ave a p -

5 . P e rcen tage s f o r t h e a l l l i th ic s c a tego ry h ave b een e va lu -

p ea red . Ag ene ra l s ke tch o f am in ima l ly f u rn ished s ea sona l

a t ed i nr e la t ion t ot wo t o ta l s : a l l l i th ics e xc lud ing t oo ls , a nd t oo ls o n ly .

c amp ,w i th l ow e nergy i n ve s tmen ti nh ab i ta t iona lf ea tu re sa nd s i te ma in tenance , h a s eme rged . T h is c ou ld r ep re sen t ag enu -

6 . T os impl i fy r e f e rence st ot h el o ca t ions o fc l us te r s , t h es i te

i n eb ehav iou ra lp a t te rn ,b u tc ou ld e qua l ly b et h er e su l to fd i s -

h a sb een d i v ided i n to f i ve a r ea s :( a )t h en or thwe s ter nt r ench

t o r t ion b ys i t e -forma t ion p roce sse s . We a l ready h ave at e s tab le

( Q20—T23 ) , c on ta in ing t he h ea r th c omp lex ; ( b )t he s ou th -

h ypo the s is c once r n ing t h e s i te s t ruc tu re o fo the r h igh ly s pe -

w e s ter nt r ench , w h ich i st h e a r ea s ou th o ft h e h ea r th a nd

c i a l ised i b ex -hun t ing c amp s , a nd t h e a pp l icab i l i ty o ft h i s h y -

ma in ly b e tween t h e d r ip a nd s hade l i nes ( P24—R27 ) ; ( c )

p o thes i st oK l i th ic an b ee xp lored u s ing i n te r s i te c ompa ra t ive

t h ec en t ra lt r ench a l ong r ow s Va nd W ;( d )t he t a lu s , wh ich

e v idence .T he s t rong p a t ter no fa s soc ia t ion o fb acked b lade le t s

i st h e s ou thernmo s t t r ench (WX30-32 , X 33 , AA33 ) ; a nd

w i th b urn td eb r is a nd h ea r ths ,a nd t h ef a c tt h a tc er ta in s ha rp ly

( e )t h ee a s ter nt r ench i ns qua res CC a nd DD . 9 9

Chap ter 6 .T he s pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion o f Ka s tr i t sa .l ar e che rche md thod ique d es t r aces d 'hab i ta t ion c on s t ru i te äP en t rde d e s g ro t te s n e c ondu i t p a s t ou jou r s ad e s r d su l ta t s s pec tacu la i re s ma is e i le c ons t i tue u ne s ou rce d ' informa t ion p a r fo is t i es g dnd reuse . A . L e ro i -Gou rhan , 1 982 . L a g ro t te d u R enne ä A rcy -su r -Cu re , 2 39 .

6 . 1 The s i te

f l ake s .T he t oo li n ven tory c on s is t so fb acked b lade le t s , s c rap -

K a s t r i t sa i s ac l ef t i n aS enon ian l ime s tone h i l l , f a c ing d ue

e r s , b ur ins , s hou lde red p o in t s , Aur ignac ian b lade s , n o tched p i ece s , d en t icu la te s , p i ece s w i th l i nea r r e touch , a nd b o re r s .

n o r thwe s t . I tw a so nce o nt h es ho re o ft h es ou thern p a r to ft h e

Adam ( 1989 ) h a s o bse rved s i gn if ican tt empo ra l v a r iab il i ty i n

l a ke P amvo t i s ( a lso k nown a st he l a ke I oann ina ) , w h ich h a s

t h et e chno logy u sed t op roduce b lank s , a nd i nt oo l t ypo logy .

n ow b een d r a ined ; p a r t o f Ka s t r i t sa 's t a lus o ver laps w i th

An umbe r o fo rgan ic i mp lemen t s , i n c lud ing a n t le r a nd b one

l a cus t r ine d epo s i t s a nd i st oday c u t t h rough b y t h e P amvo t is

p o in t s , a w l s , an eed le , a nd p e r fo ra ted t e e th ,w e r e p re sen ti nt h e

r i ng r oad . P a laeo l i th ic a r tefac t se rod ing f r om o ne s ec t ion ,a nd

d epo s i t s ,t h e i rf r equency i n c rea s ing f r om s t ra tum 5( Ba i ley e ta l .

s i gns o f ah ea r th a top s ed imen t s f ann ing o u t i ni t s e n t rance ,

1 983b ) . L a s t b u t n o t l e a s t , t h e s i te h a s y i e lded n ume rou s w e l l

p romp ted e xcava t ions b yE .H igg si nt h ec ou r se o fh i sr e sea rch

p r e se rved h ea r th s ,t o o lc a che s ,c h ipp ing f l oo r sa nd p os t -ho les .

i n to t h eG reek P a laeo l i th ic .T he s i te w a se xcava ted i nt wo f i e ld 6 . 1 :1 The e nv ironmen ta l s e t t ing

s e a sons , 1 966 a nd 1 967 , a nd y ie lded a n Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic s equence b r a cke ted b e tween 2 1 ,800 a nd 1 3 ,400 BP ( F igu re 6 . 1) ( H iggs e ta t . 1 967 ) . R ed d ee r( Cer vus e l aphus ) w a sb yf a rt he

T he I oann ina b a s in l i e sw e s to ft h eP indu sr ange a ta na l t i tude

mos t i mpo r tan t a n i ma l h un ted ; 7 7% o ft h e u ngu la tes i d en t i -

o f4 70m .T oday ,a f t e rt h ed ra inage c a r r ied o u td ur ing t h e 1 940 s ,

f i ed a r e o ft h i s s pec ies ( Ba i ley e ta l . 1 983a ,b ) . I ti sf o l lowed b y s t eppe a s s ( Equus h ydrun t inus ) ( 14% ) , a urochs ( Bos

a l l t ha tr ema in s o ft h el a ke i s as ma l l a r ea i nt he c en t ra l /ea s t -

p r im igen iu s )( 5% ) ,r oe d ee r( Capr eo lus c apr eo lus )( 1% ) ,i b ex

l a nd . F reshwa te r s wamp s pec ie s i nhab i t t h e ma r she s w h ich

( Capra i b ex ) ( 1% ) , w i ld p ig ( Sus s crof af erus ) ( 1% ) a nd f a l -

b o rde rt h el a ke . On t h es l ope sb e low 1 , 000m a nd o nt h ep i ed -

l ow d ee r ( Dama d ama ) ( 0 .1 % ) . T he r ema in s o fb i rd s , f r ogs

mon t f ans Med i te r ranean s c rub w i th e ve rg reen o ak a nd j un i -

a nd an umbe r o f c a rn ivo re s a r e a l so r epor ted . T he l i th ic a s -

p er i s f ound . Above 1 , 000m b eech , p ine a nd G reek f i r

s emb lage d i sp lays av a r ie ty o fn on loca lf l in t sa nd c her t s .T hese

p opu la t ion so ccu r( H igg se ta l . 1 967 ;B o t tema 1 974 ) .T he g e -

w e re b rough t t ot he s i te i nd i f f e ren t s t age s o ft he r educ t ion

o l ogy o ft h ea r ea i sc ha rac te r i sed b yl ime s tone o fv a r ious a ge s ,

s equence , f r om r aw n odu le s , t o b e k napped o n t h e s po t , t o

w i th f l ysch t ot he s ou thea s t . T he s i te i si no pen a nd e ven t e r -

f i n ished t o o l s . K a s t r i t sa 's l i th ic a s semb lage i sd om ina ted b y

r a in ,i n ter spe r sed w i th l ow h i l ls a nd r e s t r ic ted t ot he n or thea s t

er np a r to ft h eb a s in .T he d ra ined p a r to ft h el a ke i sn ow a r ab le

b yt h es t eep s l ope so ft h eM i t s ike l i moun ta in . Dur ing t h ep re h i s tor ic o ccupa t ion s t h e r i dge a t whose f oo tt h e s i te l i e s w a s s u r rounded b yw a te ro nt h ree s i des , s ot ha tt h e s i te c on t ro l led i t so n ly e x i t( K ing & B a i ley 1 985 ) . T h is r eg ion 's c l ima te i sn ow c ha rac te r ised b y h igh l e ve ls o f a nnua l p rec ip i ta t ion , w i th mode ra te d rough t d ur ing t h e s um m er ( Na t iona l S ta t i s t ica l S erv ice o fG reece ) . T he m ean t em p e ra tu re s a r e4 .9 °C f o rJ anua ry a nd 2 4 .9 °C f o rJ u ly ;t h e mean a nnua l t empe ra tu re i s1 4 .4 °C ( i b id .) . Du r ing t h e L a s tG lac ia l Max imum ( LG M ) t h e g ene ra l c l ima t ic c ha rac ter is t ics o ft h e I oann ina b a s in mu s th ave b een a ccen tua ted b yi t sp rox im i ty t o t h e P indus g lac ier ( Ba i ley e ta l . 1 990 ) . B a i ley e ta t . h ave 1 2

c l a imed t ha t s em i -a r id c ond i t ion s , w i th r educed e vapo ra t ion

3

d ue t o l ow t empe ra tu re s , s hou ld b e e xpec ted ( 1983b ) . T he 1 3

4

4 3

r ock she l te r d epos i t s s how s i gn s o f s ome f l uc tua t ion i nl a ke l e ve l s ( t o amax imum o f6 . 4m a bove t h e l a ke 's p re sen tl e ve l ) d u r ing t h e LG M ,s ugge s t ing w e tc ond i t ion s .T h i sc onf l ic t sw i th

1 4

5

5 1

5 2

5 3

1 5

6

6 1

6 2

6 3

t h ep o l len d a ta , wh ich i mp ly s em i -a r id c ond i t ion s .T h is p a ra d ox h a s b een d i scu ssed e x tens ive ly . N ume rou s s t ud ie s h ave

9 1 6

a t temp ted t oe xp la in i ti nt e rm so fc l ima t ic c ond i t ion s( e vapo r a t ion , p rec ip i ta t ion o rs o la rr ad ia t ion ) ( COH MAP Membe r s

, me t res

1 988 ; Ha r r ison a nd D iger f e ld t 1 993 ; P ren t ice e ta t . 1 992 ) .

7

T zedak is ( 1994 ) , o nt h eo the rh and , f e e ls t h a t mo re a t ten t ion 1 7

s hou ld b ep a id t ot h eh eavy t e c ton ic a c t iv i ty i nt h ea r ea ,p o in t -

8

i ng o u t t ha t t he v e ry p re sence o fh igh l a ke l e ve ls d ur ing t h e LG M , t os ay n o th ing o ft he ir e x ten t , h a s y e tt ob e c onf i rmed

F igure 6 . 1 .K as tr i t sa , s i te p lan . 1 01

C hap ter 6 i no the r p a r ts o ft h e l a ke b a s in . T ec ton ic u p l if t h a s a c tua l ly

b ack w a l li si nf a c ta no the rl a rge r ockfa l lb l ock ing t h ee n t rance

b een o bserved i nt h ea r ea i mmed ia te ly s ou th o fK a s t r i t sa ( K ing

t oa n i nne rc hambe r .

& B a i ley 1 985) . I n a more r ecen t a ssessmen t o f t he T ab le 6 . 1 .S t ra t igraphy a nd r ad iocarbon d a te sa tK a s tr i t sa . ( Af t er B a i ley

p a laeoc l ima t ic e v idence , T urner a nd S anchez -Gon i h ave s t re ssed t ha t ' t he re i ss t i l lu ncer ta in ty a st oh ow c oo ls umme r s

e ta l . I 983b . )

m igh t h ave b een a tt h is l a t i tude , t hough w in te r s a r e l i ke ly t o

1 9 2 0 2 1

S tra tum D e scr ip t ion B rown , h umu s / top so i l S tony r ed ,l e n se so fa shy b la ck 1 A shy b l ack 1 S tony r ed 1 1 A shy b l ack S tony r ed , l e n se so fa shy b lack G r ey /b la ck , s ome r ed , p o s tda te s 3 r o ck f a l l A shy b l a ck ,c on t inua t ion o fl a ye r7 3 S tony r ed 5 B lack ,b and s o fr e d 5 S tony r ed ,l e n se si n to 1 4a b each 5 i nr e c tang le 4 A shy b l ack 5 7 B eache s ,n o t s epa ra ted d u r ing e xcava t ion S tony r e d 7 A shy b l ack l e n s w i th in 1 9 7 B each ,r ed f i ne f r a c t ion 9

2 2 2 3

A shy b l a ck l e n sw i th in 2 1 i nr e c tang le 2 9 B ea ch 9

2 4 2 5

S t ony r e d ,a shy b l a ck l e n s ,2 4a ,a tb a se B each ,c l ean p ebb le s ,b rown f i ne f r a c t ion S tony , r ed /b rown , l o ca l i sed m ix ing w i th 2 5 G r ey , r ounded p ebb le s D a rk g r ey ,r ounded p ebb le s C leane rp ebb le st h an 2 8 . S he l l s u p t o5 0% b y v o lume G r ey p ebb le sa nd s i l t L a rge p ebb le s , b rown i nf r ac t ion D ecompo sed l im e s tone

L ayer ( Y ) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

h ave b een c o ld .T he re i se qua l ly d eba te a bou t whe the rt h ea r id i t y wa s t he r e su l t o f g enera l ly l ow r a infa l l o r o f s t rong s ea sona l i ty i np rec ip i ta t ion ' ( 1995 , 5 3 ) . P a lyno log ica l s t ud ie s h ave i nd ica ted t ha t t he b a s in 's v ege ta t i on w a so pen a nd s t eppe l ike d ur ing t h eL a s tG lac ia l( Bo t tema 1 974 ;T zedak is 1 993 , 1 994 ) . Mugwo r t( Ar tem i s ia ) ,c henopod s

1 1 2 1 3 1 4

( Chenopod iaceae ) a nd g ra sse s ( Gram ineae ) w e re a l lp re sen t , w i th r e fug ia o ft r ee s s uch a st h eo ak ( Quer cus ) ,t he h or nbeam ( Carp inus o r ien ta l is )a nd t h ef i r( Ab ies )w i th in l o ca l ly f avou r a b le n ücroenv ironmen ts .

1 5 1 618

6 . 1 :2 Archaeo log ica l d epos i t sa nd s i te f ea tures P a laeo l i th ic s ed imen ts e x tend f r om t h e s he l te red p a r t o ft h e s i te ,r e f er red t oi nt h eb ib l iog raphy a st h ec ave ,t oi t se n t rance a nd t a lus , c over ing a n a r ea o fa bou t 8 0s qua re me t re s ( F igure 6 . 1) .K a s t r i t sa i sc ha rac te r ised b yc ompac ts ed imen t sw i th f r o s t f r ac tu red p a r t ic le s ,c emen ted i np laces ,a nd b yo ve ra l l med ium d en s i t ie s o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l , s ome d i scove red i ns i tu .

2 6

T he ma tr ix c on s is t s o f 3 2 l a ye r s ( Y1-32 ) , s l op ing s moo th ly t owa rds t he w e s t ( Tab le 6 . 1 , F igu re 6 . 2 ) . F o r s amp l ing p ur -

2 7 2 8 2 9

p ose st he se l a ye r sw e re g rouped i n to 9t empo ra l ly s uccess ive s t ra ta ( Ba i ley e ta l . 1 983b ) . Wa te r logged d epos i t s c on ta in ing l a ke c l ay s ,p ebb le sa nd f r eshwa te rs he l ls c ha rac ter ise t h eb o t -

3 0 3 1 3 2

t om o ft h es equence ( Y27-32 ) , wh i le b eache si n te r spe r sed w i th t e r re s t r ia l /an th ropogen ic d epo s i t s ( Y16-26 ) , a nd t h en t e r re s -

D a te

B P

I 3 ,400±210

1 9 ,900±370

2 0 ,800±810 2 1 ,800±470 , 2 0 ,200±480

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

t r ia l ian th ropogen ic d epos i t s a l one ( Y115 ) , ma rk t h e m idd le a nd t h e u ppe r p a r t r e spec t ive ly . Mos t o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l

T h ree p rob lem s a r e p osed b y t h e q ua l i ty o fr e cove ry a tK a s -

f i nd s d er ive f r om t h e u ppe r s e r ie s , b u t P a laeo l i th ic f i nd s a r e

t r i t sa . ( a ) Du r ing t h e f i r s t e xcava t ion s ea son , d ife ren t l a ye r -

p resen t e ven i nt h e l owermo s t l a ye r s . T he u ppe rs e r ie s o fd e -

i ng s chemes f o r t h e t r enche s w ere a dop ted wh ich d i d n o t

p os i t sh a sb een d i s tu rbed l o ca l ly b y r ockfa l ls .

c or re la te w i th e a ch o the r . Du r ing t he s e cond e xcava t ion s ea s on l a ye r s w e re c on s is ten t ly r e corded a cco rd ing t ot h en ew Y

T he s t ra t if ied s equence a nd t h e r ockfa l ls a l low u s t o r e con -

s cheme .T he v a r ious s cheme sw ere o n ly i n teg ra ted i n to au n i -

s t ruc t t he e x ten t o f t he l i v ing s pace a va i lab le a t Ka s tr i t sa

f i ed s t ra t ig raph ic s y s tem i n1 981 , b y B a i ley e ta l . ( 1983b ) , i n

t h rough t ime . Dur ing ap er iod o fu nknown l e ng th l a ke l e ve ls

c onco rdance w i th t h e 1 967 e v idence . S ince t h e e xcava tor s

w e re h igh , s o t ha t t h e f l oo r o f t h e s he l te r w a s u nde r w a te r .

f a i led t oc o r re la te t h e 1 966 l a ye r s w i th t h e 1 967 o ne s a ta n

O n ly when l a ke l e ve ls f e l ld id t h er ock she l te rb ecome s u i tab le

e ar ly s t age , as ub jec t ive e l emen t mus t r e ma in i n a ny

f o r o ccupa t ion ( Y26 ) . C hange s i np rec ip i ta t ion , i n e vapo ra -

s t ra t ig raph ic a s s ignmen to ft h e 1 966 l a ye r s . ( b )T he h or izon -

t i on a nd i nt he h yd ro log ica ls y s tem ,o rp o ss ib ly t e c ton ic move -

t a l g r id i n wh ich t h et r enches w e re l a id o u tw a s n o tf o l lowed

m en t ,r e su l ted i n ap a t ter no ff l uc tua t ing l a ke l e ve ls d ur ing t h e

c on s is ten t ly . E xcava t ion t r enches we re s ome t imes e x tended

e a r ly a r chaeo log ica l p ha ses a tK a s t r i t sa . T hese c hange s a r e

a rb i t ra r i ly w i thou ta ny c l ea ri nd ica t ion b e ing g i ven a st ow he re

r e co rded b y wa te r logged a nd b each d epos i t s i nt h e s equence ,

t h ey s t opped . T he o n ly w ay t og e t r ound t h is p rob lem w a st o

t h e l a s t o f wh ich w a s i den t if ied a s Y 14 a . I n g ene ra l b eaches

e xc lude f r om t h is s t udy t hose l a ye r sf o r wh ich s pa t ia lr e co rd -

a r e s ands o r s i l t s w i th d i scre te b and s o f wa te r -wor np ebb le s .

i ng w a s u ncer ta in . ( c )T he m in imum p rovenance u n i ti sb o th

T he f i r s te x ten s ive o ccupa t ion h a sb een i d en t if ied a tY 15 ( H igg s e ta l . 1 967 ; B a i ley e ta l . 1 983b ) .

h or izon ta l ly ( 1 .5m x2m )a nd v er t ica l ly ( 10cm )c oa r se -g ra ined . Mo reove r ,t h ep rovenance u n i t sw i th in t h ec ave a r eo fu nequa l s i ze a nd s hape ( s ee F igure 6 . 1) . I ti sa ppa r en tt ha te xcava t ing

T h ree ma jo rr ock fa l l ss eem t oh ave c r ea ted t h ec u r ren tt opog -

3 squa re -me t re r e c tang le s i n 1 0cm s p i t s a l lows o n ly a n a p -

r aphy o f t h e s he l te r . T he f i r s t o ne i sp os tda ted b y Y 12 , t h e

p rox ima te s p i t to laye r a s s ignmen t . Due t ot h e s l ope o f t h e

s e cond b y Y711 , a nd t he mos tr e cen tb y Y6 .T he r ock fa l l si n

s ed imen t s , t wo o r mo re l a ye r s o ft he s ame r e c tang le a r e f r e -

r e c tang les 2 -6 a r es uf i c ien t ly e x ten s ive t os uppor tt h eh ypo th -

q uen t ly a s s igned t ot h es ame s p i t .T h is p rob lem h a s l e dm et o

e s is o fr oof c o l lap se i n ar ock she l te r wh ich wa s o nce much

c omp i le my c on tex tua l i n forma t ion p r ima r i ly f r om b ag l is t s

b igge r . L a rge r ock s w e re a l so f ound o n t h e c ave f l oo r . I ti s

a nd f r om d aybook d e scr ip t ion so ft he l i tho logy a nd c o lou ro f

t hu su nc lea r whe the rt h ec ave 's c u r ren ts i ze a nd s hape r ema in

s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t s ,b efo re c ompa r ing t he r e su l tw i th p ub l ished

a s t h ey we re d ur ing t h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic , o r whe the r t h e

a nd u npub l ished s e c t ions . 1 02

F igure 6 . 2 .L ong i tud ina ls ec t ion a tK a s tr i t sa , i n corpora t ing s t ra t igraph ic i n f orma t ion f rom t h e 1 966 a nd 1 967 f i e ld s easons .

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK as tr i t sa

1 03

C hap ter 6 w i th t h er e su l tt ha ti n forma t ion wa sl o s t .A ga in t he 1 967 e xca v a t ion s w e re f a r mo re d e ta i led i nt h i s r e spec t , b u tt h e d a ta t o h and d on o tp erm i tr e so lu t ion o ft he t empo ra lr e la t ion b e tween h ear th s w i th in t h e s ame l a ye r . T ab le 6 . 2 s umma r ises t h e e v i d ence f o rt h ep resence o fh ea r ths i nt h el a ye r su pon w h ich t h e p re sen t s t udy f o cuse s . T h ree t ype s o f h ea r th c an b e d i s t in g u ished : ( a ) o pen , ( b ) s t one l ined , a nd ( c ) p i le s o f l a rge , i r r egu la r s t ones s andw iched b e tween l a yers o f c ha rcoa l ( Ga lan idou 1 997 ) .T he f i r s tt ype i st h e mo s tc ommon t h rough o u t t h e s equence . T he e a r l ie s t d ef in i te e xamp le r e co rded o f t h es econd t y pe i si nt h ee a s ter np a r to ft h es i te , a nd c o inc ide s w i th t h ef i r s te x tended o ccupa t ion a tY 15 . We h ave v e ry l i t t le i n forma t ion a bou tt h et h ird t ype o fh ear th .T he re i sd ef in i te ly o ne e xamp le i n s ide t h ec ave i nr e c tang le 1Y 12E s p i t4 8-9 ;n o a r tefac t sa r ea s soc ia ted w i th i t .T h is h ea r th c o r respond st ot h e b ow l -shaped s t one l ined h ear th o f L e ro i -Gourhan 's s c heme ( 1973 ) . F ou rd i s t inc tc oncen t ra t ion so fl i th ic a r te f a c t s ,t h ree i d en t if ied d ur ing e xcava t ion a nd t h e f our th d ur ing m y r e cen t s t udy o f t h el i th ic ma ter ia l ,s ugge s tt h a tt he s i te i so fh i gh s pa t ia li n teg r i ty . I n t h e f i r s t o ne , i n r e c tang le 2 s p i t 4 0 , s evera l b l ade s , b acked b l ade le t sa nd as hou lde red p o in tw e re c oncen t ra ted i n a na r ea o f2 0 x2 0cm .T he e xcava tor ,c ommen t ing o nt h el a ck o fa ny a s soc ia ted c o re o rd eb i tage i nt h ev i c in i ty ,s ugge s t st h a t ' i t mus t h ave b een ac ache o ft oo ls manuf a c tured e i the re l se where i nt h er o ck she l te ro ra ts o me o the rs i te ' ( daybook 1 8 /8 / 1 966 ) . T he s e cond c oncen t ra t ion wa s ac h ipp ing f l oo ri nr e c t a ng le s 1-12Y6 ,i n as he l te red p os i t ion n ea rt h ec ave w a l l .I t c on ta ined f l in td ebr is o ft h e s ame c o lour ,d eb i tage ,a nd c o re s , b u t n o t oo ls . T he t h ird c oncen t ra t ion w a s a no ther c h ipp ing f l oo r ,e xcava ted i nr e c tang le 4 2Y 12 s p i t6 1 .T he f our th g roup c omp r ise s f i ve b acked b lade le t s a nd o ne b l ade le t , t h e i r r aw ma ter ia l s how ing s im i la r i t ie s , f ound t oge the ri nr e c tang le 1 0 Y 14 s p i t 5 4 . F ou r a r e made f r om a v e ry c ha rac ter is t ic g r ey o paque f l in t , a nd t h e o the r t wo f r om o f -wh i te f l in t . T wo o f t he b acked b l ade le t s a r e b roken . C lus te r s o fa r tefac t s o ft h is s or t a r e i n va luab le s nap sho t s o f t h e p a s t , a nd s how t h a t ( a t l e a s t i nt h ep a r t icu la rc on tex t si n wh ich t h ey o ccur ) n o m a jo r p o s t -depo s i t iona l d i s turbance h a s t aken p l a ce . I nt wo s hor tn o te s ,H iggs r epo r ted t ha tf i ve s em ic ircu la rr i ngs o f s t ake h o le s e x ter na l t o t h e c ave h ad b een i d en t if ied i n a d ense , d a rk h umu s l aye r d a t ing f r om s omewhe re b e tween

g nb d e l

1 3 ,000 a nd 1 7 ,000 y ea r s a go ( 1968a ,b ) .T he se s e r ies o fs t ake L ime s tone

S t ake h o le

Hea r th

D en se h ea r th

h o le s ,o ne o fw h ich i sd ocumen ted b yp ho tog raphs , of e re v i d ence f o r s ome k ind o f h ab i ta t iona l s t ruc tu re ( w indb reak o r a r t if ic ia l s he l te r ) ( i b id .) . T he p ub l ica t ion s f a i l t o s pec if y t h e l a ye r a nd s p i t o ft h e ir p rovenance . Du r ing t h e 1 966 e xcava t i ons s t ake h o le s w e re i d en t if ied i n r e c tang le s 3a nd 4 .A l t hough Ih ave b een a b le t or e la te t hese s t ake h o les t of e a tu re s

F igure 6 . 3 .S take h o le sa nd a s soc ia ted h ear ths a tK as tr i t sa Y 12 s p i t s6 1-62 .

d ocumen ted o nt h e 1 966 s l ide s ,t he ir e xac ts t ra t ig raph ic l o ca -

T h roughou t t he s equence , h ea r th s a nd h ea r th c omp lexe s a r e

o f t we lve s t ake h o les , t he ir d imens ion s a ve rag ing 9 x 9 cm ,

f ound i nv a r iou sp lace s ,i n c lud ing t h et a lus .H ea r th sh ave b een

wa s e xcava ted i nr e c tang le s 4 2-52 s p i t s 6 1-62 Y 12 . T he se

t i on r ema in s u nc lea r . Dur ing t h e 1 967 s ea son a no the r s e r ie s

s i ted i nt h ec ave o ri nt h ea r ea si mmed ia te ly i nf r on to fi tmo re

s t ake h o le sa r ea r ranged i n ar ough c i rc le e ncompa ss ing t h ree

c ons is ten t ly t han i na ny o the ra r ea . I nt he d aybook s , ' h ea r th '

o pen h ea r th s a nd t wo l a rge s t one s ( F igu re 6 . 3 ) . Ou ts ide t h is

i s ag ene ra l i sed t e rm u sed i nd i scr im ina te ly o fg rey /a shy l e n ses

s t ruc tu re a no the rt wo h ea r th sw e re d i scove red ,a tt h ej unc t ion s

o rl a ye r s ,o fc a rbon a nd b urn t -ma te r ia lc oncen t ra t ion s , a nd o f

o f r ec tang les 5 2-62 a nd 3 2-42 r espec t ive ly . T he s ame

s t one l ined f i rep lace s .F o re xamp le ,Y 15 i sa na shy /b lack l a ye r

s t ra t ig raph ic u n i ti nr e c tang le 6 1 y i e lded t h ree m o re p os t -ho le s .

i n corpo ra t ing n ume rous h ea r th c omp lexes . Unfo r tuna te ly n o -

T he a s s ignmen to ft h e s t ake h o les d i scove red i n1 967 t oY 12

b ody e ve r a t temp ted t o r e co rd t h ese f ea tu re s s y s tema t ica l ly ,

a g ree s w i th H igg s ' c ommen to nd a t ing . 1 04

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK as tr i t sa T he p resence o fs t ake h o le si nt h ew e s tern p a r to ft h es i te may

a s se ss ing b o th t h ea r chaeo log ica l e v idence a nd t h ee p is temo -

r e la te t ot h e e x tens ive e p isode o fr ock fa l l s p o s tda ted b y Y7-

l o g ica l f ounda t ion s o f h i s a r gumen t , h ave d emon s t ra ted t h e n aï ve té o ft h i s s upposed a na logy ( Ba i ley e ta l . 1 983a ; G reen

1 . Where r o ck s h ave f a l len o n to t h e mo s t i n ten s ive ly u sed h ab i ta t ion s u r f ace ( i .e .t h ec ave e n t rance ) ,s ome r e a r rangemen t

1 997 ) . As e r iou sw eakne ss i nH iggs 'a pp roach w a st h a t ,b e ing

o fh uman a c t iv i ty t ha tt ake st h ef a l len r o ck si n to a ccoun ti st o

ma in ly i n te re s ted i ni d ea s a bou t l a nd u se a nd s e t t lemen t s y s -

b e e xpec ted . B ecause t h e a r ea ma rked o u t b y t h e p os t -ho les

t em s ,h ea t temp ted o n ly t h e mos tb a s ic a na lys is o ft h ee mp ir i -

a nd t he ir a s soc ia ted h ea r ths i sr a the rs ma l lt oh ave a ccommo -

c a l d a ta . T he s t udy c a r r ied o u t i n 1 981 b y H igg s ' s t uden t s

d a ted h uman s ,i ts eems mo re l i ke ly t h a tt h e s t ruc tu re i nq ues -

( Ba i ley e ta l . 1 983a ,b ) , a nd E . Adam 's ( 1989 ) d i sse r ta t ion o n t empora l v a r iab i l i ty i n t he s i te 's l i th ic i ndus try , h ave i n -

t i on wa s u sed f o r s ome d omes t ic a c t iv i ty , s uch a s s mok ing

c r ea sed o ur k now ledge , b u t at horough s t udy o f Ka s t r i t sa 's

m ea t , t han t h a ti twa s a ny k ind o fs he l te r .

f auna l a ssemb lage a nd o rgan ic i ndu s t ry r ema in so u t s tand ing . T he p re sence o fp os t -ho le s s ugge s t s ( a t l e a s t w i th r e spec t t o

N oa t ten t ion h a se ve rb een p a id t ot h es pa t ia lp rope r t ie so ft h e

t h er e levan tl e ve ls ) t ha tK a s t r i t sa w a sp robab ly u sed f o rs t ays

s i te .

o f mo re t h an o ne n igh t .S im i la rf i nd sa r eo cca s iona l ly made i n c aves a nd r o ckshe l ter s i n o ther a r ea s o f E urope ( i n t he C hä te lpe r ron ian l e ve ls a tt h eG ro t te d uR enne a tA rcy su r -Cure

T he d ive r s i ty o ft h e s pec ie s b rough t i n to t h e s i te r e f lec t s t h e

[ Le ro i -Gou rhan 1 976 ] , i nt h e S o lu t rean l e ve l o fF ou rneau d u

f a c tt ha tt h er e l ief a nd v ege ta t ion o fi t si mmed ia te v i c in i ty w e re s u i tab le t o t h e s uppor t o f aw ide r ange o f g raz ing a n ima l s .

D iab le [ Pey rony & P eyrony 1 932 ] , a nd i n t h e E p iso lu t rean

B a i ley e ta l . ( 1983a ,b ) h ave a r gued t h a t K a s t r i t sa 's l o ca t ion

l e ve l 6o fS a lp8 t r i re [ E sca lon d eF on ton & Ono ra t in i 1 982 ] ,

made i t ag ood l ong term b a se f o rd ee re xp lo i ta t ion . Mo reo -

f o r e xamp le ) . T h is i st h e f i r s t e v idence o fa ny s uch s t ruc ture

v e r , t h e l ake s ide a qua t ic b io tope a nd t h e e d ib le p lan t s i nt h e

f ound i na nU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic s i te i nt h eB a lkan s .

a r ea mus th ave o f e red a dd i t iona lp os s ib i l i t ie sf o rh uman s ub s i s tence . On t h eb a s is o fp a laeoenv ironmen ta lr e con s t ruc t ion s

T ab le 6 . 2 .P r e s ence o fh ear th si nt h ec on t ex t se xam ined a tK a s t r i t sa .

o fa va i lab le r e sou rces ,t h en , i tc an b ea r gued t ha tt h e l a ke b a -

R ec tang le

s i n wa s p robab ly c apab le o fs uppor t ing l o nge r term s t ay s b y h uman g roup s t han wou ld h ave b een p o ss ib le i n t h e c or re -

S tra tum 5( Y14-15 )

S tra tum 9( Y21-26 )

p resen t

p resen t

s pond ing a r ea a tK l i th i ( i . e . t h eV o idoma t i s v a l ley ) . K a s t r i t sa

p resen t

t h e refore a ppea r st ob e as i te c apab le o fa ccommoda t ing at ype

1 2 3 4

p resen t

5

p resen t

6 9

o fo ccupa t ion d if e ren tf r om t ha td i scussed i nt h el a s tc hap te r . T he f a c tt ha ti tc ou ld h ave b een o ccup ied i n al onge r term a nd l e ss s pec ia l i sed w ay d oe sn o t ,o fc ou r se ,m ean t ha ti tw a s .T h i s

p resen t

1 0

c hap te rw i l ld e scr ibe t h es pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion o fK a s t r i t sa a nd

1

p resen t

1 2

p resen t

1 3

p resen t

t oi t s s i te s t ruc tu re . Is ha l l f u r the ra sk w ha tt h is s t ruc tu re h a s

1 4

p resen t

t ot e l lu sa bou tt h ec ha rac te ra nd t h el e ng th o ft h e s i te 's o ccu -

e xam ine h ow c u l tura l a nd n a tu ra l a genc ies h ave c on t r ibu ted

1 5

p a t ion s ,h ow i tmay r e la te t o wha tw ek now o ft h eo ccupan t s '

1 6

p a t ter no fs ub s is tence , a nd w he the ri tc on ta in s a ny c l ue sa st o

1 7 3 1

t h e ir d emog raphy . Is ha l l , i no the rw o rd s , s ea rch f o rl i nk s b e -

p resen t

t ween e conom ic a nd s oc ia lb ehav iou ra nd s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion

3 2 4 1

p resen t

4 2

p re sen t

5 1

p re sen t

5 2

p resen t

a sr e f lec ted i ns i te s t ruc tu re . S ince t h e s i te h a s y i e lded al o ng s equence , Is ha l l a l so l o ok f o r a ny t empo ra l v a r ia t ion i ni t s s pa t ia lc onf igura t ion .A s Ie xp la ined i nC hap te r 1 , Ih ave t r ied

6 1

t ot ake ah o l is t ic v i ew o fi n t ra s i te v ar ia t ion b yp a ss ing b eyond

6 2

an a r row e conom ic o rt ypo log ica lp e r spec t ive t oc on s ide rt h e c on tex tua li n fo rma t ion i nr e la t ion t ot ime .

6 .2 The a genda f or s pa t ia la na ly s i sa t Ka s tr i t sa

S een w i th t h i s e ndeavou r i nm ind , K a s t r i t sa h a s c e r ta in a d v an tage sa nd a l so c e r ta in d i sadvan tage s . Among i t sa dvan tage s

Ka s tr i t sa i sw e l lk nown b ecause i ti so ne o ft h et wo s i te su sed

i st ha te xcava t ion sh ave u ncove red al a rge a nd c on t iguous a r ea

b y E . H igg s i n f ormu la t ing h i s mode l o f s ea sona l mob i l i ty ( H igg s e ta l . 1 967 ) r a the rt han b ecau se i t s a r chaeo log ica l a s -

b o th i n s ide a nd o u t s ide t h ec ave . Mo reove r , mo s to ft h el a ye r s e x tend h or izon ta l ly a nd p rov ide as u i tab le a r ea f o rt h ec on s id -

s emb lage a nd h ab i ta t ion f ea ture s a r e o f a ny g rea t i n t r in s ic

e r a t ion o fs pa t ia lv a r iab i l i ty .T he g ood s t a te o fp reserva t ion o f

v a lue . H igg s r ega rded A sp rocha l iko ( ar ock she l te ra t al owe r

an umber o fe v iden tf e a tu re s ,p robab ly t hank st oh igh r a te so f

e l eva t ion i nt h e L ou ro s v a l ley ) a nd K a s t r i t sa a s c omp lemen -

s ed imen ta ccumu la t ion ,i si nd ispu tab le e v idence f o rh igh s pa -

t a ry h ome -ba se c amp s ,u sed i nw in te ra nd i ns umme rr e spec -

t i a li n teg r i ty . Among K a s t r i t sa 's d rawback sa r ei t s l a rge p rov -

t i ve ly b yh un ter /ga the re r s mov ing i np ur su i to fm ig ra tory d ee r

e nance u n i t s ,w h ich i n t roduce ah igh d eg ree o f amb igu i ty i n to

(Map 1 . 1) .T h is a ssump t ion w a sb a sed u pon d if e rence si na l -

t h e l o ca t ion o f mo s t f ea ture s , a nd t h e u navo idab le g roup ing

t iude , r e l ie f , o r ien ta t ion , t empe ra tu r ea nd f auna l a s semb lage

t oge ther o ft wo o r mo re l a ye r s , i n ev i tab ly r e su l t ing i n s ome

b e tween t h et wo s i tes .H es ough tb ack ing f o rh i sh ypo the s is i n

l o ss o fr e so lu t ion .I ti sa l so l e ss t han i d ea lt ha to u ri d ea o fh ow

t h ep a t te rn o f mob i l i ty o ft h eS a ra l ca t san ip a s to ra l is t so fG reece ,

a n ima l r e sou rce sw e re e xp lo i ted h e re mus tp e r fo rce b e b a sed

whose r e sponse t o t h e u nequa l d i s tr ibu t ion o fs ea sona l g raz -

u pon p re l im ina ry r epo r t s ,s i nce n o s t ud ie so fs ea sona l i ty ,p a t -

i ng r e sou r ces h e b e l ieved t ob e s im i la rt ot ha t o ft h e P a laeo -

t er n s o fa n ima l t r an spo r ta t ion , a na tom ica l e l emen t r ep re sen -

l i th ic h un ter /ga the rer s . S ince t h en n umerous p ub l ica t ions ,

t a t ion , b u tche ry a nd n on -human p r eda to ry a c t iv i ty , u s ing a 1 05

C hap ter 6 c on t ro l led a nd q uan t if iab le s amp le ,h ave y e tb een u nde r taken .

S t ra tum 9 ,b e ing a tt h ev e ry b o t tom o ft h es equence ,w a s mos t ly

My r e su l t s t h e refore c a l l f o r f u tu re r ef inemen t o rr e v is ion i n

e xcava ted i n 1 967 . I t s l im i ted s pa t ia l e x ten t w i th in t h e c ave

t h el i gh to f amore d e ta i led f auna l s t udy .

( r ec tang le s 1 , 9a nd 1 0 ) a nd i nt he d eep s ound ing ( r ec tang le s 2 -6 ) s hou ld b e a t t r ibu ted t ot he f a c tt h a te xcava t ion s i no the r

I nC hap te r 2Ia r gued t ha t , g i ven t h e p a l imp se s t c ha rac te r o f

a r ea s o ft h es i te d id n o tr each t he s ame d ep th . S t ra tum 9c on -

d epo s i t s i nc aves a nd r ock she l te r s , i ti se s sen t ia ld u r ing i n t ra -

s i s t so ft wo p a r t s : t h eu ppe ro ne ( Y21-26 )c on ta in sb each d e -

s i te s pa t ia l a na lys is t o d emon s t ra te whe the r t h e r e la t ion sh ip

p o s i t s i n te r spe r sed w i th a shy l ense s a nd a s ma l l n umber o f

b e tween l a ye r sa nd e ven t so fo ccupa t ion i s' o ne to -one ' , ' o ne -

a r tefac t s ,w h i le t h el owe rp a r t( Y27-32 )c ompr ises ma in ly l a ke

t o -many ' o r ' many to -one ' r a the rt han t ot a ke f o rg ran ted . I n

d epo s i t s , w i th ah igh c on ten t o f f r e shwa te r s he l l s , s i l t s a nd

e xam in ing s pa t ia lv a r ia t ion a tK a s t r i t sa , Ih ave t h e refo re i n te -

w a te r -worn p ebb le s ,a nd t h eo cca s iona la r tefac t .T he e dge so f

g ra ted t wo t ype s o fa na lys is . I n i t ia l ly , Is ha l l emp loy ar e f i t -

an umbe ro ft h el i th ic a r tefac t s ,b u tn o ta l o ft hem , h ave b een

t i ng s t udy o f l i th ic a r tefac t s t o e xam ine w i th in layer a nd

b lun ted b y w a te r a b ra s ion . C h rono log ica l ly a nd t e chno log i -

i n te r laye r s pa t ia l i n tegr i ty . R ef i t t ing w a s d eemed n ece ssa ry , g i ven t h e i nadequacy o fe a r l ie rp o s t -excava t ion r e sea r ch i n to

c a l ly ,s t ra tum 9i st he o n ly o ne c ompa rab le t ot he l i th ic p ha ses

K a s t r i t sa 's s t ra t igraphy ,b ecau se t h e re a r ei nd ica t ion st h a tb each d epos i t s a nd h i gh l a ke l e ve ls may h ave c aused s ome d i s tu r -

L eva l lo is p o in ta nd ac a r ina ted e nd scrape r( Ga lan idou 1 997 ) ,

Ia nd I a tF ranch th i( 136 r le s 1 987 , 8 9107 ) .T he p re sence o fa a l ong w i th t h a to fb acked b lade le t s a tt h e v e ry b o t tom o ft h e

b ance . Is ha l lt h en u se s imp le d e scr ip t ive s t a t i s t ic s , v i sua l i n -

s equence i n s ide t h e c ave , s ugges ts t ha t t h e s t ra tum i n corpo -

s pec t ion o fp lo t s a nd Uncons t ra ined C lus te r ing t oi n ve s t iga te whe the rt h e s i te c an b e p a r t i t ioned i n to s ma l le ra r ea s a cco rd -

r a te sa nu nknown n umbe ro fe p isode so fo ccupa t ion a nd v a r i -

i n gt oa s semb lage c ompos i t ion o rf r equency o fl i th ic a r tef ac t s .

t r ea tmen t o fs t ra tum 5h ave h ere a ga in d i c ta ted t ha t Is hou ld

o us t e chno log ica l t r ad i t ion s . T he r ea son s t h a t g over ned my

F ina l ly , Is ha l ld i scu ss h ow a ny l a ten ts t ruc tu re s eme rg ing f r om

f ocu s o n l a ye r s ( i . e . Y21-23 , 2 4 , 2 5 ) a sb a s ic t empo ra l u n i t s

t h ea na lyse s may r e la te t ot he e v iden ts t ruc ture s , a nd d e scr ibe

f o r t h e p urpo se s o f t h e r ef i t t ing s t udy w h i le g roup ing t h em

t h e o ve ra l l s pa t ia l c onf igura t ion a nd h ow d if e r s i nt h e t wo

t oge the rd ur ing t h eq uan t i ta t ive a na lys is .

s t ra ta e xam ined .

6 . 4L i th ic a r tefac tr ef i t t ing 6 . 3T he u n i t so fa na lys i s 6 . 4 :1 Me thodo logy a nd r e su l ts A tK a s t r i t sa t h ed if i cu l ty t ob eo ve rcome i ni d en t ify ing s u i t a b le u n i t so fa na ly s is i sn o ts o much t h ep a l imp se s te f ec tc r e -

T h ree a r ea so ft h es i te ( at o ta lo f3 3s qua re m e t r e s )w e r es e lec ted

a t ed b yh igh d ens i t ie s o f ma ter ia li n ac onf ined l o ca t ion , a sa t

b ym ean so fj udgmen ta ls ampl ing : t h es he l te r ed p a r t( r ec tang le s

K l i th i( Chap te r5 ) ,a st h ep rob lem o fs e lec t ing c on tex t sw i th a

1 , 9a nd 1 0 ) ,t h ew e s tp a r to ft h et a lu s ( r ec tang le s4 1 ,4 2 ,5 1 ,5 2 ,

m in imum o f e xcava t ion b ia se s . F o r t he p u rpo se s o f s pa t ia l

6 1 a nd 6 2 ) , a nd r e c tang le s 6a nd 1 6 ' f r om t h en o r ther ne dge o f

a na ly s is s i x l a ye r s ( Y21—Y26 ) f r om s t ra tum 9a nd t wo l a ye r s

t h et a lu s . T h i sc ho ice w a s made i no rde rt oo b ta in ar ep re sen ta -

( Y14 a nd Y 15 ) f r om s t ra tum 5w e re e xam ined . T he se l a ye r s

f i ve s amp le f r om t h e w e l l s h e l te red p a r t o ft h e s i te a s w e l l a s

r ep re sen t r e spec t ive ly t h e e a r l ies t s t age s a nd t h e f i r s t e x ten -

s amp le sf r om t h em a rg ina la nd more e xpo sed a r ea s .

s i ve o ccupa t ion o f t h e r ock she l te r ( F igure 6 . 2 ) . T he re w e re t wo f u r the rr e a son sf o rc hoos ing t h em .F i r s t ly ,n e i the rh a sb een

T he r e sea rch , c a r r ied o u t i n 1 993 , t ook s e ven w eek s o ff u l l -

d i s tu rbed b yr o ck fa l ls .S econd ly ,s i nce b o th h ave b een

t ime w o rk . I th ad t wo p ha se s , o ne s eek ing h or izon ta l a nd t h e

( Y21 : 2 0 .200±480

2 1 .800±470

1 4C d a ted

Y 15 : 1 9 .900±370

BP)

o the r v e r t ica l r ef i t s . F o r e ach r e c tang le , a l l i th ic s pec imens

t h ey of e ra no ppor tun i ty t oc ompa re s pa t ia lp a t tern ing d u r ing

w e re e x t rac ted f r om t he ir b ag sa nd l a id o u to nt wo l a rge t a b le s

BP ,

BP ;

d if e ren tp er iod s when d if e ren ta moun t so fl i v ing s pace w e re

i nt h es t o re room o ft he I oann ina museum . S i nce t he m in imum

a va i lab le . O ft h eu ppe rs t ra ta a tK a s tr i t sa , s ome h ave n o tb een

p rovenance u n i t w a s s o l a rge , r ef i t s f r om t h e s ame b ag w e re

d a ted , s ome a r e o fv e ry l im i ted e x ten t ( e spec ia l ly s t ra tum 1 ,

c ommon .T he r ef i t t ing p ro jec ta t Ka s t r i t sa h a sb een made e a s ie r

wh ich h a s b een s eve re ly t r unca ted ) , a nd s ome h ave b een a f -

b y t h e d i ve r s i ty o ft h e r aw ma ter ia l t ype s a nd t e chno log ica l

f e c ted b yr ock fa l l s .I ti su nfor tuna te b u ti n escapab le t h a ts t ra ta

c ho ice s f ound t h e re . B ecause t here i sn o f l in t s u i tab le f o r

1a nd 3 ,t h e l a ye r sb road ly c on tempo raneou s w i th K l i th i , a r e

k napp ing n ea rt h er ock she l te r , aw ide v a r ie ty o fr aw n odu le s

n o t s u i tab le f o rs pa t ia l a na lys i s .

f r om f a r -f lung g eog raph ic r e g ion s wa si n t roduced i n to t h es i te f or i n s i tu k napp ing . A r tefac ts whose c o lour , t ex ture o r

T he g rea te r p a r t o f s t ra tum 5 w a s e xcava ted i n 1 967 . I te x -

morpho techno log ica lp rof i le w a sd i s t inc t ive w e re much mo re

t e nd si n to mos to ft h ee xcava ted a r ea s .A cco rd ing t oB a i ley e t

e a s i ly i s o la ted f r om t he o the r ma ter ia l ,a nd t h e reby g u ided t h e

a l . ( 1983b ) , i tc on s is t s o ff ou r l a ye r s ,Y 1215 . A f te r c a refu l

r ef i t t ing p rocedu re .A l lt h is c on t ra s ted w i th t h ep rob lem s e n -

e xam ina t ion o f t h e s i te r e co rd s Ih ave c onc luded t ha t Y 12

c oun te red b yt h er ef i t te ra tK l i th i (W enban -Sm i th 1 997 ) ,w he re

s hou ld b et r ea ted i ndependen t ly o fs t ra tum 5a nd e i the r s t ud i e do ni t so wn o rr eg rouped w i th Y 711 ( s ee a l so Adam 1 989 ,

n o to n ly w e re mo re t han 9 2% o ft he l i th ic a r tefac t s made o u t

1 05106 ) .T h i si sb ecause d u r ing e xcava t ion Y 12 wa su sua l ly

c hange s i nt h et e chno logy h ave b een i den t if ied .

o ft h e l o ca l ly a va i lab le V o idoma t is f l in t , b u t f u r thermo re n o

r emoved w i th Y ll r a the r t han w i th Y 13 . Y 13 h a s b een e x c l uded f r om t h is s t udy b ecause o ft h er ock fa l ld i s turbance si n

T he t e rm ino logy a dop ted h ere i st ha t p ropo sed b y Wenban -

r e c tang les 9 10 .A sf a ra st h es e lec ted r e c tang le sp erm i t ted ,i n

Sm i th f o ru se i nc onnec t ion w i th t he r ef i t t ing a tK l i th i ( 1997 ;

t h er e f i t t ing s t udy Ih ave wo rked o nY 14 a nd Y 15 s epa ra te ly . I np er form ing q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is Ih ave h ad t ot r ea tY 1415

s ee a l so C z ie s la 1 990 f o rd i scuss ion o ft e rm s ) .T he r ef i t sf r om

a so ne u n i tb ecau se i ns ome r e c tang le sn op rec ise b ounda r ie s

a r tefac t sb roken d u r ing e xcava t ion o ra ts ome p os t -excava t ion

b e tween t h et wo l a ye r s w e re i d en t if ied d u r ing r e cove ry .

s t age ; ( b )j o in s o fd eb i tage a nd t oo ls wh ich b roke d u r ing o r

K a s t r i t sa may b e d i v ided i n to f our ma in g roups : ( a )j o in s o f

1 06

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK as tr i t sa T ab le 6 3 .P rovenance o fr ef i t ted l i t h ic a r tef ac t sf r om K a s tr i t sa s t ra ta 5a nd 9 . R e l i t Nu mber R ec tang le

S p it

L ayer (Y )

S tratum

B ag Number

T ype

1 9 7

1 1

5 5-7 5 9

1 4 1 5

5 5

7 -3897

2

7 -3960

4 6

6

6 6

1 4

5

4 7 4 3

6 6

6 6 ,65 7 0

1 4 1 5

5 5

C -1223 C -1129 , C 1105 C -2779

2 2

4 4

6

6 9

1 5

5

4 5 2 6

6 9

6 9 6 0-71

1 5 2 1-3

5 9

2 2

1 0

5 5-9

1 4

5

3 5 1 2 2 4

1 0 1 0 1 0

5 5-9 6 1 6 1

1 4 1 5 1 5

5 5 5

2 5

1 0

6 1 ,60-61

1 5

5

1 6

1 0

6 3 ,62

1 5 ,15

5

1 7 8 9

1 0 4 1 4 1

6 3 ,62 6 5 6 5

1 5 ,15 1 5 1 5

1 0

4 1

6 7

1 3 1 5

4 1 4 1

6 9

2 2

C -2725 C -2725

T o ta l

2

4 2 2

_

4

f l akes

6 2 2

2 3

3 2

7 -2406

2 2 2

7 -2409

2

7 -2409 7 -2409 , 7 -3945 7 -3896 , 7 -390 1

2 2

5 5 5

7 -3896 , 7 -3901

2 2

1 5

5

7 -3253

2 2

6 5 6 5

1 5 1 5

5 5

7 -2283

2

4 1

6 7

1 5

5

7 -2552 7 -3253

2 2

7 2 7 4 5 5

4 1 4 1 4 1

6 4 6 7 6 4 , 6 3

1 5 1 5 1 5 , 1 4

5 5 5

7 -3503 7 -3253

2 2

7 -3503 , 7 -3509

2

6 0

4 2

6 4

1 4

5

7 3

4 2

6 5 ,66

1 4 ,1415

5

6 8 7 1 3 0

4 2 4 2 5 1

6 6 -68 6 6 6 8

1 5 1 5 1 4

5 5 5

7 -3528 7 -3100 , 7 -3589 7 -34 12

2 2 3

7 -2405 7 1709

2 2

2 2

5 5

7 -2367 7 -2519 C -677

2

2

2 2

2 2

2

2 2 2 3 2

7 -3878 7 -2406

2 2 2 2 2 2

2

7 -2552 7 -2552

2 9 7 0

6 2 3 1-4 1

7 1 6 6

1 5 1 5

3

1 6

6 9

L 2

4 9 4 8 2 7 4 2 0

5 1 I 6 1 0

7 5 6 1 ,62 6 0-71 6 5 5 5-9

2 1 1 5 2 1-3 1 4 1 4

9 5 9 5 5

C -2257 , C -2720 7 -3985 , 7 -3906 7 -3762

3 7 3 9

1 0 1 0

5 5-9 5 5-9

1 4 1 4

5 5

7 -2437

6 3 8

1 0 1 0

6 0 6 0

1 5 1 5

5 5

4 0 5

1 0 1 0

6 1 5 -9 ,57-8

1 5 1 4 , 1 5

5 5

1 4 5 8

4 1 4 1

6 5 6 5 , 6 3 , 6 4

1 5 1 5

5 5

5 2

4 1

6 7

1 5

5

6 7 5 9 6 1 6 4

4 1 4 1 4 2 4 2

6 7 6 5 ,63 6 4 6 4

1 5 1 5 ,14 1 4 1 4

5 5 5 5

6 5

4 2

6 6

1 5

5

6 6 6 2 4 1

4 2 4 2 1 , 9 ,10

6 6 -68 6 3 , 6 6 , 6 6

1 5 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 415 2 4

5 5 9

4 2 6 3 5 0 5 1

1 , 9 ,10 4 1-42 4 1-2 ,42 ,42 4 2 , 4 1-2

6 3 6 3 6 4 , 6 3

2 4 1 4 1 4 1 4

9 5 5 5

5 3 5 6 5 4 5 7 10 16 15 19 18 12 17

4 2 ,42-52 4 2 ,41 ,42 4 1 4 2 1 1 1 1 6 1 0 1 0

6 6 ,66-8 6 5 , 6 4-3 , 6 3 6 5 6 6 6 0 6 0 6 4 5 9 ,57 ,54-7

1 5 1 4 ,1415 ,14 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 2 1 1 4

5 4 ,55 5 4-7

1 4 1 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 9 5 5 5 5

14

1 0

5 5 , 5 8

1 4

5

7 -3528 , 7 -3275 7 -2405 , 7 -3694 7 -3100 ,7 -3503 ,7 -3509 ,7 -3133 7 -3499 7 -2405 7 -3908 7 -3908 7 -2575 7 -2442 , 7 -2443 , 7 -3893 C -1150 7 -3967 , 7 -3968 7 -3893 7 -3968 , 7 -3758

13 1 08 1 02 1 04 1 09 1 07 1 01 1 06

1 0 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 2 4 2 4 2

5 5-7 6 4 6 5 6 5 6 6 6 3 6 4 6 6

1 4 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 4 1 4 1 415 , 1 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

7 -2439 7 -3503 7 -2552 7 -2552 7 -2520 7 -3275 7 -3528 7 -2943 , 7 1625 , 7 -3100

11 1 05

5 2 4 1 ,4 1 ,42

6 7 ,66-9 6 4 , 6 4 , 6 6

1 5 1 4 ,15 ,1415

5 5

1 03

4 1-2

6 3

1 4

5

7 -3900 , 7 -3849 7 -3235 ,7 -3503 ,7 -2943 7 -3275

2

2 2 2 2 2 1 -

-

-

2

d i s ta lp ar to fc on ic . b lade le t

3 2

1c o r t . f l ake , 1b lade

4

2 2 2 3

C -1150 7 -2437

3

7 -2437 7 -2402 7 -2402

1

7 -2409 7 -2437 , 7 -2365 7 -2552 7 -2283 , 7 -3676 , 7 -3503 7 -3253 7 -3253 7 -2283 , 7 -2482 7 -3528 7 -3528

b lade le t

2 2 2 3

3

f l ake s

b roken f l akes

7 -2405 7 -3412 7 -2951 , 7 -2405 , 7 -3589 7 -3755 7 -3755 7 -3275 7 -3275 , 7 -3671 , 7 -3133

a f ter t h eP a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion a nd p r io rt oe xcava t ion ; ( c )

3 2 2

6 2 2 2 2 5 2 2 4

1

f l ake

2 3

4

2b ld l t s , 1b lade , 1c r es ted b l ade

6

9 1

8f l akes , 1c o re f l ake

2

1c on . f l ak e , 1f l ake

2 2 3 4

c on . f l ake s

6 3 4 4 2 3 2 6 3 2 1 3 2 4 3 4 3

3 1 3 6 2 4 2 3 4 6 3 4 4 2 3 2 6 3 2 1 3 2 4 3 4 3

T he e v idence r e la t ing t or e cen tj o in s( g roup a )w i l ln o tb ep re -

c on jo in so fa r tef ac t s r emoved c onsecu t ive ly d u r ing k napp ing

s en ted h e re ,a si ti si r re levan tt ot h ep rob lem sa dd ressed i nt h is

f o rt h ep r epa ra t ion o fb lank so rd ur ing s e conda ry r e touch ;a nd

p ape r . ' R ef i t s o f s pec imen s f r om o the r r e c tang le s o b served d u r ing t he s t udy o f t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e l i th ic s a r e

( d ) s pec imen s wh ich a cco rd ing t os ound e v idence ( i . e . s im i l a r i ty i nr aw ma te r ia l [ c o lou r , t e x tur e , t r anspa rency a nd c o r -

a l so e xc luded f r om c on s ide ra t ion h e re . T h i s h a sb een d one i n o rde r t o a vo id i n t roduc ing b ia ses i n to t h e s ampl ing s t ra tegy

t e x ] a nd i nt e chno log ica l c ha rac te r is t ic s ) b e long t ot h e s ame r educ t ion s equence , d e sp i te t h ef a c tt h a tt hey a r en o tc on t igu -

a nd i n to t h eq uan t i ta t ive e va lua t ion o ft h er e su l t s .T he n umbe r o f r ef i t s e xc luded , h oweve r , u nde r l ine s amo re g ene ra l t e n -

o u s l i nk si nt h ec ha in . 1 07

C hap ter 6 d ency f o r K a s t r i t sa t oy i e ld n ume rous r ef i t s o fa r tefac t s ( s ee

r ef i t ted s e t sb u t s hor te rs equences ( T ab le 6 .4 ) . T he max imum

a l so Adam 1 989 , 2 22 ) . T he d a ta u pon wh ich t h e f o l low ing d i scus s ion i sb a sed a r ep re sen ted i nT ab le 6 . 3 .

n umbe r o fc on jo ined s ucce ss ive r emova ls i s 3e a ch f o rY 14 a nd Y 15 , w h i le 4a t mo s tc ross t he s t ra t ig raph ic b ounda ry b e t ween t h et wo .T he n umbe ro fs pec imen sf ound f r om t h es ame

E xam ina t ion o f at o ta l o f4 ,203 l i th ic a r tefac t s h a s p roduced

r educ t ion s e quence r ange s b e tween 2a nd 1 3 i nY 14 , a nd b e -

8 0s e t so fr ef i t s ,i n vo lv ing 2 38 s pec imen s( 5 .66% )( T ab le 6 . 4 ) .

t ween 2a nd 6i nY 15 . T he f i gure s a r ec ons iderab ly l owe rf o r

O ft he se r ef i t s e ts , 3 2 a r ej o in s o fb roken d eb i tage a nd t oo ls ,

Y21-23 a nd Y 24 , where o n ly 2s ucce ss ive r emova l so fs pec i -

2 9 a r e c on jo in s o f s uccess ive ly r emoved s pec imens , a nd 1 9

mens w e re c on jo ined ,a nd w he re o n ly o ne i n s tance o f 4s pec i -

a r e g roup s o f a r tefac t s o r ig ina t ing f r om t h e s ame r educ t ion

mens f r om t h e s ame r educ t ion s equence w a s o bse rved .

s equence . I n s t ra tum 5 ,2 23 o ft h e 3 , 243 a r tefac t s e xam ined ( 6 .88% ) f a l l w i th in o ne o ft he t h ree r ef i t t ing g roup s ; i ns t ra -

I n s t ra tum 5i nd iv idua l r educ t ion s equence s a re w e l l b rack -

t um 9 ,1 3o ft h e3 25 s pec imen se xam ined ( 4% )d os o .R ec tan -

e t ed w i th in e ach l a ye r , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f 7r ef i t s ( 9 .46% )

g l e 1 6 L 2 h a s p roduced o n ly o ne j o in o f ab acked b lade le t

t ha tc ro ss t h eY 14—Y15 s t ra t ig raph ic b oundary .A st h es amp le

( 0 .31 % ) a mong t he 6 35 s pec imen s s t ud ied .

d e r ive s f r om t h e 1 967 e xcava t ion , d ur ing wh ich s t ra t ig raphy w a s r e co rded w i th p rec is ion , t hese 7c a se s s hou ld h e lp u s t o

Mos t o ft h e r ef i t s e t s ( 74 ) w e re y i e lded b y Y 14 a nd Y 15 o f

a s sess t h ei n tegr i ty o fY 14 a nd Y 15 a sd i sc re te u n i t so fd epos i -

s t ra tum 5 , wh i le s t ra tum 9h a sp roduced o n ly 5r ef i t s .A sm igh t

t i on o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l d ur ing o ne o r mo re e p isodes

b e e xpec ted , t h ese f i gu re s b ea r s ome r e la t ion t os amp le s i ze .

o fo ccupa t ion .I n 4o u to ft h e 7i n s tances t h e s pec imens d er ive

T he c o r re la t ion c oe f i c ien t ( r ) f r om l i nea r r eg re ss ion o f t h e

f r om t h ej unc t ion b e tween t wo l a ye r s , i . e . f r om ac on tex t a s -

n umbe ro fs pec imen s e xam ined o n t h e n umbe ro fo b jec t s r e -

s i gned t oY 1415 o r f r om t h e i mmed ia te ly o ver ly ing o r u n -

f i t ted i s0 . 85 .T h is s ugge s t st ha ts amp le -s ize v a r ia t ion a ccoun t s

d e r ly ing a r ea o fY 14 o rY 15 .A tj unc t ion s b e tween l a ye r s a nd

f o r7 2 .93% o ft h ev a r ia t ion i nt he n umbe ro fr ef i t s .I nt h ea bove

o n t h e s u r face s a d jacen tt ot h em s ome d eg ree o fm ix ing i st o

p a t tern r e c tang le 1 6L 2i sa n o u t l ie r .

b ee xpec ted . Iwou ld t h e refo re a rgue t h a tt h ese 4c a se sd o n o t c ons t i tu te s t rong e v idence f o r l a ck o f s pa t ia l c ohe rence , b u t r a the r i n d ica te ap a t tern o f l o ca l m ix ing a tt he j unc t ion b e -

6 .4 :2 T aphonom ic i s sues

t ween l a ye r s . T he r ema in ing 3c a ses a r e aj o in a nd t wo b r ief T he g rea tn umbe ro fs pec imens a ppa ren t ly o r ig ina t ing i nt h e

c on jo in s , e ach c ons is t ing o fo n ly t wo a r te fac ts . T hey d er ive

s ame r educ t ion s equence ,b u tl a ck ing t h e ir p reced ing a nd s uc -

f r om c on tex t s wh ich a r es epa ra ted v e r t ica l ly b y max imum d i s -

c eed ing a r tefac t s , i sr ema rkab le . T h is o b se rva t ion , wh ich i n -

t a nce so f2 0 ,3 0a nd 4 0cm ,a nd make u pa pp rox ima te ly 4% o f

d ependen t ly c onf irms t ha t c h ipp ing f l oor s w ere c or rec t ly

t h e r ef i t s i n s t ra tum 5 .T he r e la t ive s hor tness o f t h ese c on -

i d en t if ied d ur ing e xcava t ion , d e serve s f u r the r c ons ide ra t ion .

j o ined s equence s a nd t h e l i t t le d i s tance s epara t ing t h e i rc om -

I ti sp os s ib le t ha t s ome o ft he m iss ing p iece s w e re d e l ibe r -

p onen t s a r gue f o r l im i ted v e r t ica l i n ter laye r movemen t b y

a t e ly t aken a way a sb lank sf o rs econda ry r e touch ,o rf o ru se a s

r e la t ive ly f ew p i ece s ;t he e v idence i st hu sn o tr ea l ly s uf i c ien t

t oo ls ,b u tt h er e f i t ted g roup sp o in tt o amore r andom r ep re sen -

t oc a s td oub to nt h e s t ra t igraph ic i n teg r i ty o fY 14 a nd Y 15 .

t a t ion o f s pec imen s . I tt h e refore s eems r ea sonab le t o a rgue t ha ts i te -forma t ion p roce sse sh ave a l so c on t r ibu ted t ot h is p a t -

T he s t ra t ig raphy o fs t ra tum 9i sr ende red c omp lex b y t h e i n -

t e rn . E ven i fd ur ing s ome f u ture s t udy t h e m iss ing l i nks a r e

t e rm ing l ing o f b each a nd c u l tura l d epos i t s . A c on s ide rab le

f ound i n l a ye r s a nd r e c tang le s t ha t w e re n o t i n c luded i nt h e

n umbe ro fo b jec t si nt h is s t ra tum ,t hough n o ta l lo ft h em ,h ave

s amp le , h or izon ta l o rv er t ica l d i s turbance o n as ma l l s ca le i s

r ounded a nd d u l led e dge s r e su l t ing f r om t h e a c t ion o fw a te r .

i nd ica ted .

Al ow d eg ree o fs pa t ia l i n tegr i ty i st h e refo re t ob e e xpec ted , w i th r ef i t s a b sen t . No t o n ly w ere r ef i t s p re sen t i n t h e u ppe r

T he h or izon ta l s epa ra t ion b e tween r e f i t s c anno tb e mea sured

s e r ie so fs t ra tum 9( Y2 1-23 ) ,h oweve r ,b u tt h ey w e re a l so f ound

w i th a ny p rec i s ion b ecau se t h em in imum p rovenance u n i t sa r e

i n Y24 ,t hough a b sen tf r om Y 25 . T h is s ugge s ts t ha tt h ew a te r

s o l a rge . ' I n 5a nd 3 i n s tances i nY 14 a nd Y 15 r e spec t ive ly

t ha te n te red t h es i te when t h el a ke w a sh igh e i the rl e f ta tl e a s t

r ef i t sc ros sr e c tang le b ounda r ies . G iven t h es i ze o ft h er e c tan -

s ome o ft h e p r ima ry d epo s i t s o f ma te r ia l i nt he u ppe r l a ye r s

g les , h oweve r , t h e h or izon ta l s epa ra t ion o f t h e se r ef i t s may

i n tac t o r r edepos i ted ma ter ia l t ha t r ef i t s . T he t ype s o f r ef i t

h ave b een l e s st han t h ed i s tance b e tween c er ta in r ef i t s f r om a

f ound , a l lt h ree g roup s b e ing r epresen ted , a nd t he n umbe ro f

s i ng le r e c tang le .

s pec imen si n vo lved ( Tab le 6 . 4 )s ugges tt ha tb o th a s sump t ions

G iven t h es i ze o ft h es p i t se xcava ted ,t he f i ne s tv e r t ica lr e so lu -

b een s epa ra ted v er t ica l ly b y amax imum 10cm w e re d i scov -

t i on p oss ib le i st ow i th in 1 0cm . R ef i t ted o b jec t sa r ev er t ica l ly

e r ed i nb ag sc on ta in ing ma te r ia lf r om s p i t s6 0-71 Y21-23 t h a t

s epa ra ted ( Tab le 6 . 5 )b y amax imum d i s tance o f6 0cm i nY 14 ,

h ad n o tb een s epa ra ted d ur ing e xcava t ion .T h is c on tex tua li n -

a nd b y amax imum d i s tance o f4 0cm i nY 15 . R ef i t s c ross ing

f o rma t ion i s ,o fc ou r se ,n o tp a r t icu la r ly h e lp fu li nt r ac ing v e r -

t he Y 1415 s t ra t ig raph ic b oundary a r e s epa ra ted b y amax i -

t i ca ld i sp lacemen t .I ti s ,h oweve r ,s i gn if ican tt h a tn or ef i t sc r o ss

a r ep lau s ib le . T he t wo r ef i t s whose c omponen t s s eem t oh ave

mum d i s tance o f5 0cm .Y 15 h a s g rea te rs pa t ia l i n teg r i ty t han

a ny th ing t ha t w a s i den t if ied a s al a ye r d u r ing e xcava t ion .

h a sY 14 . T h is p a t tern may b e a t t r ibu tab le t o ah igh l a ke l e ve l

Mo reove r ,a na dd i t iona li n c iden ta lj o in ( Tab le 6 . 3 : r e f i tno 4 9 )

a tY 14A , wh ich may h ave c on t r ibu ted t op a r t ia lm ix ing o ft h e d epos i t s .

f r om r e c tang le 5Y2 1 , n o ti n c luded i nt h e q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s ,d emon s t ra te st h a tt he l a ye r sa s soc ia ted w i th e a r ly o ccupa t i ons r e ta in mo re p o ten t ia lt oy i e ld a r tefac t st ha tr e f i tt h an h a s

S t ra tum 5h a sp roduced t h el o nge s ts e r ie so fr ef i t ted s e t s .W i th in

h i ther to b een t hough t ( Adam 1 989 , 2 04 ) .

t h is s t ra tum Y 14 h a sy i e lded as ma l le rn umbe ro fr ef i t ted s e t s I nr e c tang le 1 6 ,d e sp i te t he c on s ide rab le n umber o fs pec imen s

b u t l onge rr e f i t ted s equence s , wherea sY 15 h a s y i e lded mo re 1 08

T he s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fK as tr i t sa T ab le 6 . 4 .R ef i t t ing r e su l tp er s t r a t igraph i cu n i t . J o in , c on jo in a nd s ame r educ t ion s equence f i gur e s

o u t s id eb racke t sr epr e sen tn umber so fr ef i t ted s e t s ;

f i gur e si nb r a cke t sr e pr esen tn umber so fr ef i t t ed s p ec imen s . L ayer

b :J o in

c :C on jo in

d :S ame r educ t ion s equence

T o ta lr e f i t ted s e t s

T o ta lr ef i t ted

N o . o fs pec imen s

s pec imen s

e xam ined

S tra tum 5

3 0( 69 )

9( 38 ) 1 3 ( 33 ) 4( 14 ) 2 6( 85 )

9( 40 ) 7( 2 1) 2( 8 ) 1 8 ( 69 )

2 1-23 2 4 2 5

1( 2 ) 0 0 1( 2 )

1( 2 ) 2( 5 ) 0 3( 7 )

0 0 1( 4 )

L 2

1( 2 )

0

3 2

2 9

1 4 1 5 1 415

8( 22 ) 2 1 ( 45 ) 1( 2 )

T o ta ls t r .5

2 6

1 00 9 9 2 4 2 23 ( 6 .88% )

4 1 7 7 4

3 243

S tra tum 9

T o ta ls t r .9 R ec tang le 1 6 Grand t o ta l

1( 4 )

3 2 0 5

2 00 5 5 7 0 3 25

2( 0 .31 % )

6 35

2 38 ( 5 .66% )

8 0

1 9

8 5 0 1 3 ( 4% )

4 203

T ab le 6 . 5 .N umber sa nd p er cen tages o fr ef i ts e t sa ccord ing t om in imum a nd m ax imum e x t en to fv er t ica ls epara t ion ( p er cen tages e va lua ted a ga in s tt o ta l n umber o fr e f i ts e t sp er s t ra tum ) . m in-max ( cm ) 0 10 0 -20 0 -30 0 -40 0 -50 0 -110 1 0-20 1 G-30 2 0-30 3 0-40 5 0-60

Y14 1 3 3 0 1 5 0 1 0 1 1 1

Y 15 3 2 3 3 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

Y 14-Y15 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 0

S tra tum 5 t o ta l 4 6 ( 62 .16% ) 6 ( 8 .11 % ) 3 ( 4 .05% ) 2 ( 2 .70% ) 5 ( 8 .11 % ) 0 3 ( 4 .05% ) 1 ( 1 .35% ) 4 ( 5 .4 1% ) 2 ( 2 .70% ) 1 ( 1 .35% )

Y 21-23 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0

Y24 2

S tra tum 9t o ta l 3 ( 60% )

R ec tang le 1 6L 2 1

2 ( 40% )

e xam ined , o n ly o ne r ef i t w a s o bserved , s ugge s t ing t ha t t h e

h omogeneous . I tg i ve s n o i nd ica t ion t h a t a ny o ft he t h ree a r -

ma te r ia l o n t h is ma rg in o f t h e t a lu s h a s u nde rgone a l o t o f

e a s s t ud ied o ugh tt ob ea s soc ia ted w i th a ny s pec ia l i sed a c t iv -

m ix ing .

i t y .A r tefac t sr e la ted t ot h e manufac tu re o fb lank s ,t os e conda ry r e touch a nd t ou se o ft o o l s a r e a l l f ound i nt he s ame r e c tan g l e s .T h is l a ck o fs pa t ia ls epa ra t ion i se ncoun te red i nb o th s t ra -

6 .4 :3 C onc lud ing c ommen t so nr ef i t t ing

t um 9a nd s t ra tum 5 . F rom ad i ach ron ic p e r spec t ive , t h e re i sv ar ia t ion i nt h e r ef i t t i ng p a t ter n s t h rough t ime . S t ra tum 5h a s b een more f r u i tfu l

T he r ef i t s a t K a s t r i tsa a r e p ropo r t iona l ly more n umerous

t han h a ss t ra tum 9 ,a l though t h el a t ter h a sp roduced an umbe r

( 5 .66% ) t h an t ho se a tK l i th i ( 0 .97% ) . H oweve r , t he p i c tu re

o fi n te re s t ing r ef i t s . T he l owe rp ropor t ion o fr ef i t s i ns t ra tum

c hange s when t he c ompa r ison r e fe r s t on umbe r o fr ef i t s p e r

9( 4% ) t h an i n 5( 6 .88% ) c onf i rm st ha tt h e l a t te ri so fh ighe r

s i ze o fa r ea e xam ined r a the rt han p e rt o ta ln umbe ro fa r tefac t s

s pa t ia li n teg r i ty ( Tab le 6 . 4 ) . W i th in s t ra tum 5r ef i t ted s e t s a r e

e xam ined . T he a ve rage n umbe r o fr ef i t s p e r s qua re me t re a t

more n ume rous , a nd t hose i nY 15 a r e s epa ra ted b y s hor te r

K l i th ii s6 , wh i le t ha ta tK a s t r i t sa ,e xc lud ing t h e ma rg ina lr e c -

v er t ica l d i s tance s t han t hose i nY 14 ( Tab le 6 . 4 ) . T h is p a t te rn

t a ng le s , i s3 . 6 . T he se f i gure s a r e i n f luenced c ons ide rab ly b y

s ugge s t s t h a t t he o r ig ina l d epos i t s i nY 14 h ave u ndergone

t h ef a c tt ha tt h ec on tex t se xam ined f o rr ef i t t ing a tK l i th iy i e lded

more s eve re d i s turbance t han t hose i nY 15 ,p robab ly d ue t o

h igh d en s i t ie so f ma te r ia lo ve r al im i ted a r ea , wh i le t ho se e x -

t he p resence o f ab each wh ich l im i ted l i v ing s pace . W i th in

a m ined a tK a s t r i t sa y i e lded m ed ium t o l ow d ens i t ie s o ve r a

s t ra tum 9t h e n umbe r o fr e f i t s i sh igher i nt he mo re r e cen t

l a rge ra r ea .I n te r -s i te c ompa r i son sb a sed o nt h eq ua l i ta t ive d i f -

l ayer s .

f e rence sb e tween t he t wo s i te sa r et h e refo re mo re i n fo rma t ive t han a ny b a sed u pon q uan t i ta t ive d if e rence s . Ka s t r i t sa 's r ef i t s

F rom as ynch ron ic p e r spec t ive ,t h er e c tang le sw i th in t h ec ave

a r e mo re d i ve r se t han t ho se a tK l i th i ( whe re r ef i t s a r e p re -

a nd n ea rt h e s ou thwe s tw a l l w e re mo re p ro l if ic o fr ef i t s t han

d om inan t ly j o in s o fb roken a r tefac t s ) a nd i n vo lve l onge r s e -

w e re t h o se o nt he ma rg in so ft h et a lu s( F igu re 6 . 4 ) .T he d ea r th

r i e so fc on jo ined a r tef ac t s .T he l ow o ve ra l lp e rcen tage o fr ef i t s

o fr ef i t s i nr e c tang le s 5 1 , 5 2 , 6 1 a nd 6 2 may b e a t t r ibu ted t o t he ir ma rg ina ll o ca t ion ,c omb ined w i th t h eo ve ra l l l ow d en s i -

t h es hor tv er t ica ld i s tance st ha ts epa ra te t h em ,s ugge s tt ha tt h e

c ro ss ing s t ra t ig raph ic b ounda r ie s , 7o u t o f 8 0 ( 8 .75% ) , a nd s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t s e xam ined a t Ka s t r i t sa , e spec ia l ly Y 14 a nd

t i es o fa r tef a c t s .T he e xcep t iona l ly h igh p ropor t ion o fr ef i t si n r e c tang le 4 2Y 15 a t te s t s t ot h e p re se rva t ion o fd epo s i t s h e re

1 5 ,h ave g rea te rc oherence t han t hose s t ud ied a tK l i th i , whe re

w i th l i t t le d i s turbance .T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft oo ls a nd o ft h ev a r i -

1 8 o u t o f 4 7 r e f i t s ( 38 .3% ) c ross s t ra t igraph ic b ounda r ies

o us s t age s i nt h e r educ t ion s equence s a ppea r s t ob e s pa t ia l ly

(Wenban -Sm i th 1 997 ) . 1 09

C hap ter 6

1 2

1

S t ra tum 5( Y1415 )

S t ra tum 9 ( Y21-25)

1 0

2

9

" c 5 8

18

a . ) c • 4 4 0 C l I D

a . ) C• J

7 6

5 4

3

2

1

0

1

1

6

6

9

9

1 0

1 0

1 ,9 ,10

4 1

4 2

5 1

5 2

6 1

6 2

4 1 ,42,42 ,52

1 6

R ec tang le F igure 6 . 4 .B ar c har ts how ing p er cen tage o fr ef i t ted s pec imens p er r ec tang le . T he r ef i t t ing r e su l t sa tK a s t r i t sa s ugge s tt wo c onc lu s ion s .T he

n umbe ro fe p i sode so fo ccupa t ion . Un su rp r i s ing ly ,t h ee v idence

f i r s t i st ha t s ome a r ea s h ave n o t b een s ub jec ted t o much d i s -

c anno tt e l l u s c onc lus ive ly j u s t h ow many . L i th ic a r tefac tr e -

t u rbance .T he s e cond i st h a tm ed ium d en s i t ie so fa r tefac t sw e re

f i t t ing c anno t r e a l ly b e e xpec ted t o o f e r a ny s uch c er ta in ty .

p robab ly f ound i nY 14 a nd Y 15 n o tb ecau se ma ter ia lh ad b een

T he r e la t ionsh ip o fl a ye r s t oe p isodes o fo ccupa t ion , a nd t h e

r emoved f r om t h e s i te ,b u tb ecause ac o r re spond ing ly mode r -

c on tempo rane i ty o ro therw ise o ff ea tu re sw i th in as t ra t ig raph ic

a t e n umber o fl i th ic a r tefac t s h ad b een d epo s i ted i nt h e f i r s t p lace . We a l ready k now t h a tt h e a r ea a tt h e mou th o ft h ec ave

u n i t o r o f l a ye r s a td if e ren t a r ea s o f as i te , c anno t b e c l ea r u n t i l t he r e su l ts o f r e f i t t ing a re c omb ined w i th s t ud ies o f

h a s y i e lded t h e h ighes t d en s i t ie s o f ma te r ia l ( Ba i ley 1 983b ) .

s ea sona l i ty , m icro s t ra t igraphy , s ed imen t f o rma t ion a nd t h e

I f ag loba l v i ew o f p a t tern s i nt h e h or izon ta l d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e f i t s i st ob e a cqu ired , i ti se s sen t ia l t h a tt h er ef i t t ing p ro jec t

T ab le 6 . 6 . V ar iab le si nt h el i t h ic a s semb lage .

s hou ld i nf u tu re e ncompa s st h e se h igh -den s i ty a r ea s .T he l owe r

L i th ic c a tegor ie s Nodu le C o re P r imary p i ece ( i . e . mo re t h an 1 0% c o r tex ) D eb i tage ( i . e . f l ake ,b l ade a nd b lade le t ) T echn ica lp i ece ( i . e . r e la ted t ot h ep roduc t ion o fb la nk , e . g . c o re t a b le t , c r e s ted p i ece ,d i agno s t ic p roduc to fa cc iden t )

d ens i t ies o fm a ter ia ly i e lded b yt he l a ye r si ns t ra tum 9may b e r e la ted t od i s tu rbance u nde rgone b yt h e se l a ye r s when t h el a ke w a s h igh . C ompara t ive ly s peak ing , t h e se e a r l ies t e p isodes o f o ccupa t ion mu s th ave b een i n f requen ta nd b r ief . T he r ef i t t ing s t udy h a sr e so lved t he p rob lem o fa na ly t ica lu n i t s

K napp ing d ebr i s B urn td eb r i s ( i . e . p o tl i do rn on -d iagno s t ic p i ece ) P iece w i th e dge d amage ( i . e . w i th ma c ro scop ic t r ace so fu se ) B ur in s pa l l B u r in S c rape r( i . e . e nd sc rape ro rs i de scrape r )

a t Ka s t r i t sa a sf a ra st h el im i ta t ion so ft h ea va i lab le d a ta a l low . On t he who le l a ye r s s eem t oc on ta in s uf i c ien ti n forma t ion t o b et r ea ted a si n dependen tu n i t so fs pa t ia la na lys is ,a nd h ad t he e xcava t ion sp e rm i t ted i tw ou ld h ave b een p ref e rab le t or un t h e f o l low ing a na lys is o ni nd iv idua ll a ye r s .S pa t io tempora lr e so -

P iece w i th l i nea rr e touch No tched /den t icu la te B o re r( i . e . b ee , p i e rce r ) S hou lde r ed p i ece A u r ignac ian b lad e O the r( e .g .p i ke e squ i l le ,m ic robu r in )

l u t ion i sf a ir ly h igh i nt h el a ye r se xam ined ,e spec ia l ly t hose i n s t ra tum 5 . No r ef i t s c ross s t ra tum b ounda r ie s , b u tt h is o bse r v a t ion r equ i re sf u r the re xp lo ra t ion ,s i nce t h et wo s t ra ta s e lec ted w e re n o ta d ja cen tt oe ach o t he r .T he r ef i t sf r om Ka s t r i t sa r u le o u t a' many to -one 'r e la t ion sh ip b e tween l a ye r s a nd e p isode s

L i th ic s i ze A