Historical dictionary of Trinidad and Tobago [New edition.] 9781538111451, 1538111454, 9781538111468, 1538111462

Table of contents :
Contents
Editor’s Foreword
Acknowledgments
Reader’s Note
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Maps
Chronology
Introduction
THE DICTIONARY
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix E
Appendix F
Appendix G
Appendix H
Bibliography
About the Authors

Citation preview

The historical dictionaries present essential information on a broad range of subjects, including American and world history, art, business, cities, countries, cultures, customs, film, global conflicts, international relations, literature, music, philosophy, religion, sports, and theater. Written by experts, all contain highly informative introductory essays on the topic and detailed chronologies that, in some cases, cover vast historical time periods but still manage to heavily feature more recent events. Brief A–Z entries describe the main people, events, politics, social issues, institutions, and policies that make the topic unique, and entries are cross-referenced for ease of browsing. Extensive bibliographies are divided into several general subject areas, providing excellent access points for students, researchers, and anyone wanting to know more. Additionally, maps, photographs, and appendixes of supplemental information aid high school and college students doing term papers or introductory research projects. In short, the historical dictionaries are the perfect starting point for anyone looking to research in these fields.

HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF THE AMERICAS Jon Woronoff, Series Editor Costa Rica, 2nd ed., by Theodore S. Creedman. 1991. Honduras, 2nd ed., by Harvey K. Meyer and Jessie H. Meyer. 1994. Cuba, 2nd ed., by Jaime Suchlicki. 2001. Mexico, 2nd ed., by Marvin Àlisky. 2008. Haiti, by Michael R. Hall. 2012. Colombia, by Harvey F. Kline. 2012. Panama, by Thomas M. Leonard. 2015. Dominican Republic, by Eric Paul Roorda. 2016. El Salvador, by Orlando J. Perez. 2016. Chile, 4th ed., by Salvatore Bizzarro. 2017. Peru, by Peter F. Klarén. 2017. Venezuela, 3rd ed., by Tomás Straka, Guillermo Guzmán Mirabal, and Alejandro E. Cáceres. 2018. Guatemala, by Michael F. Fry, 2018. Trinidad and Tobago, New Edition, by Rita Pemberton, Debbie McCollin, Gelien Matthews, and Michael Toussaint. 2018.

Historical Dictionary of Trinidad and Tobago New Edition

Rita Pemberton, Debbie McCollin, Gelien Matthews, and Michael Toussaint

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD Lanham • Boulder • New York • London

Published by Rowman & Littlefield A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB Copyright © 2018 by Rita Pemberton, Debbie McCollin, Gelien Matthews, and Michael Toussaint All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Pemberton, Rita, author. | McCollin, Debbie, author. | Matthews, Gelien, author. | Toussaint, Michael, author. Title: Historical dictionary of Trinidad and Tobago / Rita Pemberton, Debbie McCollin, Gelien Matthews, and Michael Toussaint. Description: New edition. | Lanham : ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD, 2018. | Series: Historical dictionaries of the Americas | Includes bibliographical references. | Earlier edition: authored by Michael Anthony; published 1997. Identifiers: LCCN 2017053566 (print) | LCCN 2017056232 (ebook) | ISBN 9781538111468 (electronic) | ISBN 9781538111451 (hardcover : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Trinidad and Tobago—History—Dictionaries. Classification: LCC F2119 (ebook) | LCC F2119 .P39 2018 (print) | DDC 972.983003—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017053566

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America.

Contents

Editor’s Foreword

vii

Acknowledgments

ix

Reader’s Note

xi

Acronyms and Abbreviations

xiii

Maps

xvii

Chronology

xxi

Introduction

1

THE DICTIONARY

21

Appendix A: Government Officials

387

Appendix B: The Reestablished Tobago House of Assembly (THA)

395

Appendix C: National Holidays and Observances of Trinidad and Tobago

397

Appendix D: Schools (Secondary Denominational)

399

Appendix E: Prominent Newspapers

401

Appendix F: Panorama: Steelband Competition Winners (Large Band Category)

405

Appendix G: Population (2016 Estimates)

407

Appendix H: Population by Age: 1960 and 2000

409

Bibliography

411

About the Authors

451

v

Editor’s Foreword

Every country is unique, but Trinidad and Tobago is even more unique than most, and incredibly variegated. It consists of two main islands, the former being about 15 times as large as the latter, plus an assortment of smaller islands. Between them they have undergone colonization by Spain, since the arrival of Christopher Columbus, and Great Britain but have had other European influences through the settlers who acquired property during the colonial era. British possessions since 1797 and 1803, respectively, they became unified in 1889/1898, independent in 1962, and a republic in 1976. Trinidad and Tobago has become one of the leading countries in the region because of its stable government and economic strength. Its economy was based on the profitable production of sugar during the second half of the 19th century, the dramatic growth of the cocoa industry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and a lucrative oil industry across the 20th century. The mixed population is predominantly African and Indian with a tiny minority of Europeans, Chinese, and Syrian/Lebanese in Trinidad. The population of Tobago is primarily African descended. The main religions are Christianity, Hinduism, Orisha, and the Muslim faith. The vibrant culture of Trinidad and Tobago is expressed in music and art forms, the annual Carnival celebrations with its calypso and steelband competitions, the Tobago Heritage Festival, and its food traditions. It is no easy task to explain such a country in one volume, but this Historical Dictionary of Trinidad and Tobago does an excellent job in providing the basics and many of the details to permit an understanding of the history and development of Trinidad and Tobago. This is done first in the chronology, which, as hinted, is long and complex, and then in an introduction, which draws the various strands together to provide an overview. But the bulk of the information can be found in the dictionary section, with entries on the earlier colonial powers and the present political parties; the various ethnic, linguistic, and religious strands; and more on the economy, politics, society, and culture. This book, which offers a tour through the historical experiences of these two islands, is also an excellent starting point for further study due to its extensive bibliography and useful appendixes and maps. This volume was written not by one but four authors, all of them teaching or having taught at the University of the West Indies (UWI) in St. Augustine. The lead was taken by Rita Pemberton, who is presently an independent researcher but formerly head of the Department of History at the UWI. Her primary interests are health, gender, and the environment. Debbie McCollin vii

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EDITOR’S FOREWORD

lectures at the UWI and mainly deals with Caribbean health and conflict issues. Gelien Matthews, also a lecturer in the UWI’s Department of History, focuses on the history of enslaved resistance, gender and women’s history in the Caribbean, and U.S. history from the American Revolution to the civil rights movement. Michael Toussaint is presently a lecturer at the UWI with a focus on race and the history of Africa and the Caribbean. In addition to teaching, they have all written articles and contributed to or written books on Trinidad and Tobago; they have come together here to share their knowledge in a work that will help others understand a place they know so well. Jon Woronoff Series Editor

Acknowledgments

This work would not have been completed without the excellent collaboration of the authors. Despite the many setbacks on this project, we persevered and were able to bring this manuscript to fruition. We also wish to thank the editor, Jon Woronoff, and his team for their guidance throughout the project.

ix

Reader’s Note

The two islands Trinidad and Tobago were separate colonies for 400 years before they were fully unified. As such, it was a challenge for the authors to deal effectively with these disparate histories in the introduction. We therefore decided to outline first the history of the colony that was more developed in the early period, Tobago, and later present the individual early history of Trinidad, which the Spanish neglected for a long period. Finally, we present the history of their existence as a single colony from 1889/1898. In order to facilitate the rapid and efficient location of information and to make this book as useful a reference tool as possible, extensive cross-references have been provided within the dictionary section. Within individual dictionary entries, terms that have their own entries are in boldface type the first time they appear. Related terms, which do not appear in the text, are indicated in See also. See refers to other entries that deal with the topic. Note that “Trinidad and Tobago” as a single term or as separate terms is not cross-referenced.

xi

Acronyms and Abbreviations

ATSEFWTU

All Trinidad Sugar Estates and Factory Workers Trade Union

ATSGWTU

All Trinidad Sugar and General Workers Trade Union

BAHS

Bishop Anstey High School

BBC

British Broadcasting Company

BHS

Bishop’s High School

BOAC

British Overseas Airline Corporation

BP

British Petroleum

BWIA

British West Indian Airways

CAC

Central America and Caribbean Games

CAL

Caribbean Airlines

CAPE

Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Exam

CARICOM

Caribbean Community

CARIFTA

Caribbean Free Trade Agreement

CARIRI

Caribbean Industrial Research Institute

CDB

Caribbean Development Bank

CIC

College of Immaculate Conception, St. Mary’s College

CNC3

Cable News Channel 3

CONCACAF

Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football

COP

Congress of the People

CSEC

Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate

CSME

CARICOM Single Market and Economy

CXC

Caribbean Examinations Council

DAC

Democratic Action Congress

DC

District of Columbia

DICTA

Diploma of the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture

DLP

Democratic Labour Party xiii

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

EMA

Environment Management Authority

ERHA

Eastern Regional Health Authority

EWMCS

Eric Williams Medical Sciences Complex

FLP

Federal Labour Party

FWTU

Federated Workers Trade Union

GATE

Government Assistance for Tuition Expenses

HRH

Her Royal Highness

ICTA

Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture

IDA

Imperial Department of Agriculture

IDC

Industrial Development Corporation

ILO

International Labour Organization

ILP

Independence Liberal Party

MOTION

Movement for Social Transformation

MP

Member of Parliament

MTS

National Maintenance, Training and Security Company

MUP

Movement for Unity and Progress

NALIS

National Library and Information Services

NAR

National Alliance for Reconstruction

NBC

National Broadcasting Company

NCIC

National Council for Indian Culture

NCRHA

North Central Regional Health Authority

NDMC

National Defence Medical Centre

NEM

National Employment Movement

NJAC

National Joint Action Committee

NUDE

National Union of Domestic Employees

NUFF

National Union of Freedom Fighters

NUM

National Unemployment Movement

NWCSA

Negro Welfare Cultural and Social Association

NWRHA

North West Regional Health Authority

NWSCA

National Welfare Social and Cultural Association

OCC

Order of the Caribbean Community

ONR

Organization for National Reconstruction

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ORTT

Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago

OWTU

Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union

PDP

People’s Democratic Party

PEP

People’s Empowerment Party

PNM

People’s National Movement

POPPG

Party of Political Progress Groups

PP

People’s Partnership

PTSC

Public Transport Service Corporation

QCS

Queen’s Collegiate School

QRC

Queen’s Royal College

RC

Roman Catholic

RCAF

Royal Canadian Air Force

RPA

Ratepayers’ Association

RVI

Royal Victoria Institute

SBCS

School of Business and Computer Science

SJC

St. Joseph’s Convent

SWRHA

South West Regional Health Authority

TDTA

Tobago District Teachers’ Association

THA

Tobago House of Assembly

TLP

Trinidad Labour Party

TOP

Tobago Organization of the People

TRHA

Tobago Regional Health Authority

TRINTOC

Trinidad and Tobago Oil Company Limited

TSTT

Telecommunications Services of Trinidad and Tobago

TTDF

Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force

TTFS

Trinidad and Tobago Fire Service

TTUTA

Trinidad and Tobago Unified Teachers Association

TWA

Trinidad Workingmen’s Association

UCLA

University of California at Los Angeles

UDECOTT

Urban Development Corporation

UK

United Kingdom

ULF

United Labour Front

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

UN

United Nations

UNC

United National Congress

UNIA

Universal Negro Improvement Association

UNIP

United National Independence Party

USC

University of the Southern Caribbean

U.S.

United States of America

UTT

University of Trinidad and Tobago

UWI

University of the West Indies

UWTA

United Workers Trading Association

WASA

Water and Sewerage Authority

WFC

Workingmen’s Reform Club

WFP

Workers and Farmers Party

WFTU

World Federation of Trade Unions

WIAC

West Indian Agricultural College

WIFLP

West Indian Federal Labour Party

WIIP

West Indian Independence Party

WINP

West Indian National Party

YTEPP

Youth Training and Employment Partnership Programme

ZSTT

Zoological Society of Trinidad and Tobago

Maps

Map of Trinidad and Tobago

xvii

xviii

• MAPS

Map of the West Indies

MAPS

Map of the Northwestern Outlying Islands

Map of the Northwestern Outlying Islands

•

xix

Chronology

5000 BCE Date of oldest site in the West Indies of the Banwari people, Ortoiroid group emerging from South America. 3400 BCE The Banwari site seems to have been abandoned by this date. 500 BCE The beginning of Saladoid migration to Trinidad and Tobago from South America. 350 CE Barrancoid people begin migration into Trinidad and Tobago. 1000 Suazan Troumassoids/Suazeys migrate to Tobago establishing sites at, for example, Lover’s Retreat site (investigated from 1943 to 2005). 1300 A new group appears to have settled in Trinidad and Tobago. 1498 Christopher Columbus sights Trinidad; sights Tobago and names it Bellaforma. 1530 12 July: Antonio Sedeno is appointed governor by the queen of Spain. 1540 Cayoid pottery emerges among Tobago Island Caribs. 1569 Juan Troche Ponce de Leon II is declared captain general of Trinidad. 1580 British seamen visit Tobago for the first time. They report that it is “uninhabited.” 1591 Antonio de Berrío (also governor of Margarita) sends Domingo de Vera to conquer the Neo-Indians in Trinidad. 1592 Domingo de Vera founds the city of San José de Oruña (St. Joseph) in Trinidad. 1595 Sir Water Raleigh arrives in Trinidad and sacks St. Joseph. 1596 Raleigh’s lieutenant, Lawrence Keymis, visits Tobago and also finds it “uninhabited.” James I, king of England, subsequently claims the island for Britain. 1597 Antonio de Berrío dies, but his son Fernando de Berrío succeeds to the title of governor. 1608 James I claims sovereignty over Tobago. 1614 Diego Palameque de Acuna is appointed governor of Trinidad. xxi

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1612 Sancho de Alquiza is appointed new governor of Trinidad. He is later followed by Mújica de Buitrón, Diego de Palomeque, Juan de Lezama, and Jeronimo de Grados. 1624 Luis de Monsalve y Saavedra is appointed the new governor of Trinidad. 1628 The islands of Trinidad, Tobago, Barbados, and Fonseca are given to Philip, Earl of Montgomery. Dutch settle in Plymouth (New Walcheren) Tobago. 1630 Cristóval de Aranda becomes the new governor of Trinidad. 1636 Diego Lopez de Escobar becomes the new governor of Trinidad. 1637 Spanish/Indigenous forces destroy the Dutch settlement in Tobago; British attempt to settle the island but are ousted by the indigenous population. 1639 The Dutch sack and burn San José de Oruña (Trinidad). 1640–1656 Martin Mendoza de la Hoz y Berrío, nephew of Antonio de Berrío, has appointed new governor of Trinidad. His has one of the longest periods in office. 1642 Duke Jacob (James) Kettler, Duchy of Courland (Latvia), obtains a grant of the island from Charles I for Tobago; he attempts to settle, but he and his men are wiped out by fever. Courlanders build a settlement on Courland Bay in Tobago. Don Martin de Mendoza y Berrío is made governor of Trinidad. 1647 Tobago is offered for sale in England but there are no buyers. 1650 Courlanders are driven out of Tobago by the Indigenous People. 1654 The Duke of Courland attempts to settle Tobago for a third time; he arrives with 100 families and names the settlement New Courland. 1659 The Dutch take control of Tobago. 1662 The Dutch settlers obtain a grant of Tobago from Louis XIV of France. 1664 Charles II of England re-grants Tobago to the Duke of Courland, but he does not attempt another settlement at that time. 1666 The British capture Tobago from the Dutch; French from Grenada attack and oust them, then abandon the island. 1667 Britain officially relinquishes Tobago to France in the Treaty of Breda (1667) and later in the Treaty of Westminster (1672).

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1676 The Dutch begin another settlement in Tobago. 1677 France ultimately captures Tobago after a ferocious battle in Scarborough harbor. 1678–1679 Treaty of Nijmegen-Tobago is restored to the Dutch. 1682–1684 and 1693–1696 Diego Suarez Ponce de Leon is appointed governor of Trinidad and serves two terms. 1684 Tobago is declared a neutral island in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1687–1708 Sixteen Capuchin priests arrive to convert the indigenous population to Catholicism in Trinidad. They establish seven missions. 1688 San Francisco de los Arenales Mission is founded by Capuchins. 1698 Governor José de León y Echales is appointed to Trinidad. 1699 1 December: The Arena Massacre occurs. 1701 Francisco Ruiz de Aguirre is appointed the new governor of Trinidad. 1701–1725 Successive governors of Trinidad include Felipé de Artieda, Félix de Guzman, Pedro de Yarza, Juan de Orvay, Martín de Anda y Salazar, Agustin de Arrendondo, and Bartolomé de Aldunate y Rada. 1725 The cocoa crop in Trinidad is destroyed by severe drought. 1731 The Venezuelan province of Trinidad y Guayana is formed, which is incorporated into the province of Nueva Andalucia. Trinidad is given its own local governor, Bartolome de Aldunate y Rad, who dies in 1733. 1733 A census is taken in Trinidad. 1735 Esteban Simón de Liña y Vera is appointed the new governor of Trinidad. 1739 A smallpox outbreak occurs in Trinidad. 1740 A petition is sent to the Spanish king to waive taxes in Trinidad. 1763 The Treaty of Paris is signed; France cedes Tobago to Britain. Tobago is administered with Grenada, St. Vincent, and Dominica under a governorgeneral with Alexander Brown as lieutenant governor of Tobago. 1768 Tobago House of Assembly holds its first meeting in Georgetown, now called Studley Park, which is the designated capital of the island at the time. 1769 The capital of Tobago is moved to Scarborough. 1770 A slave uprising in Tobago occurs at Courland Bay.

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1771 An enslaved uprising occurs at Bloody Bay, Tobago. 1774 An enslaved uprising occurs in Queen’s Bay, Tobago. 1775 An ant infestation in Tobago destroys crops. 1776 A decree is passed authorizing settlement by foreign Catholics in Trinidad and other Spanish colonies. 1777 Trinidad is placed under the jurisdiction of the captain general and intendant of Venezuela. French planters arrive; Roume de St. Laurent is among them. 1778 A U.S. squadron attempts to attack Tobago. 1781 The French capture Tobago from the Spanish, transforming it into a sugar-producing colony. 1783 24 November: The Cedula of Population is established. The French take control of Tobago by the Treaty of Paris and build the Windward Road between Scarborough and Tyrrel’s Bay. 1784 Governor Don José María Chacón and the Cabildo are transferred to Port of Spain. 1787 The first sugar mill in Trinidad is established at Tragarete Estate. 1790 A hurricane causes widespread destruction in Tobago. Scarborough is burned to the ground after a mutiny of French soldiers. 1793 Yellow fever is believed to have appeared in the colony for the first time. 1797 Sir Ralph Abercromby arrives in Trinidad and captures the island. 18 February: Articles of Capitulation are signed, and Thomas Picton is appointed military governor. 1801 Sir Thomas Picton is appointed civil governor of Trinidad. The Council of Advice is established. 25 December: Elaborate plans for an enslaved revolt are discovered in Tobago. 1802 Trinidad is ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Amiens. Tobago is given to the French. 1802–1803 A three-man commission—William Fullerton, Thomas Picton, and Samuel Hood—is established to administer Trinidad. Commissioner Picton resigns. 1805 Hundreds of enslaved French Africans across the country plot a revolt in Trinidad. The plot is uncovered by the colonial authorities, and intended perpetrators are punished.

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1806 12 October: The first Chinese immigrants arrive on the Fortitude. 1807 The trade in captured Africans ends; hundreds of protesting enslaved Africans march on Government House in Tobago. 1808 Fire destroys the Government Building, the Red House. 1810 A proposal for an Assembly for Trinidad is rejected by the British government. 1811 General Munro is appointed governor of Trinidad. 1812 Registration of enslaved Africans is mandated by the British government. 1813 Jan Santiago de Marino’s insurgents from the mainland take refuge on the island of Chacachacare. 1813–1828 Sir Ralph Woodford serves as governor of Trinidad. 1814 Tobago is passed between Britain and France several times, but it is ultimately given to Britain. 1819 A smallpox epidemic occurs in Trinidad. A fire occurs in a southern urban area of San Fernando. 1832 Disturbances occur on the Plein Palais Estate in Marabella, near the Pointe-a-Pierre Roundabout. 1833–1888 13 March: Tobago is joined to the Windward Islands group with Grenada, St. Vincent (St. Lucia in 1838) and Barbados, the seat of government. The first governor-general, Sir Lionel Smith, KCB, resides in Barbados. 1834 1 August: The Emancipation Act takes effect. The day is celebrated with religious observances. 1838 1 August: Full freedom is given to all formerly enslaved Africans. 1839–1840 French and German immigrants arrive in Trinidad. 1845 Indian indentured laborers begin to arrive in Trinidad. 1846 Sugar Duties Act is implemented. 1847 A disastrous hurricane strikes Tobago, destroying estate buildings and sugar works. 1849 The October (Shaven Head/s) Riots occur. The leaders are arrested, tried and punished. Counsel for the defense, Alexander Fitzjames, blames the riot on the unrepresentative nature of the crown colony system of government.

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1851 Tobago receives 292 captured Africans from St. Helena. 1852 The Scarborough Riot occurs in opposition to burdensome land taxes. 1854 An outbreak of cholera in Trinidad occurs. 1855 9 February: The Act for the Better Government of the Island of Tobago, decreeing that the island would be administered by an imperial appointed Executive Committee, which had responsibility for budgetary and financial matters and advising the lieutenant governor, is passed. 1857 Queen’s Collegiate School is opened. 1862 Tobago receives another shipment of 225 captured Africans from St. Helena. 1865 After the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica, Colonial Assemblies are urged to surrender their powers to the imperial government. 1866 Judicial reform is identified as the first phase of the plan to unify the British Caribbean territories. 20 August: Secretary of State Earl Granville writes to Sir William Robinson, then governor in chief of the Windward Islands, to begin correspondence with the governor of Trinidad on the issue of uniting the islands of Trinidad and Tobago. 1867 The first proposal for a West Indian union is made. This includes a union of Trinidad and Tobago and a plan for uniting the Windward and Leeward islands under a single governor, located in Barbados, with lieutenant governors in the separate islands. 1868 Canadian Presbyterian Missions begin to educate Hindu children. 1870 Queen’s Royal College and the dual system in primary education are established. 1871 3 July: The Tobago Legislature passes the Franchise Extension Act, which decreed that all male citizens 20 years and over and holding property valued at £5 and above were eligible to vote. 1874 14 September: The Single-Chamber Act, which merged the assembly and the council into a body called the Elected Legislative Council, is introduced in Tobago. 1875 5 February: The first meeting of the Elected Legislative Council occurs in Tobago. Planters protest the arrangement as a violation of their rights. John Pope Hennessy replaces Rawson as governor of the Windward Islands. 1876 The first public railway to Arima is opened. 18–25 April: The Confederation Riots occur in Barbados. 1–3 May: The Belmanna Riots occur in Roxborough, Tobago. Order is restored with the aid of a warship from Gre-

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nada. Planters’ fear results in rapid passage of a new constitutional law in the Legislative Council. 6 June: Tobago’s legislature votes to amend the constitution of the colony, changing the island’s status from a representative system to Crown Colony government effective 1 January 1877. The singlechamber elected Legislative Council is abolished in preparation for direct crown rule. 6 December: The Constitution Act of 1876, which abolishes the Tobago Assembly and institutes crown colony government in the island, is passed. 1878 1 November: Lieutenant Governor Augustus Frederick Gore is distressed over the island’s finances and makes the first formal recommendation for unifying Tobago with Trinidad. 1880 Proposals for administering the colonies are put forward recommending a separate Windward Islands government with headquarters in Grenada, Barbados is to be left by itself and Tobago is to be joined to Trinidad. Private and public meetings reflect opposition from Trinidad, and the planned union is temporarily shelved. Reports from officials state that Tobago is unable to pay its debts. Reports of the island’s impending bankruptcy convince officials in London of the necessity of the union of Trinidad and Tobago. 7 July: In Tobago, the roles of administrator and colonial secretary are combined into the post of administrator who replaces the lieutenant governor and whose salary is paid from colonial rather than imperial funds. 1881 Riots break out during Carnival in Trinidad. 1882 Cane farming begins in Trinidad. A Royal Commission is appointed to inquire into the public debts, revenue expenditure, and liabilities of Jamaica, Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Tobago, and the Leeward Islands. It recommends the union of Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and Tobago, but this recommendation is opposed by the various island governments and the Tobago Defense Association. While the financial situation in Tobago worsens, the Tobago Defense Association stepped up its anti-confederation campaign in opposition to Tobago’s inclusion in the new Windward group. 1883 19 April: A Royal Commission spends four days investigating the public debt, revenue, expenditures, and liabilities of Tobago. The commissioners recommend that Barbados should be separated from the Windward Islands government and that Tobago should belong to a group consisting of Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and Tobago with Grenada as the seat of government. 1884 The crash of Gillespie and Company, the main creditor of estates in Tobago, creates economic and social turmoil and uncertainty on the island. A number of estates are abandoned and are subdivided and sold to residents.

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1885 25 February: A debate of the Legislative Council in Tobago ends in a disturbance in the market square. Tobago’s unofficial legislators reject confederation. Administrator J. W. Carrington is appointed. 5 March: Tobago, Grenada, St. Vincent, and St. Lucia are merged to form another version of the Windward Islands government. Tobago planter elite oppose the confederation. The Colonial Office requests Governor William Robinson of Trinidad to reconsider proposals for the union of the two islands. Robinson responds positively, predicting that it would benefit Tobagonians. 1886 Governor Robinson reports that the Trinidad Legislative Council agreed to a union of the two islands. 21 July: The governor in chief of the Windward Islands expresses the view that Tobago will be economically and efficiently administered if it were made a dependency of Trinidad. 20 August: Correspondence from Secretary of State Earl Granville requests Governor in Chief Sendall of the Windward Islands to begin correspondence with Governor Robinson of Trinidad on the issue of “making Tobago a dependency of Trinidad.” The Colonial Office seeks the consent of the Legislative Council of both islands. Tobago is to be administered by a Financial Board with an equal number of official and unofficial members and chaired by a commissioner, who would replace the administrator. 1887 The Royal Franchise Commission submits its report in favor of elected members in the Trinidad Legislative Council. Official and unofficial meetings are held in both Trinidad and Tobago between colonial officials, legislative council members, and influential business figures. A public meeting is held in Tobago. 19 January: Tobago planters request provision in the legislation for the island to opt out of the union if it was found to be unfavorable. This is rejected. The Legislative Council of Tobago unanimously carries the resolution to unite Tobago with Trinidad to form one colony, under one governor, operating under one and the same code of law. 23 January: The Unofficial Members of the Trinidad Legislative Council, except Mr. Fenwick, support the proposed union between Trinidad and Tobago. 8 March: The Trinidad Legislative Council passes a resolution favoring the union of Tobago with Trinidad. 13 March: The Trinidad Legislative Council agrees that Tobago would have its own separate Treasury and Board of Finance. 12 May: The Tobago Legislative Council unanimously supports union as outlined in the dispatch from the secretary of state, Sir Henry Holland. 8 June: A bill to repeal the St. Vincent, Tobago and Grenada Constitution Act of 1876 as far as it relates to Tobago is introduced to make way for planned union of Tobago with Trinidad.

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1888 December: Governor Sir William Robinson, KCMG, announces that the Trinidad and Tobago Act of 1887 had been passed by Order in Council in England and that the union between the two islands would take effect from 1 January 1889. Customs duties come under the control of the government in Trinidad. 1889 Royal Franchise Commission recommendation is rejected by the Colonial Office. 1 January: The Order in Council unifying the two islands comes into force. Tobago’s Legislative Council is dissolved and replaced by a Financial Board. The Act of Union makes provision for at least one judge to hold three sessions of the court in Tobago annually. 1889–1890 Tension and unrest occurs in Tobago when Chief Justice John Gorrie heard cases dealing with the business practices of leading planters on the island. Extensive conflicts between employers and laborers are revealed. 1892 The loss of customs revenue, combined with the ongoing sugar depression, leads to the virtual bankruptcy of Tobago. Tensions over financial matters cause appeals to the Trinidad and Tobago Legislative Council to allow Tobago to manage its own fiscal affairs and for the abolition of the customs union between the two islands. 1893 4 December: A motion to establish a Joint Select Committee to determine the amount of compensation that should be paid to Tobago annually for loss of customs revenue is passed in Council. 1894 5 February: The Report of the Joint Select Committee is laid before the legislature. 1895–1896 Officials in London and Trinidad exchange various thoughts on possible futures for Tobago as the status quo is considered untenable. 10 December: The elected members of the Financial Board write to Commissioner Low complaining about Trinidad’s impact on the unacceptable state of Tobago’s finances. They object to the loss of revenue they claimed to suffer as a result of the customs union. The letter is accompanied by a petition to Queen Victoria identifying the negative effects of union on Tobago. C. L. Plageman organizes a petition of 1,016 signatures of black laboring class residents of Tobago calling for closer union with Trinidad to remedy the deplorable state in which the island found itself and for a round-the-island steamer service. Neither the governor nor the commissioner supports the petition. 1897 9 September: The governor of Trinidad and Tobago, Sir H. Jerningham, proposes to make Tobago a district or ward of the colony after a visit to Tobago when he was struck by the “poverty” of the island. The report of the West Indian Royal Commission headed by Sir Henry Norman recommends

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the dismantling of the Financial Board and making Tobago a ward of Trinidad, the extension of peasant proprietorship, and the establishment of a Botanic Station as part of the new West Indian Agricultural Department. 1898 The Port of Spain Borough Council is abolished, effective 1 January 1899. 24 November: The Order in Council of 17 November 1888 is revoked. The new order, which stipulates that Tobago “shall be a ward of the colony of Trinidad and Tobago,” created the united colony of Trinidad and Tobago effective 1 January 1899. The 1898 order canceled all clauses of the 1888 order except for clauses 1, 2, and 37 and states that “the revenue, expenditure and debt of Tobago shall be merged in and form part of the revenue, expenditure and debt of the united colony and any debt due from Tobago to Trinidad shall be cancelled.” The process of union involves the harmonization of tax revenues, the redeployment of and retrenchment of several local clerical and administrative officials, and the replacement of the Financial Board and Commissioner with the office of warden/magistrate, later the warden. 1899 1 January: The Order in Council comes into effect ending the life of the Financial Board. Tobago is administered by a Trinidad official holding the office of warden/magistrate under the governorship of Sir Hubert Jerningham, KCMG. 1900 29 March: The first motor car arrives in Trinidad. 1901 Branches of the Pan-African Association are formed in Trinidad. 1902 Randolph Rust begins oil drilling at Guayaguayare. The Ratepayers’ Association is established. 1903 23 March: The Water Riots occur in Port of Spain resulting in the burning of the Red House. 1904 Cyrus Prudhomme David becomes the first Afro-Trinidadian to be appointed to the Legislative Council. 1906 Electricity is brought to Trinidad. 1908 First full year of commercial oil production. 23 July: The Trinidad Amateur Football Association (TAFA) is formed. 1914 A yellow fever outbreak occurs in Trinidad. 28 July: World War I begins. Nonwhites participate as members of the British West Indian Regiment. 1917 An ordinance is passed for the colonial authorities to raise money for Britain’s war effort. The Indian immigration scheme is terminated. 1918 World War I ends.

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1919–1922 The Waterfront (Dockworkers) Strike occurs. 1920 The Industrial Court and the Wood Commission are established. 1921 Bishop Anstey High School opens. The last of Indian indentureship contracts ends. 1922 The Leprosarium at Chacachacare opens. Tobago Planters’ Association gives evidence to the Wood Commission opposing constitutional reform, requesting that Tobago be administered by a commissioner rather than a warden. A local Franchise Commission is established. Planter Robert Smith Reid represents Tobago. Audrey Jeffers establishes the Coterie of Social Workers. 1924 Trinidad and Tobago Order in Council introducing elected members in the Legislative Council for the first time is passed. The seven areas into which the colony is divided are represented in the council. 1925 7 February: The first Legislative Council elections are held in Trinidad and Tobago. A. A. Cipriani wins the Port of Spain seat with an overwhelming majority. 1926 The Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture opens. 1928 Witchbroom disease first appears on cocoa estates. 1931 The first plane lands to operate passenger service from Piarco (French line Aeropostale). 1932 The Trade Union Ordinance is enacted permitting trade unions to be legally registered and recognized. 1936 Tubal Uriah Butler is expelled from the Trinidad Labour Party. He forms the British Empire Workers and Citizens Home Rule Party. 1937 Tate and Lyle acquires ownership of the sugar plantations in Trinidad. 1937–1938 The Labour (Butler) Riots occur. Police inspector Charlie King dies while attempting to arrest Butler. 1938 The Trade Dispute Ordinance, which establishes an arbitration tribunal to settle disputes where negotiations between trade unions and employers break down, is passed. 1938–1939 West Indian Royal Commission headed by Lord Moyne is sent out to investigate conditions in the British West Indies. 1939–1945 World War II occurs, and Butler is arrested and detained for the duration of the war.

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1940 The Colonial Development and Welfare Act is passed. The Cocoa Rehabilitation Scheme begins. 1941 A lease-base agreement leasing land in the Northwest Peninsula and Wallerfield to the United States for the establishment of a military base is signed. Sugar production declines. 1941 On the recommendation of the Moyne Commission, the size of the Legislative Council is increased from seven to nine and the nine ex officio members are removed. 1943 Marine drilling for oil begins. 1944 The Caribbean Medical Centre opens. 1944 The Franchise Committee submits its report. 1945 Butler is released from prison and launches his labor union. A new constitution for Trinidad and Tobago is established. The Public Services Commission is introduced. 3 August: Universal Adult suffrage is introduced, and women are allowed to become members of the Trinidad and Tobago Legislative Council. 1946 18 April: A New County Council ordinance divides the colony into seven county councils with 136 wards in all. Tobago is divided into seven wards with two councillors per ward. 1 July: The first Legislative Council elections under universal adult suffrage are held. 28 October: The first County Council general elections are held. 1946–1947 Strikes and labor unrest occur in the oil and sugar industries and riots in Port of Spain. 1947 F. W. Dalley submits his report on trade unions and industrial relations in Trinidad. The Constitutional Reform Committee with 20 members is established under Sir Lennox O’Reilly to recommend further constitutional reform for the colony. 1948 The Constitutional Reform Committee submits a majority and four minority reports. 1949 The new constitution is approved. 1950 20 April: The Trinidad and Tobago Constitutional Order of 1949 comes into force. The number of elected seats in the Legislative Council doubles to 18, the number of nominated unofficials is reduced to five and the three ex officio officials are retained. 18 September: Legislative Council General Elections are held. Constitutional changes introduce a quasi-ministe-

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rial government and ensure elected members a majority in the Legislative and Executive councils. Butler wins but is denied the opportunity to assume office, as he and his party are excluded from the Executive Council. 1950–1956 Albert Gomes heads the quasi-ministerial government. Tax incentives to pioneer industries are introduced. The Caura Sanatorium for tuberculosis patients is opened. 1951 The Commonwealth Sugar Agreement is signed. The Shouter Baptist Prohibition Act is repealed. 1952 Rodney Wilkes wins a bronze medal in weightlifting, and Lennox Kilgour wins a bronze medal at the Summer Olympics. The Scarborough Deep Water Harbour and the Hillsborough Waterworks open in Tobago. Executive powers are granted to County Councils by New Ordinance. The West Indian Independence Party (WIIP) is formed. 1953 The Trinidad Regional Virus Laboratory is established, and the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) is formed. 1954 Outbreaks of yellow fever and polio occur. Dalley submits a second report. Dr. Eric Williams debates with Dom Basil Matthews and a marine oilfield is discovered. 1955 The national election is postponed to September 1956. Williams leaves the Caribbean Commission; his supporters plan the formation of a political party. Williams opens the University of Woodford Square. 1956 Sangre Grande General Hospital is built. The People’s National Movement (PNM) party is formed. Constitutional change establishes a cabinet with a chief minister responsible to the legislature with 24 elected members in the Legislative Council and seven elected members in the Executive Council. 24 September: Legislative Council elections are held. PNM wins 13 out of 31 seats and forms the government. 1956–1961 PNM pressures the Colonial Office to allow the party to nominate five members to the Legislative Council. This provides the PNM with a workable majority in the Legislative Council. A Ministry of Finance is established. 1957 The Democratic Labour Party (DLP) is formed, and the Ministry of Tobago Affairs is established. 1958 The West Indies Federation is inaugurated, and the first federal election is held. The DLP wins six of the 10 Trinidad seats. Tobago’s status as a ward in the united colony is changed, and the island is administered by a Department of Tobago Affairs instead of a warden.

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1959 The newly created Department of Tobago Affairs is headed by a nonresident permanent secretary. 1959 A campaign for the return of Chaguaramas to the people of Trinidad and Tobago begins. The Industrial Development Corporation is established. 1960 Negotiations are held for the return of Chaguaramas and the Concordat is signed with the churches. 16 July: Sir Solomon Hochoy is appointed governor. 12 October: The University College of the West Indies and Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture (ICTA) merge. C. L. R. James severs ties with Eric Williams and the PNM. 1961 Constitutional change grants full internal self-government and sets up a bicameral legislature. 4 December: PNM wins 24 out of 30 seats in the general elections defeating Rudranath Capildeo’s Democratic Labour Party (DLP) and forms the second PNM government. 1962 January: The General Council of the PNM resolves that Trinidad and Tobago will not participate in any federation of the East Caribbean but will proceed forthwith to independence. 19 February: A draft independence constitution is published. 31 August: Trinidad and Tobago attains independence within the Commonwealth of Nations. 1963 30 September: Hurricane Flora hits Tobago. Tobago Planning Team is established to assess the damage and formulate a recovery policy for the island. 1964 The Department of Tobago Affairs is replaced by the Ministry for Tobago Affairs. A Five-Year Development Plan (1964–1968) is formulated. Wendell Mottley wins a silver medal; Edwin Roberts wins a bronze medal; and the 4 x 400 meters relay team of Wendell Mottley, Edwin Roberts, Clifton Bertrand, Edwin Skinner, and Kent Bernard win bronze in the Summer Olympics. 1965 The Industrial Stabilisation Act is passed. 1966 28 October: The Navet Water Works is commissioned. 7 November: General elections are held in Trinidad and Tobago. PNM wins 24 seats, and the DLP wins 12 seats. 1967 Trinidad and Tobago joins the Organization of American States. Teaching of medical students in Trinidad and Tobago begins with the Eastern Caribbean Medical School (ECMS). 1968 Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA) is established.

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1969 May: Dr. Rhodil Norton calls on Tobago to secede because the union is not helping the island. 27 August: A human skeleton is discovered at Banwari Trace; it is dubbed Banwari Man. Naparima Bowl opens. 3 October: Dr. Williams establishes a special Tobago Affairs Committee. 1970 January: The Tobago Emancipation Action Committee chaired by Rhodil Norton calls for secession. 26 February–26 April: Black Power demonstrations occur across Trinidad and Tobago. 13 April: A. N. R. Robinson resigns as minister of External Affairs in the government of Trinidad and Tobago. 21 April: An army mutiny at Teteron Bay occurs. A state of emergency is declared. 20 September: A. N. R. Robinson resigns from the PNM. Robinson forms the Action Committee of Dedicated Citizens (ACDC). 1 December: ACDC merges with the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) to form the ACDC/DLP. 1971 24 May: Early national elections are called. ACDC/DLP announces a no vote campaign and boycotts the elections. PNM wins all 36 seats. 18 June: The Constitution Commission, chaired by H. O. B. Wooding is established. 1972 The Wooding Commission holds 72 public meetings. The state of emergency is lifted. 27 July: Judges at the Privy Council in London, England, rule against the state’s appeal regarding the local Appeal Court’s decision on the conduct of the mutineers in 1970. Raffique Shah Reginald Andrew Lassalle, also known as Rex Lassalle, and all the other mutineers of 1970 are freed 24 hours following this ruling. 1973 CARICOM Caribbean Common Market is formed. 10–11 March: The Wooding Commission submits its report. A draft constitution and Minority Report are laid in Parliament. Prime Minister Williams rejects the report. 1974 Caribbean Epidemiological Center (CAREC) is established. 1975 Workers in the oil, sugar, transport, and electricity sectors carry out strikes. 16 June: The Joint Select Committee of Parliament is established to draft a new constitution. The government completes the purchase of Caroni (1975) Ltd. from Tate and Lyle. 1976 Summer Olympics: Hasely Crawford wins a gold medal in the 100 meters. 19 July: Tobago suffers the world’s largest tanker spill at that time, by the Atlantic Empress, with 287,000 tons of oil. 1 August: By Act No. 4 of 1976, the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Act, Trinidad and Tobago implements a republican constitution. 13 September: General elections are held for the first time under the republican constitution, and the PNM loses the two Tobago seats. A. N. R. Robinson and Winston Murray of the Democratic Action Congress (DAC) are elected representatives for Tobago. The Ministry

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for Tobago Affairs is dismantled and later replaced by Central Administrative Services causing great distress to Tobagonians. 24 September: Trinidad and Tobago officially becomes a republic. 26 November: Regional Congress of the DAC authorizes representatives to move a motion in Parliament and take related steps to achieve internal self-government for Tobago in 1977. 10 December: Robinson’s motion is placed on the Parliamentary order paper for introduction. Robinson’s motion is mysteriously omitted from the Parliamentary Order paper. 10 December 1976–14 January 1977: A petition with more than 4,000 signatures against self-government for Tobago is in circulation. 1977 4 January: A. N. R. Robinson moves a motion in the House of Representatives to make necessary steps to accord to the people of Tobago selfgovernment in such a manner that will not be contradictory to the constitutional reality of the Unitary State of Trinidad and Tobago. 4 February: The Trinidad and Tobago House of Representatives passes a resolution to grant internal self-government to Tobago. February and March: House of Representatives and the Senate agree to establish a Joint Select Committee to make recommendations to effect the 4 February parliamentary resolution to grant internal self-government to Tobago. The committee is composed of 12 members, six from each House of Parliament. 9 May: The Joint Select Committee begins its meetings. All eight meetings are held in the Red House, Port of Spain. The public is invited to submit written comments within two-and-ahalf months (by 30 September 1977). The Department of Tobago Affairs is dissolved, and Tobago’s business is handled by a Department in the Office of the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago. July: Janelle Penny Commissiong is crowned Miss Universe. 1978 Signal Hill Secondary School is founded. 21 July: The Joint Select Committee submits its report to Parliament. Its proposals for Tobago’s selfgovernment, outlined in House Paper No. 6 of 1978, are ratified. The DAC provided a model for the administration of Tobago. 8 September: Dr. Eric Williams commissions Lionel A. Seemungal to draft legislation for the Tobago Internal Self-Government Bill. A medical school is established in Trinidad. 1979 1 May: The DAC holds a rally at James Park, Scarborough, to protest the delay in producing the legislation, and Robinson presents his own proposals. 27 June: Robinson moves another motion to protest the delay on the issue of internal self-government for the island. Dr. Winston Murray forms the Fargo House Movement. October: The Tobago Committee for Human Rights goes on a mission to win regional support for internal self-government for Tobago. 20 November: Seemungal submits draft legislation.

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1980 29 February: The cabinet appoints a committee to consider the Seemungal proposals and the attorney general’s comments, and their relation to the report of the Joint Select Committee. 25–28 February: The cabinet and Attorney General Selwyn Richardson reject the Seemungal Bill. March: Residents of Tobago sign a petition supporting the Seemungal Bill. September: Act No. 37 of 1980, an act to establish the Tobago House of Assembly (THA) for the purpose of making better provisions for the administration of the island of Tobago and matters connected therewith, is passed by a majority vote. 24 November: The first THA elections are held. The DAC wins eight seats, and the PNM wins four. 4 December: President Sir Ellis Clarke presides over the first meeting of the THA. 1980 A rash of firebombings, arsons, and political shootings afflict the country. 1981 Prime Minister Dr. Eric Williams dies at age 69. George Chambers becomes prime minister. 1983 The House of Assembly passes a resolution stating that “repeated constitutional mandates given to its duly elected representatives by the electorate of Tobago within the unitary state of Trinidad and Tobago have met with lack of sympathy, indifference and arrogance from the government of Trinidad.” 1984 26 November: THA elections are held. DAC wins 11 seats; the PNM wins one. 1986 14 February: Three political parties—the DAC, United Labour Front (ULF), and the Organisation for National Reconstruction (ONR)—form a political party called the National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR). 15 December: National elections are held. The NAR wins 33 seats, and the PNM wins three seats. The PNM suffers its first defeat at a national election. 1987 Noor Hassanali becomes president. 1 June: The Constitution Review Commission is established under the chairmanship of Sir Isaac Hyatali to review the constitution of Trinidad and Tobago. 18 August: The Tobago House of Assembly Fund is established. 1988 29 November: THA elections are held. The NAR wins 11 seats, and the PNM wins one. 1989 Teaching begins at Eric Williams Medical Sciences Complex (EWMCS). 1990 27 July: The Jamaat al Muslimeen attempts a coup. A state of emergency is called.

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1991 General elections are held. The NAR is defeated; the PNM returns to power. 21 July: A. N. R. Robinson resigns as leader of the NAR. 5 September: Life of the County Councils is extended by one year due to the state of emergency. County Councils are to be reorganized into regional corporations. 1992 September 30: The THA appoints a technical team chaired by Karl Hudson Phillip to review the constitutional status of Tobago within the unitary state of Trinidad and Tobago. 7 December: THA elections are held. The NAR wins 11 seats, and the PNM wins one. 1994 August 13: Hulsie Bhaggan is officially expelled from the UNC. 1995 September: City Gate opens. 8 October: Robinson accepts leadership of the NAR. 6 November: Snap General Elections were held. PNM won 17 seats, the United National Congress (UNC) wins 17, and the NAR wins two Tobago seats. Basdeo Panday and A. N. R. Robinson form a coalition. Panday is made prime minister, and Robinson is made minister extraordinaire. 1996 In the Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Ato Boldon wins bronze medals in both the 100- and 200-meter events. Tobago House of Assembly Act No. 37 of 1980 is repealed and replaced by Act No. 40 of 1996, which and was established “to provide for the membership, powers, and functions of the Tobago House of Assembly and its Executive Council and matters incidental thereto.” December: THA elections are held. The NAR wins 10 seats, the PNM wins one, and an independent wins one. 1997 14 February: The first presidential elections in Trinidad and Tobago are held. A. N. R. Robinson receives 46 votes, and Justice Anthony Lucky wins 18. A. N. R. Robinson is sworn in as the president of Trinidad and Tobago. 22 February: A mud volcano erupts in Piparo covering an area of 2.5 square kilometers and displacing 31 families. The Tobago House of Assembly Standing Orders of 1997 are approved. 1998 May 12: Wendy Rachelle Fitzwilliam is crowned Miss Universe. 22 September: Minister Nicholson votes against the government’s Squatter Regulation Bill and resigns from the government the next day. 1999 The People’s Empowerment Party (PEP) is formed. 26 May: Trinidad and Tobago hosts the Miss Universe Pageant. 4 June: Dole Chadee and his gang are hanged for murder. 2000 17 January: Prime Minister Panday requests the replacement of two Tobago senators, Agnes Williams and Nathaniel Moore. President Robinson refuses. 2 February: President Robinson follows Panday’s advice on the senators. February: PEP leader Deborah Moore-Miggins displaces William McKenzie as the minority leader in the THA. August: In the Summer Olym-

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pics in Sydney, Ato Boldon wins the silver in the 100 meters and bronze in the 200 meters. The Environmental Management Act is passed. December: The United National Congress (UNC) wins general elections. Three MPs defect, and new elections are called. 2001 Common Entrance is terminated and replaced by the Secondary Entrance Assessment. 29 January: THA elections are held. The PNM wins eight seats, and NAR wins four seats. 10 October: Panday advises the president to dissolve Parliament and appoint 10 December as election day. Robinson asks for a stay of the prime minister’s advice. The prime minister refuses, and Robinson ignores his advice. 12 October: The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) issues a statement that the president must comply with the advice of the prime minister. 13 October: The president acts in accordance with the prime minister’s advice and dissolves Parliament. 10 December: General elections are held. After an 18/18 tie between PNM and UNC, President Robinson appoints the PNM leader, Patrick Manning, to govern the country after the Crown Plaza Accord. Panday breaks the agreement, which results in new elections being called in the next year. 2002 7 October: General elections are held. 2003 George Maxwell Richards is appointed president. PNM Vision 2020 is introduced, as well as the Kidnapping Bill. August: The state-owned sugar company Caroni (1975) Limited is shut down. 2004 In the Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, George Bovell III wins the bronze medal in the 200 meter individual medley. 2005 16 March: Through Act No. 8 of 2005, the Caribbean Court of Justice Act is assented to by Parliament. 26 September: Cable News Channel 3 (CNC3) is launched. 2006 April: Former prime minister Basdeo Panday is sentenced to two years’ imprisonment for committing fraud in public office; he is the first person to be found guilty of breaching the Integrity in Public Life Act. Trinidad and Tobago qualifies for the first time for the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany after defeating Bahrain, becoming the smallest nation ever to qualify for this tournament. The celebration of 200 years since the arrival of the first group of Chinese to Trinidad takes place. The Parliamentary Channels are launched. 10 September: Congress of the People is established. 29 September: 6.1 earthquake rocks Trinidad at 9:15 am. October: Stanford 20/20 Cricket Tournament is launched under the aegis of the West Indies Cricket Board. Trinidad’s National Team placed second. 30 November: The Privy Council hands down its judgment stating that the chief justice, Satnarine Sharma, can be arrested and charged.

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2006 18 August: Sir Ellis Clarke prepares a draft for an amended constitution to give greater autonomy to the people of Tobago. 17 November: Professors Selwyn Ryan and John La Guerre object to the Clarke Draft on the grounds that it was prepared without consultation of the people of Tobago. 2007 A team led by Reginald Dumas holds meetings across Tobago to solicit the views of the people of Tobago on internal self-government. Its findings are presented in the Calder Hall Accord. October: The THA appoints the John Prince Committee to make recommendations to the Special Select Committee of the Assembly to inform Tobago’s position on reform of the constitution and the Tobago House of Assembly Act. 2008 The Trinidad and Tobago cricket team wins the Stanford 20/20 championship. Richard Thompson wins a silver medal in the 100 meters at the Summer Olympics in Beijing, China, and he then teams up with Marc Burns, Emmanuel Callendar, and Keston Bledman to take a silver medal in the 4 x 100 meters relay. 2010 Snap elections are held. The People’s Partnership (PP) (UNC/Congress of the People [COP]/Tobago Organization of the People [TOP]/National Joint Action Committee [NJAC]/Movement for Social Justice [MSJ]) led by Kamla Persad-Bissessar forms the government, and she becomes the first female prime minister. The Fyzabad Accord is signed. 21 August: A limited state of emergency is declared until 2011. 2012 THA elections are held. The PNM wins all seats. August: Keshorn Walcott wins the gold medal for the men’s javelin throw in the Summer Olympics in London. September: Section 34 scandal occurs. 2013 21 January: TOP, a member of the PP coalition government, loses the THA elections. 20 May: Emailgate scandal breaks. July: The Independence Liberal Party (ILP) is formed. The ILP wins the Chaguanas West by-election. 2014 9 April: A. N. R. Robinson dies at the age of 87. 2015 The prime minister appoints a committee to meet with the THA to consider autonomy. 7 September: Elections are held, and the PNM wins 23 of 41 seats to oust the PP. Dr. Keith Christopher Rowley becomes prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago. 2016 2 July: Former prime minister Patrick Manning dies at age 69. August: Javelin thrower Keshorn Walcott wins a bronze medal at the Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. 2017 22 January: Mr. Kelvin Charles is elected the new chief secretary of the THA.

Introduction

“Forged from the Love of Liberty,” as the opening line of its national anthem professes, the twin island nation Trinidad and Tobago, one of the largest Caribbean territories, is characterized by its relative economic and political stability. This, coupled with its rich culture and demographic diversity, has allowed it to play a prominent role within the region, particularly within the last two centuries. Situated off the northeastern coast of mainland South America (Venezuela to be exact), Trinidad and Tobago is the southernmost territory of the Caribbean archipelago. Tobago, the smaller of the two islands (300 square kilometers) is located off the northeastern tip of Trinidad and has a single mountainous area, Main Ridge, covered in tropical rainforest along its center. The Leeward portion of the island in the west, the flattest region, is the most densely populated area and the site of the capital, Scarborough. The island’s population is largely African descended, and its economy, particularly since the mid-20th century, is primarily based on tourism. Trinidad, in contrast, is a cosmopolitan, industrialized island, the larger of the two at 4,800 square kilometers and the center of government. It is broken up by three mountainous ranges, Northern, Central, and Southern Range, and the vast majority of its population inhabits the protected western part of the territory bordered by the Gulf of Paria, particularly in and around the capital, Port of Spain. The petroleum industry, since the 20th century, has been the territory’s primary industry after the decline of the agrarian sector. These two islands, differing in size, heritage, and resources, first became connected through trade and, ultimately, politically. Their dynamic history, thus, begins separately and later merges with the formation of the single colony of Trinidad and Tobago, a process officially begun in 1889 and completed in 1898.

TOBAGO The island of Tobago, which forms part of the unitary state of Trinidad and Tobago, has been known by several different names. 1 It was called Urupaina by the indigenous Kalinas and Aloubaéra by the Island Caribs. Though disputed, it is generally accepted that Columbus named the island Bellaforma and Asumpción, and in 1628, Dutch settlers from Zeeland called the island Nieuw Walcheren. Its present name was derived from the Spanish word for 1

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tobacco because, from the ocean, the island’s contours seemed to resemble a fat cigar, called tabaco, which was rolled with loose tobacco leaves by the Taino Indians of the Greater Antilles. The Indigenous People Prior to the European encounter, Tobago was home to an indigenous population of Island Caribs for whom the island served as an important halfway point of communication for war and trade expeditions and ceremonial exchanges between the Windward Islands and the Guianas. 2 Their numbers were increased by migration of their kin from North Trinidad seeking refuge from Spanish enslavers and in the mid-18th century by Yellow Island Caribs, who fled from St. Vincent, and Island Caribs from Martinique. Their settlements were mainly located on the Windward coast between Rockly Bay and Little Tobago. The main communities were situated in Barbados Bay, Richmond Bay, Kings Bay, Goldsborough Bay, Carapuse Bay, Belle Garden, Roxborough, Louis D’Or, and King Peter’s Bay. In addition, there were settlements at Signal Hill, Man of War Bay, and a few inland hamlets. European Contest, the First British Administration, and the Establishment of the Tobago House of Assembly Europeans, who competed for possession of this island, were attracted by several factors. Rumors in Spanish circles that there were pearl beds off its coast 3 stimulated the interest of some adventurers. The Spanish fleet sailed through the Tobago Sound between Trinidad and Tobago on its way to Cartagena and Porto Bello giving the island strategic importance to Spain and its rivals. Tobago, as a result, became a hideout for pirates and privateers who preyed on Spanish ships. Spaniards seeking labor for tobacco farms in North Trinidad made raids on Tobago’s indigenous population. Other Europeans attempted to settle on the island to cultivate tobacco to take advantage of the favorable market in the early 17th century and challenge Spain’s monopoly claims. European presence initiated a spate of contests on and over the island. Up to the end of the 16th century, this contest mainly occurred between the Indigenous People and the Spaniards as they tried to defend their territory from the first of the European invaders. By the 17th century, the contest was a complicated struggle between the Indigenous People and the different European powers, which sometimes saw them in alliance with one or the other, and the competition among the Europeans for possession of the island. During the first half of the 17th century, some 10 attempts at European settlement were made by Spanish, Dutch, English, and Courlanders, and six further attempts were made by the Dutch and Courlanders during the second

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half of the 17th century. 4 The Spanish made one attempt to settle on the island in 1614, but faced with attacks by the Island Caribs and disease, the settlement lasted only four months. The Island Caribs put up stiff resistance against the European colonizing attempts. They fought several battles against the Spanish of Trinidad during the first two decades of the 17th century and they were supported by unified resistance of the Island Caribs of Martinique, Grenada, and Dominica against foreign interlopers in the region. For example, Dutch settlers in Tobago were chased off the island by the resident Island Caribs with assistance from the Island Caribs of Grenada and St. Vincent in 1630. The contest for imperial possession consumed the 18th century, and the island was shunted from one European possessor to another. Toward the end of the century, when other combatants were eliminated, the rivalry was concentrated between the British and French. By the Treaty of Paris of 10 February 1763, Tobago was confirmed as a British possession, and by the Proclamation of 7 October 1763, the islands of Grenada, the Grenadines, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago were formed into the Government of Grenada under Governor-General Robert Melville who was authorized to establish a government in the colonies. Tobago’s constitution provided a House of Assembly with financial and legislative responsibility under the Old Representative system of government. In March 1764, land was sold by public auction except lands required as woodland and for public purposes, and the island was divided into seven parishes. 5 An important feature of the land alienation process was the creation of a forest reserve for the preservation of rainfall and climate, which established one of the oldest forest reserves in the region on the island. This stimulated the beginnings of the plantation system with a small white ruling class and a large enslaved African population whose insurrectionary resistance to enslavement dates from 1770, a mere three years after the first plantations were established. Eighteen years later, in 1781, the French captured Tobago and administered the island until 1793 then, after shuffling between the British and French, it finally fell into British hands in 1803. Britain Assumes Final Possession Under British rule, the island was immediately affected by the movements to end the trade in captured Africans and enslavement itself in the British colonies. The Limitation Act of 1805, which restricted the number of African captives that could be purchased in the new British colonies, was applied to Tobago. Planters there argued unsuccessfully for special consideration, citing war-associated distress since 1783 and uncertainties of imperial possession, which wrought havoc on plantation operations and the island’s economy. The Abolition of the Trade in captive Africans in 1807 made matters worse

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for it caused increased labor costs to the indebted plantations. Tobago planters joined their Caribbean counterparts in opposition to British antislavery policies. The Tobago House of Assembly petitioned the secretary of state about planters’ impending ruin and became decidedly non-cooperative with the British government. Their disenchantment was accelerated when the Emancipation Act was passed in 1834 liberating the 11,500 enslaved Africans in Tobago and the early termination of the conflict-ridden Apprenticeship system in 1838. The furious planters declared that they faced a serious labor shortage on the island, and their representatives on the assembly passed a series of laws to force the free Africans to remain bound to the estates and sought imperial sanction for immigration schemes to increase their labor supply. Emancipation and Economic Decline The era of freedom in Tobago was marked by a declining economy and tense labor relations, which were fostered by compulsion. Planters were heavily indebted, short of cash to pay wages, and could not obtain credit. Wages were low and had to be paid in kind. Sugar prices were also low, and the old-fashioned plantation operations produced poor-quality sugar that was not competitive, and the island’s sugar industry could not attract investors. The result was the development of a complicated labor arrangement made up of several different but overlapping systems that only served to heighten planter/worker conflict. These systems involved laborers who lived on the estates and paid for their use of the estate house and grounds with their labor; tenants who rented from the estates under a labor for rent arrangement; tenants who rented land from the estate without any labor obligation; parttime laborers who worked for wages; sugar cane farmers; tenants who occupied estate property who could be evicted or whose contract could be terminated at will because there was no time period specified in the contract arrangement; and metayers who operated under the system of sharecropping, which was introduced in Tobago in 1842, 6 often under unwritten contracts with varying terms. Many estate workers operated under several of these systems at the same time, and given the shortage of cash in the island, payments were made in kind, usually in the form of access to estate land. This caused many bitter conflicts between employers and workers as the difficulties of separating the different payments made workers prone to exploitation. The 1846 Sugar Duties Act, which equalized the duties on all sugar on the British market, was a serious blow to the Tobago sugar planters who had additional cause for complaint when the island was hit by a devastating hurricane in 1847, which caused damage amounting to £150,000. Twenty-six sugar works, 30 estate homes, and 456 laborers’ homes were completely

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destroyed, while 23 sugar works, 31 estate homes, and 176 workers’ homes were damaged and 26 people killed. This disaster prompted renewed calls for immigration, which were not approved because some estates were going out of business, and the colony’s revenue plummeted making it unable to meet its expenses. The British government granted a hurricane relief loan of up to £50,000 on soft terms to the planting community but provided no assistance to the working classes. Two batches of liberated African immigrants were approved for the island in 1851 and 1862. 7 This source ceased when the British government stopped funding the liberated African immigration scheme and required those who wanted the immigrants to pay the cost. Much as planters wanted immigrants, the Tobago treasury could not afford the required financial outlay. New Constitutional Arrangements There were several conflicts between the executive and the planters who were bitter against the imperial imposition of Emancipation to their detriment and who sought to implement a number of oppressive policies that the Colonial Office found unpalatable. Between 1846 and 1848, the assembly withheld the vote of supplies for two years leaving the colony in arrears of salaries for two-and-a-half years. The government was embarrassed, and the action convinced the Colonial Office of the need to remove the assembly. Reports from officers on the island, which attributed the degraded condition of the colony to the ineptitude of the assembly, confirmed the view of the Colonial Office that the assembly should be removed. The British government sought a nonconfrontational approach, which began with the introduction of the Executive Committee, first introduced in Jamaica in 1854, to Tobago in 1855. 8 The purpose of this committee was to strengthen the executive and remove control of the assembly over important business of government. The legislature approved the measure, which was passed as the Act for the Better Government of the Island. A new Legislative Council was appointed for life, a Privy Council was nominated by the queen, and the assembly continued to have some control over financial matters. Blaming Governor Shortland for their demotion, the assembly sought his removal, but his supporters from the artisans and working classes advocated the dissolution of the assembly and a widening of the franchise. The Colonial Office did not address these matters, which were important to the lower classes. The Executive Committee did not result in better relations between the executive and legislative arms of government, and impasse after impasse plagued the administration into the 1860s. In 1861, Governor Drysdale proclaimed a new franchise act, which reduced the qualification for voting to property valued at £10, but the 1862 elections made little difference as the candidates were uncontested in all but one district. The re-empowered as-

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sembly was on the rebound, and as the governor sought reform, the assembly requested the abolition of the Executive Committee. Having proven ineffective, the Executive Committee had virtually collapsed by 1862. On 27 March 1863, the assembly expunged the law giving the Executive Committee initiative for monetary grants and voted to reduce their salaries by 50 percent. While the Executive Committee continued to exist, the old pattern of financial policy returned while the colony continued its downfall into deeper financial straits. This served the interests of the imperial government who wanted an opportunity to take firmer control of the administration of the colonies. This came when the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica in 1865 inspired fear of the prospect of black popular rule and led the Jamaican Assembly to surrender its powers. The Tobago Assembly followed suit after the outbreak of the Belmanna War in 1876, and by the Tobago Constitution Act of 1876 all functions and privileges of the House of Assembly were abolished. Crown colony rule was instituted in 1877. The island’s affairs were conducted by the lieutenant governor who alone could initiate money votes, a wholly nominated Legislative Council, three nominated unofficials, and three ex officio officials. While it was the hope of the elite groups that the crown would protect them from the aggressions and political aspirations of the laboring classes and support the sugar industry, the crown colony government was focused on the island’s financial crisis. Increased competition from beet sugar, falling sugar prices, drought, reduced sugar production, and the expenses related to the suppression of the Belmanna War left the island with a deficit of £3,386, forcing the government to borrow £1,000 from leading planter James Keens. A policy of retrenchment in the civil service and wage reduction did not reduce the debt and service the outstanding loan, which led to the need for another £1,000 loan by 1879. Feeling that the situation could not be resolved, Governor Gore suggested abolition of all the major public posts and union with Trinidad as there was no need to maintain a separate government in Tobago. Between 1879 and 1880, the island’s administration was rocked by a series of scandals involving the embezzlement of public funds, which the debt-ridden island could ill afford. In 1880, the British government stopped paying the salary of the lieutenant governor despite being advised that such a move would make the island “hopelessly bankrupt.” Governor Gore embarked upon revenue-generating measures by increased taxation. Higher taxes were imposed on properties of all sizes, and import duties on basic items and luxuries and the reimposition of export duties were instituted to the chagrin of the elite planters and merchants. The unofficial in the Legislative Council humiliated the governor by proposing a reduction of his salary from £1,100 to £600. Opposition to the new tax regime mounted, and Gore was

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forced to back down. He left the colony in May 1880, but his replacement, Edward Laborde, continued to face planter resistance right up to the end of his term in 1883. 9 The financial state worsened, and the crash of Gillespie and Company in April 1884, the last company to provide advances to the planting community, sealed the fate of Tobago. Drought from 1884 to 1886, beet sugar stimulated depression in the sugar industry, and the collapse of Gillespie and Company threw the island into chaos. Little money was in circulation, planters could not hire wage laborers, the poorer classes disposed of their possessions to avoid taxes, and the sugar industry was at the door of extinction. It was virtually impossible to raise revenue by further taxation, but between 1884 and 1886, there was further retrenchment and cuts in salaries and expenditure. When there was no further possibility for retrenchment and cost cutting, Administrator Llewellyn recommended annexation to Trinidad. The only hope for the sugar industry was a financial bailout from the Colonial Office, which was not forthcoming. The Tobago sugar industry was allowed to die, and the island was unified with nearby Trinidad despite the opposition of the elite class. The demise of the sugar industry was a blessing in disguise for the laboring classes who were able to fully establish themselves as a class of landowners when abandoned sugar estates were subdivided and sold in fiveacre parcels. Union with Trinidad In 1889, the twin island colony was created, and by Order in Council of 20 October 1898, Tobago was demoted to a ward in the united colony of Trinidad and Tobago effective 1 January 1899. The union brought together two islands with different histories, cultures, and populations, which, hitherto, had minimal contact with each other. That one was larger, wealthier, and the seat of the colonial administration while the other was smaller with an impoverished economy established the basis for an unequal relationship in which Tobago was perceived as a dependency. Union was not favored by the elite classes in both islands. The Trinidad upper class did not want to be responsible for the burden of Tobago’s debts while the Tobago elites, proud of their political heritage with a legislative assembly felt it was demeaning to be associated with a mere crown colony. There was little knowledge of and interest in Tobago’s affairs from the central government in Trinidad and little understanding of the people of Tobago. The people of Tobago were unable to make much impact on the administration of the unified colony despite their many petitions to the Colonial Office and addresses to the governor detailing the many problems that beset ordinary folks on the island. There were no satisfactory arrangements for the voice of Tobago to be heard in the colony’s

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government. The island’s representatives were hampered by poor communications between the two islands, which sometimes necessitated up to two weeks to attend a sitting of the legislature. 10 James Biggart, its representative on the Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago, called the attention of the central government to the island’s many problems, and the campaign was continued by A. P. T. James to no avail. 11 The problems of Tobago remained unattended. The advent of the People’s National Movement (PNM) government in 1956 led to an admission that Tobago had been treated unfairly. A Tobago developmental team was sent to the island in 1957 to investigate and recommend appropriate development action. However, neither the independence nor the republican constitution of 1962 and 1976, respectively, made any provision for treating with the special circumstances of Tobago. When the island was hit by Hurricane Flora in 1963, reconstruction and restoration of the agricultural sector formed part of the development agenda. Still plagued by inadequate attention, the population voted against the ruling PNM, who lost the two seats in the 1976 elections. In retaliation, Prime Minister Eric Williams abolished the Ministry for Tobago Affairs, which created chaos on the island. Public servants, teachers, and all other government employees were unpaid for seven months, and this caused island-wide anger and hostility toward the central government and embittered the relationship between Trinidad and Tobago. The Movement for Autonomy Opposition to the island’s neglect increased and strengthened the call for autonomy. A. N. R. Robinson and Winston Murray led the movement for increased autonomy for the island, and as a result of their overtures in Parliament, the restored Tobago House of Assembly (THA) was established in 1980. The limited autonomy provided by the Tobago House of Assembly Act disappointed the population. The movement for greater autonomy increased, and the act was revised in 1996. But there continues to be dissatisfaction with financial allocations to the THA, so there are ongoing efforts to have these matters settled to provide the level of autonomy that the population of Tobago desires.

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TRINIDAD Early Interactions and Developments: The Indigenous and the Spanish As the first port of call for indigenous groups migrating into the Caribbean from South America, Trinidad was the host and home of numerous ceramic and pre-ceramic people who developed intricate networks of trade and complex, interconnected societies. Thus, despite Christopher Columbus claiming the territory for Spain on his third voyage into the region in 1498 and the subsequent neglect by Spain (since Trinidad possessed no precious metals and gems), which left it largely “uninhabited” and underdeveloped by this imperial power, the island continued to operate as a home for a significant number of Indigenous People and a hub for their movements into and through the region. The few Spanish settlers mingled with the Indigenous People, creating a group of mixed heritage known as mestizos. Their intermingling in no way deterred the European settlers from their ultimate goals, however. They eventually established the encomienda system, creating reservations to “corral” and exploit the Indigenous People as labor. The church also played a role in these embryonic stages of Spanish rule with Capuchin monks arriving in the island in 1686 to establish missions throughout the territory to control and convert the indigenous groups within the society. Forced to work on these reservations under very difficult conditions, and decimated by epidemics of smallpox, malaria, and yellow fever, the numbers of Indigenous People began to falter dramatically by the turn of the 18th century. To Spanish authorities, the few settlers and declining numbers of indigenous proved incapable of fulfilling their desire to exploit the territory, particularly once Spain’s larger empire began to crumble and attention was turned to its remaining underdeveloped colonies. As such, in 1776, the first immigration decree was introduced to encourage planters to migrate to Trinidad to establish estates. However, it was the expansion of this scheme in 1783, under a new Cedula of Population, that led to a large-scale influx of French Catholic planters (white and of mixed heritage), their capital, expertise, and, most important, their enslaved workers into the territory. The governor, Don José María Chacón, put in charge of ensuring the success of this Cedula, can be credited with the development of the infrastructure, services, and systems necessary to initiate, control, and propel a plantation society dominated by sugar production and grounded on the system of enslavement of Africans, as Trinidad ultimately came to be. This was a problematic development, especially in an age of increasing humanitarian activity, enslaved resistance, and clear indications of the decline of the system of enslavement. Nonetheless, the colony flourished under Chacón but remained, despite his efforts, poorly

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defended and a haven for privateers, pirates, and illegal traders of Britain, France, and the Netherlands as these nations escalated their efforts to break the Spanish monopoly of the New World. British Administration The British, under its foremost officer of the day, Sir Ralph Abercromby, captured Trinidad from the Spanish in 1797. The colony was officially ceded by the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. Initial difficulties—the challenges of powerful French and Spanish groups within the society, a sizable and wealthy free colored population, an expanding group of enslaved individuals, and a young but thriving sugar economy that was tied to the continued investment of all these stakeholders—were daunting for the early British administrations such as Sir Thomas Picton, the first governor. Nonetheless, through oppressive policies and strong-arm tactics of successive British governors the colony continued to prosper, though the end of the trade in enslaved persons in 1807 challenged the growing sugar industry and encouraged illegal smuggling of enslaved persons into the island. The early 19th century was also marked by the constitutional reform. After years of speculation, Trinidad was not given a legislative assembly in 1810 but was administered as a crown colony, and this political decision heightened the struggle for civil rights by the oppressed free people of mixed heritage, which they eventually won in 1829. Additionally, as the abolitionist movement advanced and the economic viability of the sugar industry came into question, there were efforts to improve the conditions of the enslaved. The Registration Bill of 1812 and the amelioration measures of 1823–1824, examples of such initiatives, nonetheless, were sabotaged by members of the planter class, who, even without legislative powers, were able to frustrate imperial policy, which conflicted with their interests. Thus, with economic and social conditions deteriorating in the Caribbean, by the early 1830s it was clear that the end of enslavement was inevitable. Post-emancipation Era Enslavement in the British West Indies was officially abolished in 1834, but fears of the collapse of the Caribbean economy due to loss of control of the workforce led most West Indian governments to institute what Ray Kiely refers to as “four more years of effective slavery under “apprenticeship” 12 a system whereby enslaved persons had to continue to labor on the estates. Initially, it was implemented for four years for domestics and six years for field workers, but all were freed after four years due to increasing objections to the system by abolitionists and the enslaved people. In the aftermath of apprenticeship, there was significant movement of laborers off the estates, if

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not away from estate work. With uncultivated land available in abundance, freedmen purchased or squatted on crown lands, established themselves as peasant farmers, or engaged mainly in some form of independent employment and developed a number of free villages. There was increasing urbanization as well, with freedmen moving into and around Port of Spain in particular. Bridget Brereton estimates that by 1846 there were approximately 5,400 freedmen living in new villages such as Laventille and Belmont on the outskirts of the capital city and Rambert and Victoria Villages in the southwestern urban area of San Fernando. She further claims that by 1847 the resident estate labor had shrunk by 40 percent. 13 Though there was less land available in Tobago, movement off the plantation was constant, particularly onto abandoned estates. The government employed coercive measures to force laborers to remain on the plantation such as laws against squatting in 1847 and increasing the price of crown lands. However, inducements of higher wages and the forging of new working relationships, such as sharecropping schemes (the Metayage System was prevalent in Tobago from 1848, for instance) and task work, which was used heavily in Trinidad, were more successful. The crisis within the main industry continued, nonetheless, devastating sugar planters. The rising competition of beet sugar and the increase of muscovado sugar producers worldwide reduced the West Indian markets. The Sugar Duties Act of 1846, which equalized the duties on all sugar entering Britain and thus eliminated the traditional preferential treatment of Caribbean sugar in its markets, further decimated the industry. The subsequent collapse of British merchant firms and the West India Bank a year later led to a crash in the Caribbean sugar industry. Despite the abandonment of 13 estates in Trinidad between 1838 and 1848 and the claim that 159 estates were operating at a loss in that time, 14 the distress laments of the Trinidad sugar planters were exaggerated as this colony’s sugar industry remained one of the most viable in the British Caribbean. Between 1860 and 1897, Trinidadian planters were able to mechanize the industry 15 because the island attracted investors. The construction of central factories, such as Usine Ste. Madeline, for the initial processing of sugar and amalgamation of estates were among the strategies used to revive the sugar industry in the latter part of the 19th century. Fortunately, the Trinidadian and the Tobagonian economies benefited in this period from the rise of the cocoa markets in Europe. Cocoa experienced a boom in the 1870s, 16 and with Trinidad boasting the highest quality of cocoa, many sugar planters and peasant farmers were encouraged to convert to this crop. The cocoa industry would be crucial to the stability of the economy, Trinidad’s more so than Tobago’s, through the difficult vacillations of the sugar industry in the latter 19th century. Cocoa continued to return high profits until its collapse in the 1920s.

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International market problems aside, in the eyes of the Trinidadian planters and the colonial administration, the internal loss of labor, which was somewhat exaggerated by both at times, was largely to blame for the decline of the sugar industry. As such, the introduction of immigrant labor seemed, as K. O. Lawrence suggests, a “natural response.” 17 Numerous immigrant indentureship schemes were introduced. China, Europe, Madeira and the Azores, America, and other smaller Caribbean territories were tapped for estate labor. The most successful laborers, however, came from Africa, China, and India seeking a new life or an adventure but ultimately facing distinct hardship and discrimination (particularly when working for planters who maintained “enslaver” mind-sets). Tobago, unable to afford large numbers of indentured laborers, could not participate formally in such schemes. As cheaper and more reliable laborers, Indian indentured workers constituted the largest group. Shipments of laborers began to arrive in 1845 and, excluding a short period between 1848 and 1851 when lack of funding prohibited the scheme, continued until 1917. This solution to an economic problem impacted significantly on the society and culture of these territories, ballooning (Indian migrants in 1918 amounted to 129,251 persons 18), diversifying, and enriching the population. They constituted a problem as well, exacerbating the burden on inadequate services in a colony already grappling with the uneasy transition to a free society and disrupting the process of negotiation for better wages and working conditions that workers were engaged in after emancipation. The general uneasiness that resulted in the society is clearly evidenced by the clashes with authorities of the disenfranchised, poor, laboring freedmen, and immigrant groups as occurred through the Canboulay Riots of 1881 and the Muharram Riots of 1884. Carnival, which had been taken over from the French white elite by the African groups in the post-emancipation period, also at that time represented a point of contention between the establishment and poorer classes. The post-emancipation era was challenged by the need to establish a society that could accommodate, protect, and nurture the development of freedmen and these new immigrant groups while combating the engrained prejudices of colonialism that typically informed policy and the development of systems. For instance, the Public Health Ordinances, which were catalyzed by outbreaks such as the cholera epidemic in 1854, were unable to address the real needs of the population even as they targeted the poor African groups in the urban areas. The introduction of the ward system by Governor Harris in 1851 and the emergence of the dual system that allowed for assistance to both church and government schools, though problematic, supported the efforts to secularize the system and make it more inclusive of and available to the people of African descent—at least in the ward’s school system. Educational reform allowed as well in this period for the advancement of secondary education

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with the establishment of two competing boy schools, Queen’s Collegiate School (later Queen’s Royal College) and the College of Immaculate Conception, a Catholic institution. It must be noted, however, that the ward system failed to attract and facilitate the retention of Indian students who became dependent on the Canadian Presbyterian Missionaries, led by John Morton, to provide translator-facilitated classes. The last two decades of the 19th century brought great changes to the colonies of Trinidad and Tobago. Sugar crises in both decades—1884–1885 and 1895–1897—exacerbated the problems of Tobago, resulting in its bankruptcy particularly after the collapse of the merchant house, the Gillespie Brothers of London, which owned a half of Tobago’s sugar estates. Challenges were not confined to the economy, however. Constitutional reform movements, emerging from the growing mixed and Afro-Creole middle classes, in this era reflected the growing opposition to direct rule from the metropolis. The crown colony system, formally in operation since 1810, left no openings for representatives other than those of the white elite class. The 1831 establishment of the Legislative Council, though allowing for greater autonomy, still restricted the council membership to a nominated group of the planter class. Efforts by the growing mixed middle class, though successful in mobilizing the laboring groups, failed, however, to establish elected members and infiltrate the Legislative Council in reform movements of 1885–1888 and 1892–1895. The union of Trinidad and Tobago, serious discussions about which had begun as early as the 1860s, was finally achieved in two stages. In 1889, in the midst of heated, lengthy debates in the councils of both colonies, the colonies were administratively joined, maintaining separate exchequers and establishing a central government in Trinidad. This entire process was made easier by the fact that Tobago had also become a crown colony by 1876 and was in severe economic crisis, the burden of which Britain wished to alleviate. Even with the myriad of issues over management, duties, migration, and communication driving dissention between the two territories and complicating the initial union, the imperial government in 1898 made the decision to fully annex the two colonies, creating one new colony of Trinidad and Tobago.

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO The Early 20th Century: Crises and Constitutional Developments The 20th century opened with a virulent smallpox epidemic and violently with the Water Riots of 1903, fueled by the social and economic injustices present in the society that also manifested within the political sphere. The

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attacks against the crown colony government that had accelerated in the latter decades of the 19th century were to come to the fore in the early 20th century and turn the tide gradually toward greater autonomy. World War I (1914–1918), however, provided an important economic boost and shone a light on the labor problems of the colony. The oil industry, which had begun to export oil in 1908, was expanded once Churchill announced in 1910 that the Royal Navy would be converting from coal to oil. Artificial markets, as well, were produced for sugar as European production and trade broke down, leading to a growing demand for Trinidadian sugar. These booms in essential industries, ironically, did not alleviate general economic conditions. The scarcity of goods (or the threat of it) led to inflation, in part due to unscrupulous merchants. Prices rose by 145 percent and the cost of living by 148 percent, placing increased pressure on the already heavily burdened proletariat. 19 With importation of goods severely threatened, Tobago became a major source of food for Trinidad, providing a needed boost to the Tobagonian peasantry. Nonetheless, general inflation, coupled with the fact that there was no concomitant rise in wages, despite the boom in the petroleum and agricultural industries, disgruntled the largely Afro-Trinidadian working-class groups. There were wage cuts and layoffs and a general deterioration in worker conditions. These sentiments were fed by the returning veterans who had suffered discrimination at the hands of the British in Europe. The British, at first, refused to accept men of African descent but eventually agreed to constitute the West India Regiment as a separate unit; however, only white Creole West Indians were commissioned as officers. During the war, the Caribbean contingent experienced severe discrimination, lower pay, and restriction to noncombat activities and, in reaction, formed secret organizations to plan for agitation for political reform upon their return to the Caribbean. The end of Indian indentureship in 1917 also created ripples within the society. The control of labor, crucial in the agricultural industry, was again undermined by this development, and efforts to curtail the movements of indentured workers led to the establishment of controversial legislation such as the 1919 Habitual Idlers’ Ordinance. Thus, catalyzed by these deteriorating social conditions and injustices, the workers of Trinidad and Tobago erupted in the immediate aftermath of the war, between November 1919 and February 1920. Strikes, first generating on the docks of Port of Spain, spread to include workers from the sugar, oil, construction, and railway sectors; city council; and the Electric and Telephone Company. Workers took to the streets in Port of Spain, Chaguanas, and Couva in central western Trinidad; Sangre Grande and Toco in northeastern Trinidad; and Tobago. These episodes of worker unrest led to a

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Commission of Enquiry (Wood Commission), the recommendations of which directly stimulated political reform in Trinidad and Tobago, particularly the first general election in 1925. The interwar period was one characterized by depressed industries and resultant deteriorations in social conditions and labor relations, which in turn propelled proletariat movements and unrest in the 1930s. The rise of trade unionism, led in large part by the Trinidad Workingmen’s Association and influenced by the pan-African movement and returning World War I veterans such as A. A. Cipriani, played a significant role in these events. The culmination of growing worker disgruntlement and strong proletariat leadership in the oil and sugar industries were the strikes and riots that occurred from 1934 to 1937 in Trinidad and Tobago. Within the narrative of the 1930s unrest, one prominent figure stood out, Uriah “Buzz” Butler, an oilfield worker and trade union leader, who led workers in a general strike and riot in 1937. At the outbreak of World War II, however, in 1939, Trinidad and Tobago, as a colony of Britain, also declared war on Germany. Men rushed to enlist in the Royal Air Force, women joined the Red Cross and the Women’s Volunteer Service, and fundraising activities commenced. Food and material shortages, however, as the war escalated, led to rationing, Grow Your Food campaigns, and an increase in agricultural land under food cultivation as well as a black market in goods. The disruption of war also caused an escalation in diseases, particularly venereal diseases, as foreign soldiers began to flood the island. Because of its oil resources, Trinidad became central to Allied defence, particularly during the Battle of the Caribbean at the peak of the war. In 1941, under the Allies’ Destroyers for Bases deal, in which the British leased certain Caribbean areas for 99 years to the United States in exchange for 50 old American destroyers, the colony became the site of two U.S. military bases, at Wallerfield in northcentral Trinidad and in Chaguaramas, the northwest peninsula, which encouraged further movement of labor out of the agricultural industry into the bases and other related construction and employment due to attractive wages. American influences on the local culture— social life, slang, music, film, and food—were prominent in this era. The political repercussions of the presence of this hegemonic power in a precursor period to the decolonization era were also significant. The inaugural first general elections in 1946 reflected the extent of the impact of World War II on the social, economic, and political trajectory of the colony. Movement to Independence Decolonization in Trinidad arguably had its genesis in the political movements of the early 20th century. However, representative government was achieved only gradually. By 1925, the first elections were held, and in 1946,

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the first elections under universal adult suffrage were held, though the majority of members in the Legislative Council remained nominated. With labor groups leading the opposition, by 1950 this changed with an elected majority controlling the council. It was, however, the rise of Dr. Eric Eustice Williams to premier in the 1956 elections with his more conservative political party the People’s National Movement (PNM) that began the shift to black middleclass political power. The rival People’s Democratic Party (and later the Democratic Labour Party) also presented an effective challenge to the PNM, ensuring that the checks and balances of the imported Westminster system were in play in the politics of the colony. In 1958, Trinidad and Tobago entered the Federation of the West Indies with 10 other Caribbean nations, but this ultimately began to collapse in 1961 once Jamaica, the other large, wealthy colony, pulled out of the union. After extricating itself from the Federation of the West Indies in early 1962 and engaging in months of heated debate, Trinidad and Tobago became the second British Caribbean colony to achieve independent status, becoming a nation on 31 August 1962. Independence: Growing Pains and Progress After independence, the People’s National Movement continued to dominate the political sphere with Dr. Williams at its helm until his death in 1981. The nation furthered its autonomous aims in 1976 when, on 24 September, the country became a republic. However, it was clear by the 1970s that independence had not afforded all that had been promised. Catalyzed by the civil rights and Black Power movements of the 1960s and 1970s in the United States, a cultural movement occurred in Trinidad and Tobago in the 1970s (reflected in the rise of Afrocentric fashion and Afro-American music) that heightened the consciousness of the people to the inequalities, both class and ethnic, that continued to exist within the society. This growing sensitivity to the disparity between the treatment and opportunities afforded to white Creole groups and the Afroand Indo-Trinidadian members of the society led to a significant period of unrest beginning in February 1970. Local university students organized large marches and staged sit-ins in an effort to communicate the depths of discontent within the population and move the government to effect change in the political and socioeconomic framework of the country. The escalation of the movement and a subsequent army insurrection at Teteron Barracks, however, led to Prime Minister Williams declaring a state of emergency on 21 April 1970. The arrests of student leaders and eventual surrender of the instigating officers of the army insurrection eventually halted the revolution. Despite developments within the petroleum industry, the first years of independence were marked by economic problems evidenced by the constant issues surrounding labor relations that continued to manifest, at times vio-

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lently. For instance, in 1965 a limited state of emergency was implemented to control worker strike activity. However, the oil boom of 1973 to 1986, catalyzed by a Middle East crisis, severely interrupted this economic trajectory. This boom (oil prices jumped by 400 percent and the petroleum industry’s contribution to GDP rose from 22.3 percent to 47.4 percent in 1974) resulted in unprecedented wealth for the young nation that further led to increased industrialization, a construction boom, and the development of services such as public education and health care. It also led to a drastic change in lifestyle and spending habits of the average citizen and unfortunately postponed the conflict between organized labor and the administration, which had been brewing since before independence. The collapse of oil prices by 1986, however, ushered in a period of economic depression in the late 1980s and 1990s, leading to a loan agreement with the International Monetary Fund and consequent retrenchment of workers and austerity measures such as a 10-percent cut in the salaries of public servants and the 15percent value-added tax to most goods. Tobago faced an even starker reality, having lagged developmentally in the pre-independence era due in large part to the negligence of the central government and its indifference to Tobagonian politicians’ determined efforts to bring the island’s peculiar issues to the forefront of local political discourse. Tobagonian leaders, led by A. N. R. Robinson, nonetheless, persevered in the postindependence period, agitating through the legislative process for greater autonomy. As mentioned, in 1980 a controversial new Tobago House of Assembly Act was passed, affording a limited form of selfgovernment to the island. This was further expanded in a 1996 revision of the act. The first 30 years of independence continued to be stamped by major changes. During the 1980s, with the economic crisis at its height, the dominance of the PNM was effectively challenged for the first time since independence as another group, a political coalition called the National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR), led by renowned Tobagonian politician A. N. R. Robinson, claimed victory in the 1986 election. Unfortunately, during the Robinson administration another violent insurrection, an attempted coup, occurred on 27 July 1990 led by a small Islamic sect, the Jamaat al Muslimeen. After six days of violence—during which the seat of government, the Red House, was held by force, widespread looting occurred, the prime minister suffered a gunshot wound, and a state of emergency was called—a controversial amnesty was signed, and the Muslimeen surrendered to the Trinidad and Tobago Regiment. The People’s National Movement was able to reclaim the government in 1991 under veteran politician Patrick Manning but was again defeated in the 1995 election, which ushered in the Basdeo Panday administration under another coalition led by the United National Congress. The PNM, however,

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again returned to power in 2001 cementing its legacy as the longest surviving political party within the nation. Controversy, however, surrounded the latter years of the Manning administration, which ended with a premature election in 2010 and the beginning of the five-year term of the first female prime minister, Kamla Persad-Bissessar of the coalition People’s Partnership. In the second year of her administration, a limited state of emergency, directed at crime “hot spots” was implemented to curb a recent dramatic spike in the homicide rate. In 2015, the People’s National Movement, under new leadership, Dr. Keith Rowley, returned to power. Socially, Trinidad and Tobago has faced a myriad of challenges as well. The spiking levels of sexually transmitted diseases (HIV/AIDS, in particular), the increase in the drug trade, gang activity, illegal immigration, and white-collar crime since the 1990s, as well as a race polemic that is increasingly pervasive within the society, has placed significant pressure on the peace and stability of this small island state. Nonetheless, despite these growing pains, the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago continues to effectively exhibit a strong identity, political and economic stability, and evolving, functional services and systems, all supported by a cultural heritage that unfailingly unites and inspires its people.

NOTES 1. Arie Boomert, “Amerindian European Encounters in and around Tobago (1498–ca. 1810),” Antropologica 97–98 (2002): 83. 2. Boomert, “Amerindian European Encounters,” 83. 3. Boomert, “Amerindian European Encounters,” 81. 4. Gelien Matthews, “Tobago—in and out of Colonial Empires,” in Caribbean Atlas, ed. Romain Cruse and Kevon Rhiney, accessed 29 June 2017, http://www.caribbean-atlas.com/en/ themes/waves-of-colonization-and-control-in-the-caribbean/waves-of-colonization/tobago-inand-out-of-colonial-empires.html. 5. Douglas Archibald, Tobago “Melancholy Isle,” vol. 1, 1498–1771 (Port of Spain: Westindiana Ltd., 1987), 106. 6. Susan Craig-James, The Changing Society of Tobago, 1838–1938: A Fractured Whole, vol. 1, 1838–1900 (Arima, Trinidad and Tobago: Cornerstone Press, 2008), 157–59. 7. Henry Isles Woodcock, A History of Tobago (London: Frank Cass and Co. Ltd., 1971), 95. 8. James, The Changing Society of Tobago, 233. 9. James, The Changing Society of Tobago, 251–54. 10. James, The Changing Society of Tobago, 309. 11. Learie Luke, Identity and Secession in the Caribbean: Tobago versus Trinidad, 1889–1980 (Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2007), 125–46 and 167–200. 12. Ray Kiely, The Politics of Labour and Development in Trinidad (Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 1996), 33.

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13. Bridget Brereton, A History of Modern Trinidad (Kingston, Jamaica: Heinemann, 1981), 80. 14. Brereton, A History of Modern Trinidad, 82–83. 15. Brereton, A History of Modern Trinidad, 84. 16. Brereton, A History of Modern Trinidad, 91–92. 17. K. O. Lawrence, A Question of Labour: Indian Immigration into Trinidad and British Guiana 1875–1917 (Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 1994), 1. 18. Lawrence, A Question of Labour, appendix II. 19. Brereton, A History of Modern Trinidad, 157.

A ABU BAKR, YASIN (1941– ). Leader of the Jamaat al Muslimeen, the radical Islamic group that attempted the overthrow of the A. N. R. Robinson–led administration in 1990, Abu Bakr was born Lennox Phillip, the eighth of 15 children. His father was a soldier. Before his conversion to Islam, Bakr served as a mounted officer of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service, where he was employed for 10 years. He subsequently migrated to Canada where, while studying engineering in the early 1970s, he was heavily influenced by the teachings and philosophies of Afro-Islamic movements sweeping North America. In 1984, Phillip returned to Trinidad and Tobago a deeply inspired and committed Muslim. His level of immersion in the faith is reflected in the fact that he chose to carry the name of the first of the caliphs, Abu Bakr, the figure regarded by many as the worthiest among Mohammed’s early male companions. Once back in Trinidad, Abu Bakr busied himself organizing a jumma of his own. He began constructing a mosque at No. 1 Mucurapo Street, St. James, Port of Spain, on land hitherto disputed between the Islamic community and the state. He was continually in conflict with the state and its law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, whom he often accused of incompetence and complicity in narco-trafficking. Meanwhile, using the mosque as his headquarters, he established a corpus of militant and determined young and even relatively older ones, fiercely loyal to him and his cause of ruling the streets, keeping the bad boys of Port of Spain and its surroundings in check, and putting an end to the local drug trade. For the most part, the state and the police viewed him as a threat to national security. In 1985, Abdul Kareem, a member of the Jamaat, was stabbed to death while in police custody. Bakr cited this as police brutality, murder, and corruption. In 1988, when the sprawling compound of the Jamaat al Muslimeen at No. 1 Mucurapo Street was raided by the police, they recovered guns and ammunition. Some 35 members of the Jamaat were arrested. Bakr cited this as further evidence of police provocation and harassment of the members of his Jamaat with whom, according to him, the authorities seemed bent on forcing a violent confrontation. In his vitriolic re21

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sponses, he virtually declared war on the state and the police, vowing to defend the members of his organization and the compound of the Jamaat from the police and the state. Matters seemed to be heading for a confrontation of sorts, but hardly anyone, including the authorities, had anticipated that the climax of Bakr’s response to the conflict would be to lead his followers in a violent attempt to overthrow the government in July 1990. Nor were the government and population at large to anticipate that, as perpetrators of this attempted coup, Bakr and his insurgents would ultimately go virtually unpunished by the law. But Bakr and his insurgents survived both his coup and the attempt to prosecute him, and, in the aftermath of the developments of 1990, they have remained an intractable problem for the government of Trinidad and Tobago. As was the case before 1990, in the aftermath of the coup, Bakr has had several brushes with the law. In 2005, he was arrested for inciting violence, when he announced at a celebration of Eid ul Fitr that he would wage war against Muslims, presumably Indian members of the faith who refused to pay Zakaat. In 2006, he was again arrested for murder, but the state lost its case due to insufficient evidence and a hostile witness. A somewhat enigmatic but charismatic personality, he fancies himself to be something of a folk hero. In a country where bigamy is clearly against the law, he continues to boast of and is known to have several wives, albeit in accordance with Sharia law. Notably, too, he has never expressed remorse or regrets over the events of 1990. See also RED HOUSE; TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO TELEVISION (TTT). ACHONG, BERT GEOFFREY (1928–1996). Achong was born in the capital city of Port of Spain, Trinidad, on 6 December 1928. From a young age, he demonstrated academic promise. In 1947, he won two very prestigious academic awards: the St. Mary’s College Science Scholarship and the National Jerningham Gold Medal for the top performance in the 1947 Higher School Certificate Examinations. He pursued tertiary-level education in medicine at the then University College of Dublin, Ireland, and graduated in 1953 with a bachelor of medicine, surgery, and the art of obstetrics with honors. After graduation, he trained as a clinical pathologist in Lambeth Hospital in London, England. Pursuing higher education, Achong became a Doctor of Medicine by 1965 and a Doctor of Science in 1983. He spent quite a few years teaching medicine in the Department of Pathology at the University of Bristol in England. Along with Sir Anthony Epstein and Dr. Yvonne Barr, Achong was credited for the important discovery of the Epstein-Barr virus, a virus of the herpes family that can cause Burkitt’s lymphoma, which is a tumor found in children from Africa. Achong was also the author of

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several articles and books including The Epstein-Barr Virus, which he coedited with Sir Anthony Epstein. He died on 20 November 1996. See also HEALTH. ACHONG LOW, KONGSHIEK (1950– ). Dr. Achong Low is an obstetrician and gynecologist and the executive chairman of Medcorp Limited. He was born in the capital city of Port of Spain, Trinidad. As a young boy, he attended the Tranquility Boys’ Intermediate School and won an Island College Exhibition examination, which secured him a place at St. Mary’s College (CIC) to pursue secondary education. He studied for a BSc in genetics at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, graduating with first-class honors in 1971. By 1975, he was in the possession of a doctor of medicine degree and a master of surgery. He became a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1980, specializing in obstetrics and gynecology. On his return to the land of his birth in 1981, he immediately established a private practice. By 1985, he made a name for himself when, with a team of doctors, he successfully delivered male conjoined twins and, in a subsequent operation, separated the boys. It was the first time in the whole of the English-speaking Caribbean that such a feat had been accomplished. In 1994, Achong Low became a leading cofounder of Medcorp Limited, the largest private health care company in existence in the Caribbean region. The services offered by Medcorp Limited include interventional cardiology with open heart surgery, radiation treatment for several types of cancers, mammography (a service Medcorp pioneered in Trinidad and Tobago), and a dedicated intensive care unit, which began in 2000 and became the benchmark for similar units in other hospitals in Trinidad, including the Port of Spain General Hospital. Medcorp Limited operates from five locations, St. Clair Medical Centre, Doctors Radiology Centre, the Brian Lara Cancer Treatment Center, Austin Street Clinic, and Good Health Medical Centre. In addition to Achong Low’s involvement in the world of medicine, he is also an ardent horse owner and breeder, an actor, and calypsonian. He bred two derby winners, Phardance in 1990 and Vitesse Oblige in 1995. He acted in Raymond Choo Kong’s Thunderstorm and sang calypso using the sobriquet “Dr. Soca.” ADAMS, AUBREY CARLTON (1919–2007). Adams was a choreographer, director, and producer of musical plays, pageants, and Carnival shows who was trained in theater arts at Columbia University in New York, and in creative arts in institutions in Germany and France. Adams made an exceptional contribution to the development of the culture of Trinidad and Tobago. He was particularly gifted in dance, especially the bele, limbo, and Arawak (Taino) and Carib (Kalinago) ritual dancing, as well as calypso and the steel pan. He used his productions to showcase the cultural talent of the

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folk of Trinidad and Tobago on the grand stages of the world such as at Royal Festival Hall in London, Broadway in New York, the White House during the presidential administration of Jimmy Carter, and the annual Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade. Adams’s productions also reached Bangalore, India; Germany, Italy, France, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Belgium, and several legendary holy cities in Israel. His most famous production was titled Ambakaila. Adams held leading positions in cultural institutions both at the national and international levels. He was artistic director of the Trinidad Folk Performing Company, chairman and chairman emeritus of the Little Carib Theatre, first president of the National Dance Association of Trinidad and Tobago, member of the first Carnival Development Committee, and cultural advisor to the first prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago, Dr. Eric Williams, and the United Nations. Adams received recognition for his enormous contributions to culture from the Little Carib Theatre, the Port of Spain City Corporation, the Red Cross Society, and the Government of Trinidad and Tobago. From the latter, he received in 1970 the Public Service Medal of Merit (Bronze) for his promotion of local culture, and in 1989, he received the Chaconia Medal (Silver) for his contribution to the development and promotion of culture and the arts locally and internationally. ln 2002, he received the Sunshine Award titled Friend of the Arts. He died on 11 September 2007. AFRICANS IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. As was the case with other Caribbean islands, the introduction of African labor resulted from inability of the First Peoples population to survive the challenges posed by the labor demands of the European colonizers, and their decimation was augmented by the spread of European diseases. As was also the case in other territories of the Americas, Western colonizers sought to resolve the question of labor through the importation of enslaved Africans. The majority of Africans brought to these colonies came from West Africa and West Central Africa, from the contiguous stretch of coastline and hinterland between the modern states of Senegal and Angola. In the main, the emergence of Trinidad and Tobago’s African-descended community was tied to the evolution of plantation agriculture on the two islands: cotton and sugar in Tobago, and cocoa and sugar in Trinidad. This notwithstanding, Africans began arriving in Trinidad before the emergence of the sugar industry. The first Africans were brought to Trinidad during the early period of Spanish rule primarily to aid in the defense of Spanish colonists against the beleaguered First Peoples. While the ancestral home of these early servile Africans was West Africa, they would have been purchased from Portuguese traders operating either on the African continent or, more than likely, on the Iberian Peninsula. The asiento, a slave trade license granted by Spain, initially provided the Portuguese (and to a lesser extent Italians) with exclusive

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rights to supply captive Africans to the Spanish New World colonies. Moreover, the enslaved Africans who were brought to Trinidad would have been catholicized, for both Portugal and Spain had made the baptism of enslaved Africans mandatory. The records show, however, that in 1606, with Trinidad being perennially starved for want of labor, 470 captives were purchased from Dutch slave traders. Following this, the Spanish crown encouraged the governor and colonists in Trinidad to acquire enslaved Africans. Much later, particularly from 1783, African-descended immigrants began arriving in significant numbers from French West Indian territories as landowners and enslaved African workers. This was in response to the cédula de población proclaimed by the Spanish crown in its determination to establish in Trinidad a plantation economy comparable to that already in existence in other Caribbean colonies, including Tobago, which Dutch and even Portuguese slave traders were well poised to facilitate. The proclamation of the 1783 cédula in Trinidad soon proved an unwelcomed development for owners of enslaved Africans in Tobago. It encouraged prospective immigrants wishing to settle in Trinidad to steal enslaved Africans from Tobago in order to be able to procure larger land concessions from the colonial administration in Trinidad. However, the labor shortage precipitated by the emancipation of the enslaved Africans between 1834 and 1838 saw additional African-descended laborers being imported into Trinidad from other New World territories as indentured workers. Some—who were rescued from slave ships by the Mixed Commissions, established by Britain and other European powers to enforce prohibition of the trans-Atlantic slave trade and prosecute offenders—were also brought in as liberated Africans. Africans brought to Trinidad during the New World slavery came from a variety of West African nations and included the Ibos (Igbos) and Ibibios from modern southeast Nigeria; Congos from West Central Africa; Mocos from today’s Cameroons; Mande/Mandinke/Mandingos from Gambia and Guinea; Yorubas/Yarrabas from western Nigeria and Hausas and Fulani from northern Nigeria; Kormantyns/Coromantins from the Gold Coast area (today’s Ghana), which was also the source of enslaved Ashantis, Fantis, and other Akan peoples; Raddahs/Radas from Dahomey; Kwakwa from the Ivory Coast; and Temme from Sierra Leone and Guinea. During the heyday of plantation agriculture in Tobago, the island’s enslaved population was made up of Congos, including Kimbundus, many of whom from very early on became localized in what today forms the village of Charlotteville; Kormantyns and other Akans such as the Twis; Ya from Dahomey; Ibos; Mandingoes; and Yorubas. Both in Tobago and Trinidad, it proved difficult at times to determine the ethnic origin of some enslaved Africans. The problem was more acute in Tobago. In Trinidad, there tended to be less interaction and intermingling between some ethnic groups, as some simply maintained their distinctiveness through their aloofness or that of

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others. By contrast, in Tobago it seemed easier to bridge the interethnic divide and establish cross-ethnic families and kinships. Accordingly, Tobago in fact managed to maintain a far more homogenous population, one primarily of African descent, as, inter alia, both during and after the period of enslavement the island was not afforded schemes of Asian indentured immigrant labor as had been extended to Trinidad. See also BLACK POWER MOVEMENT (1970); SPIRITUAL SHOUTER BAPTIST; TURE, KWAME (1941–1998); WILLIAMS, HENRY SYLVESTER (1867–1911). AGRICULTURE. See ECONOMY; TRADE. See also IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF TROPICAL AGRICULTURE (ICTA); TOBAGO BOTANIC GARDENS; TRINIDAD BOTANIC GARDENS. AHYE, MOLLY (1933– ). Ahye, who was born on 29 May 1933, was one of the main dancers affiliated with the Little Carib Theatre between 1952 and 1965. In 1982, she obtained a master of arts degree in the Performing Arts (Dance) at the American University in Washington, DC, and, in 1999, received a PhD from New York University. In her later years, she became a teacher of dance and, for many years, lectured in African and Caribbean culture in Trinidad and Tobago and in several countries of the region. She was also a physical culturist. In 1968, she launched a new dance troupe called Oyakairi. Ahye authored two publications; Golden Heritage: The Dance in Trinidad and Tobago (1978) and Cradle of Caribbean Dance: Beryl McBurnie and the Little Carib Theatre (1983). In recognition of her contribution to the development of folk dance and local culture in Trinidad and Tobago, Ahye was awarded the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) in 1980. AIRPORT/AIR TRANSPORT. Trinidad and Tobago’s aviation history began with an unfortunate accident. In January 1913, the Boland brothers arrived in Trinidad after traveling through Venezuela, Colombia, and Costa Rica where they had been giving performances and demonstrations of air flights. Trinidad was the last leg of their exhibition tour. Since the success of the Wright brothers, the airplane and its flying had attracted world attention and curiosity. Trinidad, therefore, anxiously awaited the exhibition to be given by the Boland brothers. Two days before the scheduled exhibition, Frank Boland, one of the brothers, taken in by the eagerness of a large crowd gathered in the Queen’s Park Savannah, decided to show off his flying skills with an impromptu display. He shot into the air at such a phenomenal speed that the plane spun out of control as it turned, and while trying to prepare for landing, he fell out of the plane as it nose-dived to the ground. He died instantly. Undaunted, his brothers went on to become pilots of Trinidad

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and Tobago’s contingent that fought in World War I, as did a number of local pilots who experimented with bicycle planes like the Boland brothers had done. During the 1930s, Pan Am became the earliest international airline to service Trinidad and Tobago. At the time, such planes had been developing, slowly replacing the seaplanes in international aviation. In 1938, Royal Dutch Airlines, KLM, one of the world’s oldest commercial air services, came to Trinidad, but Pan Am continued to welcome foreign aviators now and then at Piarco. KLM had been servicing routes to the Far East before arriving in the Caribbean. Its first airline to fly to and from Piarco was a Fokker Super Trimotor, named after airplane designer Anthony Fokker. KLM undertook flights to Barbados, Curaçao, and Suriname. Laura Ingalls, the first female pilot, came to Trinidad from Paramaribo in April 1934. KLM put up a terminal, and the Light Aeroplane Club (LAC) was formed to operate in Piarco. One of its most important patrons was Lady Young, the wife of Governor Sir Hubert Young, whom she accompanied to Trinidad in 1937. An experienced pilot, she became very active in the LAC. The development of British West Indian Airways (BWIA) in 1939 and the advent of World War II led to the expansion of Piarco as an international airport. It operated during the war as combat, transport, and training air base. There is currently a domestic service between Piarco International Airport in Trinidad and Crown Point International Airport (later renamed A. N. R. Robinson International Airport) in Tobago. This service is now provided by Caribbean Airlines, the airline that replaced BWIA. ALEXANDER, FITZROY (LORD MELODY, MELO) (1926–1988). Born in San Fernando, Lord Melody was an important figure in the calypso world in a singing career that spanned 30 years from the late 1940s to the 1970s. His calypsos were witty and humorous even when he addressed serious themes, and with the Mighty Sparrow, he dominated the calypso scene in his heyday. He won the 1954 Calypso King competition with “Second Spring,” and in 1957, he was one of six vocalists selected to serenade HRH Princess Margaret when she visited Trinidad and Tobago. His most popular renditions include “Mama Look a Boo Dey,” which was recorded by Belafonte with whom he toured for six years. Others include “Juanita, Creature from the Black Lagoon,” “Berlin and the Donkey,” “Juanita,” and “Belmont Jackass.” In the 1970s, he switched to reggae with compositions such as “Rastaman Be Careful” and “Brown Sugar.” ALEXIS, ANDRÉ (1957– ). André Alexis was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad, on 15 January 1957 but migrated to Canada in 1961 at age four. He is a highly decorated novelist and has also successfully composed drama. He

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began his literary career as a playwright-in-residence at the Canadian Stage Company. Some of his novels include Ingrid and the Wolf (1992); Despair, and Other Stories of Ottawa (1994); Childhood (1995); Nightpiece (1999); Beauty and Sadness (2010); and Fifteen Dogs (2015). In 1995, he also published Lambton, Kent and Other Vistas. He is the recipient of four prizes: the Books in Canada First Novel Award and the Trillium Award (both in 1998) and Rogers Writer’s Trust Fiction Prize and the Scotia Bank Giller Prize (both in 2015). Currently he lives in Toronto and hosts CBC Radio’s Skylarking; he is also a book reviewer for the Globe and Mail and a contributing editor for This Magazine. ALL TRINIDAD SUGAR AND GENERAL WORKERS TRADE UNION (ATSGWTU). Founded in 1937 by Adrian Cola Rienzi, the organization was a major participant in the riots of the period. Its initial name was the All Trinidad Sugar Estates and Factory Workers Trade Union (ATSEFWTU). Its membership comprised sugar workers from across the country, but it came to incorporate workers from other sectors. It constituted the largest labor organization representing sugar workers, with a membership of well over 10,000 by 2003, many of whom were workers at state-owned Caroni (1975) Ltd. and overwhelmingly of Indian descent. The union’s membership dwindled with the government’s closure of the company and, by extension, the sugar industry on which 35,000 Indians were dependent. The past presidents of the organization include Rienzi, McDonald Moses, Krishna Gowandan, Bhadase Sagan Maraj, Basdeo Panday, Boysie More Jones, and Rudranath Indarsingh. ALL TRINIDAD SUGAR ESTATES AND FACTORY WORKERS TRADE UNION (ATSEFWTU). See ALL TRINIDAD SUGAR AND GENERAL WORKERS TRADE UNION (ATSGWTU). ALLADIN, MAHMOUD PHAROUK (1919–1980). M. P. Alladin was one of Trinidad and Tobago’s leading artists for many years but was also a talented poet, sculptor, writer, and broadcaster. Alladin was a Muslim and could speak Urdu, Hindi, and Arabic. He was born in Tacarigua and attended the Tacarigua Canadian Mission School and obtained higher education at the Government Training School in Port of Spain, Birmingham College of Arts and Craft in England, and Columbia University in New York where he successfully completed an MA degree in Fine and Industrial Arts. Prior to his pursuit of tertiary-level education, Alladin worked as an assistant teacher at his alma mater from 1938 to 1946, and from 1946 to 1947, he was principal of Arima Boys’ Government School. His art, which was inspired largely by the life experiences of the folk in rural Trinidad and featured the Hindu

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festival of Pagwa and Chowtal and often captured rural-based Indians living in ajoupas and working in the sugarcane fields, was exhibited in galleries in Britain, Spain, the United States, Canada, and the Caribbean from 1944. Alladin was commissioned by the government of Trinidad and Tobago to produce a piece titled “Back to Africa” to present to the people of Ghana on their attainment of independence in 1957; one decade later, in 1967, Alladin was again approached to paint a local scene to be presented as a gift to the Ghanaian nation. Alladin held several important portfolios as an artist, such as president of the Trinidad Art Society of Trinidad and Tobago for many years and director of culture in the Ministry of Education and Culture from 1965. He was also an executive member of the Commonwealth Association of Museums. He conducted extensive research on folklore, oral traditions, chants, dances, and music of Trinidad and Tobago, and he has produced many papers on these subjects. In 1974, he published a book titled Folk Dances of Trinidad and Tobago. In 1969, he was the recipient of the Public Service Medal of Merit (Gold) for his contribution to the development of fine arts. ALLEYNE, DODDERIDGE (1927–2010). Regarded as the founder of the nationally owned energy sector, Alleyne was born in Charlotteville, Tobago, on 20 November 1927 to Benjamin and Caroline Alleyne. He was educated at the Charlotteville Methodist School, Osmond High School, and Queen’s Royal College (QRC); he then entered the public service. He studied philosophy, politics, and economics at Oxford University on a Colonial Development and Welfare Scholarship and earned BA and MA degrees. On his return to Trinidad and Tobago, he worked with the People’s National Movement (PNM) government to lay the political and economic foundations for modern Trinidad and Tobago. He established a very distinguished career in the national and international public service. He was the first national to serve as head of the public service; he held the positions of permanent secretary to the Prime Minister’s Office, the Ministry of Petroleum and Mines, and the Ministry of Finance, Planning and Development; and as secretary to the cabinet. He also served as an advisor to the government of Kenya for the United Nations (UN) from 1980 to 1982 and was Trinidad and Tobago’s ambassador and permanent representative to the UN from 1983 to 1988. During his period of service to the UN, he was president of the Security Council (the first national to hold this position), chairman of the Arms Embargo against South Africa, and chairman of the non-Aligned States, which redrafted the resolution to end the Iran/Iraq war. Locally, he chaired several companies as well as the Methodist Church School Board of Management. He was the lead negotiator for the government in the bid to nationalize the petroleum industry and was central in the purchase of BP (Trinidad) Ltd. to create the National Petroleum Marketing Company Limited in 1968; Shell

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Trinidad Ltd. to establish TRINTOC Ltd. (1973–1974); Texaco Refinery (1985); Tesoro’s shares in Tesoro (Trinidad) Limited; and the Bank of London and Montreal for the creation of the National Commercial Bank in 1970. In recognition of his distinguished national and international service, in 1999 Alleyne was made an honorary fellow of Balliol College Oxford, was inducted into the QRC Hall of Honour in 2003, and was also recognized as a pioneering hero for his work as a negotiator in 2009. He was awarded the Chaconia Medal (Gold) for his long and meritorious public service to Trinidad and Tobago. He died on 8 October 2010. AMBARD’S HOUSE (ROOMOR). This building, which is also known as Roomor, was built in 1904 is part of the Magnificent Seven. This wooden house was designed by the French architect Lucien Ambard in French colonial style. The building’s sophisticated design includes wood carving, marble ornaments, porthole windows, and iron cast elements. Construction material was imported from overseas: marble from Italy, tiles from France, and cast iron elements from Scotland. Wood for the rafters was obtained from the Ambard family estate in Erin in southern Trinidad. The Ambards lost the property to Gordon Grant and Company in 1919 when they could not meet mortgage payments. Pointz Mackenzie, the second owner, also lost the property due to financial difficulties in 1923. American businessman William Pitgrew Humphrey rented the house from 1925 to 1940 when it was purchased by Timothy Roodal. Its name was arrived at by combining Roodal and Morgan. Today Ambard’s House/Roomor is occupied by Dr. Yvonne Morgan, granddaughter of Timothy Roodal and is the only one of the Magnificent Seven that currently functions as a private dwelling. ANGLICAN CHURCH OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. The first Anglican presence in this country began with priests who were appointed in compliance with royal instructions of 1763 to establish the Anglican Church “in principle and in practice” in Tobago. Between 1769 and 1792, the Bishop of London granted licenses for 19 clergy to serve in the Caribbean colonies, one of which worked in Tobago as part of the diocese of Barbados. The island’s first Anglian minister, Rev. Walter Carew, was appointed in 1781 and was followed by Rev. John Matthews in 1788 while the captain of the Forces, Rev. John Clapham, appointed in 1797, was the first Anglican priest in Trinidad. In Tobago, church services were conducted in the courthouse until the construction of St. Andrews Church in 1819. The main church in Trinidad, the Holy Trinity Church, was initially housed in a modest wooden building, which was destroyed by the great fire in Port of Spain in 1808, and services were then held in the town hall until the new church was built. Construction was completed in 1818, and the Holy Trinity Cathedral was

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consecrated in 1823. Until 1835, this was the only Anglican Church and its rector the only Anglican clergyman in Trinidad. Like Tobago, the Anglican Church was administered as part of the See of Barbados. The Ecclesiastical Ordinance of 1844 made the Anglican Church the established church of Trinidad; divided the island into 16 parishes with six rectories and 10 island curacies; and provided instructions for the registration of baptisms, marriages, and deaths. On 29 June 1872, the Anglican Church in Trinidad became an independent diocese to which Tobago was joined in 1891. Branch churches were established throughout Trinidad between 1840 and 1848, and in Tobago, in 1837, a garrison church was built at Plymouth. In that same year, plans were drawn for the construction of St. Patrick’s and four other church centers in Tobago. The Anglican Church is administered by the Bishop of Trinidad and Tobago, who is presently Bishop Claude Berkley. ANGLICANISM. See ANGLICAN CHURCH OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. ANGOSTURA AROMATIC BITTERS. This internationally famous, botanically based liquid flavoring for food and drink is made from an awardwinning secret formula produced by the Angostura Group of Companies. Popular in households locally and regionally, bitters have a myriad of uses by young and old as an ingredient for mixing alcoholic cocktail beverages and in alternative medicines. It was introduced to the region by Johann Gottlieb Benjamin Siegert, a doctor of medicine, who left his homeland Germany in 1820 to follow Simón Bolívar in his struggle against the Spanish throne. He was appointed surgeon general of the military hospital in the town of Angostura, Venezuela. In 1824, after researching and analyzing the qualities of tropical herbs and plants, he developed “Amargo Aromatico,” or aromatic bitters, intended to bring relief to his patients suffering from fevers and internal stomach disorders. In 1830, Dr. Siegert exported his unique aromatic bitters to England and Trinidad. By 1850, he had resigned his commission in the Venezuelan army to concentrate on the manufacture of his bitters since, by then, demand had leapt ahead of supply. By the time Dr. Siegert died in 1870, his reputation and that of his Angostura aromatic bitters were internationally established. His eldest son, Don Carlos Siegert, introduced bitters to the world at various foreign exhibitions from 1862 to 1879. Constant political instability encouraged Carlos and his brother Alfredo to leave Venezuela in 1870 and relocate to nearby Trinidad as their country of adoption. In Trinidad, Carlos and Alfredo were joined by their youngest brother, Luis, and together they set up business once again. Angostura also produces a

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variety of rums and cocktails, including the renowned Fernandes Vat 19 Rum, and continues to be one of the most prosperous and internationally recognized companies operating out of Trinidad and Tobago. ANTHONY, MICHAEL (1932– ). This noted local historian and novelist was born in Mayaro. He received his early education at the Mayaro Roman Catholic School and Technical College in San Fernando. His earliest works included a collection of poems known as Verses, some of which were published in the Trinidad Guardian in 1953. In 1964, he migrated to Britain where he worked as a subeditor for Reuters News Agency and wrote stories for a BBC Radio program. In 1970, he returned to Trinidad and Tobago and was appointed to the diplomatic corps in Brazil. He worked as a researcher in the Ministry of Culture and for various other state and private bodies, and he also worked as an editor and presenter of radio programs on historical phenomena. His first novel, The Games Were Coming, was published in 1963. He has since published more than 30 books that cover chronologies, local history, fiction for children, and the development of cultural forms. He has contributed to literary magazines and programs in a number of Englishspeaking countries. In 1979, he received the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) for his contributions to literature, and in 2003, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of the West Indies. ARAWAK. Incorrectly used interchangeably with “Tainos,” the word “Arawak” began to appear in literature after the exploration of northeastern South America in the late 1500s. Arawakan people typically inhabited this area, and in 1595, Sir Walter Raleigh, a famed English explorer, identified the Arawaks along with four other indigenous groups in Trinidad. This group has long since been ethnically incorporated into several native groups in Trinidad. They still exist in Guyana, Suriname, Northern Brazil, and French Guiana. Evidence of an Arawak presence has not been conclusively found anywhere else in the Greater or Lesser Antilles other than Trinidad. ARCHBISHOP’S HOUSE. This beautiful, palatial edifice is part of the group of buildings surrounding the Queen’s Park Savannah referred to as the Magnificent Seven. Patrick Vincent Flood, the fifth archbishop of Port of Spain, spearheaded the design of Archbishop’s House to provide a palatial residence for the heads of the Roman Catholic Church in the city and hired an Irish architect to design the building. George Brown, of Trinidad Trading Company, commenced work in 1903 and completed the task in 1904. Marble and red granite were imported from Ireland for the structure, and local hardwood was used for woodwork in the building’s interior. Significant refurbishing work was carried out on the building in 1968 and 1969 by architect

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Sonny Sellier and contractor Reverend Father Kevin Devenish, CSSp. This refurbishing involved remodeling the ground floor, replacing wooden panel walls with concrete walls and aluminum windows, and removing walls to improve ventilation. A chancery was constructed to the west of the main building, and a new apartment replaced the summer house and the stables. Following the renovation, Monsignor Anthony Pantin, the first local archbishop of Port of Spain took up residence in the palace, which continues to be used as the official residence of the archbishop of the Roman Catholic Church in Trinidad and Tobago. ARCHIE, IVOR (1961– ). The youngest ever to be appointed chief justice of Trinidad and Tobago, Archie was born in 1961 in Cuyler Street in Scarborough to William and Moulda Archie and grew up in Rocky Vale, opposite the Botanical Gardens. At school, he excelled academically, placed third nationally in the Common Entrance Examinations, and entered Bishop’s High School in 1971. He was, however, a rounded student involved in music and sports such as cricket, chess, badminton, and table tennis. At age 16, he transferred to St. Mary’s College in Trinidad to complete his “A” Levels and was awarded a Texaco scholarship to the University of the West Indies where he pursued mechanical engineering. He graduated in 1980 and worked as an engineer at Trintoplan Consultants Ltd. in Trinidad and later with Schlumberger (Africa) as a wireline logging engineer in Libya. In 1982, he began his journey into law at the University of South Hampton in the United Kingdom. In 1984, he returned to Trinidad with his bachelor of laws and entered the Hugh Wooding Law School from which he graduated with distinction in 1986. He began his law career employed at Clarke and Company and later in the Exchange Control Department of the Central Bank. He broadened his experience by working in other Caribbean territory, accepting the position of senior counsel in the Turks and Caicos and serving as solicitor general of the Cayman Islands. On a number of occasions, he also acted as that country’s attorney general. His steady rise thereafter would be attributed to these early experiences in high office at the regional level. In 1998, he returned to the country of his birth to become one of the youngest lawyers to be appointed puisne judge of the Supreme Court of Trinidad and Tobago. In April 2004, he was elevated to judge in the Trinidad and Tobago Court of Appeal and was invited to be the eighth chief justice of Trinidad and Tobago in January 2008 and the youngest to have held that position in Trinidad and Tobago. Chief Justice Archie has also worked assiduously to uplift his community through his work with Special Olympics, as a founding member of the nonprofit sporting youth program Tobago United Sports Foundation (formerly

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Tobago United Football Club), and as an elder in his local church. He is also a member of the renowned choir, the Lydians. Archie stands as a model of achievement to the younger generation of Trinidad and Tobago. ARENA MASSACRE (1699). This rebellion occurred on 1 December 1699 in the district of Arenales (today’s San Rafael), then home to a Catholic mission composed of Capuchin priests and the indigenous people under their supervision and control. Frustrated by the servile and restrictive nature of life on the mission, and long-standing distrust and grievances against Spanish colonizers in general, the First Peoples slaughtered the three Capuchin friars and later the governor of the island, Don José de León y Eschales and those officials who were accompanying him on a visit to the mission. When news of these developments reached other colonial officials and Spanish settlers in the colony, a huge military force was mounted in pursuit of the First Peoples. Reprisal followed, and a number of the First Peoples were slaughtered, and others attempting to escape the Spanish colonial forces committed suicide, some of them drowning themselves by jumping into the waters at Punta Galera, the most northeasterly coastal endpoint. The massacre led to the end of the mission, and for many years, there was the unwillingness of Catholic clerics to work in Trinidad for fear for their lives. Eventually the Capuchin missions in Trinidad were relocated to nearby Guyana. ART. The paintings of various local scenes and individuals from Trinidad and Tobago by the artist Michel Jean Cazabon mark the first major association of the country with the visual arts. By the turn of the 20th century, a number of other artists such as Mildred Faulkner, Sybil Atteck, and Carlisle Chang made their contribution. They were among the pioneers who established the Trinidad Art Society in 1943. Carlisle Chang is regarded as the father of art of Trinidad and Tobago because he was involved in visual art, as well as the performing arts through his contribution to masquerading in Carnival; he was also a member of the committee appointed in 1962 to shape the new nation’s national emblems. Through the Trinidad Art Society, Chang and his colleagues conducted classes, workshops, discussions, and annual exhibitions. Joining the ranks of successful visual artists from Trinidad over the years were Boscoe Holder, Ralph and Vera Baney, Isaiah Boodhoo, Edward Bowen, Ian Ali, Leroy Clarke, Chris Cozier, Jasmine Girvan, Paul Llanos, Dermot Lousion, Carlisle Harris, Ken Critchlow, Che Lovelace, Shastri Maharaj, Wendy Nanan, Lisa O’Connor, Shalini Seereeram, Peter Sheppard, Irenee Shaw, Noel Vaucrosson, James Armstrong, Wilcox Morris, and Edward Hernandez who established the Tobago Museum located at Fort George in Scarborough.

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ATTECK, SYBIL MARJORIE (1911–1975). A pioneer artist in Trinidad and Tobago of Chinese descent, Atteck was born in Rio Claro, Trinidad, and in her early teens, she made the urban shift to Port of Spain with her parents. Atteck was first and foremost a painter, and her specialty was in the use of watercolors. She has been credited as the first person to establish a school of art in Trinidad and Tobago. In 1928, Atteck became an employee of the Botanical Department in the Ministry of Agriculture and soon became involved in producing scientific drawings of flowers, which she displayed in the 1930s in the Society of Trinidad Independents. She was a fully certified artist who attended such institutions as the Regent Street Polytechnic in London in which she enrolled in 1928, the School of Fine Arts of Washington University in 1943, and Escuela de Belles Artes in Lima, Peru, in 1948. In Peru, she met renowned German expressionist artist Max Beckmann, and was greatly influenced by his work. She drew significant parallels between the Inca pottery she studied in Peru and the pre-Columbian art of the Caribbean. Atteck was a major driving force behind the establishment of the Trinidad Art Society in 1943, which was renamed the Art Society of Trinidad and Tobago in 2004. ATWELL, WINIFRED (1914–1983). Atwell, a Trinidad-born classically trained pianist, acquired international fame and prestige in the North Atlantic, particularly in Britain and the United States, and in Australia. She was born on 27 April 1914 in the district of Tunapuna, mere months before the start of World War I. Her father was a chemist and the owner of a pharmacy, and it was expected by all that she would join the family business and follow in his footsteps. Her orientation, however, swung increasingly and irrevocably toward music, particularly concert piano performances. She had been playing classical piano from an early age, but she later developed, as well, remarkable speed and dexterity in playing ragtime and boogie-woogie genres. She began her professional career as a young musician by performing regularly for the soldiers at the U.S. base in Chaguaramas, and at a popular club known as Piarco, located near the site of the country’s international airport of the same name. Their appreciation indicated from very early that she had potential to thrill difficult and demanding audiences. During the 1940s, she migrated to the United States where she studied under Alexander Borovsk, the Russian American pianist and music educator. Following this she migrated to London and built a name for herself as a student, performer, and educator at the Royal Academy of Music. She not only was the first black person to make it to the British top 10, but went on to become a regular star on the British charts during the 1950s. She became the highest paid piano player in Britain. Even during the 1960s, when her days on the charts were over, she remained very popular on television and in the clubs because of the entertaining and captivating nature of her live performances. Some of her

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most famous albums were Double 7—Seven Rags, Seven Boogies (1956), and Chartbusters (1969). Her most popular singles included “Britannia Rag” (1952), “Let’s Have a Party” (1953), and “Let’s Have Another Party” (1954), which is one of several of her singles to top the British charts. Another remarkable recording was Ivory and Steel, which she recorded with Pan Am Jet North Stars. In 1983, she suffered a heart attack and died at the age of 69 in Sydney, Australia. AWON, ASTOR VICTOR (1927– ). Also known as Pouy, Awon was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad, on 22 July 1927. He was the first qualified oral surgeon in Trinidad. His grandmother was a Chinese indentured laborer whose original homeland was China. His parents were Joseph and Alice Awon. As a boy, Awon attended the Belmont Boys Intermediate School. In 1939, he wrote and passed the College Exhibition examination securing third place in Trinidad and Tobago. Success in the examination brought him to St. Mary’s College to pursue secondary school education. In addition to being a brilliant scholar, he also proved his outstanding worth in cycling. In 1946, when he again came third in the country in the Island Scholarship exam, he was adjudged as Victor Ludorum in St. Mary’s School’s sport of that year due to his domination of the cycling competitions. Upon graduating from secondary school, Awon became a teacher at the Queen’s Royal College in Trinidad. In 1950, he won a commonwealth scholarship and enrolled at the University College of Dublin, Ireland, where he successfully completed both a bachelor’s and master’s in dental surgery. The culmination of his academic career consisted of the fellowship he held in dental surgery at the Royal College of Surgeons in England. Awon returned to Trinidad in 1960 after his study abroad. He became the first citizen of Trinidad and Tobago to have qualifications in oral surgery. He became and remained, up to 2013, a specialist dental surgeon at the Port of Spain General Hospital. In 1961, Awon had also established a dental clinic in Anthony’s Arcade located on Frederick Street, Port of Spain. He is highly esteemed in the local community as a dentist who offered many years of dedicated service to the public health sector of Trinidad and Tobago. AWON, MAXWELL PHILLIP (1920–1998). An obstetrician and gynecologist, Awon was born on 10 March 1920 at the Port of Spain General Hospital. He was the fifth of nine children of Joseph and Alice Awon and the elder brother of Dr. Astor Awon. He attended the Belmont Intermediate School. In 1932, he began his secondary school education at Queen’s Royal College, but by 1937, he was enrolled in St. Mary’s College. His academic career was diverse and illustrious. By 1941, he had successfully completed a bachelor of science degree in economics at the University of London, Eng-

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land. By 1950, he gained a bachelor of science degree in physiology, followed by a master of science in physiology in 1952 both at the National University of Ireland. He also went on in the following year to complete a bachelor of medicine, bachelor of surgery, and bachelor of the art of obstetrics at the National University of Ireland. In 1958, Awon pursued postgraduate studies at the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Hammersmith Hospital, London. He was a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh by 1960, fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland by 1970, and fellow of the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology by 1974. In his homeland, Awon provided many years of dedicated service in wide and varied spheres. For 25 years, he was the leading obstetrician and gynecologist in the country. He was also a politician serving as member of the House of Representatives of Trinidad and Tobago from 1966 to 1976, holding portfolios of minister of health from 1957 to 1971 and minister of local government from 1966 to 1971. Awon’s interest in Trinidad and Tobago’s culture was evident through his position as head of the Stick Fighting Association; his chairmanship of several national companies; and his involvement in several societies such as the Orchid Society, the Horticultural Society, and the Family Planning Association of Trinidad and Tobago. As Carnival bandleader, his band, Max Awon D’Midas and Associates, won the Band of the Year title in 1984 and 1987. Awon was also an inventor with the energy efficient combustion engine being his most well-known invention. In recognition of some of his contributions to Trinidad and Tobago, in 1976 the National Father’s Day Council bestowed on him the Father of the Year Award. In 1981 and 1996, he received awards from the government of Trinidad and Tobago and from the Family Planning Association, in recognition of his many years of service. He passed away on 18 October 1998. AYOUNG, EDWIN (CRAZY) (1944– ). Born in Maraval, Port of Spain, to Venezuelan and Chinese parents, his stage name is reflected in his long, wild, flowing hairstyle, energetic and frenzied stage antics and props, and the racy lyrics that often characterize his renditions. Crazy has been singing calypso for more than 40 years on themes ranging from serious political and social issues to wild, happy, crazy party tunes. He made his debut on the calypso stage in 1972 singing in Sparrow’s Original Young Brigade tent, and although he never won the coveted Calypso Monarch crown, he made the finals of the competition in 1978 singing “Dustbin Cover” and was the first calypsonian to emerge out of a dustbin to present his tune. He captured the Road March title with the racy “Soucouyant” in 1985. His other popular hits include “Chief Crazy,” “Drive It,” “Nani Wine,” “De Party Now Start,” “Paul Yuh Mudder Come,” “For Curiosity,” “Jump Up and Wail,” and “La La Lay, La La Lo.” Crazy pioneered the blending of Trinidad’s Spanish Christmas music with soca to produce soca parang. In 1978, he recorded

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“Parang Soca,” one of the first ever parang soca hits, the first to blend the yuletide parang with the calypso of Carnival and the first Christmas tune to be played in a Panorama competition. In the 1980s, Crazy acted in several theater productions including Cinderama and Snokone and the Seven Dwens; he also worked alongside Nobel Prize winner Derek Walcott in Monkey See, Monkey Do. AYOUNG-CHEE, ANYA (1981– ). Born in the United States to parents who are citizens of Trinidad and Tobago, Ayoung-Chee moved to Trinidad at the age of two. The only daughter in a family of eight, she received her secondary education at St. Joseph’s Convent, Port of Spain, and pursued tertiary education and training in art and designing in London and New York. She represented Trinidad and Tobago as a contestant in the Miss Universe Pageant of 2008. She emerged winner of the ninth season of the 2011 Project Runway, a reality television series that focuses on fashion and design.

B BABOOLAL, LINDA SAVITRI (1941– ). A popular medical practitioner and prominent member of the Indian community, Baboolal was born on 31 January 1941 and served as minister of health from 1991 to 1995. Her appointment to this office was symbolic of the rising importance of Indian women in local politics. She served as chairperson of the People’s National Movement from 1996 to 2001 and became president of the Senate and deputy head of state from 2002 to 2007. Consequently, she served as acting president on a number of occasions, becoming, in April of the latter year, the first woman to act as president of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. BACHACS. It has been argued that even before Dr. Eric Williams parted with the Anglo-American Caribbean Commission, he had begun to prepare for his entry into politics by initiating the formation of a group of followers who believed in and were extremely loyal to him. This unit was called the “Bachacs” and was constituted in a study group that met often (with or without him) in San Fernando. At these meetings, members studied his ideas, philosophy, and projections regarding the politics of the day. The group was led by two of his close associates, Dr. Winston Mahabir and Ibbit Moosaheb. Later, others, including Denis Mahabir and Norman Girwan, joined the group. Some of its members ultimately formed part of the first executive council of the People’s National Movement (PNM), the country’s first Legislative Council after the victory of the PNM in 1956, and the country’s first cabinet. BAILEY, ALWIN (THE MIGHTY SHADOW) (1941– ). Born in Les Coteaux, Tobago, Shadow, the calypsonian, is distinguished by his eccentric physical appearance on stage, his themes, and the low rhythms of his music that exaggerate the bass sounds. Shadow entered his first calypso competition when he was just nine years old. He opened his career in the world of calypso as a backup for performers in the Mighty Sparrow’s Original Young Brigade, moved to Lord Blakie’s Victory Tent in 1970, and joined Lord Kitchener’s Revue Tent in 1973 and Wizards tent in 1978; by the 39

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following year, he was managing his own tent, the Master’s Den, which closed in 1985. When the Mighty Shadow made his debut in 1974, he shook the calypso world with his frenzied, eerie, and energetic “Bass Man,” which won the Road March competition with another of his compositions, “Ah Come Out to Play,” in second place. Shadow also placed second in the National Calypso Monarch of that year. His other popular calypsos include “Shift Yuh Carcass,” “Pressure,” “Jumbies,” “Doh Mess Wid Meh Head,” “Pirates,” “The Garden Want Water,” “Feeling the Feeling,” “Pay de Devil,” “Poverty Is Hell,” and “Dingolay.” BAILEY, GEORGE (1933–1970). The son of Carnival bandleader Aldwyn Bailey, George Bailey was born in Woodbrook, Port of Spain. He was a student of the Tranquility School in Port of Spain, where, under the tutelage of local artist Mahmoud Pharouk Alladin, he showed great talent in drawing, painting, and sculpting and was also a sportsman. He was a national track and field athlete in the 100-meter, 200-meter, and 400-meter events and played basketball with the Woodbrook Limers. Bailey rose to prominence as one of the greatest Carnival bandleaders of Trinidad and Tobago of all time. From 1956, when he produced his first band of masqueraders, to 1970, the year of his death, he had an unbroken record of 15 consecutive costume productions. Six of these cupped the coveted Band of the Year title, and 10 won the People’s Choice. Particularly known for his African creations, he was the first to succeed at the national level using African themes for his muse in competitions with bands depicting Roman, Greek, and other classical civilizations. With African creations such as Back to Africa (1957), Relics of Egypt (1959), and Bright Africa (1969), he demonstrated that it was possible to showcase on stage the regal power and beauty that is Africa, helping to change the then prevailing negative stereotypes regarding the “Dark Continent.” He also triumphed with non-African Carnival productions such as Ye Saga of Meerie England, Byzantine Glory, and Somewhere in New Guinea. In 1962, on the eve of independence in Trinidad and Tobago, Bailey was selected to sit on the committee to design the emblems of the new nation. Bailey died at the young age of 35 on 14 August 1970. BAILEY, McDONALD EMMANUEL (1920–2013). Bailey, a sportsman, was born in Hardbargain, Williamsville, south Trinidad, on 8 December 1920. He was educated at Arima Boys’ Roman Catholic School, Tranquility Intermediate, and Queen’s Royal College. Bailey’s most spectacular victory as a young sprinter took place in 1939 in the Empire Day sports event held at the Queen’s Park Oval when he placed second in the 100-yard dash with a time of 10.1 seconds. While a member of the British Royal Air Force from 1944 to 1948, Bailey dominated the double sprint of the Championship

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Games of the Royal Air Force, which led British fans to give him the nickname “Black Flash” on account of his athletic speed. In 1946, he represented Britain in the Amateur Athletic Association Championship meeting and won the 100-yard dash in a time of 9.7 seconds and secured first place in the 220yard event. For six years in a row, he won the 100-yard and 220-yard dashes in the British Amateur Athletic Association Championship with times of under 10 seconds and 22 seconds, respectively, proving himself to be an athlete of great consistency. He was a finalist in the 1948 London Olympics when he represented the United Kingdom. He finished sixth in the 100meter sprint and last in the 200-meter sprint. Early in 1951, he matched the world record at the time for the 100-meter sprint set by Jesse Owens when he completed the event in 10.2 seconds in Belgrade. In the 1951 Olympics staged in Helsinki, Finland, Bailey finished third in the 100-meter sprint. In the era of the 1940s and 1950s, Bailey was one of Britain’s greatest athletes, winning 15 British national titles. In recognition of his great athletic talent, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded Bailey the Chaconia Medal (Gold) in 1977. He died on 4 December 2013. BANKING. Established by Royal Charter, the first bank in Trinidad, the Colonial Bank, which serviced the British West Indies and Guyana, was incorporated on 15 May 1837. Its Trinidad branch opened on Marine Square (now Independence Square) in Port of Spain. In a post-emancipation world, sugar interests continued to dominate the West Indian banking operations, and their capital and labor problems challenged the stability of the Colonial Bank in the early decades following its establishment. The bank operated in dollars, and its currency was widely used throughout the colonies. Another foreign bank, Union Bank of Halifax, opened in 1902, but the Royal Bank of Canada eventually bought it, securing its place in the territory. These banks continued to service largely the mercantile elite. However, it was the 1914 opening of Trinidad Co-operative Bank (TCB) that became part of the answer to the demands for reform, representation, and opportunities by working classes that had begun in the 19th century. It was established as a savings institution for the poorer groups in the society. Whereas other banks required a shilling (24 cents) to open an account, the TCB allowed citizens to open accounts with only a penny, leading it to become known as the Penny Bank. During the 1920s, there were about three foreign-owned commercial banks in operation. Meanwhile, under the Colonial Bank Act of 1925, the Colonial Bank was amalgamated with two other UK banks to eventually become Barclays Bank Dominion, Colonial and Overseas (DCO) (after numerous name changes it would become Republic Bank Limited in 1981). In the 1930s and 1940s, banks focused on consolidation and less on expansion of their customer base and assets.

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The continued focus of commercial banks on the needs of the elite and business communities led to the establishment of the first credit union in 1942, St. Rose Co-operative in Port of Spain, and the growth of these institutions to 140 by the end of the next decade. Credit unions were nonprofit, client-owned agencies that were considered more trustworthy than commercial banks. They provided access to financial services for the low- and middle-income earner at a time when this was limited to members of friendly societies (established by various churches since the 1840s), lodges and secret organizations, and agricultural credit and cooperatives, as well as through a grassroots, traditional saving system called the Su-Su. The 1950s, however, saw exceptional growth of commercial banks and the return of a new foreign bank, the Bank of Nova Scotia, in 1954, after an initial abortive attempt in 1906. Tobago, severely neglected in this sphere, began to be serviced for the first time by a commercial bank, Barclays Bank DCO, which opened a branch there in 1952. The post–Black Power Movement era (during and after 1970) witnessed great transformation within the banking sector, which had been a controversial issue during this revolutionary period. Foreign banks had been targets for protests and accusations of discrimination in their staffing and banking policies, and this led to government intervention and regulation in the aftermath of the tumultuous period. The government encouraged banks to be incorporated locally and initiated the establishment of indigenous banks. The National Commercial Bank (NCB) opened on 1 July 1970 only months after the peaking of the 1970 unrest. Workers Bank, another local bank with connections to trade and credit unions, was established in 1971 and proceeded to introduce certain features and services to enhance the banking experience of its customers who were mainly middle and lower income individuals. In 1979, for example, the bank introduced the “Mary Anne All Day All Night Service,” the nation’s first automated teller machine (ATM). The 1986 oil crash severely undermined the progress of indigenous commercial banking in Trinidad and Tobago. On 21 February 1986, the Central Bank took control of the Penny Bank (TCB) after an audit revealed crucial problems in its management. Workers Bank also felt the crunch of the 1980s with the introduction of significant retrenchment and other austerity measures. By 1989, the NCB as well was in dire straits, and the Central Bank in 1993 rescued NCB accounts by merging it with Worker’s Bank and the Trinidad Co-operative Bank. The new government-controlled entity, registered on 9 March 1993, was called First Citizens Bank. In the 1970s and early 1980s, foreign-owned banks (such as Barclays Bank of Trinidad and Tobago in 1972) were incorporated locally but remained subsidiaries of their international parent companies. The latter part of the 20th century witnessed the technological development of banking systems with, for instance, Republic Bank producing the first local credit card

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service in 1990. The initiation of telebanking and Internet banking into the country also facilitated the development of the 21st-century banking structures and services. The commercial banks currently in operation in Trinidad and Tobago include the Bank of Baroda (Trinidad & Tobago) Limited, Citibank (Trinidad & Tobago) Limited, First Caribbean International Bank (Trinidad & Tobago) Limited, JMMB Bank (T&T) Limited, Republic Bank Limited, Scotiabank Trinidad and Tobago Limited, RBC Royal Bank (Trinidad & Tobago) Limited, and First Citizens Bank Limited. BAPTIST. See SPIRITUAL SHOUTER BAPTIST. BAPTISTE, KELLY-ANN KAYLENE (1986– ). Baptiste was born in Scarborough, Tobago, to Hiram Baptiste and Hazel Taylor and grew up in the village of Plymouth. She was educated at Signal Hill Senior Comprehensive School and Louisiana State University. Baptiste is a three-time female Olympian representing Trinidad and Tobago at age 17 in the 2004 Games held in Greece where she was the starter sprinter in the women’s 4 x 100 meters race. Baptiste also made the women’s 4 x 100 meters team in the 2008 Beijing Games and the 2012 London Games. She did not win any Olympic medals but won several in the Caribbean Free Trade Agreement (CARIFTA) and Central American and Caribbean Games. In 2011, Baptiste was adjudged the Top Female Athlete of the Year and, in 2012, was Trinidad and Tobago’s Olympic Committee Sportswoman of the Year and Best Female Athlete of the Year in the 2012 Spirit of Sports Awards of Trinidad and Tobago. BARRANCOID. Barrancoid people take their name from the site of Barrancas on the banks of the lower Orinoco River in Venezuela. Their culture seems to have developed out of the local Saladoid tradition in Venezuela between 1500 and 1000 BCE. Barrancoid peoples moved northward to the Orinoco River delta, perhaps displacing or bypassing other Saladoid communities as they went on to occupy islands of the Caribbean as far north as Puerto Rico. Like the Saladoids, they cultivated cassava, produced pottery, and lived in villages. The discovery of Barrancoid pottery in Cedros and Saladoid sites in Trinidad and Tobago dating back to 350 CE suggests extensive trade between the Barrancoids and the Saladoids. See also ARAWAK; ISLAND CARIBS; KALINA/KALINAGO; ORTOIROID. BARTHOLOMEW, COURTENAY FELIX (1931– ). Bartholomew is an outstanding Caribbean medical practitioner with an illustrious international career in medical research and education. He received his primary education

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at Nelson Street Boys’ Roman Catholic School and his secondary education at St. Mary’s College, where he placed third in the House Scholarship of the Senior Cambridge Examination in 1948. In 1950, he obtained a Cambridge Higher School Certificate in languages, including Spanish, Greek, Latin, and English Literature. He then worked for four years at Her Majesty’s Customs. Following this he departed for Ireland where he successfully pursued medicine, and he graduated from the University College Dublin in 1960. Here, too, he captured the Medical Society Prize in Medicine and the O’Ferral Silver Medal in surgery at the final examinations. He then went on to Edinburgh where, in 1964, he became the first West Indian to obtain specialty qualifications in the field of gastroenterology from the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. The following year, he was awarded a doctorate in medicine by National University of Ireland. In 1966, he secured an appointment as a research fellow in the Department of Gastroenterology of the Royal Victoria Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. There, he initiated research on disaccharidase deficiency in humans. So impressive were his research methods and findings that he was offered the position of consultant gastroenterologist of the hospital. However, his research and diagnostic skills were in high demand, and he was asked to return to his native homeland for the inauguration of its first medical school at the University of the West Indies (UWI). He accepted that offer, and on returning to Trinidad, joined the Faculty of Medicine at the UWI, St. Augustine, in 1987. This would be the beginning of a long and distinguished career of service to Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean. In 1982, he founded the Trinidad and Tobago Medical Research Foundation, dedicated to research on viruses, retroviruses, cancer, and AIDS. In 1983, he diagnosed the first case of AIDS in the English-speaking Caribbean. He also became famous for his pioneering research on HIV/AIDS in the region. He was also the Caribbean’s leading gastroenterologist and was noted for his early research on the venom (tityus trinitatis) of scorpion stings, and acute pancreatitis induced by the venom, problems common to the Caribbean. That same year, he discovered the first known cases of adult T-cell leukemia in Trinidad and Tobago and the southern Caribbean. In 1985, the government of Trinidad and Tobago appointed him chairman of the Board of the National Institute of Higher Education, Research, Science and Technology, which was established to foster research and development in Trinidad and Tobago. In that year, he also aided PAHO by reviewing its regional guidelines for AIDS. In 1986, the World Council of Churches in Geneva, Switzerland, appointed him as a consultant advisor on AIDS. In 1998, he was appointed by the International AIDS Vaccine Initiative in the United States to participate in the international 1452 Phase II HIV vaccine trial. Professor Bartholomew has published extensively on tityus trinitatis, HIV/AIDS and human retroviruses, and T-cell leukemia. In 1983, based on

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his curriculum vitae, he was awarded a MRCP degree by the Royal College of Physicians of London and became the only West Indian to be awarded this degree without an examination. Professor Bartholomew has a huge international reputation and has been honored both nationally and internationally. In 1975, he was awarded a Chaconia Medal (Gold) by the government of Trinidad and Tobago for long and meritorious service. In 1985, he was the recipient of Trinidad Express’s Man of the Year Award and Achiever of the Year Award. He has been honored by the West Indian Society of Gastroenterology as the Father of Gastroenterology in the West Indies and, in 1992, was recognized by the Faculty of Medical Science of UWI, Kingston, Jamaica, for 25 years of distinguished service. He has also been awarded honorary fellowships by the three British Royal Colleges (Ireland, Edinburgh, and London). He has served as visiting clinical professor at the Liver Unit of the University of Miami and the Gastroenterology Unit of the Royal Victoria Hospital, McGill University, Canada. In 1997, he retired from the UWI as professor emeritus. This in no way precluded his work in a number of areas. In the year 2000, he was appointed as one of 30 members of the International Bioethics Committee of UNESCO, at a time when the institution was formulating recommendations on the human genome and stem cell research. He is the only scientist in the Caribbean to have been appointed to the IBC. BEETHAM, EDWARD (1905–1979). The governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 1955 to 1960, Sir Edward was appointed to lead the two-island colony the very day after Eric Eustace Williams, the first prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago, launched the People’s National Movement (PNM). During his administration, on 23 February 1956, the British government and leaders of the British West Indian colonies agreed to establish a West Indies Federation, which came into effect on 3 January 1958. By this time, the PNM had taken control of the Legislative Council having secured 13 out of the 24 seats that were contested. The results of the elections made Dr. Eric Williams prime minister with a cabinet to direct the political affairs of the twin island colony. Meanwhile, the West Indies Federal Labour Party secured 26 out of 45 seats in the federal elections of 25 March 1958. Consequently, Beetham’s governorship was largely taken up with supervising the introduction of internal self-government in Trinidad and Tobago and in making provisions for the operations of the federal government of the West Indies. The Beetham Highway in Trinidad is named in his honor. BELASCO, LIONEL (LANKY) (1881–1967). Not much is known of the parentage of Lionel Belasco except that his mother was from the Caribbean and of African descent while his father was a Jew and both parents were musicians. Belasco was born in Port of Spain and was one of the first locals

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in Trinidad and Tobago to become involved in the recording of the country’s music. He was a musician, composer and calypso entrepreneur. He began composing music from the young age of 12 and by age 16, he had already composed 400 ballads, pastiches, waltzes, calypsos, sambas, and rhumbas and was the leader of his own band. His range ran from classical music to his passion, folk music, but he also loved calypso, parang, bele, and the music of the kalinda or stick fighters. One of his many outstanding compositions, “L’Année Passée,” was recorded by the Andrews Sisters in the 1940s as “Rum and Coca-Cola” and became an international hit. From 1911, when silent movies were first aired in Trinidad and Tobago, Belasco provided musical accompaniment on the piano for these films. He was also committed to the copywriting of the folk music of the Caribbean. When he migrated to New York in 1915, he was very valuable to calypsonians who sought to record their calypso renditions. Both by assisting calypsonians to record their music and by staging concerts around the Caribbean, in the United States, and in Europe, Belasco contributed to the internationalization of calypso and other local music from Trinidad and Tobago. BERKELEY, WAYNE (1940–2001). Berkeley was born in Belmont, Port of Spain, and was educated at St. Mary’s College where he participated in drama and debates and taught art to his colleagues. He also designed backdrops for school plays on Shakespeare and for concerts in Belmont. Among his major contributions to costuming in Trinidad and Tobago was the breaking of the stronghold held by historic themes that dominated the Carnival of the 1950s and 1960s by pioneering the shift to fantasy in order to capture the spirit of the Carnival, a departure that many believed impossible. His first foray in this new direction came in 1965 with his band presentation Fan Fair. Of the 18 masquerade bands that Wayne Berkeley brought out on the streets of Port of Spain from 1973 to 1997 (he was on sabbatical from 1982 to 1988), 11 were adjudged Band of the Year. His first victory in partnership with Bobby Ammon was Secrets of the Sky in 1973. This was followed by his five-year unbroken string of victories from 1990 to 1994 with Nineteen Ninety, Swan Lake, Titanic, Strike Up the Band, and Mirage. Les Bijoux (1997) was his last production. Berkeley’s designs were also in demand in dramatic productions both at the local and international levels. As early as 1974, the government of Trinidad and Tobago recognized Berkeley’s contribution to the development of Carnival by awarding him the national Hummingbird Gold Medal. From February 2010 to July 2011, the National Library and Information Services (NALIS) of Trinidad and Tobago displayed Berkeley’s work through an exhibition titled The Evolution of Costume Design—the Contribution of Wayne Berkeley 1965 to 2000. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT.

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BERKLEY, CLAUDE (1957– ). The Right Reverend Bishop of Trinidad and Tobago Claude Berkley was born on 18 August 1957 to Anona and Maurice Berkley in Pembroke, Tobago. He attended Sladden’s Nursery School, Pembroke Anglican School, and Bishop’s High School (BHS) before proceeding to Valsayn Teachers College, the University of the West Indies (UWI), Codrington College in Barbados, and the University of Birmingham. He has nurtured youth from primary through secondary school as a teacher and school manager, creating opportunities for youth development in the various institutions in which he worked and/or managed during the different phases of his career. He was a teacher at Pembroke Anglican School (1977–1979 and 1982–1989); Delaford Anglican School (1981–1982); Belle Garden Anglican School (1993–1997); BHS (1997–2002); Bishop Anstey High School (BAHS) (2002–2009 and voluntarily, 2009–2010). As an Anglican priest, he served the parishes of St. Patrick’s Tobago; St. Mary’s Pembroke, Tobago; St. Barnabas on the Hill, Dorchester City, Diocese of Worchester, United Kingdom, and All Saints Parish in Port of Spain, Trinidad, 2002–2011. At St. Patrick’s Tobago, he was cofounder of the annual Ancestral Walk, an important reminder of the historical journey of both the people of Tobago and of the Anglican Church. In addition to his pastoral duties, he has also served the nation through the many national and regional church responsibilities he held. Since 1994, he has been a licensed marriage officer; a delegate to the provincial synod and member of the provincial standing committee (1998–2012); chairman of the Anglican Board of Education and Management since 2012; chairman of the North West Regional Education Committee (2005–2011); and chairman of the Diocesan Capacity Building Project (2008– ). He served as manager of St. Ursula’s Primary School from 2002 to 2012; chairman of the BAHS Board (2010–2012); member of the Christian Council of Churches of Trinidad and Tobago and an affiliate member of the Inter-Religious Organization; member of the Commission on Ecumenical Education and Formation of the World Council of Churches (July 2014– ); and member of the Caribbean Public Health Agency Research Ethics Committee. He was appointed Bishop of Trinidad and Tobago 18 December 2011. In 2013, he received the nation’s second highest award, the Chaconia Medal (Gold) for public and community service. BERNARD, CLINTON (1931– ). Bernard received his primary school education at Nelson Street Boys’ Roman Catholic School and his secondary school education at Osmond High School in Port of Spain. He was also a certificate student in international relations at the University of the West Indies. After studying law in the United Kingdom, he was called to the bar at Inns Court in 1961. He was appointed a High Court judge in 1977 and senior counsel in 1987. Some of his public service appointments included the

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portfolio of chairman of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission, the National Awards Committee, the McAl Psychological Research Foundation, and the Trinidad and Tobago Red Cross Society. He was also a patron of the St. Paul’s Street Multi-Purpose Facility and president of the Blind Welfare Association. He served as chief justice of Trinidad and Tobago from 1985 to 1995. He was also made an honorary member of the Port of Spain East Lions Club. Following his retirement as chief justice, he went on to serve his country as chairman of the Piarco Airport Commission of Enquiry. In 1997, he was awarded the Trinity Cross, the nation’s highest national award. BERNARD, KENT BEDE (1942– ). Bernard was a member of the 4 x 400 meters relay team representing Trinidad and Tobago in 1964 in Tokyo, Japan, along with teammates Edwin Skinner, Edwin Roberts, and Wendell Mottley. This was the first men’s relay team ever to represent Trinidad and Tobago in the Olympic Games, and they finished third in the finals. Bernard ran the second leg of the race to gain his only Olympic medal—silver. BEST, LLOYD ALGERNON (1934–2007). A prominent Caribbean economist and one of the foremost intellectuals of the English-speaking Caribbean, Best was born in the district of Tunapuna. He received his early education at the Tacarigua Anglican Primary School and his secondary education at Queen’s Royal College. In 1952, he won an Island Scholarship and attended Downing College at Cambridge from 1953 to 1956, and Mansfield College, Oxford, between 1956 and 1957. In 1958, he took up an appointment as a junior research fellow at the Institute for Social and Economic Research at Mona, Jamaica, but returned to Trinidad in 1968 to join the staff of the University of the West Indies (UWI), St. Augustine Campus, as a lecturer in economics. Best, however, turned out to be a controversial but rather thought-provoking academic who preferred to pursue independent thought. Rejecting a promotion to the position of senior lecturer in that year, he quit the university and, shortly thereafter, founded an intellectual think tank, the Tapia House Movement, in which he served as chief executive from 1968 to 1986, and as its political leader from 1974 to 1982. In 1961, he cofounded the New World Group Movement and its flagship journal, New World Quarterly. The group had branches in the United Kingdom, the United States, and across the Caribbean. Later he founded Tapia, a political party in Trinidad and Tobago. He also founded the Trinidad and Tobago Institute of the West Indies (now the Lloyd Best Institute of the West Indies) as a think tank for research and exploration of Caribbean issues. His writings, which span decades of academic work and social, economic, and political commentary, were primarily published as newspaper columns.

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He authored Independent Thought and Caribbean Freedom, and has coauthored (with Eric St. Cyr) Economic Policy and Management Choices: A Contemporary Economic History of Trinidad and Tobago, 1950–2005, and (with Dr. Kari Polanyi Levitt) Essays on the Theory of the Plantation Economy: A Historical and Institutional Approach. Heavily influenced by fellow Trinidadian C. L. R. James, and other intellectuals such as Lloyd Braithwaite, Wilson Harris, and Stuart Hall, Best was deeply interested in developing an intellectual, conceptual framework that placed the Caribbean and its native imagination at the core of its self-understanding and development. He continually argued that the solution to the problems of the region had to be rooted in a Caribbean sociology or sociological understanding. Best’s academic work, therefore, consistently reflected his capacity to dispel European orthodoxies. He is well known for his role in the development of the “plantation thesis,” which argues that the West Indian economy and society was so largely the result of colonial rule and metropolitan exploitation over the centuries that, in its present form, it remains primarily externally propelled and controlled rather than internally directed. Therefore, it consists merely of modern plantation economies. Further, that any liberation from this persistently exploitative situation is dependent upon recognition of this reality and the development and application of independent Caribbean thought and ideas aimed at addressing the Caribbean problematic. It is for all of this that some have described him as the quintessential Caribbean man. In 2003 at the Head of Government meeting to mark the 30th anniversary of the founding of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), he was honored by being made a recipient of the Order of CARICOM. In 2006, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from UWI and was posthumously named a national icon in 2012. BEST VILLAGE. See PRIME MINISTER’S BEST VILLAGE TROPHY COMPETITION (1963– ). BETAUDIER, HOLLY (1925–2016). Betaudier was a cultural and media icon of Trinidad and Tobago also affectionately known as Holly B and the Arima Kid. He was born in Santa Rosa, Trinidad, on 27 January 1925 and attended the Arima Boys’ Roman Catholic School. He eventually had five children with his wife Valerie. Betaudier held short employment stints as a customs clerk and sales assistant, but for most of his years, he held various posts as a radio host, announcer, and master of ceremonies and had a very long and successful career in radio, television, and cultural entertainment. Following the end of World War II and the continued presence of the Americans and the naval base in Chaguaramas, Betaudier worked as a radio announcer both at the naval base and at WVDI, the radio station of the U.S.

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Armed Forces. When television was first introduced to Trinidad in 1962, he was the host and founder of several local radio and television programs, which provided avenues for the promotion of local musical and other performing talent. These include Holly’s Happy Moments, Parang with Holly, and Scouting for Talent. His voice was well known on the morning radio program titled Tout Bagai on Radio i95.5 FM., which highlighted the local culture of Trinidad and Tobago—especially its oral and folk traditions as well as its historical fluency in patois. Betaudier died on 29 May 2016. BHAGWANSINGH, HELEN (1940– ). Bhagwansingh hails from San Fernando and attended Grant Memorial School. She was catapulted into the world of business when, at age 11, her father took her out of primary school and put her to work running the bicycle repair department of the family’s hardware store. There she sharpened her business acumen and rose to become one of the most successful business women in the country. She ran the business until age 19 when she married Hubert Bhagwansingh, and in 1969, they bought Kay Donna Drive-in Cinema and transformed it into a profitable enterprise before reselling it in 1977. She reentered the hardware business as a stand-in for an ill employee at the Sea Lots branch of her father’s business. She later bought and, within two years, transformed the operation to Bhagwansingh’s Hardware, which offered an expanded range of hardware supplies and became one of the most modern hardware operations in the country. Branches were established in central (1988), south (1995), and east Trinidad (2007). The Bhagwansingh empire was expanded into steel production by the purchase of Dansteel in 1996 and Centrin in 1998 and aluminum manufacturing and construction by investments in Centrex and Rainbow Construction, employing more than 1,200 people. Bhagwansingh has made significant contributions to society. She donated $5 million to the establishment of the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus’ Diabetes Education, Research and Prevention Trust and was responsible for the Christmas stars erected on the Laventille and San Fernando Hills. In 2000, she was named Woman of the Millennium by the Energy Chamber of Trinidad and Tobago and was the first woman to be inducted into the Trinidad and Tobago Chamber of Industry and Commerce’s Business Hall of Fame. She was awarded the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago in 2011 and named a national icon in 2012. BIGGART, JAMES ALPHEUS ALEXANDER (1878–1932). A renowned Tobagonian political and social activist, Biggart was the first African-descended pharmacist in Tobago and the first elected member for Tobago on the Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago (1925–1932).

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Born in 1878, Biggart’s training began as a dispenser under District Medical officers in the Windward District of Tobago, where he worked for 11 years. His education as a pharmacist began at the government laboratory in Trinidad where he studied and received a certificate in Practical and Theoretical Chemistry. He also took courses in Latin and Dispensing under E. Gerald Blanc, a medical professional, and worked as an assistant druggist. In the early 1890s, he opened his first pharmacy and operated as the only pharmacist in the rural Windward district. As one of the few educated black men and medical professionals in Tobago, his respectability and popularity allowed him to wield a certain degree of power as an advocate for the people of Tobago, especially after the union with Trinidad in 1898. For instance, he successfully argued for the druggist examinations to be held in Tobago instead of the United Kingdom, was involved in the operation of the first library on the island, and worked tirelessly to promote secondary education there, encouraging increased funding in the area and the establishment of the first coeducational secondary school, Bishop’s High School, in 1925. In that year, Biggart was elected to the Legislative Council in Trinidad and Tobago and became a prominent campaigner for Tobagonian development at the highest levels of administration. Facing repeated prejudice, he boldly fought for increased funding and support for Tobago, particularly in relation to educational development. Biggart was a tireless advocate for a better deal for Tobago in the union, and he brought to the attention of central government the administrative neglect faced by the island and the consequent difficulties imposed on its population. Biggart served the island and its people until his death on 11 August 1932. The Tobago House of Assembly has named the Heritage Section of the Tobago Library after him. BISHOP, IAN RAPHAEL (1967– ). Bishop was a right-arm fast bowler for Trinidad and Tobago and the West Indies. He represented the West Indies in some 44 test matches between 1989 and 1998. In 2000, he was awarded the Trinidad and Tobago Chaconia Medal (Silver) for his contribution to sport. At the time of writing, he remains a major commentator on international cricket. BISHOP, PATRICIA ALLISON (1942–2011). Born in Port of Spain, Trinidad, she emerged a national scholarship winner from Bishop Anstey High School and attended King’s College, Durham, pursuing a bachelor of fine arts studying voice, piano, and orchestration. On her return to Trinidad, she taught art and history at her alma mater for a number of years. She went on to pursue a postgraduate degree in history at the University of the West Indies (UWI) in Mona, Jamaica, subsequently lecturing at both the St. Augustine and Mona campuses of the UWI for eight years, and at the Jamaican

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School of the Arts from 1970 to 1972. Affectionately known as Pat Bishop, she was a musician, ethnomusicologist, painter, choreographer, fashion designer, and cultural icon who proved herself one of the most versatile artists of Trinidad and Tobago. Her contribution to the development of music and culture in Trinidad remains seminal because of the many roles she has performed, the many skills she has brought to the musical arena, and her pioneering spirit. As the third musical director of the Lydian Singers, her work thrilled audiences locally and internationally as she brought an in-depth professionalism and gravitas to the performances by the group in the interpretation of the work of major European composers and artists. At the same time, she also introduced the Caribbean, Europe, and the wider world to a remarkably rich and astoundingly interpretative alchemy of sounds that incorporated the musical genius of Trinidad and Tobago. Dubbed the “archbishop of pan,” she served the steelband movement as arranger and conductor for some of the top steel orchestras of Trinidad and Tobago, including Desparadoes, Fonclaire, Exodus, Birdsong, Skiffle Bunch, Phase II Pan Groove, Trinidad All Stars, and Renegades, and as commentator and adjudicator of the annual steelband music festivals and Panorama competitions. “Pat” accompanied these bands and conducted their performances at major venues such as Carnegie Hall and the Brooklyn Academy of Music. She nurtured many performers belonging to the Lydian Singers into internationally recognized artists and, through community work with schools and individual performers, raised the standard of musical performances at this country’s annual musical festivals. Through her work with several calypsonians, including the iconic parang singer Daisy Voisin and the Morne Diablo parang group, she also contributed to the development of calypso, parang, and a host of traditional, crossover, and other musical genres. Her contribution to music notwithstanding, she never abandoned her commitment to art and painting. During her lifetime, she staged 32 exhibitions, and her works of art have been distributed and sold throughout Trinidad and Tobago, the Caribbean, and North America. She received an honorary doctorate from UWI, St. Augustine, and in 1994 was the recipient of the then nation’s highest award, the Trinity Cross, and has been named as one of the icons of Trinidad and Tobago at the 50th anniversary celebration. BISHOP ANSTEY HIGH SCHOOL, ST. HILARY’S (BAHS) (1921– ). The Bishop Anstey High School for girls was established on 13 January 1921, St. Hilary’s Day, by Bishop Arthur Henry Anstey, former bishop of the diocese of Trinidad and Tobago (1918–1945). Anstey did not support discrimination that was race, class, or gender based so he sought to provide equal educational opportunities for girls in an Anglican environment that would instill positive ethos in the students. The school was relocated to its

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present location, 2–2A Chancery Lane, in 1923 when the Siegert Block was purchased. Under a line of distinguished headmistresses, the school maintained a record for scholarship and service begun by the first headmistress, Emelia M. Stephens (Madam). Dorothy Shrewsbury, headmistress from 1938 to 1950, added science, sports, and extracurricular activities to the school’s curriculum. Christine Sutherland in 1950 brought infrastructural development, adding a chapel, science laboratory, and purpose-built classrooms to the compound. The first local headmistress, Stephanie Shurland, reinforced the school’s reputation of excellent academic achievement and added a new hall and library during her tenure from 1964 to 1981. Other headmistresses include Freda Araujo, Mary Bishop, Yvonne Ramsey, Valerie Taylor, Patricia Ruddell, and Patsy-Ann Rudder. The school continues to be one of the top schools in the nation. See also EDUCATION. BISHOP’S HIGH SCHOOL, TOBAGO (BHS) (1925– ). Tobago’s oldest and most distinguished secondary school, Bishop’s High School, has played an important role in providing young Tobagonians with access to secondary education; the school was established after the persistent advocacy of James Biggart for the establishment of a secondary school on the island. Bishop Arthur Anstey and Archdeacon Davies responded to the call, and the school was opened by the Anglican Church on 14 September 1925. BHS was first housed in Peru Cottage, Scarborough, which was donated by Miss Cross, aunt of Archdeacon Davies, and was administered by a board that included Arbuthnot Hope, plantation owner Kenneth Reid, and businessman George Samuel, owner of Nyalls Drug Store. The school offered a traditional classical curriculum including Latin and subjects examined under the Cambridge exams. As a result, in 1926 the school received government assistance, ensuring eligibility of students to take the Cambridge examination. The school was relocated to a four-acre property at Sans Susi, which was later extended into the Fairfield Complex, and in 1956, it was relocated to a new modern structure at Mt. Marie. The school was rebuilt in 1990 and is constantly being expanded to meet the needs of the island. The establishment of the Sylvan Bowles Scholarship in 1938 also increased the opportunities for deserving students to attend the school. Most of the early teachers came from Barbados and England, but with the assistance of Bowles scholarships, which eventually began to provide funding for graduates to attend the University of the West Indies (UWI), there was a gradual growth of local staff, particularly former students. By the 1980s, they constituted 75 percent of the staff, and 35 percent of them had benefited from Bowles university scholarships. After the school moved from its original site, enrollment steadily increased, and during the 1960s, the school’s offerings were diversified to provide vocational training for secretaries. Its alumni consist of the most

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acclaimed Tobagonian scholars, politicians, artists, and businessmen who have gone on to make significant contributions on the national, regional, and international stages. Some of the most notable Bishopians include Chief Justice Ivor Archie; former prime minister and president A. N. R. Robinson; former secretary-general of the Caribbean Community, Edwin Carrington; Prime Minister Keith Rowley; and former chief secretary of the Tobago House of Assembly (THA), Orville London. With a present enrollment of 750 students and a staff of 80 (50 teaching and 30 ancillary) and an ongoing program of modernization and expansion, the school remains poised to continue to nurture the icons of tomorrow. BISSOONDATH, NEIL DEVINDRA (1955– ). Neil Bissoondath, a novelist, short story writer, and essayist, was born in Arima, Trinidad, on 19 April 1955. He is the nephew of Vidia Naipaul, Nobel Prize winner for literature, and Shiva Naipaul, another literary giant from Trinidad and Tobago. His family conducted business in Sangre Grande but soon moved to Port of Spain just about the time Bissoondath began attending St. Mary’s College. In 1973, he moved to Canada where he enrolled as a French student at York University in Toronto and graduated in 1977 with a BA. He then pursued a career as a teacher of English and French—first at the Inlingua School of Languages and the Toronto Language Workshop in Toronto, and from 1995 at Université Laval in Quebec City. He was also a student of the Banff School of Fine Arts in 1983. He is the author of eight novels; one novella, Postcards from Hill; and two collections of short stories. His first publication released in 1985, Digging up the Mountains, is a collection of short stories. His novels include A Casual Brutality published in 1988, The Innocence of Age published in 1993, and The Unyielding Clamour of the Night published in 2005. Bissoondath’s best-selling book, a 1994 work of nonfiction, is Selling Illusions: The Cult of Multiculturalism in Canada. In 1986, Bissoondath was the winner of both the McClelland and Stewart Award and the National Magazine Award for his short story “Dancing.” The University of York bestowed on him an honorary doctorate in 1999. In 2010, Bissoondath was made a Chevalier of the Ordre National du Quebec, and in 2012, he was the recipient of the National Library Services of Trinidad and Tobago (NALIS) Lifetime Literary Achievement Award. BLACK POWER MOVEMENT (1970). Also known as the 1970 Revolution, the Black Power Uprising, and the February Revolution, this was an attempt by a number of young radical black activists and other interest groups to force sociopolitical and economic change. Notwithstanding the country’s acquisition of independence in 1962, oil-rich Trinidad and Tobago had remained a country in which the natural resources were still under metro-

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politan control, and the vast majority of the working class exploited by foreign capital. Although the country was administered by a black government, and the vast majority of the population was of African and Indian descent, many people felt they were victims of racial discrimination in terms of income distribution, employment practices, educational opportunities, and social and upward mobility. The local Black Power Movement was heavily influenced by the movement in the United States, which had come as a sequel to the civil rights movements. It was a Trinidadian, Stokely Carmichael (later, Kwame Ture), who coined the term “Black Power,” to characterize the rising tide of African consciousness and radicalism that began sweeping North America and the wider world toward the end of the 1960s. The heydays of the movement were from 1968 to 1972. The immediate impetus to the movement came from the participation of a number of students from of Trinidad and Tobago in antiracial protest at Sir George Williams University (SGWU). For their participation in the protest, which had escalated into violence with the destruction by fire of a floor of the campus, they, together with a number of other African-descended students, were arrested, imprisoned, convicted by the Canadian authorities, and eventually ordered to return home. Students at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, began to engage in protest there in solidarity with that of the students of SGWU. A radical pro-black organization, National Joint Action Committee (NJAC), led by the late Geddes Granger (now Makandal Daaga), was established at the St. Augustine Campus. What began as student marches and protests against racial discrimination abroad soon escalated into protestation against racial discrimination at home, and within the international social and economic order. The People’s National Movement (PNM) government, widely perceived by the young radicals as being in cahoots with white metropolitan and capitalist interests, became, along with these interests, the objects of radicalism and protestation in Trinidad and Tobago. The young radicals were quickly joined by detractors of the ruling PNM, particularly increasingly militarized trade unions and their leaders, including the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union led by George Weekes, the Transport and Industrial Workers Union led by Clive Nunez, and workers in the sugar industry who were led by Basdeo Panday. The year 1969 saw numerous protest marches and demonstrations. In Port of Spain, the precinct of the commercial banks, all of which were foreign owned, became the scene of protest by the young UWI radicals; young, educated, middle-class black youth; and the urban and rural unemployed. The cathedrals of the major Europe-derived Christian denominations, Roman Catholicism and Anglicanism, were targeted and desecrated, as they were viewed as symbols of oppression and brainwashing. The buildings and premises of a number of foreign and even some locally owned businesses were firebombed. The protestors, overwhelmingly African descended, sported Afro hair styles and dashikis. Their powerful symbol of the

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defiance was their clenched black fist raised to the sky, and their shouts of “power to the people.” While the movement was predominantly black, the NJAC attempted to solicit the support of the local Indian community on the basis that both blacks and Indians were victims oppressed by white capitalists. Although the efforts were unsuccessful, the marches included people of both races, and even individuals of Chinese descent. In the main, the leaders of the Indian community were wary of the potential of black power to work against the better interests of Indians who already perceived themselves as marginalized under the African-dominated, PNM-led governmental administration. The leaders of the trade union, sympathetic to the movement, were also attempting to unite the Indian and African workers across the country, particularly those in the sugar and petrochemical industries, respectively. If, however, the movement did not truly bring Indians and Africans together, it united some of them against the PNM and foreign-owned companies in control of the commanding height of the economy. Between February and April 1970, the protests escalated because of the death of Basil Davis, a protestor killed by the police, and the resignation of A. N. R. Robinson, member of Parliament for Tobago East. In April, sugar workers went on strike, and there were plans for a general strike. The government responded by proclaiming a state of emergency and a dusk to dawn curfew. The leaders of the Black Power Movement were arrested and detained on Nelson Island. Responding to the political crisis and a breakdown in discipline in the Trinidad and Tobago Defense Force, a number of soldiers, led by lieutenants Raffique Shah and Rex Lassalle, mutinied and took control of the army barracks at Teteron Bay. The standoff lasted five days during which, through negotiations between army officials, the government, and the rebel soldiers, there was a de-escalation of the conflict with the rebel soldiers. They surrendered on 25 April and were arrested and court-martialed. Because Trinidad and Tobago was a constitutional monarchy, they were charged with mutiny against Her Britannic Majesty. Shah and Lasalle won their appeal in the local courts. The state appealed but lost also before the judges of the Privy Council in London. The Black Power Movement influenced a number of changes in national policy. As an immediate reaction and show of solidarity with the young people and their concerns, the prime minister, Dr. Eric Williams, reshuffled his cabinet and removed three ministers and three senators. However, his government also introduced in Parliament the Public Order Act, which sought to reduce civil liberties, with a view to controlling protest marches. There was public outcry over the bill, and much opposition came from former PNM member A. N. R. Robinson and his newly formed Action Committee of Democratic Citizens (ACDC). Subsequently, the ACDC became the Democratic Action Congress.

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Meanwhile, the longer-term initiatives included the nationalization of commercial banks and insurance companies, and the development of the cooperative institutions. The year 1971 was declared the year of the cooperatives, as well as the year of the small man. BLACKMAN, GARFIELD (LORD SHORTY, RAS SHORTY I, FATHER OF SOCA, THE LOVE MAN) (1941–2000). Lord Shorty was born on 6 October 1941 in Barrackpore, south Trinidad. He was a calypsonian won the 1970 Calypso Monarch Competition, and he pioneered the soca genre. In 1970, he experimented with mixing calypso with Trinidad’s Indian chutney music, and used the Indian tabla and sitar in the new blend called soca. In 1973, he released “Indrani,” his first soca recording, and from then other calypsonians followed the soca trail that Blackman blazed. By 1984, Lord Shorty became disappointed with the direction of soca’s development; he embraced Christianity by the end of the 1980s and, with some of the members of his large family, retreated to the forested area of Piparo in south Trinidad where they began to compose and sing yet another novel variation of calypso—faith-based music referred to as Jamoo. Some of his popular renditions include Om Shanti, Money Eh No Problem, Watch out My Children, and Who God Bless. Among the many awards he received were the Pioneer Award and the Indo-Caribbean Music Award; and, posthumously, he received the Chutney Soca Inventor Award. This father of 23 died 12 July 2000. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. BLEDMAN, KESTON (1988– ). Bledman was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad. He is a track and field athlete who specializes in the men’s 100 meters, 200 meters, and 4 x 100 meters relay. He is a two-time Olympic medal winner: a 4 x 100 meters silver medalist in the 2008 Beijing Olympics and a bronze medalist in the London Olympics of 2012. In the Commonwealth Games of 2014 in Scotland, Bledman was part of the victorious team that took bronze, and in 2015, he again secured bronze in the International Association of Athletics Federations Diamond’s League Men’s 100 meters held in Doha, Qatar. Bledman is also the recipient of two national awards: the Chaconia Medal (Gold) 2008 for his outstanding contribution to the nation in sports and the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) 2012. BLIZZARD, STEPHEN (1928– ). A pioneer of the Air Scout movement in Trinidad and Tobago, as well as aviation medicine in the Commonwealth Caribbean, Blizzard is a highly respected global authority on aviation medicine. He was born in Port of Spain in 1928 and attended Queen’s Royal College. He holds the distinction of having presented the first paper in aviation medicine in the Commonwealth Caribbean. At the age of 20, Blizzard

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left Trinidad and Tobago on a veterinary scholarship to study at the University of Edinburgh and the Royal Dick School of Veterinary Studies. After graduating he practiced in Trinidad before migrating to Canada (in 1958), where he practiced as a veterinarian; he then attended medical school at the University of Western Ontario. There, he joined the Air Force in the Reserve Officer Training Program and spent his summers at College Militaire in St. Jean, Quebec; Trenton, Ontario; and at the National Defence Medical Centre (NDMC) in Ottawa. Blizzard graduated in 1963, completed his medical internship at the Ottawa Civic Hospital, became the first resident in surgery at the NDMC, and spent two years at the Rockcliffe Base in Ottawa before being appointed as base surgeon and flight surgeon at Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan. He began jet flying training and received his Military Jet Pilot Wings in 1968. After graduation, Blizzard was posted at the Royal Canadian Air Force Institute of Aviation Medicine in Toronto as deputy commander of the Central Aircrew Medical Board before returning to Trinidad in 1969, where he spent six years. There he founded and was a member of the 16th Port of Spain Air Scouts in 1973, the first Air Scout troop in the country, and from 1973 to 1975, he served as headquarters commissioner for air scouts. In 1975, he returned to Canada and rejoined the Canadian Air Force and was posted to Borden, Ontario; Goose Bay, Labrador; and North Bay, Ontario. In 1978, Blizzard was the first doctor on site in “Operation Magnet,” the first airlift of Vietnamese refugees coming to Canada from Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Then he was sent to Egypt, where he earned a UN Peacekeeping Medal, before going to England in 1980 to pursue graduate studies in aviation medicine. When he returned to Canada, he was appointed advisor in Aviation Medicine to the Surgeon General’s Office and was appointed a medical advisor to the Zimbabwe Air Force for three months in 1981. Before retiring in 1983, Blizzard went back to emergency duties at NDMC and became deputy commander of the medical clinic at the National Defence Headquarters in Ottawa. Since retiring, he continues client consultation, education, training, and investigation in aviation medicine. Blizzard’s tour of duty included 16 years as a flight surgeon and military jet pilot, advisor to the surgeon general in aviation medicine, senior consultant and acting director of clinical aviation medicine. He made presentations in aviation medicine in Canada, the United States, India, and Greece, and he was a member of the aviation medical review board for 12 years. He conducted resuscitation training for flight attendants and working groups, and he participated in establishing guidelines for the assessment of neurological, cardiovascular, and diabetes mellitus in pilots, flight engineers, and air traffic controllers. He has written reports on medical and human factors in several military and civilian accidents. In 2007, he won the internationally acclaimed Forrest M. Bird Lifetime Scientific Achievement Award in recognition for

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his exceptional contributions to the safety of civil aviation, as well as the Dr. Wilbur Franks Award and honors from professional associations. He also belongs to and serves as a selector for the exclusive 250-member International Academy of Aviation and Space Medicine. Dr. Blizzard has published articles on the role of a doctor in civil defense in the University of Western Ontario Medical Journal in 1962 and an onflight surgeon as jet jockey in the Jamaica Air Wing Journal in 1969. He also wrote articles about patient care and in-flight health and welfare. He is the chairman of a local study group and the author of a 1988 government publication called “Flight Times and Flight Duty Times in Canada.” Major Blizzard has accomplished an invaluable amount of work for aviation medicine for Canada and internationally in both a military and civil capacity. His achievements have been recognized in the number of awards that have been heaped on him. These include the Canadian Forces Decoration (1977); United Nations Peacekeeping Medal, Egypt (1979); Professional of the Year Award, Montreal Association of Black Business Persons and Professionals (1992); Canadian Peacekeeping Medal (2001); Dr. Wilbur Franks Award for Significant Contributions to Aerospace Medicine and Aeromedical Transport, the top Canadian aviation award (2004); Forrest M. Bird Lifetime Scientific Achievement Award for Contributions to flight safety as a physician/pilot (2007); and the Harry Jerome Award for Excellence in Health Sciences, Black Business Professional Association (2008). In 2012, he was honored as a national icon of Trinidad and Tobago for his outstanding contribution to the field of aviation medicine. His work on the effects of pilot fatigue, jet lag, and proper in-flight patient care is among the most celebrated. He continues today to be an esteemed aviation medicine consultant and has advanced the health and well-being of many in aviation. Dr. Blizzard’s greatest career achievement was being a full-time base and flight surgeon while simultaneously pursuing jet training and obtaining his wings, the only doctor to achieve this. BOLDON, ATO JABARI (1973– ). Ato Boldon was born in Port of Spain to Guy and Hope Boldon. He received his formal education at Fatima College, Trinidad; Jamaica High School in Queens, New York, Piedmont Hills High School and San Jose Community College in California; and University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA). In 1992, he made history at the world junior championships in Seoul, where he won the gold medals for both the 100 meters and 200 meters. In 1995, at the age of 21, he become the youngest gold medalist in the history of the World Championships, winning also bronze at Gothenburg. In 1997, at the World Championships, four days after sustaining an injury in the 100 meters final, he returned to the field and captured the world title in the 200 meters, providing Trinidad and Tobago with its first track and field gold medal after 21 years.

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Boldon is regarded as Trinidad and Tobago’s most decorated Olympian, having won more medals in this international sporting competition than any other national. In the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, Boldon won bronze medals in the men’s 100-meter and 200-meter races, clocking times of 9.90 seconds and 19.80 seconds, respectively. In the 2000 Games in Sydney, Australia, Boldon again won silver in the men’s 100-meter race with a time of 9.95 seconds and bronze in the men’s 200 meters. Boldon is currently Trinidad and Tobago’s record holder in the men’s 50, 100, and 200 meters and the national record holder in the 100-meter event of the Commonwealth Games. Following his retirement from track and field, Boldon served as an opposition senator in the Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago, representing the United National Congress from 2006 to 2007. He is currently a CBS and NBC Sports television broadcast analyst for track and field. For his outstanding achievements in sports, Boldon has been made an inductee into the Caribbean Hall of Fame. In 1993, the government of Trinidad and Tobago honored Boldon with a Hummingbird Medal (Gold) for Sport, and in 1997, he was awarded the Chaconia Medal (Gold) for Sport. In 2000, he was ranked among the 100 Most Outstanding Sportsmen of the 1900s. Boldon was made a Sport’s Ambassador for Trinidad and Tobago in 2000 and, in 2011, was inducted into the UCLA Athletics Hall of Fame. BOTANICAL GARDENS. See TOBAGO BOTANIC GARDENS; TRINIDAD BOTANIC GARDENS. BOVELL, GEORGE RICHARD LYCOTT, III (1983– ). Bovell was born in Guelph, Ontario, Canada, to athletic parents George Bovell II who was a collegiate swimmer and Barbara Bovell, a runner who represented Canada and Barbados. He grew up in the Malabar district of Arima, Trinidad, where he developed a passion for swimming in the pool at the home of his grandmother. Bovell was educated at St. Andrews School, Fatima College, and Maple Leaf School in Trinidad and Bolles High School in Jacksonville, Florida. At the Pan American Games in Santo Domingo in 2003, he emerged as a double gold medalist, winning both the 200-meter freestyle and the 200meter individual medley. Additionally, he placed second in the 100-meter freestyle and in the 100-meter backstroke. That year, he also placed first in the 200-yard individual medley at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division 1 Swimming and Diving Championships in Texas, where, additionally, he won a bronze medal in the 200-meter individual medley. A four-time Olympiad, he first represented his country at the Sydney Games in 2000. In the Athens Olympics of 2004, Bovell placed third in the finals of the 200-meter individual medley race. In the CAC Games of 2006,

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Bovell won gold in the 50-meter freestyle, and in the Pan American Games of 2007, he won bronze in the 50-meter freestyle as well. George Bovell became Trinidad and Tobago’s first World Championship swim medalist when, in 2012, he captured bronze in the 200-meter individual medley in the World Short Course Championship held in Istanbul, Turkey. His swimming career has spanned more than 23 years—a testimony of his love and dedication to the sport. In 2004, soon after winning bronze in the Athens Olympics, he was named the Trinidad and Tobago Athlete of the Year, and the government of Trinidad and Tobago rewarded him with the Chaconia Medal (Gold). In 2013, Bovell captured 13 medals (one gold, five silver, and seven bronze) at the FINA World Cup. The following year, he secured both gold and bronze for Trinidad and Tobago, winning the 50-meter freestyle finals at the Central American and Caribbean Games, and placing third in its 50-meter backstroke final. As a result of these outstanding accomplishments, he cupped the Trinidad and Tobago Olympic Committee Sports Personality of the Year Award for the years 2013 and 2014, and for 2014, he was named Individual of the Year by the Trinidad and Tobago Express newspaper. He also captured the Trinidad and Tobago Sportsman of the Year Award of the First Citizens (Bank) Sports Foundation. In 2015, Bovell continued with his winning ways, securing bronze in the men’s 50-meter freestyle final at Pan Am Games in Toronto, Canada, and in the 50-meter breaststroke in the French Open at Stade Aquatique, Vichy val d’Allier. He also captured silver in the men’s 50-meter backstroke in the Belgian Open Swimming Championships at Piscine Olympique de Wezenberg Desguinlei, Antwerp, where, additionally, he set a new a world record in the men’s 50-meter breaststroke. No citizen of Trinidad and Tobago has cupped as many national and international awards for achievement in sports. A 25-time All-American Athlete, he has also been a five-time NCAA champion and seven-time SEC champion. Bovell is currently at the helm of many initiatives aimed at giving back to Trinidad and Tobago, and to disadvantaged athletes as well as young and upcoming aspirants in the field of swimming. His The World Swim against Malaria and Drowning in Uganda and “George Bovell Dive In Free Clinics” are examples. He is also well known for underwater wildlife videography. BOWLES, SYLVAN EDWARD (1881–1963). Sylvan Bowles was born in Patience Hill, Tobago, in 1881. He left school at the age of 14 to work as a store clerk in Scarborough to help support his family after the death of his father. In 1904, he migrated to New York where he first worked as a longshoreman while he took evening classes to improve his education and qualify for entry into the College of Dental and Oral Surgery of New York. At age 38, he was one of three black students who graduated from a class of 276; he then established a thriving dental practice in New York.

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Bowles was the supreme philanthropist of the British Caribbean. He established the Sylvan Bowles Scholarship Fund in 1938, through which six qualifying primary school students from Tobago were awarded scholarships for entry into Bishop’s High School to pursue secondary education each year. When Dr. Bowles died in 1963, his scholarship fund had supported the secondary education of 150 students, including former prime minister and president A. N. R. Robinson. In his will, Dr. Bowles bestowed the scholarship to students across the West Indies to facilitate access to tertiary education, permitting the education of a number of professionals across the Caribbean. Dr. Bowles is an outstanding citizen of Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean for his philanthropy stands out as one of the first by a private individual in the British Caribbean and the only one of its kind in Trinidad and Tobago. In 1998, Dr. Bowles’s manifold achievements were recognized when he was posthumously honored with the nation’s highest award, the Trinity Cross, and in 2012 he was recognized as one of the national icons at the 50th anniversary of the country’s independence. BRERETON, BRIDGET MARY (1946– ). Brereton, professor emerita of history at the University of the West Indies (UWI), St. Augustine Campus, was born in India on 3 May 1946 but lived most of her life in Trinidad. She is married to Ashton Brereton with whom she has three sons. She pursued tertiary education at the UWI, Mona, from which she graduated in 1966 with a BA in history. In 1968, she graduated with an MA in history from the University of Toronto and in 1973 when she successfully completed a PhD in history at the UWI, St. Augustine, she began her career as a lecturer in history. She has held several prominent positions at the institution including head of the Department of History from 1985 to 1987 and 1988 to 1994 and deputy principal from 1999 to 2002. She also served as editor of the Journal of Caribbean History and president of the Association of Caribbean Historians from 1994 to 1997. Her numerous academic publications include Race Relations in Colonial Trinidad 1870–1900, A History of Modern Trinidad 1783–1962, and Social Life in the Caribbean 1838–1938; she also edited the fifth volume of The UNESCO History of the Caribbean. In 1996, she became the first female recipient of the prestigious Vice Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in Research, Teaching and Administration. BRIAN LARA PROMENADE. This promenade, which runs the length of the center of the city of Port of Spain, up to 1797 when Trinidad was under Spanish colonial rule, was referred to as Plaza de la Marina. When Sir Ralph Abercromby seized control of the colony for the British, it was called Marine Square, and at independence in 1962, the area was renamed Independence

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Square. Finally, in recognition of the milestone achievement of Trinidadian star batsman, Brian Charles Lara, who held a world record by scoring 400 runs in a cricket test match, the area was rechristened as the Brian Lara Promenade. In contrast to the bustling business activity of the city center, the Promenade is used for leisure and entertainment such as to stage open air concerts, film festivals, and craft shows, and to launch Trinidad and Tobago’s Carnival activities. BRITAIN. See BRITISH IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. BRITISH IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. After years of rivalry with France, Britain first occupied Tobago from 1763 to 1781. Its control underwent French interruptions between 1781 and 1803 before the island finally became recognized as a British possession. Nonetheless, from 1763 onward, British institutions were firmly planted on the island. The Anglican Church became the established church, evidence of other European presence was minimized, and English, Scottish, French, and African influences merged to produce Tobago’s unique culture. Unfavorable economic fortunes across the 19th century led the British administration to unite the island with neighboring Trinidad to create the colony of Trinidad and Tobago. The British presence in Trinidad began when, during the early colonial period, British traders provided essential supplies to the marginal Spanish colony and a few British merchants settled on the island. The British valued the island for its strategic location close to the Spanish Main and to the islands of the Eastern Caribbean. In the heyday of the 18th century when competition between Britain and France for Caribbean possessions, and particularly when Tobago, Grenada, and St. Vincent became British possessions in 1763, British interest in the Spanish colony intensified and it sought to ensure that the island did not fall into the hands of France. In addition to its aim to use Trinidad as a base to dislodge the French from the region, the Spanish policies to develop the agricultural resources of Trinidad made the island even more attractive to the British, whose trade with Trinidad increased despite the attempts of the Spanish authorities to keep foreigners out of the colony. The phenomenal growth of the Trinidad economy from 1783 stimulated the British capture of the island in 1797. From this time, British administrative, legal, political, and educational institutions were introduced in the attempt to neutralize French influences and anglicize the island. The united colony attained independence from Britain in 1962. BRITISH WEST INDIAN AIRWAYS (BWIA). This airline, popularly known as “Bee Wee,” began operating in the Caribbean in 1939 through the initiative of a New Zealander, Lowell Yerex. Eight years later, it was taken

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over by British South American Airways. A merger of the latter with British Overseas Airline Corporation (BAOC) led to BWIA becoming a subsidiary of the BOAC, which transformed the company. In 1961, the government of Trinidad and Tobago, gauging prospects for the airline as a result of the establishment of the West Indies Federation, acquired 90 percent of the airline and attempted to make it the regional carrier of the English-speaking Caribbean, but the government of Barbados, in reaction to Trinidad and Tobago’s decision to opt out of the federation, did not support the proposal. By 1967, Trinidad and Tobago acquired complete ownership of the airline. In 2006, operations were shut down after failed negotiations for expansion with a number of international airline interests. Air transport is today provided by a national carrier, Caribbean Airlines, which is headquartered in Trinidad and Tobago; a regional service, LIAT; and a number of international carriers. Currently, communication between Trinidad and Tobago is facilitated by two types of transport. First, there is airline communication between the two airports of the country. Piarco International Airport in Trinidad is located 10 kilometers from Port of Spain. It was constructed by the French and maintained in the 1930s by the Americans. Following this it came under the care of the Trinidad and Tobago government. A. N. R. Robinson International Airport, formerly Crown Point Airport, is located in Tobago. The domestic service between the two islands is handled by the national airline, Caribbean Airlines. Second, daily interisland ferry service between Port of Spain and Scarborough, which is operated by the Port Authority of Trinidad and Tobago, provides the cheapest means of transport between the two islands. A small airfield, the Camden Airfield, used primarily for crop-dusting planes, is located in Couva. See also AIRPORT/AIR TRANSPORT. BROWN, HAZEL (1942– ). A leading women’s rights activist who currently serves as coordinator for the Network of NGOs of Trinidad and Tobago for the Advancement of Women, Hazel Brown was born in East Dry River, Belmont, Port of Spain. She attended Gloster Lodge Moravian Primary School from which she won a scholarship to Bishop Anstey High School. She was one of the first graduates of the Cipriani Labour College. Brown has spent many years championing the cause of women in Trinidad and Tobago. She was instrumental in the development of the Housewives Association of Trinidad and Tobago in 1971 to encourage consumer awareness and protection and, more deliberately, the pursuit of consumer rights. She was also instrumental in the establishment of the Network of NGOs of Trinidad and Tobago for the Advancement of Women. Established in 1985, the Network of NGOs is an umbrella body representing nonprofit groups focused on women and the issues and challenges they face. She has served as coordinator of the network since 2006, and has consistently lobbied for financial and other support for women’s groups and organizations, arguing

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that if women were expected to be part of effective change they needed an appropriate level of support. Prior to the coming into being of the Kamla Persad-Bissessar administration, Brown contended that at every level the system of government was male dominated. In consequence, she led the “put a woman” campaign to encourage the electorate to select females as candidates during the elections of 2001 and 2002. Consistently given to progressive ideas, Brown was the first to introduce the solar cooker to Trinidad and Tobago. A 19-year cancer survivor, she is also an advocate and supporter for many cancer patients. She was recently honored by the Guyana Cancer Society for her work in support of Guyanese cancer patients, mainly women, who come to Trinidad for treatment. BRUCE, VICTOR (1920–1986). From humble beginnings in Tobago, Victor Bruce rose to become “a true pioneer of our country’s financial development,” according to Ewart Williams, governor of the Central Bank at the opening of the Victor Bruce Financial Complex, Scarborough, 18 June 2012. According to Courtenay Blackman, former governor of the Barbados Central Bank, Bruce was “a citizen of the world” since he “had talent so great, networking connections so vast, and a capacity for service so tremendous that he could not be contained within the confines of his native land.” (“Victor E. Bruce—a Pioneer of Trinidad and Tobago’s Financial Development,” Tribute by Mr. Ewart S. Williams, Port of Spain, Trinidad, 18 June 2012). He was educated at Bishop’s High School and then joined the civil service and, through evening classes, continued his education until he left for the London School of Economics. His first job on returning to Trinidad and Tobago was at the Central Statistical Office. He then became director of Personnel Administration and permanent secretary in the Ministry for Tobago Affairs with the responsibility for rehabilitating the economy of the hurricane-ravaged island. On 1 January 1969, he was appointed deputy governor of the Central Bank and, in 1969, became the first local governor of the Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago, a position he held until 1984. Regarded as the “father of the Central Bank,” Bruce was responsible for guiding the bank through the process of localization during the turbulence of the 1970s, managing the shift from the £ to pegging the Trinidad and Tobago currency with the U.S. dollar. He was responsible, too, for facilitating easier access of residents to banking services by widening the network of bank branches in the country and the creation of capital market institutions, especially the Trinidad and Tobago Stock Exchange, Unit Trust, and the Home Mortgage Bank. He also served as chairman for the Capital Issues Committee, the Committee on the Prime Minister’s Award for Export Performance, the National Insurance Board, and the National Insurance Property Development Committee. Bruce, who managed the bank for 15 years, has been the longest-serving governor of the Central Bank; he was also dean of governors

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of Central Banks in the Caribbean and Latin America and the region’s spokesman at the main international monetary organizations. Under Bruce, the Central Bank became the most efficient and influential player in the economic life of our nation and an active and respected participant in regional and international fora. In addition, he was a prominent member of the Lawn Tennis Association, the Maple Club, and the Rotary Club, and he served the church in various capacities. For his contribution to public service, he was awarded the Hummingbird Medal in 1969 and the country’s highest award, the Trinity Cross, in 1980 for finance. In 2012, he was honored by the Tobago House of Assembly, which named the Financial Complex in Scarborough after him. Victor Bruce overcame the handicaps that faced Tobagonians of his time to rise to national and regional prominence as a man of ability and integrity. He died on 18 October 1986 in Sierra Leone. BURNS, MARC (1983– ). Marc Burns was educated at Belmont Boys’ Roman Catholic School, Queen’s Royal College, El Dorado Senior Comprehensive School, and Auburn University in Alabama, where he studied Health and Human Performance. He was a four-time Olympian representing his country at the Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia (2000); Athens, Greece (2004); Beijing, China (2008); and London, United Kingdom (2012) in a career that spanned about a decade and a half. He finished seventh in the finals of the men’s 100-meter sprint in the 2008 Olympics, but in the men’s 4 x 100 meters relay, Burns’s Trinidad and Tobago team took the bronze medal. At the Commonwealth Games of 2014 in Glasgow, Scotland, clocking 38.10 seconds, Burns and teammates Keston Bledman, Richard Thompson, and Rondel Sorillo also took bronze in the men’s 4 x 100 meters relay race. BUS WORKERS’ STRIKE. Organized in 1969 primarily by members of the Transport and Industrial Workers Union (TIWU), which represented workers employed by the state and who were responsible for public transportation, the strike was one of the major industrial disturbances to occur in the run-up to the Black Power Movement. The strike, which involved over 600 workers and was a reaction to the Industrial Stabilization Act, was led by Joe Young, a protégé of C. L. R. James and founder of the TIWU. Young was also a close ally of George Weekes, the then leader of the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union (OWTU). He was also closely associated with communist activists Jack Kelshall and Lennox Pierre. The protest saw the participation of National Joint Action Committee members; University of the West Indies lecturers James Millette and Lloyd Best; Basdeo Panday, a lawyer and trade union leader; and members of the Democratic Labour Party. Together with members of the TIWU, some of these groups formed a human

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chain to prevent the Public Transport Service Corporation buses from moving, and to prevent strikebreakers from crossing the picket line. The leaders of the strike were arrested and charged with trespassing on government property. Hundreds of strikers were dismissed from their jobs, but the strike added momentum to the growing Black Power Movement. BUTLER, TUBAL URIAH “BUZZ” (1897–1977). He was the most prominent trade union leader to emerge in Trinidad and Tobago during the interwar years. He was born in St. George’s, Grenada, and is referred to as the “Supreme Chief Servant.” A statue of Butler erected on the premises of the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union (OWTU) headquarters in Fyzabad still stands in tribute to this noted labor leader. He is regarded by many radicals in society as a national hero, and, more radically, by some groups as the “father of the nation.” At age 17, he had enlisted as a volunteer to participate in World War I when he found it impossible to continue his education or to find employment. He served in the British army from 1914 to 1918 and was stationed in Egypt. He returned to Grenada after the war but subsequently migrated to Trinidad in 1921. Just 24 years old, Butler had already been the leader of the Grenada Representative Government Movement, which he had formed on his return to Grenada following the war and which had called for universal adult franchise there. He had also formed the Grenada Union of Returned Soldiers, which sought benefits and employment for soldiers who were quite disgruntled about the lack of employment opportunities, the difficulty of making a living, and their poor treatment at the hands of the British government and colonial administration. In Trinidad, Butler secured a job as a pipe fitter in the Roodal Oilfield. Given his strong religious upbringing— his father was the sexton at St. George’s Anglican Church in Grenada—it was not surprising that Butler also served as a minister in the Moravian Baptist Church at Fyzabad where he lived and worked. He had also been significantly influenced by the Garveyite movement and its key organization, the Universal Negro Improvement Association, with which he became associated. In March 1935, the very year in which he began trade union work, he led a hunger march from the Apex Oilfields in Fyzabad to Port of Spain, demanding higher wages and better conditions on behalf of workers at the oil company. The very next year, he launched his own political party, the British Empire Workers’ and Citizen’s Home Rule Party. Between 1936 and 1937, Butler and supporters of his political party mobilized a series of meetings and petitions against capitalist interests in Trinidad and Tobago—namely, the major oil and sugar companies. By June 1937, strikes and protest action had become regular and widespread. Butler was the chief mobilizer of the activists in the south. When the police attempted to arrest Butler, this led to the death of one officer, Charlie King, who was doused in kerosene and burned to death. It is for all these reasons that, in

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September 1937, he was arrested for sedition, found guilty, and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. Released in May 1939, and again arrested on November of that year, he was then sentenced to five years in prison because he was regarded as a security risk. The year 1946 saw the arrival of universal adult suffrage. Butler called a general strike, the objective being a coalition of African-descended oil workers and Indian sugar workers. In 1950, Butler won the election but was denied the opportunity to govern. The colonial authorities and British crown viewed him as a troublemaker and rabblerouser who lacked the social graces needed for leadership in governance. Accordingly, they conferred the portfolio of chief minister on Albert Gomes. The matter was taken to the Privy Council. He died in 1977 in relative obscurity but is still viewed posthumously by the National Joint Action Committee and some in the labor movement as the “Supreme Chief Servant” and “father” of Trinidad and Tobago nationalism. In 1970, he was awarded the Trinity Cross. BYATT, HORACE ARCHER (1875–1933). Sir Horace was governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 22 November 1924 to 1929. He was born in Tottenham, Middlesex, on 22 March 1875 to schoolteacher Horace Byatt and Laura Archer Byatt. He was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford, and pursued a career in the Colonial Service. He married Olga Margaret Campbell of Argyll in 1924, and the couple had three children. Byatt served in Nyasaland, British Somaliland, Gibraltar, Malta, British East Africa, and Trinidad and Tobago. A Tanzanian rodent, Byatt’s Bush Squirrel, was named after him. In 1924, Byatt assisted Dominican nuns to establish a leprosarium at Sanders Bay in Chacachacare, Trinidad. He died on 8 April 1933 in London.

C CABAL. The Cabal is a group of cabinet ministers reported by member of Parliament Jack Warner to have undue influence over then prime minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar, and to be responsible for a number of missteps and errors of the People’s Partnership administration. Members of the Cabal, according to Warner, operated primarily in their own interest and were involved in a lot of corrupt activities. He referred to the frontline members of the Cabal as being Suraj Rambachan, Roodal Moonilal, Chandresh Sharma, and Devant Maharaj, all of whom are devout Hindus. Warner seemed to have encouraged in the minds of some in the national community the feeling that members of the Cabal were motivated by ethnic prejudice. CABILDO. The Cabildo was the center of Spanish colonial government in Trinidad and was established by 1777. Its first headquarters was in St. Joseph, the former capital of Trinidad under Spanish colonial rule. In 1784, the headquarters of the Cabildo shifted to Port of Spain, the new capital of Trinidad. Typical of Spanish architecture of the 18th century, the Cabildo includes a courtyard and fountain. After shifting from several locations in Port of Spain, it eventually settled between the modern Police Administration Building and the Office of the Attorney General on Sackville Street in Port of Spain. CALLENDAR, EMMANUEL (1984– ). Callendar was born in Arouca, Trinidad. He is a track and field sprint athlete who was a member of the 4 x 100 meters relay team representing Trinidad and Tobago in the finals of the Beijing, China, Olympics in 2008. The four-man team clocked a time of 38.06 seconds to finish second and to clinch a silver medal in the event. Callendar won a second Olympic medal when, in the London Olympics of 2012, his team qualified for third place in the finals. Callendar is also a 100meter and 200-meter sprinter with impressive records in 2009 of 10.05 seconds in Zurich and 20.04 seconds in Belem, respectively.

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CALLISTE, LEROY (THE BLACK STALIN) (1941– ). Black Stalin was born on Coffee Street in San Fernando and worked short stints as a tally clerk on the Pointe-a-Pierre waterfront, a limbo dancer, a pannist, and a pianist. Stalin devoted his life to a career in calypso starting in 1959, and he joined his first tent, the Southern Brigade, in 1962. He became a member of Kitchener’s Calypso Revue in 1967 and, in 1982 along with Valentino and others, the Iere Kaiso Movement at the Communications Workers’ Union Hall in Port of Spain. Black Stalin distinguished himself by radically departing from the style and themes of his colleagues. He donned the image of a militant Rastafarian; articulated the views of the poor, black oppressed with razor sharp wit; engaged in critical social commentary; and shared a close affinity with the steel pan. Many accolades have decorated the career of this calypsonian. From 1979 to 1995, he won the Calypso Monarch crown five times. In 1999, he demonstrated that he had the talent to capture international audiences by winning the global title of Calypso King of Kings. As early as 1987, in recognition of Stalin’s contribution to the development of culture, the Trinidad and Tobago government awarded him the Hummingbird Medal (Silver). In 2011, the University of the West Indies conferred on the Black Stalin an honorary doctorate for his prolific contributions to calypso. Among his breaking performances are the Carnival anthem “Black Man Feeling to Party,” “Bu’n Dem,” “Wait Dorothy,” “Ism Schism,” “Look on the Bright Side,” “Mr. Panmaker,” “Sundar,” and “Culture.” See also FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. CAMP OGDEN. This is home of the 1st Battalion (Infantry) of the Trinidad and Tobago Regiment and the site of a major explosion on 26 April 1998, which killed four firefighters and two soldiers. The military camp was used for the imprisonment of members of the Jamaat al Muslimeen who participated in the 1990 coup that attempted to topple the A. N. R. Robinson administration and the National Alliance for Reconstruction government. CAPILDEO, RUDRANATH (1920–1970). Capildeo was an outstanding scholar who was well known for his intellectual contribution to applied mathematics and physics and for the creation of the “theory of rotation and gravity,” which was applied to early space expeditions of the 1960s and 1970s. He was born on 2 February 1920 to Pundit and Soogie Capildeo and grew up in Chaguanas where he lived in the famous “Lion House.” He attended Queen’s Royal College, won a national scholarship, left Trinidad to study medicine at Oxford University, and transferred to the University of London where he obtained a BSc in mathematics and physics in 1943, an MSc in mathematics in 1945, and a PhD in mathematical physics in 1948. He taught mathematics at the University of London where he also studied law.

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He also taught at Westfield College London and the University of Khartoum in Sudan. He returned to Trinidad in 1958 and became the first principal of Polytechnic High School in 1959. Wooed by politics, he founded and led the Democratic Labour Party from 1960 to 1969. He served as leader of the opposition from 1961 to 1963, but he divided his time between London and Trinidad to maintain pursuit of his interests in mathematics and politics. He was a part of the delegation to the Marlborough Conference, which helped draft the independence constitution. He published Vector Algebra and Mechanic: Theory Problems and Solutions. He was awarded the Trinity Cross in 1969 and named a national icon in 2012. He died on 12 May 1970 in England. CAPILDEO, SIMBOONATH (1914–1990). A solicitor and conveyancer, Capildeo was the second of three sons born to Pundit Capildeo and his wife, Soogie. He was born in Chaguanas in 1914, received his secondary school education at Naparima College in San Fernando, and graduated from the institution with a Cambridge School Certificate. He became a young cane farmer until he was inspired to pursue higher education after a visit from one of his classmates who had just completed studies in medicine. Having decided to study law, Capildeo articled himself to San Fernando solicitor Irwin Cameron and passed his final exams as a solicitor and conveyancer in 1943. He was a founding member of the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) and became very involved in politics where he developed a reputation as the “lion of the legislative council.” He was a member of the Legislative Council as the representative for Caroni south from 1956 to 1961 and as leader of the opposition in 1956. He was elected to the House of Representatives from 1961 to 1965 as the representative for Couva after which he resigned from the DLP but remained active in politics and the religious life of his community. Although largely self-taught, Capildeo was fluent in Hindi and Sanskrit and conversant with the great philosophers of western civilization by the time he assumed intellectual leadership of the Hindu society in Trinidad at age 28. He was a founding member of the Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha with Bhadase Sagan Maraj and was influential in creating the formal structure for Hindu society in Trinidad. He married Indradai Ramoutar and fathered one daughter and two sons. In 1989, Capildeo was awarded the Chaconia Medal (Gold) for his contribution to the development of the country. He died in 1990. CARIB. See ISLAND CARIBS; SANTA ROSA FIRST PEOPLES COMMUNITY.

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CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY (CARICOM). CARICOM was established in 1973 by the Treaty of Chaguaramas. The main objectives of this treaty were economic integration among member states, the coordination of their foreign policy, and functional cooperation among them. The signatories to the treaty were Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti (who from 1997 was treated as a de facto member of the community), Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago. The Treaty of Chaguaramas also provided for the establishment of the CARICOM Secretariat, which replaced the Commonwealth Caribbean Regional Secretariat. See also CARIBBEAN COURT OF JUSTICE (CCJ); CARIBBEAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (CARIFTA); CARIBBEAN SINGLE MARKET AND ECONOMY (CSME). CARIBBEAN COURT OF JUSTICE (CCJ). A regional judicial tribunal established on 14 February 2001, its headquarters is in Port of Spain, Trinidad. The court operated in two domains of jurisdiction. First, there was and continues to be its original jurisdiction, which empowers it to interpret and apply judgment related to the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, vesting in the court compulsive and exclusive power relative to the interpretation of the treaty. Second, the court has appellate jurisdiction, which allows it to function as the court of last resort in both civil and criminal matters regarding Caribbean Community member states who have legally abrogated the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. CARIBBEAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (CARIFTA). Brought into existence by the Dickenson Bay Agreement of 1968, this framework of regional cooperation lasted until 1974 when it was replaced by CARICOM (Caribbean Community). CARIFTA sought to encourage balanced development among its member states by increasing, diversifying, liberalizing, and ensuring fair trading among them. The signatories to the agreement were Antigua and Barbuda; Barbados; Belize; Dominica; Grenada; St. Kitts, Nevis, and Anguilla; St. Lucia; St. Vincent and the Grenadines; and Trinidad and Tobago. CARIBBEAN SINGLE MARKET AND ECONOMY (CSME). Established since 2001 by the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas of that year, the CSME is aimed at increased economic integration through a single market economy, greater foreign policy coordination, and functional cooperation. The signatories to the treaty are Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti (who from 1997 was treated as a de facto

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member of the community), Jamaica, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago. See also CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY (CARICOM); ECONOMY; TRADE. CARMONA, ANTHONY THOMAS AQUINAS (1953– ). Born in Fyzabad on 7 March 1953 to Dennis Stephen and Barbara Carmona, he was elected as the fifth president of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago on 18 March 2013. The eldest of the six children, he received his early education at the Santa Flora Government Primary School. He then attended Presentation College, San Fernando, where he received his secondary school education. Following this, he attended the Mona Campus of the University of the West Indies (UWI) where he obtained a bachelor of arts (honors) degree in English and political science in 1977, and the Cave Hill Campus where in 1981 he obtained a bachelor of laws (honors) degree. In 1983, he was called to the bar of Trinidad and Tobago, after training at Hugh Wooding Law School. While pursuing legal education, he taught language and linguistics at the UWI from 1981 to 1983, and served later as a senior tutor in politics in the Department of Government for approximately four years. He taught at the Palo Seco Government Secondary School, the Fyzabad Anglican Secondary School, and at San Fernando Technical Institute, where he lectured on—and served as a national examiner in—business law. He also taught at St. Hugh’s High School and Merle Grove High School, Kingston, Jamaica. From 1983 to 2000, he worked at the Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP), Trinidad and Tobago, where from 1994 he served as assistant DPP, and later deputy DPP and acting DPP. From 2001 to 2004, he served as an appeals counsel at the Office of the Prosecutor, at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, and in The Hague and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, in Arusha, successfully prosecuting in the appeals of individuals convicted of war crimes. In 2002, he was conferred the status of senior counsel and, in 2004, was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of Trinidad and Tobago. In 2011, he was elected a judge of the International Criminal Court (ICC) and was sworn in as a judge of the ICC on 9 March 2012. Justice Anthony Thomas Aquinas Carmona, S.C., was therefore a highly accomplished and internationally respected jurist when he took the oath as the fifth president of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. He is married to Reema Carmona, and they have two children. CARNIVAL. The history of Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago dates to the arrival of the first wave of French settlers to Trinidad from such Caribbean islands as Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Grenada toward the end of the 18th century. The Spanish invitation to French Roman Catholic settlers to migrate to Trinidad was formalized through several Cedulas of Population, the most

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significant of which was issued in 1783. The French planter from Grenada, Philippe Roume de St. Laurent, led the way in encouraging this migration. The French brought with them not only enslaved persons and their expertise in the management of sugar, cocoa, coffee, and cotton plantations but also their culture. They introduced the masked balls held in the private homes of the elite of 18th-century society in Trinidad during the pre-Lenten season in the period just after Christmas and just before Ash Wednesday on the Roman Catholic calendar. This was a time of merriment involving visits from house to house, picnics, and private house parties at which costuming and face masks were customary. In this early phase of the Trinidad Carnival, whites dominated while enslaved black persons—dressed in the discarded clothing of their social betters, their proprietors, and dancing in the yard—were largely relegated to the periphery of the celebrations. By 1834, when slavery was abolished throughout the English-speaking Caribbean and by 1838 when the Apprenticeship system was legally terminated, the freed African masses participated in full and transformed the Carnival. It was no longer a private affair characterized by the conservatism of the upper classes. In the postslavery period, Carnival in Trinidad took to the streets, and its black participants reshaped it by adding the canboulay ritual, which included an early morning procession of the masses or folk singing as chantwells (early form of calypsonians) in the streets, using flambeaux (light provided by a bottle with petrol for fuel) to lead the way and calendas or stick fighters heading to the gayelle or barrack yard for combat. Canboulay previously consisted of the pre-harvest practice of burning the cane fields, and this dimension was also brought into the Carnival celebrations of the folk. By the second half of the 19th century, upper-class critics used the term “jamette,” which meant below the diameter of respectability, in reference to the manner in which the Carnival had evolved. The dustmen, the prostitutes, the unemployed black masses of the urban and semi-urban spaces in and around Port of Spain had stamped their image of vulgar and gay abandon on Trinidad’s Carnival. By the early decades of the 20th century, the Carnival was marked by three distinct features: the masquerade or costumes, calypso or vocal music, and the steel pan or instrumental music. With the full entry of the black masses into the Carnival, the moko jumbie (figures on stilts six feet or more), dame Lorraine (usually a female character with exaggeratedly oversized buttocks and breasts), pierrot grenade (a speech maker dressed in colorful rags) and the midnight robber (American cowboy-like figure who makes speeches of dreadful content) became traditional characters of the masquerade and remain so to this day. The calypso, which has African origins in terms of its strong percussion undercurrents and the room it creates for call and response, have been traced back to Trinidad from the 18th century. St. Hilaire Begorrat, a Diego Martin planter from 1782, had in his possession a witty and talented enslaved male called Gros Jean whom he employed to attack,

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through extemporaneously composed songs, anyone against whom the master held a vendetta. Despite this early beginning, it was not until 1914 when the first calypso music was recorded. The steel pan, too, has its origins in African drumming. By the end of the 19th century, the folk musicians used varying lengths and widths of bamboo to make music to accompany their Carnival festivities. By the turn of the 20th century, scraps of iron constituted the dominant folk musical instrument in Carnival. By the 1930s, with the inventive spirit of men like Winston “Spree” Simon and Ellie Mannette, the 55-gallon oil drum was converted into what became known as the steel pan, the only musical instrument invented in the 20th century. Down through the years, numerous names have been associated with each of the three major components of the Carnival of Trinidad and Tobago. In the masquerade, designers such as George Bailey, Harold Saldenha, Ken Morris, Irvin McWilliams, and Peter Minshall have made their mark. The number of calypsonians has been endless, including Slinger Francisco (the Mighty Sparrow), the Calypso King of the World; Alwyn Roberts, the King of the Road March; and McCartha Lewis (Calypso Rose), the Calypso Queen of the World. Steel pan pioneers, arrangers, composers, and leaders such as Winston “Spree” Simon, Ellie Mannette, Ray Holman, Jit Samaroo, Pelam Goddard, and Len “Boogsie” Sharp have also been outstanding. See also FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. CARRINGTON, EDWIN (1938– ). Edwin Carrington was born at Parlatuvier, Tobago, and attended the Parlatuvier Anglican (Primary) School and Bishop’s High School. In 1964, he studied for a BSc and, one year later, an MSc in economics from the University of the West Indies. From 1965 to 1968, he pursued postgraduate research in advanced economic theory, economic planning, and development at McGill University in Montreal, Canada. Carrington has spent a significant amount of his career in key positions at multinational organizations such as CARICOM (Caribbean Community) and African Caribbean and Pacific (ACP). He was chief of Economics and Statistics and director of Trade and Integration at CARICOM, deputy secretary-general (1977–1985) and secretary-general (1985–1990) at the ACP, and, finally, secretary-general of CARICOM (1992–2011). Carrington’s work has earned him many awards and notable mention across the Caribbean. He has received the Chaconia Medal (Gold, 1987) and the Trinity Cross (2005) in Trinidad and Tobago, the Order of Distinction of Belize (2001), the Companion of Honour of Barbados (2002), the Order of Jamaica (2003), and the Cacique Crown of Honour, Guyana (2003), and he has been named a national icon of Trinidad and Tobago in 2012.

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CARTER, SAMUEL (1837–1895). Carter was born in Scarborough, Tobago, on 20 August 1837 to a black mother and a white father, military doctor John Collins Carter. He grew up with his father, and when Dr. Carter was promoted to inspector general of military hospitals in Dublin, his son’s maternal relatives, who did not support his relocation there, assumed responsibility for his care. With a passion for journalism since his childhood, at age 11 he was apprenticed to the Tobagonian newspaper. In February 1856, at age 18, he migrated to Trinidad seeking wider avenues for the development of his craft. He worked in Port of Spain under the controversial newspaper editor/owner William Herbert of the Trinidad Chronicle. The Trinidad he met was a racist, unjust, and segmented society in which “colored” people were viewed with suspicion as troublemakers, and nonwhites had no representation and were not allowed to participate in the government of the colony. Using the newspaper, “the most powerful weapon available to black men at the time,” Cater sought to change the Trinidad he met and carve a more equitable space in the colony for the members of his class. From 1869 to 1871, he partnered with Joseph Lewis to begin a weekly newspaper, the New Era. In 1873, when Herbert died, Carter was put in charge of the Chronicle and the important government and ward printing. When the partnership with Lewis was dissolved in 1874, Carter relocated to San Fernando where a significant colored community resided and where he would assume control of the San Fernando Gazette. He became the editor of the San Fernando Gazette, which he bought and ran from 7 September 1874 until his death in 1895. The San Fernando Gazette and Naparima Agricultural and Commercial Advertiser began publication on 6 February 1850 at High Street, San Fernando, and focused on issues pertaining to life in San Fernando, matters of local interest, and those related to improvement of the areas—provision of public services, such as post office, water, and road improvement. Its publication was suspended in 1854, and when the owner died in 1874, the paper was sold to Carter who became its most liberal editor. Carter published his first issue on 7 September 1874 as a demi sheet, and by 1884, the paper had doubled in size. He changed the name from San Fernando Gazette and Naparima Agricultural and Commercial Advertiser to San Fernando Gazette and Trinidad News and reduced its price. In addition to providing a forum for the politically ambitious black intelligentsia, who frequently submitted articles, Carter himself raised the issues that faced the lowest classes and functioned as an advocate for the unrepresented classes. He called for representative government for Trinidad, exposed the plight of the laboring classes, and showed how government policies impeded the improvement of black people.

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Carter did not confine himself to local issues for he kept a close eye on slavery in the United States, Cuba, and East Africa. He printed extracts from antislavery newspapers to show how slavery destroyed lives. He condemned the anguish of slavery, especially that caused by the Fugitive Slave law in the United States of 1850, which provided for the return of enslaved people who escaped enslavement by running from one state to another, and imposed heavy fines on those who harbored or assisted runaways. Under the cover of this law, kidnapping of free people from the North and elsewhere to enslavement in the South, was sanctioned. Carter also supported the call to celebrate the 1880 centenary to foster racial pride and the petition to Governor William Robinson to inaugurate 1 August as a public holiday. When the governor refused, Carter used his newspaper to celebrate the day with articles from William Blyden and other black-conscious individuals. He defended the black community against its detractors and used the newspaper to counteract these racist statements, refute their claims, and educate the masses, all of which he saw as important in the process of elevating the black community. Carter’s efforts provide important insight into the experiences of the lower classes in Trinidad. It was the newspaper that gave voice to the problems and concerns of the lower classes on the island where they lacked any form of representation. In addition, Carter’s newspaper served to edify a group to which was ascribed permanent occupation of the lowest rung of the social ladder and so was provided with minimal opportunities for improvement. In an era when the black newspaper was not a lucrative business, Carter ran, up to 1896, the largest black newspaper in the history of Trinidad and Tobago. It ran for 21 years until his death. He left a proud legacy of journalism. CASTAGNE, PATRICK STANISLAUS (1916–2000). Castagne was a musical composer, entertainer, and host who was born to Trinidadian parents in British Guiana on 3 October 1916. He moved to Trinidad with his parents when he was just three years old and attended St. Mary’s College. He composed the country’s national anthem, “Forged from the Love of Liberty,” and 150 songs including such famous renditions as “The Iceman,” “Kiss Me for Christmas,” “Nimble Like Kimble,” “Hyarima: A Caribbean Rhapsody,” “An Orchid for You,” “Happy Birthday Mom,” “My Easter Bunny,” and “Goodnight,” the theme song used for many years by Radio Trinidad 610. In the 1950s, Castagne was the host of pre-Carnival Dimanche Gras shows. While he served as diplomat to the Trinidad and Tobago embassy in England, he promoted the music of Trinidad and Tobago through the BBC weekly talent show featuring the West Indies. He also published a book on dance and calypso music. In 1962, he was appointed Member of the Most

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Excellent Order of the British Empire, and in 1979, he was awarded the Chaconia Medal (Gold) by the government of Trinidad and Tobago for his contribution to culture. He died on 5 May 2000. CATHEDRAL OF THE HOLY TRINITY. On the site of the present Anglican Cathedral of the Holy Trinity there formerly existed a wooden structure that was gutted by fire in 1808. Thus, the present Holy Trinity Cathedral is the oldest existing landmark in Port of Spain. Its foundation stone was laid on Trinity Sunday in 1816 and was completed two years later. The dedication service of the sanctuary took place on 25 May 1823. The architectural design of the building consists of a mixture of Georgian and Gothic style. The hammer beams supporting the building are carved from mahogany, and several splendid stained-glass windows surround the church. The initial objective in constructing the cathedral was to provide a place of worship for British forces stationed on the island. Today, it is a sanctuary for local Anglican worshippers and their associates. CATHEDRAL OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. This cathedral is one of the oldest Roman Catholic churches in the city of Port of Spain. It is located in the center of the city on the eastern side of the Brian Lara Promenade. Construction of the cathedral began on 25 March 1816 when Governor Sir Ralph Woodford, the first nonmilitary British ruler of Trinidad, laid its foundation stone, and it was completed in 1836. The main building material used in the construction of the walls of the cathedral was limestone quarried from the hills of nearby Laventille. Two grand towers frame its entrance, and altogether the cathedral takes the shape of a Latin Cross. A crypt is constructed beneath the cathedral where from as early as 1828 high-ranking Catholic Church officials such as the archbishops have been interred. In the year 2000, for example, Archbishop Anthony Pantin, the first local archbishop of Port of Spain, was interred at the crypt of the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception. CATHOLIC. See CATHOLICISM. CATHOLICISM. The Roman Catholic Church was first introduced to Trinidad by the Spanish colonizers after 1498 during a period when settlement of the colony and establishment of the Church was a slow and difficult process. As in Spain, the Church and crown worked in tandem to establish a Roman Catholic colony and Christianize the native occupants. In 1513, Santo Domingo, seat of both the audiencia and bishopric in the Americas, sent out its first two missionaries of the Dominican Order to Trinidad. They became the island’s first martyrs of the Church at the hand of the indigenous people who

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defended their territory and opposed the Spanish Christianizing efforts. In 1549, Trinidad was incorporated into the diocese of San Juan de Puerto Rico but remained a neglected colony despite further Spanish efforts to conquer the island and establish a thriving mission in the late 16th century. Nonetheless, the first Catholic church, Nuestra Santa Fé de la Concepcion, was constructed in the first town, San José de Oruña, by the few Spanish settlers and priests in Trinidad in May 1592. Despite earlier unsuccessful attempts, between 1687 and 1708, 16 Catalan Capuchin friars arrived to convert the indigenous. Their efforts were moderately successful as they founded seven missions but, unfortunately, also provoked a deadly attack by a group of indigenous on 1 December 1699 in what is referred to as the Arena Massacre. Catholicism was further cemented in the late 18th century in Trinidad. After 1776 and 1783, when two major immigration policies (the second being the significant Cedula of Population) mandated that the planters who entered the colony had to be Roman Catholics, many French Catholic planters settled and established estates in the territory. Thereafter, French culture and religion dominated; sermons were given in French, and the clergy was largely French and French speaking. The first church in Port of Spain was built in 1781, which would later be the site of the Catholic cathedral. In 1790, Trinidad was removed from the jurisdiction of the bishopric of Puerto Rico and placed under the new diocese of Guyana. Challenges and competition came with the British conquest of Trinidad in 1797 and the beginnings of the establishment of the Anglican Church. In 1818, the diocese of Trinidad was established provisionally as a Vicariate Apostolic to increase church membership, but from the 1820s to 1840s, the church was rocked by a local schism between its white and black members as the latter reacted to racial discrimination against them by the church and colonial administration. In 1816, the foundation stone was laid for the Catholic cathedral in Port of Spain, and by 1836, the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception had been completed. By 1844, there were 13 churches and seven chapels, and in 1850, an archbishopric was established in Trinidad after the dissolution of the West Indian Vicariate. Further development of churches and parishes would continue during the late 19th century. Nonetheless, from the 1840s, the Catholic Church also faced increasing competition for souls from other Christian denominations and the arrival of large non-Christian immigrant communities. Though officially claimed by the Spanish in 1498, Tobago was fought over by numerous European nations until 1803. During intermittent periods of French control in the 19th century, attempts were made to entrench Catholicism. Once Tobago was in the hands of the British from 1803, however, the growth of the Church stalled, and by 1871, there were only 36 Catholics out of a population of 17,054.

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The Catholic Church in Trinidad in the 19th century, however, began to consolidate its hold on education. Providing typically for the French Creole elementary and secondary children, the Church operated a few primary schools and two secondary schools before emancipation. In the post-emancipation era, the British administration concentrated on designing a secular education system, which generated apprehension within Catholic circles. Competition between denominational schools and government-run institutions (fueled by the feuds between Catholics and Protestants) escalated in the era, particularly in relation to secondary education and funding for education. The 1863 opening of St. Mary’s College was in direct response to the establishment in 1859 of Queen’s Collegiate School, which advocated a nonreligious-based (except for one religious period a week) British curriculum as opposed to the more French/European, classical, religious approach. After the establishment of the dual system through the Education Ordinance of 1870, Catholic schools were granted opportunities to receive government funding in return for less rigid enrollment requirements, and their students gained eligibility for Cambridge examinations. Post-emancipation immigration, which led to an even more diverse religious landscape in Trinidad and the rise of protestant missionary groups in the 20th century, allowed for a decline in the followers of established churches. Nonetheless, in 1978 Trinidad and Tobago became a Vatican Apostolic Nunciature with Port of Spain as its residence, and jurisdiction in a number of independent Caribbean countries. The Catholic Church currently constitutes the largest Christian congregation in Trinidad and Tobago. By 1994, the population of Trinidad and Tobago was 23.6 percent Catholic, and by 2009, it was 26 percent, reflecting the significant presence the religion maintains in the nation in the modern era. Its overarching administrative body is the Archdiocese of Port of Spain, which is responsible for the diocese of Bridgetown, Georgetown, Paramaribo, and Willemstad. The country has 61 parishes and a commensurate number of cathedrals, only one of which is located in Tobago, whereas other Christian denominations such as the Anglican and Methodist were more successful, as neither the French nor Spanish had been able to maintain an adequately substantial or sustained Roman Catholic presence there during colonial times. Today, in Trinidad, two very popular annual celebrations continue to reflect the syncretism of the First Peoples and Catholic religiosity and culture: the Festival of La Divina Pastora, held in the southern rural district of Siparia, and which manifests borrowings from Amerindo-Catholic observances in Venezuela; and the Santa Rosa Festival, observed in Arima, which reflects the influence of the Aragonese Capuchin Mission founded in the district in 1759.

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CAZABON, MICHEL JEAN (1813–1888). Regarded as Trinidad’s first local and internationally known painter, Cazabon was born on Corinth Sugar Estate in south Trinidad on 20 September 1813 to French planter parents who migrated from Martinique under the terms of the 1783 Cedula of Population. From 1826 to 1830, Cazabon was a student of Edmund College Ware, England, and was an art student of masters such as Paul Delaroche, MichelMarin Drolling, Jean-Antoine Theodore Gudin, and Antoine Leon MorelFatio. In the 1840s, he traveled extensively between France and Italy painting the landscape and exhibiting his work in places such as the Salon du Louvre in France. Cazabon settled down in Trinidad from 1852, painted many sceneries of the local landscape, and built up a rare and valuable collection of images of planters and merchants and their families and friends of 19th-century Trinidad. He also became an illustrator for events in the local newspaper. Mundane activities involving mulattos and Indian indentured and African workers in the colony also captured the artist’s attention. He painted river scenes, landscapes, seascapes, and portraits. Some of his outstanding titles include Dry River, Pitch Lake, Trinidad, View North from Mount Tamana, Sunset, Queen’s Park Savannah, Mulatto Girl, and Old Negress, French, in Gala Dress. In Trinidad, Cazabon’s most important patron was Lord Harris, governor of Trinidad from 1848 to 1854. From the works that Harris commissioned from Cazabon, he has left a collection of 44 paintings that provide a historical vista of life in 19th-century Trinidad, which is kept in Harris’s family home in Belmont, Kent, England. Other patrons included William Burnley, John Lamont, and the Earl of Dundonald. Cazabon’s work also caught the eye of many in England and France and won him great recognition and several medals and awards. In 1851 and 1857, two books of his engravings were produced in France: Views of Trinidad and Albums of Trinidad. For a short period from 1862 to 1870, Cazabon moved with his family to Martinique. In 1843, he married a French woman, Rosalie Trolard, and they had two daughters and one son. He was disillusioned in Martinique, however, and decided to return to Trinidad. He died on 30 November 1888. Today, some of his works are on display in the National Museum and Art Gallery of Trinidad and Tobago and can also be found in private collections both in Trinidad and abroad. The government of Trinidad and Tobago has recently acquired a collection of Cazabon’s art, which was on sale in London. CHACACHACARE. This is an island located off the northwest peninsula of Trinidad, 10 miles from Port of Spain and eight miles from the coast of Venezuela. At 900 acres, it is the largest of the islands between these two countries and boasts a salt marsh and a number of beautiful beaches. Originally inhabited by indigenous groups, the island was used in 1813 as a base for anti-Royalist revolutionaries who planned and launched their attack from

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the island on a Spanish garrison in Guiria, Venezuela, during the War of Liberation. Additionally, in the 19th century the island saw some economic development with cotton introduced for export and a whaling station established. In 1870, a lighthouse was constructed on the northern side of the territory. In 1922, the residents from the Cocorite leprosarium on the outskirts of Port of Spain were relocated to the remote island. The leprosarium was run by the Dominican Sisters of St. Catherine of Siena (France) who lived on Chacachacare, nursed the patients under extremely harsh conditions, and maintained the ordered community. The site included a hospital, dormitories for men and women, a chapel, and a jail, as well as a convent and doctor’s quarters. During World War II, a portion of the island was leased to the U.S. military, which built barracks and took control of the lighthouse. In 1950, the leprosarium closed, but inhabitants lingered; the last patient departed in 1984. Since that time, Chacachacare has been largely abandoned by the government and vandalized by tourists and visitors. All of the buildings on the island have fallen into ruin, but in recent times, ecotourism schemes involving the island have been discussed. Chacachacare is currently administered as part of the Chaguaramas parklands by the Chaguaramas Development Authority. See also BYATT, HORACE ARCHER (1875–1933); IMMORTAL FORTY-FIVE (1813); NELSON ISLAND. CHACÓN, JOSÉ MARÍA (1749–1833). Chacón was the last Spanish governor of Trinidad whose administration ran from 1784 to the British capture in 1797. He negotiated the surrender of the colony with the commander of the British forces, Sir Ralph Abercromby at Valsayn. Enlightened and reform minded, Chacón was instrumental in the development of the territory in the aftermath of the Cedula of Population in 1783, establishing essential transportation, civil, social, and security services that facilitated the growth of Trinidad into a thriving plantation economy based on enslavement and the lucrative sugar industry. CHACONIA (WARSZEWICZIA COCCINEA [VAHL] KL). The national flower of Trinidad and Tobago, called “wild poinsettia” or “Pride of Trinidad and Tobago,” is a flaming red forest flower of the family Rubiaceae. The title is in honor of the last Spanish governor of Trinidad and Tobago, Don José María Chacón. This flower, which is known by its long sprays of magnificent vermillion, was chosen because its blooming season coincides with the anniversary of independence. CHACONIA MEDAL. See NATIONAL AWARDS.

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CHAMBERS, GEORGE MICHAEL (1928–1997). Chambers served as prime minister from 1981 to 1986. He was Trinidad and Tobago’s second prime minister and assumed office following the passing of the country’s first prime minister, Eric Williams, in March 1981. Before his assumption of this office, Chambers held a number of ministerial portfolios. He also served as minister of finance, public utilities, housing, national security, education, planning, industry, commerce, and agriculture. When Williams died, it became necessary for the president of the republic, Sir Ellis Clarke, to consult with leaders of the then ruling People’s National Movement (PNM) on the appointment of a head of government and a political leader who could command the support of the majority of the members of Parliament (MP). Chambers was at the time one of three deputy political leaders of the PNM. The others were Errol Mahabir and Kamalludin Mohammed. Accordingly, to the president, Chambers was selected because it was felt that he was the MP that would be best able to command a majority in the House of Representatives. Chambers was sworn in on 30 March 1981. Chambers is remembered for his admonition to the country that the “fete” was over and it was “time to get back to work” and for his introduction of “belt tightening” fiscal measures. Also, in response to allegations of corruption leveled against the PNM and to other challenges facing the country, he also uttered what became a famous dictum: “what is right will be kept right: what is wrong will be put right.” Chambers, however, lacked the academic credentials and charisma of his predecessor Eric Williams, in whose footsteps it proved difficult to follow. Under his leadership, the PNM was voted out of office for the first time since its assumption of office in 1956, suffering a resounding defeat at the polls in 1986. Following this, Chambers resigned as the leader of the PNM and withdrew reclusively from public life. CHAN CHOW, HENRY (1925–2006). Chan Chow, born on 6 November 1925, was one of the better-known educators of Trinidad and Tobago of Chinese descent. His father was an indentured migrant worker to Trinidad who had come directly from China. As a boy, he attended the Nelson Boys’ Roman Catholic School and had won a College Exhibition Scholarship, which took him to the prestigious St. Mary’s College for boys. Soon after graduating from secondary school, Chan Chow became a teacher in a secondary school in Chaguanas. In 1957, Chan Chow took leave from teaching and enrolled as a bachelor of science student at the University of British Columbia in Canada where he majored in mathematics with a minor in nuclear physics. In order to keep abreast of publications in his chosen field, Chan Chow took classes in Russian and German. Having successfully completed the BSc, he returned to Trinidad and taught Additional Mathematics and Advanced Level Mathematics at Presentation College in Chaguanas. Apart from a short stint as an employee in the Petroleum Industry of Trinidad and

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Tobago, Chan Chow’s entire career was bound up in teaching. When he retired in 1985, he was serving as vice principal of Presentation College. In recognition of his many years of service as a successful educator who produced students who excelled in actuarial, engineering, and industrial studies, in 1998 the Rotary Club of Trinidad and Tobago held a function in his honor. He passed away on 25 December 2006. CHANCELLOR, JOHN ROBERT (1870–1952). Sir John was the governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 1 June 1916 to 1921. He was born in Edinburgh on 20 October 1870 to Edward Chancellor and Anne Helen Tod. He married Mary Elizabeth Howard Thompson on 6 June 1903 and had two sons and one daughter. Chancellor was educated at Blair Lodge Academy, Polmont, and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. He was a British solider and a member of the British Corps of Royal Engineers, and he served on the North-West Frontier. He also held the position of secretary of the Colonial Defence Committee. As a British colonial administrator, he was the governor of Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, and Southern Rhodesia and high commissioner of the British Mandate of Palestine. Chancellor was the first governor of Trinidad and Tobago who presided over a partially elected Legislative Council. This new political arrangement was introduced in 1921. He was a pioneer of the Boy Scout movement of Trinidad and Tobago and was its chief in 1916. In the same year, he donated to the organization the Chancellor Flag for Scoutcraft. He presided over the government that passed the Shouter Baptist Prohibition Ordinance on 27 November 1917, which prevented followers of the Baptist faith from practicing their religion in public on the grounds that the Baptist practice of chanting, shouting, and ringing of bells disturbed the peace. The ordinance was not repealed until 30 March 1951. Chancellor died on 31 July 1952. CHANG, CHUN-YEE CARLISLE FENWICK (1921–2001). Chang, the son of William Chang, a Cantonese indentured worker, was born in San Juan, Trinidad, and attended Tranquility Government School. He received his early training in art through a correspondence course from the Washington School of Art and in photography from the New York Institute of Photography where he completed a master’s certificate. In 1950, he enrolled as a scholarship student of the LCC Central School of Arts and Craft in England in a program that included poetry, painting, and mural painting. He also studied ceramics and mural painting in Italy at the Instituto Statale d’Arte for Ceramics. He returned to Trinidad in 1954, and by the following year, he opened his own painting studio. Chang was one of the country’s most celebrated artists as a painter, sculptor, photographer, and designer whose creations featured in Carnival costumes and the backdrops and props of musical and dramatic

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productions. He was selected in 1962 to sit on the committee that crafted the national emblems of Trinidad and Tobago. He almost singlehandedly designed the coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago and contributed significantly to the design of the national flag and insignia. Prior to his appointment to the independence committee, he had created the coat of arms of the shortlived West Indies Federation. From 1964 to 1979, Chang was one of the main muses behind the Carnival mas productions of bandleader Stephen Lee Heung, and together they produced the winning bands of 1967 and 1975. In the period from 1964 to 1975, Chang was also president of the Trinidad Art Society. In 1969, Chang was awarded the national Hummingbird Medal (Silver) for his contribution to fine arts. Some of his works have been depicted on postage stamps of Trinidad and Tobago. He died on 6 May 2001. CHEN, EUGENE (1878–1944). He was the son of Joseph and Marie Acham who were Hakka migrants from China during the Taiping Rebellion of the second half of the 19th century. They first migrated to Martinique and then to Trinidad. Chen was a brilliant scholar and successful businessman, and at age 21, he became the first Chinese solicitor in Trinidad and Tobago. Chen grew up with his parents and six siblings on Mount Moriah Road in San Fernando where the family owned an estate on which they grew such tropical produce as cocoa and coconut and reared chickens. His application to studies won him a scholarship to St. Mary’s College, a secondary school in Port of Spain run by the Irish Roman Catholic Fathers. On completion of his secondary school education, for five years Chen became an articled clerk for Solicitor Maresse Smith, and at the end of that apprenticeship, he in turn became a solicitor. His law practice, with headquarters on St. Vincent Street opposite the Parliament House of Trinidad and Tobago (the Red House), blossomed as he enjoyed a fairly extensive clientele consisting of Indian and Chinese shopkeepers. With the success of his law profession, which enabled him to educate his two younger brothers, along with other shrewd investments, Chen amassed a considerable fortune. He bought cocoa estates (the most thriving of which was St. Isadore in Manzanilla), purchased oil land in La Brea, south Trinidad, and owned a villa on one of the islands off the Gulf of Paria. By about 1903, Chen moved his family—his wife Agatha Ganteaume and four surviving children out of a total of eight—from the country plantation in San Fernando to the capital city, Port of Spain. He was now the proprietor of a concrete bungalow that he called Lim Kin, after his first child who died at age three, in the opulent residential area on Broome Street, St. Clair. In 1908, although he was only 30 years old, Chen felt he was wealthy enough to retire. He left two of his brothers, David and Joseph, to manage his properties and to take up the solicitor business while he migrated to England

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and then to China. Chen never returned to the land of his birth after that move. While in China, he emerged as foreign minister for the Revolutionary government of Sun Yat Sen, a position he held on four occasions. CHEN, MERVYN (1945– ). Chen was an inventor from Trinidad and Tobago of Chinese descent. He was born in Dow Village, south Trinidad. As a boy, he attended the San Fernando Boys’ Roman Catholic School and received his secondary school education at Presentation College in San Fernando. Due to illness, Chen began but did not complete a degree in architecture for which he enrolled at Sacramento City College, California. By 1966 after two years at the college, he returned to Trinidad because of poor health. For some time in the late 1960s and early 1970s, he worked with his father who was in the bakery business. By 1974, Chen became involved in several business ventures of his own, the most successful of which was the erection of the large screen in Valsayn called Kay Donna Cinema, which was launched in 1975. Kay Donna was the first drive-in cinema in Trinidad and Tobago. In 1986, Chen migrated to the United States and established a steel manufacturing company, which attracted the business of such well-respected American companies as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coca-Cola, Disney, and the Marriott Hotel. From 1990, Chen succeeded in inventing and patenting a number of inventions, including the Thru Tube Backsurging Tool, used to reduce inefficiencies in the oil drilling process; the Downhole Magnetic Pump, which was cheaper and smaller than the pumping jack units at use in the United States at the time, especially California; the automatic machine used in the construction industry; the walking aid for disabled persons; a water-making condensation device; flood relief equipment; and a turbine using well pressure to generate electricity. CHIN, CECIL (1943– ). Born on 26 January 1943, Chin was one of the earlier and most influential civil engineers that have ever worked in Trinidad and Tobago. The land of his birth is Guyana, and he grew up under modest conditions in the little village of Bartica. He received his primary and secondary school education at Queenstown Roman Catholic School, Central High Preparatory School, Central High School Georgetown, and Stanislaus College. In 1962, he enrolled as an undergraduate in the civil engineering program at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, and graduated with first class honors. In 1966, he successfully completed a postgraduate diploma in civil engineering at Queen’s University, Canada. When he returned to Trinidad by 1968, he joined the staff of Trinidad Contractors Limited (TCL), the largest construction company in the country. From 1978 to 1986, Chin emerged as TCL’s chief engineer. In 1985, he was appointed as the president of the Association of Professional Engineers of Trinidad and

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Tobago. Between 1989 and 1991, he held the prestigious post of divisional manager of the Caribbean Industrial Research Institute, and from 1986 to 1993, he was the chairman of the Board of Directors of the National Maintenance, Training and Security Company. Chin has proven himself to be an expert engineer in work involving buildings, highways, roads, and waterway construction. He was heavily involved in the dredging and reclamation of parts of Claxton Bay in south Trinidad, and his work has increased Trinidad’s land size by 100 acres. CHINAPOO, RICHARD (1958– ). Chinapoo is a former Trinidad and Tobago footballer who in the 1980s played for two of the major local football clubs, Malvern and San Juan Jabloteh, and a number of clubs in the United States. The latter included the New York Cosmos, Baltimore Blast, Dallas Sidekicks, and Harrisburg Heat, for whom he served as coach between 1998 and 2001, when he was declared coach of the year by the National Professional Soccer League (United States). CHINESE IN TRINIDAD. In another attempt to address the problem of labor that continually plagued Trinidadian planters, Chinese immigration was introduced in 1806 when 200 Chinese immigrants were brought from the island of Penang in Malaya to Trinidad. In the middle of the 19th century another attempt at Chinese immigration was made, when, in the post emancipation era, between 1852 and 1866, more than 2,500 Chinese immigrants settled in the territory as indentured laborers. But the high mortality rate among Chinese immigrants due to their poor treatment and disputes over repatriation led to the Chinese government terminating the scheme in 1866. However, Chinese immigrants continued to enter the territory during the late 19th century as voluntary immigrants and between 1910 and 1940 largely as merchants. By 1946, they numbered 5,641. Chinese immigrants were renowned for their roles as shopkeepers and became increasingly involved in business in the 20th century, establishing themselves as a significant part of the upper- and upper-middle socio-economic groups of Trinidad. The fourth wave of Chinese immigrants began in the 21st century as job opportunities in construction and business expanded in the country. The illegal immigrant statistics also reflect a significant growth within the population in the new century. See also ATTECK, SYBIL MARJORIE (1911–1975); AWON, ASTOR VICTOR (1927– ); AYOUNG, EDWIN (CRAZY) (1944– ); CHAN CHOW, HENRY (1925–2006); CHEN, EUGENE (1878–1944); CHEN, MERVYN (1945– ); FORTITUDE; HOCHOY, SOLOMON (1905–1983); LEONG PANG, AMY (1908–1989); NELSON ISLAND; WINSTON, VALENTINE (CHANG KAI CHEK KAI) (1934– ).

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CIPRIANI, ARTHUR ANDREW (1875–1945). A noted labor leader and politician, he was known as “friend of the barefoot man.” Born into a landowning family of Corsican descent, he was one of the first West Indians to enlist in the British West Indian Regiment (BWIR), where he rose quickly to the rank of captain. He became involved in recruiting soldiers at the outbreak of World War I and became a captain in the BWIR even before leaving for the front in 1917. Both locally and abroad, he took up the cause of blacks enlisted to serve as British forces, defending them against discrimination. He pursued the same path on their return to Trinidad after the war. So great was their respect for him that he was able to revive the dormant Trinidad Workingmen’s Association (TWA) and lead the strike by the dockworkers that began in November 1919. The organization agitated for recognition of trade unions and workmen’s compensation. In November 1919, during the labor disputes on the Port of Spain wharves, Cipriani called on the workers to withhold their labor. This resulted in the first important industrial strike in Trinidad. His popularity soared, and in 1921, he was elected to a seat on the Port of Spain City Council. In 1923, he became president of the TWA, which had emerged as the colony’s leading workers’ organization. In 1925, Cipriani became mayor of Port of Spain. This provided him with a seat on the Legislative Council in Trinidad’s first general elections. In the Legislative Council, he argued for old-age pensions, women’s rights, a minimum wage, and compulsory education. In 1934, he formed the Trinidad Labour Party (TLP), which, in essence, was the TWA under a new name. Shortly afterward, he began losing favor with the masses outside of Port of Spain. In 1936, one of his chief lieutenants, Uriah Butler, left the TLP and founded the British Empire Workers and Citizens Home Rule Party, in order to embrace the workers in the petroleum industry. That same year, another close associate, Adrian Cola Rienzi, also departed the TLP and formed the Trinidad Citizens League, a party closely connected to the sugar industry. Cipriani always advocated constitutional methods and perhaps had a misplaced trust in what looked like the good intentions of British politicians, especially those of Britain’s Labour Party. He retired from public life in 1944, having never lost his seat on the City Council since he had first been elected to it in 1921. His eight terms as mayor remains a record. A statue to his memory was erected in Port of Spain in 1959. Unveiling the statue, Prime Minister Eric Williams described him as the pioneer of the nationalist movement of Trinidad and Tobago. The country’s primary tertiary institution for the study of labor and cooperatives, Cipriani College of Labour and Co-operative Studies, is named in his honor. He passed away in the year 1945.

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CIPRIANI COLLEGE OF LABOUR AND CO-OPERATIVE STUDIES. Named after Captain Arthur Andrew Cipriani in recognition of his leadership of the struggle on behalf of the working class, the institution was established in 1966 to provide workers and their representatives with education and training in the field of trade unionism and industrial relations. Formal education and training in labor relations began only in 1950, due to a report of the labor department, which pointed out that across the country little had been achieved or attempted in the field of labor education. During the early 1950s, a number of trade unions affiliated to the British Labour Party had begun, with its support, to enroll their members and representatives in short correspondence courses in trade unionism and industrial relations. The college, therefore, began to provide a range of courses related to trade unionism, the management of cooperatives, and occupational health and safety. In 1957, the government, acting through the Ministry of Labour, and in collaboration with the University of the West Indies, began to sponsor a number of short courses on trade unionism. From 1963, these courses were expanded, upgraded, and offered annually. Emerging from discussions with the trade union movement, the government declared its intention to establish a trade union center for the full-scale education and training of labor union members and their representatives. This led, in 1966, to the establishment of a labor college, which was to be placed under the administration of a board of governors established for the purpose. The legal framework for the functioning and operation of the college was established by the Cipriani Labour College Act No. 4 of 1972. In 1974, the government commissioned the drawing up of a program of cooperative education, enlisting, through the assistance of the International Labour Organization, the services of Professor Howard Whitney of the University of Wisconsin. As a result, a two-year diploma (part time and full time) was offered in cooperative studies, and shorter courses were made available to personnel in the ministry of labor and cooperatives, and to members of trade unions. Additionally, the college also began to offer courses in occupational health and safety. In 1996, the name of the college was changed to Cipriani College of Labour and Co-operative Studies to reflect the wider range of training and education that had become available at the institution. The college is run by a board of governors made up of representatives of the government, the general public, cooperative institutions, and trade union bodies. CIPRIANI LABOUR COLLEGE. See CIPRIANI COLLEGE OF LABOUR AND CO-OPERATIVE STUDIES.

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CLARKE, ELLIS EMMANUEL INNOCENT (1917–2010). A holder of the country’s highest award, the Trinity Cross, he was the second and last governor-general and the first president of Trinidad and Tobago, succeeding Sir Solomon Hochoy as governor-general in 1972. Sir Ellis was born to Cecil and Elma Clarke at Belmont Circular Road in Port of Spain. His father was a civil servant assigned to the Registrar and Marshal’s Department of the Red House. His mother was a teacher and musician. Clarke received his elementary education at Christian Brother’s Roman Catholic (RC) School and Belmont Intermediate RC School. Subsequently, he attended St. Mary’s College, where he performed exceptionally well, winning at the Junior Cambridge level one of the college’s House Scholarships in 1932, its silver medal for placing first in the country at the Higher Certificate level, and the college’s Jerningham Book Prize in 1934 for outstanding performance at the Senior Cambridge level. He culminated his achievements at the college by winning in 1936 an Island Scholarship to pursue higher studies and professional training abroad. In 1937, he left for London to pursue studies for the bar in Gray’s Inn and, concurrently, an LLB at London University. He completed his LLB in 1940 and his studies for the bar the following year. However, when called to the bar, he opted to return to Trinidad. On arrival, he opened his own chamber, representing private citizens and interests mainly at the Supreme Court, and serving as a state prosecutor at the Assizes. In 1954, he was appointed solicitor general, becoming the first member of the bar in private practice to be appointed to the post. Promotion in the state sector came quickly afterward. In 1956, he was appointed deputy colonial secretary. The colonial secretary at the time was Sir Solomon Hochoy, who acted as governor when the latter was absent. In such circumstances, Clarke then acted as colony secretary. When both the governor and colonial secretary were absent, Clarke acted as governor. Shortly after the People’s National Movement rose to power in 1956, he was appointed attorney general by the governor, without consultations with Dr. Eric Williams, and much to the consternation of the latter who felt that he should have had the option to make the appointment himself. The post of attorney general was challenging for it rendered Clarke advisor to both the government and the governor, and he was also required to transmit to the colonial office the views of both. In 1961, Trinidad and Tobago was granted full internal self-government and the position of attorney general became a political appointment, but a special position was created for Clarke, that of constitutional advisor to the cabinet. With the collapse of the West Indies Federation and the emergence of Trinidad and Tobago’s bid to acquire independence, Clarke found himself assuming responsibility as the principal draftsman of the independence constitution of Trinidad and Tobago. He was made to serve in various other portfolios. In March 1961, he was appointed chief justice, and therefore

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served as head of the judiciary. When the country became independent, he served as its first ambassador to Washington and, additionally, as its permanent representative at the United Nations General Assembly. He was also the country’s representative to the Commonwealth Group of countries and the Organization of American States. It was Clarke’s calmness, negotiating skills, diplomacy, and the logic behind his legal arguments that saw the demand for his contribution in so many domains of the affairs of the state. His tremendous experience in law, administration, and diplomacy were obvious by the time the opportunity came for him to serve as a head of state. Clarke’s regular appointment as deputy governor had eminently prepared him to serve eventually as governor-general. In 1962, as the date for the retirement of Sir Solomon Hochoy as governor-general drew near, the British crown was pleased to select Clarke as his successor. By that time, Clarke had already been the recipient of a number of awards from the British crown. These included, first, the Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George, awarded when he was appointed attorney general. There was also his Knight Bachelor, to which he became entitled following his appointment as head of the judiciary, despite the fact that he had given up this portfolio to serve as the country’s ambassador to the United States. Furthermore, as an acting governor he was made Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George. Finally, on his appointment as governor-general, he was awarded the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Michael and St. George. In 1976, he was unanimously elected as president when Trinidad and Tobago became a republic. CLARKE, KNOLLY ULRIC ALEXANDER (1935– ). The Very Right Reverend Father Clarke is an Anglican priest, deacon, and rector of the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, Port of Spain. He was born in Tunapuna and educated at the Sangre Grande Government Primary School and Tranquility Intermediate and Progressive Education Institute. After graduating from secondary school, he worked as a teacher at Richmond Street Boys Primary School. In preparation for his career as an Anglican priest, he attended Codrington College in Barbados, McGill University in Canada, and the School of Theology at the University of South Tennessee. He successfully completed his BTh in 1972 and his STM (master’s in sacred theology) in 1973. He is the recipient of an honorary doctor of divinity from Huron University College, University of Western Ontario. Reverend Clarke married Estella Millington, a nurse, and together they had two sons and one daughter—Christopher, Marcus, and Marissa. Clarke was first ordained as a deacon of the Anglican Church in Barbados and as an Anglican priest on 9 July 1961, and he was assigned to the Holy Trinity Cathedral. From 1964 to 1967, he served as the assistant curate of St. Stephen’s Parish in Princes Town and served as priest of this parish from 1967 to 1970. His priestly portfolio

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included director of the Diocese of Trinidad and Tobago, dean of studies of the Caribbean Ecumenical Institute responsible for continuing theological education, and director of commission in Ministry. Reverend Clarke has also published several scholarly and spiritual treatises including “The Troubling of the Water: Liturgy and Culture in the Caribbean” in 1971 and “The Impact of the West on the Caribbean” in 1976. CLARKE, LEROY (1938– ). One of the leading artists of Trinidad and Tobago, Clarke, a self-taught artist, was born in Gonzales, Trinidad, on 7 November 1938. He first exhibited his paintings in 1962 and sold his first painting for just $15. His work was also on display during the independence celebrations of the new nation in 1962, and his first solo art exhibition took place in 1965. Clarke worked as a vocalist for the Beamers and a primary school teacher in the John John area in Laventille, before migrating to New York where he held one of his first successful exhibitions in Harlem’s Studio Museum. From 1969 to 1974, Clarke worked as program coordinator/artist in residence for the Studio Museum of Harlem and displayed his work in the United States, Canada, and Brazil. The Black Power Movement of the 1960s and 1970s has had a significant impact on his work, which explores Afrocentricity and self-discovery. Clarke is also a poet with compositions such as “Fragments of a Spiritual” and “Informing the Form.” He is an honorary fellow of the University of Trinidad and Tobago. In 2005, the Trinidad and Tobago Orisha Community bestowed on him the title of Chief Ifa OjeWony Oni Abiodan (He who cannot be rebuked). In 2006, the Caribbean Festival of Arts IX Committee presented him with the Masters Award Exhibition. In 2008, on his 70th birthday, his work was displayed at the Financial Complex and at the National Museum in Port of Spain. Additionally, UNESCO hosted a three-day symposium on the life and work of the Master Artist, a title conferred on him by the National Museum of Trinidad and Tobago. CLIFFORD, SIR BEDE EDMUND HUGH (1890–1969). Clifford, governor of Trinidad and Tobago from June 1942 to 1947, was born 3 July 1890 to William Hugh Clifford and Catherine Mary Bassett. His great-granddaughter, Samantha Cameron, is the wife of former British prime minister David Cameron. Prior to his colonial career in Trinidad and Tobago, he was governor of the Bahamas and of Mauritius. He was appointed to Trinidad and Tobago because of wartime security concerns, but his administration was marked by continual tension between the colonial government and activists who demanded greater autonomy in local affairs. During the legislative elections of 1946, local voters returned three candidates to the Legislative Council who were affiliated with either Uriah Butler’s British Empire Citizens’

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and Workers’ Home Rule Party or the United Front. To curb unrest and demonstrations against the colonial government, on 30 December 1946, Clifford banned public demonstrations in St. Patrick County. He also declared a state of emergency in St. Patrick County in January 1947 following arson at a Point Fortin oil well. The governor believed that labor leader Tubal Uriah “Buzz” Butler was the source of the ongoing struggle between the British colonials and the people. Consequently, he directed Butler to exile himself from the country by 19 January 1947. Instead of solving the governor’s problems, this decision aggravated the situation. The people responded by storming the Red House, or seat of government, in Trinidad and Tobago on 22 January 1947. A less turbulent but equally disturbing dimension of Clifford’s administration involved the acquisition of all the lands that constituted the village of Caura or La Veronica in east Trinidad for the purpose of damming the Caura River to supply north Trinidad with water. The project, however, floundered on charges of financial corruption. Clifford returned to England after retiring and died 6 October 1969. CLIMATE. Trinidad and Tobago enjoys a tropical climate with temperatures that vary between 22 to 32 degrees Celsius. There are two major annual climatic periods: a “dry season,” so named, extending from January to April, and “wet season” which extends from May to December. It is not unusual to have rainy periods during the dry season and dry spells in the rainy season. See also HURRICANES. COAT OF ARMS. This emblem was designed by a committee formed in 1962 to select the symbols that would be representative of the people of Trinidad and Tobago. The committee included noted artist Carlyle Chang and designer George Bailey. The coat of arms, with the accompanying motifs that represent indigenous features of Trinidad and Tobago, was selected and formally agreed to be used as the coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago in 1962, in a design approved by the College of Arms. The birds represented on the coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago are the national birds—the Scarlet Ibis, the Cocrico (native to Tobago), and the hummingbird. The three ships represent the Trinity as well as the three ships of Columbus. The three peaks were principal motifs of Trinidad’s early British Colonial Seals and FlagBadges. They commemorated both Columbus’s decision to name Trinidad after the Blessed Trinity and the three peaks of the southern mountain range, called the “Three Sisters,” on the horizon. The fruited coconut palm dates to the great seals of British Colonial Tobago in the days when the island was a separate administrative unit. Included on the coat of arms is the country’s

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motto “Together we aspire; together we achieve.” See also NATIONAL ANTHEM; NATIONAL AWARDS; NATIONAL FLAG; NATIONAL FLOWER. COGGINS-SIMMONS, JEAN GWYNETH (1923–2005). Born on 23 June 1923, Coggins established her career in dance from the year 1939 when she shared the stage with Boscoe Holder and Beryl McBurnie. In 1959, Coggins won a dance scholarship, which took her to Cuba, France, Haiti, London, New York, and Puerto Rico. Coggins was a pioneer of the National Dance Association of Trinidad and Tobago and founder of the Jean Coggins Dance Company, which performed at home and abroad, especially in Cuba, Canada, and Barbados. She was particularly interested in the Bele dance and conducted considerable research on its movements. In 1971, she presented the production titled The Mating of Erzulie, and in 1977, Coggins was among the contingent from Trinidad and Tobago present and performing at the second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture held in Lagos, Nigeria. In 1985, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded Coggins the Hummingbird Medal (Silver) for her promotion of dance. She died in April 2005. COLLEGE OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION (CIC)/ST. MARY’S COLLEGE. College of the Immaculate Conception (CIC) was the fifth secondary school to be opened in Port of Spain, Trinidad, and the fourth that catered exclusively to the education of boys. It was founded on 1 August 1863 and was initially located on the site of the old St. George’s College but was eventually relocated to its present location on Frederick Street. Archbishop English and Dr. Louis de Verteuil contributed to giving the school a strong French Roman Catholic connection in the early days. In July 1863, English and de Verteuil arrived in Trinidad with Holy Ghost Fathers from France ready to teach and manage the college. So steeped in the French tradition was CIC initially that the Fathers taught in French and the main subject on the curriculum was French. CIC was attractive to both the upper and middle classes partly because, in addition to its offering of French and other classical subjects, it offered commercial courses, boarding accommodations, and fees that were lower than those at Queen’s Royal College. The school’s motto is “Manliness and Knowledge.” Alumni of the school have performed creditably in politics, business, law, and medicine. It has produced two former presidents and prime ministers of Trinidad and Tobago. COLONIAL LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY (CLICO). See DUPREY, CYRIL LUCIUS (1897–1988).

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COLONIAL SECRETARY. During the period of British administration, the colonial secretary was the second most important public official in the colony owing to his position as the head of the colony’s civil service. Before the introduction of ministerial government (ministerial responsibility/ministerial portfolios) in 1950, the governor-general enjoyed executive power. The colonial secretary served as his deputy and headed the colonial secretariat. COMMISSIONG-CHOW, JANELLE PENNY (1953– ). Penny, as she is popularly called, is a former beauty pageant title holder. She was born in Port of Spain, 15 June 1953, and attended Bishop Anstey High School; at age 13, she migrated to New York with her family. She graduated from the Fashion Institute of Technology with an applied associates degree in science, majoring in fashion studies. She returned to Trinidad in 1976, entered and won Miss Trinidad and Tobago pageant in 1977, and represented her country in the Miss Universe competition in Santo Domingo. Penny won the Miss Photogenic competition and then went on to become the first black and first Caribbean woman to win the Miss Universe title. During her reign, she was an international advocate for the rights of people of African descent and of world peace. She was honored by the government of Trinidad and Tobago with its highest national award, the Trinity Cross, in 1977, and the issuance of three national postage stamps bearing her image. She married Brian Bowen, founder of Bowen Marines, and after his death in 1989, she married publisher Alwin Chow with whom she has an adopted daughter. A street in Port of Spain is to be renamed in her honor. COMMON ENTRANCE EXAMINATION. See EDUCATION. COMPANY VILLAGES. See SPIRITUAL SHOUTER BAPTIST. COMPOSITE SCHOOLS. In a further bid to expand educational opportunities around 1972, Prime Minister Eric Williams established a system of composite schools in which the curriculum of the junior secondary and senior comprehensive schools was fused and the schools operated as single, all day, five-year schools. The composite school model was particularly designed to meet the needs of rural communities with relatively small student enrollment that did not require the double shift system. Communities such as Cedros, Toco, Tabaquite, and Fyzabad were typically earmarked for this system. See also EDUCATION; JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM; SENIOR SECONDARY/COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOLS.

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CONCORDAT OF 1960. This was a memorandum of understanding negotiated between the ministry of education and culture, and representatives of the governing bodies of denominational schools (mainly Roman Catholic), and through which the government provided assurances of the preservation of the religious character of denominational schools. The concordat related to a number of matters that were a source of controversy between the state and the churches regarding the management of schools. The concordat was published on Christmas Day, undoubtedly as a sign of goodwill from the government toward the churches, particularly the Roman Catholic Church with whom much of the negotiations had taken place. In the concordat, the government sought to clarify its proposals regarding the reorganization of the education system insofar as these proposals would have affected the denominational boards of management of schools, and the governing bodies and principals of assisted secondary schools. The concordat made it clear that in relation to property, the ownership and right of direct control and management of all denominational primary and secondary schools were assured to the denominations. Furthermore, that notwithstanding whatever modifications were to be made to the education system, all existing rights regarding property were to be respected. Additionally, the memorandum stated that, in denominational schools, no books or apparatus to which the denominational authority formally objected were to be introduced or imposed. Moreover, in denominational schools, unless the denomination concerned gave consent otherwise, the religion of the particular denomination that owns the school was to be taught exclusively by teachers professing to belong to that denomination. Regarding government schools, all recognized religious denominations were to have access through their accredited representatives during the times specified in the school timetable for the teaching of religion to the pupils belonging to their faith. However, pupils attending the schools of a denomination not of their own faith were not to be compelled to take part in the religious exercises or lessons of that denomination. The memorandum pointed out, however, that the right of appointment, retention, promotion, transfer, and dismissal of teachers in primary schools was to rest with the Public Service Commission. Further, a teacher would not be appointed to a school if the denominational board objected to such an appointment on moral or religious grounds. Similarly, if a teacher was found to be unsatisfactory on these very grounds, moral or religious, the denominational authority had the right to request his/her removal to another school after due investigation. For the same reasons, the concordat proposed (provided the legal and constitutional arrangements allowed) that vacancies as they occur in all schools were to be advertised and applications to fill them submitted, first, to the respec-

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tive board of management, which was to examine them and forward them all, with the board’s recommendations, to the Public Service Commission for final action. The existing relationship between government and the governing bodies and teachers in assisted secondary schools was to remain subject to negotiations because it was the government’s intention to introduce free secondary education and a system of inspection of secondary schools by the Ministry of Education and Culture. However, the governing bodies of government-assisted schools were to continue to be responsible for the administration and maintenance, repairs, and furnishing of these schools. Notwithstanding this, these schools were to continue to qualify for government aid. The principals of assisted secondary schools were required to make available a minimum of 80 percent of the First Form entry places to those who, by passing the Common Entrance Examination test for free secondary education, became qualified to become pupils of the government-assisted school. The principals were to be represented on the panel of examiners set up to administer the test. Principals of assisted schools were free to allocate up to 20 percent of the remaining places as they saw fit, provided normally that the students to whom these places were allocated were chosen from the Common Entrance Examination pass list. Entry above the First Form was to be under the control of the Ministry of Education and Culture, and, accordingly, required the approval of the minister. Where the need arose to remove a pupil for disciplinary reasons or unsatisfactory progress, the right to request such removal remained with the principal who could for the same reasons suspend a pupil pending investigation. The authority to expel a pupil was vested solely in the cabinet. The same principle was to be applied to primary schools. All new central schools were to be established only by the state for the simple reason that these schools were to be fed from the primary schools of all denominations, as well as government schools, if these schools were in the area served by the central school. Where the need arose for converting an existing denominational school into a secondary school, the denominational character of that school was to be allowed to remain. The selection of teachers for training at the teachers’ college was to remain solely with the Ministry of Education and Culture. However, the selection of teachers for training in the existing denominational training colleges were to be made by the denominational boards but had to be approved by the Ministry of Education and Culture. The government expressed the desire that all teachers be trained at the teachers’ college under government supervision and administration. The government intended, however, to respect the rights of the existing training colleges conducted by the denominations. However, no expansion of those facilities was to be allowed without the expressed permission of government.

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CONNOR, EDRIC (1913–1968). Connor was a celebrated baritone singer and actor who was born in the fishing village of Peter Hill in Mayaro, east Trinidad, his home for the first 13 years of his life. In 1927, Connor won a scholarship from the Board of Industrial Training in Handicraft, which gave him the opportunity to enroll as a student of the Royal Victoria Institute in Port of Spain. Prior to making singing his life’s career, Connor tried his hand at the laborious work of the East End Foundry in the 1930s and later as a police officer. In fact, it was the police service that provided the first concerts that led Connor to become a great musical entertainer of Trinidad and Tobago. During World War II, Connor emerged as the most celebrated local vocalist from Trinidad at the grand concerts that the Americans held in the country periodically. By 1944, as the war drew to a close, Connor migrated to London where he expressed his talent through the BBC production titled Calling the West Indies, which enabled him to make the first of 2,500 sound recordings during his lifetime. Many of his renditions were folk songs of his own composition. Connor also proved to be an accomplished writer with several publications, the most popular of which was Songs from Trinidad. Connor also enjoyed a successful career as an actor. His first major acting role was the character John Kumalo in Cry the Beloved Country. Other productions in which he featured included West of Zanzibar in 1954, Moby Dick in 1956, Seven Thunders and Fire Down Below in 1957 (some scenes for Fire Down Below were shot in Mayaro, Connor’s home village), King of Kings in 1961, and Four for Texas I in 1963. Connor was also a live actor in plays such as The Caribbean and Rookoombine. In the 1960s, he featured in the British three-part series titled Danger Man, The Avengers I, and The Man in the Suitcase. The savannah in Mayaro is named the Edric Connor Park as a tribute to his great talent in singing and acting. Connor died on 16 October 1968. See also CULTURE. CONSTANTINE, LEARIE NICHOLAS (1901–1971). A cricketer, lawyer, government minister, politician, and diplomat, Constantine was born in Petit Valley, Diego Martin, Trinidad, on 21 September 1901 into a family of cricketers, and as a young man, he displayed tremendous promise for the sport. His father, Lebrun Constantine, the grandchild of enslaved Africans, was a famous local cricketer who played first-class cricket for Trinidad and Tobago and the West Indies. Constantine’s maternal uncle was also a cricketer who had played for Trinidad and Tobago and the West Indies at the firstclass level. Constantine’s bother, Elias, ultimately represented Trinidad and Tobago. Naturally gifted at sports, Constantine practiced regularly with his father and uncle, and ultimately developed as a right-armed batsman, medium-paced fast bowler, and excellent fieldsman. He began to attract the attention of the selectors and played for the Shannon Cricket Club in 1916 and 1920 and for Trinidad and Tobago against British Guiana and Barbados.

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He also played for the West Indies against England and Australia between 1923 and 1938. Constantine played in 18 test matches and took the first wicket for the West Indies in test cricket. While a member of the West Indies team, he also played for the Lancashire League Club, Nelson. The Constantine family was always aware that cricket was a sport overladen with racism. Despite his father’s encouragement regarding cricket, every effort was made to ensure that young Constantine also established a viable alternative professional career path. Upon leaving school, he was encouraged to join a firm of solicitors in Port of Spain, as a clerk, and as a possible pathway to the legal profession. Here, too, racism was pervasive, as few blacks were permitted to become solicitors. During World War II, Constantine secured a job with the government welfare office responsible for West Indians employed in English factories. His experience as a cricketer and student of law—as well as his cognizance of racial discrimination and involvement with West Indian immigrants in Britain—committed him to advocacy. Additionally, by the time he qualified as a barrister in Britain in 1954, he was already an established broadcaster and journalist. In 1955, he returned to Trinidad, entered politics, and became a founding member of the People’s National Movement. During the Williams administration, he served in the first cabinet of Trinidad and Tobago as minister of communications, works and public utilities. He returned to England in 1962 as Trinidad’s high commissioner, and served in this capacity until 1964. In his final years, he was very influential in the passing of the Race Relations Act in Britain. Already awarded an MBE in 1946, he was knighted in 1962, and in 1969, he was created Baron Constantine of Maraval in Trinidad and Nelson in the County Palatine of Lancaster, and made a life peer. He died of a heart attack in London 1971 at the age of 70. He was given a state funeral and is buried in the Arouca cemetery. He was awarded the nation’s highest award in 1971 and named a national icon in 2012. CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962). Trinidad fell to the British in 1797. In the initial years of British rule, the island was placed under the jurisdiction of military governors. From 1810, it was decided not to include a representative element in the administration of Trinidad, so up to 1924, the island was ruled by crown colony government, direct imperial rule through the governor. Postwar turbulence, local labor unrest, and international currents came together to effect constitutional reform through the 1924 Trinidad and Tobago Order in Council. The strikes and disturbances of 1919 and 1920, which began in the oil and asphalt industries, spread to dock and rail workers in protest against increasing inflation and low wages. The colonial administration responded by enacting Strikes and Lockout Ordinances and the Seditious Acts and Publications Ordinances to prohibit strikes and to ban subversive literature such as the Universal Negro Improvement Associ-

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ation’s Negro World, which had become popular among the working class. However, the Wood Commission, sent out by the crown to investigate the circumstances surrounding the disturbances, recommended constitutional reform in the colonies, and, more specifically, the election of a limited number of members into the Trinidad and Tobago Legislative Council. As a result, the elections of 1925 provided for seven elected unofficials, and in its aftermath, the Legislative Council was duly constituted in the governor, 12 officials, six unofficials nominated by the governor, and seven elected unofficials. Only women over 30 and men over 21 years of age, with specific property and income qualifications, were permitted to vote. Only a very limited percentage of the population had been rendered eligible to vote. Captain Arthur Cipriani, Timothy Roodal, and Sarran Teelucksingh were elected to the Legislative Council. The next phase of far reaching constitutional reform came owing to the riots of 1937 and 1938, which occurred on the eve of World War II across the West Indies. In consequence, a West India Royal Commission was sent out to determine the cause of the riots, and to make recommendations. The commissions, headed by Lord Moyne, pointed to the need for greater attention to the development and welfare of the colonies, and the necessity for appropriate constitutional change to permit greater representation in the colonies. The commission recommended, however, moderate constitutional changes. The first changes were made during the war when in 1941 there were adjustments to the composition of the Legislative Council. The nine officials, hitherto appointed by the governor, were removed, and Port of Spain and Victoria were each given an additional seat. The removal of the nine officials left only the colonial secretary, attorney general, and financial secretary. The expansion of the number of constituencies in St. Georges, Victoria, increased the number of seats and electoral representation. In 1945, a new constitution provided for an Executive Council and a Legislative Council. The governor presided over the Legislative Council. A public service commission was established. Based on the recommendations made, adult suffrage was introduced in 1946, and the first national election based on such a system was held that year. This permitted all adults 21 years and over to vote. The second national election, that of 1950, was held under a new constitution. Trinidad and Tobago was divided into 18 constituencies, each with a population of equal size. There were five different political groups, and they put up a total of 51 candidates. But there were 90 independents. Five independents and 13 party candidates were elected, among them seven Indians— four Hindus and three Christians. Uriah Butler and his party, which had outdone the other parties in the election, were excluded from the Executive Council in favor of Albert Gomes who was selected by the British crown and colonial governor to head a quasi-ministerial administration.

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In 1955, a Constitutional Reform Committee was formed under the chairmanship of Ashford Sinanan, who was then a member of the Legislative Council. It was this committee that advised the establishment of a system of cabinet government similar to that existing in Britain, with the highest gubernatorial office being, however, that of an elected chief minister. The recommendations were implemented with minor modifications. The new constitutional developments gave rise to the proliferation of party politics. The election of 1956 was contested by eight parties who put up 89 candidates to contest 24 seats. Among the parties, the Trinidad Labour Party (TLP) and Uriah Butler’s party were the oldest. The TLP, founded by Cipriani, advocated self-government. Indian leadership at this point was divided into two camps. Sarran Teelucksingh, Timothy Roodal, and Adrian Cola Rienzi formed an association with Cipriani and the TLP and had the support of Indian organizations. The other party in the race was the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) formed by Bhadase Sagan Maraj, who for many years had reigned as the most influential Indian leader in the politics of Trinidad. First elected as an independent to the Legislative Council in 1950, in 1955 he founded the PDP and, in the same year, became the leader of the Sugar Workers and Cane Farmers Union. The year 1956 also saw the formation of the People’s National Movement (PNM) under the leadership of Dr. Eric Williams. The PNM won the elections and formed Trinidad and Tobago’s first cabinet government. The year 1962 saw Trinidad and Tobago’s acquisition of independence from Britain and the implementation of an independence constitution. Trinidad and Tobago was the second British West Indian colony to gain independence and, like its predecessor, Jamaica, became a constitutional monarchy. Under this arrangement, the British crown acted as a nonpolitical head of state with the governor-general as the representative of the crown, while the prime minister served as head of a Westminster-type system of government. The ability to pass laws resided with the elected parliament. Accordingly, in 1962 Dr. Eric Williams became the country’s first prime minister and Sir Solomon Hochoy became the first governor-general of independent Trinidad and Tobago. In retrospect, the flourish of political parties that had begun in 1925 exploded by the time of the elections of 1956. Each election since 1925 has brought minor amendments, until a quasi-ministerial system of government was introduced by the 1950s. The most keenly contested election, however, turned out to be that of 1956; by that time, the individual who would turn out to be the most influential politician in the history of Trinidad and Tobago during the last century and continuing had arrived on the scene. Dr. Eric Eustace Williams, an Oxford scholar and former international servant employed with the Anglo-Caribbean Commission, had thrown his political hat into the ring at the helm of the newly formed political organization, the

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PNM. The victory of Eric Williams and the PNM in the 1956 general elections saw the installation into office of the country’s first chief minister with a cabinet responsible to the legislature. The PNM had won 13 out of 24 seats, and Eric Williams considered that it would be difficult to operate in the Legislative Council with such a slim majority on a sustained basis. He therefore pressured the government to allow his appointment of two of the five members nominated to the Legislative Council. By 1959, the title of premier was replaced by the title prime minister, and the Executive Council was replaced by a cabinet. The governor ceased to be a member of the cabinet. The 1961 elections provided for the assumption of office based on full internal self-government. During the interwar years, the concept of nationalism was always considered largely within the framework of two alternatives. One was political independence for the colonies within a framework of the pursuit of a West Indies Federation. The other route was through the pursuit of national independence by countries on an individual basis. The British West Indies Federation was from inception largely an idea conceptualized by the British government. In the aftermath of World War II, the British government had convened a conference in Montego Bay, Jamaica, in 1947 to discuss the idea of a West Indies Federation. There were always difficulties regarding the development of consensus on exactly how the federation was to function, particularly with respect to economic matters such as the question of an economic union, internal free trade, and freedom of movement within the federal community. The West Indian islands displayed a considerable level of parochialism with regard to many matters, and British Guyana and British Honduras opted out of the discussions. Two issues significantly reflect how Trinidad, led by Dr. Eric Williams, saw itself in the march toward the development of the West Indies Federation. One was the question of Chaguaramas, which was chosen as the federal capital. Dr. Eric Williams battled for the return of Chaguaramas, which the British government had leased to the United States for the establishment of a military base during World War II. The struggle for Chaguaramas proved successful. The United States relinquished the occupied area to the government and people of Trinidad and Tobago. The other matter was the position of Jamaica by 1961, with respect to its continued involvement in the federation. A major development in Jamaica was the call for a national referendum on the federation. Eric Williams had always suggested that the PNM administration was prepared to pursue the political independence of Trinidad and Tobago within five years of its ascension to power. The government and people of Jamaica were already prepared to pursue political independence on their own. With the results of the referendum decisively against Jamaica remaining in the West Indian federation, Dr. Williams humorously quipped: “one from ten leaves zero.”

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Between 1961 and 1962, the government of Trinidad and Tobago busied itself with the preparation of a draft constitution for its independence. To achieve this, however, it was necessary to convince the British government of the achievement of a workable consensus between the government and opposition in Trinidad and Tobago regarding the way forward for achieving independence. At Marlborough House, the government was able to satisfy the concerns of the opposition and the British government regarding, among other things, the impartiality of appointments to the public service, the conduct of free and fair elections, and the protection of individual rights. On 31 August 1962, Trinidad and Tobago lowered the Union Jack and raised instead the national flag of Trinidad and Tobago. In 1976, in the aftermath of the Black Power disturbances of the 1970s, Trinidad and Tobago adopted a republican constitution. Under the new arrangement, a local, ceremonial, and nonpolitical president, who became head of state and chief of the armed forces, replaced the crown. The president is elected by an electoral college to serve a five-year term. COPELAND, BRIAN (1956–). Copeland attended the Cocoyea Village Government Primary School and received his secondary education at Presentation College in San Fernando. He was a former student of the University of the West Indies (UWI) where he obtained a BSc in electrical engineering in 1978. In 1980, he graduated from the University of Toronto with an MSc, and in 1990, he obtained a PhD from the University of Southern California as an LASPAU/Fulbright Scholar. He first became an academic employee of the UWI in 1981 in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering. His research interests include digital electronics, controls, and steel pan technology. His publications include “Pan Technology: Visions for the 21st Century,” APPETT Journal 32, no. 1 (April 1999): 27–33; “Pickup Methods for the Electro-Acoustic Steelpan,” West Indian Journal of Engineering 18, no. 2 (January 1995); “A Note on the Standardization of the Steelpan,” West Indian Journal of England 13, no. 1 (January 1988): 89–92; and “Development of an Electronic Steel Pan,” West Indian Journal of England 7, no. 2 (July 1983): 27–31. From 1997 to 2007, Professor Copeland served the UWI community as head of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and in 2007, he assumed the position of dean of the Faculty of Engineering. He was the lead engineer in the construction of the Queen’s Park Oval full statistic electronic scoreboard in 1998 and was also the lead innovator in the 2007 invention of the Genesis or G-Pan, as well as the 2008 invention of the Percussive Harmonic Instrument (PHI). Both pans were created in the UWI Steelpan Research Laboratory, and the PHI is the first ever electronic pan created and patented. Copeland’s public service engagements include chairman of the Steelpan Initiative Committee, Board Member of the National Training Agency of Trinidad and Tobago, and member of the board of direc-

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tors of e TecK (Evolving Technologies and Enterprise Development Company Limited). In recognition of his stellar academic achievements, he has been the recipient of several prestigious awards such as the 2001 BP/AMOCO Fellowship Award for Senior Academic Staff at the UWI and the 2002 UWI/ Guardian Life Premium Teaching Award. In 2007, he was a joint recipient of the Chaconia Medal (Gold) for his lead role within the Genesis Steelband Project Team, which invented the Genesis, or G-Pan, consisting of four oversized pans carrying varying ranges. He was the first recipient of the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, the nation’s highest national award, which was conferred on him in 2008 for his contribution to steel pan technology development following the invention of the PHI. Professor Copeland was appointed principal of the St. Augustine campus of the UWI in April 2016. COUNCIL PAPERS (1877–1961). Trinidad had no parliament in the 19th century. Therefore, there are no Hansard records. There was, however, a Legislative Council, which was responsible for administration. Over the last two decades of the 19th century, Tobago and Trinidad were unified into a single colony, and Tobago was made subservient to the Legislative Council in Trinidad. The Legislative Council kept records; council papers, which incorporated annual reports of government departments; governors’ messages and minutes to the council; special papers and reports called for by the council; and correspondence between the governor and secretary whenever these were laid before the council. The council papers also incorporated annual reports regarding workers; minutes of the immigration committee and, after 1886, minutes of the finance committee; minutes of select committees and council proceedings per se; reports of the local commissions; records of government treaties; police notices and appointments in the public services; and various records classified as miscellaneous material. COWEN HAMILTON SECONDARY SCHOOL. This school first opened its doors for teaching in 1962 and was formally opened in June 1963. It was established with assistance from the British Petroleum Oil Company (BP), which provided accommodation for the first four classrooms in the company building called the Kern Bungalow and the library and additional classrooms when expansion was required. The school was administered by a Baptist Board, and Reverend Eric E. Payne was its first principal. It became a Government-Assisted Secondary School in 1966. From 1971, the school underwent significant infrastructural improvement with the construction of science laboratories, an agricultural science building, a multipurpose hall, and an audiovisual room. In addition to its outstanding academic achievements, the school has performed quite creditably in drama, music, and

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sports, winning on several occasions the National School Drama Festival, Ambassador’s Song and Verse Competition, Trinidad and Tobago Music Festival, and Secondary School Athletic Championship. See also EDUCATION. CRASH PROGRAMMES. These were job creation initiatives introduced between 1956 and 1957 to provide unemployment relief and to curb violence and gang warfare, particularly among rival steelbands and their supporters. In the early years following the People’s National Movement’s rise to power, there was considerable unemployment among the youth, a development particularly accentuated in Port of Spain and its environs by rural to urban drift. The steelbands, very competitive in their music, and emerging as musical orchestras among the urban, black poor, were the source of overwhelming and bitter rivalry among the youth of the depressed areas. Many of them were unemployed and tended to play out their frustrations through violent and, at times, bloody confrontation with the supporters of rival steelbands. So intense and violent were the clashes that the chief minister, Dr. Eric Williams, intervened with a make-work program to provide employment to the youth, primarily to those belonging to the area currently known as the East–West Corridor. The young people involved were mainly those who had not been successful in the formal education system, having been unplaced in the public examinations to enter secondary school and/or failed to gain passes at the Ordinary Level Examinations. The omission of some groups and communities from the “Crash Programmes” sparked more protest and nonconformity to force the direct intervention of the head of government, regarding their own unemployment and the needs of their community. Following Dr. Williams’s “Meet the People Tour” in 1963, the program was implemented on a national scale to include rural areas, and to provide intermittent employment for a wider catchment of generally unemployed individuals in the various communities. The “crash programme” initiative was formally implemented as the Special Works Programme in the ministries of Community Development and Works in collaboration with local government bodies. It came to involve the construction of community centers, roads, and bridges in the capital city, and in suburban and rural areas the program was associated with the Prime Minister’s Best Village Trophy Competition. The Special Works Programme became the forerunner to the Development and Environmental Works; the Labour Intensive Development Programme; the Unemployment Relief Programme; and today’s Community Environmental Preservation and Employment Programme.

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CRAWFORD, HASELY JOACHIM (1950– ). Crawford was born in San Fernando in 1950. At age 17, he began serious athletic training, and three years later, in 1970, he won a bronze medal at the Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh, Scotland. In 1972, he went to the games in Munich but was dogged by injury. No favorite at the 1976 Montreal games, he won the first gold medal for Trinidad and Tobago in the 100 meters. He served the government as an advisor to the Ministry of Education and as a coach to the athletic club Spectrum. He was awarded the Trinity Cross in 1976, and the national stadium was named after him in 2001; in 2012, he was inducted into the Trinidad and Tobago’s 50 Sports Legends and named a national icon. CREDIT UNIONS. See BANKING. CRICK, DAISY (1898–1979). Crick was one of the earliest and leading members of the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union (OWTU). Having joined the organization in 1937, she played a leading role in the mobilization of its male and female members during the labor riots of 1937 to 1938. Reddock (1994) records that at a meeting in Parrylands in 1938, Crick, referred to as “Comrade Daisy,” spoke in a forceful style, imploring the women present to stand firm under the banner of the trade union and Blue Shirt Movement, and to divorce themselves at times from the kitchen in order to join menfolk in the great struggle for social revolution and working-class self-respect. The first woman to form part of the national executive of the OWTU, she eventually served as president of the La Brea branch of the organization and, in 1952, was appointed an executive trustee of the union. She served on the executive of the union from 1952 to 1962. In 2012, she was posthumously honored with the Elma François Award by the Cipriani College of Labour and Co-operative Studies. CRIME. Crime in Trinidad in the last decade of the 20th century and in the 21st century has escalated dramatically with numbers of murders mounting from 50 per year in the 1980s to more than 100 by the turn of the century. By 2006, there were 360 murders reported, and in 2016, there were 463. Additionally, drug running and gang-related violence have become common in Trinidad in the last three decades with the urban centers of Port of Spain and Chaguanas experiencing the concentration of criminal activity. In the last 15 years, in addition to murders, human trafficking and kidnappings have also been prevalent, escalating the crime rate in the country and placing Trinidad on international advisory lists in North America and European countries. White-collar crimes, historically present, have also become more prevalent within the last decade. See also ABU BAKR, YASIN (1941– ); BLACK POWER MOVEMENT (1970); JAMAAT AL MUSLIMEEN; JONES,

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BEVERLY (1956–1973); NATIONAL UNION OF FREEDOM FIGHTERS (NUFF); POLICE SERVICE (TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO); SECTION 34; VISION 2020. CROPPER, SIOBHAN TRICHELLE (1978– ). Cropper was born in St. James, Trinidad, and attended the Mucurapo Primary School where, from the age of 10, she began her career as a swimmer. She studied at Stanford University, California, from which she graduated in 2001 with a BA majoring in economics, and at Columbia University in New York City, where she earned an MBA in 2007. She worked as a financial consultant with the World Bank in Washington, DC. Cropper first won gold outside of Trinidad and Tobago in 1993 at the Central American and Caribbean Swimming Federation in Havana, Cuba, in the 50-meter freestyle in a time of 26.88 seconds. She represented Trinidad and Tobago in the Olympic Games at Atlanta in 1996 and Sydney in 2000. In 1994, 1997, 1998, and 1999, Cropper was named WITCO Sportswoman of the Year, and in 2004, she was inducted into the Trinidad and Tobago Sports Hall of Fame. CRUICKSHANK, EMELDA CAPE (1915–2010). Cruickshank of Top Hill, Pembroke, personified caring, generosity, and community building. She was a living example of how a simple individual of limited means could make a powerful contribution to the development and well-being of a society. Born on 12 December 1915 to Ella Hamilton and Grenadian immigrant King Cape, she was exposed to traditional cultural practices and drumming at an early age. Her parents were drummers who celebrated the Salaka Festival in their yard every year. She continued that tradition, became the island’s institutional memory for Salaka, and made Pembroke renowned for this aspect of Tobago heritage. From her parents she learned drumming and was an accomplished drummer by age 12. This became her lifelong work as she was responsible for training the next generation of drummers, having trained every drummer in Tobago, and many in Trinidad. In 2002, the Emelda Cruickshank Drummers was formed in her honor to continue the tradition of training future generations in the traditional art form. She specialized in African Nation Drumming for the Ancestors, the introduction to the Salaka Festival that made her a resource person for many tourists and international researchers who visited her home for interviews and demonstrations of her craft. A practicing agriculturalist, she married laborer/fisherman Albert Cruickshank in 1945 and raised 10 children of her own. In addition, she shared her home with the less fortunate in her community. She willingly offered some of what she had to those who had nothing and would never allow any in her

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community to go hungry. She took care of orphaned children and those whose parents could not afford to take care of them. All this was done through her own resources without fanfare or requests for assistance from government or anyone. On an island that did not possess children’s homes, this was an important community service. In this way, her family was extended well beyond her 10 biological offspring to include those she adopted. She was a devoted member of St. Mary’s Church, active in the Mothers’ Union, the choir, and women’s groups. For the unstinting service she gave to the church between 1955 and 2005, she was recognized and honored. She was heavily involved in other spheres of the cultural life of Tobago. She was an active member of the Pembroke Best Village Folk Performers and participated in Best Village competitions from 1965, including the year 2002 when Pembroke won the coveted trophy. She participated in Carnival both as a mas player and a bandleader and she also organized Speech Bands. Cruickshank’s outstanding service to her island and community was recognized in 2006 when she was honored by the Tobago House of Assembly (THA) for the meritorious service she provided to the development of Tobago East. She was also recognized by the Division of Social Services of the THA for her outstanding contribution to Community Development. In August 2008, a celebratory motorcade through Tobago was organized in her honor in recognition of her contribution to culture and drumming. She died on 9 March 2010. Emelda Cruickshank was a true devotee of goodness to humanity. Her magnanimity and selflessness and her simple life that embraced many across Tobago makes her a truly iconic force. CUISINE. See FOOD OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO/TRINIBAGO FOOD/TRINI FOOD. CULTURE. Trinbagonian culture has been significantly influenced by the many streams of immigrants who have entered these two islands throughout their history. Festivals, literature, religion, food, language, clothing, arts, and music all reflect the diversity of their populations with the indigenous, Spanish, French, Dutch, British, Scottish, Irish, African, Indian, Chinese, Middle Eastern, and Portuguese groups that arrived during the pre-Columbian and colonial period coloring these cultural expressions. Twentieth-century hegemonic movements during World War II and in the decades thereafter led to a strong American influence on local culture. This influence, encouraged by the rapid growth of American media in the latter 20th century, continues until today. See also ADAMS, AUBREY CARLTON (1919–2007); AHYE, MOLLY (1933– ); ALLADIN, MAHMOUD PHAROUK (1919–1980); BERKELEY, WAYNE (1940–2001); BEST VILLAGE; BETAUDIER, HOLLY (1925–2016); BISHOP, PATRICIA ALLI-

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SON (1942–2011); CALLISTE, LEROY (THE BLACK STALIN) (1941– ); CARNIVAL; CASTAGNE, PATRICK STANISLAUS (1916–2000); COGGINS-SIMMONS, JEAN GWYNETH (1923–2005); EDWARDS, JULIA (1933– ); HENNESSEY, ALLYSON (1948–2011); HERNANDEZ, EDWARD CHRISTOPHER (1934–2013); HOLDER, BOSCOE ARTHUR ALWYN (1921–2007); HOLDER, GEOFFREY (1930–2014); JOHNSON, ASTOR (ca. 1930s–1985); KEENS-DOUGLAS, PAUL (1942– ); KISSOON, FREDERICK (FREDDIE) (1930–2016); LYONS, AUSTIN (BLUE BOY, SUPER BLUE) (1956– ); MARSHALL, BERTRAM LLOYD (1936–2012); McBURNIE, BERYL (1915–2000); McWILLIAMS, IRVIN (1920–2007); MINSHALL, PETER (1941– ); NAIPAUL, VIDIADHAR SURAJPRASAD (1932– ); NATIONAL COUNCIL OF INDIAN CULTURE (NCIC); OTTLEY, CARLTON ROBERT RUTHVEN (1914–1985); PAN TRINBAGO (1986– ); RAMJATTAN, RAMDEEN (JOHN AGITATION) (1927–2018); RUDDER, DAVID MICHAEL (1953– ); SANDY-LEWIS, LINDA McCARTHA MONICA (CALYPSO ROSE) (1940– ); SANTA ROSA FIRST PEOPLES COMMUNITY; STEEL PAN/STEELBAND. CURRENCY. The first currency in circulation in Trinidad and Tobago was the Spanish pieces of eight or the real de a ocho. This Spanish dollar was first minted in Spain in 1497 and was in circulation in Europe, the Americas, and the Far East from 1598 thereby becoming the first international currency. By the time Tobago and later Trinidad were wrested from Spanish colonial possession and became part of the British Empire, Queen Anne’s proclamation of 1704 was already in effect throughout the English Caribbean requiring each territory to use the gold standard or British coin as official currency. Despite the 18th-century proclamation, however, right up to the 1870s British West Indian colonies including Trinidad and Tobago were still using the Spanish pieces of eight as legal tender. It was the worldwide devaluation of silver in 1873 that contributed significantly to the decline in the circulation of the Spanish pieces of eight in the English Caribbean. In the interim, by Order in Council of 1825, Trinidad and Tobago were instructed to adopt the British sterling currency. Merchants, planters, and other members of the moneyed class flouted this directive largely because for years they were accustomed to an exchange rate of one Spanish dollar to four shillings and two pence, and the 1825 Order attempted to enforce a rate of four shillings and four pence. The British passed another Order in 1838, and it was then that the colonies of Trinidad and Tobago formally accepted sterling silver coinage as their formal currencies. From 1838, all governmental financial reports were prepared referring to British pounds, shillings and pence, but in practice, there were many different coins in circulation. Sterling coinage remained in circulation in Trinidad and Tobago. By 1949, Trinidad and Tobago joined British Guiana and the Eastern Caribbean in switching from sterling currency to the

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British West Indian dollar, which was calculated at an exchange rate of four shillings and two pence. The year 1955 marked another important evolution in the currency in use in Trinidad and Tobago. This was the year when a new decimal coinage system replaced sterling, and the new cent was valued at half the value of the old British penny. On 14 December 1964, the newly independent twin island nation of Trinidad and Tobago introduced its own national currency in notes of $1, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. From time to time, the $50 bill was taken out of circulation, but in 2012, to commemorate the nation’s 50th anniversary, it was reintroduced. From 1964 to 1976, one sterling pound was equivalent to Trinidad and Tobago four dollars and 80 cents. Trinidad and Tobago coins were first introduced in 1966 in denominations of one, five, 10, 25, and 50 cents. In 1969 and 1979, a $1 coin was in circulation. Both were replaced by a smaller $1 coin in 1995.

D DAVID, CYRUS PRUDHOMME (1867–1923). David was born to a poor, unwed mother in Cedros on 25 November 1867. When J. J. Thomas was posted to the district as clerk of the peace, he took seven-year-old David under his care and provided him with a private tutor. In 1882, David won a scholarship to Queen’s Royal College where he became president of the Debating Club and editor of Collegiate, the school journal. He won an Island Scholarship in 1885, and in 1886, he went to London to study law at Gray’s Inn. He returned to practice as a barrister in 1889 and served as the revising barrister of the San Fernando Borough Council in the early 1890s. He was a member of the group of radical blacks who formed the Reform Committee to advocate for the termination of crown colony government, the introduction of an elected element in the Legislative Council, and lowering the qualifications for voting to allow wider participation of the public in the electoral process. He played an important role in the agitation for the restoration of the Port of Spain Borough Council, which gave rise to the movement for political reform, and he served as secretary of the Reform Committee. He advocated practical training as part of education of the masses and the establishment of the Board of Industrial training to license tradesmen. He supported political and economic federation and representative government. He challenged the planter claim that labor was short and was a strong advocate of the termination of state-aided Indian immigration, which he said was wasteful and unfair. He was a member of the Bar Association Committee of Trinidad and Tobago; he was also a member of the Supreme Court Library in 1892, and he was the first black person to sit on the Legislative Council in 1904. He served as a member of the Municipal Committee, the Financial Committee, the Committee on Industrial Education, and other ad hoc committees. In 1905, David was appointed to a commission of 17 to consider the question of a single municipal authority for Port of Spain and to recommend to the Legislative Council what form it should take. In 1911, he was made a District Commissioner in Port of Spain and resigned from the Legislative Council. As commissioner, he could no longer take part in the reform movement, so 111

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he spoke on nonpolitical matters, encouraged people to join the cooperative movement, and used the facilities at the Royal Victoria Institute to teach evening and technical classes. He was a member of this institute, the Education Committee in 1918, the Trinidad and Tobago Library, and patron of the Trinidad debating club and vice chairman of the Trinidad Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. He supported his family, and bought Prospect Estate in Cedros. In 1920, he retired as district commissioner and from public life because of poor health; he died on 14 October 1923 at age 56. DATTATREYA YOGA CENTRE. This is a Hindu temple that is located on Orangefield Road, Carapichaima, in south Trinidad. Construction on the temple began in 2000, but as early as 1976, its construction was conceptualized. By 1988, largely due to the prodding of Sri Ganapathi Sachindananda Swamiji of India who had visited Trinidad on several occasions, five acres of land in Carapichaima was allocated to the building of the temple. It was on his visit to Trinidad in 2000 that Sri Ganapathi announced and commissioned the construction of the temple. It is a colossal structure but more impressive than its height, however, is its intricate architectural design. It was built according to the sacred instructions for temple design set down in the holy book, the vastushastras. It consists of several shikaras (towers), finials, and pavilions, and on its walls are carved various dramatizations of battles between good and evil, which are recorded in the holy scriptures. One of the most outstanding and unique figures appended to the temple is the gigantic Lord Hanuman murti statue. It was built by a team led by the Indian architect Thangam Sbaramanian. The Hanuman, or monkey god statue, is 85 feet tall and is adorned with several amulets and jewelry. Its body is painted in polychrome red paint, his right hand is raised to indicate that he is offering benediction to his devotees, and his left hand leans slightly on a mace. The murti of Lord Hanuman on the compound of the Dattatreya Yoga Centre in Carapichaima is the tallest one of its kind outside of India. The statue contributes to the reputation that the Dattatreya Yoga Centre is the Taj Mahal of the Caribbean. DE LA BASTIDE, MICHAEL ANTHONY (1937– ). De la Bastide was born in Port of Spain on 18 July 1937 and attended St. Mary’s College from 1945 to 1955 and won the Trinidad and Tobago Open Scholarship for Languages in 1954. He then proceeded to study law at Christ Church College in the University of Oxford. From this institution, he graduated with a bachelor of arts in jurisprudence with first class honors in 1959 and a bachelor of civil law with first class honors in 1960. He accepted employment as a part-time tutor at Christ Church College in 1960 and 1961. He was called to the bar on 7 February 1961 at Gray’s Inn, the same year when Gray’s Inn awarded him

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a Stuart Cunningham Macaskie Scholarship and a James Mould Scholarship. When he returned to Trinidad, he served as crown counsel in the Office of the Attorney General of Trinidad and Tobago from 1961 to 1963. By 1992, he established a private practice and went into partnership with Charles Jacelon with whom he founded the law firm De la Bastide & Jacelon, which joined with two other partners in 1998 to become Pollonais, Blanc, de la Bastide and Jacelon. His list of public service is quite extensive. He was a member of the Board of Management of St. Dominic’s Home from 1968 to 1988; member of the Management Committee and vice president of the Queen’s Park Cricket Club from 1969 to 1992 and 1982 to 1992, respectively; member of the Wooding Constitution Commission from 1971 to 1974; independent senator in the Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago from 1976 to 1981; member of the Hyatali Constitution Commission from 1987 to 1980; and president of the Law Association for three terms from 1987. He was sworn in as the president of the Caribbean Court of Justice in 2004 by Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II. His list of accolades is also quite impressive. He was awarded the Trinity Cross in August 1996, elected as an honorary bencher of Gray’s Inn in November 1996, and created Fellow of the Society for Advanced Legal Studies in 2000. He was also an accomplished sportsman, especially in the areas of lawn tennis and hockey. He represented Trinidad and Tobago in hockey in the Pan American Games in California in 1971. He was also the author of several papers such as “Judicial Supervisors of Executive Action in the Commonwealth Caribbean” and “Putting Things Right and the Caribbean Court of Justice.” DEMAS, WILLIAM GILBERT (1929–1998). A distinguished economist, public servant, and scholar, Demas was born in Trinidad on 14 November 1929 and educated at Tranquility Boys’ Intermediate School and Queen’s Royal College. In 1949, he won an Island Scholarship, attended the University of Cambridge to study economics and graduated with three degrees, BA, MA, and MLitt. He began his distinguished career as a research fellow in economics at the University of Oxford from 1955 to 1957 and then as advisor to the West Indies Trade Commissioner in London from 1957 to 1958. Returning to Trinidad, he served in the public service from 1959 to 1970 where he was highly respected as permanent secretary in the Ministry of Planning and Development and economic advisor to the prime minister. His academic journey took him to McGill University where he was a research fellow in 1964 and a visiting associate professor in 1966–1967. He then gave outstanding service to the region first, as secretary-general of the Caribbean Free Trade Area/Caribbean Community (CARICOM) from 1970 to 1974 and then as president of the Caribbean Development Bank from 1974 to 1988. From 1988 to his resignation in 1992, Demas was governor of the Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago, which he captained through a very difficult

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period. Demas was a member of the West Indian Commission, an institution established by the Grand Anse Declaration of 1989 to help the Caribbean to prepare for the 21st century through a requisite level of regional integration, and he was a well-known writer on developmental issues regarding the Caribbean. In recognition of his sterling regional, national, and international service, Demas has been heaped with honors, including Order of CARICOM in 1992; Hummingbird Gold Medal and the Trinity Cross from the government of Trinidad and Tobago; the Cacique Crown of Honour from the government of Guyana; Companion of Honour from the government of Barbados; Order of San Carlos from the government of Colombia; and honorary doctor of laws from the University of the West Indies and the University of Warwick. Demas died on 28 November 1998. DEMOCRATIC LABOUR PARTY (DLP). This political party was formed in 1957 out of the People’s Democratic Party (PDP), which had contested the 1956 general elections. Bhadase Sagan Maraj was defeated by Capildeo who became leader of the Democratic Labour Party (DLP). In July 1957, a decision was taken at a special meeting of the PDP, the Federal Labour Party (FLP), and the Party of Political Progress Groups to dissolve their parties and form the DLP. In January 1958, Maraj, the former head of the PDP and the president general of the Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha, the largest Hindu religious body in Trinidad, was elected leader of the parliamentary arm of the DLP. The formation of this party ushered in the two-party political system in Trinidad and Tobago, which was polarized to a significant extent around race. While the People’s National Movement (PNM) enjoyed primarily African support, the DLP was mainly Indian. Moreover, although Indians formed 35 percent of the islands’ population, the DLP had captured 44 percent of the elected seats in the elections of 1956, and the party had also defeated the PNM in the federal elections of 1958. This notwithstanding, while Maraj was popular and influential among the Indians, he was no match for the highly educated and increasingly popular Eric Williams. Maraj did not have the support of many young intellectual Indians causing divisions within the party, the defection of some of its supporters to the PNM, and a search for a new leader. Tobagonian A. P. T. James was chosen, but he, too, proved to be no match for Dr. Williams, and the leadership of the DLP passed to Rudranath Capildeo, a staunch Sanatanist Hindu who, like Williams, had won an Island Scholarship. Capildeo had acquired his PhD at London University, and was a mathematician and physicist. The hope was that he could stop the hemorrhaging of Christian and Muslim intellectuals to the PNM and reverse the image of the DLP as an Indian party. Additionally, the DLP believed that he could attract non-Indians to the party by providing them with the kind of intellectual stimulus that allured people to Williams and the PNM. The PNM victory in

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the election of 1961 caused the factions of the DLP to close ranks. Capildeo, however, was not a skillful politician like Williams but an intellectual imposed on the DLP by some of its leaders. Under his leadership, the party captured 10 out of 30 seats, and, as the DLP candidate for St. Augustine, he enjoyed the highest voter turnout. The DLP candidates retained control of the predominantly Indian-dominated rural areas constituted in the sugar belt, and its successful members were elected to the Legislative Council and formed the parliamentary opposition. Four of the opposition members of Parliament were considerably experienced politicians: Simboonath Capildeo, Asford Sinanan, Stephen Maharaj, and Lionel Frank Seukeran. The other elected members, Dr. Capildeo, the political leader of the DLP, and Vernon Jamadar, Tajmool Hosein, Balgobin Ramdeen, Peter Farauhar, and M. Forrester were relatively new. When between 1961 and 1962 the PNM went after and spearheaded the achievement of full independence in Trinidad and Tobago, many, perhaps unjustly, viewed the opposition as having failed in its bid to get the PNM to accede to its numerous demands during the Marlborough Conference. This led to disenchantment and dissent within the DLP, and many members of the party were expelled. Dr. Capildeo himself had always wavered between commitment to his academic work, research, and lectureship abroad on the one hand and local politics on the other. He grew increasingly disenchanted, relinquished his leadership of the DLP, and returned to London where he died in 1970. The party was never able to form the government of the country. DENNIS-BAIRD, ELIZABETH (1958– ). Dennis-Baird is the eighth of 13 children born to Clinton Dennis and Rosabelle Campbell on 19 October 1958 in Mason Hall. She attended the Mason Hall Government Primary School and Harmon’s School of Seventh-day Adventists. From her primary school days, she was the only girl playing cricket, but at secondary school, she devoted more time to the game although she also played netball and basketball. A participant in the Tobago Cricket Club’s Village Olympics, she starred in the 1970 games as a member of the Mason Hall Team, and at age 17, in 1975, she was selected for the National Women’s cricket team. She was one of the most outstanding players on the team during the 1980s, having led the team to all except one regional title in the decade. On two occasions, she scored the most runs on the team, and in 1982, she had the highest ever batting average in the regional competition. She holds a league bowling record of nine wickets for one run. She has the distinction of being the only Tobagonian woman to be named Sports Personality of the Year, the only female cricketer to win the Sport Woman of the Year Award, and the only woman to be named Women’s Cricketer of the Year four times (1982, 1986, 1988, and 1989). She was the first player from Trinidad and Tobago to

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score a century in territorial women’s cricket at the Queen’s Park Oval in 1987. She was named captain of the West Indies Women’s team in 1987, and in 1988, at the tournament in Jamaica, she had the best batting and bowling record in the regional competition, as well as the most runs. She retired from cricket in 1990. DEREK, STEPHEN (1952– ). Derek was born in Woodbrook, Port of Spain, in 1952. As a bandleader of Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago, Derek has proven himself to be a traditionalist who has mastered the common art forms in costuming production. He has shown his talent in wire-bending, the molding of papier-mâché, and carving. In his early years, he worked under the leadership of legendary bandleader George Bailey. One way in which Derek separates himself from other mas producers is through the significant extent to which he has exported this talent on the international front. In fact, his company, D’Mas International, is not a local body but is committed to designing and making companies for masqueraders around the world. His track record in this outreach includes the Carnivals he has helped to orchestrate in New York, Toronto, Boston, Atlanta, Miami, and Houston. DESVIGNES-MILLINGTON, SANDRA (SINGING SANDRA) (1957– ). Born in East Dry River, Port of Spain, Singing Sandra joined the calypso fraternity in the late 1990s and became a voice for the poor and struggling urban masses. Before launching out into her solo career as a calypsonian, she was a member of the all-female vocal group, the United Sisters, including Marvellous Marva, Tigress, and the now deceased Lady B, which shot to prominence with their hit number “Whoa Donkey” in 1993. Singing Sandra enjoyed considerable success as a calypsonian. She made history by winning the National Calypso Monarch Competition on two occasions: in 1999 singing “Ancient Rhythms” and “For Whom the Bell Tolls” and 2003 singing “Song for Healing” and “Voices from the Ghetto.” She placed third in the 2005 competition and second in 2006. Her signature rendition is “Die with My Dignity,” a strong social commentary on sexual harassment of females in the workplace. DEVIL’S WOODYARD. This is one of 20 mud volcanoes in Trinidad that is more frequently visited than any of the others on the island. It is located just past Princes Town through Indian Walk into Hindustan Road. The first recorded violent eruption of the volcano was in 1852. It is generally rated as a harmless volcano, but its eruptions can unleash tidal waves of mud that can cover houses, vegetation, and animal life. It can and has altered the ecosystem of the area. For example, as a direct result of mud deposits at the foot of the volcano, several mangroves have taken root and altered the landscape.

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While serious emissions are rare, villagers in this section of southern Trinidad are familiar with the incessant sound of bubbling mud coming from the bowels of the earth. Of some concern is the methane gas that escapes from the volcano. This gas keeps the volcano active and threatens to undermine the health of the flora and fauna that may chance to cross the path of any emissions from the volcano. It is not uncommon for Hindu devotees living in the village to perform puja to placate the volcano with the intention of averting more severe devastation in the area. See also TOURISM. DISTURBANCES OF 1934. The year 1934 saw protests among sugar workers. Their agitation stemmed not only from poor conditions of work but also from the general circumstances resulting from the economic depression of 1929, which exacerbated unemployment, malnutrition, poor sanitation, and illiteracy. Housing conditions for workers in the sugar and oil sectors were also very poor. As a result, there was a protest by some 800 workers from the sugar estates at Brechin Castle and Esperanza, who were joined by workers from the estates of central and northern Trinidad. Altogether some 15,000 people took part in the protestations, which involved workers from Tunapuna, Chaguanas, Couva, and San Fernando. There were no fatalities, but 12 protestors were arrested. The protests were, for the most part, spontaneous, and no clear leader emerged. However, this level of agitation marked a watershed in the participation of Indians in protestation in Trinidad as they had joined the politics of the street. Moreover, the workers in the sugar industry had been able to acquire the support of the National Unemployment Movement (NUM), after informing the organization of their plight. Through the involvement of NUM, a hunger march, scheduled for 20 July, was undertaken by both Indian sugar workers and African workers from the oil industry, as a show of unity and solidarity between the two groups. Three days later, a similar march demonstration was organized; 2,000 workers and four days later, there was a protest at Caroni Sugar estates, during which four police officers were beaten. These protests did not have the support of A. A. Cipriani, member of the Legislative Council and union leader, who remained more conservative causing him to be rejected by Uriah Butler, Elma François, and the more radical Pan-African and Garveyite element. The protest of 1834 laid the background for the disturbances of 1935 and 1937–1938. DOCKWORKERS STRIKE. See WATERFRONT (DOCKWORKERS) STRIKE (1919). See also CIPRIANI, ARTHUR ANDREW (1875–1945).

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DONAWA-McDAVIDSON, MURIEL (1929–2001). A 1956 founding member of the People’s National Movement (PNM), Donawa-McDavidson was among the first 200 individuals to join the party and was a foundation member of the party’s Women’s League. She was born on 12 December 1929 and raised in San Fernando where she received her education. DonawaMcDavidson first entered Parliament in 1966 as the MP for Fyzabad, a constituency for which she served in the Lower House for three terms. She is the only person in the history of the Parliament to have served as member of Parliament in three constituencies—Fyzabad, Barataria/San Juan, and Laventille West—and she has served in the Senate and the House of Representatives both in government and opposition. She was one of three PNM candidates who won their seats in 1986 elections when the party lost to the National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR). As a member of Parliament for 35 years, she served as a parliamentary secretary and minister in numerous ministries: Parliamentary Secretary Ministry of Works (1972–1976); minister in the Office the Prime Minister (1976–1978), parliamentary secretary (1976–1981); minister in the Ministry of Community Development and Local Government (1981), and minister in the Office of the Prime Minister and in the Ministry of Finance (1982). At the time of her departure because of the defeat of the PNM by the NAR, she was serving as the minister of sport. Between 1986 and 1991, she was an opposition MP. She left the PNM and joined the United National Congress and was selected to contest Patrick Manning for the San Fernando East seat when she passed on in 2001. DOOKERAN, WINSTON CHANDARBHAN (1943– ). Dookeran was born in the southern agricultural district of Rio Claro and is one of the leading figures to emerge in the politics of the country over the last three decades. He received his secondary education at Naparima College, San Fernando. He then proceeded to Canada, where he successfully pursued his BSc in economics at the University of Manitoba. Following this he obtained his master’s in economics at the London School of Economics and Political Science in the United Kingdom. While studying in Canada, he became involved in the student movement there with the institution’s focus on civil rights and political agitation, and became president of the University of Manitoba’s Student Union. He entered the Trinidad and Tobago political arena during the 1980s. In 1981, he successfully contested the Chaguanas seat on a United Labour Front (ULF) ticket. He was one of the key individuals involved in the formation of the National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR), which, with its campaign of “One Love” was able to defeat the People’s National Movement (PNM) in 1986. Accordingly, he was appointed minister of planning and mobilization during the A. N. R. Robinson–led administration. Dookeran remained a member of the NAR and its administration, notwithstanding the split that occurred in the party, which

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saw the dismissal of key members of the ULF faction and the formation of Club 88 and the United National Congress (UNC). The NAR governed during a time of tremendous economic difficulty and tumultuous politics. Dookeran, apart from his ministerial portfolio, also served as deputy leader of the party and acted as prime minister on several occasions. During the Yasin Abu Bakr–led attempted coup, one of the demands put forward by the Jamaat al Muslimeen insurgence as a condition for the resolution of the crisis was the formation of a coalition government led by Winston Dookeran to which he declined. The NAR lost the election of 1991, and Dookeran recused himself from the political frontline until 2002 when he contested the Chaguanas West constituency as a UNC candidate. Prior to his return to the political arena, he had served as the governor of the Central Bank during the Panday-led administration. His relationship with Basdeo Panday began to sour in 2005 after Panday nominated him for the post of political leader of the UNC unopposed. Criticizing the politics of both the PNM and the UNC, Dookeran founded the Congress of the People (COP). In the election of 2007, the COP won 23 percent of the votes but was unable to win any constituency. In 2010, Dookeran, at the helm of the COP, merged forces with other anti-PNM political parties and pressure groups to form the People’s Partnership (PP), which won the general election of that year. Dookeran was appointed the first finance minister during the Kamla Persad-Bissessar administration. During the period of the PP-led administration, he relinquished his post as the political leader of the COP and subsequently announced his retirement from active politics in the run-up to the 2015 general elections. Dookeran’s creditable performance as a finance minister is reflected in Standard and Poor’s high rating of the country’s economy under his financial administration. His other strong points, for which he continues to be admired, are his calm disposition and rational orientation, as well as his capacity to put country first as opposed to the desire for political power. In 2015, he was awarded the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. DOOKIE, MANNIE ALBERT (1915–1968). Dookie was born in St. James, west Trinidad to Thomas and Rita Dookie on 3 February 1915. As a youth, he worked as a milk boy at Trinidad dairies, but as early as age 15, Dookie made his mark in long-distance running when he won a 15.5-mile race in one hour and 39 minutes, without shoes, a feature that was to become his trademark. His second great victory took place in 1931 at the Queen’s Park Oval alongside national top-ranking long-distance runners when Dookie stunned the crowd by finishing first in the three-mile race in 17 minutes and 35 seconds. Dookie’s most spectacular year of long-distance running was in 1933 when he won both the one-mile race in a time of four minutes and 43 seconds and the three-mile race on the same day. In 1933 as well, Dookie

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competed in the West Indies Olympiad held in Georgetown, British Guiana, and set a new record in the three-mile event with a time of 15 minutes and 8.4 seconds and also triumphed in the one-mile race. He showed his potential as the first international athlete from Trinidad and Tobago when, at the Championships in 1934, he set a new record of 15 minutes and 19 seconds in the three-mile event. Dookie was sponsored by the Trinidad Guardian to participate in the British Empire Games, the first athlete to be so sponsored. He was also the first athlete from Trinidad and Tobago to participate in an international meet, but the track surface was so unkind to his bare feet that he limped off the track in the three-mile and six-mile races and was in no condition to attempt the marathon. The fans in Trinidad were sympathetic, and on 9 September 1934 a welcome reception was held in his honor at the Town Hall, and he was presented with a gold medal. From 1944 to 1968, Dookie served his country as a sports administrator for athletics. DOTTIN, CLIVE PERCIVAL (1949– ). Dottin was born on 26 May 1949, in Woodbrook, Port of Spain, and was educated at Belmont Methodist School, Trinity College, Caribbean Union College, and the Loma Linda University of California. He was first employed as a laboratory assistant in his alma mater, Trinity College, from 1967 to 1968 and as a teacher at the Barataria Junior Secondary School from 1976 to 1979. Thereafter, he became fully committed to the work of the church and became a minister of religion of the South Caribbean Conference of the Seventh-day Adventists. He served as associate youth director of the South Caribbean Conference of the Seventh-day Adventists and contributed to the establishment of the Casa de Corazon originally called the Heart Home, which provides shelter for abandoned and abused youths. Dottin, who established a reputation for being outspoken on matters of crime and immorality in the country, served as a member of the Police Service Commission and was appointed as a temporary independent senator on 7 June 2016. Dottin has published the Friends Forever Magazine and the Heart Journal. DUPREY, CYRIL LUCIUS (1897–1988). Cyril Duprey was an insurance pioneer of Trinidad and Tobago. He was born on 3 March 1897 on Abercrombie Street in the town of St. Joseph. His parents were Joseph Francis Augustus Duprey, a local barrister-at-law and cocoa estate owner, and Leontine Garcia. As a child he attended the Nelson Street Boys’ School in Port of Spain and from there entered the world of work, first on his father’s cocoa estate, and then he and his brother Gilbert opened Duprey Bros., a warehouse located on Henry Street in Port of Spain. They traded beer, stout, cotton, woolen goods, Vicks VapoRub, Welch’s grape juice, and foodstuffs. When the business was destroyed by fire in 1916, Cyril Duprey migrated to the

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United States where he lived for 19 years and where he opened his career in insurance sales with United Mutual Insurance Co. of Chicago. While in the United States, he established the United Mutual Benefit Association in New York. On his return to his native land, he established the Colonial Life Insurance Company (CLICO) on 15 December 1936, his most significant financial legacy. It was the first nationally owned and operated insurance company in Trinidad and Tobago. Duprey and his business colleagues of CLICO targeted as their clients the poorer worker class segment of society. In the 1960s, Cyril Duprey emerged as the president of the Cooperative Bank of Trinidad and Tobago, also known as the “Penny Bank,” and the Building and Loan Association of Trinidad and Tobago. He was also a board member of E. B. Gibb, a local trading company. CLICO is currently part of CL Financial Group, which is now directed by Duprey’s nephew, Lawrence Duprey. Cyril Duprey’s personal business mission statement was “Give a man value, give a man service and he will support you.” He has also been characterized as a frugal, conservative businessman who was averse to risky deals. In 1986, Owen Baptiste, former editor in chief of the Express Newspaper, published a biography on Cyril Duprey titled The Success Story of Cyril L. Duprey and the Colonial Life Insurance Company. In 1956, he was awarded an Order of the British Empire (OBE). This was followed in 1977 with the award of the Chaconia Medal (Gold) of Trinidad and Tobago. In 1988, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded him its highest national award, the Trinity Cross, for his contribution to community development and business. DUTCH IN TOBAGO. The Dutch focused on Tobago in the 17th century as a base to launch and solidify their trade in the Caribbean. The Dutch, whose herring trade depended on regular supplies of salt, had been effectively cut off from Portuguese supplies by Spain and so turned to sourcing this from the Caribbean. The year 1628 marks the first successful attempt by a European nation to colonize Tobago when the Dutch West India Company granted the right to settlement to Jan de Moor, a Dutch merchant, and the island was renamed New Walcheren. In 1629, this settlement was attacked, and the settlers chased away the Spanish governor of Trinidad, Don Luis de Monsalves. In 1632, a similar attempt was made once more by Jan de Moor, but again they were driven out in 1636 by Don Diego Lopez de Escobar, the governor of Trinidad. Some Dutch prisoners were taken to Trinidad, and the settlement and forts were destroyed. In 1654, another group of Flushing merchants, the Lampsins brothers, constructed a fort and a few buildings at Rockley Bay and named it Lampsinsburgh. Commerce blossomed in the period and the Dutch in 1658 took control of a settlement built by a group of Courlanders (now Latvians) in

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Plymouth. However, in 1666, with the aid of the British, the Courlanders blew up the settlement at Lampsinsburgh. The Dutch, however, rebuilt Lampsinsburgh, including houses, a single street, a church, warehouses and wharves, and a fort with cannons. In 1665, Jamaican buccaneers moved in and ran off the Dutch settlers. In 1667, after the Treaty of Breda, the Dutch reoccupied Tobago, but by 1672, the island had been captured by the British who were again at war with the Dutch. Two years later in 1674, the Dutch reoccupied Tobago. By late 1677, at war with the French, they lost control of the island and ultimately ceded it to France in the Treaty of Nijmegen.

E EAST INDIAN NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF TRINIDAD (EINA). Formed in 1897, it was one of the earliest organizations to be established in Trinidad in defense of the interests of the Indian population. It was formed primarily to agitate against Immigration Ordinance No. 12 of 1897, several parts of which they felt, were inimical to their interests.The organization was based in the rural, sugar-cultivating village of Princes Town, and its establishment signaled the emergence of a vocal Indian intelligentsia. That same year a group of Indians made a submission to the West Indian Commission requesting an Indian representation by an East Indian in the Legislative Council. The various recommendations and requests made on behalf of the Indians were denied, but the organization went on to spawn others and to promote greater awareness and participation by Indians in the politics of the colony. In the 1920s, the EINA continued to function way beyond its initial purpose, operating in collaboration with other newly established Indian and non-Indian organizations in furtherance of the interests of the Indian community. EAST INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (EINC). The East Indian National Congress (EINC) was founded by members of the Indian community in 1909 to agitate in their interest. Like the East Indian National Association of Trinidad (EINA), it was one of the earliest organizations representing the voice of the Indian intelligentsia. Its founder was George Fitzpatrick, prominent attorney and member of the Legislative Council, who in that year made a formal complaint to the Sanderson Committee regarding the atrocities of the system of indentured labor and the ill-treatment of Indian laborers in the colony. His organization also had made representation to the Royal Commission for constitutional change, but its request for communal representation was rejected on the grounds that such a system of representation would perpetuate differences that it should be the objective of all government to remove. Instead, the commission put forward the idea of a limited franchise within the context of the new constitution arrangement that was being contemplated for Trinidad and Tobago. 123

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Like the EINA, the EINC continued to operate during the 1920s and 1930s. When they failed to have considerable impact on the crown colony system of government, they collaborated with A. A. Cipriani’s Trinidad Workingmen’s Association (TWA) and, later, his Trinidad Labour Party. Both associations had initially parted with the TWA and other organizations, refusing to support efforts to bring an end to Indian immigration. Additionally, these organizations vehemently opposed the property and educational qualifications affixed to the right to vote by Order in Council of 1924, which were implemented in the elections of 1925. EAST–WEST CORRIDOR. This is a 24-kilometer populated area in northern Trinidad running along the foothills of the Northern Range—from the capital, Port of Spain, west to the town of Arima in the east. Serviced by three main thoroughfares—the Bus Route, the Eastern Main Road, and the Churchill–Roosevelt Highway—it possesses a population of almost 600,000, and is the most densely populated and congested area of the country. See also TRANSPORT/TRANSPORTATION. ECONOMY. Although until recently the principal agricultural product of the colonial period was sugar, this was not always so. Its cultivation was unknown to the First Nations. Theirs, however, was an agricultural subsistence economy. Their principal crop was cassava, which they domesticated; from cassava they extracted the juice to make cassareep, which they used to prepare pepper pot. The flour was used to make cassava cake or bread. They also cultivated peppers, an essential ingredient in pepper pot. They cultivated other crops including maize, sweet potatoes, tobacco, cotton, and a range of fruits including pawpaw, mamey apples, guavas, alligator pears, and pine apples. Cotton was cultivated for the manufacture of the few items of clothing they wore, for making the hammocks in which they slept, and for handkerchiefs and scarves. They combined their agricultural produce with fish, shellfish (in particular what is known in the two islands as the “chip chip”), and turtle. Tobacco, from which Tobago’s name is derived, was widely available, and its snuff was smoked in the form of cigars or by means of a pipe, or chewed by their religious leaders. Sugarcane was introduced by the Spanish who were mainly interested in precious metals, which the islands lacked. This led to the islands being neglected by Spain, both emerging as economic backwaters of the Spanish New World Empire and surviving largely on contraband trade with Spain’s enemies operating in the Caribbean in the early years of colonization. The introduction of a Cedula of Population in 1783 encouraged the arrival of French immigrants from neighboring Caribbean islands. This development boosted agriculture in Trinidad, laying the foundation of the island’s

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plantation economy, which expanded in the aftermath of the island’s capitulation to the British in 1797. Sugar dominated the island’s agricultural economy until the 20th century, when the government, unable to continue to subsidize the sugar industry, closed the operation of the country’s stateowned sugar company, Caroni (1975) Company Limited. Like in Trinidad, Tobago’s colonial agriculture also came to be dominated by sugarcane interests. However, this was not initially so although the island’s sugar economy got an official kick-start before that of Trinidad. Having secured the island from France in 1763, commissioners for the sale of land, sent out between 1765 and 1771, surveyed the land and allotted lots for sale to potential plantation owners. However, by 1768, while 77 individuals had bought land, less than one-third had settled in Tobago, preferring to reside in Britain or other British Caribbean colonies. This notwithstanding, lands devoted to other products—pimento, cinnamon, nutmeg, cocoa, indigo, and tobacco—were increasingly cleared for sugar cultivation. Still up to 1790 cotton and indigo were the major export crops. Sugar exportation began in 1769 and, as in Trinidad, became overwhelmingly important following the 1791 Haitian rebellion, which destroyed the French Caribbean sugar economy causing prices to spiral upward. Sugar became king for both islands by 1800. However, for them, as other British West Indian colonies, its significance within the international economy was repeatedly challenged, ultimately with terminal consequences, although the sugar industry in Trinidad survived that of Tobago by a century or so. Britain’s rising dominance as a world power and the abolition of its transAtlantic trade in enslaved Africans in 1807 were the first challenges to its sugar-producing colonies. Sugarcane cultivation was based on enslaved labor, and a further blow was the labor shortage inflicted with the emancipation of enslaved Africans in the British colonies between 1834 and 1838. The British West Indian sugar industry suffered additional setbacks with the introduction of a free trade policy in 1846. Competition from European beet sugar helped deepen the crisis facing the British Caribbean sugarcane planters by the end of the 19th century. Trinidad had been able to survive the midcentury challenge through state-sponsored assistance via various immigration schemes provided for the importation of thousands of laborers to work on the island’s sugarcane plantations. During the 1880s and 1890s, the island was able to respond to the depression in the industry with centralization of factories and other modernization initiatives. The sugar industry in Tobago in the 19th century had begun an early downward spiral. Unlike in Trinidad, in the aftermath of emancipation no supportive immigration scheme had been made available to the planters in Tobago. They turned to metayage, a system of sharecropping, as an inescapable expedient given the island’s circumstances, but they did not intend to place former masters and freed African workers on an equal footing. Hence the operations of metayage were fraught

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with conflict, and the island remained plagued with labor problems to the end of the 19th century. A devastating hurricane in 1847—increasing pauperization of the white planter class on the island as well as a bankrupt colonial treasury on the island unlikely in future to be able to meet the colony’s administrative expenses—led the British government to perceive Tobago as a financial liability to be more economically administered in association with another territory. Accordingly, in 1889, the British government began the unification of Tobago and Trinidad, a process that was based on the hope that the association would stimulate the Tobago economy. The freed African population had consistently engaged themselves in the production of crops to satisfy the island’s internal market. This continued after the collapse of the island’s sugar industry by the 1890s, a development that saw the elimination of most of the island sugar planters from the world market and from sugar production. While the fall of sugar weakened the planters’ pockets, it provided a space for the island’s peasantry who had been stifled by the predominance of the sugar industry. The peasantry was able to acquire small holdings and engage in cultivation for the local market as well as for export. The crops they cultivated included logwood, cocoa, pimento, plantains, bananas, ground provisions, and vegetables, which developed rapidly from the mid-1890s due to depression in the sugar industry. By 1900, a class of small landowners emerged in Tobago, and by the 1920s, Tobago was supplying Trinidad with a significant amount of food items. Trinidad itself encountered a number of new economic experiences. First, there was the rise and decline of the cocoa industry. Valued by the indigenous people for use as money and as a beverage, it was one of the agricultural products with which early colonial Trinidad struggled and achieved only modest success. Reintroduced from Venezuela around 1678, it became quite significant at a commercial level at the start of the 18th century, and was the dominant crop between 1870 and 1920. The era from 1870 to the 1920s has been dubbed the golden age of cocoa after which the industry experienced a dramatic decline. The price fall resulted from the emergence of the Gold Coast as a major producer, outstripping Trinidad and taking over the cocoa market. Increased levels of production forced prices downward, bringing severe distress to the cocoa-producing communities in Trinidad. The industry collapsed, and despite attempts to restimulate production, cocoa never returned to its glory days; output declined to 0.1 percent of world production by 1980. There are renewed attempts to reinvigorate the industry by the present government. Second, there was the growing significance of crude oil, the first export of which occurred in 1910. Alongside sugar, oil became one of the key industries in the Trinidad economy. This development singled out Trinidad as the only British possession yielding oil reserves and as focus for British and North Atlantic investment in the island’s energy sector. By the end of World

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War II, Trinidad and Tobago was well on its way to becoming an oil economy. A third factor was the U.S. involvement in the Trinidad and West Indian economy since the interwar years. This led to unprecedented American investment in the Caribbean sugar industry and the construction of U.S. military bases across the region. At the Trinidad base at Chaguaramas, employment opportunities attracted the many unemployed in the country and the region, encouraged rural to urban drift, and caused reduced interest in work in the agricultural sector. The fourth factor is the increasing heavy industry orientation of successive postindependence administrations, especially during the last three decades of the previous century and continuing to present times. This thrust, which was propelled by the desire of various national governments to monetize natural gas, saw the development of various downstream industries in the energy sector and the transformation of Trinidad from an oil economy to a gas economy. Agriculture in Trinidad was relegated to a significantly minor role in the development of the country’s economy. Currently it has been eclipsed by the country’s energy sector, which is the major source of revenue, contributing 40 percent of GDP. Accordingly, to assist Tobago’s overall development, an effort has been made to focus on the development of the island’s tourism sector. Trinidad and Tobago benefited significantly from the oil shock, the rise in prices resulting from the oil embargo imposed by the organization of Arab Oil Exporting Countries in 1973 and from the rise in prices resulting from the 2003–2011 Iraq–U.S. war. Between 1991 and 2016, the country experienced an annual growth rate of 3.55 percent. These developments have until recently made Trinidad and Tobago the wealthiest Caribbean country, with a level of GDP per capita in the Americas superseded only by that of the United States and Canada. The principal sectors of the economy remain hydrocarbons, gas, and oil; construction; manufacturing; distribution; public service, electricity, and water; transportation; finance insurance; and other services. The petroleum and petrochemical industry is the largest export revenue earner. Conservable diversification has taken place in the sector, which has seen the development of numerous downstream industries. Natural gas has been utilized to produce methanol, ammonia, urea and liquid natural gas, iron and steel, and to supply energy for other heavy industries. Until recently, Trinidad was the largest supplier of liquid natural gas to the eastern seaboards of the United States. It is also a major supplier of natural gas to English-speaking Caribbean countries. The energy sector has realized by far the highest level of direct foreign investment, but there has been an overreliance on the sector, which, compared to others, provides directly only 5 percent to employment. The sectors contributing the most to employment are construction, the service sectors, and manufacturing.

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Due to a number of reforms in the financial sector, Trinidad and Tobago has become one of the most important financial centers of the English-speaking Caribbean. Within recent times, the country suffered a drastic reduction in revenue with the increased demand for shale oil and the resulting reduction in crude oil and natural gas prices. See also CARIBBEAN SINGLE MARKET AND ECONOMY (CSME); FISHING; OIL. EDUCATION. The history of education in Trinidad and Tobago, as was the case throughout the English Caribbean, was formally neglected for the masses until the post-emancipation period. It is a feature of the history of education in Tobago that religious bodies, particularly the Moravians and Methodists, were allowed to establish schools on the estates to teach the children of enslaved Africans from the beginning of the 19th century. The Negro Education Act of 1835 (part of the British Emancipation Act of 1833) and the Mico Charity Grant of 1836 were the first two major public provisions that existed to cover the cost of educating the children of the poorer classes in the colonies. These provided largely the fundamentals of elementary school education and some teacher training institutions. The administration of Lord George Harris, governor of Trinidad in the mid-19th century, formalized the introduction of primary schools in every ward of the island from 1851. Harris’s ward system of education did not work as well as he expected. By 1867, the governor, A. H. Gordon, succeeded in persuading the British to send an inspector of schools to examine with a view of improving the education system of Trinidad. The most positive outcome of the investigation spearheaded by Patrick Keenan was that in 1870 the Education Ordinance, which sanctioned state aid to denominational primary schools, was passed. Thereafter religious denominations such as the Moravians (in Tobago) and the Presbyterians (in Trinidad) became heavily involved in education. The Anglicans and Catholics were, of course, also active agents in establishing both primary and secondary school education both in Trinidad and in Tobago. The first secondary school in Trinidad, St. Joseph’s Convent for girls, was founded by the Catholics in 1836 while Queen’s Collegiate School, an all boys’ school, was founded in 1859 by the Anglicans. In 1863, the Catholics established St. Mary’s College for boys. The Canadian Presbyterian missionaries to Trinidad, led by the pioneer Reverend John Morton from 1868, opened dozens of primary schools in Trinidad in such districts as Princes Town, San Fernando, Tunapuna, Tacarigua, and Cumuto. They were also responsible for opening Naparima College for boys and Naparima Girls’ College in 1912. In 1921, Bishop Arthur Henry Anstey established the Bishop Anstey High School in Port of Spain to facilitate secondary education of black female students. In 1925, the Anglican Church established the co-ed Bishop’s High School in Tobago. In the early years of its history, education in Trinidad and Tobago favored males while neglecting females

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especially at the secondary school level. At the primary school level, the emphasis was placed on reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion, with domestic science for girls to prepare for their station in life as wives and mothers and agriculture for boys to prepare for manual labor. From 1872 to 1960, promising primary school students were drilled to take the highly competitive College Exhibition Examination to earn one of the limited places that offered free secondary education at the time. At the secondary level, the curriculum was initially characterized by a strong metropolitan influence including such subjects as Latin, Greek and Roman, English literature, and English history. Top students were prepared to take foreign examinations begun in 1863 such as the Junior Cambridge and the Oxford and Cambridge Higher Examinations to win island-wide scholarships to either Oxford or Cambridge universities in England. It was only following independence in 1962 that compulsory state-funded education in Trinidad and Tobago was offered at both the primary and secondary school levels. With the additional revenue generated by the first oil shock, a policy of secondary education for all was pursued with the Common Entrance Examination, which replaced the original College Exhibition Examination. The introduction of the Junior Secondary/Comprehensive School system in 1972 further widened access to vocational education at the secondary school level and implemented the controversial shift system, which was removed in 2001. Efforts to establish a curriculum more representative of Caribbean culture and lifestyle date to the post-emancipation period. Modern reforms of the education system—such as the launch of the Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate, the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Exam syllabus at the Sixth Form Level, and the Secondary Entrance Assessment that replaced the Common Entrance Examination—reflect efforts in this area. The 21st century has been defined by efforts to expand opportunities for tertiary-level education. The country has three major universities and several other institutions of tertiary education. The major universities are the University of the West Indies, the University of Trinidad and Tobago (established in 2004), and the University of the Southern Caribbean. Tertiary education is also provided through a number of private sector institutions of higher education. The introduction of the Government Assistance for Tuition Expenses Programme in 2004 facilitated these opportunities. Because of increased access to education over 95 percent of the population are functionally literate: 99.2 percent of males and 98.7 percent of females can read and write. English is the official language of the country. Over the last decade, successive administrations have implemented initiatives to make Spanish the country’s second language. See also BOWLES, SYLVAN EDWARD

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(1881–1963); COMPOSITE SCHOOLS; ELDER, JACOB DELWORTH (1914–2013); FATIMA COLLEGE (THE COLLEGE OF OUR LADY OF FATIMA); FYZABAD ANGLICAN SECONDARY SCHOOL; GRANT, KENNETH (1839–1931); HILLVIEW COLLEGE; IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF TROPICAL AGRICULTURE (ICTA); PRESENTATION COLLEGE, CHAGUANAS; PRESENTATION COLLEGE, SAN FERNANDO; QUEEN’S ROYAL COLLEGE (QRC); ST. GEORGE’S COLLEGE. EDWARDS, JULIA (1933– ). Edwards is credited as Trinidad and Tobago’s first lady of limbo. She pioneered two dances: the flaming limbo (dancers passed below an ignited stick without getting burned) and the human limbo (dancers passed below other humans without touching). Her entry onto the dance stage of Trinidad and Tobago was first marked by her membership in the Boscoe Holder dance troupe in 1947. By 1953, when both Boscoe Holder and his brother Geoffrey Holder had migrated, Edwards opened her own Julia Edwards Dance Group. Her popularity soared when, in 1957, her limbo dancers complete with flambeaux were selected to appear in the American movie Fire Down Below. Edwards and her dance troupe have been featured at the opening of several key events and institutions in Trinidad and Tobago, including guest appearances to mark independence in 1962. Also in that year, they began a 40-year relationship with the newly established Trinidad Hilton, and they were also part of the program that opened Queen’s Hall and the Penthouse Nightclub in the Salvatori Building in Port of Spain. Edwards also staged several productions at the St. Ann’s Mental Hospital and in the island’s prisons, schools, and children’s homes. In addition to performing on the local scene, the Julia Edwards Dance Group toured various countries of the world including Venezuela, Haiti, India, Mexico, Senegal, and Yugoslavia. The government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded Edwards the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) in 1991 for her promotion of the culture of the country. In 2003, she was named the St. James Community Improvement Committee Honoree. ELDER, JACOB DELWORTH (1914–2013). Elder was born in 1914 at Charlotteville, Tobago. He received primary school education at the Charlotteville Western School and, upon graduating, began a career in teaching and went on to earn his teacher’s certificate in 1940 and his diploma in 1950. In 1951, Elder began working with the Extra-Mural Department of the University of the West Indies (UWI) as a field research assistant for three years before becoming director of Community Development, Tobago Division. In 1961, he became director of the Adult Education Centre in Port of Spain. Elder, in 1964, went on to obtain an MSc in sociology and later a PhD from the University of Pennsylvania. After this, he engaged in research and lec-

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tured at the UWI, the University of Pennsylvania, Maidiguri University, Bornu State, and the Institute of African Studies, Ibadan. During his academic career, Elder published a significant amount of works relating to the culture of Trinidad and Tobago. Some of these publications include Folk Beliefs, Superstitions and Mental Health in Trinidad (1961), Evolution of the Traditional Calypso of Trinidad (1966), Tobago Folksongs (1989), and African Cultural Survivals in Trinidad and Tobago (1991). Elder also spent some time in the political arena. He was appointed as a senator in the Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago and a councillor and secretary of education and culture in the Tobago House of Assembly. Elder has received national awards from both Trinidad and Tobago (Hummingbird Medal [Gold], 1971) and France (Ordre des Palmes Académiques Gold Medal, 1980). ELECTIONS AND BOUNDARIES COMMISSION (1976– ). Prior to 1976, two different institutions oversaw the conduct of free and fair elections in Trinidad and Tobago: the Boundaries Commission, which ensured that the boundaries of electoral constituencies were fairly and duly constituted, and the Elections Commission, which was charged with ensuring that the processes of voter registration, voting, and the counting of votes were conducted in accordance with the law, with transparency and fairness and free from fear and intimidation. The two bodies were amalgamated in the Republican Constitution of 1976, which provides, among other things, for the establishment of the Elections and Boundaries Commission, its membership, its specific responsibility for registration of voters, and the conduct of elections in every constituency. The constitution also provides for the commission’s establishment of the system of balloting, and rules are set out for the delimitation of constituency boundaries. According to the constitution, the Commission, in the exercise of its functions as an independent body, is not to be subject to the direction or control of any other person or authority. See also POLITICAL STRUCTURE. ELLIOT, CLIVE (1801–1875). Admiral Sir Clive Elliot administered Trinidad from 1854 when the colony was plagued by a cholera epidemic. His overzealous support for the policy to make Trinidad English created an impasse, which led to his resignation in 1857. During the epidemic, the Roman Catholic Church, led by Archbishop Vincent Spaccapietra, was very active in providing treatment and a convalescent home, L’Hospice, for cholera victims. This was an important intervention in a colony where public hospital facilities did not exist. However, Governor Elliot was adamant that as a Catholic and a non-British national, the archbishop should not be paid from the public purse. He laid the foundation stone of the Port of Spain Colonial Hospital.

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EMAILGATE. Emailgate is a major political controversy of 2013 that highlighted the issue of possible criminal misconduct by government ministers in the Persad-Bissessar administration. Thirty-one alleged personal emails were read in a parliamentary session on 20 May by the then opposition leader Dr. Keith Rowley, which implicated the then prime minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar, attorney general Anand Ramlogan, local government minister Suruj Rambachan, and then national security advisor Gary Griffith in a conspiracy to dupe the director of Public Prosecutions, secure the freedom of certain indicted individuals through payments, and to silence reporter Denyse Renne, the principal Trinidad Guardian journalist covering the Section 34 issue, another political scandal. The e-mails were forwarded to the president of the Republic, and allegations resulted in an Integrity Commission inquiry and a police probe. The assistance of the U.S. Department of Justice and the Federal Bureau of Investigation was sought, and local investigators were able to retrieve e-mails from the accounts of former prime minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar, former attorney general Anand Ramlogan, former national security advisor Gary Griffith, and former government minister Dr. Suruj Rambachan for the month of September 2012. The e-mail providers Google Inc. and Hotmail were asked to forward information related to these alleged addresses. In May 2015, the report of the Integrity Commission stated that it was “satisfied that there was no, or insufficient, grounds for continuing the investigation” into the e-mails and thus the case against Persad-Bissessar was dismissed (Martin Farrell, Registrar of Integrity Commission of Trinidad and Tobago, Correspondence to Israel Khan, Attorney of Prime Minister Persad-Bissessar, 19 May 2015). This triggered the sudden resignation of the deputy chairman of the Integrity Commission, Sebastian Ventour; a retired High Court judge; and fellow commissioner Shelly-Anne Lalchan. The police probe, however, continued, and though investigators were able to confirm many of the events in the e-mails, they were unable to prove or disprove the legitimacy of the e-mails or the allegations. By March 2016, the e-mail probe had ended, and the police report was submitted to the director of Public Prosecutions. EMPEROR VALLEY ZOO. Named after the Morpho or Emperor Butterfly (Morpho peleides insularis ), an indigenous species abundant in the valley in which the zoo is located, the Emperor Valley Zoo was formally opened on 8 November 1952 by the governor of Trinidad and Tobago at the time, Sir Hubert Rance, just five years after the founding of the national Zoological Society. It is located in Port of Spain, north of the Queen’s Park Savannah and west of the Botanical Gardens on 2.5 hectares of land. Its main object is the edification of the public about animal life to prevent wanton destruction and facilitate species preservation. While the zoo is committed to exposing its patrons to exotic fauna such as ocelots and giraffes, its priority is to ensure

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that every imaginable species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish such as macaws and caimans from Trinidad and Tobago and the wider Caribbean can find a home among its holdings. Efforts were made to ensure that the original flora of the locale remained intact to give the zoo a wilderness atmosphere. The first set of animals on display at the zoo, 10 cages with 127 animals, was largely acquired from private individuals and from members of the Trinidad and Tobago Zoological Society. By the turn of the second millennium, the government of Trinidad and Tobago made available $56 million to upgrade and expand the zoo. This development included the provision of a giraffe enclosure, a tiger exhibit, and the purchase of two white and one ginger Bengal tigers. From its inception, the zoo has been a popular leisure and information center. See also TOURISM. ENGLISH. See BRITISH IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO (EMA). The Environmental Management Authority (EMA) was born out of the need to simplify and clarify the 40 pieces of legislation on environmental management, which had been passed over the previous 25 years, and to centralize the responsibility for environmental issues, which had been the diffused responsibility of 28 agencies of government. The resulting weak and ineffective system did not prevent the continued environmental degradation of the country. The government of Trinidad and Tobago committed itself to improving its performance on environmental matters by announcing, at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit), its intention to implement a policy to facilitate ecologically sustainable development. The Environmental Management Act No. 3 of 1995 established the EMA and provided regulations for its composition and administration. The authority began operations in June 1995, but its governing act was repealed and replaced by the Environmental Management Act (EM Act) Chapter 35:05 of 2000, which was funded by a World Bank loan, the United Nations Development Program and the government of Trinidad and Tobago. The EMA is directly responsible for the country’s environmental management and can make recommendations for the creation of an effective national environmental policy and develop and implement management programs in keeping with its responsibilities under the act. In order to carry out its functions as the beacon to guide the nation to environmental health and secure its resources for future generations, the EMA is mandated to write and enforce laws and regulations for environmental management; educate the public about environmental issues; and control and prevent pollution and conserve natural resources. To effectively perform its functions, the EMA is required to facili-

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tate participatory management by enlisting cooperation from government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and community-based organizations and establish mechanisms for alternative dispute resolution. The act also established the Environmental Commission, a tribunal functioning as a superior court to hear appeals against decisions of the EMA. The authority has established an environmental impact assessment process to provide an interdisciplinary evaluation of the possible impact of planned actions and to assist the integration of environmental, human health, and socioeconomic concerns. It also provides a compliance assistance program, which is modeled after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s program, to help the community better meet its obligations under the EMA act. Government ministries and agencies and tertiary institutions are agencies of the EMA. EQUAL OPPORTUNITY ACT 2000. Enacted to prohibit discrimination, to promote equality of opportunity between individuals of different status, and to establish an Equal Opportunity Commission and an Equal Opportunity Tribunal, this legislation was intended primarily to prevent discrimination based on ethnicity, gender, and religion. In particular, it sought to remove discrimination in employment practices, promote the availability of educational opportunities, and to prevent discrimination through victimization and offensive behavior. ETHIOPIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH (EOC) (1952). The Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) was brought to Trinidad and Tobago through the pioneering efforts of David Modeste and Garnet Springer, African-minded members of Marcus Garvey’s organization, the Universal Negro Improvement Association. In 1947, Modeste and Springer formed the Universal African Pioneering Association, which sought to establish a closer association with the ancestral land, and served as president and vice president, respectively. They were undoubtedly influenced by Ethiopia’s outstanding historic experiences: the heroic defense of its sovereignty in the 1896 Battle of Adwa; the reprisal imperial onslaught of Italy, with European support, in 1935; and its recent liberation from Italian occupation. Resting their hopes in the biblical promise of Psalm 68:36 “Ethiopia shall stretch forth her hands unto God,” it was to Ethiopia they turned to cement their links with Africa and find redemption from imperial oppression. They formed a committee of the Ethiopian Coptic Church (ECC), which was made up of Garveyites and members of the Baptist and Orisha faiths, but some in the society were dubious. The organization grew as a result of contact with Ghanaian Mar Lukas and Dr. Gebre-Yesus Hailu, an Eritrean-born Roman Catholic priest, who, members expected, would facilitate the establishment of official ties with the church administration in Ethiopia. When this failed to materialize,

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Modeste and Springer, using their own resources, and with brave determination, journeyed to Ethiopia. They arrived there on 6 August 1952 where they were received as special guests and met with the emperor and church officials. At the meetings they requested, among other things, the incorporation of the ECC to the EOC, the training of Caribbean deacons and priests in Ethiopian seminaries, and the construction of an EOC center in Trinidad. The Ethiopian authorities agreed to send a fact-finding mission to Trinidad, and Modeste and Springer started their return journey in October 1952, accompanied by Ethiopian emissaries Ato Abera Jembere and Fr. Gebre-Yesus Meshesha. They landed on 16 December 1952, and the visitors traveled around the country conducting church services, baptizing new members, and teaching classes in Amharic. There was a spurt in church membership in the 1950s and members purchased a parcel of land in Arouca on which a church was built. When Abera returned to Ethiopia and reported on his visit, it was agreed to make Arouca the regional headquarters of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church with Meshesha as priest in charge and to send another evangelist to Guyana. In Trinidad and Tobago, branch churches were established in Point Fortin, Sangre Grande, Claxton Bay, and Tobago, and in 1956, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church was granted legal status in the country. With the initial skepticism removed, the church continued to grow, attaining a membership of 7,000 in 1964. The March 1964 visit to Ethiopia by prime minister Dr. Eric Williams, the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries, and the visit of Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie in April 1966, helped boost the church’s membership even further. From Trinidad and Tobago, the church expanded its Caribbean mission to Guyana, New York, Barbados, Jamaica, Bermuda, Martinique and Guadeloupe, St. Thomas, and St. Kitts. The bishop administered the entire western diocese, which was subsequently split into three dioceses: North America, West Europe, and the Caribbean and Latin America, which is currently administered from Trinidad and Tobago by Abuna Thadeus. See also RELIGION. ETHNIC DIVERSITY. Trinidad and Tobago is well known for its diverse ethnicity and culture. According to the recent census of population, 40.3 percent of the population are of Indian descent, 39.6 are of African descent, and 18.4 percent are of mixed racial ancestry; Europeans, Arabs, and Chinese form the rest of the population. Trinidad and Tobago has a climate of religious tolerance that allows for freedom of religious worship and practice. The major religious faiths are Christianity, Hinduism, and Orisha. English is the official language of Trinidad and Tobago.

F FARIA, GABRIEL (1957– ). Gabriel John Faria was born in Scarborough, Tobago, in 1957. He attended Bethlehem Boys’ Roman Catholic School and later Queen’s Royal College. He obtained his university education from Barry University in Florida. Faria began his career as a teacher at Abbey School, Mt. St. Benedict, from 1975 to 1977. He later left the teaching service to pursue a number of jobs in the business sector. From 1977 to 1979, he worked as a quality control officer with Alstons Building Enterprises; he then moved to Mecalfab Ltd. as marketing manager from 1981 to 1986. He then migrated to Miami and took a job as regional director at Kent Condor Corporation from 1981 to 1986. In 1988, he returned to Trinidad as CEO of MFG & Services Group, T. Geddes Grant Holdings Ltd. In 1993, he moved on to become chairman of Geddes Grant Industries, Foods & Marketing & Distribution. He was a member of the International Honor Society for Business Administration. FARRELL, ALDRICK (LORD PRETENDER) (1917–2002). Lord Pretender was born in Tobago on 8 September 1917. He began singing calypso in Trinidad in 1929 in the Redhead Sailor calypso tent in Corbeaux Town, Port of Spain. Pretender, also affectionately called “Preddie,” won his first calypso competition with a rendition titled “Ode to the Negro Race” just after World War II. In 1957, he won the Calypso Monarch Competition with the song “Que Sera Sera.” His most popular calypso was “Never Ever Worry” (1961), which was used in the U.S. film Cadillac Ranch in 1996. Pretender also won recognition as the extempo king of the world because of his ability to think, compose, and render lyrically sound and harmoniously sweet ditties on the spot. He died on 22 January 2002. FATH AL RAZAK (FATEL ROZACK). This ship brought the first group of migrant workers from India to Trinidad under the broader scheme of Indian indentured labor to the Caribbean in the immediate British post-emancipation period. The ship was relatively small, weighing 415 tons or 376,488 kilograms. It was manned by Indian sailors who were responsible for the 137

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transportation of 217 (some texts claim 227) passengers to the then British colony. The journey from India and around the Cape of Good Hope lasted 217 days. According to reports, all the passengers were in good health upon arrival in Trinidad and only five individuals died on board. It was also reported that the Fath al Razak was in danger of capsizing in the rough waters of Trinidad commonly referred to as the Bocas. The ship was saved by the Sturdee, a Royal Mail steamer, which was passing by just as the Fath al Razak was approaching King’s Wharf in Port of Spain. Apart from this near mishap, it docked safely at the Lighthouse in Port of Spain. The British governor in jurisdiction in Trinidad at the time of the landing of these first Indian immigrants to the colony was Sir Henry McLeod. He was not among the officials who welcomed the first shipload of Indian migrant workers, but the agent general for immigrants, Henry Mitchell, was present at King’s Wharf on the occasion. FATIMA COLLEGE (THE COLLEGE OF OUR LADY OF FATIMA). This is a government assisted, Roman Catholic boys’ secondary school located on Mucurapo Road, in Trinidad’s capital, Port of Spain. Father Francis Flavin, OP, of St. Theresa’s Church in Woodbrook, and Father Meenan, CSSp, bursar of St. Mary’s College, pioneered the establishment of a college in honor of Our Lady of Fatima. The doors of the college were first opened in January 1945 in a temporary location in a building loaned by St. Theresa’s Intermediate School on Petra Street. The first principal of the school was Father John Byrne, and Michael McCarthy and Andrew Cockburn were the first two teachers. The school was dedicated on 1 December 1945 by Archbishop Ryan. By that time, the total enrollment was 115. The school building was expanded over the years with the hall completed in 1951, the playing field in 1963, the pavilion in 1970, the audiovisual/library and Sixth Form block in 1972, the computer lab in 1984, and the science wing in 1988. The alumni of Fatima College hold a reputation for very high performance in academics, sports, and culture. FEDERATION. See WEST INDIES FEDERATION; WEST INDIES FEDERATION ACT (1956). FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. Trinidad and Tobago’s multicultural nature has led to the proliferation of numerous religious and secular celebrations and festivals for which the country has now become well known and to which citizens look forward annually. These celebrations are intended to promote among them greater awareness of the country’s historical experiences, its rich multicultural heritage, and the contribution of the various ethnic groups. They are also aimed at engendering in each community a

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sense of belonging, social acceptance, and equality at the national level, while at the same time fostering both group and national identity and pride through what is perceived of as unity in diversity. Not surprisingly, while some of these celebrations relate principally to a particular ethnic community, a number of them are commemorated through public holidays that allow for participation and observance by the national community. The religious celebrations include those also commemorated internationally by Christians, Hindus, and Muslims. Collectively, they reflect the religious diversity of the population. The most popular Christian celebrations are the yuletide season, including Christmas Day (commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ), and Easter celebrations commemorating the resurrection of Christ, including Good Friday, which focuses on his death, and Corpus Christi, which is centered on the Holy Eucharist. There is also the Spiritual Shouter Baptist Liberation Day. Hindus commemorate Divali (Deepavali), the Festival of Lights, an ancestral festival in which deyas (cup-like earthenware containing oil) colorfully lit all over the country symbolize the triumph of light over darkness. Muslims observe Eid ul Fitr (hereafter, Eid), the sighting of the full moon, which concludes the Holy Month of Ramadan, during which Muslims would have fasted to experience greater submission to Allah. The observance of Eid marks the breaking of the fast. All these religious observances are marked by the cleaning of homes, the preparation and serving of special foods and nonalcoholic drinks, the holding of special prayer meetings, and the exercising of charity. Spiritual/Shouter Baptist Liberation Day commemorates the 1951 repeal of the 1917 Shouter Prohibition Ordinance, which imposed sanctions against what the colonial authorities saw as the noisy, disruptive practices of the Baptists in the conduct of their religious services. On the whole, during colonial times the colonial authorities adopted a negative and prohibitive attitude to non-Christian faiths, or those that deviated noticeably from North Atlantic Christian traditions. The 1917 prohibition was a case in point. In the postcolonial era, numerous attempts have been made to address injustices imposed by the religious imperialism of colonial rule. During the turbulent 1880s, the religious celebrations of Muslims and other non-European religious communities and their cultural practices were banned, a development that led to the 1884 Hosay Riots (Muhurram/Jihaji Massacre). Marriages by non-Christian groups were not recognized. Many of the current religious holidays were declared in order to rid the country of religious discrimination. It is in this environment of greater religious and cultural freedom and expression that a number of ethnic festivals are ritually observed, for example, the Ramleela Hindu festival and the Pagwha celebrations of the Muslims.

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Meanwhile, a number of public holidays have been proclaimed to reflect on other difficulties and triumphs related to the colonial era. The Africandescended community commemorates the abolition of slavery through its Emancipation Day Celebrations. Essentially, this celebration explores the atrocities of slavery and the contributions of Africans to the emancipation in the English-speaking and wider Caribbean and beyond. It is characterized by a monthlong phase of lectures by local and international African-descended leaders and activists and African-derived cultural activities. There are also reenactments of the Canboulay (in French, Cannes Brulées) Riots of 1881. Canboulay was a flambeaux-carrying procession that former enslaved Africans invoked from 1838 to commemorate their emancipation. Its prohibition by the colonial authorities in 1881 led to a riot. The Indian Arrival Day celebrates the arrival of Indians to Trinidad (as a consequence of the labor problems that developed on the plantations in the aftermath of emancipation), as well as their survival, triumph, and contributions despite the difficulties they experienced during indentureship and in the post-indentureship period in Trinidad. Boxing Day, a secular holiday, is regarded in Trinidad and Tobago as an extension of the Christmas holiday. Trinidad and Tobago is often depicted in the music of its people as “the land of fete.” This is because of the various festivals that have developed out of the many musical art forms that have evolved in Trinidad and Tobago, which exist in symbiosis with these festivals. The country produces a mélange of musical expressions due to its rich cultural heritage. During the Christmas season, parang—the music that has evolved from the blended influence of cocoa pañyol immigrants from Venezuela during the 19th century and enslaved African-descended people, which in its traditional form makes use of Venezuelan and First Peoples musical instruments—forms a predominant aspect of the musical landscape. The lyrics of the more traditional parang songs, often sung in Spanish, tell of the birth of Christ. Parang music itself has spawned many modern local musical subgenres. These include soca parang (or parang soca) and chutney parang. Soca parang reflects the infusion of soca music, primarily African-derived, into parang, while chutney parang manifests the fusion of soca and chutney music. The latter is Indian derived. Toward the end of each year, a fresh onrush of Kaiso, calypso, and soca music (usually at this time there is more of the last two) emerges in anticipation of the Carnival season of the upcoming year. Carnival is a festival of music, dance, and masquerade reflecting the African and French Creole traditions introduced by immigrants from the French Antilles in the 18th century. Kaiso and calypso, largely reflecting the rhythms of West Central (notably, the Congo) and West Africa, and the storytelling tradition of the griots in lands from which enslaved Africans emerged, is written in the time signature referred to by Western musicology as cut time. Calypso bards, like those

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of Kaiso (calypso in its earliest incarnation), comment on everything: from local politics and relationships between men and women to international affairs, sports, national achievements or shortcomings, and the state of musical art forms themselves: often assuming the posture of grand vizier, calypsonians tend to philosophize. Their renditions are normally witty and humorous and often characteristically full of double entendre. Calypso itself has spawned soca (spoken of by local bards as the soul of calypso), which is also written in cut time. Soca is focused increasingly on lyrical content considered by the young to be more apt for what can be regarded as “party music.” Soca more readily facilitates the Trinidad and Tobago penchant for “wining”— Trinbagonian variations of the pulsating, sensual gyration of the pelvis. Another musical art form particularly popular during the Carnival season is chutney soca, as noted, a fusion of the fast-paced Indian rhythms known as chutney and soca beats. Chutney is common year-round, but chutney soca emphasizes the beat of Indian percussive instruments such as the tassa, dlolak, and danthal, and, not infrequently, the timbre of the harmonium. A crucially important feature of the Carnival season is its steel pan/steelband music. The steel pan, developed from the rhythms of African drums and the tamboo bamboo, which was made from bamboo tied together and beaten with a stick and/or by rhythmical stamping it into the ground. The tamboo bamboo of varying widths, and made completely hollow inside, were cut to different lengths to create low-, medium-, and high-pitched sounds. African drumming was banned in 1883, and it was replaced in the 1890s by the tamboo bamboo. Players of the tamboo bamboo were given to experimenting with other materials. In the mid-1930s, they began to develop the steel pan out of discarded oil drums used by oil companies for the storage and distribution of petroleum fluids. By heating, sinking, and making grooves on sunken surfaces created from the bottom of these drums, they found it possible to create a register of different musical pitches, the beautiful sonority of which they found they could enhance by striking with sticks tightly banded with rubber. By adjusting the length of the sides of the pan, they found it possible to alter the range of the musical pitches, creating musical instruments of high, low, and medium frequencies. Steel pan arrangers and tuners have continued to experiment with the steel pan. With the creation of the steel orchestra, they have been able to completely replicate the range of notes of a traditional symphony orchestra, and to reproduce and interpret any kind of musical repertoire. The steel pan is regarded as one of the most notable musical inventions of the 20th century. In 1992, it was declared the national instrument of Trinidad and Tobago. In 2007, Professor Brian Copeland of the University of the West Indies (UWI), St. Augustine, Trinidad, in collaboration with the government of Trinidad and Tobago, created the G-Pan. It is produced from a press rather than oil drums, and out of material specifically made for steel pans. The following year, the UWI

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team produced the Percussive Harmonic Instrument or PHI (pronounced “fee”) Pan. This is the first electronic/digital version of the steel pan. It enables the instrument to reproduce the musical timbre of other musical instruments by way of a Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI). In 2015, Trinidad produced the E-Pan, yet another digital version of the instrument. A major musical event during the Carnival season is the National Panorama Competition, in which steel pan orchestras from across the country compete for the Panorama Championship title. Trinidad and Tobago is the home of chutney, calypso, soca, parang, and steelband music. Each type of music has created a pantheon of national icons and a series of institutions that, with the assistance of the government, have emerged to manage, promote, and develop these domains of cultural expression. These music genres culminate annually in national competitions that have not only attracted international attention but also have fostered development of the country’s tourist industry, although, perhaps unfortunately, not nearly to an extent that has threatened or shifted the dominance of the country’s energy sector. In many ways, Tobago forms an interesting contrast to Trinidad. The emphasis of Tobago has always been on tourism. As a tourist haven, apart from the expressions and heritage the island shares with Trinidad within their collective cultural space, Tobago has its unique cultural attributes. This is reflected in the Tobago Heritage Festival, which features the Tobago Speech Band, through which, in a rather hilarious way, lyrical performers, accompanied by fiddlers, drummers, and guitarists, are able to provide social commentary and entertainment for locals and foreigners alike. A similar role is performed by the Tobago Tambrin Band, although its emphasis is on relations between males and females. To these formats of expression must be added the Tobago Jazz Festival, which is increasingly attracting international performers and audiences. Audiences are also attracted by Tobago’s Goat Race and Crab Race. A very important international meeting is the Tobago Great Race, which attracts a growing number of international competitors and enthusiasts interested in speed-boat racing. The centerpiece of tourist attraction to Trinidad and Tobago is the country’s Carnival itself. Held over two successive days, Carnival Monday and Tuesday, the dates of which are normally set by the government, the Carnival marks the high-point period of feting and reveling for which the country is famous. The two-day event is preceded by a hectic buildup round of musical frolic as musicians and artists compete for honors, titles, and prizes. These include the Panorama Competition, and the Soca Monarch and Soca Chutney competitions. On the Sunday night, known as Dimanche Gras, the final leg of the National Calypso Monarch Competition is held to determine which calypsonian will wear the crown for the year. Carnival Monday begins with j’ouvert, which commences early in the morning, and sees the streets of the

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country lit with “old mas” bands. These consist of characters wearing funny or old clothes, touting old utensils and brandishing placards that poke fun at people in high places and carry rather satirical comments on current local or international affairs. During Carnival Monday and Tuesday, there is the parade of the bands. This sees revelers belonging to different “mas bands” competing against each other by parading in skillfully made and colorfully presented costumes. While the major competitions are in Port of Spain and San Fernando, the two major cities, similar competitions are held across Trinidad and Tobago. On Carnival Monday and Tuesday throughout the country, the main streets of the municipalities, cordoned off by the police and blocked to vehicular traffic, are transformed into one of the world’s most spectacular street parades. An interesting development is that the eclectic mix of musical expressions and festivals that have developed among the population have led to integration rather than separation of its various ethnic communities. They have worked to bring the people together during periods of abandon that temporarily break down racial and class barriers at a level that enables them to sustain interracial harmony and interracial marriages, resulting in an increasing population of “douglas,” the offspring of miscegenation between Afro- and IndoTrinidadians. Also noteworthy is the increasing capacity of many local festivals, among them the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival, Siparia Fete (unique to the village of Siparia), and Borough Day (held in Point Fortin), to be patronized by the annual return of Trinidadians and Tobagonians living abroad. Equally significant has been the capacity of aspects of the Trinidad and Tobago culture to replicate themselves somewhat in other Caribbean islands and among the Trinidad and Tobago diaspora in Brooklyn (Labor Day) and in Notting Hill in the United Kingdom. FIELD NATURALIST CLUB (1891– ). The club, which began as the Trinidad Field Naturalist Club, was founded on 10 July 1891, and was the first organization to study the natural history of Trinidad. Its first meeting was held 8 August 1891 with Henry Caracciolo as its first president. Its name was changed in 1974 to include Tobago, and it was incorporated by Act of Parliament No. 17 of 1991. It aims to advance the conservation of nature by promoting the study of natural history, disseminating information, and stimulating public interest and participation in the conservation effort. Through its auspices, some of the first studies on aspects of the country’s natural history were published. These include The Trinidad Snakes by R. Mole (1924), The Marine Fishes of Trinidad by Captain Alex Mendes (1940), Local lnsect Pests: Notes on Insects That Attack Coconut, Cacao, Sugar-Cane and Citrus in Trinidad by Fr. L. J. Graf (1923), and Fruit—Native and Introduced—in the Island of Trinidad by Thomas I. Potter (1942). In addition, the club has brought to scientific attention new species found locally, unique features of

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local fauna, and catalogs of birds and butterflies through lectures, conference paper presentations, and public addresses to scientific gatherings overseas. Its monthly meetings are held at St. Mary’s College on the second Thursday of every month, and field excursions are conducted on the last Saturday of every month except in December. Membership is open to individuals 15 years and older. This club has spawned a number of other organizations, including the Trinidad and Tobago Horticultural Society, the Trinidad and Tobago Zoological Society, and the Caribbean Conservation Association. Since 1941, the club has been involved in the first organized attempt to preserve the country’s national heritage. The club continues to be active in plant and wildlife conservation and the production and diffusion of information on the natural history of Trinidad and Tobago, and its members serve on national conservation committees. It publishes a journal titled Living World. FIRE SERVICE. Firefighting in Trinidad and Tobago was initially the responsibility of the police service, which established a firefighting facility at Hart Street, Port of Spain. Because policemen were overwhelmed by their many responsibilities, the services were separated, and the Trinidad and Tobago Fire Service (TTFS) was established on 1 January 1951. Major Ronald Godfrey Cox was appointed as the first chief fire officer of the Trinidad and Tobago Fire Service, and its headquarters were relocated to its present site on Wrightson Road, Port of Spain, and at Mon Repos in San Fernando. In 1962, at independence the first local, former policeman Alfred Drax, was appointed chief fire officer. The 1965 Fire Service Act outlined the objectives, structure, and policies of the service and addressed such issues as retirement, pensions, and gratuities. The year 1973 saw the advent of new salary related policies, which were reflected in the amended Act 42 of 1975 and passed in the Senate on 23 September. Since 1980, the fire service has developed and expanded. In 1992, 30 female fire officers were officially inducted into the fire service, the first women to do so. With its motto “In the Service of the People,” the TTFS operates through four divisions—Northern, Southern, Central, and Tobago—and has a force of more than 1,500 male and female officers, more than 60 firefighters specially trained as paramedics, and 24 ambulances distributed to the divisions. FIRST PEOPLES. See SANTA ROSA FIRST PEOPLES COMMUNITY. FISHERMEN AND FRIENDS OF THE SEA (FFOS). This organization, which began in 1996 as “Fishermen and Friends of the North Coast,” is a group of concerned citizens and fishermen formed to bring national attention to the environmental issues that impact Trinidad’s north coast and the fishermen who operate in the area. Since its formation, the organization has wid-

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ened its berth to address matters around the country and include all instances of environmental degradation, as well as engage in advocacy on matters relating to social justice where approved development projects pose health hazards to communities. Renamed Fishermen and Friends of the Sea (FFOS), its mission is to promote sustainable development by creating a population of national watchdogs who ensure that accountability, transparency, and consultation with stakeholders govern the country’s environmental management. In 1996, FFOS took on the issue of illegal shrimp trawling, which, it claimed, destroyed the near coast fish spawning grounds. Adding to the environmental impact of this activity were plans for the expansion of Port of Spain, which involved the destruction of the mangrove in the area of Invaders Bay that, they argued, would further affect the regeneration of marine life. Hence, the group protested to save Invaders Bay from destruction of the shrimp trawlers and developers and advocated for the formulation of a national policy on matters relative to marine pollution and the protection and regeneration of marine life. Members of FFOS have been strong advocates against projects, such as the planned Toco and Charlotteville ports, which were deemed inimical to the interests of fishermen in the areas. In 2003, FFOS led a protest against the Train 4 Atlantic LNG Natural Gas Liquidation Plant in Point Fortin because the seismic testing, which used dynamite to locate submarine gas fields, scared fish away from their normal habitat causing depletion of traditional fishing grounds. FFOS served as legal and technical advisor to stop the planned Alutrint smelter at Union Estate in La Brea, in southwest Trinidad, in 2009. Citing the social injustice and health hazards to the community, FFOS also successfully protested against Environmental Management Agency permission, which was subsequently withdrawn, to establish chicken farms in a residential community in Piparo, central Trinidad. A similar protest was launched against a concrete-making plant proposed for a residential area in Cunupia, also in central Trinidad, in 2012. FFOS continues to keep a close watch over the affairs of fishermen and the population at large, directing attention to negative environmental impact and health hazards to the population where they exist. It investigates the impact of oil spills on marine life and on oil pollution of the food chain. It mobilizes support among fisherfolk and the general population and increases awareness of the dangers of improper use and management of maritime resources. It hosts competitions to sensitize the youth on sustainable marine practices. See also FISHING. FISHING. Though fishing has been a nominal industry in the economy of Trinidad and Tobago throughout its history, it was one of the first with indigenous groups heavily engaged in a complex intra- and interisland trade in the pre-Columbian period. Fishing villages developed along the coast, and with the arrival of the Europeans in 1498 and subsequent exploitation of the

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indigenous, interisland trade decreased. With Spanish resources at a minimum and development of Trinidad not a Spanish priority in the early years of colonization, European settlers depended on imports of fish and other food from smugglers and traders from Veracruz, Cumaná, and Margarita. During the enslavement period, the fishing trade continued only on a small scale, but fishing was an important source of food on plantations near the coast. The use of pirogues (small artisanal vessels) for fishing in both Trinidad and Tobago has a history that predates Columbus. These vessels were used to engage in sustainable fishing by the indigenous people and remained in use throughout the centuries by enslaved seamen, poor white fishermen, and peasants in the post-emancipation era. They continued to be used for smallscale fishing in the 20th century, largely supplying small local fish markets. The 20th century redefined the fishing industry of the country to a large extent with technological advancements leading to large vessels, new approaches, and broadening fishing grounds. The increase in industrial fishing led to significant legislation such as the Fisheries Act of 1916, the seminal ordinance controlling this industry, which would be amended only in 1966 and later in 1975. With the difficulties in the agricultural sector in the mid20th century, the government increasingly developed assistance packages for the various sectors, including the fishing industry. In 1955, the Legislative Council passed the Fishing Industry (Assistance) Act, which granted financial assistance to the industry. The Tobago fishing industry suffered a great setback in 1963, after Hurricane Flora decimated the Tobago fishing fleet, and it was only with government assistance (financing of 79 new boats and 25 new engines) that there was some recovery after this catastrophic hurricane. Control and conservation of resources became an important concern in the post-independence era. This was first addressed by the Marine Areas (Preservation and Enhancement) Act of 1970, for instance, which designated restricted fishing areas. In 1973, the act was further amended to include a clause allowing for permission to be given by the minister for fishing in restricted areas. It was, however, from the 1980s in Trinidad and Tobago that increased focus was placed on developing larger industrial fishing to the detriment of the artisanal fishing sector. In 1986, this was further consolidated by the Archipelagic Waters and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Act that provided for the establishment of a 200-mile EEZ, giving government control of a broader coastal area. Fishermen’s associations and cooperatives ensured the protection of the rights and interests of fishermen throughout most of the 20th century. However, in 1988 the National Organisation of Fishermen and Allied Cooperatives Ltd. was established to oversee and lobby for the protection and ad-

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vancement of the local fishermen. The Fisheries Division, established under the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Affairs, controls the fishing sector in Trinidad and Tobago. In the latter 20th century, Trinidad and Tobago established bilateral fishing agreements with neighboring countries Venezuela and Barbados. A common fishing zone with Venezuela was designated south of Trinidad in 1977 and revised in 1985. To diffuse a long-standing controversy, an agreement was reached with Barbados that lasted for one year in 1990 and allowed access by the Barbados fishing fleet to flying fish and associated species in the waters of Tobago. The protection of coastal rights, the primary issue in securing the sector, was again addressed by the government at the close of the 20th century. With the growth of technology throughout this period and investment in the fishing industry to help combat economic crises, the conflict between non-trawling fishermen (artisanal) and the industrial trawling community became extremely acute, particularly over fishing rights in the Gulf of Paria. In 1997, the cabinet, in an effort to calm the dispute, appointed the Monitoring and Advisory Committee (MAC) including representatives of the artisanal fisheries sector and government agencies to resolve conflicts between artisanal communities and the industrial trawling groups. In 1998, the national Monitoring Committee on Foreign Fishing and Related Matters was established to deal with the second most important issue in maintaining the security and stability of the fishing section: control of foreign fishing vessels that use local waters for transshipment and landing. This committee ensured compliance with international laws and local and regional agreements and monitored the impact on conservation and management of living resources. Importation of fish was tightened through the Fish and Fishery Products Regulation of 1998, which permitted the minister of health to approve licenses for the import and export of fish. Unfortunately, compliance was negligible in the initial stages, and in 1999, a ban was placed by the European Union on fish and fisheries products from Trinidad. The Tobago House of Assembly (THA), through the THA Act 40 of 1980, took control of the fishing industry in Tobago and specifically up to three miles of coastal waters. Aquaculture is practiced largely on a subsistence level with the dominant product being cascadura (Hoplosternum littorale) though the production of tilapia (Oreochromis nilotica) has also been attempted. By 1999, there were 57 aquaculture operations of which 43 were being run on a small scale and at the subsistence level. See also FISHERMEN AND FRIENDS OF THE SEA (FFOS).

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FITZPATRICK, GEORGE (1875–1920). Fitzpatrick adopted his Irish surname while pursuing studies in Ireland. A lawyer and first president of the Indian National Association, in 1914 Fitzpatrick was nominated as a member of the Legislative Council and became the first individual of Indian descent to sit on the Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago. He focused on improvement of the life of Indians by attempting to secure better conditions on the estates and greater access to education. He was among a number of speakers who addressed a large crowd gathered in Skinner’s Park in San Fernando to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the arrival of Indians in Trinidad in 1845. FITZWILLIAM, WENDY MARCELLE (1972– ). A model, singer, actress and lawyer, FitzWilliam was Miss Universe 1998. She grew up in the north western suburban district of Diego Martin where she received her primary school education before attending St. Joseph’s Convent, Port of Spain. She went on to study law at the University of the West Indies (UWI) while pursuing her law degree she entered and won the 1998 Miss Trinidad and Tobago Universe Competition and then Miss Universe Pageant in Honolulu, Hawaii, to make Fitzwilliam the second Trinidadian and the third black woman to be crowned Miss Universe. Locally, she established a foundation to assist children afflicted with HIV/AIDS, and at the international level she worked with United Nations, which, honored her with the title of UNAIDS and UNFPA Goodwill Ambassador. She recorded a jazz vocal track, made appearances on prestigious local and American entertainment television programs, and served as judge and host for many local, regional, and international beauty pageants. Fitzwilliam was called to the bar in 2000. She also served as president of e TecK (Evolving Technologies and Enterprise Development Company Limited), a major national enterprise established by the government of Trinidad and Tobago to promote the development of new industries and technologies. FLETCHER, SIR ARTHUR GEORGE MURCHISON (1878–1954). Sir Arthur was the governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 17 September 1936 to 1938. He was governor of Fiji and high commissioner of the Western Pacific prior to becoming governor of Trinidad and Tobago. The most critical event that unfolded in Trinidad and Tobago during his governorship was the labor strikes led by Uriah “Buzz” Butler in July 1937. Fletcher declared a state of emergency in the colony during the labor riots, and two British warships, the HMS Ajax and the HMS Exeter, along with 2,200 government troops, were mobilized on 22 and 23 June 1937 to suppress the workers. Fletcher did admit that wages in the colony were too low and that workers deserved fair treatment and better remuneration for their labor. This expres-

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sion of sympathy for the working class led to the termination of his administration in the colony. Calypsonian Atilla de Hun eulogized his support for the working class in a composition titled Commissioner’s Report. With regards to Tobago, Sir Fletcher had called for a separation of the duties of the magistrate and warden of the island, making the warden responsible for civil administration. Fletcher did not support the suggestion that Scarborough in Tobago should be named a borough; however, he was removed from the governorship of the colony before any consideration was given to his recommendation. FOOD OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO/TRINIBAGO FOOD/TRINI FOOD. The food of Trinidad and Tobago reflects the influences of the different peoples who have inhabited the islands over time. From the country’s food culture, the presence of the First Peoples, the Spanish, French, English, Portuguese, African, Indian, Chinese, and Syrian/Lebanese can be identified. Some food items and their methods of preparation have been adopted and others adapted to create the uniquely Trinidadian and Tobagonian food experience, which is distinguished by its range of seasonings. The country’s food culture is grafted on the food practices of the First Peoples who first occupied the islands and made dietary use of crustaceans (crabs) and clams (the chip chip). Their soups made with dumplings and coconut milk, or with fish and corn, and cassava preparations such as cassava bread and farine, have been incorporated into the country’s present-day food fare; cassava is a central ingredient in the traditional treat cassava pone. The indigenous practice of roasting wild meat has been immortalized in the current popular barbecue preparations featured as street food all over the country, national fundraisers, and sophisticated hotel and restaurant offerings. The cornmeal additions—pastelles and arepas—came from the Spanish and were reinforced by later Venezuelan migrants: souse, black pudding, and hops (the local adaptation of French bread) reflect French influences; pies, jams, jellies, and preserves were heirlooms of the English. African food items such as yams, plantains, pigeon peas, black eye peas, ochroes, African spinach, guinea pepper, sesame seeds, tamarind, and hibiscus were nurtured in the provision grounds of the plantations and the food gardens of the freed Africans upon which plantations came to depend. Traditional African foodways were maintained by enslaved cooks in the Great Houses and African women in their homes and as cooks and food vendors in free society. To this was added vegetables and spices introduced by Indian, Chinese, and Syrian/Lebanese immigrants. From these have been forged the present-day food culture of Trinidad and Tobago. The salted fish and meat, cornmeal, and wheat flour, which constituted the main items of food for the enslaved African population, were converted into meals in which salted meats were used to flavor soups, stews, and rice dishes; cornmeal was used to make the heritage dish

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coo coo—ochro is an essential item in its accompaniment, callaloo; and pigeon peas is featured as stewed peas and in pelau. Other popular foods include Indian dishes such as roti, doubles, aloo pies, chokas, chutneys, kachourie, saheena, pholourie, and geera pork; African-inspired “bake and shark,” corn soup, souse (pig foot, chicken foot, and conch), roasted and boiled corn, accra, roast and fried bake, saltfish buljol, and oil-down (prepared from breadfruit and ground provisions); Chinese pow, chow mein, chop suey, and sweet and sour pork; and Lebanese gyros, hummus, kibbeh, tabbouleh, and falafel. Tobago is distinguished for its “crab and dumplings” and beneballs and a range of other sweet delicacies such as nutcake, sugar cake (made from sugar and coconut), and fudge. Additionally, in Trinidad there are Indian sweet meats such as kurma and gulab jamun. The traditional Trinidad and Tobago Sunday meal is made up of rice and peas (separate or combined), macaroni pie, stewed or barbecued meat (beef, pork, chicken, or fish), callaloo, and chow mein with beverages—sorrel, ginger beer, mawby, or fruit juice. Many of these items are referred to locally and across the global Trinidad and Tobago diaspora as Trini (short for Trinidad) food or Trinbago (short for Trinidad and Tobago) food. Many of the dishes mentioned are so distinctively Trinbagonian that they are recognized by the United Nations organizations as part of the country’s unique intangible heritage. See also ECONOMY; TRADE. FORT KING GEORGE. This fort was built to improve the defense of Tobago in face of French hostility and, later, revolutionary upheavals and the activity of American pirates. Tobago’s main military installation, located at Fort Granby, was inadequate to defend the capital, so the island remained vulnerable to attack. The British sought to strengthen its defense system in October 1771 by using enslaved labor for the construction of barracks and kitchen accommodation for two companies of soldiers. French attack and occupation of the island in 1781 brought a halt to British construction, but the French sought to strengthen their defense system and began fort expansion between 1784 and 1786 also using enslaved African labor. The French added the powder magazine for storing gunpowder and renamed the complex Fort Castries in 1787 and Fort Republique in 1789; in 1790, the mutineers named it Fort Liberté. The buildings were destroyed by the hurricane of 1790. To assist in the island’s defense against the British, in 1793 the French authorities requisitioned 400 enslaved Africans from reluctant plantation owners. Three hundred enslaved soldiers were housed in huts at Fort Castries. The British also found the need to use enslaved Africans to improve their military strength against a feared French attack and their Black Corps was also housed at the fort until it was disbanded in 1797. When the British recaptured the island, work was resumed on the fort. The bell tank was constructed to improve the water supply. The fort was renamed Fort Scarbo-

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rough by the British in 1803 and again in 1804 to Fort King George after King George III. The buildings remained in a dilapidated condition after the British recaptured the island, but new structures were erected between 1803 and 1854 south of the remains of Fort Castries. These included the Officers’ Quarters, which was built in 1820. Most of these buildings were destroyed by the hurricane of 11 October 1847, but the garrison was maintained at the fort until 1854. The Tobago Museum is currently housed in the Officers’ Quarters, which was restored in 2003. See also TOURISM. FORTITUDE. This ship brought the first set of Chinese to the Caribbean in general and to the British colony of Trinidad in particular on 12 October 1806. It preceded the plan to import Chinese laborers to work on sugarcane plantations of the Caribbean in the 19th century by 40 years. On that first voyage of the Fortitude to Trinidad, 192 Chinese passengers, all males, docked in Port of Spain, and the group was initially settled on the Surveillance Estate in Cocorite not far from the capital. Not fully engaged in farm work in Cocorite, some of the men hired themselves out to work. At least 15 of them became fishermen, and one took up shoemaking. By 1807, 17 of the migrants were dead, and by July of that year, 61 of them took the Fortitude to make the return trip to China. By 1834, the year of the proclamation of British slave emancipation, only seven of the Chinese migrants brought to Trinidad by the Fortitude were still living and working on the Cocorite plantation. FRANCE. See FRENCH IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. FRANCISCO, SLINGER (THE MIGHTY SPARROW, THE BIRDIE) (1935– ). The Mighty Sparrow is the most celebrated of all calypsonians of Trinidad and Tobago. Born 9 July 1935 in Grand Roy, Grenada, Sparrow migrated with his parents to Trinidad at age one. As a boy, he attended the New Town Boys’ School in Port of Spain and sang in the St. Patrick’s Catholic Church choir. He entered the calypso world at age 20 and has made an indelible impact on the art form. He won the Calypso Monarch and Road March titles in 1956 with the now immortalized “Jean and Dinah” and set the calypso world on a new trend. He has created an unrivaled body of work, broke new ground, and established a pattern of informative social commentary in his work. He has won eight Calypso Monarch crowns and eight Road March titles, released 70 albums covering a range of music genres in a career spanning more than 40 years, and was the first calypsonian to be awarded a cash prize as the Road March winner in 1958. Sparrow was not only a lyricist, composer, singer, and entertainer but also the voice speaking on behalf of calypsonians; he is highly respected by his peers.

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As an advocate for improved compensation packets for the Carnival artistes, in 1957 he sang “Carnival Boycott” in protest against the meager prize earnings of the mas man, the steel pan players, and the calypsonian, which did contribute to improvements in the cash prizes they received. Some of his many popular calypsos include “Jean and Dinah,” “PAYE,” “Saltfish Stew,” “Capitalism Gone Mad,” “Education,” and “Marijihn.” Sparrow is also a balladeer, successfully recording Arthur Prysock’s “Only a Fool Breaks His Own Heart” and Frank Sinatra’s “My Way.” Sparrow has received numerous awards and recognition for his stalwart contribution to the development of calypso nationally and globally. In 1987, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of the West Indies, and in 1990, he was inducted into the Sunshine Awards of Calypso and Steelband Music Hall of Fame. He has been honored with two national awards, the Hummingbird Medal (Silver) and the Chaconia Medal (Gold), and in 2012, he was named a national icon of Trinidad and Tobago. Still actively involved in the art form, the Mighty Sparrow is respected as the undisputed and unrivaled Calypso King of the World. FRANÇOIS, ELMA CONSTANCE (1897–1944). François was a leftwing working-class leader, and the most prominent female figure to emerge on the labor front during the first half of the 20th century. Born in St. Vincent, she had migrated to Trinidad in 1917 in search of better working and living conditions. In Trinidad, she obtained employment as a domestic worker and later became a member of the Trinidad Workingmen’s Association (TWA), then led by A. A. Cipriani. Even during her early years in her native homeland, François, who had been a very outspoken individual, exhibited tremendous concern for the plight of her fellow workers and countrymen and a keen interest in social and political issues. She tried to organize her fellow workers at the Mount Bentick sugar factory. Although she possessed only a primary school education, she would turn out to be a well-read labor leader and a remarkable organizer and strategist of labor politics in the 1930s. An eager supporter of Cipriani in her early days as a trade union activist in Trinidad, she eventually broke ranks with the TWA and Cipriani, whose leadership she came to regard as lukewarm and conservative. By 1934, Elma and other trade unionists who were also influenced by the radical ideological currents of the day, including Garveyism, Pan-Africanism, and socialism, joined with other labor activists to form the National Unemployment Movement and, later that year, the Negro Welfare Cultural and Social Association to which she devoted her life. Elma was instrumental in the establishment of a number of major trade unions in Trinidad, including the Seamen and Water Front Workers Trade Union and the National Union of Government and Federated Workers. Her involvement in these organizations reflected her preoccupation with the chal-

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lenges of racism, gender discrimination, capitalist exploitation, the absence of social welfare, and the necessity to promote cultural development of the masses. These were concerns she shared with a number of other women, some of whom participated in the labor riots of the interwar years. The group included rebel activists such as Daisy Crick and Ursula Gittens, women who were profound nationalists. Issues such as nationalism and nationhood were of such great importance to Francois that some contend that her death resulted from a broken heart over her son’s decision to enlist as a member of the British army during World War II. She looked upon this decision as a personal failure on her part to convince him to do otherwise. François, and a host of other leaders of the trade union movement, had been very critical of colonial rule in Trinidad and Tobago and had opposed any show of solidarity with Britain during the war, especially as they felt that Britain had promoted the rise of Hitler to counter the rise of Stalin and socialism. François died in 1944, before the conclusion of World War II. In 1987, she was declared a national heroine. FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT 1999. This law was enacted to extend to the public access to information in the possession of public authorities in a number of ways. First, public authorities were mandated by law to make available to members of the society information about their operations, including their authorizations, policies, rules, and practices. Further, on the application of any member of the public, an authority was to make readily available such information to the person or persons affected by the operations of the authority at minimum cost to the applicant. The term “public authority” includes public officials, the Parliament, the cabinet, the Court of Appeal, the High Court, the service commission, and statutory bodies. Provision was also made in the act for public access to a wide range of information on request. The act, which did not apply to the president of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is intended to promote fairness and transparency in the operation of government institutions and on the part of public officials. FRENCH IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. Although Trinidad was never a French colonial possession, French culture has had a lasting impact on the island’s society and culture. The French presence in Trinidad was facilitated by the Spanish policy of the last third of the 18th century to develop the island’s agricultural resources through a migration scheme that brought a steady flow of migrants from France, New Orleans, Haiti, and other French Caribbean island possessions, especially Grenada. Trinidad’s agricultural industry flourished under a cadre of French white and colored sugar plantation owners who became men of social, political, and economic influence on the island and maintained their language, religion, class, and cultural identity.

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French was the lingua franca, newspapers were written in French, courts and schools were conducted in French, and French patois was the language of the common folk. French cuisine, style of dress, culture, music, song and dance, Carnival, and calypso were indelibly imposed on Trinidad’s society even though the French element became a minority population under British rule. After their post-emancipation displacement from sugar cultivation, Frenchmen nurtured the cocoa industry, which dominated the agricultural sector between 1870 and 1922. They became middle-level public servants, members of Council, and professionals especially in law, medicine, business, particularly import/export, the priesthood, and teaching. Although the French population is no longer visible in the country, evidence of the French presence in Trinidad and Tobago is recognizable in surnames such as de Boissière, de la Bastide, de Verteuil, Maingot, and St. Laurent; place names such as Blanchisseuse, Cascade, Carenage, Champs Fleurs, Bon Accord, Laventille, Les Coteaux, and Paramin; and a few popular words and expressions. See also CHACÓN, JOSÉ MARÍA (1749–1833). FYZABAD ACCORD/FYZABAD DECLARATION. On 21 April 2010 at Charlie King Junction, Fyzabad, Kamla Persad-Bissessar (leader of the United National Congress [UNC]) and the leaders of four other political parties signed an accord that paved the way for the formation of a unified opposition aimed at defeating the ruling People’s National Movement in the 24 May 2010 general elections. The accord took the form of a declaration by the coalition of political parties involved (hereinafter referred to as the People’s Partnership [PP]). The PP affirmed that according to the constitution, the nation of Trinidad and Tobago was founded upon principles that acknowledge the supremacy of God; faith in fundamental human rights and freedoms; and the position of the family in a society of free men and free institutions. The PP also affirmed its cognizance of the dignity of the human person and the equal and inalienable rights with which all members of the human family were endowed by their creator. Further, the partnership assumed respect for the principles of social justice and, therefore, the belief that the operation of the economic system should result in the material resources of the community being so distributed as to serve the common good and provide adequate means of livelihood for all. Also, it was agreed that labor should not be exploited or forced by economic necessity to operate in inhumane conditions, and that opportunity for advancement should be based on the recognition of merit, ability, and integrity. Members of the partnership asserted their belief in a democratic society in which all citizens were, to the extent of their capacity, to play some part in the institutions of the national life and thus develop and maintain due respect for lawfully constituted authority. The PP also affirmed that men and institutions remained free only when freedom is founded upon respect for moral and spiritual values and the

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rule of law. The parliament of the country having been dissolved, the partners agreed to the establishment of a coalition of political force to pool their talents and resources in order to provide the people with the opportunity to vote for a people-oriented and participatory government committed to social justice. The PP also committed itself to operating as an effective, resultsoriented team of leaders whose national objective was to put into practice collaborative leadership aimed at achieving good governance. The leaders of PP agreed that their leader and prime ministerial candidate would be Kamla Persad-Bissessar and that only one candidate from the partnership was to contest the general election in each constituency in Trinidad, and in Tobago, and that such a candidate was to be the standard-bearer for the partnership in that constituency. The coalition partners also committed themselves to the establishment and adoption of principles and codes of conduct through which the interest of the country would be put before party and individual self-interest. Furthermore, it was agreed that as a government to be comprised of the partners, they were to implement a public policy program aimed at improving the quality of life of the people of Trinidad and Tobago based on shared principles of national development and national unity. The partners also agreed to establish collaborative teams to develop a common public policy program that was to be shared on a common platform, and to establish mechanisms to achieve consensus. They agreed to abide by the spirit and letter of the constitution and law of Trinidad and Tobago, and to propose legislative changes as were necessary to give effect to the will of the people. The declaration was signed by Kamla Persad-Bissessar, Ashworth Jack, Errol K. McLeod, Winston Dookeran, and Makandal Daaga. These leaders represented the UNC, Tobago Organisation of the People, Movement for Social Justice, Congress of the People, and National Joint Action Committee, respectively. FYZABAD ANGLICAN SECONDARY SCHOOL. This school is located in the education district of St. Patrick in the rural part of Fyzabad, south Trinidad, west of the Petroleum Sports Ground. The school was established in 1941 by Harold M. Telemaque and Millicent Waldron with the intention to cater for the educational needs of the children of employees of the Apex Oil Company. In the early days, the institution went by the name Fyzabad Intermediate School providing both primary and secondary education. The primary school segment was eliminated in 1967, and the school was handed over to the Anglican Diocese in Trinidad and became part of the Bishop Anstey Association.

G GOMES, ALBERT MARIA (1911–1978). A trade unionist, politician, legislator, and journalist of Portuguese descent, Gomes was born in Belmont, Port of Spain, in 1911. After completing secondary school, he studied journalism at City College of New York between 1928 and 1930 and returned to Trinidad, where, in 1932, he launched a literary magazine called the Beacon, one of the first of its kind in the country. With contributors like C. L. R. James, Alfred Mendes, and Ralph de Boissière, the magazine, which carried mainly working-class views, was militant and controversial, and it attracted numerous libel suits. After three years, Gomes’s father, who financed its operation, prevailed on him to cease publication. Gomes, however, developed a reputation as a columnist writing for the Trinidad Guardian. He also developed a strong relationship with the working class through his lectures and his work among members of the labor movement. In 1938, he was elected to the Port of Spain City Council, where he served until he lost his seat in 1947. During the 1940s, he also served as the president of the Federated Workers’ Trade Union. In 1945, he was elected to the Legislative Council in a by-election that defeated A. A. Cipriani, the mayor of Port of Spain. In 1946, the year of the arrival of universal adult franchise, he was reelected to the Legislative Council as a representative for the constituency of Port of Spain North, under the banner of the West Indian National Party. Following the elections of 1950, and based on the new constitution, he was appointed the minister of labour, industry, and commerce, and served as the de facto chief minister until the general elections of 1956 brought Eric Williams and the People’s National Movement (PNM) to power. In the run-up to those elections, Gomes was heavily criticized by Williams and the PNM. In 1958, he was elected to the Parliament of the West Indies Federation. Here again and in the years following independence, he was heavily attacked by Williams and the PNM, and his achievements and contribution as a public figure and official were grossly underplayed. In 1962, he left Trinidad for London where he found employment as a public official until his passing in 1978.

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GOMES, HILLARY ANGELO (LARRY) (1953– ). Affectionately called “Larry Gomes,” he is a former Trinidad and Tobago top-order left-arm batman and right-arm medium pacer bowler who represented the country and the West Indies in a number of cricket test matches against England, India, Pakistan, New Zealand, and Australia, between 1971 and 1988. During the periods 1971 to 1972 and 1987 to 1988, he played 42 matches for Middlesex. He also played in the Kerry Parker World Cricket series, a breakaway competition organized by Kerry Parker, a cricket lover and media magnate, who put cricket played in Australia on his television channel. Gomes was noted for his calmness, and he was widely respected for his all-round efficiency as a batman bowler and fielder. During his career, which comprised 60 test matches and 83 one-day internationals, he scored 3,171 and 1,415 runs, respectively. His scores were phenomenally high in first-class cricket where he played 231 matches and scored 12,982 runs. In 1992, he was awarded the Hummingbird Medal (Silver) for his contribution to sport. The Larry Gomes Stadium in Trinidad is named in his honor. GORDON, ARTHUR H. (1829–1912). Governor of Trinidad from 1866 to 1870, Gordon was noted for his land policy. He was born in London to George Hamilton Gordon and Harriet Douglas Gordon on 26 November 1829 and studied at Trinity College, Cambridge. He instituted a land policy that permitted the sale of crown lands in small parcels at regulated prices, which stimulated strong opposition from sugar planters and colonial administrators. However, it resulted in the creation of a class of small landowners in the Montserrat district in Trinidad in the 1860s who had an alternative to estate labor. The electric telegraph, introduced into Trinidad in 1870, was another significant achievement of Gordon’s administration. He died on 30 January 1912. See also APPENDIX A. GORDON, JEHUE AUGUSTUS (1991– ). Gordon was born in Maraval, Trinidad, to Vincent and Marcella Gordon. He received his education at the Maraval Roman Catholic School, Belmont Boys’ Secondary School, Queen’s Royal College, and the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, in Trinidad from which he graduated with first class honors in 2015. Gordon is one of the few sprinting athletes of Trinidad and Tobago who trains on home soil with coaches Dr. Ian Hypolite and Edwin Skinner. Gordon is a hurdler who made his debut at the World Junior Championships in Athletics in 2008 at age 16. He competed in the London Olympics of 2012 and finished sixth in the men’s 400-meter hurdle with a time of 48.86 seconds. He is a triple gold medalist in the Caribbean Free Trade Agreement (CARIFTA) Games of 2009 held in St. Lucia, and he clocked his personal best in his special event at 47.69 seconds in the World Athletics Champion-

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ship Finals in 2013 in Moscow. This achievement also gave him the national record in the men’s 400-meter hurdle. Gordon was named Sportsman of the Year in 2010 by the Trinidad Guardian newspaper. He was also Sportsman of the Year of Trinidad and Tobago in 2013. GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE FOR TUITION EXPENSES PROGRAMME (GATE). This financial assistance program for tertiary education was established in 2004 to support the growth of a larger higher educated population. In the early part of the millennium, it was clear that only 7 percent of the population held a tertiary degree, a significant difference from the average rate of 30 percent for developing countries. GATE was an initiative designed to address this disparity. The program covered 100 percent of tuition fees for undergraduate programs in public universities and up to 50 percent of tuition expenses, to a maximum of TT$10,000, for postgraduate students. Students who accepted GATE funding were obligated to provide national service commensurate with the amount of funds received based on a set structure. Part-time students accessing GATE could use their current employment experience as part of their period of national service. The program was placed under the management of the Funding and Grants Administration Division of the Ministry of Tertiary Education and Skills Training. In the first year of its operation, the program propelled tertiary enrollments by 40 percent. By 2016, over 190,000 people had benefited from it. However, this was at a cost of $5.5 billion. Major issues surrounded the implementation of the program. Reports of abuse by students (many of whom were able to access GATE for multiple programs) were prevalent from the nascent stages of the program. Accusations of waste and corruption were exacerbated by the lack of comprehensive data with respect to graduation rates, postgraduation employment, market demands, and migration of students, which hindered efforts to improve GATE over the 12 years of the program. As such, faced with an economic crisis, the People’s National Movement government in March 2016 put together a task force to assess the program. This resulted in the GATE program being revised in mid-2016 (changes to be implemented in 2017) to streamline eligibility and access. The implementation of a Means Test and denial of funding for people over 50 and unaccredited institutions were the main changes instituted. GOVERNORS OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. Governors were appointed to Trinidad and Tobago by the ruling imperial powers as the representative of the monarch. They were usually military or naval officers or individuals who possessed particular skills that were needed in the territories at the time. Governors enjoyed very wide powers to carry out the royal will and keep the territories loyal to the monarch. The Spanish governors of

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Trinidad were severely challenged by the overcentralized nature of the Spanish administration with its shortfalls of security provision to repel intruders and essential supplies for the colonists. The French governors of Tobago 1781–1791 were faced with the challenges of keeping the British residents loyal to France and at the same time stave off a threatened British invasion they ultimately lost in 1793. Under British rule, Tobago was administered by a lieutenant governor who reported to the governor in chief who resided in Grenada and later in Barbados before the island was unified with Trinidad. See also BEETHAM, EDWARD (1905–1979); BYATT, HORACE ARCHER (1875–1933); CHACÓN, JOSÉ MARÍA (1749–1833); CHANCELLOR, JOHN ROBERT (1870–1952); CLARKE, ELLIS EMMANUEL INNOCENT (1917–2010); CLIFFORD, SIR BEDE EDMUND HUGH (1890–1969); ELLIOT, CLIVE (1801–1875); FLETCHER, SIR ARTHUR GEORGE MURCHISON (1878–1954); GORDON, ARTHUR H. (1829–1912); HARRIS, GEORGE (1818–1872); HISLOP, THOMAS (1764–1843); HOCHOY, SOLOMON (1905–1983); HOLLIS, ALFRED CLAUD (1874–1961); JACKSON, HENRY MOORE (1849–1908); JERNINGHAM, HUBERT EDWARD HENRY (1842–1914); LE HUNTE, GEORGE RUTHVEN (1852–1925); MALONEY, CORNELIUS ALFRED (1848–1913); McLEOD, HENRY (1791–1847); McLEOD, ISAAC THURLIF (IT) (1938–2013); McSHINE, ARTHUR HUGH (1906–1983); RANCE, HUBERT ELVIN (1898–1974); ROBINSON, WILLIAM (1836–1912); WILSON, SAMUEL HERBERT (1873–1950); YOUNG, HUBERT WINTHROP (1885–1950). GRANT, KENNETH (1839–1931). Grant was a Canadian Presbyterian missionary who worked among Indian migrants to Trinidad from the second half of the 19th century. His friend, John Morton, Presbyterian missionary to Trinidad from 1868, appealed to the church’s Mission Board to provide him assistance to cope with the exponential growth of the mission and recommended Grant. Grant arrived in Trinidad in November 1870 and was stationed in San Fernando with special responsibility for the education of the children of Indian migrants. Grant opened his first school in Trinidad on 20 February 1871 on Cipero Street, San Fernando, in what was once a theater, with an intake of 16 mainly Indian children. Between 1871 and 1881, Grant and Morton succeeded in persuading southern-based planters to open schools on their plantations to educate the children of their Indian indentured workers. The basic rudiments of reading and writing were taught in these schools, and by the turn of the century, Grant and his colleagues began to focus on devising a curriculum for boys of secondary school age. By 1894, they had already established a teachers’ training school, which became the foundation for the first boys’ secondary Presbyterian School in Trinidad. Following its affiliation with Queen’s Royal College in 1899, it was renamed Naparima

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College. Grant was also the main architect behind the construction of the first Presbyterian church in Trinidad at 62 Coffee Street. The building was completed on 7 July 1872, and the church was named Susamachar (The Gospel) Presbyterian Church. Today Reverend Kenneth Grant is celebrated as one of the founding fathers of the Presbyterian Church in Trinidad and Tobago and of secondary education among Indians in the country. The Grant Memorial School in San Fernando is named in his honor. GREYFRIARS CHURCH. This was the first Presbyterian church established in the heart of Port of Spain, Trinidad. It was built in 1837 and answered the prayers of British Presbyterian Scots who petitioned Governor Sir Ralph Woodford for land to build their own worship sanctuary. The petition was laid before the governor by the Trinidad Presbyterian Association, formed in 1834, and it was not long before the governor, committed to the infrastructural development of Port of Spain, granted its request. The congregation purchased the land, and the first service was held on 10 January 1838. In 1887, Greyfriars was expanded at a cost of $12,000. In November 2007, the church building was condemned as unsafe, and lobbying began for its renovation. By 2009, repairs began, but donations in support of this could not be sustained. In 2014, the church was sold to a private developer who began the demolition process, but this was halted amid public protest over the destruction of such an important landmark. Ultimately and unfortunately, the developer had his way, and the church was demolished in 2016. See also RELIGION. GRIFFITH, JASON (1927– ). A prodigy of George Harding, Jason Griffith was born in 20 June 1927 on Pelham Street in Belmont to Clarence and Christine Griffith. Griffith worked with Harding in designing sailor bands for Carnival. In 1936, he became the first mas man to place a crown on the head of fancy sailor mas characters. By 1949, Griffith went solo with the band titled USS Sullivan. He won greater popularity with his 1969 presentation Old Fashioned Sailors. While Griffith continues to work in the footsteps of his old master, he has stamped his own image on his favored character by locating it in outlandish and humorous themes such as his 1984 creation of sailors in outer space. In 1990, in recognition of his contribution to the development of Carnival, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded him the Hummingbird Medal (Gold). Morris-Griffith Link Road in Belmont is named in his honor. See also FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT.

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GROS JEAN. Biographical information about Gros Jean is very hazy because he was an enslaved male employed on a sugar plantation in Diego Martin in west Trinidad from around 1784 when French Catholic planters from neighboring islands such as Grenada, Martinique, and Guadeloupe were taking advantage of the 1783 Cedula of Population offered by the Spanish to populate Trinidad. St. Hilaire Begorrat, a wealthy and influential French proprietor, was the owner of the Diego Martin plantation on which Gros Jean labored. Gros Jean’s rise to prominence as Trinidad’s first recognized calypsonian owed much to the fact that his master, St. Hilaire Begorrat, took pleasure in teasing his landowning colleagues. Gros Jean’s talent lay in his sweet voice, as well as in his ability to compose extemporaneously derogatory ditties about his chosen subject. Often when Begorrat’s associates visited the Diego Martin plantation, Gros Jean would be called upon to sing what was called “le vrai” (French word meaning “the truth”), though in fact the lyrics of his compositions were often scandalous lies intended to illicit mocking laughter. The enslaved pronounced the word “le vrai” as “lavway,” meaning picong or mockery, and this is the word known as the earliest form of the calypso of Trinidad and Tobago. It was sung in the language of the enslaved, which was broken French or patois. Other enslaved individuals tried to emulate the witticism of Gros Jean in singing comments to a listening crowd who in turn shouted out “Bravo” (or “once again”) or “Kaiso,” which is the closest connection with the word “calypso” as it is known today. GUILLAUME, EILEEN DORETTA (1916–2004). Guillaume was born in Rocky Vale, Tobago, educated at the Scarborough Infant’s School and later Upper School, and entered the teaching service as a pupil-teacher at her former school. She spent two years at the Hope Anglican Primary School before being posted to the Scarborough Anglican School. In 1945, Guillaume left teaching to take up a position at the Social Welfare Department, then studied social sciences at the Jamaica Welfare Institute. Guillaume was appointed to the Social Welfare Division in Tobago on her return in 1946 where she supervised savings unions, credit unions, and consumers’ cooperatives. She pioneered the Education Extension Services, established in Tobago in 1948. In 1954, she worked with women’s organizations in the St. George West district in Trinidad before proceeding to London University, Institute of Education, where she became an associate of the Institute of Adult Education. She returned to Trinidad in 1956 and worked in the St. George East district; two years later she was appointed cultural officer for Tobago where she was very instrumental in the development of numerous cultural activities. She undertook the preservation of Tobago’s folk songs through an island-wide program of recordings that she developed. She stimulated a cultural renaissance in Tobago with her pioneering efforts in folk expression and indigenous music, dance, art, and song. She contributed to

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the development of the Tobago Drama, Arts and Music Festivals, and she played a pivotal role in reorganizing the Carnival Development Committee and the Steelbands’ Association. She was also instrumental in the 1961 formation of the Tobago Art Group and the Tobago Photographic Society. Guillaume was also involved in numerous voluntary organizations like the Girl Guides Association in Tobago and was a resource person for various community organizations in 1972. In this same year, Guillaume’s contribution was acknowledged when she was honored with a national award—the Medal of Merit (Gold). The Tobago House of Assembly also honored her in 1995. She died on 10 April 2004. GUY, ROSA (1922–2012). Rosa Guy was born Rosa Cuthbert in Diego Martin, Trinidad, to Henry and Audrey Cuthbert on 1 September 1922. When she was just 10 years old, she migrated to New York and lived in the United States until the time of her death. She became an orphan at the age of 14 when her father died after her mother’s death in 1934. In 1941, she married Walton Guy and had a son, but the marriage ended in divorce. Guy studied writing at New York University and was also a graduate of the American Negro Theatre where she studied acting. She was a writer of novels and short stories. In 1950, she became the cofounder of the Harlem Writers’ Guild; a publishing company specializing in the promotion of the work of black writers. Guy has written more than 20 books including Bird at My Window; The Friends; Ruby; The Disappearance; Edith Jackson; Mirror of Her Own; A Measure of Time; New Guys around the Block; My Love, My Love; or, The Peasant Girl; And I Heard a Bird Sing; The Ups and Downs of Carl Davis III; The Music of Summer; The Sun, the Sea, a Touch of the Wind; Children of Longing; and Mother Crocodile, all published from 1966 to 1995. Two of her short stories—“Magnify” and “Carnival”—were published in the Trinidad Guardian in 1965. Rosa Guy is the recipient of three outstanding writers’ awards: the New York Times Outstanding Book of the Year Citation, the Coretta Scott King Award, and the American Library Association’s Best Book for Young Adults Award. She died on 3 June 2012.

H HABITUAL IDLERS’ ORDINANCE (1918). A vagrancy law, this ordinance was passed in response to the termination of Indian indentureship in Trinidad with the object of surreptitiously procuring labor on the estate and plantations. The ordinance provided a pretext for arresting individuals in the main towns who could not provide evidence of regular employment on the grounds that they were idlers. They could then be charged and punished subsequently with imprisonment and/or compulsory labor on private estates. See also FATH AL RAZAK (FATEL ROZACK); LABOR LEGISLATION; LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL. HALL OF JUSTICE. This building houses the offices of the judicial branch of the government of Trinidad and Tobago. It was formally handed over to the government in 1985. It is located north of Woodford Square and east of the Red House in Port of Spain. The building represents the independence of the judiciary. Trinidad and Tobago’s Court of Appeal, the Civil and Criminal Divisions of the High Court, the Tax Appeal Board, and their respective staff are accommodated in the Hall of Justice. HARDING, GEORGE (1915–1999). Also called “Diamond Jim,” Harding was born in Belmont and has been viewed as the unofficial king of the sailor mas, one of the traditional characters in the nation’s Carnival. The sailor mas gained its popularity as early as the late 19th century when British and American naval ships regularly visited the islands. The establishment of the U.S. bases in Trinidad with the advent of World War II reinforced the popularity of the sailor mas in the 1940s. During the parade of the bands, the “Yankee” sailor was usually caricatured as a drunken and immoral philanderer. Harding helped to widen and improve this image by decorating the head of the sailor with serious and interesting pieces such as airplanes, fishes, and birds. He also was a pioneer in decorating the sailor mas with sequins and swans’ down. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT.

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HARRIS, GEORGE (1818–1872). Harris was governor of Trinidad from 1818 to 1846. He was born on 14 August 1810 to William and Eliza Selina Anne Harris and was educated at Merton and Christ College, Oxford. As governor of Trinidad, he sought to improve the administration by dividing Trinidad into counties and wards in 1849. This was the basis for his 1851 education policy by which, a system of ward schools that were supported by the rates paid in each ward, was established. He also launched the first public library on the island in 1851, established the botanic gardens, a postal service, and pipe borne water supply for Port of Spain and supported Indian indentured workers who had begun arriving in Trinidad in large numbers from 1845. He died on 23 November 1872. See also APPENDIX A; EDUCATION. HARRIS, WILLARD (LORD RELATOR) (1948– ). Born in Trinidad in 1948, this popular calypsonian is also an accomplished guitarist, writer, comedian, actor, and talk show host. His career in calypso began in 1965 when he won the Junior National Calypso Monarch Competition followed in 1966 by another outstanding national music title—the first-place winner of the national TV singing competition Scouting for Talent. In 1970, Relator was crowned winner of the National Buy Local Campaign, and in the following year, he made his debut in Lord Kitchener’s Calypso Revue Tent. In 1980, he was crowned the National Calypso Monarch singing “Food Prices” and “Take a Rest.” In addition to these outstanding achievements, Relator has made a name for himself singing extempo, the art of composing impromptu lyrics on any subject using the calypso melody. He is well respected for the lyrical athleticism of his calypso compositions and his ability to artfully blend humor with serious political and social commentary. In addition to his winning renditions in 1980, Relator is well known for “A Lovely Day for Cricket” and “Bottle and Spoon.” See also CARNIVAL; CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. HART, EDMUND (1930–2011). Edmund Hart was born in San Fernando and was renowned for an almost lifelong partnership with his wife Lil in designing and producing costumes for Trinidad’s Carnival. In his youth, Hart was a masquerader in Harold Saldenah’s bands. By the early 1950s, he became an apprentice in costuming to Bobby Ammon; he and his wife launched out on their own in the early 1960s when Bobby Ammon retreated from mas. The Harts remained an inseparable and successful team for almost 30 years. From their mas camp at 5 Alacazar Street, St. Clair, they produced bands based on themes including history, fantasy, and fashion, until they were divorced in 1991. The husband-and-wife bandleader team won the Band of the Year title on five occasions with their presentations Playing

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Cards (1966), Inferno (1970), Mas Sweet Mas (1983), Islands in the Sun (1986), and Out of This World (1988). Altogether Edmund Hart produced 30 consecutive masquerade bands for Trinidad’s Carnival. His last band, Bacchanal (1992), was the only one he designed without his wife at his side. For his outstanding contribution to the development of Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago, he was awarded the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) in 1973. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. HART, LIL (1930–1991). See HART, EDMUND (1930–2011). HASSANALI, NOOR (1918–2006). Hassanali was the second president of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. He was the first Indo-Trinidadian to have held the post and the first Muslim head of state in the Americas. His presidential tenure extended for 10 years from 1987 to 1997. Born on 13 August 1918, he married his wife, Zalahar Mohammed, in 1952. The couple had two children, Khalid and Amena. He initially attended the Canaan and Corinth Presbyterian primary schools and Naparima College, San Fernando, in Trinidad. In 1937, he obtained a Higher Certificate in Latin, Geography, English, and French, becoming one of the first two students of the college to have completed education for this examination. He taught French and sports at his alma mater from 1938 to 1943. From 1943 to 1947, he pursued a bachelor’s degree in law at the University of Toronto, Canada, and upon successful completion of his studies, he was called to the bar at Gray’s Inn. He began practicing law in Trinidad and Tobago from 1948. Appointments in his illustrious career as a lawyer included magistrate in Victoria, Tobago, St. Patrick, Caroni, and St. George West; senior magistrate from 1960; assistant solicitor general from 1965; judge of the High Court of Trinidad and Tobago from 1966; justice of appeal of the Supreme Court of Trinidad and Tobago from 1978; Master of the Moots, Hugh Wooding Law School from 1985; member of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission from 1985; and member of the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force Commissions from 1985. In 1989 and 1990, in honor of his contribution to the advancement of law both at the local and international level, the University of the West Indies (UWI) and the University of Toronto, respectively, conferred on him an honorary doctorate, and in 2015 the main auditorium of the Law Faculty of the UWI, St. Augustine Campus, was named the Noor Hassanali Auditorium in his honor. In 2003, he published a collection of his speeches in a volume titled Teaching Words. Former president Noor Hassanali died on 25 August 2006.

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HAYES COURT. One of the Magnificent Seven buildings, Hayes Court was built in 1910 on land donated to the Anglican Church to serve as a house for the bishop of the Anglican Church in Trinidad and Tobago. Plans for construction were led by a gentleman named Mr. Protheroe, and the firm Taylor and Gillies was contracted to build the Court, which was named in honor of Bishop Thomas Hayes who was bishop from 1889 to the time of his death in 1904. The Court is constructed in early 20th-century French and English style. The Right Reverend John Francis Welsh, third bishop of the Anglican Church in Trinidad and Tobago, was the first bishop in residence in Hayes Court. Since its construction, the building has been used as the official residence of the bishops of the Anglican Church. Arthur Anstey, appointed bishop in 1918, was the only bishop who did not occupy Hayes Court, opting instead to rent it to the French embassy rather than using the funds so generated to support schools established in the colony by the Anglican Church. Hayes Court has been continuously occupied and maintained, and its original design has remained largely intact. HEALTH. Trinidad and Tobago, throughout its history, has had a varied disease profile and increasingly complex medical and public health care systems. Enslaved populations were dependent on folk medicine, African doctors, and the few practitioners available to settlers. The modern iteration of the medical system in the colony emerged with the reestablishment of the Medical Board in Trinidad in 1814. By 1823, there were 1,450 persons per doctor in Trinidad and, by 1830, a recorded 29 licensed medical practitioners, seven licensed apothecaries, and four druggists. Health care was significantly developed in the post-emancipation era as the presence of newly freed and immigrant groups forced the colonial government to focus on the provision of medical facilities, personnel, and services. The outbreak of cholera in the region in 1854, which eventually claimed a number of lives in Trinidad, further impelled the medical authorities to develop stronger public health policies related to quarantine, water, and sanitation, as well as proper health facilities. Estate hospitals were supplemented by the establishment of major colonial hospitals—the Port of Spain Colonial Hospital in 1858 and the San Fernando Colonial Hospital in the south in 1860. Despite noted efforts to begin to establish a Central Water Supply Scheme, engage in slum clearance, and establish new housing schemes, by the early 20th century, district facilities were run down and basic social conditions problematic. People continued to use traditional folk medicine, referred to as bush medicine, in their healing and home maintenance practices. Bush medicine was a conglomerate of indigenous, European, African, and Asian folk remedies, and, notwithstanding attempts on the part of authorities to hinder its use, bush medicine continued throughout the 20th and 21st centuries.

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Assistance from international organizations such as the Rockefeller Foundation, and the U.S. military during World War II, worked to establish disease control campaigns for hookworm, malaria, and venereal diseases. Furthermore, the expansion of the Colonial Development and Welfare Act in the 1940s by the British government provided a basis for social development and disease control programs and contributed to the presence of foreign health, medical, and nutritional experts. The establishment of the University College of the West Indies with a faculty of medicine and organizations such as the Colonial Medical Research Committee in 1948, were prime examples of further advancements in this era. The hospital construction programs, particularly for colonial hospitals, benefited greatly from the postwar boom in the 1950s during which old facilities were renovated (including the Scarborough Colonial Hospital in Tobago) and new hospitals constructed. Improved health care measures, income, and standards of living in the mid-20th century caused an epidemiological shift from infectious diseases to degenerative ones as the main causes of morbidity and mortality. The rise of cancers, diabetes, and coronary ailments placed a burden on the system, and this, along with rising populations, led to efforts to establish programs and supplement the heavily extended medical personnel. Cuban and Filipino doctors and nurses were brought in at particular periods to assist with this. The health situation was further compounded in the latter 20th century by the emergence of HIV/AIDS onto the Caribbean scene, which severely affected Trinidad and Tobago. The country, as well, was challenged by infectious diseases as malaria reemerged and other mosquito-borne viruses such as dengue and zika in the 21st century continued to threaten the health of the people. The structure of health care services also changed during the decolonization period in the mid-20th century. Within the health service, control was shifted from the director of medical services (now called the chief medical officer) to the permanent secretary of the department and, later, the minister of health. In 1994, the responsibility for the provision of health care was shifted from the Ministry of Health to Regional Health Authorities (RHAs) with the passing of the Regional Health Authorities Act No. 5 in 1994. The five RHAs in operation today are North West Regional Health Authority, North Central Regional Health Authority, South West Regional Health Authority, Eastern Regional Health Authority, and Tobago Regional Health Authority. See also ACHONG, BERT GEOFFREY (1928–1996); ACHONG LOW, KONGSHIEK (1950– ); AWON, MAXWELL PHILLIP (1920–1998); McSHINE, ARTHUR HUTTON (1876–1948); PAWAN, JOSEPH LENNOX (1887–1957); QUAMINA, DAVID BERNARD EBENEZER (1922–2007).

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HENNESSEY, ALLYSON (1948–2011). This renowned broadcaster and talk show host was born on 4 January 1948 and began her career at the Trinidad and Tobago Television station in the 1970s. She hosted a cooking segment on the show Not for Women Only and later Community Dateline, a popular TV program. The latter she hosted with other popular personalities such as Wendell Constantine, Judy Alcantara, Lisa Wickham, and Judy Chong Dennison, until the station closed in 2005. Hennessey attended the Le Cordon Bleu Restaurant School of Cookery in London where she met and married radio broadcaster Emmett Hennessy. In December 1980, she opened a successful restaurant called Veni Mange on Ariapita Avenue on the outskirts of Port of Spain, which she coowned with her sister. Her passion for local culture was reflected in her participation in the Carnivals of Trinidad and Tobago, as well as her devotion to her favorite steelband, Desperadoes. She was also a frequent host of cultural and Carnival programs, beauty pageants, and business events. She was honored in 2009 by the Trinidad and Tobago Publishers and Broadcasters Association with the Media Excellence Award for her contribution to television in Trinidad and Tobago. In 2010, she became the cohost of The Box, a daily TV talk show on the Gayelle TV channel. After a battle with an undisclosed illness, Allyson Hennessey died on 7 May 2011 at age 63. A true nationalist, Allyson Hennessey made a distinctive contribution to the cultural development of Trinidad and Tobago. See also FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. HEPBURN, NATHANIEL RANDOLPH (LORD CORBEAU, NAP HEPBURN) (1924–2005). Regarded as possessing one of the sweetest calypso voices in Trinidad and Tobago, Nap Hepburn was born on 30 December 1924. He made his debut in the calypso arena in the 1950s and composed and sang several popular calypsos such as “Spend Your Money Wise”; “This Is My Flag I,” which he sang for the first time ever at the 1962 Independence Calypso Competition; “Listen Mama,” a well-known local Christmas rendition; and “Bull Bull Water.” In recognition of his contribution to Caribbean music, he was inducted into the Caribbean Sunshine Awards Hall of Fame in 1999. He died of brain cancer in New York on 6 September 2005. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. HERNANDEZ, EDWARD CHRISTOPHER (1934–2013). Hernandez was born in 1934 at Richmond, Tobago. He acquired primary education at the Delaford Roman Catholic School and began working as a monitor there. Then he trained at the Evening Institute, Extra Mural Studies in multimedia and design before returning to Tobago in 1959. He worked as an art teacher

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with the Ministry of Education in 1964 and later served as manager at the Fitz Blackman Store, Sports and Games, and the Tobago United Cooperative Society. He was awarded fellowships to study management in Florida and Puerto Rico and Australia in 1975 and 1977. Hernandez received professional training in museology and heritage research from Professor L. A. M. Lichveld, then director of Mt. Irvine Museum Trust, and Professor J. D. Elder, professor of anthropology. He became curator and executive trustee of the Tobago Trust Museum, Scarborough; Artist in Residence of the Division of Community Development and Culture of the Tobago House of Assembly (THA); trustee and secretary of the Mt. Irvine Museum, Tobago; and lecturer in visual arts, cultural heritage, and cultural anthropology. Hernandez was instrumental in developing arts and culture in Tobago as a founding member of the Art Committee of Tobago, the Tobago Players Drama Group, and the Tobago Art Group. He was responsible for introducing a number of young Tobagonians to the arts, conducted the first art and photography classes on the island, and assisted in the implementation of art as a General Certificate Examination subject in Tobago. Hernandez was a regular adjudicator for the Tobago Arts Festival and the Secondary School Schools Drama Festival, chairman of the Tobago Carnival Committee, and a member of the first Tobago Heritage Festival Committee. He has been a member of the University of the West Indies (UWI) Archaeological Committee and executive member of the International Carnival Conference, Medgar Evers College of the City University of New York. Hernandez represented the Tobago museum in the Museums Association of the Caribbean and the International Council of Museums in Paris, France. He was a central figure in Best Village, Heritage, and Carnival in Tobago, assisting in composing calypsos and designing and making costumes. He designed the logos for the Tobago Heritage Festival, the Tobago Council for Handicapped Children, the Euphonics Steel Orchestra, and the International Caribbean Carnival Conference. In addition to the President’s Award for Outstanding Contribution to the Arts in 2002 and the 2003 national award of the Public Service Medal of Merit (Silver), Hernandez was the recipient of numerous awards from the Tobago Jaycees; the THA; the Carnival Development Committee; Friends of the Tobago Steel Pan; the Tobago Progressive Association of New York; Medgar Evers College of the City University of New York; Trinidad and Tobago Schools Drama Festival; TUCO; Trinidad and Tobago Calypsonian Association; the International Association for Caribbean Archaeology; Caribbean Festival of Arts (CARIFESTA) IX; Centre for the Creative and Festival Arts, UWI, St. Augustine; and the Lifetime Achiever Heritage Preservation Award from the National Trust of Trinidad and Tobago. He gave a life of service to the nation and reaped a bounty of

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rewards including the satisfaction of seeing his trainees, the fruits of his labor, move on to continue his tradition of service in his multiple undertakings. He died on 26 August 2013. See also TOURISM. HILLVIEW COLLEGE. This school for boys was founded in 1955 by Canadian Presbyterian missionaries and first opened its doors for classes on 7 January of that year. In its inception year, its total enrollment of students was 44 served by two teachers, and the principal was Reverend H. F. Swann. It was originally located on Sheriff Street in Tunapuna and was called the Naparima College, Tunapuna Branch. It remained in its initial location until September 1957 when it became a government-assisted denominational school. In 1962, its principal, Dr. Stephen Moosai Maharaj, gave the school its present name. Expansion in the school’s infrastructure took place in 1959 when science laboratories were added and more classrooms built, in 1967 when the main hall was extended, in 1986 when the Stephen Seepersad Library (named in honor of the principal 1975–1988) was constructed, in 1993 when the Sixth Form block was included, in 1996 when administrative and clerical offices were erected, and in 1999 when the Richard Kokaram (principal 1989–1999) pavilion was added. The school is managed by the Presbyterian Secondary Schools Board of Education. Although it is an allboys school, from 1992 it has admitted girls to its Advanced (A) Level program. The motto of the school is “Nothing concerning humanity is alien to me.” It ranks among the premier secondary schools in Trinidad and Tobago owing both to academic and sporting, especially cricket, achievements. HISLOP, THOMAS (1764–1843). Major General Sir Thomas Hislop served as governor of Trinidad seven years after the island was captured by the British. He was the son of Colonel William Hislop of the Royal Artillery and was born 5 July 1764. He served as governor of Trinidad from 1804 to 1811 in a period during which military protection of Trinidad was a priority to prevent Spanish recapture of the colony and to prevent the transfer of revolutionary ideas from nearby Venezuela. It was under his administration that Fort George was constructed with enslaved labor. It was also during the administration of Governor Hislop that the capital, Port of Spain, was destroyed by the Great Fire of 1808. During the fire, the governor retreated to his country house called Belmont House, and after the fire, the area in which the house was located was named Belmont. He died in May 1843. See also APPENDIX A. HOCHOY, SOLOMON (1905–1983). Hochoy was the governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 4 July 1960 to 31 August 1962. When Hochoy was just two years old, he and his family, who were of Hakka Chinese descent,

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migrated from China to Jamaica. He was born on 20 April 1905 and was married to social activist Thelma Huggins. He was educated at St. Mary’s College and worked as a tally clerk in the Coastal Steamer service. In 1932, he obtained a job as a third-class clerk at the Port and Marine Department where, eight years later, he became a second-class clerk. Subsequently, he joined the Labor Department, first as a second-class clerk, but then rose to become an industrial advisor. In 1955, he was appointed deputy secretary and, one year later, colonial secretary–head of the public service (the secondhighest-ranking office in the colony). He first served as colonial secretary before being appointed as governor and became the first governor-general when Trinidad and Tobago became independent in 1962. This was the period of the rise of party politics in Trinidad and Tobago, the birth of the People’s National Movement, and its ascension to power and Trinidad and Tobago’s acquisition of independence. This appointment prepared him for the post of governor-general. Appointed to office on 31 August 1962, he was the last British governor of Trinidad and Tobago, the colony’s first nonwhite governor, and the first governor-general of independent Trinidad and Tobago. The Sir Solomon Hochoy Highway and the Solomon Hochoy Trophy for football are named in his honor. In 1969, he was awarded the country’s highest national award, the Trinity Cross. He retired from the post of governorgeneral in 1972 and died in Blanchisseuse on 13 November 1983. In 2012, he was named a national icon. See also APPENDIX A. HODGE, MERLE (1944– ). Hodge, a novelist, lecturer, and literary critic, was born in Curepe, Trinidad. She is a former student of Bishop Anstey High School from which she won the Girls’ Island Scholarship. She used the scholarship to pursue French studies in England completing both a BA and MPhil. When she returned to the Caribbean in the 1970s, she taught French in Trinidad at the Junior Secondary School level before accepting a lecturer’s post to teach French at the University of the West Indies, Mona Campus, Jamaica. In the period from 1979 to 1983, when Grenada was in the throes of its revolution, Hodge worked with the Maurice Bishop government as director of curriculum development. Her first novel, Crick Crack Monkey, was published in 1970. She had a second major publication in 1993 with the release of For the Life of Laetitia. HOLDER, BOSCOE ARTHUR ALWYN (1921–2007). Holder, a musician, dancer, and painter, was the son of ballroom dancers Arthur Holder of Barbados and Louise de Frense of Martinique; he had four siblings: Kenneth, Marjorie, Jean, and Geoffrey Holder. He was educated at Tranquility Intermediate School and Queen’s Royal College. Holder’s artistic talents manifested themselves from an early age when he started drawing at age five. His

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talent for drawing and painting was enhanced when he was introduced to one of Trinidad’s earliest artists, Amy Leong Pang, founder of the arts group Society of Trinidad Independents. Leong Pang tutored the young Boscoe in the fundamentals of painting and introduced him to more established individuals in the field such as Hugh Stollmeyer and Jean de Boissière. As a painter, Holder’s most regular patron in the early years, however, was the rum proprietor Joseph P. Fernandes, who in 1944 provided the venue for Holder’s first one-man exhibition. Holder often used his fellow dancers as the muse for his paintings. He also showed himself to be a worthy sketch artist when he began sketching portraits of American soldiers at the base in Chaguaramas. By the time he was 10 years old, the multitalented Holder was playing a wide range of classical and popular pieces on the piano, relying mainly on memory although he was taught to read music. The Principal of Tranquility Intermediate often called upon him to accompany the boys of the school in marching and in the execution of other drills. At that young age as well, he entertained the wealthy at their homes at several social functions. As a young man, when American naval forces set up a base in Chaguaramas, Holder found an outlet for his musical and dance skills. Holder’s dance troupes made regular appearances at concerts held at the base during the war years. He also launched a Sunday radio show titled Piano Ramblings using the U.S. Armed Forces station WVDI. Holder specialized in Afro-Caribbean dance especially the bongo and orisha or shango movements. Indian classical dance was added to his repertoire following his association with Champa Devi, a Guyanese Indian classical dancer. His range expanded even further when he met and later married Sheila Clarke who was a black British dancer and the daughter of the well-known Trinidadian personality called “Aunty Kay.” In 1949, one year after their marriage, the Holders had their son, Christian. Following migration to London in the 1950s, Holder established Boscoe and His Caribbean Dancers, presented his own television show via the BBC titled Bal Creole; introduced steel pan to England via Bal Creole; featured in several theater productions, television shows, and films; toured the European continent and Egypt with his dance company; and exhibited his paintings in several museums of the United Kingdom (UK). After almost two decades in the UK, Holder and his wife returned to Trinidad for the next 30odd years. The accolades heaped on Holder were many, including the national award of the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) for his contribution to the development of the arts, and a street in Port of Spain was also named in his honor. The government of Venezuela in 1978 also bestowed on him its highest award, the Order of Francisco de Miranda. In 2003, the University of the West Indies conferred an honorary degree, doctor of letters, on Holder, and in 2004, the Trinidad and Tobago postal services issued a series of postage stamps featuring six Boscoe Holder paintings. See also CULTURE.

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HOLDER, GEOFFREY (1930–2014). Holder was born in Port of Spain on 1 August 1930 to ballroom dancers Arthur Holder of Barbados and Louise de Frense of Martinique; he was the brother of the talented Boscoe Holder. Holder was educated at Tranquility School and Trinity College, and he was one of Trinidad and Tobago’s most multitalented artists. He was a dancer, stage and screen actor, choreographer, director of stage performances, costume designer, and painter. Holder’s first major performance as an international actor took place in 1954 when he played two characters, Samedi and Champion, in House of Flowers, in which the steel pan was introduced to Broadway. For his role as director and costume designer of the musical The Wiz, in 1975 he became the first black man to win Tony awards. He had 18 American film appearances from 1957 to 1999 including such productions as Carib Gold, All Night Long, Doctor Doolittle, Live and Let Live, Boomerang, and Goosed. He starred, with his voice, in other American films such as Tropical Rainforest. Holder was also a successful painter. Some of his pieces are on exhibition in the Barbados Museum, as well as in the Corcoran Gallery in Washington, DC. In 1972, he was the recipient of a national award, the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) for Dance. See also CULTURE. HOLLIS, ALFRED CLAUD (1874–1961). Hollis was the governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 22 March 1930 to 1936. He was born 12 May 1874 and died 22 November 1961. He was a British administrator whose two major appointments were in Zanzibar and Trinidad and Tobago. He arrived in Trinidad in 1930, with his wife and 14-year-old daughter, on the eve of the labor disturbances that swept through the British West Indian colonies in the 1930s. Several conflicts erupted during Hollis’s administration, including disagreement with Captain A. A. Cipriani over the governor’s decision to transfer control of electricity to the authority of the Port of Spain City Corporation and the hunger march in Port of Spain organized by the National Unemployment Movement on 19 June 1933. Hollis is remembered for aiding Eric Eustace Williams to obtain a grant of £50 from Leathersellers Company to assist him in pursuing postgraduate studies at Oxford University. Another of his legacies is the Hollis Reservoir in Valencia in east Trinidad, which he commissioned in 1936, the first of its kind in the colony. Hollis also laid the foundation stone of the second building, which housed the San Fernando City Hall in 1930; this building was erected to replace the wooden structure constructed in 1834 at the corner of Harris Promenade and Penitence Street in San Fernando. The new building was completed in 1931. He was also present at the ceremony to open St. Mary’s College in Port of Spain, Trinidad, on 30 September 1934. He wrote a history of Trinidad under Spanish colonial rule titled A Brief History of Trinidad under the Spanish Crown published in 1941. See also APPENDIX A.

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HOLY CROSS COLLEGE. This is a government-assisted, Roman Catholic boys’ secondary school established in Arima in 1957 by the Dominican Order of Preachers with the pioneering efforts of parish priest Canon Jeremiah Maher and Rev. Fr. Ignatius Candon, and Ursula Bleasdell (Aunty Babsie) and handyman Mr. Gordon who raised funds to support the building effort. It was first located at the corner of Woodford and Church Streets and then relocated to Calvary Hill in Arima. Classes began on 18 September 1957 with an enrollment of 74 boys with Fr. Candon as the first principal. Fr. Edward Michael Foley, who administered the school from 1959 to 1978, is regarded as the “father” of the school. A certified Irish engineer, he superintended the construction of a new wing in 1960, a playing field and another wing in 1964, and the school’s chapel in 1971. See also EDUCATION. HOLY NAME CONVENT. This secondary school for girls located in Port of Spain was founded by the Roman Catholic Church. It began as a private lessons organization operated by the French Dominican nuns who came to Trinidad in 1902. In 1949, the school was accorded the status of Approved Secondary School and in 1957 it was recognized as a Government-Assisted School. See also EDUCATION. HOPE, ISAAC ARBUTHNOT (1865–1956). An advocate for Tobago in early electoral politics of Trinidad and Tobago, Hope was born in 1865 in the United Kingdom and migrated to Tobago at a very young age. He initially worked as a merchant clerk when he arrived on the island and later became a planter and businessman with a general store in Scarborough. Hope’s success in Tobago and interest in community development led him to embrace local politics, which he saw as a vehicle for much needed change. In 1924, endorsed by the Trinidad Workingmen’s Association as a labor candidate, he ran for the Tobago seat in the Legislative Council in the first election in Trinidad and Tobago, losing to James A. Biggart, a pharmacist. When Biggart died in 1932, Hope then ran unopposed in a by-election as an Independent to replace him. Sworn into office on 21 October 1932, he remained in the Legislative Council until 1938. Though commonly ignored, he consistently raised a number of problems that beset Tobago in the Legislative Council, for example, disruptions in the coastal steamer service; the need for improvements of the Scarborough Wharf; improvement of the Parlatuvier/Charlotteville Road; and the difficulties faced by pastoral farmers on the windward side of the island who had to take their animals to the stock farm in Scarborough. He recommended providing these services at a government stock farm located at Mt. St. George to reduce the distance the farmers and their stock would have to travel. Regarding access to credit facilities, Hope revealed how the system

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favored the planters and was disadvantageous to the peasants. While credit charges at the Agricultural Credit societies, on which the peasants depended, stood at 12 percent, those from the state-run Agricultural Bank, which serviced large planters, stood at 6 percent. Hope became an advocate of unemployment relief, affordable health care for children, and the union of Trinidad and Tobago, taking an integrationist stance on this issue. He was a member of the Bishop’s High School Board and was a generous supporter of worthy causes such as the Breakfast Shed and Literary and Debating societies. He believed in working through the established system, that Tobago’s economy would benefit from a stronger central government, and that its problems were also reflected in the rural districts of Trinidad. Thus, he was convinced that the issue was related to the broad isolationist policies of the central government, and he worked assiduously to alter this status quo in both Tobago and Trinidad until his death in 1956. See also POLITICAL STRUCTURE; TOBAGO HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY (THA). HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY (TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO) (1914). First called the Horticultural Club, the society was founded on 23 April 1914 at a meeting chaired by Archdeacon Hombersley, rector of All Saints Church, and held its first flower show 17 July 1915. The club intervened to prevent Governor Broome’s attempt to use half of the Queen’s Park Savannah for development and was responsible for beautifying the Hollows. In 1969, the club was renamed to reflect the national reality and broaden its national reach. From the club, in 1956, the Trinidad Orchid Society was formed, and on 30 June 1982, the Southern branch of the Trinidad and Tobago Horticultural Society was incorporated. The society organizes an annual field trip and flower show and participates in the annual flower show of the Horticultural Society of the United Kingdom to which it is affiliated. HOSAY MASSACRE OF 1884. Hosay is an Indian festival brought to Trinidad by indentured Indian laborers who came to the island in the period from 1845 to 1917. Hosay commemorates the deaths of the two soldier grandsons of the Prophet Mohammed. These boys were killed in war in Iraq in 680 CE. The centerpiece of the Hosay commemorations is the taziya, which is made of cardboard and tinsel and symbolizes the tomb erected over the remains of one of the Prophet’s grandsons, Hussain, in the plains of Karbala. The most historic and tragic celebration of Hosay in Trinidad took place on 30 October 1884. In that year, Trinidad’s British colonial authorities gave orders banning the procession of Hosay celebrants entering the towns of Port of Spain and San Fernando. One Indian spokesperson called Sookoo and 31 others signed a petition requesting the lifting of the ban, citing injustice and discrimination as the basis for the objection to the

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governor’s orders. Their petition was rejected. Sookoo and his growing number of supporters decided that by civil disobedience they would defy the order banning the Hosay procession into San Fernando. In any event, they were convinced that the authorities would not open fire on a religious group of Indians supported by Africans celebrating a well-established tradition. To their dismay, however, the British colonial authorities deployed an unusually heavy contingent of armed forces in three of the main gateways into San Fernando. In Les Efforts Junction at the corner of Cipero and Rushworth streets, Magistrate Arthur Child read the Riot Act amid the din of tassa drumming, singing, chanting, and stick fighting. Child then gave the order for the police to shoot. Some in the front of the procession fell either dead or injured, and several taziyas were destroyed. Others panicked and scampered away to shelter themselves from bullets. Many ran for cover in the nearby cane fields. At Mon Repos Junction, the Stipendiary Magistrate read the Riot Act, and more men, women, and children were either killed or wounded. The Riot Act was also read in Pointe-a-Pierre Road, but here no gunfire took place because the procession broke up and turned away. Altogether the casualties numbered 20 dead and 120 wounded. News of the event shocked the colony. It was up to that period the bloodiest show of force by British colonial authorities in Trinidad. HOSAY RIOTS. See HOSAY MASSACRE OF 1884. HOSEIN, TAJMOOL (1921–2013). Hosein grew up in Williamsville near Princes Town in south Trinidad. In 1946, when Hosein took his final exams to pass the bar as a barrister-at-law, he placed first in the entire British Empire and went on to become an expert in constitutional law. His BA in law was attained at London University and his barrister-at-law was attained at Gray’s Inn. Appropriately, he was part of the delegation present at Marlborough House Conference assisting in framing the constitution of the soon to be independent twin island country of Trinidad and Tobago in 1962. Hosein was also active in the politics of Trinidad and Tobago. From 1961 to 1966, he was a member of Parliament for Chaguanas on a Democratic Labour Party ticket. In 1982 for this contribution to law in Trinidad and Tobago, he was awarded the Trinity Cross. HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM INSTITUTE. This postsecondary institute of learning is located in Chaguaramas, the northwest peninsula of Trinidad. The school was founded in 1967, and by an Act of Parliament of 31 May 1972, the school was established as a partner with Ryerson Polytechnic Institute of Canada. The partnership lasted until 1975 when the Trinidad and Tobago government assumed autonomous control over the institute. The

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school was directed by the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) and was renamed the Trinidad and Tobago Hotel School. When the IDC was disbanded, the new managers became the Ministry of Education, and its board of directors changed the name of the school to the Trinidad and Tobago Hospitality Training Institute. In 1996, and for the final time, the name of the school was again changed to reflect the range of services it offered. It was now called the Trinidad and Tobago Hospitality and Tourism Institute. HOSPITALS. In the modern era, Trinidad and Tobago boasts various types of medical facilities distributed throughout the territory—large, small, private, public, and specialized institutions—which provide care for the majority of citizens. By the turn of the 19th century, along with a few estate hospitals there were only three major hospitals: the Port of Spain and San Fernando Colonial Hospitals in Trinidad and the Scarborough Colonial Hospital in Tobago. The colony also possessed a home for the mentally disabled at St. Ann’s and a leprosarium at Cocorite on the outskirts of Port of Spain. The Colonial Hospitals were established in the mid-19th century in response to the epidemics and other public health challenges, largely a result of changes in settlement patterns in the post-emancipation period and the government’s inability to effectively improve social and living conditions. Port of Spain Colonial Hospital was the first to be built on the site of the Old Orange Grove Barracks and was opened in 1858. The San Fernando Colonial Hospital was opened in the southern urban center in 1860 and, later in the century, the Scarborough Colonial Hospital in Tobago. Major renovations to these facilities would only take place in the postwar decolonization era of the 1950s. In 1956, the Sangre Grande District Hospital was converted to a General Hospital to join the ranks of Port of Spain, San Fernando, and Scarborough, to serve the communities in eastern Trinidad. In the 1970s, the Eric Williams Medical Complex was opened and supported the Faculty of Medical Sciences at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. The Mount Hope Maternity Hospital later became an important addition to this complex. With the public system plagued by insufficient personnel, equipment, and pharmaceuticals, and faced with severe criticism about treatment of stakeholders, in the latter 20th century there was a dramatic increase in the number of private hospitals in the country. Some of these include the St. Augustine Private Hospital, the St. Clair Medical Centre, and the Westshore Medical Centre. HUDSON-PHILLIP, KARL TERRENCE (1933–2014). One of Trinidad and Tobago’s most eminent legal counsel, Hudson-Phillip received his secondary education at Queen’s Royal College; studied for his law degree at Selwyn College, Cambridge University; and was called to the bar at Gray’s

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Inn in 1959. In Trinidad and Tobago, he served as attorney general during the Eric Williams administration, and came to notoriety during the late 1960s when, in the face of intensifying civil and labor unrest, he sought to introduce the Public Order Act. Because of the high level of public protest against it, the bill was withdrawn. Hudson-Phillip, who had piloted the bill, offered his resignation, but Williams refused it. In 1970, he was appointed Queen’s Counsel to the Bar of Trinidad and Tobago and, in the 1970s, mounted a challenge to Williams’s leadership of the party after Williams announced his intention to relinquish leadership of the People’s National Movement and government and return to private life. In consequence, Hudson-Phillip made a bid for leadership. However, the announcement was merely a ploy on the part of Williams to test the loyalty of party members and to draw out those interested in contesting his leadership. After announcing his resignation, Williams skillfully engineered his reentry into the party as its political leader, the membership at any rate having proved themselves unwilling to accept his resignation. Hudson-Phillip had no option but to resign, especially as he was one of those who refused to sign the so-called undated letter of resignation of party officials proposed by Williams to ensure loyalty to his leadership. In 1980, Hudson-Phillip founded his own party, the Organisation for National Reconstruction, using the National Land Tenants and Rate Payers’ Association, which he founded in 1974 and to which he provided legal presentation, as a springboard for his entry into the political arena as the leader of this new party. Later, he became one of the founding members of the National Alliance for Reconstruction. Hudson-Phillip is remembered for his role in a number of high-profile local, regional, and international cases. These include the trial of Abdul Malik for the murder of Gale Ann Benson and Joseph Skerrette; the trial in Grenada of those accused of the 1983 murder of Grenada’s then prime minister, Maurice Bishop; and the UN Human Rights Council’s investigation into Israel’s Gaza flotilla raid in 2010. In 1999, Hudson-Phillip was elected president of the Law Association of Trinidad and Tobago. In 2003, he was appointed to the first ever bench of the International Criminal Court (ICC), and chaired the first meetings of judges before the election of the presidency, the body responsible for administration of the ICC. In 2010, he was awarded the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, the country’s highest national award. HUMMINGBIRD MEDAL. See NATIONAL AWARDS. HURRICANES. Positioned at the base of what is referred to as the Hurricane Belt, Trinidad and Tobago have both been sites of hurricane damage, though on average not as frequently as other Caribbean territories. Through-

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out the 19th century, storms or hurricanes are recorded to have impacted the islands, specifically in 1810, 1884, 1891, and 1892. In the 20th century, with improved technology and measurement and assessment systems, hurricanes have become easier to track and prepare for; however, they remain dangerous to Caribbean territories. On 27 June 1933, Trinidad experienced the effects of a major hurricane that destroyed portions of south Trinidad, and news of its impact on the island was reported around the world. Other hurricanes that have touched the shores of Trinidad include Hurricanes Alma (1974), Fran (1990), Bret (1993), and Isidore (2002). Tobago, smaller and more exposed, has been significantly affected as well. Hurricane Flora, which hit Tobago on 30 September 1963 with winds more than 110 miles per hour, devastated the island’s agriculturally based economy including its fisheries and forestry. Of the 7,500 houses on the island, 2,750 were destroyed, and 191 of the 200 public buildings suffered damage with nine being totally destroyed. Tobago was again hit in 1990 by Hurricane Arthur and in 2000 by Hurricane Joyce. In the new millennium, Hurricane Ivan (“Ivan the Terrible”) a Category 3 hurricane (which would later develop into a Category 5) affected the northern part of Tobago on 7 September 2004, tearing off roofs, felling trees, causing flooding, and cutting off electricity on the island. One death was attributed to the passing of Hurricane Ivan. HYARIMA. A member of the First Peoples born in the early 17th century in “Arauca” (Arouca), he was of the Nepuyo tribe, a subtribe of the Carinepogoto people later identified as the Kalinagos (Caribs). Hyarima became a warrior and a great leader—Cacique (war chief)—of the First People of Trinidad. Around 1625, he escaped from slavery and took to the hills of Arima in northern Trinidad and away from the control of the Spanish. Hyarima devoted his life to protecting his people and their ancestral lands from the European colonizers and to preserving their customs and culture. He led many successful revolts. Hyarima, the statue, is located in the heart of Arima at Hollis Avenue. It is said that Hyarima derived his name from the settlement “Arima” as it was customary for the Araucan tribe to name their elected chieftains after their settlements or villages. HYATALI, SIR ISAAC EMMANUEL (1917–2000). Hyatali received his secondary education at Naparima College and was appointed a judge of the High Court in 1939 and a judge of the Court of Appeal in 1962. He served as the first president of the Industrial Court, under the Industrial Stabilization Act 1965, until 1972 when he became chief justice, a position he served until 1983. He was knighted by Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II, in 1973 and received the Trinity Cross in 1974. He served as chairman of what became

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known as the “Hyatali Commission,” which was set up in 1987 to review the country’s constitution. The commission concerned itself with the necessity for changes in the method of appointment of the president and with the removal of the president’s immunity against judicial review. The commission recommended a constitution based on proportional representation. The report of the commission was not debated because of the occurrence of the 1990 attempted Jamaat al Muslimeen attempted coup. He died in 2002 at the age of 83. At the time, he was the sitting chairman of the Elections and Boundaries Commission.

I IMMORTAL FORTY-FIVE (1813). This was a small group of Venezuelan patriots, under the command of Santiago de Mariño, which was domiciled in Chacachacare island off the northwest peninsula of Trinidad and was committed to the overthrow of the Spanish colonial regime in Gran Colombia. This entity, at the time conceived of by its revolutionary leaders as a geopolitical territory, incorporated today’s Venezuela, Ecuador, and Colombia. In 1813, Mariño set sail to restore the independence of the territory after the forces led by the liberator Simón Bolívar had suffered severe reversals. Setting out from Chacachacare in small boats and accompanied by a number of his revolutionary compatriots and their enslaved African soldiers from Trinidad and Venezuela, and armed with a few guns, cutlasses, and knives, they headed for the Venezuelan northeastern coastal town of Guiria. There they were able to lay siege successfully against royalist forces and inspire and revive the revolutionary effort of the patriots and secure the independence of Venezuela. For their heroic and courageous effort, the band of insurgents has since been dubbed by anticolonial sympathizers as the “Immortal Forty-Five.” IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF TROPICAL AGRICULTURE (ICTA). The college was established in October 1922 to advance the study of agriculture in the tropics. Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain led a British government drive to maximize the exploitation of empire resources, which required investigations into new tropical crops and products, increased scientific applications to agriculture, dissemination of new research findings, and training of administrators and practicing agriculturalists. For this a network of institutions centered on the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, was established. The British policy thrust was supported by the recommendations of the 1897 West Indian Royal Commission and was executed, as recommended by the commission, through the Imperial Department of Agriculture (IDA). The college began as the West Indian Agricultural College and was located in Trinidad, which outbid other regional contenders, on approximately 100 acres of the St. Augustine estate purchased by the colonial government in 183

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1900. Estate buildings were refurbished, and new construction was undertaken by engineer C. T. Watts to provide accommodation for the various activities of the college. Its first principal was Sir Francis Watts who, until 1924, led a group of researchers, mainly from the IDA, who undertook research in a number of important areas in Caribbean agriculture. Fifteen students were admitted in the first batch in October 1922, and the college offered a diploma program (DICTA) for Caribbean students and a degree program to train young British officers for posts in the empire’s agricultural services. In 1924, the name of the institution was changed to the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture to reflect its main business of servicing empire agricultural needs. During the Butler riots of 1937, the principal recruited staff and students as a volunteer force to prevent unrest from spreading onto the campus, and an army of sorts was set up on the ground floor. During World War II, the space in front of the building was used for training volunteer troops for home defense. In 1960, ICTA was incorporated into the University College established at Mona and became the location of the St. Augustine campus of the University of the West Indies. INDEPENDENT LIBERAL PARTY (ILP). The Independent Liberal Party (ILP) is a political party founded in 2013 by Jack Warner after he failed to receive the nod from Kamla Persad-Bissessar and the People’s Partnership (PP) in his bid to contest a by-election for the Chaguanas West constituency. This seat had been declared vacant following his resignation as member of Parliament for that area and as a minister of government. He had been forced to resign amid mounting allegations of corruption related to his tenure as an official of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association and Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football. Although formed within a very short space of time before the byelections, Warner was successful in the bid to regain the seat, defeating both the PP and the People’s National Movement in what was traditionally a United National Congress (cum the PP) stronghold. INDIA. India–Trinidad and Tobago relations began when they were both colonies in the British Empire and plants were transferred from India and other parts of Asia to Trinidad and Tobago through the Botanic Gardens in India. The colonies were also connected at that time through sport, especially cricket. Relations were cemented when the British government approved indentured immigration schemes from India to provide labor for sugar estates in Trinidad. The first batch of 225 indentured workers came from India on the Fath al Razak to work on the sugar estates of Trinidad in 1845; this scheme, which continued until 1917, brought 143,939 Indian nationals to the

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colony of Trinidad and Tobago. Their descendants now form about 42 percent of the population of Trinidad and Tobago, and it is the presence of the population of Indian origin who have maintained their traditional Indian cultural and religious customs that has provided the basis for closer bilateral relations between India and Trinidad and Tobago. The Office of the Commissioner for India in Trinidad and Tobago was established in Port of Spain in 1948 after India’s independence and was upgraded to High Commissioner in August 1962 after Trinidad and Tobago’s independence. In October 1969, Trinidad and Tobago reciprocated with the establishment of its High Commission office in New Delhi, India, with the aim to promote trade, improve economic relations, increase investment and tourism, and deepen their cultural linkages. Since then, the two countries have maintained close and cordial relations, which have been reinforced by regular high-level exchanges of visits and the signing of bilateral agreements providing the framework for strengthening their economic and cultural ties. The agreements in education, technical and economic cooperation, and cultural and general scholarships; the Mahatma Gandhi Institute for Cultural Cooperation; and Chairs at the University of the West Indies are significant instruments for promoting bilateral cooperation. The government of India offers nationals of Trinidad and Tobago scholarships to study Hindi language; the Indian Cultural Council Relations Scholarship for undergraduate and graduate programs and research at tertiary institutions in India and classes in Indian classical dance, music, and yoga are offered at the Mahatma Gandhi Cultural Centre and at locations across the country. In addition, there are cultural exchanges by visiting entertainers (e.g., dancers, singers, and musicians), and cricket and other sporting tournaments and multilateral agreements are fostered through the Commonwealth organization. INDIAN CARIBBEAN MUSEUM. This museum was opened in Trinidad in 2006. It is located in Waterloo not far from the Temple in the Sea. It is the private property of the Maha Sabha of Trinidad and Tobago with affiliation to such government agencies as the Tourism Development Corporation and the National Museum and Art Gallery of Trinidad and Tobago. The major rationale behind the establishment of the museum is that while a national museum exists, its limited size and city location mean that it cannot provide adequate care and attention to the vast relics of the past left behind by the Indian diaspora to Trinidad and Tobago. The Indian Caribbean Museum is dedicated to the collection of a wide variety of items that were once in the possession of Indians in the country such as agricultural objects, cooking utensils, clothing, old photographs, and historical books. This museum acquired its collection largely through gifts, bequests, or loans by former or present inhabitants of the country. Outstanding objects in the collection include a sapat or wooden slipper, a jata or grinding stone, a boli or gourd

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bowl, and a hassawa or grass knife. In addition to the material sources of the Indian past in Trinidad, the museum has an art gallery, a reference library, and a permanent screen for viewing historical films and documentaries depicting the Indian way of life in the past in Trinidad. Both full-time and parttime staff are employed at the museum charged with the responsibility of acquiring, cataloging, preserving, and exhibiting sources of the Indian past in Trinidad. INDUSTRIAL COURT. In 1920, the crown colony legislature passed legislation providing for the establishment of an industrial court. Its president and members were to be appointed by the governor. Some members, including the presidents, were to serve as independents; some were to represent the interests of employer, others that of worker. The president was subsequently appointed, but no court was ever established, and matters remained this way until 1937. The absence of a functioning industrial court to act as a gobetween in labor disputes between employees and management was a contributory factor in the evolution of the social conditions that fueled the riots of 1937–1938. Between 1960 and 1964, the necessity for such a court became apparent once again as Trinidad and Tobago was plagued by a number of strikes by workers and lockouts by employers, which affected the economy. The government responded with the passing of the Industrial Stabilization Act 1965. This provided for “the compulsory recognition by employers of Trade Unions and Organizations representative of a majority or workers,” and for “the establishment of an expeditious system for the settlement of Trade Disputes.” Against this background it also provided for “the regulation of prices of commodities.” Most important, the legislation provided for “the constitution of a Court to regulate matters ‘relating’ and ‘incidental’ thereto” (The West Indian Reports, vol. 15 [London: Butterworths, 1969], 231). The Industrial Stabilization Act 1965 was repealed and replaced by the Industrial Relations Act of 1972. The court was established under Section 4(1) of the Industrial Relations Act and consists of two divisions: the General Services Division and the Essential Services Division. Additionally, there is the Special Tribunal established by the Civil Service Act, Chapter 23:01. The Special Tribunal consists of the chairperson of the Essential Services Division of the Industrial Court and two other members of that division selected by him or her. In 2006, the Occupational Safety and Health Division was established within the Industrial Court for the efficient exercise of its jurisdiction under the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 2004, which was amended in 2006. See also LABOR ORGANIZATIONS.

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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. Trinidad and Tobago has concluded and ratified several treaties including a number of International Labour Organization Conventions, among them the Abolition of Forced Labour (1957), which prevents punishment for striking and the holding of certain political views. The country subscribes to the Tripartite Consultation (International Labour Standards) Convention of 1976. Regarding trade and industry, a number of treaties have been concluded and ratified, including the Agreement on Agriculture, an international treaty of the World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which led to the establishment of the WTO on 1 January 1995. Inter alia, the related international negotiations on trade and tariffs had been under way since 1984 with the aim of establishing appropriate trade rules and guidelines for the reduction of agricultural subsidies in developed countries, which allowed their farmers to produce at low cost and flood international markets with dire consequences for producers in developing and poorer countries. Similar considerations governed Trinidad and Tobago’s ratification of the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, which sought to reduce the proliferation of technical requirements for the sake of limiting trade: the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, which sought to protect human beings and animals and plant life from certain risks; the Basel Convention; the Convention on Biological Diversity; the Biological Weapons Convention; the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety; and the Chemical Weapons Convention. In 2003, Trinidad and Tobago ratified the Agreement on the Privileges and Immunities of the International Criminal Court, which provides privileges and immunities to members and officials of the court so that they can perform their duties unimpeded. The agreement took effect in Trinidad and Tobago in 2012. Similar shared international concerns have seen the country’s ratification of the Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports, the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, and the Arms Trade Treaty. The country has supported treaties and conventions aimed at the promotion of human rights and the elimination of discrimination. Trinidad and Tobago is a signatory to the Charter of the United Nations and, accordingly, its International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its various conventions on international peace, corruption, the protection of women and children, child labor, persons with disabilities, the protection of diversity of cultural expression and the safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage, and illicit and transnational organized crime. The country is also a signatory to many of the United Nations Conventions on climate change.

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Trinidad and Tobago also signed the Charter of the Organization of American States and is a signatory to its inter-American conventions on corruption and terrorism; the illicit manufacturing of and trafficking in firearms; and protocols for the prevention, suppression, and punishment of trafficking in persons, especially women and children. The country is also a signatory to the Cotonou Agreement between the European Union and the African, Caribbean and Pacific States (ACP) to prevent poverty, promote sustainable development, and further integrate the ACP member states into the global economy. Many independent Englishspeaking Caribbean countries are signatories to similar agreements, protocols, and convention. There are also regional agreements such as the Convention Establishing the Association of Caribbean States, a union of the countries of the Caribbean basin area, including many surrounding Latin American countries, which was established in 1994 with its headquarters in Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad and Tobago is a signatory to the treaty establishing the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) in the region and to all CARICOM agreements. See also LABOR LEGISLATION. INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF PORT OF SPAIN. This is a private school that was established in September 1994 and is supported by its corporate shareholders: the U.S. embassy, EOG Resources Trinidad Limited (formerly Enron), BP Amoco Energy Company of Trinidad and Tobago, and British Gas Trinidad and Tobago. First located at 18 Victoria Avenue in Port of Spain with 50 students, two of its founding teachers were Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Tunny. The school enrolls students from the ages of four to 18 and aims primarily at preparing students to enter college. Students from Trinidad and Tobago, as well as the children of expatriate businessmen and those belonging to the diplomatic community, attend the school. See also EDUCATION. ISLAND CARIBS. Island Caribs appear to have been late arrivals in the Caribbean from South America, perhaps from 1450 CE. They colonized the Windward Islands of Dominica, Martinique, St. Vincent, Grenada, and Guadeloupe, as well as Tobago and the northern section of Trinidad. Island Caribs (Kalinago) is the name often given to the Caribs inhabiting the Windward Islands when the Europeans arrived, in order to differentiate them from the mainland Caribs (Kalinas) of South America. See also ARAWAK; BARRANCOID; ORTOIROID; SANTA ROSA FIRST PEOPLES COMMUNITY.

J JACKSON, HENRY MOORE (1849–1908). Jackson was the governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 30 August 1904 to 29 August 1908. He was born in 1849 in Grenada to Walrond Jackson who became the Anglican bishop of Antigua, and he married Emily Shea. He was educated at Clifton College and the Royal Military Academy in England and pursued a military career before becoming a British colonial administrator from 1885 until his death on 29 August 1908. He was a member of the Royal Artillery and served as commander of the Sierra Leone Police Force in 1880. He was colonial administrator of the Turks and Caicos Islands, Bahamas Islands, Gibraltar, the Leeward Island, and Fiji. He also served as commissioner of the Western Pacific toward the end of 1902. The governorship of Trinidad and Tobago was the last of his fairly broad experience as a British colonial administrator. He is credited for bringing some calm to Trinidad after the turbulence of the Water Riots of 1903. See also APPENDIX A. JAMAAT AL MUSLIMEEN. This radical Muslim group mainly of young men of African descent led by Imam Yasin Abu Bakr became embroiled for over two decades in a dispute over their ownership and occupation of some eight acres of land located in Mucurapo, Port of Spain. Due to his defiance of an order to desist construction of a mosque on the site, Bakr received and served a 21-day sentence. At the hearing, senior attorney Ewart Thorne argued that the land did not belong to the Jamaat al Muslimeen, so that the question of civil rights being infringed did not occur. He pointed out that there was an injunction still in force against the Jamaat to alter the land or pull down the building. Despite the injunction, and the Jamaat al Muslimeen’s leader’s imprisonment, more buildings had gone up. In December 1994, the city corporation obtained an ex parte injunction to stop the Jamaat from building a mosque. In an interview on June 13, 1995, Bakr described a notice by the Port of Spain City Engineer, asking that cause be shown why unauthorized building at No. 1 Mucurapo Road should not be removed, altered, or pulled down, as an attempt to provoke members of his organization. On 21 April 1990, the police and soldiers began occupying unused 189

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buildings on the compound occupied by the Jamaat. Later, in July of the same year, after a 20-year-old dispute, the Jamaat attempted to overthrow the government through armed insurgency. See also JAMAAT AL MUSLIMEEN ATTEMPTED COUP. JAMAAT AL MUSLIMEEN ATTEMPTED COUP. On the evening of 27 July 1990, armed insurgents belonging to the Jamaat al Muslimeen led by Imam Yasin Abu Bakr, stormed the Red House and held Prime Minister A. N. R. Robinson and other parliamentarians hostage. Around 7:00 p.m., Bakr appeared on national television and announced that the Robinson government had been overthrown. By that time, Bakr and his small band of insurgents had already firebombed the Red House and the nearby headquarters of the police service, and seized control of Trinidad and Tobago Television, the country’s only television station. The next day a state of emergency was declared by the government. Additionally, representatives of the government commenced negotiations with the insurrectionists who ultimately agreed to the release of the hostages in return for presidential pardon. On 1 August 1990, all hostages were released. One week later, the 114 insurgents involved were charged on 22 counts, which included treason, murder, kidnapping, and illegal possession of arms. The attempted coup lasted six days, after which the armed insurgents were arrested and charged. The coup attempt left 30 people dead and more than 700 injured. An estimated $350 million was lost through looting and fire. Moreover, citizens were traumatized by the experience. While incarcerated, the Muslimeen sought their freedom by arguing that during the coup they had received a presidential pardon issued by then acting president Emmanuel Carter, which amounted to nothing short of a fully legal and binding amnesty that had formed part of negotiations to end the coup and resolve the military impasse involved. In June 1992, a High Court judgment upheld the amnesty, and Bakr and the other insurgents who had participated in the 1990 attempted were released from prison as free men. JAMES, ALPHONSO PHILBERT THEOPHILUS (1901–1962). James was born at Patience Hill, Tobago, in 1901. James received his primary education at Patience Hill Roman Catholic School and went on to become a pupil-teacher. By 1928, James left Tobago to take up a job as a stevedore at the Brighton-Lake Asphalt Company in La Brea, Trinidad. He joined the labor movement and aligned himself with a number of influential personalities such as Arthur Cipriani and later Albert Gomes. James joined the Federated Workers Trade Union (FWTU), and in the late 1930s, he became president of a branch office of the FWTU that he created in La Brea. In 1941, he became a stevedore contractor and accumulated wealth and property that

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he used for a number of benevolent causes. Friends and family were allowed to construct houses on his property in Tobago. He contributed to the Amalgamated Engineering and General Workers’ Trade Union when they were in financial trouble. He was also involved in the political affairs of Trinidad and Tobago. From 1946 to 1961, James continually represented Tobago in the Legislative Council. For a brief period in 1960–1961, James acted as opposition leader. Throughout his political career, James has been described as a continuous and vociferous advocate of Tobago’s interests in the Legislative Council. A. P. T. James died on 5 January 1962, and in 1993, he was posthumously awarded the Chaconia Medal (Gold) for his outstanding public service. JAMES, CYRIL LIONEL RICHARD (1901–1989). James was a worldrenowned historian, novelist, leftist political thinker and activist, and African-Caribbean nationalist. Like his close childhood friend George Padmore, James was born in the suburban district of Tunapuna located on the predominantly African-populated East–West Corridor in Trinidad. In 1910, he won a scholarship to Queen’s Royal College, the nation’s premier secondary school, and upon graduating, he became a teacher there. He was among those who taught Eric Williams, who later became the country’s first prime minister. As a young man, James displayed a passion for sport, reading, and intellectual debate. He collaborated with Alfred Mendes, Albert Maria Gomes, and Ralph de Boissière of the Beacon, and other radicals. In 1932, he migrated to the United Kingdom (UK), where he became a prominent member of the Independent Labour Party and a leading advocate and publicist of political independence. He was the first black Caribbean author to be published in the UK. Writing, at times, under the name J. R. Johnson, James wrote prolifically during this period, producing works like World Revolution: 1917–1936, Toussaint L’Overture, Letter from London (1932), Why Negroes Oppose the War (1939), and The Case for West Indian Government, which reflect his anticolonial position. He authored Black Jacobins, his most influential work, and its companion text, History of Negro Revolts. Both sought to explore the progress of black revolutions. In another influential text, Beyond a Boundary (1963), James presented West Indian cricket as a reflection of Caribbean nationalism. Among James’s other works are Minty Alley and The Life of Captain Cipriani. While in London James became a Trotskyite, after also poring over the works of Marx, Engel, and Lenin. He participated in the founding conference of the Fourth International, and became its orator regarding the demise of the British Empire. He returned to Trinidad and Tobago in 1958 to assist Williams with the running of the People’s National Movement (PNM) and with the struggle for the return of Chaguaramas. Between 1960 and 1961 James broke with Williams and the PNM after the former had negotiated the continuation of the base at Chagua-

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ramas until 1977. Having left Trinidad following their estrangement in 1962 (before independence), James returned in 1965 to cover a cricket match, but went along with George Weeks and Stephen Maharaj to form in 1965, a leftist opposition party, the Workers and Farmers Party (WPA). Following the defeat of the WPA in the election of 1966, James, who earlier had also been placed under house of arrest for six weeks in the run-up to passing of the Industrial Stabilisation Act departed Trinidad and Tobago. He was awarded the Trinity Cross in 1980, and he died in May 1989 and left a legacy of scholarship that has spawned intellectual discourses at international conferences, lectures, institutions, and in the many journals that bear his name. JEFFERS, AUDREY (1898–1968). Jeffers was born on Baden-Powell Street in Woodbrook, Port of Spain, on 12 February 1898 to Henry Israel and Mary Layne Jeffers. She belonged to an upper-middle-class family, which was unusual for a person of African descent in late 19th-century Trinidad. At age 15, Jeffers went to England to study social science, and in August 1914, she was among the West African troops in service in World War I. Immediately, her skill as an organizer and social worker came to the fore. She established a West African Societies Fund and was able to persuade many Trinidadians to contribute regularly to the fund. Following her stint in England, by the 1920s Jeffers returned to Trinidad and immediately set about establishing a Junior School in her parents’ home called Briarsend, located at the end of Briar’s Street in St. Clair. While the school prospered and ministered to the needs of poor black and underprivileged children in the capital city, Jeffers was convinced that more could be done to assist the indigent. In 1921, Jeffers gathered similarly minded female friends and associates such as Lystra Charles and, with the watchwords “Selflessness, Devotion and Service,” created the Coterie of Workers, later known as the Coterie of Social Workers with Briarsend as the headquarters and the venue for many fundraising concerts, bazaars, and dances. The most outstanding contribution of Jeffers’s coterie was a free school feeding program providing lunch for hungry children, which was launched in 1926 in a building located on Warner Street, New Town, and was popularly known as the “Breakfast Shed.” By 1934, other “breakfast sheds” were established across the country—on Edward Street, Port of Spain, Barataria, San Fernando, Siparia, and Tobago. Jeffers’s coterie also provided other community services including homes for the aged, the blind, and disadvantaged women, and day nurseries for the children of working mothers. The first day nursery established by the Coterie of Social Workers was Cipriani House in John John, Laventille, which was opened in 1940. In November 1936, Audrey Jeffers became the first woman in Trinidad and Tobago to be elected to the Port of Spain City Council. Ten years later, she was the first female to be elected as a member of the Legisla-

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tive Council of Trinidad and Tobago. Prior to her election, she was a member of the Franchise Commission to determine whether the twin island British colony should be given universal adult franchise. Jeffers voted against the measure. For her outstanding contribution to social work and development in Trinidad and Tobago, Audrey Jeffers received the Order of the British Empire and was a posthumous recipient of the Chaconia Medal (Gold) for social service in the first ever Independence Day Award Ceremony held in 1969. Additionally, the John John Day Nursery of 1940 was renamed the Audrey Jeffers Day Nursery, and the Audrey Jeffers Highway was named after her. JERNINGHAM, HUBERT EDWARD HENRY (1842–1914). Sir Hubert was governor of Trinidad and Tobago from June 1897 to December 1900. He was born on 18 October 1842 and died on 3 April 1914. His father was Charles William Edward Jerningham, and his mother was Emma Mary Wynn Roberts. He had two brothers, Hubert Edward and Charles Edward, and two sisters, Edith Mary and Emily Beatrice. On 3 December 1874, he married Annie Liddell. The couple had no children. He was a British Liberal Party politician who represented Berwick-upon-Tweed in the period from 1881 to 1885. Prior to his appointment as British colonial governor of Trinidad and Tobago, he was the 17th governor of Mauritius in the period from 1892 to 1897. It was under Jerningham that Tobago was made a ward in the united colony of Trinidad and Tobago as the final act of full unification between the two islands took effect. Jerningham had, in fact, submitted to the Colonial Office the case to bring this legislative act of union into effect in 1899. Another of his achievements as governor of Trinidad and Tobago was the extension of the railway in Trinidad from Cunupia to Tabaquite starting at Jerningham Junction, which was named after him. The extension of the railway included Sangre Grande in east Trinidad, and when the first train made its way to Sangre Grande in 1897, the very year when Jerningham took up his appointment in the colony, the governor headed the list of passengers on board. Jerningham also introduced to Trinidad and Tobago the forerunner of what became the President’s Medal, which, during his tenure, was called the Jerningham Medal. It was made of gold and awarded to the top student in the Island Scholarship examinations. He became unpopular among the local population when, in 1898, he supported the suspension of the Charter of the Borough of Port of Spain, which went into effect from 1899 to 1914. See also APPENDIX A. JINNAH MEMORIAL MOSQUE. This Islamic structure is located in St. Joseph in east Trinidad. It was built in 1954 and shares the same compound with the headquarters of the Trinidad Muslim League. The roof of the

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mosque consists of a central dome surrounded by glass louvers, and on its peak is a crescent and star. Four half domes cluster around the main dome with a door leading to each. Additionally, there are six smaller domes all capped in green and needle-like spires. On the eastern and western ends of the roof of the mosque are two minarets (beacons or lighthouses) towering at 80 feet (24 meters) high. The interior of the mosque is spacious and can accommodate as many as 1,000 worshippers at a time. There are two galleries on either ends of the mosque, and its inner arches and walls are inscribed with Arabic calligraphy. In recognition of the architectural beauty of the mosque, on two occasions in the 1990s the government of Trinidad and Tobago issued postage stamps capturing the Jinnah Memorial Mosque of St. Joseph, Trinidad. See also RELIGION. JOHNSON, ASTOR (ca. 1930s–1985). Astor Johnson was born in Arouca, Trinidad. As a young man, Johnson was a member of the Burey Thomas and Julia Roberts Dance Group. In the mid-1960s, he migrated temporarily to the United States where he successfully pursued a BA degree in education at Howard University. While at Howard, he participated in several productions staged by the Trinidad Steelpan of Washington, DC, and performed such local dances as the flaming limbo. From time to time, he was also a student of the Erika Thimey Dance Theatre, the Harlem Dance Theatre, and the Maida Withers and Paul Sansardo School of New York. Following his return to Trinidad in 1970, he opened the Astor Johnson Repertory Dance Theatre of Trinidad and Tobago, which toured the Caribbean, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and French Guiana. In 1989, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded this group the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) for its contribution to culture. Johnson died in the United States in 1985, and in 1991, he was posthumously awarded the Hummingbird Medal (Silver) for culture. On 4 September 2003, at Queen’s Hall in Trinidad, the theater he founded honored his memory in a production titled Astor. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. JOHNSON, REYES IRVIN (SCRUNTER). Born and bred in a rural community in east Trinidad, Scrunter has been on the calypso scene for the past 25 years. His calypsos are humorous, double entendre compositions that have been significantly influenced by his upbringing. He won the National Calypso Monarch Competition in 1982 with the renditions “Lick-e-Thing” and “The Will.” He claimed to have been coached by the grandmaster of calypso, Lord Kitchener, in his rendition of the latter tune. Some of Scrunter’s wellknown pieces are “Oil in the Coil,” “Crapaud Revolution,” “Take the Number,” “Suck Mih Soucoyant,” “Breast Fed,” and “Sing in She Party.” By 1988, Scrunter had retreated from calypso competitions and established his

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home called “De Forest” in Vega De Oropouche, east Trinidad, where he hosts the annual Pork Dance every Christmas season. Scrunter’s career took a different turn when, from the late 1980s, he began singing parang soca, a mixture of Spanish-influenced Christmas music and calypso. In 1994 and 1995, Scrunter was crowned Parang Soca Monarch. Some of his popular parang soca compositions include “Piece ah Pork,” “Anita,” “Homemade Wine,” “Tribute to Daisy,” “Ah Drinking Anything,” and “Ma Jeffrey Oye.” In 2016, he received the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) for his contribution to the calypso art form. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. JONES, BEVERLY (1956–1973). Jones and her sister Jennifer were the most prominent female members of the National Union of Freedom Fighters (NUFF). During the 1970s, a number of members of NUFF were shot and killed, beaten, harassed, and arrested for participation (sometimes allegedly) in various crimes, including bank robbery, marijuana-smoking, and murder. Among them was 17-year-old Beverly Jones, who, in September 1973, was killed in the Diego Martin Hills during a shoot-out with the police. For some scholars, NUFF’s activities between 1970 and 1974 are seen as four years of “guerrilla warfare” against the then ruling regime and the latter’s seeming courtship of foreign capitalists at the expense of the people. Not surprisingly, after Jones’ death, she was viewed by some as the heroine of this revolutionary period. JOSEPH, CARLTON (BLAKIE, WARLORD OF CALYPSO) (1932–2005). Born in Trinidad in 1932, Blakie had a distinctive career in calypso lasting about 50 years. His performances were accompanied by his trademark laughter, and his renditions were marked by certain antics including a drinking straw in his right hand as a prop. The “Warlord”’ in Blakie’s sobriquet reflects the days when he served a jail term in the 1950s, played mas with the infamous “badjohn” band, San Juan Stars Steel Orchestra, his first road march victory in 1954 (not officially recognized at the time) “Steelband Clash,” and the jabs he took at the undisputed Calypso King of the World, the Mighty Sparrow, which contributed to his bad boy calypsonian image. He never won a national calypso competition but was usually a fierce competitor with well-composed and well-received numbers. He was one of the first modern calypsonians to include foreign language in the calypso, as occurred when he effectively incorporated the Chinese language in “Chinese Restaurant.” Blakie paid homage to the steel pan men, despite their early reputation for hooligan behavior and his 1954 unofficial road march “Steelband Clash” immortalized the clash between Invaders and Tokyo steelbands. He had the honor of winning the first ever formally recognized Road March

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title in 1962 with “Maria.” Blakie left Sparrow’s Original Young Brigade calypso tent and opened his own Victory Tent taking with him some of the young singers. Blakie produced a number of memorable tunes such as the shamelessly bawdy “Hold the Pussycat,” “Funny Things,” “Send Them Back,” “Something Wrong,” “Sparrow Loss,” and “Warlord.” He died in 2005 after a bout with prostate cancer. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT; STEEL PAN/STEELBAND. JOSEPH, SEADLEY (PENGUIN) (1942–2013). Born in 1942 in Trinidad, Penguin was a teacher and calypsonian who was widely respected for the thought-provoking lyrics of his jocose serious calypsos. He was one of a few calypsonians who had the double honor of winning both the Road March and Calypso Monarch competitions. He won the Road March in 1982 with the rendition “A Deputy Essential,” and he captured the Monarch crown with “Sorf Man” and “We Living in Jail” in 1984. Penguin was also involved in the business side of calypso, serving as the president of Trinbago Unified Calypsonians Organization. His brother, Martin Joseph, was the former national security minister of Trinidad and Tobago. For his contribution to the calypso art form, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded him in 2005 the Hummingbird Medal (Gold). In addition to his title-winning tracks, his popular pieces included “Look de Devil Dey,” “Betty Goatie,” “What Sweet in Goat Mout,” and “Telco Poops.” He died on 27 January 2013. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. JULIEN, BERNARD (1950– ). Julien is a left-arm, slow bowler and righthand batsman who represented the West Indies in a series of test matches between 1973 and 1977. In 1974, he received the Trinidad and Tobago Chaconia Medal (Gold) for Cricket. JULIEN, KENNETH STEPHEN (1932– ). Born in Arouca, Trinidad, Julien received his secondary education at the College of the Immaculate Conception. He then worked as an apprentice at United British Oilfields of Trinidad (UBOT). He later attended the University of Nottingham, England, on a UBOT scholarship and earned a BSc in electrical engineering with first class honors in 1957. Following this, he obtained his PhD in electrical energy systems from the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, in 1962 and was the university’s first PhD graduate in the field. On his return to Trinidad he became a member of the staff of the newly established Faculty of Engineering, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, and was the first local engineering lecturer with a PhD. In 1970, he was appointed head of the Department of Electrical Engineering and later became the first Caribbean dean of the Faculty of Engineering and one of the young-

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est deans in the Commonwealth. He was the first Caribbean national to attain the rank of fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (United States). He was appointed professor in 1970, a post he held until retirement from the university in 1996. One year later, he was named professor emeritus. Over the years, he acquired patents for electrical systems and has published extensively in his field. He has taught and mentored numerous engineers, many of whom now hold key positions in the energy sector. Apart from an outstanding 35-year record as an academic, he has been one of the key players in the development of the country’s energy sector. In 1974, Professor Julien chaired the Energy Co-ordinating Task Force, which was set up to explore the potential use of natural gas and its monetization. This body managed the development of the country’s energy sector by transforming Trinidad and Tobago into a major global gas developer. The result was the diversification of the energy sector through creation of several new industries based on the downstream development of natural gas. The new products included liquefied natural gas, methanol, ammonia, urea, and power generation. Professor Julien spearheaded the new industrial trust by managing and directing a number of energy-based state enterprises, including the National Energy Corporation, the Industrial Development Corporation of Trinidad and Tobago, and the Trinidad and Tobago Electricity Commission, and he developed the Waller Field Science Technology Park. He continues to play a major role in the development of the local energy sector through the promotion of innovation and human resource development via his directorship of Evolving Technologies and Enterprise Development Limited and as president of the University of Trinidad and Tobago. For his outstanding service to Trinidad and Tobago, he was awarded the Trinity Cross, in 2003. JUMADEEN, RAPHICK (1948– ). Jumadeen was a left-arm, slow bowler and right-hand batsman who represented the West Indies in a number of test matches between 1972 and 1979. JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM. This system was introduced by the Eric Williams–led People’s National Movement administration in a bid to increase access to secondary education in the country. This coeducational system offered students aged 11 to 15 a broad range of practical, agricultural, technical, and commercial courses. Under this system, two schools were housed in one building and operated on a shift system. The morning shift operated from 7:30 a.m. to 12 noon and the evening shift from 1:30 p.m. to 5:50 p.m. Both schools were administered by one principal, but each had a separate vice principal. Students attended the junior school for three years and then moved to the senior secondary/comprehensive school for two years at the end of which they wrote public examinations. With a

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World Bank loan, 10 junior secondary schools were constructed across the country between 1968 and 1974. The oil boom in 1974 led to an expansion of the junior secondary school program and the number of schools increased to 22 by 1979. See also COMPOSITE SCHOOLS; EDUCATION.

K KALINA/KALINAGO. See ISLAND CARIBS. KATZENJAMMERS STEEL ORCHESTRA (PETROTRIN) (1951– ). With its eclectic repertoire, Katzenjammers, the oldest and most celebrated steel orchestra in Tobago, has represented the island on the national music scene for more than 60 years. In 1951, 12 young men from the village of Black Rock were inspired, on a Carnival Tuesday, by the music of the Wonder Harps Steel Orchestra from Plymouth to form their own village steelband. Approached by these young men, Mr. George Josey Richardson, captain of the Wonder Harps, loaned them a few pans to begin their venture. Pooling their resources, these pioneering young players were able to purchase more pans and gained permission to practice under the mango tree in Adeen Gordon’s yard at Black Roach Trace Junction. A member of the original Katzenjammers Steel Band in Trinidad heard them play and named them the Katzenjammers Kids. This core group grew and eventually became one of the leading steelbands in Tobago. By the late 1950s, the band’s excellence secured it sponsorship from the oil company Texaco Incorporated and an appearance in the documentary film called Land of Laughter that was filmed in Tobago. When Queen Elizabeth visited the island, the steelband was asked to entertain her at Government House and the captain, Ethelbert Williams, gained a special audience with the Queen at her request. For a decade, the steelband dominated the musical scene, winning every music festival in Tobago between 1960 and 1970. The go-to steel orchestra, the group appeared at most major events and fetes in Tobago during the 1950s and 1960s. The band was the first to be invited to play at hotels in Tobago—making appearances at Arnos Vale, Blue Haven, Crusoe, Mt. Irvine, Turtle Beach, and Grafton hotels. Katzenjammers Steel Orchestra was a contender at the national level as well and is the only Tobago Steelband to win five national titles. The first was National Tune of Choice in 1967 when they played Rupert McCardy’s

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arrangement of “Funiculi Funicula.” To commemorate this achievement— the first Tobago band to win a national competition—a 15-cent stamp was commissioned that carried the name and image of the band. In 1975, Katzenjammers toured Quebec where it was featured at Man and His World in Montreal and conducted several summer camps promoting steelband music. From 1986, the band removed itself from national competitions, concentrating on government and hotel events, weddings, and private parties in Tobago. The band returned to national competitions in 2003 after launching its motivational “Pan Out Your Fullest Potential,” an innovative program using music and the steel pan for youth development, in 2002. Since its resurgence, Katzenjammers has won four more national titles— Pan in the 21st Century 2004 and 2008 competitions (it also won the Carib Bomb and NLCB Power Jam competitions) and was the champion of the National Medium Band Panorama competitions in 2011 and 2012. The steel orchestra also toured five European countries in October 2004 during a European Road Show sponsored by the Tobago House of Assembly. In 2005, the Unit Trust Corporation agreed to sponsor the band, but in 2012 Petrotrin Oil Company took over sponsorship of the group. It is now managed by Mrs. Beverley Ramsey-Moore and captained by Mrs. Jemma Duke. The band placed fourth in the 2017 medium bands category of the national Panorama competition 2017, and it continues to be the pride of Tobago’s musical scene. See also CULTURE; STEEL PAN/STEELBAND. KEENS-DOUGLAS, PAUL (1942– ). Keens-Douglas, an author, poet, storyteller, and dramatic presenter, was born in San Juan, Trinidad, on 22 September 1942, but spent his early years in Grenada. He was educated at Wesley Methodist School and Presentation Boys’ College in Grenada; Sir George William University in Montreal, Canada; the University of the West Indies, Mona Campus; and Announcer Training Studios and RCA Institutes of New York. He graduated from Sir George William University with a BA in sociology and holds diplomas in commercial broadcasting and radio and television production. His wife is Marilyn Douglas with whom he had one son and one daughter. During his long and illustrious career as a cultural entertainer, Keens-Douglas became the founder and producer of Tim Tim Storytelling Show and the Carnival Talk Tent. He has made a name for himself in promoting the oral tradition and vernacular of Trinidad and Tobago and the Eastern Caribbean through poetry, storytelling, and dramatic presentations around the world. Several of his works have been translated into German and Japanese. His publications and releases include six books, 12 albums, and two videos. In recognition of his outstanding contribution to culture, he received numerous awards including the Caribbean American

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Intercultural Organization Award and the Beryl McBurnie Foundation for the Arts Award. In 1994, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded him the Hummingbird Medal (Silver) for his promotion of culture. KELSICK, CECIL ARTHUR (1920–2017). Kelsick was born in Dominica to Oscar and Daisy Kelsick from Antigua and Dominica, respectively. He attended the Montserrat Grammar School, and in 1938, he won a Leeward Island Scholarship that took him to King’s College in the University of London. He studied for the bar at Inner Temple. He was first called to the bar in 1941 and established his first practice in the Leeward Islands from 1942 to 1950. In 1950, he was appointed crown attorney in Antigua, and in 1954, he served as acting attorney general of the Windward Islands. He migrated to Trinidad in 1956 when he accepted a position as a legal draftsman and was elevated to several offices in the legal system of Trinidad and Tobago. From 1957 to 1966, he served as solicitor general, and on several occasions he acted as attorney general and as deputy governor to Sir Soloman Hochoy. He was made a queen’s council in 1964 and was appointed the first chairman of the Tax Appeal Board, a puisne judge in 1972 and to the court of appeal in 1978. In 1977, he was appointed a justice of the Appeal Court. His long list of public service includes chairman of the Tax Appeal Board of Trinidad and Tobago, chairman of the Law Commission and Statute Law Revision Commission, vice president of the Scout Association of Trinidad and Tobago, president of the Harvard Sports Club, member of the Board of Management of Holy Name Convent, and chief justice of Trinidad and Tobago from 1983 to 1985. One of the most significant events that took place during his tenure as chief justice was the opening of the Hall of Justice and the transfer of all courts, except the Magistrates Courts, to this complex. In 1985, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded Kelsick with its highest national award, the Trinity Cross. He died 27 September 2017. KHAN, ISMITH (1925–2002). Khan, a graduate of Queen’s Royal College, was born in Port of Spain and later became a reporter for the Trinidad Guardian newspaper. In 1950, Khan migrated to the United States to enroll as an undergraduate of New School University in New York where he studied sociology and creative writing. He also held a master’s degree from Johns Hopkins University. His career involved both teaching English at the tertiary level and writing. He authored four novels: The Jumbie Bird (1961), The Obeah Man (1964), The Crucifixion (1987), and A Day in the Country and Other Stories (1994). He died on 24 April 2002.

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KILGOUR, LENNOX STANISLAUS (1927–2004). Kilgour was born in St. James and attended Osmond High School in Port of Spain. He became a weightlifter and participated in numerous national and regional competitions. By 1949, he was the West Indian champion in his category and Central American champion by 1950. At the 1951 Pan American Games, Kilgour finished second in the Heavy Weight class with a lift of 402.5 kilograms. In 1952, at the Olympics in Helsinki, Finland, Kilgour lifted 402.5 kilograms in the Middle Heavy Weight division and secured a bronze medal and became Trinidad and Tobago’s second Olympic medal winner. Kilgour also finished second at the 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games where he lifted 392.4 kilograms. In 1985, Kilgour was inducted into the National Hall of Fame for his pioneering contributions to the development of sport in Trinidad and Tobago. KILLARNEY. See STOLLMEYER’S CASTLE/KILLARNEY. KISSOON, FREDERICK (FREDDIE) (1930–2016). Kissoon was an actor, playwright, drama teacher, director, newspaper columnist, and cultural ambassador for his native Trinidad and Tobago. He was born at Mucurapo Road, St. James, in Trinidad; attended the Nelson Street Boys’ Roman Catholic School and Modern Secondary School; and graduated from the Government Teachers Training College in Trinidad. He pursued higher education at the Central School of Speech Training and Dramatic Art, Embassy Theatre, Swiss Cottage, London, England. He was married to Nesta Kissoon, and they had two sons, Richard and William. Kissoon’s career as an actor began in 1951, and by 1957, he established the Strolling Players Theatre Company, the country’s longest functioning drama group. The company, which has a record of staging 139 plays including 82 television productions and numerous other radio and television commercials, was Kissoon’s signature contribution to dramatic productions in Trinidad and Tobago. One of Kissoon’s most well-known plays is We Crucify Him, which was first performed in 1967 and on 340 occasions in addition to 33 televised viewings and nine radio broadcastings thereafter. We Crucify Him was also staged in several churches in Trinidad and Tobago as well as in Florida. In the Commonwealth Arts Festival of 1965, Kissoon acted in such productions as Ping Pong, Sea at Dauphin, and Drums and Colours in London, Croydon, and Glasgow. Other productions by Kissoon’s company include Second Chance, Ma Moses, Calabash Alley, and Family Reunion, which have been viewed internationally including places such as Winnipeg, New York, and Nigeria. His career as a drama teacher took him to such Caribbean countries as Grenada, Curacao, St. Kitts-Nevis, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines, as well as institutions in the United States. Two of his earliest local teaching

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engagements were at the Laventille Roman Catholic School and the St. James Government Secondary School. Kissoon also taught at various institutions in the United States. His many accolades include the award of the Hummingbird Medal of Merit by the government of Trinidad and Tobago for his contribution to the development of local culture, drama, and theater in 1987 and Icon of the Nation Award in 2012. KUMAR, RANJIT (1912–1982). Kumar, an engineer, politician, and cultural activist was born in India in the Rawalpindi area of Punjab. After the death of his father, he migrated to Britain with his mother when he was 10 months old. After an impressive performance at school, he entered the Imperial College of Science in South Kensington, where he studied engineering and graduated, at age 18, with a BSc in engineering. Unable to obtain satisfactory employment in Britain, he returned to India, where he wrote the imperial police examination and placed among the top 250 applicants. He opted to serve in Punjab and, after several promotions, attained the rank of assistant commissioner. While in Punjab, he met an individual from Trinidad who convinced him to come to Trinidad to take advantage of the market for Indian films. Although the enterprise did prove to be very profitable, Kumar eventually secured a job as an engineer at Pointe-a-Pierre and later with the Public Works Department. By 1945, he was appointed assistant city engineer in Port of Spain and undertook a project he had conceptualized and designed since 1937 but which had been put on hold with the outbreak of World War II. He constructed a dual carriageway, the first in Trinidad and Tobago, at Wrightson Road. His success with what many thought to be an impossible project contributed to his election to the Port of Spain City Council for the term 1943 to 1945, his reelection for the period 1947–1950, and his election to the Legislative Council between 1946 and 1956. Between 1950 and 1956, he served as alderman of Port of Spain City Council, and in 1947, he formed part of the Constitutional Reform Committee as an independent and later as a Butlerite. In 1959, he was employed as the chief surveyor for Federated Chemicals and, in 1960, designed and constructed the Hilton Hotel. He died in 1982. KWABENA, ROI ANKHKARA (1956–2008). Kwabena, a cultural anthropologist, novelist, poet, musical composer, and teacher, was born in Port of Spain on 23 July 1956. He was the founder of Afroets Press, a publication company specializing in publishing Caribbean artistic scholarship, and he also founded Bembe Productions, which focused on the promotion of culture from Trinidad and the wider Caribbean region. He traveled widely conducting lectures and workshops in the Caribbean, Europe, and Africa. In

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1985, he relocated to Trinidad and published nine novels including About the Caribbean in 1986 and Nubian Saints of Christianity in 1996. He has also published six works on poetry including Manifestation (1994), A Job for the Hangman (1995), and Orisha Songs for Celina (2006). He was selected as one of the black faces to be celebrated on the black achievers’ wall of Liverpool’s International Slavery Museum, which was opened in 2013. He died on 9 January 2008.

L LABOR. See ALL TRINIDAD SUGAR AND GENERAL WORKERS TRADE UNION (ATSGWTU); BUTLER, TUBAL URIAH “BUZZ” (1897–1977); CIPRIANI, ARTHUR ANDREW (1875–1945); HABITUAL IDLERS’ ORDINANCE (1918); INDUSTRIAL COURT; LABOR ORGANIZATIONS; LABOR RIOTS (1937–1938); LABOUR DAY; MOVEMENT FOR SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION (MOTION); OILFIELD WORKERS’ TRADE UNION (OWTU) (1937– ); RIENZI, ADRIAN COLA (1905–1972). LABOR LEGISLATION. During World War I, labor legislation continued to be repressive and discriminatory, in keeping with the practices of the previous century and the prewar years. The Habitual Idlers’ Ordinance of 1918, for example, provided for the detention of those who did not have the means to sustain themselves and their confinement to government-administrated agricultural enterprises where they were to be taught industry. In 1917, there were a number of strikes in the oil and asphalt industries, but these led to the arrest and imprisonment of five leaders under wartime defense regulations. In 1919, when the labor protest occurred, the colonial authorities responded with Strikes and Lockout Ordinances and the 1920 Seditious Act and Publications. The objective was to render strike action illegal, and to prohibit the circulation and availability of literature, such as the Universal Negro Improvement Association’s journal, Negro World, which was considered inflammatory. The Dispute Settlement and the Industrial Court Ordinances, passed in the same year, were also designed to prohibit strikes and labor unrest. But the disturbances of 1919 to 1922 were important for they led to the Labour Bureau Ordinance, which attempted to provide for mandatory information on employers and the legitimacy of their recruitment practices. Additionally, the 1919 Truck Ordinance stipulated that wages were to be paid in the form of money. In 1925, in Trinidad and Tobago’s first national election, A. A. Cipriani won the Port of Spain seat with an overwhelming majority. Prior to this, as the leader of the Trinidad Workingmen’s Association (TWA) he had agi205

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tated for the recognition of trade unions, an eight-hour workday, overtime pay, workmen’s compensation. and improved working conditions. In the legislative council, he was accompanied by leaders of associations affiliated to the TWA, inclusive of Timothy Roodal, Sarran Teelucksingh, and Adrian Cola Rienzi. Labor was therefore represented in the first Legislative Council, yet its leaders were not able to secure many gains for workers, although in 1925 an ordinance was passed that sought to prohibit child labor. In 1927, Workers’ Compensation legislation was enacted to compensate injured workers where accidents occurred at the workplace. The legislation, unfortunately, was only limited to a particular cadre of worker. It was not until 1932 that the Trade Union Ordinance was enacted, making it possible for trade unions to be legally registered and recognized. The first trade union was recognized in 1933. However, the ordinance did not allow for picketing and strikes for it neither permitted peaceful picketing nor provided for immunity from tort. Still, it was under this ordinance that the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union (OWTU) and the All Trinidad Sugar Estates and Factory Workers Trade Union (ATSEFWTU) (later All Trinidad Sugar and General Workers Trade Union) were registered. Rienzi was elected president of both the OWTU and ATSEFWTU. A more progressive period of labor legislation came as a result of the riots of 1937 to 1938, and on the eve of World War II. For, in the aftermath of the war, the West India Royal Commission (the Moyne Commission) chastised the imperial and colonial authorities for the wretched conditions in the region and underscored the need for urgent attention to be paid to development and welfare of the colonies and the institution of appropriate moderate constitutional change. In 1938, the Trade Disputes Ordinance was passed. It established an arbitration tribunal to provide machinery for the settlement of disputes where collective bargaining had broken down. Not surprisingly, by the end of 1938 some 10 trade unions were established. In 1939, the government amended the 1932 Ordinance to legalize peaceful picketing and give unions immunity from actions for damages arising out of strikes. In the following year, Rienzi established the Trade Union Congress and became its first president. The period 1939–1945 saw the eruption of World War II, during which Butler was detained and there was a boom in the oil industry. The establishment of U.S. military bases in Trinidad created heightened expectation among members of the working class as many experienced better personnel relations practices, earnings, and working conditions. During this period, the political activities and agitation of labor and its representative institutions were significantly censored. During the late 1950s and 1960s, the state made efforts to stymie the radicalism and militancy of the trade unions in a bid to encourage foreign investors through a relatively peaceful industrial relations climate. The result was the infamous Industrial Stabilization Act of 1965 and, later, the Industrial Relations Act 23 of 1972 and its various amend-

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ments between 1972 and 1994. During the 1970s, the government also ratified several International Labour Organization Conventions, including those regarding tripartite consultation between trade unions, the employers, and the government. In 1985, legislation was put in place by way of the Retrenchment and Severance Benefit Act to provide for severance payments to be effected via a prescribed procedure to be followed in the event of redundancy and retrenchment. During the 1990s, numerous amendments were made to the legislation to strengthen employers’ obligations to employees. The amendments included legislation regarding minimum wages, maternity protection, workers’ compensation for injuries sustained in the course of their employment, and satisfactory compensation for voluntary separation of workers from public employment. Legislation has also been enacted to allow employers to establish their own representative employers’ association— namely, the Employer’s Consultative Association. The turn of the century saw both the state and labor organizations preoccupied with legislation related to employees’ health and safety, the prevention of discrimination in employment practices, and sexual harassment. The result has been the Equal Opportunities Act No. 69 of 2000 and the Occupational Safety and Health Act and its amendments of 2004 and 2006. Far more elusive has been the necessary legislation on contract labor, which has been increasingly used by employers in hiring workers. See also BUTLER, TUBAL URIAH “BUZZ” (1897–1977); LABOR ORGANIZATIONS; LABOR RIOTS (1937–1938); LABOUR DAY; MOVEMENT FOR SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION (MOTION). LABOR ORGANIZATIONS. The earliest labor organizations were formed toward the end of the 19th century. In 1897, Charles Phillip, a 21year-old young man, established the Working Men’s Reform Club. That same year, a Port of Spain druggist, Walter Mills, founded the Trinidad Workingmen’s Association. His focus was the representation of skilled urban, black workers. The formation of such organizations was taking place against the background of increasing social ferment and political consciousness, so that other types of pressure groups and civil society organizations were also being established. In 1902, the Rate Payers’ Association was established. Its leaders were concerned primarily with the closing down of the operations of the Port of Spain Borough Council; the oppressive, highhanded, and undemocratic orientation of the colonial administration; and the administration’s unilateral imposition of rates and taxes on the burgesses of the city. Not all the organizations preoccupied themselves with the plight of the black urban poor, or with the administration of the city. Some were concerned with the plight of the Indians. The year 1916 saw the establishment of the East Indian Destitute League by Mohammed Orfy. Some organizations were preoccupied with counteracting the efforts of non-Indian or-

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ganizations to end Indian immigration, which, notwithstanding, was brought to an end in 1917. But by that time, the Indians were using a number of organizations of their own to make their voices heard and to confront the wider society and its myriad interest groups and categories of stakeholders with the determination to stake their claim, agitate in their interests, and improve their space. Trade unions were first formed in 1919, and the earliest among them, as indeed all the early labor organizations, were affiliated to or influenced by the British Labour Party. The latter tended to advocate responsible rather than militant trade unionism in British West Indian colonies. By the time of the 1970 Black Power Movement, there were numerous trade unions in Trinidad and Tobago, and many were radicalized by socialist thought and working-class conceptualizations of developments. Currently there are over 136 registered trade unions in the country, and many categories of workers are now unionized. See also LABOR LEGISLATION; LABOR RIOTS (1937–1938); INDUSTRIAL COURT. LABOR RIOTS (1937–1938). The protest of the 1930s brought home forcefully to the British government the necessity to rethink its policy regarding constitutional and social development across the Caribbean. Consequently, a series of measures was introduced based on the recommendations of the Moyne Commission, which had been sent to investigate the cause of the disturbances. In 1939, a Social Welfare Department, with responsibility for the establishment of village councils and community development programs, was established. Additionally, the Colonial Development and Welfare Act, passed in 1940, allocated funds for development across the British Caribbean. Given the pioneering efforts of Audrey Jeffers and the Coterie of Social Workers, women were perceived as ideally suited for and did in fact play a critical role in the implementation of the government’s social welfare programs. These included what was perceived as “women’s work.” The measures introduced by the British government, however, were merely a sop to placate the colonial masses. By 1948, the Welfare Office was closed down, and expenditure on social welfare was drastically cut. Social welfare floundered significantly until 1955. During its existence, the Welfare Office and its work had been acknowledged and supported by the Teacher’s Education and Cultural Association (TECA). The membership of the TECA was later to form the core of the People’s National Movement, which came to power in 1956 and steered the country to independence in 1962. LABOUR DAY. This day is currently observed as the anniversary of the labor riots that took place in Fyzabad on 19 June 1937. Each year as part of this rally, labor leaders and rank-and-file members of various trade unions

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gather in front of the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union building in Fyzabad where they are addressed on the issues facing labor, as well as other political matters. The event is viewed as a monitor of both the level of unity in the labor movement and the relations between labor and government. Labor leaders opposed to government normally use the Labour Day platform to engage in incendiary rhetoric against the ruling regime, while those in support of the government tend to stay away from the platform or the celebrations altogether or host their celebrations elsewhere. This particular type of fracture in the labor movement has occurred across various political administrations since Labour Day was first declared an annual national holiday in 1973. See also BUTLER, TUBAL URIAH “BUZZ” (1897–1977); CIPRIANI, ARTHUR ANDREW (1875–1945); LABOR ORGANIZATIONS; MOVEMENT FOR SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION (MOTION); RIENZI, ADRIAN COLA (1905–1972); TRADE UNIONS. LAIDLOW, CHRISTOPHER (LORD CRISTO) (1916–1984). Born in Port of Spain, Cristo received his early school education at the Piccadilly Anglican Primary School. He was a trained cabinetmaker, but his passion was music; he was a lead singer for the John “Buddy” Williams musical band in the 1940s. He sang calypso in the Young Brigade Tent in 1955 and continued when the tent became the Original Young Brigade in 1956 until he migrated to Illinois. He never won a calypso competition but his was an important presence in the calypso world where he was well known for his classic renditions, “Miss Universe,” “Chicken Chest,” and “The Dumb Boy and the Parrot.” See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. LARA, BRIAN CHARLES (1969– ). Popularly known as “Prince of Port of Spain,” “Prince of Trinidad,” or “The Prince,” Lara is a legendary West Indian cricketer, a multiple-record-holding batsman, and one of the leading run-scorers in test cricket. The 10th of 11 children, Lara was born in Santa Cruz to Bunty and Pearl Lara on 2 May 1969. He was educated at St. Joseph Boys’ Roman Catholic School, San Juan Secondary School, and Fatima College. At age six, he learned the game of cricket at the Harvard Coaching Clinic and progressed to unmatched performances in the game at regional, national, and international tournaments, holding several cricketing records, and he established himself as one of the greatest batsmen of all times. At age 14, he was selected for the Trinidad and Tobago under 16 team; one year later he was a member of the West Indies under 19 team; in 1989, he was selected for the West Indies B team; and in 1990, at age 20, he became the youngest captain of the Trinidad and Tobago Cricket Team, which he led to victory in the Geddes Grant Shield. In that same year, he was selected for the

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West Indies team against Pakistan, and he went on to become captain of the West Indies team on three occasions between 1998 and 2007. In 1994, he broke the world record of Sir Gary Sobers when he scored 375 runs not out against England at the Antigua Recreation Ground. When Matthew Hayden broke this record, Lara reclaimed it six months later by scoring 400 not-out in a West Indies final test against England in Antigua in 2004. His highest firstclass score is an unmatched 501 not-out for Warwickshire in a first-class game against Durham at Edgbaston in 1994. This came within weeks following his aforementioned triple century. Lara retired from test cricket in 2007 as the only batsman to have scored a single, double, triple, quadruple, and quintuple century. His record-breaking performances earned him a host of awards and honors. In 1994, he received Trinidad and Tobago’s highest award, the Trinity Cross, and in that same year, he was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year, one of three cricketers to receive this prestigious award. This was followed with the award as Wisden Leading Cricketer in the World in both 1994 and 1995. Lara was the recipient of an honorary doctorate from the University of Sheffield in 2007, the Order of the Caribbean Community in 2008, and the Order of Australia in 2009. He has since served as a sports ambassador for Trinidad and Tobago and was inducted into the International Cricket Council Hall of Fame as a legend in the game. He was named a national icon of Trinidad and Tobago in 2012 and was given honorary life membership in the Marylebone Cricket Club in 2013. LARONDE-WEST, GISELLE JEANNE-MARIE (1963– ). LarondeWest is a beauty queen and businesswoman who was born in Port of Spain on 23 October 1963 and educated at St. Peter’s Primary School, St. Peter’s Secondary School, St. François College, and Goldsmith’s College, University of London, where she successfully pursued a degree with a double major in sociology and communication. While representing Trinidad and Tobago at the Miss World beauty pageant in Albert Hall, London, in 1986, she edged out competitors such as American actress Halle Berry and was crowned Miss World, the first woman from Trinidad and Tobago to win the coveted title. She is the wife of Heathcliff West with whom she had two sons. In 1987, for her contribution to promoting Trinidad and Tobago on the international front, the government awarded Laronde-West the Chaconia Medal (Gold). Additionally, an aircraft of British West Indian International Airways was named in her honor. She is currently the senior manager of Public Affairs and Communications at Angostura Limited.

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LAZARE, EMMANUEL M’ZUMBO (1864–1929). Lazare was born on 24 December 1864 to Gabriel Lazare, a master builder and former soldier who migrated from Guadeloupe, and Rosalie Chepi, daughter of a soldier who migrated from Martinique. He attended Newtown School and the Boys Normal and Model School. He was a new law student when he joined with Edgar Maresse-Smith and other colored and black youths to celebrate the jubilee of Emancipation and made the initial request to the colonial authorities to celebrate 1 August 1888 as an Emancipation Day holiday. In 1888, he was articled to solicitor Anthony Maingot and was the first native-born person to pass the local examinations of the Incorporated Law Society of England in 1895. He was admitted to practice as a solicitor in the courts of Trinidad and Tobago in 1895. Following his family’s military tradition, he joined the Trinidad Field Artillery and was the only black officer. In 1898, he was elected to the Diego Martin Road Board, and in 1914, he was a member of the restarted Port of Spain City Council and its alderman in 1917. In 1920, he was nominated to the Legislative Council, serving until 1924. He was a member of the Reform group and led the call for election of unofficial members to the Legislative Council. He was extremely proud of his African heritage and adopted the name M’Zumbo, that of an enslaved African, from one of his clients. He was a close associate of Pan-African pioneer Henry Sylvester Williams, joined the Trinidad branch of the Pan-African Association, and was its vice president. In 1909, he joined the Trinidad Workingmen’s Association, which he had been assisting since 1897. Lazare supported the oppressed and prosecuted a group of “cocoa scorpions” who robbed peasant farmers of their produce, and he assisted the release of 200 Barbadian stowaways who were maltreated by the captain of the ship RMS Thames. He sought to raise African pride and upliftment through constitutional means including military service and representative government. He was charged with inciting persons to riot, unlawful assembly, and assault during the Water Riots but was acquitted. In December 1904, he was appointed to the Special Committee on the Question of Municipal government and the reform of municipal and rural government, and he was a member of the Franchise Commission to study the question of representation. He became an alderman and unofficial member of the Legislative Council, the first black person and first solicitor to do so. Lazare was involved in work with youths, the Child Welfare League, Union Girls Club, and church charity events, and he was president of the St. James Catholic Friendly Society. He was a member of the Port of Spain Cricket Club, but his passion was for agriculture. He set up a demonstration station for farmers at his residence, and when he retired from public life in 1924 with failing eyesight, he became more fully involved in agriculture at his Lazdale home where exhibitions and training sessions for farmers were held. He died in 1929.

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LE HUNTE, GEORGE RUTHVEN (1852–1925). Sir George was the governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 11 May 1909 to January 1916. He was born in Ireland on 20 August 1852 to George and Mary Le Hunte. On 14 February 1884, he married Caroline Rachel Clowes, and together they had one son and one daughter. He attended Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied law. His career as a British colonial administrator involved the presidency in Dominica, secretarial duties in Barbados and Mauritius, lieutenant governor of British New Guinea, and governor of South Australia and Trinidad and Tobago. He legalized the important Restoration of the Municipal Rights of the Citizens of Port of Spain and its elevation to city status by proclamation of 26 June 1914 after such rights had been suspended for 14 years. Le Hunte was also a chief scout of Trinidad and Tobago in 1914. He died of cancer on 29 January 1925. See also APPENDIX A. LEACOCK, GEORGE LESLIE LLEWELYN (1915–2006). Tobagonian statesman and entrepreneur George Leacock was born in Belmont, Trinidad, in 1915 to a Tobagonian mother and Barbadian father. Leacock’s family later moved to Tobago in 1923 where he was enrolled in the Scarborough EC Upper Primary School. He developed as a jack-of-all-trades as sign painter, operator of the first electricity generating plant, gunsmith, locksmith, weight and measures technician, small appliance repairer, and engraver for churches and public buildings throughout Tobago. He first operated a bicycle store, then, after acquiring property at the bottom of Burnett Hill, he opened a business called Leacock’s Utility Supplies. His artistic orientation led him to be placed on several committees including the Scarborough Beautification Committee and chair of the committees for the visits of Princess Margaret and His Royal Highness Haile Selassie and for the Independence celebrations in 1962. But it was to Carnival development in Tobago that he gave his most notable contribution. He was a founding member of the first Tobago Carnival Committee as a bandleader, masquerade and community band organizer, and he won the Band of the Year title on several occasions for both senior and junior bands. After retiring as a player, he became a well-respected Carnival judge. Leacock was also a philanthropist, donating his time and skills to churches regardless of denomination. He held an annual Children’s Christmas party, which was a feature event in Scarborough, and he assisted the street dwellers in the town. With a strong mind for historical preservation, he opened the Scarborough Heritage parlor on 9 October 1999, then the only collection of the folk history of Tobago on the island for which he received a UNESCO grant to upgrade the parlor. He has received numerous accolades and citations from the Montgomery Moravian Church, Scarborough Methodist Church, Tele-

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communications Services of Trinidad and Tobago, Republic Bank, National Carnival Bands Association, the Tobago Association of New York, and the Scarborough Police Youth Club; he won an Independence award from the Tobago House of Assembly and the Hummingbird Medal (Silver) for Community Service from the government of Trinidad and Tobago. LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL. Established in 1831, the Legislative Council of Trinidad dominated the political life of the colony until the mid-20th century. It initially consisted of members nominated by the governor, including official members who were local government officials and unofficial members pulled from the ranks of private, influential citizens who represented particular interest groups. Throughout the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, calls for constitutional reform to open the council to elected members and to encourage more representative government were made. In 1862, the council agreed that a majority vote of unofficials could veto a bill. However, cries for elected members continued. Two largely failed reform movements in the 1880s and 1890s drew attention to the fact that the colonial government, despite public appeals, refused to address the glaring issue of elected members. The 1887 Royal Franchise Commission declared that Trinidad was ready for elected members, but this was rejected by the Colonial Office. In 1895, the secretary of state again rejected the petitions for changes to the Legislative Council. The Water Riots, which occurred during a sitting of the council on 23 March 1903, reflected public dissatisfaction with the operations, decisions, and attitudes of members of the Legislative Council. Agitation such as this and the problems created by World War I and the resultant 1919 strikes led to the recommendation of the Wood Report to introduce elected members into the Legislative Council. The first election was held in 1925, which allowed for the appointment of A. A. Cipriani, as well as Timothy Roodal and Sarran Teelucksingh (the first Indian members) and James Biggart, the first representative for Tobago. Constitutional reform in 1950 allowed for the creation of an elected majority in the council for the first time. By 1961, on the eve of independence, a bicameral legislature with an Upper and Lower House was established, replacing the original unicameral Legislative Council. LEONG PANG, AMY (1908–1989). Leong Pang, of Chinese ancestry, was a pioneer of the movement of contemporary art of Trinidad and Tobago. She was born in Princes Town in 1908 and sent to school in China. She was a founding member of the small group of painters, poets, and writers of Trinidad in 1929 who referred to themselves as the Society of Trinidad Independents. This group remained in existence for about nine years until 1938 and

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was committed to holding regular meetings to discuss the themes that would shape the direction of their work. Pang’s colleagues, including such artists as Hugh Stollmeyer, C. L. R. James, Alfred Mendes, Albert Gomes, and Ivy Achong, were particularly interested in muses emanating from the West Indian region. At one point, they experimented with African art and included the Shango, Baptist, and Orisha religions. The criticisms and condemnations of a conservative and fundamentalist press demoralized the artists and were largely responsible for the disintegration of the group, which was evident by 1938. Nevertheless, Leong Pang’s society became the forerunner of the Trinidad Art Society and later the Art Society of Trinidad and Tobago. She died in 1989. In the year 2006, when the country marked the 200th anniversary of the arrival of the Chinese, the artwork of five Chinese artists of Trinidad and Tobago, including Leong Pang’s, were celebrated through the issue of commemorative stamps. Amy Leong Pang’s Saddle Road was commemorated on the $3.75 stamp. LEWIS, McCARTHA. See SANDY-LEWIS, LINDA McCARTHA MONICA (CALYPSO ROSE) (1940– ). LIGHTHOUSE IN PORT OF SPAIN. This structure, presently located on Wrightson Road, Port of Spain, consists of a hexagonal tower that is 19.5 meters (64 feet) tall. At its apex is a small lantern, and midway along its length is a gallery. It was first constructed in 1803 on a jetty, and at that time, it was referred to as the St. Vincent Jetty Light. In the early days, it was located in what is present-day Sea Lots. From the 1840s to the 1870s, its position was shifted from sea to land with its first land position to the south of Independence Square, and by the 1880s, it was relocated for the third time to South Quay. It was with the completion of the construction of Wrightson Road in 1935 that the lighthouse was shifted to its present location. In the 1980s, refurbishment work was undertaken, but by 2004, it was reported that the lighthouse had a tilt of about five degrees. Presently, while it does not function formally to guide ships out at sea safely to harbor, the Lighthouse of Port of Spain does offer seamen visibility up to 10 miles. See also TOURISM. LION HOUSE. This house is located on the Main Road in Chaguanas, central Trinidad. It was designed and built between 1924 and 1926 by Pundit Capildeo, a direct immigrant from India who migrated to Trinidad during the 19th century era of Indian indentured migration to Trinidad. Capildeo was born in 1873 in the town of Gorakpur, Uttar Pradesh, in India. At age 21, he migrated to Trinidad to take advantage of the opportunity to work in the cane fields. Following the end of his indenture, he became a landowner, cane

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farmer, and businessman. In constructing the Lion House, which he initially called Anand Bhavan (Mansion of Bliss), Capildeo copied the early Gupta style of fifth-century India, popular in his hometown of Gorakpur. The building was four stories high, made from homemade clay, and extensively decorated; at the time of its construction, it was the tallest edifice in central Trinidad. The first floor of the Lion House opened onto the Main Road and was used as a commercial store. The second story was divided into four family rooms, and at the corner walls of the veranda on the second floor stood life-sized concrete statues of the lions from which the house got its name. Narrow wooden steps led to the third floor, which held a puja or prayer room. From the third story, a flight of stairs led to the roof. In the concrete surrounding the windows and doorways of the house, various designs were etched. The base of its pillars took floral shapes while decorative blocks highlighted the front of the building. Small circular mirrors accentuated all the openings in the house. While the Lion House was essentially a private family property, over the years it came to be closely affiliated with Indian indentured migrants to Trinidad and their descendants. The house served as a meeting place for many travelers passing through Chaguanas, a community center, a venue for debates and panchayas (tribunals), and as a guest house for pilgrims. The house was fictionalized by the famous Trinidadian novelist V. S. Naipaul, who was born there in 1932, in his work A House for Mr. Biswas. LITERATURE. Trinidad and Tobago has a vibrant and eclectic literary tradition. Local authors of fiction and nonfiction were philosophers who framed political thought and forged a literary language that attempted to bring value and understanding to the West Indians and their experiences. These authors are influenced by the enslaved, immigrant, and diasporic experiences that reflect the diversity of the people and the forces that allowed for the construction of a colonial and postcolonial society. The roots of local literature can be found in the African storytelling tradition that encouraged the entrenchment of folk characters such as Anansi, which has blossomed from the engagement with European, Indian, Chinese, and, later, American literary traditions. The 20th century spawned many local literary giants. Novelist and short story writer C. L. R. James, well known as the author of The Black Jacobins, was among the earliest authors. His publication of Minty Alley in 1936 was the first novel produced by a black West Indian to be published in England. Two other pioneers of the Trinidad novel were Alfred H. Mendes and Ralph de Boissière. Many Trinidadian writers in the mid-20th century used their migrant experiences to reflect upon the lives of the local Trinidadians. Renowned Trinidadian writers such as V. S. Naipaul (who published 25 novels between 1957 and 1999 and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2001) and

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Samuel Selvon, for instance, both migrated to the United Kingdom from where they emerged as singular voices. Others, such as Earl Lovelace, explored the colonial and post-independence experience to explain the complexities and challenges of a multicultural society that continues to struggle with its independent identity. Michael Anthony is another prolific writer who has 22 publications that include short stories and local histories written from 1963 to 2001. Moon on a Rainbow Shawl by Errol John has popularized this writer as one of the nation’s early leading playwrights. Poets and short story writers have had less recognition on the national stage, though their works have been critically acclaimed and present piercing opportunities for reflection on local ethnic, gendered, national, social, and political experiences. Poets Alfred McDonald Clarke, Eintou Pearl Springer, and Anson Gonzalez have been honored by the local organization the Circle of Poets of Trinidad and Tobago as Poet Laureates of the City of Port of Spain. Additionally, Paul KeensDouglas’s career as poet and storyteller on the stage has also secured a space for him in the history of literature in Trinidad and Tobago. The emergence of the local annual Bocas Lit Fest founded in 2011 highlights the work of the local and regional literary community and creates opportunities for new voices to be heard. See also ALEXIS, ANDRÉ (1957– ); BISSOONDATH, NEIL DEVINDRA (1955– ); HODGE, MERLE (1944– ); JAMES, CYRIL LIONEL RICHARD (1901–1989); KHAN, ISMITH (1925–2002); KWABENA, ROI ANKHKARA (1956–2008); PERSAUD, LAKSHMI (1939– ); PHILIP NOURBESE, MARLENE (1947– ); RAMCHAND, KENNETH (1939– ); RAMPAUL, GISELLE (1977–2017); SCOTT, LAWRENCE (1943– ); WALCOTT-HACKSHAW, ELIZABETH (1964– ); WILLIAMS, ERIC EUSTACE (1911–1981). LIVERPOOL, HOLLIS URBAN LESTER (THE MIGHTY CHALKDUST, CHALKIE) (1941– ). Now a professor at the University of Trinidad and Tobago, Chalkie was born on 5 March 1941 in Chaguaramas, Trinidad; he spent some of his childhood years in Tobago but returned to Trinidad as a teenager. He attended the prestigious St. Mary’s College where he composed his first calypsos to inspire the members of the school’s football team. After graduation from secondary school, Chalkie entered teachers’ training college and continued composing and singing calypsos. In 1968 after his first participation in the national calypso competition, he was fired from his teaching job on charges of conflict of interest. In response, he sang “Reply to the Ministry” in 1969 and was later reinstated. In the calypso world, Chalkie is revered as composer par excellence. He produces first-class social and political calypsos. Chalkie is the only calypsonian who has equaled the Mighty Sparrow in winning the Calypso Monarch Competition on eight occasions—in 1976, 1977, 1981, 1989, 1993, 2004, 2005, and 2009,

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and he dethroned Sparrow by winning the title again in 2017. Some of his renditions include “Three Blind Mice,” “Ah Put on Me Guns Again,” “Juba Jubai,” “Shango Vision,” “Things that Worry Me,” and “Kaiso Sick in Hospital.” See also CULTURE. LOCATION AND DEMOGRAPHY. The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago consists of two islands. Trinidad, the larger of the two, is the most southerly island of the Caribbean and is situated some 11 kilometers off northeastern Venezuela. Trinidad is 4,820 square kilometers while Tobago, located 32.2 kilometers northeast of Trinidad, has an area of 303 square kilometers. Port of Spain, the country’s capital city and the seat of government, is located in Trinidad. The capital of Tobago is Scarborough, which is the seat of the island’s local government body, the Tobago House of Assembly. Trinidad and Tobago has a population of 1,220,479 of which roughly 60,874 live in Tobago. Of the country’s total population, 601,917 are female and 618,562 are male. The female population is larger than the male in the over 55 age group and markedly in the over 65 group. The birthrate is 13.1 per 1,000; the death rate is 8.7 per 1,000, and the infant mortality rate is 23 per 1,000. By age group, the population distribution is as follows: between 0 and 24 years, 31.5 percent; between 25 and 54 years, 46.1 percent; and those aged 55 and over, 22.32 percent. Ethnically, 35.4 percent of the population is Indian; 34.2 percent is African; 15.3 percent is mixed—other; 7.7 percent is mixed African and Indian; 6.2 percent are unspecified; 6.2 percent and 1.3 percent are classified as “Others.” By religion, Protestants constitute 32.1 percent of the population; Roman Catholics, 21.6 percent; Muslims, 5 percent; Hindus, 15.2 percent; Jehovah’s Witnesses, 1.5 percent; Unstated, 11.1 percent; and none, 2.2 percent. LOCKHART, SYLVESTER (THE POSER) (1943– ). Born in Matura, east Trinidad, Poser sang with bands in San Juan before he began singing calypso in 1962. For five consecutive years, he won the local calypso competition in Sangre Grande before entering the national competition. He won the Road March title in 1979 with the tune “Ah Tell She.” He never won the National Calypso Monarch Competition but secured third place on three occasions. Some of Poser’s popular hits include “Bus Conductor,” “Town Man,” and “Party Tonight.” His parang soca compositions “Take Ah Drink Ah Dis” and “Sereno Sereno” are extremely popular at Christmastime. See also CULTURE. LONDON, ORVILLE DELANO (1945– ). Orville Delano London was born in 1945 at Parlatuvier, Tobago. He attended the Whim Anglican Primary School and Bishop’s High School. In 1966, he obtained a BA in

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history and sociology from the University of the West Indies (UWI), St. Augustine, and he later acquired diplomas in education and international relations from the UWI. He became a teacher and eventually vice principal of the Scarborough Junior Secondary School then moved on to become principal of the Signal Hill Senior Comprehensive. He was appointed a senator in the Trinidad and Tobago Parliament in 1995 and later a councillor in the Tobago House of Assembly (THA) in 1996. He served as deputy political leader of the People’s National Movement in 1997. London became chief secretary of the THA in 2001, a position he held until his retirement in January 2017. He was appointed as the Trinidad and Tobago high commissioner to the United Kingdom, a position he took up in May 2017. LORD KITCHENER. See ROBERTS, ALDWYN (LORD KITCHENER, THE GRANDMASTER) (1922–2000). LOVELACE, EARL (1935– ). Lovelace, a celebrated and award-winning Trinidadian novelist, short story writer, playwright, and journalist, was born in Toco, on the northeastern coast of Trinidad. Until the age of 11, he lived with his grandparents and attended the Scarborough Methodist Primary School in Tobago. Upon his return to Trinidad, he was enrolled in the Nelson Street Boys’ Roman Catholic School and later attended the Ideal High School in Port of Spain. He worked as a proofreader at the Trinidad Guardian newspaper between 1953 and 1954 and then for the Department of Forestry and the Department of Agriculture. In 1962, he published his first novel, While Gods Are Falling. In 1966, he enrolled at Howard University, Washington, DC, and in 1974, he received his MA in English from Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. He has taught at a number of institutions including Federal City College in Washington, DC; Wellesley College in Wellesley, Massachusetts; and the Pacific Lutheran University in Tacoma, Washington. From 1977 to 1987, he was employed as a lecturer in literature and creative writing at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. In 1980, he won a Guggenheim fellowship, and in 1995, he was appointed writer-in-residence in England by the London Arts Board. He has also worked as a columnist for a local newspaper, the Trinidad Express. His works include The Dragon Can’t Dance; The Schoolmaster; The Wine of Astonishment; and Salt, for which he won the Commonwealth Writers’ Prize; and Is Just a Movie, winner of the OCM Bocas Prize for Caribbean Literature. He has also published a short story collection, A Brief Conversion

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and Other Stories, and plays including The New Hardware Store and My Name Is Village. See also LITERATURE; RAMCHAND, KENNETH (1939– ). LYNCH, HOLLIS RALPH (1935– ). Lynch was born in John Dial, Tobago, on 21 April 1935 to Rupert Herman and Violet Evangeline Lynch (née Gardiner). He attended the Hope EC School before continuing his education at Bishop’s High School on a scholarship. After achieving the Senior Cambridge Certificate, Grade I, he worked as a teacher at Belle Garden and Princes Town EC Schools and as a reporter for the Trinidad Guardian in Port of Spain before migrating to Canada. There he attended the University of British Columbia and obtained a bachelor’s degree in history with first class honors in 1960 and won the Annie Southcott Memorial Prize for best undergraduate honors essay in history. He was a graduate student at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, on a Commonwealth scholarship. He obtained his PhD in African history in 1964 and lectured at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, from 1964 to 1966. He also served as associate professor of history at Roosevelt University in Chicago and at the State University of New York (SUNY) in Buffalo from 1968 to 1969. In 1969, he was appointed professor of history at Columbia University, New York City, where he served as director of the Institute of African Studies from 1971 to 1974. Lynch was responsible for the introduction and direction of a new program of Black Studies at SUNY and the introduction of a new program, “Professor-in-Residence,” at Columbia’s undergraduate dormitories. Retired since 2005, he is a professor emeritus of history at Columbia University. Lynch has served a number of academic institutions in various capacities with distinction: research fellow at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in 1976; research fellow at the American Council Learned Societies, 1978–1979; member of the Advisory Council United States Archives for Northwest New York, 1975–1977; member of the American History Association Committee of Committees (1973) and the Association of African Studies. Through his publications, he cemented himself as an authority on Pan-Africanism. He published the seminal work on Edward Wilmot Blyden: Edward Wilmot Blyden: Pan-Negro Patriot, 1832–1912 in 1970; The Black Urban Condition: A Documentary History, 1866–1971 (1973); and Black American Radicals and the Liberation of Africa: The Council on African Affairs, 1937–1955 (1978). Apart from his outstanding academic pursuits, Lynch has made a significant contribution to heritage preservation in Tobago. He purchased one of the oldest and the last surviving original Great Houses on the island. The Richmond Plantation dates from 1766 when it operated as a sugar plantation until the industry collapsed in the 1880s. In 1893, the estate was purchased by a retired English officer in the Indian army who diversified the sugar estate

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into a cocoa and coconut plantation. The estate was inherited by his son Mayo Short Jr., and in 1973, Lynch purchased Richmond House along with four acres of land. In 1986, he refurbished the building while maintaining its historical character. The Richmond Great House is now an important historical landmark and a symbol of Tobago’s colonial journey. Lynch was formally inducted into the Tobago Literary Hall of Fame for his academic achievements in 2012. LYONS, AUSTIN (BLUE BOY, SUPER BLUE) (1956– ). Born 25 May 1956 in Point Fortin, south Trinidad, Super Blue marked his arrival on the Carnival scene with the hot number “Soca Baptist” in 1980. It was an instant hit and won him one of the nine titles he secured as Road March Monarch of Carnival in 1980, 1981, 1983, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 2000, and 2013. Super Blue was the first winner of the Soca Monarch Competition, which he won on seven occasions. He pioneered the now entrenched “jump and wave” feature of soca music and the frenzied energy of soca performances. True to his sobriquet, Super Blue often wears blue superhero outfits during his performances. Some of Super Blue’s hits are “Bacchanal Time,” “Birthday Party,” “Barbara” (which featured as background music for the film Side Streets in 1998), and “Clear de Road.” which he sang with daughter Fay Ann Lyons. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. LYONS, FAY ANN (LYON EMPRESS, MANE OF THE MATRIARCH, SILVER SURFER) (1980– ). Born 5 November 1980 in Point Fortin, south Trinidad, Lyons is the unofficial queen of soca and the daughter of calypsonians Austin Lyons (Super Blue) and Lynette Steele (Lady Gypsy). Prior to her entry on the stage as a solo soca artiste, Lyons sang and continues to sing in such musical bands as Asylum (Censation), founded by her husband Bunji Galin, and Invazion. She made her debut in calypso in 1998 and became a household name in the national music industry owing to her victories in the Road March competition in 2003, 2008, and 2009. She remains to date the only female to have achieved this feat. Lyons dominated the 2009 Carnival season by winning the Road March, International Soca Monarch, Groovy Soca Monarch, Power Groovy Award, and People’s Choice titles. She was adjudged the most outstanding songwriter, artist with the best soca song, and female soca performer of the year in 2004. Some of her winning numbers are “Meet Superblue,” “Display,” “Get On,” and “The Baron All Over.” See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT.

M MAGNIFICENT SEVEN. These seven mansions surrounding the Queen’s Park Savannah (north of Queen’s Park West) are the most prominent examples of European colonial architecture in Trinidad. See also AMBARD’S HOUSE (ROOMOR); ARCHBISHOP’S HOUSE; HAYES COURT; MILLE FLEURS; QUEEN’S ROYAL COLLEGE (QRC); STOLLMEYER’S CASTLE/KILLARNEY; WHITE HALL OR ROSENWEG. MAHA SABHA. See SANATAN DHARMA MAHA SABHA (SDMS). MAHARAJ, KRISHNA (1939–2012). Pundit Krishna Maharaj was born on 26 January in Charlieville. He was Dharmacharya and spiritual leader of the Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha of Trinidad and Tobago. He conducted pujas in Trinidad and Tobago and other parts of the Caribbean, North America, and Europe. He was also well known for standing in as the godfather of scores of people in south Trinidad. In 1995, he was offered the Trinity Cross, and while he accepted the honor, he refused the actual award explaining that it did not represent the diverse religious persuasions of all the people of Trinidad and Tobago. His refusal in part prompted a name change of the country’s highest award from the Trinity Cross to the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, which was eventually awarded to him posthumously in the 50th independence anniversary commemorations of Trinidad and Tobago in 2012. Hindus in Trinidad and Tobago viewed the new award as a major step toward democracy in the nation. Maharaj received the nation’s highest honor for community service. See also RELIGION. MAHARAJ, SATNARAYAN (1931– ). Satnarayan Maharaj, popularly known as Sat Maharaj, was born on 17 April 1931 and attended the Tunapuna Hindu School. Currently, he is a major religious leader of the Hindu community and is the secretary-general of the Sanata Dharma Maha Sabha (SDMS), a major Hindu organization in Trinidad and Tobago, which was established in 1952. 221

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He was one of the leading voices behind the campaign to change the highest national award of Trinidad and Tobago from the Trinity Cross to the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago in order to reflect the religious persuasions not only of Christians but also of Hindus and other creeds. He also led the struggle against the denial of the People’s National Movement government led by Prime Minister Patrick Manning at the time to grant the SDMS the right to secure a license to operate a radio station. Sat Maharaj has been a tireless advocate for the visibility of the Indian community in the spheres of education, culture, and religion. However, his record of advocacy on behalf of Indians and his frequent verbal attacks against non-Indians have led to charges that he is racist in his orientation. In recognition of his contribution to the advancement of people of Indian descent in Trinidad and Tobago, Kumar Mahabir published in 2014 Sat Maharaj: Hindu Civil Rights Leader of Trinidad and Tobago. His writings have also been published by Kumar Mahabir in another work titled The Hindu View of Trinidad and Tobago: Articles by Sat Maharaj. MALONEY, CORNELIUS ALFRED (1848–1913). Maloney, governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 1900 to 1904, was born in 1848 and was the son of Captain Patrick Maloney. His first wife, Constance Knight, died of yellow fever in Belize (formerly British Honduras) in 1891, just a few weeks after their arrival there. On 2 March 1897 in London, he then married Frances Owen-Lewis. He had held four previous governorships: Gambia, Lagos, British Honduras, and the Federal Group of Windward Islands. It was during Maloney’s tenure as governor of Trinidad and Tobago that the infamous Water Riots occurred. Maloney contributed to the riots by insisting that admission to the Council Chamber of the Red House to listen to the debate on the water issue would only be permitted to individuals holding tickets. He escaped from the riot when he was evacuated from the Red House disguised in the dress of a policeman. Maloney was the author of West Indian Fisheries with Particular Reference to the Gold Coast Colony published in 1883 by the University of Michigan and Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa with Particular Reference to Its Present Principal Commercial Products published in 1887 in London by Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington. He died on 13 August 1913. See also APPENDIX A. MANNING, PATRICK AUGUSTUS MERVYN (1946–2016). An outstanding politician and statesman who served as the country’s prime minister from 1991 to 1994 and from 2002 to 2010, Manning was born in San Fernando on 17 August 1946 to Arnold and Elaine Manning. He was educated at Presentation College, San Fernando, and the University of the West Indies (UWI), Mona, where he studied for a BSc in geology and graduated in

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1969. He was married to Hazel Kinsale Manning, and they have two sons. Manning formally entered politics in 1971 when he contested and won the San Fernando East Constituency under the banner of the People’s National Movement (PNM). Since then he remained the party’s parliamentary representative for the area. During the Eric Williams administration, he served as parliamentary secretary in the Ministry of Petroleum and Mines, and in the Ministry of Works, Transport and Communications. Between 1981 and 1986, during the George Chambers regime, he held the portfolio of minister of energy and natural resources, introducing far-reaching changes in the energy sector that helped to strengthen the foundation of the modern economy of Trinidad and Tobago. During the Chambers administration, he also assumed ministerial responsibility for Tobago Affairs and therefore contributed to some of the constitutional and legislative changes that brought greater autonomy and human dignity to the people of Tobago. Following the defeat of the PNM at the polls in 1986, he assumed de facto leadership of the party and, in accordance with the constitutional provision of the country, was appointed the leader of the opposition. In the elections of 1991, he returned the party to victory, with the PNM winning 21 of the 36 seats contested. In the elections of 1995, the results were 17–17–2 for the PNM, United National Congress (UNC), and National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR), respectively. A coalition government was then formed between the UNC and NAR, even though, among the three parties, the PNM had won the majority of votes. The elections of 2001 saw a “hung parliament,” with the PNM and UNC each capturing 18 seats. An agreement, the Crown Plaza Accord as it was called, was then worked out between then president A. N. R. Robinson and the leaders of the UNC and PNM. The agreement allowed the president to choose the political party and its leader that will form the next government. Accordingly, Manning and the PNM were selected by the president and returned to office. But it proved difficult for Manning and the PNM to pass any legislation in the Parliament or to govern without even a slim parliamentary majority. After some months, Manning was forced to send the country back to the polls in accordance with the country’s constitutional requirements to ensure that one of the parties was given a clear mandate to govern. The PNM won the elections and returned to office. In 2010, amid infighting in the party and mounting dissatisfaction with what the population perceived to be his arrogance and dictatorial tendencies, the PNM was defeated at the polls by Kamla Persad-Bissessar and the People’s Partnership. However, under Manning’s leadership, the San Fernando East Constituency of the PNM has never lost an election. Manning earned international respect for his vision for the development of Trinidad and Tobago in tandem with that of the rest of the region. In December 2003, Prime Minister Manning was awarded the Guyana Institute for Democracy “Democracy Prize” for his outstanding ef-

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forts in upholding the principles of democracy in the Caribbean; in December 2004, he was awarded the Caribbean–Central American Action’s Star of the Caribbean Award, for his prompt and generous support to Caribbean neighbors in times of distress; and in 2007 he received an honorary doctor of letters from Medgar Evers University. The longest-serving parliamentarian in history of Trinidad and Tobago, Manning bowed out of electoral politics on the grounds of ill health, bringing his 44-year parliamentary career to an end in 2015. He died on 2 July 2016 at the age of 69. See also POLITICAL STRUCTURE. MARAJ, BHADASE SAGAN (1920–1971). Born to Babonee and Matthew Sagan Maraj in the poverty-stricken, predominantly Hindu village of Caroni, Bhadase became a prominent businessman, religious leader, philanthropist, and politician, and one of the most influential political figures in Trinidad and Tobago between 1940 and 1962. His parents were devout and zealous Hindus, and had instilled in him and his siblings a commitment to the faith. Bhadase was determined to lift himself out of poverty, and to strengthen the importance and organization of the Hindu community. He was by no means an intellectual, nor was he regarded as one. However, he was one of the visionary leaders and organizers of the Hindu community in Trinidad and Tobago. One of his earliest personal commitments was the acquisition of financial independence and security. By age 30, he was a self-made millionaire largely through his dealings with American war surplus goods. He championed the cause of Indians founding the Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha in 1952, the most prominent Hindu organization in Trinidad and Tobago. Through this organization, Bhadase built a number of Hindu schools, propelling the government to eventually assist in their development. Bhadase became leader of the All Trinidad Sugar and General Workers Trade Union and federated this union with the smaller Cane Farmers Union to form the Federated Union of Cane Farmers and Sugar Workers in 1953. He became a member of the Legislative Council in 1950 and founded the People’s Democratic Party which contested the 1956 elections and was the first major rival to the People’s National Movement in the 1950s. Later he merged it with a number of other political parties to found the Democratic Labour Party, which he headed from 1958 to 1960, losing control in 1960 to Rudranath Capildeo. Despite this defeat, he continued to play a role in Trinidadian politics, winning the Chaguanas by-election in 1967. In 1971, he organized a new party, the Democratic Liberation Party, to contest the elections but won no seats. This stalwart of the Hindu and industrial community died in 1971. See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962); POLITICAL STRUCTURE.

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MARCH FOR CHAGUARAMAS. Between 1957 and 1961, a controversy developed between Eric Williams and the U.S. (and British) governments over the U.S. military base at Chaguaramas, which had been selected as the site for the capital of the West Indies Federation. Dr. Williams began to protest the unwillingness of the United States to return the site to the government and people of Trinidad and Tobago. C. L. R. James, editor of the Nation, the People’s National Movement’s newspaper, kept up a lively debate and propaganda in the paper arguing that the attitude of the Americans was reflective of the 450 years of European imperialism to which the Caribbean and the world had been subjected. The United States persisted in its reluctance to return the base despite encouragement from Britain to do otherwise. In consequence, Dr. Williams staged a rally at Woodford Square where the population was addressed by a battery of speakers including Williams himself, C. L. R. James, and Janet Jagan. Both the British and Americans were optimistic about their position, based on their view that Williams might have been supported in his quest by other countries of the British West Indies Federation. Williams, however, turned the issue into an ideological battle against colonialism. He argued that the struggle for Chaguaramas was critically important and was it really about the choice between the battle for independence or the continuation of colonialism, disrespect for the Caribbean, continued exploitation, and poverty. On the platform, Williams burned what he described as “the seven deadly sins of colonialism.” They included the Trinidad and Tobago constitution of 1956; the report on the federal capital; the Democratic Labour Party’s position regarding developments in Guyana that had seen significant British and American intervention; a number of copies of the Guardian newspaper that he saw as representative of imperial interest; and the 1941 lease-base agreement. Following his speech, Williams led thousands of supporters in a march to the U.S. consulate through the pouring rain to deliver their demand for the return of the base at Chaguaramas. The march attracted regional and international attention, consolidated Williams’s popularity and political influence locally, and posited him as the premier nationalist leader of the English-speaking Caribbean. It forced the British government to concede the grant of full internal self-government to Trinidad and Tobago by 1961. Additionally, the Americans agreed to a phased return of the base and complete withdrawal by 1977. See also WORLD WAR II. MARCH TO CARONI. This was a significant Black Power march led by the National Joint Action Committee (NJAC) and its members from Port of Spain to Caroni on 12 March 1970. NJAC’s membership was predominantly African based, and the march to Caroni, a rural district that was the heartland of the country’s Indian working-class population, was intended to promote and strengthen Afro-Indian solidarity in Trinidad and Tobago

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against the foreign capitalist element and in the society and the People’s National Movement, which the NJAC perceived as their allies. Marchers carried banners and placards bearing such messages as “Indians and Negroes Unite.” The NJAC hoped to bring together workers of Caroni who were Indians employed mainly in the sugar industry and African workers who were employed in the petroleum sector. The march went off peacefully and without any major incident. It was then addressed by many prominent and militant trade union leaders. Indians, however, remained suspicious of the Black Power Movement, which they saw as promoting black concerns and detrimental to their own ethnic solidarity. MARESSE-SMITH, EDGAR LIONEL VINCENT (1860–1905). Maresse-Smith was a member of a group of educated black and mixed-race middle-class men who highlighted the injustices of Trinidad’s society and sought to change the policies of the ruling class and bring an end to the crown colony system of government. The son of Alexander Smith and Belvidiana Emile Maresse-Paul, Maresse-Smith was a descendant of a mixedrace migrant from Martinique who settled in Trinidad in 1782. He was born on 22 February 1860 and raised in Mayaro until the death of his father. He was educated by his mother who ran a private school, and under her tutelage he became proficient in languages. He worked as a clerk in the office of barrister George Lewis B. Garcia from 1882 to 1885, and from 1885 to 1887 in the office of solicitor Philip Fort, and as an interpreter from 1883. He was admitted to practice as a solicitor in December 1885. Maresse-Smith became a prominent lawyer who was well known for his debating skills. Throughout his career, he agitated for social and political reforms and highlighted the plight of the poor black population of the colony. He used his position as chairman of the Caroni Local Road Board to campaign against the crown colony system of government, and he personally assisted the needy in the population by taking their cases pro bono. He criticized the system of justice in the colony by numerous letters to the press and by his articles “How Justice Is Administered in Trinidad” and “Their Revenge.” He appeared before the Tobago Metairie Commission, on behalf of the metayers in 1890. He sought to promote racial pride and race consciousness and stimulate progress of the black race. He tried to keep the issues related to enslavement and emancipation on the forefront of popular thought and spearheaded the efforts to celebrate the jubilee of emancipation. He was a member of the Reform Committee in 1892, which petitioned the secretary of state for a lower franchise qualification. He led the opposition to the Water Bill of 1903 that erupted in the Water Riots, and he was charged with inciting the riots. He provided legal assistance to those charged with inciting the riots and supported the families of those who were killed.

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He was a member of the Solicitor’s Interdisciplinary Committee, vice president of the Trinidad Incorporated Law Society, member of the Trinidad Debating Club and Tobago Debating Society, chairman of the Caroni Local Road Board from 1894 to 1905, member of the Rate Payers’ Association, member and treasurer of the United Brothers Masonic Order, and founding member and president of the Trinidad Masons Provident Society, which was established 18 September 1892. He died on 30 January 1905. MARKET. See OLD MARKET (SCARBOROUGH). MARLBOROUGH HOUSE. Located in the city of Westminster, Central London, is a centuries-old, highly ranked British historical site that has served as the royal palace of five duchesses and dukes of Marlborough. In 1959, it was placed by the British crown at the disposal of the British government for use as a center for the administration of Commonwealth affairs. It was at this headquarters that the historic independence conference was held, with representatives of the British government, the People’s National Movement (PNM), and the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) in attendance, on 28 May 1962. It was here that Eric Williams (the country’s chief minister and political leader of the PNM) and Rudranath Capildeo (political leader of the DLP), were able to arrive at a compromise that led to the realization of the political independence of Trinidad and Tobago. As was anticipated by all, the racial and political tensions that characterized local politics had accompanied the local parties to the independence conference. By the morning of 8 June, when talks resumed, they seemed to have made little headway regarding the opposition’s insistence on a moratorium on independence, proportional representation, and an appropriate level of consultation between the leader of government and the opposition regarding all national issues and policies and the appointment of senators. Further, the opposition demanded the constitutional imposition of two-thirds majority for the passing of all legislation in the Senate. The PNM delegates remained opposed to these demands. Representative of the Indian Association and the Sanatan Dharma Maha Saba had also journeyed to Marlborough House to protest against the establishment of an independence constitution and to press for proportional representation, or, failing this, the partitioning of Trinidad and Tobago. The discussions remained racially charged. During the tea break, however, Williams and Capildeo held a discussion, during which Williams agreed to work with the opposition on the promotion of national unity and integration, as well as the working out of a system for ensuring free and fair elections and for the development of fair employment practices, devoid of discrimination on, among other things, the grounds of political affiliation and race. Conse-

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quently, 31 August 1962 was set as the date for the proclamation of the country’s independence. See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962). MARSHALL, BERTRAM LLOYD (1936–2012). Popularly known as Bertie, Marshall was born in Port of Spain and grew up in John John and Laventille. At age 14, he obtained and tried to retune an old pan, and by age 18, he was an experienced pan tuner. He was a pan pioneer and innovator. He made, tuned, and retuned steel pans. He was a bandleader for Highlanders Steel Orchestra and was also an arranger. In the 1970s, he was the main arranger for the Desperados Steel Orchestra, which he led to 10 Panorama victories, a record that remains unbroken to date. He was motivated to improve the sound of the steel pan because he was not pleased with the inferior one of the ping pong pan, and by 1956, he revolutionized the method by which steel pans were tuned. Instead of using the inharmonic style, Marshall used a strobe and tuned the notes by octaves thereby making the sound cleaner, clearer, and brighter. He was also a pioneer in amplifying steel pan music, and his tinkering with electronics led to his invention of the “Bertphone” in 1971. Marshall is credited for the modern-day sounds heard in the frontlines of steel orchestras. He is the inventor of the double tenor and high tenor steel pans. Together with another steel pan innovator, Rudolph Charles, Marshall invented the Quadraphonic, Six Pan, and Twelve Bass. Marshall’s exceptional contribution to the development of the national instrument of Trinidad and Tobago earned him several awards. In 1992, he was awarded the Chaconia Medal (Gold) for outstanding service to the country. In 2000, at the World Steelband Festival, he received two awards: one for “Innovation and Contribution in Respect of the Steel Drum” and the other was the “Pan Trinbago and Signature 2000 Salute Bertie Marshall, Steel Innovator Extraordinaire.” In 1993, he was honored when the Carnival Development Commission launched a steel pan competition in his honor; the Bertie Marshall J’ouvert Pan Contest. Steel orchestras taking part in the competition were required to play tunes made popular by Marshall’s work with Highlanders. In 2005, the University of Trinidad and Tobago offered Marshall a full professorial fellowship and appointed him to head the Advance Tuning program and teach classes in its School of Arts, Letters, Culture and Public Affairs Pan Lab. In 2008, Marshall also received the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago for steel pan development. Marshall passed away on 17 October 2012. MATTHEWS, DOM BASIL (1911–1999). “Dom” is an abbreviation for the Latin Dominus, which, in the Roman Catholic Church, is used to denote honor with respect to the ecclesiastics. A Benedictine monk and founder of

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the St. Benedict College in La Romaine, Trinidad, Matthews engaged Eric Williams in 1955 in a series of public debates on the subject of the church, state, education, and Plato and Aristotle in which he was outclassed. Dom Basil, as he was popularly called, was born in San Juan and received his secondary education at St. Mary’s College. On graduating in 1928, he entered Mt. St. Benedict Seminary and began his studies to become a priest. In 1935, after taking his priestly vows, he left for Belgium where he attended the Benedictine College of Theology in Louvain and pursued both master’s and PhD degrees in sociology at Fordham University, New York. Then he had teaching stints at Fordham University, the Manhattan Ville College of the Sacred Heart, Howard University, and Talladega College, Alabama. In 1953, he conceptualized and began to construct a new all-boys secondary school, St. Benedict’s College, in the suburban district of La Romaine, on the outskirts of San Fernando to be the southern equivalent of CIC. The school, which was opened in 1956, produced significant academic achievers, but its students were encouraged to engage in extracurricular activities, particularly football and music. While the school progressed, Matthews was hounded out of St. Benedict’s based on allegations of financial misappropriation in 1968, and by the time he died in 1999, he was little known except to the many students who had benefited from his leadership and tutelage at St. Benedict’s, which continues to be his greatest legacy. McBURNIE, BERYL (1915–2000). McBurnie was born in Woodbrook and became an educator who made her mark on cultural development primarily through her work in the field of dance. She was educated at Woodbrook Canadian Mission School, Tranquility Girls’ School, Mausica Teachers’ College, and Columbia University where she studied anthropology and the dramatic arts. She began dancing as a child, performing dances such as the “British Folk Dance” and Scottish reels and jigs. However, as she grew older she developed a passion for local folk dances and for teaching those interested in learning. She developed a career in dance, a field that was not normally selected by many. Having trained as a teacher, she began teaching in the capital, Port of Spain. After touring the country with leading local folklorist Andrew Carr, she decided to go abroad to study dance. McBurnie left Trinidad for the United States where, in 1938, she began to study dance at Columbia University in New York under a number of renowned artistic directors such as Martha Graham, Charles Weidman, and Katherine Dunham. While there, she also taught students and artists the Trinidadian and Caribbean dances. In 1941, she returned to Trinidad briefly and delivered a number of startling performances at the Empire Theatre in Port of Spain. Her creative genius, which lay in her ability to teach, perform, choreograph, and combine various European, Latin American classical, jazz, and modern and popular genres with those of the Caribbean, was demonstrated when she took

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up an appointment as a dance instructor with the government of Trinidad and Tobago and when, in 1948, she started a folk dance company and established a permanent home for dance performances at the Little Carib Theatre in Woodbrook, Port of Spain. This theater became well known throughout the English-speaking Caribbean and North Atlantic world. In 1950, she was appointed as the director of dance in the Department of Education, and she undertook a dance tour of England and Europe with funding from the British Council. In 1965, the Little Carib building was closed for three years because of safety concerns. In the interim period, McBurnie diverted her attention to teaching children and became known to Trinidadians as the “doyen of dance.” She was honored, in 1959, with the Order of the British Empire and, in 1969, with the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) by the government of Trinidad and Tobago. In 1976, the University of the West Indies conferred an honorary doctorate, and in the United States, in 1978, she was honored, along with Katherine Dunham and Pearl Primus, at the 20th Anniversary Gala of the Alvin Ailey Theater. In 1989, McBurnie received the Trinity Cross, the highest national award in Trinidad and Tobago, for promotion of the arts. Beryl “La Belle Rosette” McBurnie passed away on 30 March 2000. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. McKENZIE, EASTLYN (1941– ). Eastlyn McKenzie (née Baynes) was born on 5 October 1941 at the Scarborough General Hospital in Tobago. She grew up in Bethany, Tobago, and attended St. Patrick’s Anglican Primary School and Bishop’s High School, Tobago. By 1960, she was employed as a teacher and taught at Les Coteaux, Lambeau, and Belle Garden Anglican primary schools. Six years later, she was professionally trained having graduated from Mausica Teachers’ College in Trinidad with a teacher’s diploma after which she taught at Hope Anglican Primary School for five years. In 1976, she completed a diploma in community development and, in 1979, a master’s degree in education and community development from the University of Manchester. She pursued a PhD in education majoring in human resource development at George Washington University in the United States, which she successfully completed in 1987. She then left teaching to become a community development officer and later an education extension officer. Dr. Mac, as she is popularly called, is well known as a cultural activist seeking to preserve Tobago’s language heritage and taking the Tobago lingo to Parliament. She ensures the survival of the oral tradition reading stories and traditional folktales to children. She served as an independent senator in the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth republican Parliaments of Trinidad and Tobago in the period from 27 November 1995 to 3 November 2000. During this time, she served on several committees including the Special Select Committee of the Senate appointed to examine and determine the adequacy of parliamentary buildings. She de-

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bated as many as 48 motions brought before the Parliament especially those related to the well-being of children such as the Adoption of Children Bill and the Children’s Authority Bill of 1999. She was a former director of Youth Training and Employment Partnership Programme (YTEPP) and introduced the School Leaving Examination classes to prison inmates of Trinidad and Tobago. From its inception in 1974, she has been an executive member of the Tobago Council of Handicapped Children Inc. Since 1996, she has served as an instructor of religious studies at Scarborough Secondary School and has managed and tutored at the Homework Centre at St. Patrick AC. She is also an accomplished actress, one of the first from Tobago, who has acted in several live and on-screen productions. In addition, she is the author of several folk monologues. In 2009, she was awarded the Chaconia Medal (Silver) by the government of Trinidad and Tobago for long and meritorious service in the sphere of public and community service. At the 2015 opening of the Scarborough Library, she was one of four Tobagonians who was honored. The children’s section of the new library was named the Dr. Eastlyn McKenzie Children’s Library in her honor. McLEOD, HENRY (1791–1847). Son of Colonel Sir John and Emily McLeod, Sir Henry was born on 17 October 1791. He administered Trinidad from 1840 to 1845 during which time the British government was concerned about the “foreign” influences in Trinidad and wanted to make the island fully English. Governor McLeod advanced the anglicizing policy of the British government by his attempt to terminate Spanish law on the island. He oversaw the abolition of the Cabildo in Port of Spain and replaced it with town councils that were introduced to both Port of Spain and San Fernando. English laws and trial by jury were also introduced, and the Roman Catholic Church was terminated as the state church of the colony. He died in England on the 24 August 1847. McLEOD, ISAAC THURLIF (IT) (1938–2013). Tobago business pioneer and philanthropist, IT McLeod was born 12 June 1939 in Delaford. He studied at Elizabeth’s College in Roxborough, Tobago, and later the Polytechnic Institute in Trinidad. He received a Government Development Scholarship to the College of Estate Management (University of Reading) in London to study quantity surveying. During his time abroad, he worked with the Ministry of Works in London as a Quantity Surveyor III. He returned to Trinidad in 1969 and took up a position at the Ministry of Finance and later as a Quantity Surveyor for a private firm. After working two years at this firm, McLeod went on to establish his own surveying firm, initially named the Isaac McLeod Partnership (now IT McLeod Partnership Limited). McLeod’s excellent leadership led this firm to become one of the leading quantity

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surveying firms in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana. and the English-speaking Caribbean. In 1987, a new branch of the firm emerged, Management and Construction Consultants Limited, which made inroads into the construction sector. His other business ventures included McLeod Hummingbird Helmet Crested Limited and Tobago Multi-Marketing Limited. Apart from his business, McLeod has held numerous other appointments. He was president of the African Society of Trinidad and Tobago, chairman of the Port Authority of Trinidad and Tobago, director of the First Citizens Bank of Trinidad and Tobago, and president of the Rotary Club of Trinidad and Tobago. McLeod has also published papers on the development of the construction industry, including “A Search for a Cheaper Building,” “Waste in the Building Industry,” “Inflation: A Case for National Bills of Quantities,” “The Building Industry 1967–1983,” and “The Building Design Construct Finance Method.” Upon his death on 26 December 2013, acclaim for his prowess in business, his philanthropic work with the Rotary Club, and his support of the arts, steel pan, and calypso in Trinidad and Tobago was expressed by his family, friends, colleagues, and employees alike. McSHINE, ARTHUR HUGH (1906–1983). McShine served as chief justice from 1969 to 1970 and as acting governor-general in 1973. He was educated at Tranquility Boys’ Intermediate School and Queen’s Royal College in Port of Spain and was called to the bar at Middle Temple in London in 1941. He served as a director of the Royal Bank of Trinidad and Tobago, president of the Trinidad Chess Association, member of the Trinidad Turf Club, Union Park Turf Club, Trinidad Yacht Club, and the Queen’s Park Cricket Club. In 1971, he was awarded the Trinity Cross and he died in 1983. McSHINE, ARTHUR HUTTON (1876–1948). Born in the depressed area east of the Dry River in Port of Spain, McShine emerged as a medical icon of the Caribbean, and Trinidad and Tobago’s first qualified eye specialist, surgeon, and consultant. He received his early education at Eastern Boys’ Government School, from which he secured a college exhibition to Queen’s Royal College. He won an Island Scholarship in 1986, and opted to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, where he studied under famed British molecular biologist Professor Andrew Wyllie and emerged as a prize-winning student. On returning to Trinidad, he worked at the Colonial Hospital in Port of Spain. In 1902, he left Trinidad for Moorfields Eye Hospital in London, where he pursued postgraduate studies, and one year later he completed his thesis on glaucoma at the University of Edinburgh. Having completed his qualification as a doctor of medicine, he returned to

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Trinidad as the country’s first trained specialist in ophthalmology, and he established his own eye clinic on Frederick Street, Port of Spain. He performed free surgery twice a week at the Port of Spain Colonial Hospital, where he was appointed as the institution’s first honorary ophthalmic surgeon. He also helped establish the Trinidad Association for the Prevention and Treatment of Tuberculosis, which was aimed at improving housing conditions in Port of Spain to reduce transmission of the infection. He served as a member of the Council of the Medical Board for 20 years and as its vice president and president. He also served as one of the country’s representatives on the editorial panel of the West Indian Medical Journal. Dr. McShine served for 28 years as president of Trinidad Co-operative Bank, popularly known as the “Poor Man’s Friend.” It was one on the first institutions to allow low-income individuals to practice thrift and cooperation and to enter the formal market for loanable funds. It aided them to acquire low-income housing. Dr. McShine also became involved in politics. He became one of the elected members of the Port of Spain City Council on its establishment in 1914. He served as mayor of the city from 1921 to 1922, and acted as mayor on several occasions between 1920 and 1926. He was appointed as an unofficial member of the Legislative Council from 1921 to 1943, and served as an appointed member of the Executive Council from 1937 to 1943. Upon retirement, the British government permitted McShine to retain the title “The Honourable.” He was awarded the Order of the British Empire and, later, the title of Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire. He died in 1948. See also HEALTH. McWILLIAMS, IRVIN (1920–2007). McWilliams made his debut as a costume designer for Trinidad’s Carnival in 1957. Initially his themes were mainly European influenced, but by 1961, he embarked on a new path that was to characterize most of his life’s work creating mas that celebrated the local history, culture, and heritage of Trinidad and Tobago. The first of such productions was Hail La Trinite, and it was the first time that any bandleader in the country depicted a theme that was entirely local. In 1971, when McWilliams won his first Band of the Year title, he had drawn inspiration from the natural beauty of Tobago in a production called Wonders of Buccoo Reef. With Our Anancy Stories (1972) and Know Yuh Country (1978), McWilliams’s mas was spun from local materials and won the highly prized Band of the Year title. Altogether he produced 32 Carnival productions, and he became known as the bandleader who, through Carnival, popularized local culture and helped locals learn about and appreciate their heritage. In 1971, he received the national Hummingbird Award (Silver) for his contribution to the development of Carnival. See also FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT.

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MEDAL OF MERIT. See NATIONAL AWARDS. MEDIA. See NEWSPAPERS, MAGAZINES, AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS (LOCAL 19TH CENTURY); RADIO; TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO TELEVISION (TTT). MELVILLE, GEORGE NORRIS (1939–2011). Melville was born on 15 December 1939 at Roxborough, Tobago. He obtained his education at the Ebenezer Methodist School and at Bishop’s High School, Tobago. Melville earned a BSc general science degree in 1966 from the University of Manitoba. He later went on to obtain a master’s degree in physiology from Dalhousie University in Halifax in 1968. Melville studied for one year in Germany before heading to Mona, Jamaica, to lecture at the University of the West Indies (UWI) and earn his PhD in 1972. He later returned to Germany to acquire his medical degree and teach physiology at the University of Essen. During this time, Melville also worked at the Silicosis Research Institute, the Herne Medical Centre, and Ruhr University. In 1978, Melville returned to Jamaica as professor and head of the Physiology Department. Melville returned to Trinidad and Tobago in 1985 where he was instrumental in the establishment of the Faculty of Medical Sciences at Mount Hope. He formulated a proposal for the establishment of the medical school, which the government accepted. He became the first professor of physiology and vice dean of the faculty. Melville has had well over 120 publications in physiology and medical education and has served in numerous other capacities outside the university. He served as CARICOM (Caribbean Community) health advisor in Guyana from 1987 to 1988; chairman of the Vision 2020 Sub-Committee on Health; and member of the Caribbean Academy of Sciences, European Society of Respiratory Physiology, and the Academy of Sciences for the Developing World. Melville passed away on 26 March 2011. MEMORIAL PARK. Located in north Port of Spain opposite the National Museum and the Queen’s Park Savannah, the park was opened on 1 May 1924 by Governor Samuel Wilson to honor the fallen local heroes of World War I and World War II. During World War I, a public meeting to discuss a permanent memorial for fallen locals was held at Princes Building on 4 August 1916, led by the mayor of Port of Spain at the time, Dr. Enrique Prada. The decision, however, was put off to after the war. In 1918, discussions resumed, and the first site suggested was Marine Square in downtown Port of Spain; however, public objections to this site led to another being chosen. Referred to as the “little Savannah” due to its placement, it was an unoccupied pasture of land. Drawings by sculptor L. F. Roslyn were com-

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missioned for the memorial and placed for public viewing at the Royal Victoria Institute. At the center of the park is a stately cenotaph upon which the names of the 180 fallen men were inscribed. Wilson, during the laying of the foundation stone in 1924, placed a capsule containing newspaper clippings, commemorative coins, and the history of the project in the memorial. In 1945, there was a rededication of the site for deceased World War II heroes. Each year, Armistice Day is commemorated by the parade and ceremony in Memorial Park where wreaths are laid at the foot of the cenotaph. MENDES, ALFRED HUBERT (1897–1991). Mendes was born in Trinidad on 18 November 1897 and belonged to a Portuguese Creole family. He received primary school education in Trinidad, and at age 15, he was enrolled as a student of Hitchin Grammar School in the United Kingdom. In 1916, he signed up to serve as a rifleman fighting along the Belgian Front during World War I and received the Military Medal for bravery and devotion under fire during the war. Two years after World War I ended, Mendes returned to Trinidad and worked as a civil servant of the British colonial government as well as in his family’s provisioning business. In his spare time, he wrote prose, fiction, and poetry. Along with C. L. R. James, Mendes pioneered the magazine titled Trinidad, which released two popular issues: Christmas 1929 and Easter 1930. He was also a founding member and regular contributor to the Beacon, a journal that Albert Gomes edited. He was the author of over 60 short stories and several novels, including The Man Who Ran Away and Other Stories of Trinidad in the 1920s and 1930s, Pablo’s Fadango and Other Stories, Pitch Lake, and Black Faun. In 1972, the University of the West Indies (UWI) awarded Mendes an honorary doctor of letters for his pioneering role in the development of West Indian literature. In recognition of his literary scholarship, in 2002 the UWI published The Autobiography of Alfred H. Mendes 1897–1991. He died in Barbados in 1991 where his remains are buried in the Christ Church Cemetery. MERCHANTS AND PLANTERS CORPS. Following the commencement of World War I, volunteers from across Trinidad and Tobago society enlisted to serve with the British forces. Enlistment in Trinidad reflected racial segregation in the society. Volunteers belonging to white upper-class families formed the contingent of the Merchants and Planters Corps who were trained at the Princes Building in Port of Spain, separately from the black volunteers. Young white teenagers were often given officers’ commissions to lead senior black and colored men. In all, 21 members of the Merchants and Planters Corps died in the war. When the Merchants and Planters contingent returned to Trinidad at the end of the war, they were welcomed as heroes and

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feted at the Queen’s Park Hotel and the governor’s residence, which was not accorded to the black group. This was an example of the discriminatory treatment that encouraged the Dockworkers Strike. MERIKINS. See SPIRITUAL SHOUTER BAPTIST. THE MIGHTY SPARROW. See FRANCISCO, SLINGER (THE MIGHTY SPARROW, THE BIRDIE) (1935– ). MILLE FLEURS. Also known as the Salvatori Building or Prada’s House and one of the Magnificent Seven, this building was constructed in 1904. The daughter of a wealthy cocoa planter from Venezuela named Prada commissioned George Brown and Company to build the house as a gift for her Venezuelan-born husband, Dr. Enrique Prada. Mille Fleurs is designed in French provincial style with ornate carved balusters, marble treads, risers to both the main and secondary staircases, cast-iron columns, brackets, banisters, and fret work. The Pradas lived in Mille Fleurs for 19 years until it was purchased by Joseph Salvatori in 1923. When he died in 1959, his wife remained the sole occupant until her death in 1971. The building was inherited by Paris resident Mrs. Pierre Lelong, daughter of the Salvatoris, who sold it to George Matouk. Mille Fleurs was purchased by the government of Trinidad and Tobago from Matouk in 1979 for $1 million to house the offices of the National Security Council. After the purchase, however, the building remained vacant and fell into disrepair. It is listed as a heritage site and protected under the National Trust Act. See also TOURISM. MINAJ, NICKI (1982– ). Minaj is a Trinidad-born, U.S.-based hip-hop artist who is a Platinum record holder. She has the distinction of being the only recording artist to date to have seven singles on the Billboard Hot 100 at the same time. Her other achievements include several BET Awards, a UK Asian Music Award, a NARM Award for Breakthrough Artist of the Year, Teens’ Choice Award, and MTV Video Music Award. See also FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. MINSHALL, PETER (1941– ). The most decorated and controversial of all Trinidad and Tobago’s Carnival bandleaders, Minshall was born in British Guiana on 16 July 1941 and migrated with his parents to Trinidad and Tobago at an early age. He attended Queen’s Royal College where he became heavily involved in theater productions of the school, and he also designed sets for the Trinidad Light Opera. He studied theater design at London’s School of Art and Design from 1959 to 1966, and while his creative genius first came to national attention when he created the Land of the Humming-

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bird, the costume which won the Junior Carnival Queen Competition in 1974, Minshall had already made his mark on the international scene through his design of costumes for drama sets including the set of Beauty and the Beast in Britain and as an assistant professor of drama at Dartmouth College in the United States. In 1976, with Stephen Lee Heung, he coproduced Paradise Lost, which cupped Band of the Year and King and Queen of Carnival titles. Minshall took Trinidad and Tobago’s Carnival beyond the streets to register social commentary and to air controversial issues. He infused theatrical drama into his presentations and produced a series of iconic mas rooted in the calypso rhythms of the society: Zodiac (1978); Carnival of the Sea (1979); Dance Macabre (1980); Jungle Fever (1981); Papillon (1982); River (1984); Callaloo (1985); Rat Race (1987); Jumbie (1988); Sans Humanité (1989); and Tantana (1990). Of his 17 mas productions, four won the Band of the Year title and four won People’s Choice while his Kings and Queens, notably Tan Tan and Saga Boy and Man Crab, often won first place. He was innovative in the materials he chose for his creations, and he made pretty mas out of revolting characters such as bats, devils, and imps. Minshall’s creative genius made him continually in demand on the international scene. His artistry was on display in the Pan American Games (1987), the Barcelona Olympics (1992), Football World Cup (1994), the Atlanta Olympics (1996), and the Salt Lake City Olympics (2002). Extensive accolades decorate his name in recognition of his sterling contributions to art and culture. These include Trinidad and Tobago Chaconia Medal (Silver), 1987; doctor of letters, the University of the West Indies, 1991; Trinity Cross, government of Trinidad and Tobago, 1996; Prince Claus of the Netherlands Award, 2001; the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences Annual U.S. Prime Time Emmy Award for Outstanding Costumes for a Variety or Music Program (for his contribution to the opening ceremony of the 2002 Olympics), 2002; Trinidad and Tobago Republic Day Award 2005 and National Icon of Trinidad and Tobago, 2012. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. MITCHELL, LIONEL PAUL “SKIPPER” (1905–1991). Skipper Mitchell was born on 17 August 1905 to schoolteachers John and Louisa Mitchell on Piccadilly Street, Port of Spain. He was educated at Western Boys’ Roman Catholic (RC) School where he became a pupil-teacher. At age 17, he attended the Catholic Teachers Training College, and two years later in 1924, he was posted as an assistant teacher at the Scarborough RC School. He later became its principal and was transferred to Patience Hill RC School where he served until his retirement in 1960. He developed a reputation as an excellent teacher and was much sought out by parents as he never believed there could be failures in education. He gave private lessons at his home, taught in several private institutions, and opened his own school, the Tobago

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Institute of Education, to give opportunity to those termed “dropouts,” in 1972. He encouraged students to study overnight at his school and gave scholarships to those whose parents could not afford the monthly fee of $6 so their children would not be deprived of an education. He introduced Scouting to Tobago and founded the first Scout Brass band, later renamed the Adult Education Brass Band. The first live radio broadcast from Tobago, sponsored by the Bermudez Biscuit Company, was of a cultural performance held at his home. In community development, he served as resource music lecturer, and when the Division of Culture was established in 1958, he played an important role in its development as chairman of the Scarborough Community Council and through his interface with many of the existing cultural groups. He formed and trained the Tobago Brass Band, which performed at parades and official functions. He was organist and choirmaster of the Scarborough Roman Catholic Church and founded and trained the Stars of Tomorrow who participated in the national music festivals. He was made a member of the Tobago Cultural Committee, which was formed to coordinate culture and art forms in Tobago in 1959, and became chair of the island’s Musical Festival Committee, giving the island full status in the musical festival rather than as adjunct of North Trinidad. Mitchell was president of the Tobago Music Festival for many years and was director of the Seventh-day Adventist School Choir, the first school to qualify to participate in the National Music Festival Championship. He was involved in drama productions for the Stars of Tomorrow and for the Tobago District Teachers’ Association’s annual get-together. Also, he was a long-standing member of the Tobago branch of the Red Cross and was its first director. In the independence era, he was a member of the Organizing Committee and chairman of the Music, Dance and Drama Committee. In 1958, he served as the first chairman of the Tobago Carnival Development Committee, and he started Tobago’s first calypso tent, which was the launching pad for McCartha Lewis (Calypso Rose), the nation’s first female calypsonian and Calypso Monarch. He was a foundation member of the Tobago United Co-operative Society Limited, and he was elected on its first board of directors. He also served as vice president and education officer of the society and on several subcommittees. He was a member of the committee established to formulate the society’s rules and policies and for providing the structures for establishing a supermarket and training its staff. He was captain of the Tobago cricket club, which awarded scholarships to promising young sportsmen including Clint Yorke, Alston Daniel, Terry Joseph, Dean St. Hilaire, and Joseph Douglas, all of whom made the national cricket team. Mitchell was a foundation member of the Tobago Secondary Schools Sports Council, was president of the Tobago zone of the Trinidad and Tobago Secondary Schools’ Football Association, and was actively in-

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volved in the Tobago Secondary Schools’ Cricket League. He was also involved in the island’s politics as a member of the Fargo movement, and he unsuccessfully contested elections as an independent for Bacolet/Calder Hall. He later became a staunch member of the People’s National Movement (PNM) and assisted the PNM Youth League. Mitchell was a supporter of the Tobago Breakfast Shed and arranged for needy children to have lunch there at his own expense. He accommodated children in his own home and allowed those preparing for examinations to sleep over. Mitchell drove an old station wagon dubbed “the ground plane” or “the school bus” because on his way to dropping his children to school he picked up every school child he encountered on the road. Mitchell was also a writer who produced stories, plays, and songs. In 1974, he received a national award, the Public Service Medal of Merit (Gold). He died on 17 January 1991. MOHAMMED, KAMALUDDIN (1927–2015). Mohammed (or “Kamal” or “Charch” as he was fondly called) was a founding member of the People’s National Movement (PNM). He was born in El Socorro on 19 April 1927 to Fazal Mohammed and Khajima Kartoum, children of indentured laborers. At age 20, he became an imam in a masjid in Queen Street, Port of Spain. He entered politics in 1953 when he was elected in County Council elections. He entered Parliament in 1956; was assigned the portfolio of minister of agriculture, lands, and fisheries; and became the youngest minister in the Commonwealth. He was elected as a member of Parliament for six terms, and served for 30 unbroken years as a cabinet minister. Kamal is widely regarded as someone who, despite his achievements as a leading politician and national figure, never lost his capacity to relate to the common person. He was a prominent Indo-Trinidadian politician in the primarily Afro-based PNM with a capacity for staying power in the Williams administration, despite Williams’s penchant for putting his governmental colleagues in cold storage or getting rid of them for real or imagined wrongs. A devout Muslim, Kamal educated himself in Hindi, Urdu, Arabic and Persian, and Indian culture. He was the first announcer of an Indian musical radio program and strove tirelessly for Hindu-Islamic unity. He stood out in the battle against racism in the politics of the country. He held a number of ministerial portfolios, including minister of agriculture (1956–1961) and (1981–1986); minister of public utilities (1961–1967); minister of West Indian affairs (1967–1973); minister of external affairs (1971–1973); and minister of health and local government (1973–1981). He was also one of the deputy political leaders of the PNM, served as acting prime minister on several occasions during the George Chambers administration, and was the first Caribbean citizen to serve as president of the World Health Organization. During the Basdeo Panday administration (1991–1995), he was appointed Trinidad and Toba-

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go’s ambassador to the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Kamal is the recipient of an honorary doctor of letters from the University of the West Indies, and the country’s highest award, the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago and the Order of CARICOM. The last surviving member of the first PNM cabinet, Kamal died on 1 December 2015. MORRIS, KENWYN ARLOTSON (1924–1992). Born on 11 March 1924 on Duke Street, Port of Spain, Morris was the fifth of six children of Robert and Maude Morris. The family moved to Belmont in 1928 when he was four years of age, and he attended Richmond Street Boys’ EC School from age six to 14. His talent in working metal, especially copper, in designing costumes was his most distinctive accomplishment in this field and made him a household name for almost 40 years. He developed the repousse process of heating and shaping sheets of metal into a sphere or dome, which then made it possible to use metal in innovative and elaborate costuming. In the 1950s, the era when Trinidad’s masquerade was dominated by historical themes, the talent of the master sculptor, Morris was in highest demand. He worked for the big bandleaders and was the genius in the two-way tie for Carnival Band of the Year 1958, which was shared by Harold Saldenah’s Atlantis and Bobby Ammon’s Holy War. He was well known for the Greek and Roman breastplates that he fashioned using copper and bronze. Morris’s talent as an artist was not limited to Carnival. In 1959, he designed and executed the Speaker’s Mace for the West Indian Federal Parliament, and with Carlisle Chang, he produced a number of excellent sculptures including the 16-footlong mural commissioned by the Hilton Hotel, which is cataloged in a volume titled The Gift (2000). The Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago; St. Paul’s Church in San Fernando, Trinidad; and the Hilton Hotel in Puerto Rico also commissioned his work. His final work was The Dove, which replaced the weathervane of a dragon at the top of the rotunda of the Red House. In 1962, he got the Trinidad Arts Society Award for most outstanding sculpture. In 1965, he received Trinidad and Tobago’s highest national cultural award at the time, the Pegasus Trophy. In 1969, Ken Morris received the national Hummingbird Medal (Bronze) for his contribution to the development of art in Trinidad. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. MORTON, JOHN (1839–1912). Morton was Canadian of Scottish descent and minister of the Presbyterian Church in Nova Scotia, Canada, who became the founder and leader of the Presbyterian Church in Trinidad and Tobago. Morton was born on 20 December 1839, and his first visit to Trinidad, in 1864, was unplanned. He was traveling to Barbados on the Sapphire to spend the winter, but en route, the ship stopped off in Trinidad to collect

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oak staves. Morton was touched by the plight of the 20,000-odd Indian migrants in Trinidad who lived in squalor, without an English education and in what he deemed to be heathenism. Having given thought to the contribution he could make to alleviate the condition of the immigrants, early in 1865 Morton applied to the Presbyterian Mission Board, and by 3 January 1868, he and his wife Sarah, along with their infant daughter, arrived in San Fernando, Trinidad, to begin their lives as missionaries to Indians on the island. He was formally inaugurated as a missionary of the Canadian Presbyterian Church in a church on Penitence Road in San Fernando, but by 21 February 1868, he was stationed in Iere Village and was later posted to several districts across the country including Princes Town, Cedros, Chaguanas, San Juan, Tunapuna, Arima, and Sangre Grande. The initial plan was that Morton would take over and revive the abandoned mission house established in 1843 by the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland (United States) whose focus was on the formerly enslaved. While the priority of the Mortons was the conversion of the Indians in Trinidad to Christianity, they recognized the need to overcome the difficulties posed by the language barrier of their Hindi-speaking students. Thus, their greatest contribution was the education of Indian children in Trinidad from the end of the 19th century. Morton opened his first school in Trinidad in Tunapuna, where he resided, on 1 August 1881. By the time Morton retired from missionary service, he left a legacy of educating approximately 8,000 students in 61 schools in Trinidad. He also spearheaded the construction of his first church, the Morton Memorial Presbyterian Church, in Guaico in east Trinidad. Morton and his team of missionaries, including Kenneth Grant and Thomas Christie, did not limit their missionary activities in Trinidad to education and church work. They were also heavily involved in influencing legislation to improve the daily lives of Indian indentured workers by promoting legislation to ban the smoking of marijuana and by the establishment of Indian villages such as Fyzabad and Penal. Morton died on 4 August 1912. In honor of his work in Trinidad, Morton Street in Princes Town and Morton Street in Tunapuna are named after him. See also HILLVIEW COLLEGE; NAPARIMA COLLEGE (NAPS). MOTTLEY, WENDELL ADRIAN (1942– ). An athlete, economist, and politician, Mottley was born in Woodbrook, Port of Spain, on 2 July 1941 to public servants Adrian and Marjorie Mottley. He was educated at Tranquility Boys’ School; Queen’s Royal College; Yale University (1960–1964); and Cambridge University, England, from 1964 to 1966. His career in athletics began when he won races at his school, and he blossomed as an athlete at university. Mottley made his Olympic debut as a sprinter in the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo where he carried the Trinidad and Tobago flag and earned two medals: one for his individual performance in the 400-meter

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men’s race where he placed second, and the other for his contribution as anchor in the men’s 4 x 400 meters relay race in which Trinidad and Tobago took the silver medal position. At the British Empire and Commonwealth Games in 1966, he won gold medals in the 440 meters and 4 x 440 meters relay races. He had an illustrious career in the stock exchange on Wall Street, New York, and was a former politician in the country of his birth. He was member of Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago from 1981 to 1986 and served as minister of industry and commerce. From 1991 to 1995, he was minister of finance in the People’s National Movement administration. Mottley has served his country in myriad other ways. He was the first chief executive officer of the Point Lisas Industrial Port Development Company; non-executive director of BCB Holdings Ltd. (2009–2011); senior advisor, Credit Suisse (2011–2012); chairman, Unit Trust Corporation (2013–2015); and director of Pan-American Life Insurance Group and the Asa Wright Nature Centre since 2013. Mottley is the recipient of several honors: John F. Kennedy Award for Meet’s Outstanding Athlete (January 1964); Helms Award (Outstanding Sportsman of the Western Hemisphere), 1966; and Trinidad and Tobago Hummingbird Medal (Gold), 1979. He was inducted into the Trinidad and Tobago Hall of Fame in 1985 and named as one of Trinidad and Tobago’s 50 Greatest Legends in Sport (1962–2012) at the nation’s 50th independence anniversary celebrations. See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962). MOURNFUL MONDAY. The date 23 March 1903, the day of the Water Riots or Red House Fire, is often referred to as Mournful Monday. About 3,000 people had gathered in Woodford Square to gain entry to the Red House to hear deliberations over the colonial administration’s unilateral decision to impose water meters in parts of the capital city against the expressed wishes of the burgesses of the town. The insistence of the authorities on entry by ticket caused the crowd to become unruly as they broke down the barriers to force entry into the building. In the ensuing fracas, protestors hurled stones, and the police responded with shots and bayonets. In the end, 16 people, including five women, were killed, 43 were seriously injured, and 12 policemen were wounded. The main infrastructural casualty was the Red House, which was destroyed by a fire set by the protestors. See also LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL. MOVEMENT FOR SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION (MOTION). This political party was founded in September 1989, with David Abdullah as its political leader. Its formation was the result of a mandate given by the Council for Labor Solidarity (CLS), which itself had been formed in 1981 and given a mandate by radical trade union leaders to establish a political party

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from among the members of the labor movement. The trade union leaders of the CLS included Raffique Shah, who was the leader of a faction of the United Labour Front; Errol McLeod, who was at the helm of the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union (OWTU); David Abdullah, then education officer of the OWTU; and George Weekes. The party they were mandated to form manifested itself as MOTION on 10 September 1989. MOTION itself later inspired the formation of the Joint Trade Union Movement (JTUM). In retrospect, MOTION, JTUM, and other such radical movements were reacting to the National Alliance for Reconstruction and its structural adjustment policies, which George Weekes supported but were considered “antiworker” by other members of the labor movement. MOVEMENT FOR UNITY AND PROGRESS (MUP). This was the first political party in Trinidad and Tobago to be led by a woman and was a very significant step by an Indian woman into politics. Hulsie Bhaggan was a United National Congress (UNC) member of Parliament who in 1994 unsuccessfully rivaled Basdeo Panday for political leadership of the party. In 1995, after being reprimanded by the party’s leadership for blocking a highway in Central Trinidad as part of her protest against perennial flooding in UNC-held constituencies, Bhaggan broke ranks with the UNC and formed her own political party, the Movement for Unity and Progress (MUP). MUP made no significant inroads at the polls, but the level of support enjoyed by the party indicated an appreciable level of popularity and sensitivity among the voting population for women candidates who aspired to lead. MUD VOLCANOES. See DEVIL’S WOODYARD. MUHARRAM MASSACRE. See HOSAY MASSACRE OF 1884. MURRAY, DERYCK LANCE (1943– ). Murray, son of former national and West Indies cricketer Lance Murray, was born on 20 May 1943 and grew up in Tacarigua close to paternal and maternal (the Bhaggans) relatives. He was educated at Queen’s Royal College, the University of Nottingham, and Cambridge University. A Trinidad and Tobago cricketer who was a righthanded batsman and wicket keeper, Murray appeared in 53 test matches between 1963 and 1980. He holds the record for the wicket keeper with most dismissals by a West Indian wicket keeper. Between 1976 and 1981, he captained Trinidad and Tobago’s national cricket team, and he also served as vice captain of the West Indies team from 1975 to 1979. In addition to the national and West Indies teams, Murray also played on cricket teams for Nottinghamshire, Cambridge University, Warwickshire, and the World XI. He served the national cricket community for two terms as president of the

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Trinidad and Tobago Cricket Board between 2005 and 2009, president of the Queen’s Park Cricket Club, head of the Sir Frank Worrell National Cricket Development Centre, and manager of the Trinidad and Tobago national teams between 1981 and 1991. Regionally, he served as manager of the West Indies World Cup team in 1992, director of the West Indies Cricket Board, member of the West Indies Cricket Committee, and referee for three one-day international cricket matches. On retiring from cricket, he was appointed as a diplomat in the Ministry of External Affairs from 1976 to 1989, which included a posting as the representative to the United Nations in New York. In 1975, he was named West Indian Tobacco Sportsman of the Year, received the Trinidad and Tobago Chaconia Medal (Gold) for Cricket, and was named one of Trinidad and Tobago’s sporting legends at the 50th anniversary of independence in 2012. MURRAY, WINSTON (1935–2017). Murray was born in Charlotteville, Tobago, to Melita Lewis Murray and Gouril Murray. He attended Charlotteville Methodist and Speyside Anglican schools. He migrated to Trinidad at the age of 12 with the intention of acquiring a job with the oilfield workers as an apprentice. He was unsuccessful and eventually obtained a job as a tailor at Merring Jacks and Prescod Esquire Fashions in Port of Spain. He later attended secondary school at Osmond High School and then St. Mary’s College. Murray then became a teacher of Spanish and Latin at Progressive High and San Juan Secondary Schools. In 1959, he attended Howard University where he studied Spanish and Latin American history and eventually went on to acquire his bachelor’s degree from the National Autonomous University in Mexico. Murray obtained a master’s degree from the Georgetown School of Foreign Service and later his doctorate from American University, Washington, DC, in Latin American affairs. While in the United States, he founded the Carib-American Research Institute in Baltimore, Maryland, to strengthen communication between the United States and the Caribbean. He returned to Tobago in 1970 and worked for two years as a foreign service officer. Murray entered politics, joined the Democratic Action Congress, and unsuccessfully contested the general elections in the constituency of Tobago West. He contested the elections again in 1976 and won the seat. He was member of Parliament (MP) from 1976 to 1981 and played a significant role, along with A. N. R. Robinson, in advocating for greater selfgovernance in Tobago, resulting in the reestablishment of the Tobago House of Assembly in 1980. After his tenure as MP, Murray founded the Tobago News—a weekly newspaper dedicated solely to the Tobago community. He was an educator, teaching at Morgan State University and Bowie State University. He also lectured at the U.S. Military Intelligence College at Fort Holabird in Maryland.

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In 1997, Murray cofounded and became the coordinator of the Tobago Community College of Sciences, Technology and Humanities. He is the author of “The Politics of the Dispossessed: Politics, Labour and Social Legislation in the Commonwealth Caribbean,” which dissected the growth of the Caribbean labor and political economies and has been a textbook for the History Department of Morgan State University. Murray died on 1 January 2017. MUSIC. See FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. See also CULTURE; MUSIC FESTIVAL (TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO). MUSIC FESTIVAL (TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO). This is a biannual competition held at Queen’s Hall in Port of Spain that, throughout the second half of the 20th century and the 21st century nurtured and sustained the development of the musical arts in Trinidad and Tobago. Inaugurated by the Trinidad Music Association in 1948, it became the showcase for aspiring artists and musicians and, throughout the years, has been the teething ground for many famous Trinidadian musicians. In 1972, the Trinidad and Tobago Music Festival Association HBM was incorporated by an Act of Parliament of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (No. 15 of 1972) and was empowered “to promote and hold music festivals and to do all other such things as are incidental to the holding of such festivals; and to do all other things necessary for the encouragement of the appreciation of music.” Typically held in February, competitors hail from traditional schools, music schools, churches, chorales, and ensembles (singing and steelband). Unfortunately, beset by sponsorship problems, the 2014 competition was canceled. The festival resumed, however, in 2016. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT.

N NAIPAUL, VIDIADHAR SURAJPRASAD (1932– ). V. S. Naipaul was born in Trinidad in 1932 in the then rural sugarcane district of Chaguanas in a house that is today known as the Lion House but was originally named Anand Bhavan (Mansion of Bliss) by its designer and builder. When he was six years old, his family moved to Port of Spain. He is of Indian descent and grew up in a large extended traditional Indian family. His grandfather, Pundit Capildeo, was a direct immigrant from the town of Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh Province, India. His family adhered to the Hindu religion and has emphasized that they are descendants of the upper Hindu caste of Brahmins. Naipaul, however, as is reflected in many of his novels, takes no pride in his Brahmin ancestry. To the contrary, he rejects and even satirizes Hinduism. Naipaul displays both in real life and in his writings an inability to form spiritual connections with his heritage. This inability to connect is not just limited to the Hindu religion but also to the culture of Trinidad; his home country, India, the land of his ancestors; and even Britain, his home of exile. While Naipaul’s writing began as strictly West Indian literature, much of his later works make it more appropriate to regard him as a writer of the world. Naipaul writes of the West Indies, of India, of Africa, of Britain, of Pakistan, and even of North America. He was knighted in 1990 and was the Noble Prize winner for literature in 2000. NANAN, RANGY (1953– ). Nanan is a former right-arm slow bowler and right-hand batsman who represented the West Indies in a tour against Pakistan in 1980–1981. In 1991, he was awarded the Trinidad and Tobago Chaconia Medal (Silver) for Cricket. NAPARIMA COLLEGE (NAPS). Formerly called the Canadian Mission Indian School, this is a secondary school for boys founded in 1894 by a Canadian Presbyterian missionary to Trinidad, Dr. Kenneth Grant. In its early days, the school operated in the churchyard of Susamachar Presbyterian Church. By 1900, it was affiliated with the Queen’s Royal College in Port of Spain, became a government-assisted school, and adopted its present 247

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name, Naparima College. In 1917, the school moved from the Susamachar churchyard and took up permanent residence at Lute Drive, Paradise Pasture, San Fernando, in south Trinidad. See also EDUCATION. NAPARIMA GIRLS’ COLLEGE. This is the sister school of Naparima College and is a secondary girls’ school. The school was founded in 1912 by Reverend Dr. F. Coffin and is located on La Pique Hill overlooking San Fernando. The school’s motto is “Not for ourselves only but for others.” In keeping with the motto, students are required to give 40 hours of community service during their first four years as students in the school. See also EDUCATION. NAPIER BROOME, FREDERICK (1842–1896). Sir Frederick was the governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 19 August 1891 to 1897. He was born in Canada in 1842 to parents Reverend Frederick Broome and Catherine Eleanor. His wife was the widow Mary Barker, whom he married on 21 June 1865. In 1870 and 1874, the couple had two sons. At different times in his life, he was a farmer, journalist, poet, and administrator. He published two volumes of his work in 1868 and 1869. He performed the duties of colonial administrator in Natal, Mauritius, Barbados, Western Australia, and Trinidad and Tobago. NATIONAL ALLIANCE FOR RECONSTRUCTION (NAR). This political party was formed as a coalition of opposition forces established to wrest power from the ruling People’s National Movement (PNM). The party was formally launched on 8 September 1985 at the Queen’s Park Savannah. The coalition included the Democratic Action Congress, led by A. N. R. Robinson; the United Labour Front (ULF), led by Basdeo Panday; the Organization for National Reconstruction (ONR), led by Karl Hudson-Phillip; and the Tapia House Movement, led by Lloyd Best. Tapia subsequently pulled out of the coalition. Robinson was chosen as the political leader of the National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR), and Panday and Hudson-Phillip as his two deputies. The coalition was in the making since 1981 in the aftermath of the defeat of the ONR by the PNM in the general elections of that year. The political appeal of the NAR lay in its inclusiveness. It attracted groups belonging to all races and classes, particularly those disenchanted with the PNM after its unbroken 30 years in office. Accordingly, described variously as the “rainbow party” and “rainbow coalition,” the NAR used as its theme song and mantra Bob Marley’s popular ditty, “One Love.” In the elections of 1986, NAR dealt the PNM a crushing defeat, winning 33 of the 36 seats contested. However, within months of forming the government and assuming office, there was dissent in the ranks of the NAR. Subsequently,

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the NAR’s majority in the Lower House was reduced to 27 following a rift between Prime Minister Robinson and a number of government ministers who were frontline members of the ULF. The dissension resulted in Robinson firing these ministers from the cabinet, and as members of Parliament, they refused to support his government in the Lower House. In the election of 1991, the NAR was only able to hold on to two seats, both of which were located in Tobago, the native homeland of Robinson. The PNM replaced the NAR in government, and the United National Congress (UNC), founded by ULF members expelled from the NAR, was able to form the opposition in the Lower House. In the elections of 1995, the party, still under the leadership of Robinson, was once again able to retain its two seats in Tobago. These two seats proved strategically important in the forging of an NAR-UNC coalition, which formed the government after the results of the elections showed that the PNM and UNC had each secured 17 seats and there was no outright winner at the polls. The coalition government that consequently assumed office in 1995 was increasingly dominated by its UNC faction, especially after Robinson relinquished his cabinet post of “minister extraordinaire” to become president of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Moreover, his departure from the leadership of the NAR to take up his presidential appointment marked the end of his deep involvement in the politics of the party and intensified its demise as a political force in the country. Although at the time of writing the NAR continues to exist and function as a political party, it had lost much of its significance in the politics of both Tobago and Trinidad. NATIONAL ANTHEM. The national anthem was composed by Patrick S. Castagne in 1962. He first submitted it with its original title, “A Song for the Islands,” to the West Indies Federation as a possible anthem. He was not successful in his bid, but when the federation collapsed in 1962, he changed the line “Hands joined across the sea” to “Islands of the blue Caribbean Sea” and resubmitted the song to Trinidad and Tobago where it was accepted as the national anthem. The words of the national anthem reflect the nature and the strength of the people of Trinidad and Tobago. It is typically accorded the respect due to it when played, with all persons standing to attention. Men in civilian dress remove their headdress. Commissioned officers of the armed forces, gazetted officers of the police service, cadet force officers, and officers of the fire service, prisons service, St. John Ambulance Brigade, Red Cross Society, Boy Scout Association, and Girl Guides Association, while in uniform, salute when the anthem is being played. All other ranks and all other individuals stand to attention.

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NATIONAL AWARDS. Since independence on 31 August 1962, Trinidad and Tobago has honored outstanding and deserving citizens, conferring upon them special awards on the anniversary of independence. The Trinity Cross was the highest award that a citizen could have received and was given to persons or groups that rendered distinguished and outstanding service to Trinidad and Tobago. In 2008, the Trinity Cross was replaced by the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. The Hummingbird Medal was awarded to people who have rendered long, devoted service in the field of labor, sports, and culture. It is awarded in gold, silver, or bronze. The Chaconia Medal is awarded to people who have rendered long, meritorious service in the field of community work and social welfare. It, too, is awarded in gold, silver, or bronze. The Public Service Medal of Merit is awarded to members in the public service for outstanding and meritorious service. It is also awarded in gold, silver, or bronze. NATIONAL BIRDS. The national birds of Trinidad and Tobago are the Scarlet Ibis (representative of Trinidad) and the Cocrico (representative of Tobago). Both birds are protected by law. The largest habitat of the Scarlet Ibis is the Caroni Swamp in Central Trinidad. The Cocrico is native to both Tobago and Venezuela and is commonly referred to as the Tobago pheasant. See also COAT OF ARMS; NATIONAL FLAG; NATIONAL FLOWER. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF INDIAN CULTURE (NCIC). Established in 1964, 116 years after the arrival of the first group of Indian immigrants to Trinidad, the objectives of the National Council of Indian Culture (NCIC) were to promote Indian culture, assist impoverished Indian artists in the promotion of their cultural endeavors, and encourage the teaching of Indian culture. Prior to the formation of the organization, there were no caretaker groups formed specially for these purposes, although the attempt was being made by a number of organizations, including the East Indian League, Sanatan Dharma Association, Sanatan Dharma Board of Control, Anjuman Sunnat-Ul-Jamaat, Kabir Panth Association, and Arya Pratatinidhi Sabha. The NCIC, working in collaboration with these organizations, has been able to promote the observation of a number of important celebrations—Ramleela, Phagwa, Indian Arrival Day, and Divali, for example—and to promote Indian languages, songs, dances, musical instruments, dress, jewelry, religions, and socioeconomic practices. The NCIC has promoted Indian orchestras, film, and local radio, and has encouraged and supported the work of many Indian artists.

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NATIONAL FLAG. Designed by the Independence Committee, the flag with two black stripes and one central white stripe running diagonally from the right-hand corner of the red background was selected as the national flag in 1962. The red color represents the vitality of the land and the white the sea by which the two islands are connected, as well as the country’s heritage, aspirations, and the equality of all men under the sun. Black symbolizes the dedication of the people joined together by one strong bond. The colors of the flag are thought to represent the elements of earth, water, and fire. A committee was formed to advise government on the design of the flag and the coat of arms of the new nation and to choose a motto. It was further commissioned to consult the public on these matters. The committee submitted its report on 26 June 1962; the cabinet immediately approved the report, and a picture of the national flag was subsequently published. See also NATIONAL BIRDS; NATIONAL FLOWER. NATIONAL FLOWER. The national flower is the Chaconia. Also called “wild poinsettia,” it is a flaming red forest flower that belongs to the family Rubiaceae. This flower owes its botanical name, Warszewiczia coccinea, to the Polish Lithuanian plant collector Joseph Warszewiczia. The name “chaconia” was given in honor of the last and most progressive Spanish governor of Trinidad, Don José María Chacón. This flower, recognized by its long sprays of magnificent vermilion, usually blooms around the time of the nation’s anniversary of independence, 31 August. See also COAT OF ARMS; NATIONAL BIRDS; NATIONAL FLAG. NATIONAL HERITAGE TRUST OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO (1991). The National Heritage Trust was established by the National Trust Act (Chapter 40:53) to safeguard the country’s built and natural heritage. It is authorized to promote sustainable development and identify, acquire, preserve, and conduct research on properties of interest. Its remit also includes preparation of lists of such properties, advising government on conservation and preservation of heritage and educating the national community on the importance of heritage preservation and the value of properties of interest. The trust encourages preservation through awards for Best Historical Restoration Project and Best-Kept Historical Building (with categories for Large and Small), and its membership is open to the public. NATIONAL JOINT ACTION COMMITTEE (NJAC). During the 1970s, Trinidad and Tobago joined the list of countries overwhelmed by black consciousness struggles. During the Black Power Movement of 1970, labor riots and militant protest by young intellectuals of the country became the order of the day. Out of this, many radical, militant groups emerged in

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defiance of the government, neocolonialism, and what they viewed as the lingering control over “the commanding heights” of the economy by foreign capitalists. The prominent, active, and most influential among these groups was the National Joint Action Committee (NJAC). Formed in 1968–1969, it was able to mobilize young black intellectuals, trade union leaders, students in secondary schools, calypsonians, artists, and poets to protest in the street against foreign capitalist and neocolonial interests and against the People’s National Movement, which they saw as the tool of such interests. After the disturbances of 1970, the NJAC remained a pressure group advocating the promotion of African and Indian culture. NATIONAL MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. As part of a new British colonial initiative to establish cultural institutions throughout the Commonwealth, the National Museum and Art Gallery was first established as the Royal Victoria Institute in 1892 in commemoration of the Jubilee of Queen Victoria. The museum, boasting a collection of 10,000 items in seven major galleries, is located on upper Frederick Street in northern Port of Spain. It holds the special collection of the famous 19th-century artist Michel-Jean Cazabon and a small gallery for the Carnival Arts. It is presently governed by the National Museum and Art Gallery Act of 2000. NATIONAL UNEMPLOYMENT MOVEMENT (NUM). Through this organization, local African West Indians were mobilized, under the leadership of Elma François, Jim Barrette, Jim Headley, and Dudley Mahon to participate in hunger marches and other protest fora. The organization’s name points to its focus on unemployment, which was very high and aggravated by other social ills that inspired the protests of 1934, 1935, and 1937–1981. The name of the organization was changed to the Negro Welfare Cultural and Social Association (NWCSA) to include a broader focus on Africans, culture, and social welfare. NATIONAL UNION OF FREEDOM FIGHTERS (NUFF). The National Union of Freedom Fighters (NUFF) was an armed, revolutionary group that attempted to stir up popular revolt against the Eric Williams regime in the wake of the Black Power Movement of 1970. NUFF comprised an ethnically varied group of young men and women in which young, African-descended males predominated. Although many of them were well educated and came from families with professional and middle-class backgrounds, the vast majority of them were unemployed. Between 1972 and 1973, the organization developed a number of “Block Parliaments.” These were informal meeting points in alleys and street corners across the country where members

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of the organization and other interested people “hung out” to discuss political and ideological issues. Armed and hostile police officers, however, regularly interrupted these meetings. By 1973, members of NUFF had also been engaged in a number of armed robberies, some of which had ended in fatal shoot-outs with the police. Some clearly perceived themselves to be modernday “Robin Hoods” who were stealing from the rich to give to the poor. Some of the organization’s members were among the most wanted by the police. From a political and ideological perspective, NUFF’s position was that democracy in its true sense could not be determined by the electoral process, as there were inherent shortcomings in such a system. They perceived the only alternative to be what they described as “revolutionary democracy.” Members of NUFF were admonished: “You can either make it to liberation day or die trying.” During the 1970s, a number of members were shot and killed, beaten, abused, harassed, and arrested for all kinds of crimes, including bank robberies and the use of narcotics. Among them was 17-year-old Beverly Jones, who, in September 1973, was killed in the Diego Martin Hills following a shoot-out with the police. Some scholars see NUFF’s activities between 1970 and 1974 as four years of “guerrilla warfare” against the ruling regime and its seeming courtship of foreign capitalists at the expense of the people. After Jones’s death, she was viewed by some as the heroine of this revolutionary period. NELSON, ROBERT (NELSON, NELO) (1930– ). Born in Plymouth, Tobago, Nelson migrated to the United States as a teenager and served in the Korean War where he began singing calypsos to entertain his fellow soldiers. On his return to New York, he was introduced to the West Indian calypso community in the United States, and his career took off. Nelson’s calypsos were influenced by American music, and he departed from tradition to pioneer in the use of computerized instruments in calypso as he used digital sounds for his musical accompaniments. He never won a national calypso competition, but in 1989, he emerged as the Uncrowned King of Calypso, a competition that was held for off-island artists present at Trinidad’s annual Carnival. Some of Nelson’s well-known calypsos are “La La,” “King Liar,” “Garrot Bounce,” “Meh Lover,” “Bald Head Rasta,” and “Disco Daddy.” See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. NELSON ISLAND. This is one of the five islands off the west coast of Port of Spain in the Gulf of Paria. It was used by different indigenous groups who inhabited the island before the arrival of Christopher Columbus as a trading post. Both the Spanish and British colonizers used it to construct forts. By 1802, when the British had formal control over Trinidad, the labor of en-

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slaved Africans was used to construct the Soldiers’ Barracks, the first—and what is today one of the oldest—standing buildings on Nelson Island, which was used along with Caledonia Island during World War II to intern Austrian and German Jews who were seeking refuge in the colony. From 1866 to 1917, Nelson Island became an immigration depot both for Chinese and Indian indentured laborers to Trinidad. Initially, it accommodated a maximum of 450 people, but its accommodation capacity expanded to a maximum of 600 in 1881 and 1,000 by 1912. A total of 116,483 Indian immigrants passed through the island in this period, where they were medically examined. Those who were ill were transferred to Lenagan Island, and those who needed time to convalesce were kept in a building east of the main building. The healthy were kept on Nelson Island for a maximum of 10 days to allow recovery from the long sea journey and to finalize documentation. For many indentured workers, Nelson Island was their first Trinidad home. It was also the prison home for political detainees awaiting trial for offences allegedly committed during the 1970 Black Power uprising. See also CHACACHACARE. NEWSPAPERS, MAGAZINES, AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS (LOCAL 19TH CENTURY). During the 19th century, a number of local newspapers emerged and made important contributions to national discourses. Many were weekly publications. Most of them peddled points of view, ideological or otherwise, that represented class or group interests. Their interests were many: those of the white ruling elite, those of the white radical class, and those of the free colored community. Most published in English. Some were bilingual, and published in English and Spanish. Others were trilingual, publishing in English, Spanish, and French. Some represented regionalist interests. Whatever their interest, however, the vast majority of newspapers were owned and edited by the same individual. Additionally, quite a few of them were short-lived, some of them operational for less than a year. Many local figures who later assumed national or international significance cut their teeth as journalists working for these newspapers. The same holds for the newspapers of the early 20th century. The difference afterward, for example, during the late 20th century and into the present one, was the proliferation of newspapers, the rise of corporate ownership, and the use of numerous editors and subeditors, among other things. In the early 19th century, the newspapers were few and far between. The earliest were the Trinidad Gazette, issues of which appeared from 1820 to 1822. Next to emerge was the Port of Spain Gazette, which enjoyed a remarkably longer run and published from 1825 to 1959. It published general news and, by 1882, enjoyed a circulation of 400 copies weekly. It was owned and edited by G. H. Clarke and M. Antoine between 1870 and 1875. From 1875 to 1900/1910, it was owned and edited by T. R. Laughlin. Thereafter, in

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1910, it was purchased by L. F. Ambard. The records suggest that publication of the Trinidad Standard and West India Journal began circa 1837 and continued until 1849. Toward the middle of the 19th century, from circa 1848 to 1852, the Trinidadian was published by George Numa Dessources, its owner and editor. He also owned and edited another newspaper, the Trinidad Spectator, which he edited and published from 1846 to 1848. The Trinidad Mercantile Advertiser made its appearance for a very brief period in 1850. The San Fernando Gazette was published from 1850 to 1896. It carried letters to the editor, editorials, local and international articles, advertisements, obituaries, shipping news, sports news, and telegrams. From 1866 to 1874, it was owned and edited by A. Murray. For the next two decades, from 1874 to 1894, it was owned and edited by Samuel Carter. It was then owned and edited by Egbert Carter between 1894 and 1896. The Trinidad Free Press made its appearance between 1851 and 1852. The Herald & Venezuelan News began publication but was published only as the Herald in Palladium in 1854 when the latter newspaper itself made its reappearance. Palladium had been publishing irregularly since around 1833. The Trinidad Examiner made an appearance in Palladium during 1854 and in the Trinidad Reporter of 1855 when the latter emerged. The Chronicle published for a brief period in 1857. The years 1959 and 1960 saw publication of the Trinidad Press (and Advocate of the People). The Trinidad Sentinel appeared on the scene between 1854 and 1864. During the 1860s, four new newspapers emerged. First, there was the Trinidad Colonist, which was published between 1861 and 1863. Then there was the Trinidad Chronicles, a biweekly publication published between 1862 and 1885. From 1886 to 1869, it was owned and edited by Otto Wenkstern, and, following this, from 1869 to 1884, by T. W. Carr. Between 1884 and 1885, it was owned by I. Salas and edited by T. W. Carr. Third, Star of the West, appeared from 1862 to 1874 and was owned and edited by W. R. Saw Hawthorne. Fourth, the Trinidad Review, was introduced toward the end of the decade and was in circulation until 1884. During the first year, it was owned by de la Sausège and a partner known as Allen. It was edited by H. A. Paul. Publication tended to be irregular. Between 1883 and 1884, it was edited by J. J. Thomas. The Review was owned and edited by H. J. Clarke and published between 1869 and 1870. The 1870s and 1880s saw many new public newspapers. The Telegraph, published between 1871 and 1873, was owned and edited by William Herbert. New Era was published from 1869 to 1891. From 1874 to 1891, it was owned and operated by Joseph Lewis. The Trinidad News, published from 1871 to 1873, was owned and edited by Edward Payne. Fairplay, which had first made an appearance in 1854 and had been published then by Palladium, made its reappearance between 1874 and 1884, during which it was owned and edited by Henry Dillon.

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The Trinidad Palladium, published from 1876 to 1883, was owned by M. Antoine. Public Opinion was in print from 1884 to 1896. Between 1884 and 1890, it was owned and edited by Phillip Rostant. Between 1890 and 1893, it was owned and edited by J. de la Sausège. During the later year and for part of 1894, its operations were shut down. Publication resumed from 1894 to 1896 under de la Sausège, who continued as its owner and editor. Many newspaper publications of the 1870s and 1880s challenged the colonial system, as did those of the last decade of the 19th century. Pixy, published from 1884 to 1886, was owned by A. C. Blondel. It was a bimonthly publication and incorporated a comic. The Trinidad Recorder of 1884 enjoyed only a single year of publication. The Tattle appeared on the scene between 1887 and circa 1888. It was owned by J. St. Aignes and Company and edited by J. W. F. Walker. Truth appeared on the scene between 1887 and 1888. It was owned by A. C. Blondel and edited by J. de la Sausège. The Trinidad Times appeared between 1891 and 1892 and was owned and edited by W. A. Clarke. Quiz, irregularly published between 1892 and circa 1894, and satirically political, was owned and edited by de la Sausège. The Daily News, published between 1892 and circa 1894, was edited by William Lockhart and owned by a group of English merchants. The Weekly News, published during the same period, was owned and edited by the same parties and was a weekly digest in the Daily News. The Observer, published from 1893 to 1894, was yet another magazine owned and edited by de la Sausège. Creole, published between 1894 and 1895, was owned and edited by E. C. Fraser. It was irregularly issued and was politically satirical. Reform, published in between 1898 and 1900, was owned and edited by Phillip Rostant. A feature of the last three decades was the emergence of newspapers concerned with the state of development not only in Trinidad but also in nearby Venezuela, which was torn by civil conflicts. Some Venezuelan newspaper owners and journalists operated from Trinidad. The Echo of Trinidad was published between 1870 and 1873/1876. It was owned and edited by Venezuelan merchants resident in both Trinidad and Venezuela. So, too, was El Venezolano, published between 1886 and 1888. La Patria emerged between 1892 and 1897. Pabellon Venezolano made an appearance in 1896. El Pabellon made its appearance between 1897 and 1898. Venezuela News was published in La Patria in 1897. La Costa Firme and Observadore Venezolano both appeared in 1899. There were also those that concentrated primarily on economic developments, for example, Diari el Commerico emerged in 1893, and El Boletin Comercial in 1899. Meanwhile in Trinidad several magazines functioned as economic monitors. The Trinidad Semi-monthly Market Report, which was published in 1888, and the Proceedings of the Agricultural Society (Port of Spain), produced in three volumes over the period 1894 to 1899, were examples. Some examined broader parameters. Among them were the Trinidad

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Review of Politics, Literature and Science, published from 1983 to 1984, and Trinidad Reviewer (produced in London from 1899 to 1900). Additional data and analysis were provided in the West India Committee Circulars. See also APPENDIX E. NICHOLSON, PAMELA (SISTER PAM) (1945– ). Considered the most successful female Tobagonian politician, Nicholson was born on the 21 January 1945 in Charlotteville, Tobago. She first attended the Charlotteville Methodist Primary School and later entered Bishop’s High School (BHS) and Elizabeth’s College to complete her secondary education. She taught at the Montgomery Government Primary School from 1964 until 1973, then later studied for a bachelor of arts degree at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, from 1973 to 1976. From 1976 to 1977, she taught English literature at BHS, her alma mater, and from 1977 to 1981 she taught social studies and English at Scarborough Secondary School. Her efforts to support the development of Tobagonian youth were exhibited through her involvement with the Tobago Football Association and her successful lobbying for the inclusion of Tobago schools in the National InterCollegiate Football Competition. She also worked on behalf of Tobago’s teachers to increase the bargaining power of the teacher’s union, the Trinidad and Trinidad Unified Teachers’ Association (TTUTA). Nicholson, in the late 1970s, worked tirelessly alongside other Tobago stalwarts in the campaign for self-government for Tobago. This bent for activism was furthered by her official entrance into the political arena in 1981 when she ran as a Democratic Action Congress candidate and became the first female Tobagonian to win a seat in the general elections. After her first position as the Tobago East Representative, she contested three other elections and won the Tobago West seat for the National Alliance for Reconstruction each time. In 1987, she became the first Tobagonian woman to serve as a minister of Parliament, first as a junior minister of education and, later, minister of housing, settlements, and public utilities. In the latter part of the 1990s (1995–1998), she again served in government as minister of sports and youth affairs in the Basdeo Panday administration. She was instrumental in the establishment of the Sou-Sou Land Scheme, the formation of the New Grange Developer’s Cooperative, then the largest land development program in Tobago, and supplied land to the landless in Belle Garden, Blenheim, and Calder Hall. She also worked on establishing a $5 per square foot ceiling on the sale of government land and assisted the Mt. Pleasant Credit Union in resolving ownership issues surrounding the Bon Accord and Cove estates. An avid sportswoman, her work in sport and youth development is legendary. She lobbied for the Under 17 World Championship in 2001 and gained approval of the cabinet for one of the four new stadiums, the Dwight Yorke

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Stadium, to be constructed in Tobago. She introduced the Super 5 Youth Programme, established the high jump landing pit for Tobago athletes, and finalized the Draft Sports Policy of Trinidad and Tobago. Nicholson is considered a true campaigner for Tobagonian development at the national level, and her lengthy career in education and politics was recognized in 2013 when she received the Chaconia Medal (Gold) from the government of Trinidad and Tobago. NO VOTE CAMPAIGN (1970). In the aftermath of the Black Power disturbances in 1970 and as of the decision of Prime Minister Eric Williams to call the national election six months before they were constitutionally due, A. N. R. Robinson, a former deputy political leader of the People’s National Movement (PNM) who had resigned from the government and party to set up his political party, initiated a “No Vote” campaign that admonished citizens to desist from participating in the elections. He had, at that time, formed a new political party, the Action Committee of Dedicated Citizens (ACDC), and aligned with the Democratic Labour Party (DLP), which after much internal disintegration and one leadership crisis after another, had elected a new leader, Vernon Jamadar, who had replaced Bhadase Sagan Maraj. Clearly neither the DLP, the main opposition party, nor the ACDC was adequately prepared to contest the PNM in a national election. Nor was the newly established Democratic Liberation Party, headed by Maraj, who was trying to gain advantage from the DLP’s and ACDC’s abstention from the elections. The result of the “No Vote” campaign was a landslide PNM victory in the election. The PNM won every seat and functioned in the Parliament without any effective opposition, notwithstanding the resignation of a member of the PNM from the party and government to form a one-man opposition in the Lower House. NOEL, CLAUDE (1949– ). Noel was a native of Roxborough, Tobago, and the first national to win a world Boxing Championship title when, in 1981, he defeated Mexican Rudolfo Gonzales to bring home the World Boxing Association’s World Lightweight title. After traveling to the United States on a boxing license, he overstayed his time and was deported back to Trinidad and Tobago. Although his name surfaced as a candidate for the WITCO Sports Hall of Fame, he was denied this recognition. Later, however, the Claude Noel Highway in Tobago was named in his honor.

O OBLINGTON, PERCIVAL (THE MIGHTY STRIKER) (1930–1981). Born April 1930 in D’abadie, east Trinidad, as a young man Striker was a boxer from which activity he chose the sobriquet “Striker.” He was the first person to win the Calypso King competition on two consecutive occasions, in 1958 with “Don’t Blame the PNM” and “No Job Suit Striker” and 1959 with “Ban the Hula Hoop” and “Comparison.” His range included bawdy double entendre and political commentary. He was also a guitarist and saxophonist, and he wrote his own music. The heyday of his performances included the 1950s and 1960s, and his singing career was in decline by the 1970s. Feeling cheated in competitions, he had turned to selling coconuts and driving taxi to make a living. He succeeded in making a comeback when he sang “Grandfather Clock” in a film. He was interviewed in 2003 and recognized by the government of Trinidad and Tobago for his long service to the development of calypso. He died in 2011. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. OCEAN, BILLY (1950– ). Born Leslie Sebastien Charles to Hainsley and Viola Charles on 21 January 1950 in Fyzabad, he rose to become one of the biggest and most popular international British R&B singer/songwriter during the 1980s. His father was a musician, and he was therefore exposed to music at a very early age. His family migrated to London when he was 10, and as a teenager, he began singing in nightclubs while working as a tailor at Savile Row. Fortunately for him, Savile Row was historically famous for its fine tailoring and because, over the years, musicians frequently visited the area to do music sessions or studio recordings, it was not long before this talented ballad singer became noticed by his first manager who sought to get his music recorded. He joined a local band in 1969 and performed as Les Charles. While his initial recordings were not very successful, in 1976 he rebranded himself and changed his name to Billy Ocean and recorded his first album hit that carried the same name. One of the songs from the album made it to the U.S. billboard and stopped just short of topping the British chart. During the 1980s, Billy Ocean recorded a series of hits. First there was 259

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his album Suddenly, with a ballad of the same name followed by “Caribbean Queen” which won Ocean the Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance at the 1985 Grammy Awards. One year later, his album Love Zone ruled both the UK and U.S. charts with songs like “When the Going Gets Tough the Tough Gets Going.” He enjoyed a long period of success during the 1970s and 1980s with a string of R&B international pop hits and was the most popular songwriter credited to an abnormal physical condition, an extra lung that gave him performance longevity. Over the period, he sold more than 30 million records and became one of the biggest black recording stars in Britain. Billy Ocean has received many awards. He received an honorary doctorate in music from the University of Westminster in 2002 and, in 2010, a Lifetime Achievement Award at the MOBO (Music of Black Origin) Awards. On 29 July 2011, Ocean was made a Companion of the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts, and former Beatle Paul McCartney presented him with his title. Retiring from his career as a pop star he has turned increasingly to playing steel pan and even visited his native Trinidad and Tobago with a London-based steel orchestra. OIL. Oil production began in 1857 when the Merrimac Company attempted to distill oil from pitch produced by the pitch lake and drilled a well of approximately 280 feet, producing the first successful oil well. The lack of markets and difficulties of production and transport led to the company’s ultimate closure. Other 19th-century attempts were made by Walter Darwent, a civil engineer from the United States, who started the Paria Oil Company and hit oil at a depth of 160 feet after drilling on the Aripero Estate in 1866–1867. After the death of Darwent in 1868, interest in the industry waned. The demand for gasoline, however, rose as the use of automobiles became more widespread nearing the end of the 19th century. Oil pioneer Randolph Rust, in association with Lee Lum, in 1902 seized this opportunity and built the first successful oil well of the century in the southeast in Guayaguarare. The full first year of oil production in Trinidad was in 1908, and in 1910, the first export of crude oil was made from Brighton. With Winston Churchill’s announcement in 1910 of his intention to convert the Royal Navy from coal to oil, a number of companies were founded, including the Trinidad Central Oilfields in 1911, Trinidad Oilfields Limited in 1912 (some of their properties were taken over by United British Oilfield of Trinidad Limited [UBOT], a subsidiary of Shell Company in 1913), and the Trinidad Leasehold Limited (TLL, later Texaco) in 1913. In 1914, Trinidad’s oil production exceeded the one-million-barrel mark. Oil first began to be refined on a small scale in 1910 at Point Fortin, and later in 1913, a refinery was built after the UBOT takeover, which led to the rapid development of the town. Thereafter, oil production had a dramatic

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impact on the development of southern Trinidad. Later a refinery was established at Pointe-a-Pierre, and in 1917, a major pipeline was laid from Forest Reserve to Pointe-a-Pierre to transport crude oil. The 1920s saw further expansion with the introduction of new companies such as APEX, Kern, and Trinidad Petroleum Development Company (taken over by British Petroleum). Successful oilfields were opened on the southeastern coast and further in southwestern Trinidad. During World War II, the oil industry boomed as Trinidad became central to the support of the Allied war machine, which was dominated by Trinidad Northern Areas Limited (TNA), formed by TLL, BP (the AngloIranian Oil Company), and UBOT. By 1956, Trinidad was producing 165,000 barrels of refined oil per day, and Texas Oil Company (later Texaco) acquired the properties of the TLL and some other smaller companies, as well as the important Pointe-a-Pierre refinery. Marine drilling began in 1961 with the granting of a marine license to Pan American International (later changed to American International Oil Company or AMOCO), further expanding the industry and encouraging the investment of other international oil companies. The 1973 Middle East Crisis resulted in the opening of previously restricted markets, producing a significant oil boom in the country and leading to expansion of social services, infrastructure, and industrial nationalization. The government’s first attempt at ownership came in 1969 when the National Petroleum Company was formed, and in 1974, the government set up Trinidad and Tobago Oil Company (Trintoc) after purchasing the assets of Shell. In 1975, it further established the National Energy Corporation and the National Gas Company. By 1977, the government held majority control of marketing of petroleum. The Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union (OWTU), established in 1937, called throughout the 20th century for increased wages and improved working conditions and, in the 1980s, was instrumental in promoting nationalization of the oil industry by continuing to agitate against efforts to reduce manpower by international companies, mainly Shell, Texaco, and BP. The recovery of the Middle East producers in 1986 led to dramatic slashes in oil exports and a general economic depression. In 1994, Trintoc and Trintopec were amalgamated to create the stateowned Petrotrin. In 1994, the Point Fortin refinery was closed, leaving only the one at Pointe-a-Pierre. Diversification into petrochemicals such as natural gas and urea has helped to stabilize the industry during the difficult periods of the latter 20th century. However, economic crises of the 21st century, the explorations of American shale oil production, and the crisis in the Middle East further destabilized global oil markets, causing a dramatic decrease in

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oil prices. These problems, coupled with the declining oil reserves in the country, have brought into question the future of the oil industry in the country in the 21st century. See also ECONOMY; TRADE. OILFIELD WORKERS’ TRADE UNION (OWTU) (1937– ). Established in 1937, the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union emerged out of a general strike organized by Uriah Butler in that year in the oilfields of south Trinidad. It was formally established on 25 July 1937 and has been instrumental in advocating for the rights of workers, going so far as to encourage nationalization of industries in the 1970s and 1980s to prevent discrimination of workers by international companies. In the latter 20th century, it has expanded its reach, becoming the recognized union of numerous organizations particularly in the hotel, food processing, electricity, and energy industries, as well as in tertiary education. OLD FIRE STATION TOWER. Constructed in 1897, this tower is one of Trinidad and Tobago’s historic buildings. In the year 2000, it was refurbished and recreated into a structure that blended together the preserved design of 19th-century British architecture with the modern landscape of Trinidad in the new millennium. In the decade from 1989 to 1999, the St. Lucian Nobel Laureate poet, Derek Walcott, used the Old Fire Station Tower as the home for the Trinidad Theatre Workshop, which he had established and directed. Since 2003, the tower, located at the corner of Hart and Abercromby streets, has been incorporated into the National Library Complex of Trinidad. OLD MARKET (SCARBOROUGH). This was the main market in Scarborough and was established circa the 1790s. It was first established as a market for the auction and sale of captive Africans who were shipped to the island, for trading resident enslaved Africans, and for selling the services of “jobbing slaves,” which occurred under the trees. The need for this function was reduced with the implementation of the Emancipation Act in 1834. During enslavement, free coloreds and enslaved Africans were permitted to sell their produce at the market on Sunday afternoons, and it became popular as the main market for enslaved Africans to sell the produce of their provision grounds at times when the vicissitudes of war during the American and French revolutions made locally produced food imperative. The poor economic fortunes of Tobago plantations across the 19th century made provision grounds and market activity central facets in the survival of economic activity on the island. The Scarborough market offered hogs, goats, poultry, fruits, and vegetables to ships. As the market assumed importance for supplying essential food items to the plantations, it offered greater opportunities for

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enslaved Africans on the island to earn money. This space became socially and culturally important for the island’s enslaved population as it permitted regular contact between Africans from different locations across the island, fostering a sense of togetherness, facilitating information exchange, and cultural and community organization. The market was also used as a center to punish enslaved Africans who dared to resist their masters. Public punishment was a feature of enslavement, and enslaved Africans were publicly whipped, tortured, and hung in the marketplace. See also ECONOMY; TRADE. OLD POLICE HEADQUARTERS. The construction of this building located in Port of Spain was completed in 1876. The land upon which it stands was formerly home to the barracks of the old West India Regiment. Limestone quarried from the Piccadilly quarry in East Port of Spain was the main construction material. The building consists of a two-story, square tower with pointed arches of Gothic style architecture. On two separate occasions, fire destroyed the building, but it was restored with its original design intact. In its early history, the police force and the residence of the head of the police force and the fire brigade were all accommodated in the Old Police Headquarters. Presently the Central Police Station and the Museum of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Force are lodged in the building. See also POLICE SERVICE (TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO). OLD PUBLIC LIBRARY. The first national library of Trinidad was established in 1851. The British governor Lord George Harris, who was a strong advocate for this development administered Trinidad from 1846 to 1854. Through an 1851 Ordinance, Lord Harris secured the right to establish Trinidad’s first national library system. The first known headquarters of the National Library was on Knox Street, Port of Spain. It was an arcaded twostory building. The arcade provided shaded passageways both for the upper and lower floors. The reading and lending rooms of the library along with the librarian’s office were all located on the ground floor. In 2003, the newly renamed and expanded National Library and Information Service of Trinidad was relocated to the corner of Hart and Abercromby streets. ORDER OF THE REPUBLIC OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO (ORTT). See NATIONAL AWARDS. ORTOIROID. Named after the site of Ortoire in East Trinidad, people of the Ortoiroid culture arrived in the Caribbean in 5000 BCE and disappeared around 200 BCE. The earliest Ortoiroid site is Banwari Trace in south Trinidad. Ortoiroid sites are typically dominated by shell middens composed of

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fresh and seawater species used mainly for food. Artifacts include bone spear points and barbs, as well as perforated animal teeth, choppers, hammer stones, mutates, manos, and pestles. There is evidence from the Northern Lesser Antilles and Puerto Rico that the Ortoiroids like the Casimiroids, engaged in pottery making and horticulture. See also BARRANCOID; ISLAND CARIBS; SALADOID. OTTLEY, CARLTON ROBERT RUTHVEN (1914–1985). Ottley was born on 14 October 1914. He attended Scarborough Roman Catholic School, Bishop’s High School, and St. Mary’s College in Trinidad, and in 1931 he returned to Tobago to work at the Lime Growers’ Association and at a grocery owned by his father. Ottley’s journey into the literary world began in 1938 when he began sending articles to the Trinidad Guardian newspaper for publication. At the outbreak of World War II, Ottley was motivated to serve his country and was given the responsibility for food rationing in Tobago. He also was employed as a special reserve police officer and headed a platoon. He entered the social service in 1944 when he was chosen to be trained as a social welfare officer, allowing him to be one of the first in the country to attain such specialized training in community development. Under a government scholarship given in 1947, he completed a diploma program at Liverpool University in England and returned to Trinidad where he was eventually appointed chief education extension officer in 1952. In 1960, he was promoted to director of Community Development, a post he held until 1968. His competence in this area was recognized by the United Nations; the organization invited him to be an advisor in Community Development in Fiji for one year in 1967. Ottley was also a devoted writer, specifically focused on the history and folk culture of Trinidad and Tobago. His most productive period was during the 1970s when he produced over 10 full publications. Some of his most well-known texts include Legends: True Stories and Old Sayings from Trinidad and Tobago (1962), An Historical Account of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Force (1964), An Account of Life in Spanish Trinidad 1498–1797 (1971), The Story of San Fernando (1971), Creole Talk (1971), The Story of Trinidad and Tobago in a Nutshell (1972), Jokey Stories of Trinidad and Tobago (1972), The Story of Tobago (1973), East and West Indians Rescue Trinidad (1975), Tall Tales of Trinidad and Tobago (1977), A Guide to Trinidad and Tobago (1978), and History of Place Names in Trinidad and Tobago (1979). He also served as president of the Trinidad and Tobago Historical Society during the 1980s.

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His extensive work in community development and the discipline of history was acknowledged locally, when in the first National Awards in 1969 he received the Medal of Merit (Gold) from the government of Trinidad and Tobago. Ottley made an indelible mark on the society of Trinidad and Tobago, and especially to the documentation of aspects of Tobago’s history and culture. He passed away on 6 June 1985. OVÉ, HORACE (1939– ). A film and theater director, producer, screenwriter, painter, and photographer, Ové was born and raised in Belmont, Trinidad. At age 21, he left Trinidad for England to pursue studies in art and interior decorating, which were curtailed when he opted to live in Rome where he worked as a painter on Cleopatra in 1963, and on Italian and French productions. With a career shift into filmmaking, he returned to England and enrolled in the London School of Film Technique and qualified as a filmmaker. His extensive filmography includes over 20 fiction feature films, documentaries, and productions for British television. In 1966, he directed his first film, The Art of the Needle, about acupuncture, which was followed in 1969 by Baldwin’s Nigger, about the life experiences of blacks in Britain and the United States. In 1970, he directed Reggae, the first feature film on black music, which had a very successful run on BBC Television. After having done several other documentaries for the BBC, Ové had clearly broken the barriers and established himself as a successful film director, the first black to do so. He rose to international fame with his 1975 film Pressure, the first full-length drama film by a black director about contemporary black life in Britain for which he holds the Guinness World Record as the first black British filmmaker to direct a feature-length film. This groundbreaking 1975 feature film tells the story of a Caribbean migrant family in which three generations face varied experiences of racism. Although the film was banned for two years because it depicted scenes of police brutality, it gained popularity when it was eventually aired. Ové won international acclaim for The Equalizer, a film on the 1919 Amritsar Massacre for which he earned two Indian academy awards in 1996. In 2003, Ové’s film, Dream to Change the World, documented the life and work of another Trinidadian, publisher, writer, and founder of New Beacon Books, John la Rose. Ové’s photography has been exhibited internationally. In 1984, his was the first solo exhibition by a black photographer at the Photographers’ Gallery, followed by an exhibition on Trinidad Carnival in Manchester in 1987. After staging an exhibition in Mali in 2001, he held a roving exhibition across the United Kingdom (UK). His lens captured images of personalities and events related to the activism that characterized Britain of the 1960s: the first Black Power meeting in the UK with Stokely Carmichael, Michael X, Allen Ginsberg, John Lennon, and Yoko Ono; the iconic 1967 photograph of

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Michael X with bodyguards at Paddington Station; distinguished political, literary, and academic figures of Caribbean origin in the UK such as C. L. R. James, James Baldwin, Darcus Howe, Samuel Selvon, Andrew Salkey, John la Rose, Sir Trevor MacDonald, and Professor Stuart Hall. His work also chronicled the Notting Hill Carnival and its birth and growth in the 1970s and 1980s. Ové’s photos have been exhibited at the National Portrait Gallery, London, in 2005; London’s Victoria and Albert Museum; Tate Liverpool; and the Whitechapel Gallery. Additionally, a retrospective of his film and photographic work was exhibited at the Barbican. His work is also featured in the Tate Britain exhibition How We Are: Photographing Britain. During his career, Ové has directed a number of stage plays including 1973’s Blackblast written by Lindsay Barrett, the first black play to be shown at London’s Institute of Contemporary Arts; The Swamp Dwellers by Wole Soyinka; and in 1993, The Lion by Michael Abbensetts. In 1986, Ové was named Best Director for Independent Film and Television by the British Film Institute, an award for his contribution to British culture, and in 1992, he was honored by the government of Trinidad and Tobago with the Hummingbird Medal awarded in recognition of his international achievements in television and film. In 2006, he was one of five winners of the £30,000 Paul Hamlyn Foundation Award for Visual Arts, and in 2007, he was made a Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE) for his contributions to the film industry in the UK in the Queen’s Birthday Honors list. In November 2011, three young filmmakers won £2,000 funding and professional mentoring at a competition at the 55th London Film Festival for their idea to make a short documentary about Ové. At the 2012 Trinidad and Tobago Film Festival, Ové was honored as a “Trinidad and Tobago Film Pioneer,” and in that same year, he was named one of the national icons of Trinidad and Tobago. In 2015, he was honored with a “Tribute to Horace Ové” presented by Birkbeck Institute for Social Research in collaboration with Birkbeck Institute for the Moving Image. Ové has made over 35 features and documentaries primarily based on black themes.

P PADMORE, GEORGE (1903–1959). Born Malcolm Ivan Meredith Nurse in Tacarigua, Trinidad, on 28 June 1903, this close friend of C. L. R. James became the chief of the Communist International Bureau (Comintern). He migrated to the United States and studied at New York, Fisk, and Howard universities. He joined the Communist Party and rose to become head of the Negro Bureau of the Communist Trade Union International. He organized an elaborate network of thousands of anticolonial militants throughout the Caribbean and Africa during the Great Depression. Padmore quit the Comintern after he was instructed to be supportive of the imperialist agenda of the socialist camp and through his 1931 publication, The Life and Struggles of Negro Toilers, he became an advocate for black laborers across the globe. Together with James and a small group of friends, he formed the International Friends of Abyssinia to help in the fight against the Italian invasion of that country. Afterward they formed the International African Service Bureau to fight against British imperialism and published a journal, International African Opinion. Padmore later abandoned communism for what he saw as neutral, social-democratic Pan-Africanism. The rationale for his approach was discussed in his Pan-Africanism or Communism. He established the International African Service Bureau, a network that coordinated correspondence between African and Caribbean nationalists, trade unionists, editors, and intellectuals. Padmore influenced a generation of black leaders including Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and Kwame Nkrumah. He became a key advisor to the government of Ghana following Nkrumah’s ascension to power in 1956. He died in London on 23 September 1959. PAN TRINBAGO (1986– ). Pan Trinbago is the governing body for steel pan worldwide. This international cultural organization was organized in 1950, formalized in 1971, and incorporated by Act of Parliament No. 5 of 1986. Pan stalwarts of Trinidad and Tobago believe that such an incorporation was necessary and appropriate since Trinidad and Tobago is the birthplace of the steel pan and the stage upon which this musical art form is most widely and avidly propagated. The mission of the organization is to establish 267

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and maintain ties with every country in the world where steel pan is played and to intervene, where necessary, to settle industrial and other disputes involving steel pan players. In the early days, it functioned as a union rather than a cultural organization. The organization holds triennial conventions at which every steel orchestra in the world is entitled to send two delegates who have voting rights. Annual General Meetings are also held at which reports of the president, secretary, and treasurer are considered. Its headquarters are Victoria Park, Port of Spain. The activities of Pan Trinbago include securing the tenure of pan yards; assisting unsponsored steel orchestras, in part, national festivals and pan shows; and organizing, promoting, and sponsoring, in part, international pan tours. For its contribution to the development of culture in general, and the steel pan in particular, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded Pan Trinbago the Trinity Cross in 1987. PANDAY, BASDEO (1933– ). The fifth prime minister of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Panday was born in the southern village of Princes Town in Trinidad on 25 May 1933 to Indian immigrants Harry Sookchand and Kissondaye. The eldest of three brothers, he received his earliest formal education at New Grant Government School, the St. Julien Chiki M. School, and at Presentation College, San Fernando. Before he left for London to pursue higher education, he worked as a cane weigher at Caroni Limited, a primary school teacher, and a civil servant at the San Fernando Magistrates Court. He entered politics in 1963 when he became involved in the labor politics of the Trinidad Islandwide Cane Farmers Association. Panday came into conflict with the then leader of the organization, his predecessor Bhadase Sagan Maraj, but emerged as the leader of the organization after negotiating behind the scenes on behalf of workers with the prime minister, Dr. Eric Williams. A more direct entry into national politics came when he became a member of the Workers and Farmers Party under whose banner he unsuccessfully contested the national elections of 1966. As with most labor leaders, he was determined to use trade union politics as a platform for amassing political support at the national level. From 1973 to 1995, he served as president of the All Sugar and General Estate Worker Trade Union. By 1974, he was deeply involved in the struggle for the leadership of the sugar workers. He was also the legal advisor to the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union. In 1976, he merged this union with two other labor organizations (one led by George Weekes, the other by Raffique Shah) to form the United Labour Front. In the elections of that year, the party won 10 of the 30 seats contested, and Panday entered Parliament as the member for Couva North. In consequence of its performance in the elections, the party also displaced the Democratic Labour Party. Panday served as leader of the opposition from 1981 to 1995 and as prime minister from 1995 to 2001.

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Panday emerged as a charismatic, vivacious, and witty politician, and one of the most dominant and outstanding political figures in Trinidad and Tobago. Recognizing the latent and sometimes overt racial antagonism between the two major ethnic groups in the country, he consistently argued that it was not possible to achieve economic well-being on behalf of all or any in a society when its intellectual, technical, and technological manpower was pitted into two racial blocks. He continuously accused the People’s National Movement of racial discrimination against the Indian community and consistently called for political and national unity among the people of Trinidad and Tobago, but he himself did not always resist the temptation to use ethnic polarization for political ends. He often advised Indians that they were their own worst enemy, and, following his departure with his loyalist supporters from the National Alliance for Reconstruction in 1987, he labeled Indians who continued to support the party as “neemakharams.” See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962). PANORAMA. See APPENDIX F. See also FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. PANTIN, ANTHONY GORDON (1939–2000). Archbishop Pantin received his education at the Sacred Heart and Belmont Intermediate Schools and at St. Mary’s College (College of the Immaculate Conception [CIC]) on a government scholarship. A sports enthusiast, Pantin played football and cricket and enjoyed sailing with the 6th Trinidad Sea Scouts. As a small boy, he served as an acolyte at St. Patrick’s Church and nurtured his ambition to enter the priesthood, and on completion of secondary education, at age 17, he began making arrangements. He left for Canada in 1946 to enter the novitiate of the Holy Ghost Fathers Congregation and registered for a BA degree at the University of Montreal. On completion, he returned to Trinidad and worked as a teacher at CIC for three years. The next step was to Dublin to pursue theology, and on 3 July 1955, he was ordained as a Roman Catholic priest. After a four-year posting as a missionary priest in Guadeloupe, he returned to Trinidad and taught at Fatima College for five years. In 1965, he was appointed Religious Superior at CIC where he served until he was elevated to head of the archdiocese of Port of Spain. Pantin, the first national of Trinidad and Tobago to serve in this position, was ordained archbishop of Port of Spain on 19 March 1968. Aside from his pastoral duties, Pantin served the nation in a number of other important ways during his 32-year stint as archbishop. He founded the Mary Care Home for unmarried pregnant teenagers, he was mediator during the crises of 1970 and 1990, and he played a lead role in the formation of the interreligious organization to promote religious

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tolerance in the nation. Pantin died of heart failure on 11 March 2000 and is buried in the cathedral crypt. He was awarded the Trinity Cross in 2000 and named a national icon in 2012. See also EDUCATION; RELIGION. PANTIN, GERARD (1909–2014). Father Gerard Pantin was a teacher, humanitarian, and Roman Catholic priest who was born in Woodbrook, Port of Spain, to Julien and Agnes Pantin. He had nine siblings, including the late archbishop of the Roman Catholic Church in Trinidad and Tobago, Anthony Pantin (former principal of Fatima College), and Clive Pantin (minister of education in the National Alliance for Reconstruction government). Pantin received tertiary education at the University College of Dublin before which he worked as a teacher of botany and zoology at St. Mary’s College in Port of Spain. Simultaneous with his teaching career, he became a priest of the Roman Catholic Church and was a member of the Holy Ghost Fathers. When Trinidad and Tobago was in the throes of the 1970 Black Power Movement, Pantin reached out to the poor black unemployed youths of Laventille, a depressed area in Port of Spain. His solution to their problem was the establishment of Service Volunteered for All (SERVOL). The institution is noted for its opening of more than 160 early child care centers in Laventille and throughout the country, for the dozens of skills training stations in the twin island republic, and particularly for its creation of the Adolescent Development Programme. By the time Father Gerard Pantin was at the end of his career, no fewer than 87,000 students had benefited from the SERVOL life centers he created. Many accolades decorated the life of this great humanitarian, including the award of Express Individual of the Year in 1980; honorary doctorates from Duquesne University (Pittsburgh) and the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, in 1987 and 1990, respectively; Alternate Noble Peace Prize in 1994; and the award of the Trinity Cross from the government of Trinidad and Tobago in 1995. PAWAN, JOSEPH LENNOX (1887–1957). Born on 6 September 1887, Pawan, a surgeon and an internationally renowned bacteriologist, was responsible for isolating the rabies virus and identifying its vector in the 1930s. Pawan, a student of St. Mary’s College and winner of an Island Scholarship, studied medicine and surgery at Edinburgh University from 1907 and later spent a year specializing at the Institut Pasteur in France in 1912–1913. He returned to Trinidad in 1913 and served as an assistant surgeon at the Port of Spain Colonial Hospital during World War I and later as the district medical officer in Tobago and Cedros, in southern Trinidad. He also worked within the national service as a pathologist and bacteriologist. In 1932, after years of mysterious cattle and human infections in Trinidad and South America and a protracted epidemic in Trinidad in 1925, Pawan isolated the rabies

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virus from a variety of bats including the Desmodus rotundus (vampire bat), which allowed for a vaccine to be developed. Pawan later published his seminal paper “Rabies in the Vampire Bat of Trinidad with Special Reference to the Clinical Course and Latency of Infection” in 1936. For his transformative research in tropical medicine and this discovery, Pawan received international recognition and the Member of the British Empire Award (MBE) in 1934. Pawan continued to pursue cures to diseases designated “Tropical Diseases,” working on tuberculosis, malaria, and others well into the 1940s. Joseph Pawan died on 3 November 1957. In 2002, the Pan American Health Organization posthumously honored Pawan as a “Hero in Health.” PEOPLE’S EDUCATION MOVEMENT (PEM). The forerunner to the People’s National Movement (PNM), the People’s Education Movement (PEM) was established shortly after Eric Williams parted with the AngloAmerican Caribbean Commission. In the years before the formation of the PNM, members of the national community eagerly sought learning and enlightenment about their history, politics, philosophy, and world affairs. Eric Williams, who had graduated from Oxford and published papers on slavery, emancipation, colonialism, and capitalism, conducted lectures that attracted a range of individuals, including teachers and black middle-class professionals. Out of these gatherings, groups were formed to promote intellectual and professional advancement and social improvement. One such group was the Teachers Economic and Cultural Association (TECA). The PEM was established as a branch of the TECA and was often formally referred to as the People’s Education Movement of the Teachers Economic and Cultural Association. It first leader was John Shelfold Donaldson, a principal and educator. In 1955, Dr. Williams published, in the Trinidad Guardian, a series of his lectures on constitutional reform. The lectures, which covered all the issues from 1797 to 1955, were delivered though the auspices of the People’s Education Movement of the Teachers Economic and Cultural Association. Around this time, two developments coincided: the decision of the AngloAmerican Caribbean Commission not to renew Williams’s contract, and the refusal of Roy Joseph, the minister of education and social services, to make education compulsory. Joseph was averse to the idea of state schools, and the government he represented had lost favor with the teaching fraternity. Once Williams declared that, in light of his dismissal, he was going to become involved in national politics, the progression of the PEM from an educational institution into a political one became a natural and inevitable course. Members and onlookers, in fact, often referred to the PEM as the Political Education Movement.

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PEOPLE’S EMPOWERMENT PARTY (PEP). History was created in the politics of Trinidad and Tobago when Deborah Moore-Miggins broke away from the National Alliance for Reconstruction and formed the People’s Empowerment Party, the first woman-led party in Tobago and the second in the nation. The party contested the Tobago House of Assembly (THA) elections of 2000 and won one of the contested seats. Moore-Miggins became the minority leader in the THA, the first—and so far, the only—woman to do so. PEOPLE’S NATIONAL MOVEMENT (PNM). The People’s National Movement (PNM) is the oldest political party in Trinidad and Tobago and one of the ablest in the English-speaking Caribbean. The founding father of the party was Dr. Eric Eustace Williams. The PNM held its inaugural conference on 15 January 1956 at Woodford Square, Port of Spain, but the party was officially launched nine days later, on 4 January 1956, at the same venue. The party launched its newspaper, the Nation, in July of that year. The first chairman of the party was Sir Learie Nicholas Constantine, TC, Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George, Baron of Nelson and Colne. The first female vice chairperson was Isabel Ursula Cadogan-Teshea, who also became Trinidad and Tobago’s first female cabinet minister. The party has figured significantly in the history and development of the country. In the elections of 1956, the PNM was victorious, having won 13 of the 24 seats. The first PNM government was sworn in on 26 October 1956. Its founder and first political leader, Eric Williams became the country’s first premier, chief minister, and prime minister, and the party grew from strength to strength until the 1970s and 1980s. Under Williams’s leadership, the party steered the country from internal selfgovernment in 1956 to political independence in 1962 and, from thence, into a republican nation-state in 1976. The party was founded on the principles of political education and enlightenment, political participation, and democracy, but many argue that the enigmatic Williams overwhelmingly dominated the party and local politics during his lifetime. Hard working and academically astute, he brooked no dissent within the party. Eric Williams himself described the party as not being a party in the ordinary sense but a movement, a rally of all for all. He also tended to end his political speeches with the dictum “magnum erat et prevailabit” (Great is the PNM and it shall prevail). It was a boast that carried some merit, for under his leadership the party was returned to office democratically through five successive victories at the polls. Following Williams’s death in 1981, George Michael Chambers, one of the then deputy political leaders of the party, succeeded him as the party’s political leader and became the country’s second prime minister until the party suffered its first defeat in the national elections in 1986. The PNM returned to office in 1991 under Patrick Manning, its third political leader,

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who served as prime minister until 1994 when the party suffered its second major electoral defeat. The party was returned to office in 2001. In 2010, the party was defeated at the polls by the People’s Partnership (PP) led by Kamla Persad-Bissessar. In September 2015, the PNM defeated the PP and reassumed office under the leadership of its current political leader, Dr. Keith Christopher Rowley. From inception, the party sought to establish its foundation on political education; free universal primary, secondary, and tertiary education; mass grassroots support; and strong internal party discipline. The party, together with its founder and successive leaders, is primarily responsible for the political, social, and economic infrastructure of postcolonial Trinidad and Tobago. The PNM’s capacity for survival and rejuvenation has caused some to view it as the most stable political party in Trinidad and Tobago. See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962). PEOPLE’S NATIONAL MOVEMENT WOMEN’S LEAGUE. Established in 1956, shortly after the formation of the People’s National Movement (PNM), it forms the backbone of the party, with its members operating as the foot soldiers of the party. The bulk of the party’s house-to-house canvasing in the constituencies across the country was done by the league’s grassroots elements, while the more educated among its female members became involved in the organization of the party’s fund-raising, educational, and cultural activities. Despite the very significant role of women, political leadership of the party remained largely male dominated. Eric Williams’s first cabinet, however, as those that preceded it, was devoid of women. The party presented no women to the electorate as candidates for the elections of 1956. Following independence, women assumed more visibility in the party’s political activities. PEOPLE’S PARTNERSHIP (PP). This was the coalition of political parties and forces which wrested political power from the People’s National Movement (PNM) in the 24/25 May elections in 2010. The coalition consisted of five political parties: the United National Congress, led by Kamla Persad-Bissessar; the Congress of the People, then led by Winston Dookeran and, later, Prakash Ramadhar; the Tobago Organisation of the People, led by Jack Ashworth, a former minority leader of the Tobago House of Assembly; the National Joint Action Committee, led by Mackandal Daaga; and the Movement for Social Justice (MSJ), then led by Errol McLeod but subsequently led by David Abdullah. In 2012, McLeod resigned as leader of the MSJ, endorsing David Abdullah who succeeded him as head of the

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organization. During the Labour Day celebrations of 2012, Abdullah announced the MSJ’s withdrawal from the PP. See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962). PERSAD-BISSESSAR, KAMLA (1952– ). Sworn in as Trinidad and Tobago’s seventh prime minister on 26 May 2010, she is the first woman to become the country’s head of government, a position she held until 7 September 2015. Born in the southern rural village of Penal on 22 April 1952, she attended the Mohess Road Hindu School, Erin Road Presbyterian School, and Siparia Union Presbyterian School; she received her secondary education at Iere High School, Siparia. She furthered her studies at the Norwood Technical College (England), the University of the West Indies (UWI), Mona, where she pursued a bachelor of arts degree and a diploma in education; at the UWI, Cave Hill, where she obtained a degree in law; and at the Hugh Wooding Law School (Trinidad and Tobago), a legal education certificate. She also holds a master’s degree in education and an MBA. In 1995, she became the first woman to be appointed attorney general and was later appointed minister of legal affairs, and from 1999 to 2001, she served as minister of education. In 2000, she became the first woman to act as prime minister. Over the period 25 February to 26 May 2010, she served as the first and only female leader of the opposition in Trinidad and Tobago. At her January 2010 election as political leader, she defeated the party’s founder, Basdeo Panday, who, until then, had been the party’s first and only political leader. Four months later, she contested national elections as head of a newly established coalition political party, the People’s Partnership (PP). The principal difference between this and preceding national elections was that this was the first time a woman was leading the major opposition political party contesting the polls. Persad-Bissessar and the PP won the general elections of 24 May 2010, defeating the People’s National Movement 31 to 10, and leading the PP coalition into government with an overwhelming majority and sizable mandate. However, between 2010 and 2015, the coalition government suffered five consecutive defeats in local government and other elections. Throughout her five years in office, Persad-Bissessar’s administration was dogged by allegations of corruption and mismanagement and numerous scandals regarding the conduct of government ministers. Her demise at the polls in September 2015 was merely the last in a series of rejections by the electorate when she again became leader of the opposition. Persad-Bissessar is married to a retired medical doctor, Dr. Gregory Bissessar, and they have one son. See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962).

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PERSAUD, LAKSHMI (1939– ). Persaud was born in Pasea, Tunapuna, in east Trinidad. Her grandparents were direct indentured migrant workers to Trinidad from Uttar Pradesh. She was a former student of the Tunapuna Government Primary School, St. Augustine Girls’ High School (SAGHS), and St. Joseph’s Convent in Port of Spain. She first left Trinidad in 1957 to pursue tertiary education in Ireland where she successfully completed a BA and PhD at Queen’s University in Belfast, Northern Ireland, and a postgraduate diploma in education at Reading University in the United Kingdom (UK). She has taught at several leading secondary schools across the Caribbean such as Queen’s College in Guyana, Harrison’s College in Barbados, and SAGHS in Trinidad. In 1974, she, along with her husband, prominent economist Professor Bishnodat Persaud, and their three children, migrated permanently to the UK. It was in the late 1980s when Persaud began her career as a writer and she authored five novels: Butterfly in the Wind published in 1990, Sastra published in 1993, For the Love of My Name published in 1999, Raise the Lanterns High published in 2004, and Daughters of Empire published in 2012. Her short stories were first made public when, in 1995, the BBC World Service aired See Saw Margery Daw. In 2013, the University of the West Indies conferred on Persaud an honorary doctor of letters for years of solid scholarship as a novelist, writer, and literary commentator. The University of Warwick has also esteemed the value of Persaud’s literary scholarship by launching the Lakshmi Persaud Research Fellowship at its Centre for Translation and Comparative Cultural Studies. PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. See OIL. PHILIP NOURBESE, MARLENE (1947– ). A poet, novelist, short story writer, essayist, and lawyer, Philip was born in Moriah, Tobago, on 3 February 1947. She is a former student of Bishop Anstey High School from which she won the Cipriani Memorial Scholarship to pursue tertiary education at the University of the West Indies where she successfully completed a BSc degree in economics. Following her relocation to Canada, she pursued postgraduate studies in political science and law at the University of Western Ontario, which she completed in 1970 and 1973, respectively. She practiced law for seven years in Ontario and Toronto, and by 1983, she turned her attention fully over to writing. She published five books of poetry, two novels, four books of collected essays, and two plays. Her first novel, Harriet’s Daughter, published in 1988, is one of her most popular releases. In 1988 as well, she won the prestigious Casa de las Americas Prize for Literature for her collection of poems titled She Tries Her Tongue, Her Silence Softly Speaks. Philip also cupped the Tradewinds Collective Prize (Trinidad and Tobago) in both the poetry and the short story categories. She has been

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writer-in-residence at several establishments including Toronto’s Women Bookstore and McMaster University. In 1990, Philip became a Guggenheim fellow in poetry and, in 1991, a McDowell fellow. In 2001, the Elizabeth Fry Society awarded her with their Rebels for a Cause Award, and in that year, she was also the recipient of the YWCA Woman of Distinction in the Arts Award. PHILLIP, EMERALD ANTHONY (BROTHER VALENTINO, ROBIN) (1941– ). Born in Cherry Hill, Grenada, Brother Valentino migrated to Trinidad at a young age and grew up in Long Circular Road, Port of Spain. Before he settled in calypso, Valentino worked in a printery and as an electrician, mechanic, and tailor. It was in the tailoring shop where the background radio music inspired him to compose and sing calypso. He made his debut in the little known Big Bamboo Tent in Port of Spain in 1961 using the sobriquet “Robin.” In 1965, he joined the Calypso Revue and the Grandmaster, Lord Kitchener, rechristened him Valentino. He never won any of the national calypso competitions but made a name for himself with renditions that reflected a keen awareness of national, regional, and international political and social developments. He was widely regarded as the spokesman of the people, the voice of conscience, and the man who wrote profound lyrics set to unforgettable calypso music. It was not surprising, then, that in 1970 with the eruption of the Black Power Movement in Trinidad and Tobago he called himself “Brother Valentino” and remained extremely popular. Among Valentino’s repertoire are classics as “Life Is a Stage,” “Stay up Zimbabwe,” “Dis Place Nice,” “Barking Dogs,” and “Where Kaiso Went.” See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. PHILLIPPE, JEAN-BAPTISTE (ca. 1796–1829). Dr. Philippe was born in the Naparimas in 1796 or 1797 to wealthy colored French, Roman Catholic parents, who were sugar planters who had migrated to Trinidad under the terms of the 1783 Cedula of Population. He was educated in England where he studied English at Montpelier and medicine at the University of Edinburgh from 1812 to 1815. On his return to Trinidad, he swiftly immersed himself in politics and became leader of the movement of the colored people for their rights especially against the discrimination they faced from successive Trinidad governors. He organized a nonviolent opposition against Governor Woodford and sent petitions directly to the imperial government. In 1823, Philippe headed a two-man delegation to London and presented the case directly to the Colonial Office, describing how the British governors from Picton to Woodford were infringing upon the civil rights of the free colored people of Trinidad contrary to the terms of the Cedula and the fifth and 12th clauses of the Articles of Capitulation. Phillippe wrote a book in

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1824 titled An Address to the Right Hon. Earl Bathurst, in which he outlined his case. The secretary of state for the colonies, Lord Bathurst, ruled in favor of Phillippe, who died in 1829 before news of the ruling reached him. PHILLIPS, EWART CLEMENT GLADSTONE (1914–1980). Phillips won a college exhibition to attend St. Mary’s College where he demonstrated academic excellence. He won the Jerningham Silver Medal in 1928, the Jerningham Book Prize in 1930, and the Jerningham Gold Medal and Open Island Scholarship in 1934. He enrolled as a law student at University College, London, and was admitted to the bar at Gray’s Inn in 1939. He was a member of the first postindependence Court of Appeal of Trinidad and Tobago, and from 1971 to 1972, he acted as the country’s chief justice. For his contribution to the development of jurisprudence in Trinidad and Tobago, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded him the Trinity Cross, its highest national award, in 1979. PIERRE, EUGENIA “JEAN” THEODOSIA (1944–2002). Popularly known in Trinidad and Tobago as “Jean Pierre, the netball queen,” Pierre was born in Fyzabad. She was educated at Southern Oropouche Government Primary School; Mucurapo Girls’ Roman Catholic School; Progressive Educational Institute; Dartford College of Physical Education for Teachers in Kent, England; and St. Thomas University in Miami, Florida, where she completed a BA in sports administration and an MSc in sports management. From 1962 to 1987, she held the post of secondary schools’ netball coach and was also a physical education teacher in several schools from 1968 to 1977. Pierre, a member of the national netball team, was named top shooter in the 1979 World Netball Tournament when Trinidad and Tobago took first place honors alongside Australia and New Zealand. In 1983, she was named president of the Trinidad and Tobago Netball Association, and in this capacity, she succeeded in helping her country win third place in the World Netball Championship of that year. In the period from 1991 to 1995, Pierre served her country as minister of sport and youth but subsequently quit politics to take up a career as a netball coach. The Jean Pierre Sports Complex in Port of Spain was named in her honor. She was honored by CARICOM (Caribbean Community) as one of the 25 most outstanding sporting personalities over the past 25 years, and she won several awards including three national awards for her contribution to the development of netball in the country: the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) in 1974, WITCO Sports Woman of the Year Award in 1975, the Chaconia Medal (Gold), and the Trinity Cross in 1979. She was inducted into WITCO’s Trinidad and Tobago Sports Hall of Fame

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in 1987. She died 2 December 2002 after a long battle with colon cancer in the Cayman Islands. In 2012, the 1979 netball team was celebrated as one of Trinidad and Tobago’s “50 Legends of Sport 1962–2012.” PIERRE, JEAN. See PIERRE, EUGENIA “JEAN” THEODOSIA (1944–2002). PIERRE, LAURA (1956– ). Pierre was born in Arima and attended Arima Government Primary School. She studied at Washington State University, where she earned a bachelor of arts degree in physical education, and Antioch University in Seattle, where she earned a master of arts degree in whole systems design. She successfully completed a second master of arts degree in educational administration and programming from City University in Bellevue, Washington. Pierre was Trinidad and Tobago’s first ever female Olympian. She was a track and field athlete who specialized in the 200 meters and the 4 x 400 meters relays. Pierre participated in the 1972 Munich Games but did not advance to the finals. However, she was the first female track and field athlete of Trinidad and Tobago to win gold in the Caribbean Free Trade Agreement (CARIFTA) Games in Barbados in 1972 in the women under 20 200-meter and 400-meter events. In 1969, she was named Trinidad and Tobago’s most outstanding athlete, and in 1970, she was named Sportswoman of the Year by the National Association of Athletics Administration of Trinidad and Tobago. PITCH LAKE. The largest of the three natural asphalt lakes in the world, the pitch lake, located in La Brea, south Trinidad, has a depth of 250 feet and a surface area of 100 acres. This lake has been the center of attention during early colonial times as an important revenue earner during the late 19th century and a simulant to folklore. The local Califaria legend states that the daughter of an Arawak chief ran away to meet her lover. When she was recovered, her father punished her lover’s tribe, the Cumanas, by cursing their village causing it to sink and be covered with pitch. The Colibri, or Hummingbird, legend states that the pitch lake was formed when revenge was taken against the Chimas Indians who killed a hummingbird, disregarding its sacredness. The asphalt in the lake is a black, viscous, semisolid mixture of oil, clay, and water. The lake was created thousands of years ago by the process of subduction when the Caribbean continental plate was forced under another plate. The first recorded use of the La Brea pitch lake took place in 1595 when Sir Walter Raleigh, the British explorer, arrived at a coast near La Brea and, having encountered the lake, used the pitch to caulk his leaking ships. The first mining of the pitch lake took place in 1867, and exports began in 1888. From 1978 to the present day, Trinidad and Tobago

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Lake Asphalt Company mines, processes, and exports asphalt around the world. It is usually used to pave roads and runways and to make anticorrosive black paint, sea sealant, and underbody coating for automobiles. It is estimated that the pitch lake holds six million tons of asphalt, which would last for about 400 years at the present rate of extraction. See also OIL; TOURISM. PLEIS PALAIS REBELLION (1832). The enslaved Africans on the Plein Palais estate in Pointe-a-Pierre in southern Trinidad, which incorporated parts of what is today the compound of the Petrotrin Refinery, staged a revolt for their freedom in 1832. The rebellion was caused by their belief that emancipation had been granted by the British government and was being withheld by their masters. They set fire to the estate, and when the local militia arrived, some 60 of the 81 revolters escaped to surrounding districts. Several Africans were killed in the bloody riot. PLUMMER, DENYSE (1954– ). This calypsonian was born in St. James, Trinidad, to a white father and black mother. She worked by day as a computer operator for Tatil Insurance Company for 15 years and by night as a pop singer in Baron Bar in Chaconia Inn and Steak House and other bars and hotels for 18 years. Plummer faced a difficult initiation into the calypso world. Regarded as a white trespasser into the domain of black people, when she made her debut on stage at Skinner Park, San Fernando, in 1986, the audience demonstrated its utter rejection by hurling oranges, beer bottles and cans, and toilet paper rolls at her. Plummer persisted and returned to the big stage in 1988 stronger than ever singing one of her signature pieces over the years, “Woman Is Boss,” which secured her first-time admission as a finalist in the National Calypso Monarch Competition. She eventually triumphed to emerge as one of the best-loved female calypsonians both at home and abroad. For four consecutive years, 1988 to 1991, she won the National Women Action Committee and the National Joint Action Committee Calypso Queen Competition, and she was also adjudged four-time Calypso Queen of the World in the North American summer Carnivals. She was a finalist in 1988, 1989, and 1991 Calypso Monarch competitions, but her greatest achievement in calypso at the national level took place in 2001 when she sang “Heroes” and “Nah Leaving” and was crowned, for the first and only time, the National Calypso Monarch. Some of Plummer’s well-known tracks include “Fire,” “Tempo,” “Miss-behave,” and “Tabanca.” In 1991, she released a Christmas soca track titled “Santa de Conductor.” She has since diversified into singing gospel music. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT.

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POLICE SERVICE (TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO). The Spaniards who founded the first European settlement in Trinidad, San José de Oruña (St. Joseph), established the first police force under the Office of the Cabildo or Town Council. The strength of the police force never exceeded six men between 1592 and 1792, and their duties were restricted to within the town. After slavery was abolished in 1838, the responsibility of the police increased and a rural system of police was established to deal with the newly freed and immigrant populations. By the end of 1842, there were 12 police stations and approximately 100 officers comprising inspectors, sergeants, and constables. In the mid-19th century, members of the British Metropolitan Police were brought to Trinidad on secondment, creating significant ethnic divisions within the force. During this period, the police headquarters was housed at the corner of Abercromby and Hart streets in Port of Spain. The only weapon the policeman carried was his truncheon, commonly called baton, which was four feet long. All police stations were courthouses for magistrates who traveled from one police station to another. This was until 1844 when trial by jury and the English statutes were introduced into Trinidad. In 1851, police officers were appointed the country’s first postmen and mail carriers, and the police stations were transformed into post offices. The Mounted Branch was specifically established for this purpose. In 1860, the police force was relieved of some of these extracurricular duties. In 1869, an ordinance was passed for better organization and discipline within the police force. The police headquarters at the corner of St. Vincent and Sackville streets was completed in 1876 housing approximately 452 men. In 1881, the police headquarters was destroyed by a fire caused by the kerosene oil lighting system. Over the years, the strength of the force was increased, and other units, such as Traffic Branch in 1930 and Special Branch, were established. Under Ordinance No. 6 of 1955, the first 12 female members were inducted into the force to deal with juveniles and female offenders. In 1966, the then governor-general assented to the Police Service Act, which enacted the Police Service Regulation 1965. This act divided the police service into two divisions—the First and Second divisions. It also introduced the change in status from police force to police service indicating a shift in focus from being a militaristic force to a service-oriented organization. By the 1970s, the police service had grown in strength to 3,399 members and was placed under the portfolio of the Ministry of National Security. Mr. Francis Eustace Bernard was the first local to be appointed commissioner of police in 1973. The police headquarters was destroyed for a second time in 1990, during an attempted coup by a radical Islamic group led by Yasin Abu Bakr. A new Police Administration Building was constructed at the corner of Edward and Sackville streets the following year, housing administrative offices. The

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Trinidad and Tobago Police Service is divided into nine divisions and 18 branches, squads, and units and currently employs more than 6,500 men and women. These branches are Community Police, Police Complaints, Special Branch, Guard and Emergency Branch, Criminal Investigation Division and Criminal Records Office, Court and Process, Police Band, Mounted and Canine E-999, Traffic and Highway Patrol Branch, Transport and Transport and Telecommunications, Homicide, Fraud Squad, Crime Scene Investigations, Organized Crime and Firearms Unit and the Audio Visuals Unit. See also CRIME; POLICE SERVICE COMMISSION (1956). POLICE SERVICE COMMISSION (1956). The Police Service Commission was established on 1 June 1956 by the Trinidad and Tobago Constitution Amendment (Order in Council No. 835 of 1956) as an advisory body to the governor on police matters. The further amended constitution of 15 June 1959 (Order in Council No. 1044 of 1959), which established cabinet government in the colony, made provision for the commission in sections 66B-66G. The first commissioners, appointed on 1 December 1960, were Sir Werner Boos, Chairman Cyril Oswald Stroud, Prince Edward Ferdinand, Conrad Errol O’Brien, and Wilfred Dennis Best. The commission was made an executive body in the independence constitution of 1962 (No. 1875, section 98 and 99). Under the republican constitution, Act No. 4 of 1976 made provision for its functions in sections 122 and 128. Section 128 was amended by the Constitution Amendment Act No. 6 of 2006 effective 1 January 2007, which made new procedures to be followed for the appointment of members of the commission. Under this law, the president is authorized, after consultations with the prime minister and leader of the opposition, to nominate individuals qualified in law, sociology, finance, or management and appoint the nominees to the commission only after they are approved by the House of Representatives. POLITICAL STRUCTURE. According to its constitution and in practice, Trinidad and Tobago is a sovereign, parliamentary democracy state founded on the primacy of rights enshrined in the country’s constitution. First, the constitution establishes that Trinidad and Tobago is founded on the acknowledgment of the supremacy of God, fundamental human rights and freedoms, the position of the family in a society of free men and free institutions, the dignity of the human person, and the inalienable rights to which all members of the human family are endowed by the Creator. Second, the constitution affirms respect for the principle of social justice and asserts that the operation of the economic system should result in the material resources of the country being so distributed as to serve the common good.

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Formerly a colony of the United Kingdom, Trinidad and Tobago acceded to full independence on 31 August 1962. The country then became a republic within the Commonwealth in 1976. The 1962 independence constitution was replaced by a republican constitution, which represents the supreme law of the land. All laws that are incompatible with it are rendered null and void. The constitution confirms that the right of the people to express their political views and to elect nationals to govern the country is sovereign and articulates the separation of powers among the three arms of government—namely, the executive, legislature, and judiciary. The republican constitution ensures that all rights, liabilities, and obligations of Her Majesty with respect to the government of Trinidad and Tobago become the rights, obligations, and liabilities of the state of Trinidad and Tobago. Accordingly, all rights, liabilities, and obligations of the governorgeneral with respect to the governing of Trinidad and Tobago were passed unto the president, or the holder of that office or the state as the case may have been. The president has executive powers that he/she can exercise in accordance with the constitution, either directly or through his or her subordinates. The president is elected by members of the bicameral cabinet, the electoral college, by way of a secret ballot. The president must act in accordance with the will of the cabinet and the advice of the prime minister and leader of the opposition, except when these are contrary to the constitution. Whenever the prime minister is unable to act, or when the office of prime minister is vacant, the president, acting on the advice of the prime minister, if the prime minister is able to do so, shall appoint a person who is a minister of Parliament to do so, until such time as the prime minister is able to function in this capacity or until a general election is held. The prime minister heads the party with the parliamentary majority which must be sworn in by the president on the advice of the prime minister in order to form the government. The prime minister also directs the government and ministers of government are normally expected to take directions from him. A cabinet, consisting of the minister of justice and other ministers named by the prime minister, mainly from among the members of Parliament, forms the central core of the executive branch of the government. By virtue of the constitution, the prime minister and his or her cabinet assumes direction and control of the government of Trinidad and Tobago. Members of the cabinet, providing they opt not to remain in government as cabinet ministers, are bounded by the principle of collective responsibility (the constitutional convention in governments using the Westminster system) and are required to support the decisions made in cabinet even when they are privately in disagreement with any such decision. A minister who wishes to openly oppose a cabinet decision is required to resign from his or her ministerial portfolio.

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Legislative power is exercised through a bicameral parliament which consists of an upper house (the Senate) and lower chamber (the House of Representatives). The Senate comprises 31 members of which 16 are appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister, six on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and nine by the president chosen independently by him from individuals in the field of economics, social activism, communications, or other domains in which those selected have hitherto distinguished themselves in their contribution to national life and development. The House of Representatives consists of 41 members elected by adult suffrage through free and fair general elections that the sitting or elected government is mandated to call every five years. By virtue of Article 53 of the constitution, Parliament is invested with the power to legislate on behalf of the country, for order and good government. It can create new laws and amend or nullify existing laws. Each of the 41 members in Parliament represents the particular constituency (there are 41 in number) that elected him or her to office. The number, size, and boundaries of each electoral constituency are determined by the Elections and Boundaries Commission, an independent statutory body, established by the Elections and Boundaries Act 1982. Some legislative adjustments require the support of two-thirds of the house. See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962); FYZABAD ACCORD/FYZABAD DECLARATION. POPE, KELVIN (THE MIGHTY DUKE, MR. CARNIVAL) (1932–2009). The Mighty Duke was born in Point Fortin, south Trinidad; he worked as a pupil-teacher, then at Shell Oil Company before fully entering the calypso world. He began singing in Point Fortin in the 1950s, moved to a calypso tent in San Fernando in the early 1960s, and then moved to the Original Young Brigade in Port of Spain from 1964 to 1967. He made his first recording in 1964 and established a distinguished career in calypso that spanned 50 years. Duke had the distinction of being the only calypsonian to have captured the Calypso Monarch crown on four consecutive occasions: in 1968 with “What Is Calypso” and “Social Bacchanal,” in 1969 singing “Black Is Beautiful” and “One Foot Visina,” in 1970 with “Brotherhood of Man” and “See Through,” and in 1971 with “Mathematical Formula” and “Melvie and Yvonne.” Duke also won the Road March title in 1987 with his humorous party tune “Thunder.” He is remembered for his stately stage performances and was reputed to be the best dressed calypsonian. Duke’s calypsos were witty and dignified and well informed. In addition to his winning renditions, other hits include “How Many More Must Die” and “Apartheid.” In 1970, Duke was awarded the national Hummingbird Medal (Gold). He died in 2009 after a four-year battle with cancer. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT.

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POPULATION. In 2014, the population of Trinidad and Tobago was estimated at 1.4 million of which approximately 55,000 are resident in Tobago. Since 2009, the annual growth rate of population has been stable at around 0.09 percent. The population ages 15 to 64 constitute roughly about 72 percent of the population. Life expectancy averages around 71 years. PORT OF SPAIN. Port of Spain is the capital city of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Originally a First Peoples site and later a small settler defensive outpost, Port of Spain gained importance in 1757 after the then governor, Don Pedro de la Moneda, in conflict with the Cabildo based in San José de Oruña, transferred his seat to the town. The town thus developed into an important trading port, particularly after large-scale sugar production was expanded in the territory under the 1783 Cedula of Population. Under the last Spanish governor Don José María Chacón, the town was consolidated and protected. In 1789, he diverted the St. Ann’s River, which ran through the town, to alleviate frequent flooding of the streets. In 1797, the British landed at Port of Spain and captured the Spanish territory. The town continued to expand northward and westward, and after the reclamation of swamp land in the Gulf of Paria at the turn of the 18th century, the town expanded southward as well. Major fires frequently gutted the city, and during the Water Riots of 1903, the seat of government, the Red House, in the heart of Port of Spain was razed resulting in the displacement of the administrative center to the Princes Building for a number of years. In 1914, the town was declared a city, and during the 1930s, a deep-water harbor was created allowing for the expansion and ease of trade. Port of Spain was declared the temporary capital of the West Indies Federation that lasted from 1958 to 1962. In 1990, it was the site of an attempted coup by the Muslim extremist group Jamaat al Muslimeen, which took control of the Red House. In 2005, a number of unsolved small bombings occurred in the center of the city. In 2013, due to the discovery of archeological remains during the renovation of the Red House, the displacement of the Parliament (which had been temporarily moved to new buildings directly on the coast) was extended to accommodate excavation of the site. Expansion of the ferry service to Tobago, the construction of skyscrapers such as the Twin Towers and the more recent Hyatt and Nicholas Buildings, the establishment of the City Gate central transportation hub, and the rise in crime have been hallmarks of the development of Port of Spain in the latter part of the 20th century. Despite recent attempts at decentralization, Port of Spain continues to be the thriving center of commerce in Trinidad and Tobago. PORT OF SPAIN GENERAL HOSPITAL. See HOSPITALS.

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PUBLIC CONTINGENT. Blacks and coloreds who volunteered to enlist to assist the British forces in World War I formed the Public Contingent. They were trained separately from the white volunteers, at the St. James Barracks. A total of 61 members of the Public Contingent died during the war. In May 1919, following the conclusion of the war, 450 of them arrived in Trinidad from Europe abroad the SS Ajacks. They were then herded onto barges, brought onshore, and paraded in front of the Port of Spain mayor at South Key. From here, they were made to undertake a two-mile march to the Queen’s Park Savannah, where they were addressed by the governor before being disbanded without the fanfare afforded to their white colleagues. PRESENTATION COLLEGE, CHAGUANAS. Presentation College, Chaguanas, is a government-assisted, Roman Catholic boys’ secondary school and the brother school of Presentation College, San Fernando. The school was founded by Canon Max Murphy and built on lands donated by the proprietors of Endeavor estates. The school was formerly called the Parish School, Second Pamphilian High School, and College of St. Phillip and St. James. It was initially managed by the Presentation Brothers, but from 1959 when it was formally established, it was managed by the Ministry of Education. Although it is a predominantly Roman Catholic school, students of other religious backgrounds are allowed to enroll. The school has an excellent academic record and is also well known for the sporting achievements of its students. See also RELIGION. PRESENTATION COLLEGE, SAN FERNANDO. Presentation College, San Fernando, is a government-assisted, Roman Catholic boys’ secondary school located in south Trinidad. The school was established around 1930 and was the first Roman Catholic secondary school opened in the southern part of the country. It was first located in the basement of the San Fernando Presbytery but was relocated to the Colony Buildings La Pique, in 1931. The school was originally called St. Benedict’s College, but by 1948, it was renamed Presentation College. It is managed by the Presentation Brothers and is credited for the high academic and sporting achievements of its students. See also EDUCATION; RELIGION. PRIME MINISTER. Under Section 76 (1) of the constitution, the prime minister is to be appointed by the president after a general election. The individual to be appointed must first win the majority vote in the constituency he or she contested, thereby securing a seat as the member of Parliament (MP) in the lower chamber or house of representatives. Election to this house is based on the first-past-the-post model fashioned after the Westminster system and constituted in “single-winner voting” or a framework in which

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“the winner takes all.” This means that each electoral district can return only one officeholder to the House of Representatives, and that the party that has won the most seats will form the government. Further, after an election, the president is mandated to appoint as prime minister the individual who, apart from having been elected as a member of the House of Representatives, is the leader who will command the support of the majority of members of this chamber. In Trinidad and Tobago, this is usually the leader of the party that won the elections. In the case of a hung parliament, or where there is no undisputed leader, or on the passing of a prime minister, the president must appoint the individual who, on the basis of advice and in his view, can command the support of the majority of members of the Lower House. Where no majority party emerges or where the party has no undisputed leader, the president appoints as prime minister the person who, in his view, is most likely to command the majority support in the House of Representatives. In such situations, the appointment is based on the discretion of the president, and the member he appoints must be willing to accept the portfolio. Having won the elections outright, or selected by the president in the manner previously described, the prime minister-to-be is normally invited by the president to form the government. He selects his cabinet colleagues and junior ministers. He serves as the head of the cabinet and leader of all government business, with responsibility for the effective and proper management of all the country’s affairs. He appoints and dismisses ministers and is responsible for the allocation of their portfolios. The authority of the prime minister resides in his majority support in the House of Representatives and his power to appoint and dismiss ministers. It is therefore always necessary for the prime minister and ruling party to maintain a majority in the House of Representatives with regard to any motion before the house. Should the government and party fail to do so at any time, it will be necessary to prorogue Parliament and return to the polls. It is for this reason that opposition parties have from time to time raised motions of no confidence in the prime minister, in the hope of securing a chance majority. The prime minister is required to hold regular meetings with the president on matters of government. See also CHAMBERS, GEORGE MICHAEL (1928–1997); MANNING, PATRICK AUGUSTUS MERVYN (1946–2016); PANDAY, BASDEO (1933– ); PERSAD-BISSESSAR, KAMLA (1952– ); ROBINSON, ARTHUR NAPOLEON RAYMOND (1926–2014); ROWLEY, KEITH CHRISTOPHER (1949– ); WILLIAMS, ERIC EUSTACE (1911–1981). PRIME MINISTER’S BEST VILLAGE TROPHY COMPETITION (1963– ). This is a cultural development program that runs from January to November annually. It was initiated in 1963 by the then prime minister, Dr. Eric Williams, who, during his historic postindependence “Meet the People Tour,” observed the quality and diversity of the untapped talent in the coun-

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try. The goal of this program was to discover and encourage talent within local communities while promoting and preserving the new nation’s cultural, environmental, and sporting traditions through competition. The annual competitions encourage the involvement of village/community councils, youth groups, women’s groups, sporting and cultural organizations, and other groups around Trinidad and Tobago. These competitions include Traditions of Carnival; Handicraft; Food and Folk Fair; Village Olympics; Village Chat—Short Stories, Poetry; Folk Theatre / Folk Presentation; La Reine Rive (the queen competition); and Environmental Sanitation. At the end of the months of competition, the community group that participated in most of the categories and scored the most points wins TT$200,000 to be used on a community project. In addition, Junior Best Village Camps were also encouraged. A number of famous local artistes such as Singing Sandra (Sandra Desvignes-Millington, the Calypso Monarch of 1999) and Machel Montano (an internationally renowned soca artiste) have been groomed by this program. “Best Village” has undeniably over the years generated community spirit and upliftment, as well as a true sense of national pride in Trinidad and Tobago. See also CULTURE. PUBLIC HOLIDAYS. See FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. PUBLIC LIBRARY. See OLD PUBLIC LIBRARY.

Q QUAMINA, DAVID BERNARD EBENEZER (1922–2007). Fondly known as Dr. Q, the Q, DBEQ, and the Bos, Quamina was born at Les Coteaux, Tobago, in 1922 and attended Bishop’s High School, Tobago, between 1934 and 1936 before transferring to Queen’s Royal College from 1936 to 1941. In 1948, he obtained a BA in psychology and sociology from McGill University in Canada and later went to Dublin University in Ireland where he earned the status of member of the Royal College of Physicians in 1961. He went on to earn qualifications as fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1970 and fellow of the American Academy of Dermatology in 1995. Quamina returned home in 1962 where he practiced as a dermatology specialist. From 1970 to 1985, he served as the hospital medical director at the Port of Spain General Hospital where he developed the first Dermatology unit. He also lectured in dermatology and internal medicine at the University of the West Indies. In addition, Quamina served as head of and on the executive of numerous medical associations, authorities, and societies throughout his career. These include president of the Medical Board of Trinidad and Tobago, chairman of the Trinidad and Tobago Dermatological Society, and chairman of the Steering Committee and foundation member of the Trinidad and Tobago Cancer Society. He also held positions in numerous nonmedical clubs and associations. Quamina served as high commissioner of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago to Canada between 1986 and 1987. He also served as an independent senator in the national Parliament from 2002 to 2007. In 1983, Dr. Quamina received a national award—the Medal of Merit (Gold)—for his contribution to the nation in medicine and the Scroll of Honor from the Trinidad and Tobago Medical Association in 1984. Dr. Quamina passed away on 21 December 2007. See also HEALTH. QUEEN’S COLLEGIATE SCHOOL. See QUEEN’S ROYAL COLLEGE (QRC).

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QUEEN’S HALL. This is the premier concert venue in Trinidad and Tobago. Though the issue of an appropriate concert venue in Trinidad and Tobago had been a long held public complaint, it was the establishment of the Music Festival by the Trinidad Music Association in 1948 that made stark the absence of an appropriate concert venue in the colony. This led the head of the association, Helen May Johnstone (née Russell) to lobby, raise funds, and establish a plan for the conversion of an old airplane hangar into a community center concert hall. In 1952, with government support, the Theatre Concert Hall Steering Committee was set up (later becoming a formal board under the 1959 Queen’s Hall Ordinance) and after a region-wide architectural competition, the design of Colin Laird, a local architect, was chosen. Construction began in 1958, and the hall opened in June 1959. By the 1990s, Queen’s Hall was in grave need of renovation, and in 1996, architects were commissioned to modernize the iconic venue. Work was then undertaken between 2001 and 2002 to convert the hall to a state-of-the-art performance center. Located in St. Ann’s, off the Queen’s Park Savannah, it remains the central venue for the performing arts in Trinidad and Tobago. See also CULTURE. QUEEN’S PARK SAVANNAH. Sir Ralph Woodford, the governor of Trinidad (1813–1828), was the master mind behind the conceptualization of the Savannah, its planning and development. On behalf of the inhabitants of Trinidad, in 1817, Governor Woodford procured the former 232-acre St. Ann’s Estate from the Peschier family for the sum of £10,363. On this he established the popular ground called the Queen’s Park Savannah, in the center of which, the family’s cemetery still stands. In the early days the land was primarily used by residents of Port of Spain as a pasture but by 1828, the popular sport, horse racing, became a regular activity there. In 1854, a Grand Stand was erected on the southern side to accommodate spectators who viewed the now expanded number of sporting activities, which included cricket, golf, football and rugby. In general, from the mid-19th century, the wide and open expanse of land became a public playground for a wide variety of sporting activities as well as an open space for relaxation. One of the 20th century innovations of the savannah was the 1902 tramcar ride around the savannah at the cost of one penny per ride. It became a popular center for people and with that came small business men, coconut and snow cone vendors, plying their trade around the savannah. The savannah, especially the area around the Grand Stand, became a focal point for the display of the three major dimensions of Carnival: the masquerade, steel pan, and calypso. Flower shows, Best Village Competitions, emancipation and Christmas commemorations and celebrations also

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find expression in the savannah. The Queen’s Park Savannah continues to be a central stage in the expression of the heritage of the people of Trinidad and Tobago. See also MAGNIFICENT SEVEN; MEMORIAL PARK. QUEEN’S ROYAL COLLEGE (QRC). Formerly known as the Queen’s Collegiate School, Queen’s Royal College (QRC) is a school for boys that was founded in 1859 and was the fourth secondary school to be opened in Port of Spain. The school began after St. George’s Private College (1837–1858) and the Church of England Grammar School (1853–1855) closed their doors. The colonial government of Trinidad of the day, with Governor Robert Keane and Attorney General Charles Warner as the leading advocates, conceptualized the school as an agent of anglicization in a colony characterized by strong “foreign” influences. It was presented as a nondenominational secondary school, the first of its kind in Trinidad, and it was modeled after England’s elite grammar schools. To reinforce the connections with England and to enforce the anglicization mission, in the early years QRC drew its staff, both principal and masters, from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The German Renaissance style building where the school is now housed was built in 1904 on the western side of the Queen’s Park Savannah. It was designed by Daniel M. Hahn, the chief draughtsman of the Public Works Department and a former student of QRC. Acting governor Sir Courtney Knollys laid the foundation stone on 11 November 1902. Built to accommodate six classrooms each with 30 boys, it was mainly made of blue limestone and tinted concrete and originally cost £15,000. The building, which still functions as a secondary school, has been refurbished several times to restore and maintain its original form. See also EDUCATION.

R RADIO. In 1925, Rediffusion, a British-based company, acquired the rights to radio broadcasting in Trinidad. In 1941, it changed its name to Rediffusion (Trinidad) Limited and proceeded in 1945 to build its network throughout the island, renaming the company Trinidad Broadcasting Company (TBC) Radio Network. On 31 August 1947, the first local radio station, Radio Trinidad 730 AM, was inaugurated at Maraval Road, Port of Spain. Another prominent radio company, Radio Guardian, was founded in 1957 at 17 Abercromby Street in Port of Spain by the British owners of the Trinidad Guardian newspaper, the Thompson Group. During its pre-independence nationalism campaigns, the local government purchased Radio Guardian and renamed it 610 Action Radio and placed it under the National Broadcasting Service (NBS), which would later include Trinidad and Tobago Television. In October 1972, NBS became the first to broadcast on the FM band. In March 1976, TBC launched its second radio station, its first on the FM band, 95.1 FM. The first live radio broadcast from Tobago was sponsored by the Bermudez Biscuit Company and was of a cultural performance held at the home of Lionel Paul “Skipper” Mitchell. On 1 January 1991, the first completely local music radio station, Radio Tempo 105 FM, was launched by TBC, and on 24 September 1995, the company introduced an Indian radio station called Sangeet 106.1 FM. Currently there are numerous radio stations with cultural, religious, and political programming catering to all aspects of Trinidadian and Tobagonian society. See also BETAUDIER, HOLLY (1925–2016); CASTAGNE, PATRICK STANISLAUS (1916–2000); KEENS-DOUGLAS, PAUL (1942– ); WALKE, OLIVE (1911–1969). RAMADHIN, SONNY (1929– ). The first cricketer of Indian descent to play for the West Indies, Ramadhin was one of its devastating bowlers of the 1950s. He was the first West Indian bowler to take 100 wickets. Born on 1 May 1929 in St. Charles Village (his birth certificate carries no first name, except for the simple description “boy”), Ramadhin was orphaned at an early 293

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age. The name “Sonny,” by which he was popularly called, became his official first name. He was introduced to cricket while a pupil of the Canadian Mission School in Duncan Village, Trinidad, but it was only later while playing for the Palmiste Club and the Trinidad Leaseholds team that he showed prowess with the ball. At the trials for the West Indies where he played two first-class matches bowling for Trinidad against Jamaica, he secured a position on the West Indies team for its tour of England in 1950, based on the strength of his bowling. When England toured the West Indies in 1954, Ramadhin was instrumental in the success of the West Indies team. He was an off beak and leg break spinner. During the 1960s, he lived in Britain and played for Lancashire. He retired toward the end of the decade. The 1950 triumph by the West Indies led Lord Beginner to write the first in a deluge of calypsos celebrating West Indian cricketers, giving rise to calypso cricket. During the heyday of his career and afterward, he received a number of local and international awards. In 1951, he was named a Wisden Cricketer of the year. In 1972, he received a Hummingbird Medal (Gold) for his contribution to the sport, and he was inducted into the West Indian Tobacco Company’s WITCO Sports Hall of Fame in 1985. In 1988, he was featured on a Trinidad and Tobago postage stamp and, in 1995, was the recipient of a Chaconia Medal (Gold). In 2000, he was honored with the Millennium Award by Trinidad and Tobago’s Ministry of Sport. RAMAYA, NARSALOO (1919–2013). Ramaya was a teacher, researcher, organizer, artist, and musician who was born on 15 December 1919 to Indian indentured workers on Hermitage Estate in south Trinidad. His father was from Hyderabad, and his mother hailed from Vishakhapatnam, South India. He moved to Port of Spain, attended Newtown Boys’ Roman Catholic School, and continued his education between 1952 and 1958, when he attained “O” and “A” Levels and a teacher’s diploma. In 1963, he enrolled at the University of the West Indies (UWI), and although he did not complete formal tertiary education, he studied sociology and anthropology privately. From 1958, he taught at the primary school in the Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha and emphasized the teaching of music at a time when it was not part of the formal curriculum. From 1969 to his retirement in 1974, he was the principal of the Aranquez Hindu School. Ramaya was one of the founders of Naya Zamana and the Trievini Indian Orchestras. His orchestras often performed at Hindu weddings and were featured in the 1945 centenary celebrations of Indian arrival to Trinidad as well as at the launch of the first Indian radio program in 1947. Naya Zamana Indian Orchestra often made appearances on Indian Talent on Parade, a cultural show hosted on local radio by Kamaluddin Mohammed. Additionally, for about 30 years, Ramaya played Indian music on the Sunday Morning Indian Hour radio program. The cine-

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mas where Ramaya and his orchestra and other groups staged concerts provided a venue for the promotion and celebration of Indian music from the 1940s to the 1970s. Ramaya was also in the forefront of the organization of the dissemination of Indian culture in Trinidad and Tobago. In 1964, he became one of the founding members of the National Council of Indian Music and Drama, later renamed the National Council for Indian Culture. Ramaya exported Indian music beyond Trinidad and Tobago by leading the local contingent at the Commonwealth Arts Festival in Britain in 1965 and at the World Fair held in Montreal, Canada, in 1967. For his contribution to the development of culture, in 1970 the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded him the Hummingbird Medal (Bronze). He died on 20 June 2013. RAMCHAND, KENNETH (1939– ). Ramchand is a well-known and respected critic of West Indian literature who was born in Trinidad. He attended Naparima College and is an MA and PhD graduate of Edinburgh University where he was enrolled as a scholarship student from 1959 to 1963. He has written extensively on the work of such West Indian authors as Vidia Naipaul, Samuel Selvon, and Earl Lovelace. His seminal publication, released in 1970, is The West Indian Novel and Its Background. Other publications include West Indian Narrative released in 1966, The Introduction to the Study of West Indian Literature released in 1976, and Act of Possession: The New World of West Indian Writing released in 1991. His career as an English literature lecturer included head of the Department of Liberal Arts, the University of the West Indies’ (UWI) first professor of West Indian literature from 1984 and professor emeritus of the UWI St. Augustine Campus from which he retired in 2009, associate provost of the University of Trinidad and Tobago, and professor emeritus of Colgate University in Hamilton, New York. Kenneth Ramchand also served as an independent senator in the Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago from 1987 to 1991. In 1996, in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the development of West Indian literature, education, and culture, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded him with the Chaconia Medal (Gold). In 2012, the National Library Services of Trinidad and Tobago (NALIS) honored him with a NALIS Lifetime Literary Achievement Award. In 2014, he was the recipient of the Bocas Lit Festival’s Henry Swanzy Award for Distinguished Service to Caribbean Letters. RAMJATTAN, RAMDEEN (JOHN AGITATION) (1927–2018). Comedian and storyteller Ramdeen Ramjattan preserved the folk culture of Trinidad and Tobago for five decades from 1951. He was born in Caratal, Trinidad, on 27 July 1927; was educated at the Progressive Educational Institute; and was employed as a public servant. From 1951, he was a popular and

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regular feature on Radio Trinidad in the Horace James Comedy Hour, Sunday Serenade, and the Aunty Kay Children’s Show. Ramjattan took his professional name from a character he had created in a script for a church play. He also dabbled in politics when, in 1989, he successfully contested a byelection in the Sangre Grande Regional Corporation for the Guiaco-Cumuto District and became the first comedian in the British Commonwealth to win an election. Ramjattan also has a private business as a citrus farmer operating on 10 acres of land in Cumuto. In 1993, Ramjattan was the recipient of the Sunshine Award for his contribution to Caribbean Art, Comedy, Dance, Drama, Music, and Poetry. In 2003, he received the Hummingbird Medal (Silver) from the government of Trinidad and Tobago for his contribution to culture. He died on 5 February 2018. RAMJOHN, MANNIE (1915–1998). A prominent athlete from southern Trinidad, Ramjohn was a long-distance runner who became the first individual to win a gold medal for the country after finishing first in the 5,000–10,000 meters while participating in the 1946 Central American and Caribbean Games in Barranquilla, Colombia. He also represented the colony in the 1948 Olympic Games in London but was unable to complete the course. Despite this, between 1931 and 1951, he was able to chalk up a number of impressive wins in local, regional, and other events. Ramjohn was born in San Fernando and received his secondary education at Naparima College in San Fernando. Apart from his participation in sport, he was a major contributor to the development of the Scout movement in Trinidad and Tobago. Because of his achievements in athletics and his contribution to the Scout movement, he was the recipient of a number of awards, including a Wood Badge from the Scout Association of the United Kingdom in 1948, an MMM Medal of Merit from the Scout Association of Trinidad and Tobago in 1973, the Silver Ibis Award for meritorious service from the Scout Association of Trinidad and Tobago in 1979, and the Trinidad and Tobago Hummingbird Medal (Silver) for social work and sport in 1982. In 2003, the Mannie Ramjohn Stadium in Marabella was named in his honor. RAMNARINE, DINATH (1975– ). Ramnarine was a right-arm, leg-break, googly bowler for Trinidad and Tobago and the West Indies. He represented the West Indies in a series of test matches from 1998 to 2002. Marginalization in local and West Indies cricket together with dissatisfaction over the conditions of employment offered to West Indies players caused him to run successfully for the office of president of the West Indies Players Association, a post he held for 10 years.

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RAMPAUL, GISELLE (1977–2017). Giselle Rampaul was a lecturer in the Department of Literary, Cultural and Communication Studies’ Faculty of Humanities and Education at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, since 2003. She distinguished herself as an expert in the Caribbean rereading of the work of William Shakespeare. Her academic activities included the establishment in 2010 of the Red Feather Journal, an international journal of children in popular culture; coediting of The Child and the Caribbean Imagination released in 2010; and Postscripts: Caribbean Perspectives on the British Canon from Shakespeare to Dickens released in 2014. Giselle Rampaul was also the pioneer of the podcast The Spaces between Words: Conversations with Writers, which up to 2017 featured 97 writers and poets. She died in Trinidad on 14 February 2017. RANCE, HUBERT ELVIN (1898–1974). A soldier and colonial administrator, Major General Sir Hubert Rance was the governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 19 April 1950 to June 1955. He served in both world wars and was responsible for the training of armies. He served as director of civil affairs in Burma at the end of World War II after the withdrawal of the Japanese from the country and was also the governor of Burma from 31 August 1946 to 4 January 1948 when Burma became independent. During his governorship of Trinidad and Tobago, he wrote two reports, which the Colonial Office published in 1950: Development and Welfare in the West Indies 1947–1949 and Report of the British Caribbean Standing Closer Association Committee 1948–1949. In the first year of his governorship of Trinidad and Tobago, a new constitution came into effect in the colony. In the elections that were held in 1950, locals were making more inroads into the Legislative Council. A total of six of the 18 seats contested was won by the BEC+WHRP party led by Butler and two by the Trinidad Labour Party. The governor became embroiled in the Discovery Day Carnival in Trinidad in 1954 when a drunken reveler rubbed half of an orange in the face of an upper-class lady called Mrs. O’Connor. Following the incident, Governor Rance issued a proclamation that attempted to ban the Carnival for all time. Hubert Rance Street in Vistabella, San Fernando, in Trinidad was named in his honor. RAWLINS, WESTON (CRO CRO, THE MIGHTY MIDGET). Cro Cro is known for his calypsos with biting political and social commentary. He thrives on controversy, fearlessly wades into his political opponents, and strongly asserts his allegiance to the People’s National Movement. He won the National Monarch Calypso Competition on four occasions: in 1988 singing “Three Bo Rats” and “Corruption in Common Entrance,” in 1996 singing “They Look for Dat” and “Support Commentary in Calypso,” in 2007

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singing “Nobody Ain’t Go Know,” and in 2008 singing “Respect for the Fourth King.” His more popular renditions include “Common Entrance,” Whey Pan Reach,” and “Rise Africans, Rise.” See also CULTURE. RED HOUSE. This building is the traditional seat of the Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago. It was first constructed in 1844. In the year that Queen Victoria of England was preparing to celebrate her Diamond Jubilee, the government of Trinidad in recognition of that milestone achievement coated the Parliament building in red paint. Thereafter, it was referred to as the Red House. In 1903 when the Water Riots erupted in Trinidad, the 1844 structure was destroyed. In the period from 1904 to 1906, the Red House, as it is known today, was rebuilt. It stands as a symbol of enduring democracy in the twin island nation of Trinidad and Tobago. By the end of the 20th century, the Red House needed extensive infrastructural reinforcement. Consequently, the Parliament was relocated to the Port of Spain International Waterfront Centre to facilitate the restoration works. See also JAMAAT AL MUSLIMEEN ATTEMPTED COUP; MOURNFUL MONDAY. RELIGION. For 300 years under Spanish rule, Trinidad was a Roman Catholic colony. French migration to Trinidad from 1783 intensified the Roman Catholic element of the Trinidad population. From the time of British capture of the island in 1797, there was an attempt to anglicize the Trinidad population. Anglicanism became the established church, and other Protestant groups including the Moravians, Methodists, Presbyterians, and, in the 20th century, Seventh-day Adventists, Salvation Army, and Pentecostals widened the religious portals of the country. Apart from Christian religions, the history of religion in Trinidad was shaped by the traditional religious belief system of the enslaved Africans, which is manifested in the Spiritual Baptist and Orisha faiths, and in the Muslim faith that they introduced. With the arrival of Indian indentured workers from the mid-19th century, the Hindu faith was introduced, and the Muslim presence was increased. From 1763, Anglicanism has been the dominant official religion of Tobago, but other protestant faiths, particularly the Moravians and the Methodists, became firmly established in the early 19th century. Other religions that have found acceptance in Trinidad and Tobago over the years include the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which was established in the mid-20th century, as well as Rastafarianism, Baha’i Faith, Jehovah’s Witness, and Buddhism creating very significant religious diversity in Trinidad and Tobago. See also SHIVA MANDIR; SIEWDASS SADHU SHIV MANDIR.

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RICHARDS, GEORGE MAXWELL (1931–2018). The country’s fourth president, Professor Richards was born 1 December 1931 in the southern city of San Fernando where he received his primary education at the San Fernando EC School, from which he obtained a scholarship to attend Queen’s Royal College, Port of Spain. Subsequently, he worked for a brief period, 1950 to 1951, at United British Oilfields of Trinidad (UBOT). He then attended the University of Manchester where he obtained his bachelor of engineering in 1955 and his master’s in engineering in 1957. He obtained a doctorate in chemical engineering at the University of Cambridge in 1963; he then returned to Trinidad where he resumed work at UBOT until 1965 when he joined the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of the West Indies (UWI), St. Augustine, eventually becoming a professor of chemical engineering. In 1980, he was appointed pro–vice chancellor and deputy principal of the St. Augustine Campus of the UWI. In 1984, he served as acting principal and was appointed principal in 1985, a position he held until his retirement in 1996. He has served on the board of a number of stated-owned petrochemical companies, and after retiring, he continued to serve at the university as professor emeritus. In 2003, he was elected as the fourth president of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago and reappointed in 2008, thus becoming the first individual descended from the First People to be appointed as a head of state in the English-speaking Caribbean. He was an outspoken president who continuously challenged the government and opposition. He is the recipient of two national awards: the Chaconia Medal (Gold), bestowed upon him in 1977, and the Trinity Cross, the nation’s highest award, in 2003. In 2007, Richards also became the recipient of an honorary doctorate from Heriot-Watt University. He passed away on the 8 January 2018. RIENZI, ADRIAN COLA (1905–1972). A labor leader, barrister, and politician, Rienzi was one of the most influential leaders of the working class during the 1930s and 1940s. Born in Victoria Village, and christened Krishna Deonarine, he changed his name to Adrian Cola Rienzi after a 14th-century Italian patriot who struggled for the rights of the peasants. He also worked as a lawyer on Harris Promenade. Rienzi joined forces with A. A. Cipriani at the outset of Cipriani’s career but broke with him and formed the Trinidad Citizens League in 1934. Compared to Butler and Cipriani, he had marked socialist leanings. However, although some saw him as the representative of the Indian sugar workers, he expressed concerns for the fate of the Africandescended workers, and he collaborated significantly with Uriah Butler in an effort to unite Indian and African-descended workers in the oil and sugar industries.

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When the oilfield workers rioted in 1937, Rienzi, who had a most cordial relationship with Uriah Butler (the leader of the oilfield workers) and was the legal representative of Butler’s party, showed great solidarity with Butler who went into hiding. While Butler was in hiding, Rienzi mediated between him and the government, trying unsuccessfully to obtain a safe conduct for him. On 26 July 1937, in order to keep high morale and solidarity among the oil workers in the absence of Butler, Rienzi formed the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union (OWTU). The workers made him their president general. During that period, he also helped to form the All Trinidad Sugar and General Workers Trade Union (ATSGWTU) and served as the president of this union. Rienzi therefore served as the first president general of both the OWTU and All Trinidad Sugar Estates and Factory Workers Trade Union. After Butler gave himself up in September 1937 and was arrested and tried, Rienzi, as his counsel, brilliantly defended him in the court and received high commendation from the trial judge. Butler was jailed for two years and subsequently detained further during the war on security grounds. Rienzi made a tremendous effort to keep Butler’s followers united and his image alive. Indeed, it is due largely to Rienzi that, when Butler was released in 1945, he was received warmly and with great acclaim by the membership of the OWTU. Earlier, in January 1938, under the banner of the trade union movement, Rienzi fought and won the seat for San Fernando in the Legislative Council elections of that year. Speaking in the Legislative Council on 16 June 1939, he called for the observance of 18 June, the anniversary of the oilfield workers’ riots, as a public holiday. He was ridiculed then, and heard Cipriani declare: “All those who have the best interests of the working classes at heart, would like to forget forever June 19, and are not asking for the making of a day for the adulation of false heroes” (Hansard, Debates of the Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago, 16 June 1939. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Government Printing Office, 1940). Rienzi became mayor of San Fernando in November 1939 and administered the borough for three consecutive terms, until November 1942. He was a member of the Franchise Committee, which was appointed in 1941, and strongly advocated universal adult suffrage. He was made a member of the Executive Council in 1941 but retired from both labor and to some extent active politics in 1944, at the relatively young age of 39. He was appointed as a second crown counsel in 1944, first crown counsel in 1949, and senior crown counsel in 1952. He served as assistant attorney general from 1953 to 1958, acting solicitor general in 1959, and acting director of public prosecutions from 1959 to 1961. His final portfolio was that of assistant solicitor general in 1964. He died on 21 July 1972. In 1973, the government declared the anniversary 19 June as Labour Day, to commemorate the oilfield riots of 1937. His name is on the Rienzi Complex, the headquarters of the ATSGWTU he founded. In 2012, he was awarded the

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nation’s highest honor, the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago and named a national icon. See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962); POLITICAL STRUCTURE. ROACH, ERIC MERTON (1915–1974). Considered “the most splendid voice of the Caribbean Renaissance” by fellow renowned writer and poet Kamau Braithwaite, Eric Roach was one of the most prominent figures in the artistic movement of the 20th century, reflecting the truth of the Caribbean experience through his original and insightful poetry and was Tobago’s first resident literary figure. Born in Mt. Pleasant, Tobago, in 1915, Roach attended Bishop’s High School after which he joined the local teaching service. It was during this period that he first began to write and publish literary pieces. At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Roach volunteered under the South Caribbean forces and served until 1946. In these years, he continued to compose poems, some written under the pseudonym Merton Maloney. Thereafter, Roach gained employment in the civil service but continued to pursue his first love, writing and publishing occasionally in the local newspaper, the Trinidad Guardian. In 1949, Roach received some international exposure when he was featured in the BBC program Caribbean Voices (1949–1955) and in the Caribbean literary magazine Bim (1949–1962). He also regularly published in other Caribbean journals such as Caribbean Quarterly and Kyk-over-al during the 1950s. In 1954, he left his job in the civil service to devote himself solely to writing and producing further poems, short stories, and articles. However, in 1960, finding it difficult to publish his writings, he reentered the teaching profession and, a year later, moved to Trinidad to take up a position as a journalist with the Trinidad Guardian and The Nation. During this period, Roach continued to produce literary works, writing three plays: Belle Fanto (1967), Letter from Leonora (1968), and A Calabash of Blood (1971). In another attempt to devote himself solely to his writing, he resigned again, abandoning his journalism career in 1973. Unfortunately, in 1974 after penning his final poem “Finis,” Roach ended his own life. He was recognized for his immense contribution to the Caribbean literary world and posthumously awarded the Trinidad and Tobago national Hummingbird Medal (Gold) in 1974. Some of Roach’s most famous poems were “The Flowering Roach,” “In Mango Shade,” “I Am the Archipelago,” “Homestead,” and “March Trades.” In 1992, his collected poems, The Flowering Rock: Collected Poems 1938–1974, were published, after which the extent of his genius was fully recognized and lauded. See also CULTURE.

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ROBERTS, ALDWYN (LORD KITCHENER, THE GRANDMASTER) (1922–2000). Roberts was born in Arima and began his career as an entertainer for pipe layers in Arima before winning the Calypso King of Arima for four years from 1938. He then moved to Port of Spain and began a career as calypso composer, singer, and performer that spanned over 60 years. He sang alongside the big calypso names of the era such as Tiger, Roaring Lion, and Atilla the Hun. He wrote his own composition in 1944, and from as early as 1946, Kitchener was recording his music that, along with his well-written, humorous compositions and scathing political commentary, contributed to making him one of the best-known calypsonians of Trinidad and Tobago. He maintained a close affinity with the steel pan and dedicated much of his talent to creating music that was ideal for the national instrument. And the pan musicians loved him. In 1946, he was a founding member of the Young Brigade Tent, and in 1963, he established the Calypso Revue Tent. In 1948, he migrated to England aboard the Windrush and was a sensational entertainment act for and the voice of immigrants in Britain. While abroad, he continued to compose, sing, and record, and he exported his compositions to his homeland and helped to popularize calypso music beyond the Caribbean. He returned to Trinidad in 1963 and created an unmatched record in the annals of calypso history. Over the next 35 years, he wrote over 350 songs, ran his own tent called the Calypso Review, won 10 Road March titles, and composed music that won 19 Panorama titles. This very successful and wellloved calypsonian was also instrumental in launching the careers of younger calypsonians through his assistance in establishing calypso tents or venues where calypso concerts are held. Among his many successful hits, Kitchener has produced a number of calypso classics, including “Old Lady Walk a Mile,” “Mango Tree,” “The Road,” “Flag Woman,” “Pan Night and Day,” “Pan in Harmony,” “The Toco Band,” “Guitar Pan,” and his last creation, “Pan Birthday.” Kitchener continued performing and recording until the year of his death. He died in Port of Spain on 11 February 2000. In 2012, Lord Kitchener was named a national icon of Trinidad and Tobago. See also CULTURE. ROBERTS, EDWIN ANTHONY (1941– ). Roberts was born and raised in Port of Spain by an aunt after losing his parents at an early age. He was educated at Rosary Boys’ Roman Catholic School in Port of Spain, Tranquility Secondary, and then North Carolina State College where he studied physical education. He was among the first track and field athletes to represent newly independent Trinidad and Tobago at the British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth, Australia, in 1962. He did not receive a medal in these games, but in the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games, he won two medals. Roberts and teammates Wendell Mottley, Edwin Skinner, and Kent Bernard won bronze for Trinidad and Tobago clocking a time of 3.01.7 in the men’s 4

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x 400 meters relay. He earned a second Tokyo Olympic medal, a bronze, in the 200-meter race with a time of 20.6 seconds. For his prowess in track and field, the government of Trinidad and Tobago in 1969 awarded Roberts the Hummingbird Medal (Bronze), and he was inducted into three halls of fame: the Alex M. Rivera Athletics Hall of Fame at North Carolina Central University (1984), the Trinidad and Tobago Sports Hall of Fame (1987), and the Central American and Caribbean Athletic Confederation Hall of Fame (2005). ROBINSON, ARTHUR NAPOLEON RAYMOND (1926–2014). Trinidad and Tobago’s third prime minister and its third president, Robinson was born in Calder Hall, Tobago, to James and Isabella Robinson. He received his education at Castara Methodist School and Bishop’s High School as the first Sylvan Bowles Scholar where he earned the Higher School Certificate with distinction in Latin. Following this, he successfully pursued a bachelor of laws degree from London University as an overseas student. In 1951, he left Trinidad for the United Kingdom, was called to the bar at the Inner Temple, and successfully pursued a degree in philosophy, politics, and economics from St. John’s College, Oxford. On his return to Trinidad and Tobago, Robinson established a practice as a barrister-at-law, entered politics, and became a foundation member of the People’s National Movement (PNM). Between 1958 and 1960, he served in the Parliament of the West Indies Federation, was elected as the member of Parliament (MP) for Tobago East from 1961 to 1971, 1976 to 1980, and 1986 to 1997. During his career in politics, Robinson has occupied a number of key roles: first minister of finance of independent Trinidad and Tobago from 1961 to 1967 and, later, minister of foreign affairs. Robinson has been the only person to occupy the country’s three highest political positions: chairman of the Tobago House of Assembly (THA) (1980–1986), prime minister (1986–1991), and president (1997–2003). In 1970, disappointed in the government’s handling of the Black Power Movement, he resigned from the PNM and formed his own political party, the Action Committee of Dedicated Citizens (ACDC). The latter would join forces with the Democratic Labour Party to contest the 1971 general elections. But the two parties ultimately boycotted the elections via what became known as the “No Vote Campaign” in protest against the introduction of the voting machines. In the aftermath of the 1971 election, the ACDC was transformed into the Democratic Action Congress (DAC), which won the two Tobago seats in the general elections of 1976. In 1977, as the member for Tobago East, Robinson raised the issue of internal self-government for Tobago in the Parliament, and brought about the passing of the THA Act in 1980. Following this, Robinson resigned from the Parliament to contest the THA elections. His party, the DAC, won, and he became the first chairman of the THA. Six years later,

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with the defeat of the PNM by the National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR) in 1986, he ascended to the office of prime minister of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Robinson played a decisive role in the politics of Trinidad and Tobago. As leader of the NAR, he became the leader of the first political party to defeat the PNM in the national elections. However, although he had come into office as the leader of the NAR, the NAR was a coalition party and the base of Robinson’s support was primarily in Tobago, where he controlled the only two electoral constituencies on the island. Robinson therefore controlled only two of the 33 seats won by the NAR in the elections of 1986. Shortly after assuming office Robinson’s popularity and that of the NAR began to wane. Faced with a depressing international environment, declining oil prices, and a weakened domestic economy, Robinson had introduced a number of structural adjustment measures aimed at downsizing and right-sizing state organizations and departments, and reducing the burden on the national treasury. These measures included a 10-percent cut in salary, the introduction of a compulsory 15-percent value-added tax on the consumption of goods and services, and the implementation of voluntary separation from employment. The coup followed, and the NAR was defeated by the PNM in the elections of 1991. In the elections of 1995, the PNM and United National Congress (UNC) each secured 17 seats in Trinidad, while the NAR captured the two seats that existed for Tobago. Robinson then aligned with the Basdeo Panday–led UNC to form the next government of Trinidad. Under this administration, which was led by Panday, Robinson served as minister extraordinaire, a portfolio unprecedented in the politics of Trinidad and Tobago. It was while serving in this capacity that he was elected (by the electoral college) to serve as the third president of the republic. Robinson soon ran into difficulty with the Panday administration, particularly over the decision of the latter to appoint as government senators a number of UNC candidates defeated at the polls. Further, shortly after securing a second term following the elections of 2000, the Panday administration was forced back to the polls through allegations of corruption, and its inability to maintain its majority in the Lower House. The elections resulted in a hung parliament, with both the incumbent UNC and the PNM securing 18 seats. In order to resolve the situation, a tripartite discussion with Robinson and the leadership of both parties was held at the Crowne Plaza where the leaders of both political parties agreed that they would abide by the president’s decision regarding who would form the next government. Following the meeting Robinson, basing his decision on what he saw as moral and spiritual values, rejected Panday, the sitting prime minister, and appointed Patrick Manning as the new head of government. It was the second time that he was responsible for the appointment of a prime minister under what his detractors would have regarded as controversial circumstances.

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During the 1990 Jamaat al Muslimeen attempted coup, Robinson and a number of other government ministers and MPs were held hostage in the Parliament. During the crisis, he was shot in the knee. Held at gunpoint, and pressured by the Muslim insurgents to declare that his government had fallen, a defiant Robinson shouted out to the national defense force and other state paramilitary forces that they should “attack with full force.” In the aftermath of his capture and release by the Muslim insurgents, Robinson had risen to international prominence as a result of his stringent calls for the establishment of an international criminal court for the prosecution of those involved in acts of terrorism, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. He had actually first made the call at the UN General Assembly in 1989, the year before the attempted coup, and subsequently spent many years in the company of other international legal luminaries hammering out the fundamentals for its establishment, until the court was finally opened in 2002. Robinson was the only head of government to have served as a government minister in three administrations—namely, the PNM, NAR, and UNC. He is also the first Tobagonian to have served as prime minister of the country. In 2011, the Crown Point Airport in Tobago was renamed the A. N. R. Robinson International Airport in his honor. Additionally, he was the recipient of Trinidad and Tobago’s highest Medal of Honor and was named a national icon in 2012. He died on 9 April 2014, and was given two state funerals, one in Trinidad and the other in Tobago. See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962). ROBINSON, WILLIAM (1836–1912). Robinson was governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 9 October 1885 to 1891, thus becoming the last governor of Trinidad and the first of the unified colony of Trinidad and Tobago. He was born on 9 February 1836 in Suffolk, England, to Reverend Isaac and Mrs. Jane Robinson; he married Julia Sophia Dampier on 17 July 1862 and they had three sons. Sophia died in 1881, and three years later, he married Felicia Ida Helen Rattray with whom he had three daughters. It was during his tenure as governor of Trinidad and Tobago that a telephone service was established in Trinidad and a pipe-borne water supply provided in the urban areas of Trinidad. In 1885, he allocated £200 for the construction of a police station and school in the rural eastern village of Matelot. On 18 March 1886, he laid the foundation stone for the erection of a temporary iron sanctuary for the Tranquility Methodist Church located on Victoria Avenue in Port of Spain, Trinidad. Despite his apathy toward the commemoration of the end of slavery in the British West Indies, he was compelled to establish 1 August 1888 as the first ever Emancipation Day observation in Trinidad after black pressure groups, led by such activists as Muzumbo Lazare and Edgar Maresse-Smith, agitated for the commemoration. The observation, however, was short-lived and was replaced by Discovery Day. Another development

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that unfolded during his governorship was the appointment of the 1888 Franchise Commission, which proceeded from the letter that Reverend Robert Andrews of the Fifth Company Baptist Church in San Fernando wrote to Queen Victoria just after the Queen’s Golden Jubilee requesting that locals be allowed to choose their own representatives. Robinson’s first visit to Tobago took place in February 1889, and he was confronted by Tobago laborers who expected that the union of the two islands would result in equal wages for workers in the united colony. At the time, laborers in Trinidad received 25 cents per day while those in Tobago received 16 cents. Robinson did not support the Tobago laborers in this matter. He also opposed Chief Justice John Gorrie who, in the early 1890s, held court sessions supporting metayers who sued landowners for damages to their crops and/or failure to grind their canes. Robinson died in London on 12 December 1912. See also APPENDIX A. ROMAN CATHOLIC. See CATHOLICISM. ROODAL, TIMOTHY (1884–1952). An early oil explorer in south Trinidad and cinema magnate, Roodal became a member of the San Fernando Borough Council from 1928 to 1948. He served as mayor of San Fernando between 1942 and 1945, and as a member of the Legislative Council from 1928 to 1950. He was also a member of the governor’s Executive Council from 1946 to 1948 and the builder of Roomor, one of the Magnificent Seven buildings in Port of Spain. ROOMOR. See AMBARD’S HOUSE (ROOMOR). ROWLEY, KEITH CHRISTOPHER (1949– ). The current political leader of the People’s National Movement (PNM) and prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago, Dr. Rowley was born on 24 October 1949 in Mason Hall, Tobago. He received his secondary education at Bishop’s High School, Tobago, where he earned the prestigious Sylvan Bowles Scholarship. From thence, he pursued his tertiary education beginning at the University of the West Indies (UWI), Mona, Jamaica, from which he graduated with a BSc in geology (first class honors) and geography (first class honors). He then obtained his MSc in volcanic stratigraphy at the UWI, St. Augustine, where he obtained his doctorate in geology, specializing in geochemistry. Rowley then went on to serve as a research scientist, becoming a research fellow and, later, head of the Seismic Research Unit at the university. He also served as the general manager of state-owned National Quarries Company Limited. In 1981, he successfully contested the Diego Martin West seat and has since been consecutively reelected as the member of Parliament for the constituen-

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cy. Dr. Rowley’s first stint in Parliament was as an opposition senator, from 1987 to 1990, during the National Alliance for Reconstruction government. Following the reelection of the PNM to office, Rowley served as cabinet minister, and held four successive portfolios. From 1992 to 1995, he served as minister of agriculture, lands, and marine resources; from 2001 to 2002, as minister of planning and development; from 2003 to 2007, as minister of housing; and from 2007 to 2008, as minister of trade and industry. As the minister of agriculture, he played a significant role in the rationalization of Caroni Limited; as minister of housing, he was responsible for the construction of an unprecedented 20,000 homes over a five-year period. As minister of planning and development, he played a key role in the development of Vision 2020. Rowley also served as Trinidad and Tobago’s representative governor of the Inter-American Development Bank and as governor of the Caribbean Development Bank. Since his entry into politics, Rowley has established a reputation as a skillful debater and no-nonsense politician with a strong desire to rid the country of official corruption and the misappropriation of public funds. Rowley took the Panday administration to task on the question of the Piarco International Airport and over the failure to respond adequately to allegations of corruption in a state-run company. In 2008, he was fired from his cabinet post after making allegations of corruption against a state-owned firm, the Urban Development Corporation of Trinidad and Tobago. An unsuccessful snap election called by Prime Minister Patrick Manning in 2010 saw the fall of Manning and Rowley’s accession to the helm of the PNM and leader of the opposition. In the Parliament and elsewhere, Rowley was a vociferous critic of the People’s Partnership government, raising issues that had been the source of much public interest and controversy: government corruption, Section 34, and Emailgate. Under his leadership, the PNM secured victory in a number of major elections in Trinidad and Tobago—namely, the local government elections, the Tobago House of Assembly election, and a by-election for the San Juan/Barataria constituency. These victories shored up the confidence and prospects for the PNM after its electoral defeat in 2010. Rowley went on the defeat the Kamla Persad-Bissessar regime in the national elections to become the seventh prime minister of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Rowley is married to Sharon Rowley, an attorney-at-law, and the couple has two daughters, Tonya and Sonel. See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962). ROYAL VICTORIA INSTITUTE (RVI) (1892). Located at the corner of Keate and Frederick streets in Port of Spain, the institute was built as a museum of science and art to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Her Majesty Queen Victoria and was named the Victoria Institute. The building

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was designed by the architect D. M. Hahn and was opened on 17 September 1892. It was the headquarters of the Field Naturalist Club, which formed the museum to house its natural history exhibits. Its collection was built by donations including stuffed birds from Dr. A. Leotaud; shells from former governor Robert W. Keates’s widow; reptiles and insects from Dr. Courts; and an anchor, believed to be one used by Christopher Columbus, from François Agostini, owner of Constance Estate, Icacos. Later dubbed a fraud, the anchor now adorns the front entrance to the building. In 1901, the building was enlarged, and by 1905, the institute became a center for social and dramatic functions. On 19 May 1920, the building, with all its collections, was destroyed by fire. The main building was rebuilt and was reopened in June 1923 and was used for theatrical and musical entertainment and commercial classes. In 1929, the building was turned over to the government and put under the control of the Board of Industrial Training, which conducted classes in arts and crafts there. In 1945, the colonial government decided to expand the exhibitions and activities and gave the institute the status of a museum. In 1958, the building was the site of the first sitting of the Federal Court of the Federation of the West Indies. At independence in 1962, the collections were moved to the former governor’s mansion, the intended home of the National Museum and Art Gallery. This plan never materialized, and the collections were returned to the Royal Victoria Institute building, which became the National Museum and Art Gallery. See also NATIONAL MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. RUDDER, DAVID MICHAEL (1953– ). Rudder, who was born and grew up in Belmont, showed wide musical and other artistic talents but remained behind the scenes for many years. He began singing at age 11 as a part of the group the Solutions before joining Charlie’s Roots in 1977. He was a mas man apprentice to the late copper crafter Ken Morris, assisting him with Carnival costume designs, and he worked as an accountant with Trinidad and Tobago Bus Company. After singing backup for a number of wellknown calypsonians at Lord Kitchener’s Calypso Revue Tent, he branched out on his own in 1986 with a dramatic entry into the calypso world, winning the three major titles, Young King, Calypso Monarch, and Road March King, and runner-up in that year. He produced a calypso album The Hammer consisting of such hits as “The Hammer” and “Bahia Girl,” which was a tribute to the late great Trinidadian pannist, Rudolph Charles. Two other hits followed in quick succession: “Calypso Music” and “Haiti.” Strongly influenced by his Spiritual Baptist grandmother, the Shango yard in his neighborhood, and the community pan yard, Rudder has produced calypsos that have been infused with aspects of these influences, and, in particular, the haunting melodies of the Shango Baptist underline many of his compositions. In 1987, he was runner-up in the Calypso Monarch Competition. Rud-

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der broke with the established conventions of the art form. He took no calypso name, and he composed his own calypsos with lyrics with a broader perspective embracing global events, drawing attention to regional challenges, and creating themed calypsos specifically for mas bands and the official anthem to boost support for the West Indies cricket team. He has produced over 20 albums, including Haiti, Rally Round the West Indies, The Hammer, Bahia Girl, and Calypso Music. In 1990 in the Apollo Theater, New York, The Hammer was adjudged Best Calypso Album of the Year. He is one of the nation’s 50 national icons named in 2012. David Rudder’s music has been credited as transcending culture, race, and class. Today, Rudder lives in Canada with his family. See also FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. RYAN, CLIFTON (THE MIGHTY BOMBER) (1928– ). Born 30 January 1928 in Grenada, he entered his first calypso competition in 1940 and won first place when he was just 12 years old. He repeated this feat in 1947. For the other nine years of his life in Grenada, Bomber composed calypsos for one of his colleagues, Wilfred Baptiste, who went by the name Young Melody. In 1956, Bomber migrated to Trinidad and settled initially on Prince Street, Port of Spain. He entered his first calypso competition in his adopted home in 1957. By 1960, he was manager of the Original Young Brigade Calypso Tent. In 1964, Bomber won the National Calypso Competition with the compositions “Bomber’s Dream” and “James and John.” In 1976, in recognition of his contribution to the advancement of calypso music in Trinidad, prime minister Dr. Eric Williams granted Bomber a plot of land on Picton Hill in Laventille. For much of the 1980s, Bomber suffered health problems and retreated from performing. In 1988, he came out of retirement as manager of the New Wave Calypso Theatre, and in 1999, he won the newly created Humorous Calypso Monarch title. Now he is fully retired, but in 2012 with the national celebration of the golden jubilee of independence in Trinidad and Tobago, Bomber was involved and honored in the Lord Brynner reenactment of the first ever 1962 Independence Calypso Competition. Bomber has since shifted to singing songs of praise and worship. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. RYAN, PATRICK FINBAR (ARCHBISHOP COUNT) (1881–1975). He was born in Cork, Ireland, and first ordained as a priest in the Order of Friars Preachers. He was first appointed as coadjutor archbishop to Port of Spain 13 April 1937 and then the archbishop of the Catholic Church in Port of Spain, Trinidad, on 6 June 1940, a post he held for 26 years. He was the seventh archbishop of the Catholic Church in Port of Spain. In 1962, when Trinidad and Tobago became an independent nation, Archbishop Ryan was the high-

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est-ranking religious figure present at the formal celebration and had the honor of pronouncing the prayer to bless the new nation. One of his lasting legacies in Trinidad and Tobago consisted of the establishment of the Seminary of St. John Vianne, which currently operates as the monastic compound of Mt. St. Benedict. Following his retirement from the Port of Spain archbishopric on 24 May 1966, he held the position of archbishop emeritus. He also left an indelible mark on the development of Catholic education in Trinidad. He encouraged the Holy Ghost Fathers to open Fatima College in 1945. It was through his invitation that the Presentation Brothers came to Trinidad in 1946 and the Holy Faith Sisters arrived in 1947. The Dominican Fathers, to which he belonged, opened Holy Cross College in 1957 and encouraged the opening of St. Joseph’s College in the parish of St. Joseph, St. Charles High School in Tunapuna, and St. Dominic’s College in Barataria. Archbishop Ryan was also the author of the work titled Our Lady of Fatima (1939). In 1969, in recognition of his contributions to religion, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded him its highest national award, the Trinity Cross. He died on 10 January 1975.

S SABGA, ANTHONY NORMAN (1923–2017). Also known as the man with the “Midas Touch”’ in recognition of his successful entrepreneurial career, Sabga was born in Syria. He migrated with his family to Trinidad in 1930 fleeing religious persecution against Christians in the former Ottoman Empire. Sabga grew up on Duncan Street in Port of Spain and attended Nelson Street Boys’ Roman Catholic School. He left school at age 14 when his father was quite ill and joined two of his brothers in taking charge of the family’s haberdashery business, N. S. Sabga and Sons, located on Queen Street in Port of Spain. By 1945, he parted ways with his brothers when he established Standard Distributors, a commission agency business. He then entered the business of marketing and retailing the five-cubic-feet Bosch refrigerator following his meeting with Robert Bosch, manufacturer of refrigerators and other appliances, in a trade fair held in Germany. After Trinidad and Tobago became independent in 1962, it became illegal for Sabga to continue with the importation of German-made refrigerators. He responded to the new law by establishing ANSA Industries, which permitted him to use a special license with Admiral Corporation of the United States to manufacture refrigerators and cookers, as well as Hitachi radios from Japan, Blaupunkt audio equipment from Germany, and Bombani cookers from Modena, Italy. ANSA Industries manufactured items to sell in the home market and, through its subsidiaries, also exported appliances around the Caribbean, capturing in the process the Prime Minister’s Award for Export Performance in 1968. Standard Distributors, a chain of furniture and appliance stores in Trinidad and Tobago, and Farmhouse Industries, a dairy product company, are two other financial establishments launched by Sabga. ANSA Industries eventually became Consolidated Appliances Ltd. In the 1970s, Sabga’s financial empire extended even further to include selling of the Heidelberg printing press and training personnel in its use. Sabga’s involvement in the printing press industry included sourcing an automated printer for the daily newspaper, the Trinidad Guardian, which greatly increased the newspaper’s printing capacity. By 1986, with recession facing the economy of Trinidad and Tobago, Sabga agreed to merge ANSA with 311

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McEarney and Co. and Alston’s Ltd. into ANSA McCAL. The merger brought together three giants in the spheres of manufacturing, distribution, services, packaging, automotive, media, shipping, travel, banking, insurance, real estate, and energy. ANSA McCAL manages CARIB Brewery in Trinidad and has supervised the construction of ANSA House, Maple House, Regent’s Park, and Bayside Towers in west Trinidad and Grand Bazaar in the east. Anthony Sabga has received many awards for his contribution to the entrepreneurial development of Trinidad and Tobago, including the 1998 Ernst and Young Master Entrepreneur of the Year; the 1998 UWI Doctor of Laws Honoris Causa; the 1998 Chaconia Medal (Gold); the 2002 Trinidad and Tobago Icons of the Nation Award for Thinkers, Movers and Shapers; the 2004 Prime Minister’s Award for Innovation and Invention; and the Lifetime Achievement Award Manufacturing Sector 2004, as well as the Trinity Cross, the nation’s highest award, in 2011 for service to the national community. Sabga died on 3 May 2017. SALADOID. The ceramic-age people who moved into the Caribbean in the last century BCE have come to be known as the Saladoids, after the archeological site Saladero in Venezuela in which their characteristic pottery was found. This ceramic-making group migrated from Trinidad/Venezuela to the Leeward Islands, U.S. Virgin Islands (St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. John), and eastern Puerto Rico. Their pottery styles can be divided into two groups: the Cedros style pottery (250 BCE–1 CE) and the Paleseco Complex (1 CE–650 CE). See also ARAWAK; BARRANCOID; ISLAND CARIBS; ORTOIROID. SALANDY, GISELLE (1987–2009). Salandy was a young Trinidadian boxer who held eight titles. At the age of 14, she defeated Paola Rojas in Curaçao, becoming the youngest person to win a world title, the WIBA IBERO title. Four years later, she defeated Manela Daniels to become the youngest female boxer in the world to win an NABC title. In 2006, she captured six world titles from one fight, and she successfully defended them the following year. In 2008, she defeated Karolina Lukasik winning seven title belts: the WBC, WBA, WBE, WIBA, IWBF, GBU, and UBC. She went on to defeat Yahaira Hernandez, thus securing her eight belts and becoming the first boxer in the Caribbean to win all her world titles on six consecutive occasions. She died in a vehicular accident in 2009. SALDENAH, HAROLD (1925–1985). Saldenah, popularly known as Sally, was born in Belmont, Port of Spain, to parents who were his first teachers in the art of designing and making costumes for Carnival. He made his debut in the world of designing the masquerade in the immediate post–World War II

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years, and his signature mark on costuming included painting, papier-mâché, and, above all, metal fabrication, which he introduced into Carnival costumes. His first mas band, Quo Vadis (1951), consisted largely of Roman soldiers in full military garb made largely of papier-mâché painted to appear authentic. In 1955, his pioneer work in metal paved the way for the era of copper breastplates and gleaming swords in Trinidad’s Carnival. Saldenah went on to win six Band of the Year titles for the production of Imperial Rome 44 BC to 96 AD (1955), Norse Gods and Vikings (1956), Lost City of Atlantis (1958), Mexico 1519 to 1521 (1964), Pacific Paradise (1965), and El Dorado, City of Gold (1968). The government of Trinidad and Tobago honored him with the award of Public Service Medal of Merit (Silver) in 1972. See also CULTURE. SANATAN DHARMA MAHA SABHA (SDMS). The Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha, a Hindu organization, was founded, formed, and led initially by Bhadase Sagan Maraj; Satnarayan Maharaj, Maraj’s son-in-law, became secretary-general of the organization following Maraj’s death. The Sanatan Dharma Association, which was founded in 1881 to protect the interests of the Hindu community, was incorporated in 1952, and a rival organization, the Sanatan Dharma Control Board, was also incorporated. Both groups were advocates for the Hindu community. The Board of Control became affiliated to a similar association in Lagore, India, and Hindus in Trinidad became associated with one or the other organization. Bhadase Sagan Maraj united the two associations to create a more powerful pressure group and public organization, the SDMS. The organization standardized Hindu practices by producing relevant literature for use in schools and temples; the group also promoted education and built 31 schools between 1952 and 1956. The association now runs 42 schools and 150 temples; it also has more than 200 pundit affiliates. The SDMS has revived the celebration of Phagwa and was instrumental in obtaining Indian Arrival Day as a national holiday in commemoration of the arrival of Indian indentured workers to Trinidad and Tobago. See also RELIGION. SANDY, LIBERATOR OF THE ENSLAVED. Sandy, an enslaved carpenter on the Grafton Estate, Tobago, masterminded and led a rebellion that lasted six weeks, creating terror and costing the island £2,100. In an effort to liberate enslaved Africans in Tobago, he planned with nine others on estates in the parish of St. Patrick to seize arms, kill masters, and lead a general uprising on the island in the bid for freedom. The rebellion began with the killing of Samuel Hall of Courland Estate before the military outpost at Hawks Bill point was attacked and arms and ammunition seized. With their numbers increased to 30, the resistors returned to attack Grafton Estate,

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where they destroyed plantation buildings before moving to occupy the great house at Steeletown Estate. They fought off the military at Grange Estate and moved to Riseland Estate where military reinforcements from Grenada, St. Vincent, and Barbados dispersed the rebels into the forests. They were hunted, and those who were caught were either hung or burned alive in an effort to stamp out servile resistance by Africans on the island. Determined to be free, the remaining resistors continued their attacks on Grange Estate, and although they were repulsed, they made the final assaults on Carnbee and Orange Hill estates before they were finally overwhelmed. Despite offers of freedom to anyone who would bring Sandy in dead or alive, Sandy eluded his captors and is believed to have fled to freedom in Trinidad. SANDY-LEWIS, LINDA McCARTHA MONICA (CALYPSO ROSE) (1940– ). A calypsonian and songwriter (she has written over 800 songs and published more than 20 albums), Sandy-Lewis, more famously known as Calypso Rose, is the most renowned female calypsonian and is acknowledged for her role in breaking the glass ceiling within the local music industry through her exceptional career during the mid-to-late 20th century. Born on 27 April 1940 in Bethel, Tobago, Calypso Rose was the fifth of 11 children. In 1949, she moved to Barataria, Trinidad, with her uncle where she attended the San Juan Government Primary School. At the age of 15, she wrote her first calypso “Glass Thief,” and in 1956, she made her first appearance on the calypso stage, performing in the Original Young Brigade Tent under the sobriquet “Crusoe Kid,” which was later changed to “Calypso Rose.” In 1963, on her first foray into the regional calypso world (during which she toured the islands from Grenada to St. Thomas) she won the St. Thomas Calypso King Contest and Road March, beginning an exceptional career filled with numerous titles and achievements. This perpetually smiling, dynamic, and exciting performer, throughout the late 1970s, decimated the local calypso competition and established herself as queen of the calypso genre. She won the Calypso Queen title for five consecutive years from 1974 to 1978. In 1977, she became the first female to win the Road March title with the song “Tempo.” She made an indelible impact on the calypso scene by forcing the change of the title of the national competition from “Calypso King” to “Calypso Monarch,” after she won it in 1978 with “Her Majesty” and “I Thank Thee.” She achieved a gold record for her album Do Dem Back. For her contributions, she was honored in 1975 with a national award— Medal of Merit Class 2. Calypso Rose has toured extensively, making appearances in North America, Africa, and Europe. As a result, she has acquired international fame; she was made an honorary citizen of Belize in 1982 for her compositions “Let We Punta” and “Fire in Belize” and was

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awarded a key to the city of St. Catharines, Ontario, in 1993. In 1983, she migrated to New York but continued touring despite a battle with cancer in 1996. She was further recognized through awards such as the Outstanding Female in the Field of Music Award and Most Outstanding Woman in Trinidad and Tobago Award given by the National Women’s Action Committee in 1991 and the International Caribbean Music Award’s Lifetime Achievement Award in 1999. In 1999, the Tobago House of Assembly decreed that the new hospital built in Tobago would be named after Calypso Rose (McCartha Lewis Memorial Hospital). In 2011, she was again honored with a national award, the Trinidad and Tobago Hummingbird Medal (Gold) (for culture). Calypso Rose was the recipient of a Lifetime Achievement Award from the consulate general of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago in 2013. In 2014, she received an honorary doctor of letters from the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. On 9 February 2017, based on her significant contribution to world music, Calypso Rose became the recipient of the Best World Music Album Award for her composition Far from Home at the prestigious Victoires de la Musique French music awards ceremony in Paris. The government of Trinidad and Tobago has named the newest addition to the fleet of the national airline, Rose of the Sky, in her honor and she has been offered a diplomatic passport. Calypso Rose remains a true ambassador of the Caribbean musical culture and a powerful Tobago woman of calypso. Her most famous composition “Fire in Meh Wire” (composed in 1965/1966) remains extremely popular, and her other timeless renditions include “Constable Rose,” “Come Leh We Jam,” “Do Them Back,” “The Action Is Tight,” “The Balance Wheel,” “Gun Play on the Parkway,” “No Madam,” and “Me No Want No Married Man.” See also FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. SANTA ROSA FIRST PEOPLES COMMUNITY. Formed in 1970, this group has worked toward the recognition of the critical existence and contribution of the indigenous groups (present for around 7,000 years) and their descendants on the island of Trinidad. The group is made up of more than 200 descended people from groups including the Kalinago, Warao, Kalipuna, Nepuyo, Taino, and Aruaca. In 1990, the group was recognized by the government of Trinidad and Tobago and, in 1993, was awarded the Chaconia Medal (Silver) for work in culture and community service. Led by President Ricardo Bharath-Hernandez, the group continues to advocate for the return of a portion of the lands stolen by the Spanish after the conquest of Trinidad in 1498. On 11 May 2017, the government of Trinidad and Tobago designated 13 October 2017 a national holiday in recognition of the contribution of the First Peoples to the development of the country. See also ARAWAK; BARRANCOID; ISLAND CARIBS; ORTOIROID.

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SAWYER, OLIVE THEODORE (1914–1997). Sawyer, a public servant in the truest sense of the term, was the first Tobagonian to be appointed an independent senator in the National Parliament and the first woman from Tobago to sit in the Upper House of Parliament. Born on 29 July 1914 at Calder Hall, Tobago, she attended the Scarborough Methodist Primary School before moving on to Bishop’s High School, Tobago (BHS) where she received her Junior Cambridge Certificate in 1932. At the age of 19, Sawyer entered the teaching service and taught at four different Anglican primary schools—Lambeau, Adelphi, Hope, and Scarborough. In 1942, she left teaching to join the Social Welfare Department in the Old Age Pension and Poor Relief Division. Within this department, she served as the inspector of public assistance from 1947 to 1955. During this period, Sawyer was the sole social welfare caseworker in Tobago and, at times, used her own resources to assist community members. She also played a significant role in construction of community centers in Tobago during the early 1950s. In 1965, Sawyer was promoted to supervisor of the Community Development Division in Tobago. She oversaw the establishment of the Mt. St. George National Youth Camp and adult education classes mainly directed at women (especially housewives) among many other initiatives. On 14 July 1974, after 40 years in government service, Sawyer retired. After retirement, she supervised a UNESCO pilot project called Group Resources of Women. In November 1981, she was appointed an independent senator of Trinidad and Tobago, a position she held until 1986. Throughout her life and career, Sawyer was heavily involved in community outreach in Tobago. She was a member of the BHS Board, the Child Welfare League, Tobago Blind Welfare Association, and the Tobago Council for Handicapped Children. In 1970, Sawyer founded the Hearts and Hand Committee; she was affiliated with the Junior Red Cross, the Probation Case Committee, and the Hospital Visiting Committee. National recognition was given to this dedicated public servant when on 31 August 1974 she received the Public Service Medal of Merit (Gold). In 1995, and again in 2002, she was honored by the Tobago House of Assembly. She died on 23 September 1997. SCHOOL OF ACCOUNTING AND MANAGEMENT (SAM). This is a private, tertiary-level educational institute registered with the government of Trinidad and Tobago since 1984 and located in St. Augustine. The school offers BA, BSc, MA, and MSc degrees in accounts, management, and marketing. See also EDUCATION.

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SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE (SBCS). This is a tertiary-level institution of learning established in 1987. It was first located at 33 Santa Cruz Old Road, San Juan, and, because of rapid growth in student enrollment, it was relocated to 53-54 Sagan Drive, Champ Fleurs, which became its first campus. By 20 February 2006, its second campus was opened in San Fernando opposite the Mon Repos Fire Station. The Port of Spain campus was opened in May 2008 at 46-50 Picton Street, and the fourth campus, located at the corner of Beaulieu Avenue and Trincity Boulevard in east Trinidad, began classes on 5 September 2008. SBCS offers a range of certificate, bachelor, and master’s degree programs in such areas as business, computer, and accounting studies and is affiliated with the University of London, England. SCOTT, LAWRENCE (1943– ). Lawrence Scott is a very successful novelist and short story writer who was born in Trinidad but is based largely in the United Kingdom. He is a former student of San Fernando Boys’ Roman Catholic School and the Abbey School, Mt. St. Benedict, in Tunapuna, which he attended from 1955 to 1962. He pursued tertiary education in England studying philosophy and theology at Prinknash Abbey, Gloucester; English language and literature at St. Clare’s Hall, Oxford; and English and drama at the certificate level at Manchester University. He has been a teacher of English and drama for many years in both Trinidad and England including at Aranquez Junior Secondary School in Trinidad and at City and Islington College, a Sixth Form college in London. His novels include Witchbroom released in 1992, Alered’s Sin released in 1998, and Leaving by Plane Swimming Back under Water released in 2015. In 1986, Scott received the TomGallon Trust Award for the short story “The House of Funerals,” and in 1999, he was the recipient of a Commonwealth Writer’s Prize for the best Caribbean and Canadian book. SECTION 34. Section 34 of the Administration of Justice (Indictable Proceedings) Act (2011) was a controversial amendment to a law passed in 2011 that barred prosecution to individuals on charges more than 10 years old upon application (changing the original law from 10 years from the date of charge to 10 years from the date of offence). This essentially provided a legal mechanism for individuals charged with serious crimes to escape justice if the case was not determined within this period. The law was passed unanimously by the House of Representatives. This generated widespread public outrage and resulted in a public rally led by the opposition People’s National Movement, when the connection to its passage and a case against United National Congress financiers Ishwar Galbaransingh and Steve Ferguson related to the $1.6 billion Piarco Development Project was revealed by then

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Trinidad Guardian reporter Denyse Renne. The fact that their extradition to the United States for trial was being negotiated at the time and that upon passage of the law the then attorney general Anand Ramlogan had decided not to appeal a decision against extradition of these defendants only exacerbated the public’s anger. Forthwith, the Kamla Persad-Bissessar government repealed the law in an emergency session of Parliament in early September 2013, and the former High Court judge and then minister of justice who had introduced the legislation was fired as a result of the controversy. Despite appeals by the defendants, the repeal of Section 34 was upheld in a Privy Court ruling in January 2016. SEEPAUL, OCCAH. Seepaul was the first and only woman to serve as the deputy director of public prosecutions and as master of the High Courts in Trinidad and Tobago. Appointed Speaker of the House of Representatives in 1991, Seepaul was the first woman to be appointed to that position. In many ways, this development amounted to a rather unique experience for women in the country, and for Trinidad and Tobago as a whole. The appointment was made during the first Patrick Manning administration, which, in the elections of 1991, won 21 of the 36 seats. However, as the People’s National Movement (PNM) neared the end of its term in office, the party’s majority in the Lower House began to dwindle. The party already lost one seat through a by-election. When in 1995 Seepaul, in her capacity as Speaker, expelled a PNM member of Parliament from the Lower House for six months, this seemed to the government to be part of a collaboration between the opposition United National Congress and Seepaul to reduce the number of elected PNM members in the Lower House. In consequence, the government declared a limited state of emergency, during which Madame Speaker Seepaul was placed under house arrest and unceremoniously replaced as Speaker of the House of Representatives. The move was among those that precipitated the downfall of the Manning administration at the polls. SELVON, SAMUEL DICKSON (1923–1994). Selvon was one of Trinidad and Tobago’s most accomplished novelists and short story writers. Born on 20 May 1923 in south Trinidad, he received his secondary school education at Naparima College. He worked on ships patrolling the Caribbean during World War II as a wireless operator for the local branch of the Royal Navy and later as a reporter for the Trinidad Guardian. He migrated to the United Kingdom in 1950 and wrote in his spare time while employed as a clerk in the office of the Indian embassy. Additionally, he produced two scripts for the BBC while living there. In 1952, his breakout novel, A Brighter Sun, with its unique use of the Trinidadian dialect, brought him critical acclaim. In the 1970s, he moved to Canada and taught creative writing at the University of

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Victoria. In addition to A Brighter Sun, his most outstanding works include The Lonely Londoners (1956) and An Island Is a World (1955). His later works include a collection of short stories, Ways of Sunlight (1958); the novels I Hear Thunder (1962) and The Housing Lark (1965); and Moses Ascending (1975) and Moses Migrating (1983), both sequels to The Lonely Londoners. His final published work, Highway in the Sun (1991), is a collection of plays. Selvon was awarded an honorary doctorate from Warwick University in 1989 and, in 1985, the honorary degree of DLitt from the University of the West Indies. In 1969, he received the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) for Literature. He passed away on 16 April 1994 and, in that year, was posthumously given another national award, the Chaconia Medal (Gold) for Literature. In 2012, for his contributions to Trinidad and Tobago’s literary heritage, he was honored with a National Library and Information Services Lifetime Achievement Literary Award. SENIOR SECONDARY/COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOLS. This was yet another innovation in the educational offering of Trinidad and Tobago that was initiated by Dr. Eric Williams, leader of the People’s National Movement. It was implemented in 1975 and absorbed almost all the graduates from the junior secondary school system when the government of the day agreed that instead of ending school after three years, these students aged 14 and over will receive two more years of secondary education. In its curriculum, the senior secondary/comprehensive schools focused on special training in crafts such as plumbing, electrical installation, tailoring, metal working, and home economics, while also providing traditional academic subjects for students who were able to master them. By 1977, 14 such schools were constructed with Malick Senior Secondary Comprehensive School leading the way. These schools were giant complexes in comparison to the older schools and were fitted with modern and expensive equipment. The schools were difficult to manage, and the system did not operate as successfully as was hoped. They have all been transformed into regular five- or seven-year secondary schools. SHAH, RAFFIQUE (1946– ). A soldier, trade unionist, political activist, and popular columnist with the daily and weekly newspapers, Shah was one of the soldiers who led the 1970 mutiny by members of the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force at Teteron Bay Barracks. Following his acquittal from charges of mutiny for his involvement in the affair, he entered the fields of trade unionism and politics, first as a member of the Trinidad Islandwide Cane Farmers Association, and later, together with Basdeo Panday, as a founding member of the United Labour Front. He soon became embroiled in a number of leadership struggles against Panday, and between 1977 and

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1978, he was able to unseat Panday as leader of the United National Congress (UNC) and, in the later years, as leader of the opposition following Panday’s resignation as leader of the UNC. See also BLACK POWER MOVEMENT (1970). SHAW, JOHN VALENTINE WISTAR (1894–1982). Shaw was the governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 1947 to 1950. He was born on 14 February 1894 in Derby, England, and was a former student of Repton School in Derbyshire. Shaw was a veteran of World War I; he served from 1914 to 1919, first as a second lieutenant of the Royal Engineers on the Western Front and then as an attachment to the Seventh Indian Division in Egypt and Palestine. Shortly after the end of his service in World War I, Shaw joined the Colonial Administrative Service and began a long career as a colonial administrator. He served as assistant district commissioner, assistant secretary, senior assistant secretary, departmental chief secretary, colonial secretary, chief secretary, acting governor, acting high commissioner, and governor and commander in chief in the Gold Coast, Palestine, Cyprus, and Trinidad and Tobago at different intervals. Just prior to his arrival to Trinidad and Tobago, he narrowly escaped the devastation of the King David Hotel bombing in Palestine on 22 July 1946. One noteworthy event that unfolded during Shaw’s administration of Trinidad and Tobago was the visit of President Harry Truman to the country on 31 August 1947. Truman stopped off in Trinidad on his way to Brazil, and a welcome reception was held for him in Wallerfield. Another landmark event of Shaw’s governorship was the granting of significant constitutional change that marked the beginning of the end of colonial rule in Trinidad and Tobago. In the final year of Shaw’s rule, in the elections of 1950, the electorate demonstrated strong anticolonial sentiment by giving the majority of its votes to black labor leader Tubal Uriah “Buzz” Butler’s British Empire and Citizens’ and Workers’ Home Rule Party, which won 6 of the 18 seats contested in the elections. His closest competitors could only amass 2 seats. In 1946 and 1947, the British crown awarded Shaw the Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George, Knight Bachelor, and Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George. Shaw died in 1982 in Sussex, England. SHIVA MANDIR. Shiva Mandir is a famous Hindu temple located on Patiram Trace, Penal, just 20 miles south of San Fernando. According to legend, the temple had its beginnings in 1901 when a laborer called Manickchand struck his cutlass on a stone that was one foot tall out of which poured small quantities of milk. Manickchand did not at first share this strange experience with anyone but slept on it. That night he dreamed that the stone he had

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struck was a Shiva Lingam or symbol of Lord Shiva. Next morning Manickchand revealed his dream to the villagers, and they came to the site and made wishes of the stone, which, according to legend, were answered. By 1910, one Mr. Ramlochan Nancoo and his wife Sanicharie had become proprietors of the property on which the stone or lingam projected. Over the area where the stone stood, the Nancoos constructed a small thatched hut, which became the temple or Shiva Mandir. Only seven people can be accommodated in the temple at a time. It is cave like in structure, with two narrow doors and no windows, which restrict the entry of natural light. The design is intended to symbolize the movement from the complexity of modern life to simplicity of devotion. On the outer walls of the temple, there are large murals of Lord Shiva and Parvati. Just in front of the temple is a large pipal tree and several colorful jhandis, or flags, fixed in the ground by bamboo poles. By 1940, the Nancoos added to the buildings on the site by extending the temple with an adjoining hall made of an aluminum roof, brick walls, and concrete floor. The stone or lingam located in the center of the temple is regarded by many as a wishing stone that bestows blessings on pure-hearted devotees, and offerings of flowers, fruits, milk, and money are presented to the Lingam. The Nancoos act as guides to devotees and visitors to the site. See also RELIGION. SIEWDASS SADHU SHIV MANDIR. This is a Hindu temple, located in Waterloo, Carapichaima, in central Trinidad that is partially built in the sea. Also called the Temple in the Sea, it was built by Siewdass Sadhu, a former indentured laborer who was born in Benares, India, in 1903 and came to Trinidad in 1907 with his parents on the SS Mutlah. The temple was born out of a pledge made by Sadhu, who in 1926 on a return visit from India encountered life-threatening waters and pledged that should he safely make it to land, he would build a temple in the sea. In 1947, Sadhu selected a piece of swampy unoccupied state land close to the shore of the Gulf of Paria as the site to fulfill his promise. According to his wife Samdaye, a Caroni Sugar Estate official authorized the construction, but the company brought a lawsuit against him. In 1952, he was imprisoned for 14 days and fined £100 for refusal to demolish the structure that was illegally erected on state land. While he was in prison, Caroni tore down the temple. On his release from prison, Sadhu began reconstruction. For 17 years, he worked almost singlehandedly transporting building materials to the construction site using a bucket and a bicycle. The foundation of the temple consisted of old oil steel drums filled with boulders. By 1969, the temple was complete with sanctum, kitchen, dining room, rest room and veranda. Devotees assembled to celebrate such Hindu festivals as Kartik Snaan and Shiva Raatri. In 1971, following the death of Sadhu, the temple was neglected, and it deteriorated. By 1995, however, the government of Trinidad and Tobago, in tribute to the

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faith, devotion, vision, and perseverance of Sadhu, agreed to reconstruct the temple. Additionally, a statue of Sadhu wearing a dhoti, kurta, and mala with hands clasped in prayer was made out of concrete and erected to the front of the Temple in the Sea. See also RELIGION. SIMMONS, PHILIP VERANT (1963– ). Simmons is a right-hand batsman and medium-pace bowler who represented Trinidad and Tobago as an opening batsman on the national cricket team. Later, he served as a coach of the Trinidad and Tobago team and, in 1997, was the recipient of the Trinidad and Tobago Hummingbird Medal (Silver) for Sport. In 2015, he was appointed head coach of the West Indies Cricket team. SIMON, KADE (LORD BRYNNER) (1937–1980). Born in Erin Village in south Trinidad, Lord Brynner, who adopted his stage name and stylish bald head from American screen actor Yul Brynner, won the first ever Independence Calypso Competition in Trinidad in 1962. His calypso career peaked during the 1950s and 1960s, but 1962 was the most prolific year of his singing career. He produced 35 compositions in that year, and in addition to his winning calypso “Trinidad and Tobago Independence,” he produced two very popular calypsos: “Rich Man Poor Man” and “Shame and Scandal in the Family.” He died in 1980, and in 2012, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of independence in Trinidad and Tobago, the Independence Calypso Competition was named in his honor. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. SIMON, WINSTON (SPREE) (1930–1976). Simon was born in John John, Laventille, during a time of great economic depression that was reflected in the music played during the annual Carnival celebration. The masses knocked lengths of bamboo and scraps of metal to “make a rhythm” during Carnival time. Simon stated that one Carnival season sometime in the late 1930s, he left his piece of scrap metal in the hands of a friend while he was dancing during the celebration. By the time he retrieved his metal, it was badly banged up and out of tune. As he tried to knock it back in shape, almost by accident he succeeded in carving out four notes and, in the process, invented what became known as the ping pong pan, the first steel pan that was ever invented. By 1946, the steel pan held full sway for the first time as the musical instrument of Carnival. It was the first Carnival in which steel created not just “a rhythm” or “noise” but distinct melody. In the 1940s, Simon expanded on the range of notes he had discovered toward the end of the 1930s. He was soon heralded as a maestro for his invention of the ping pong pan, his extension of the range of the musical notes, and their layout and pattern on the pan. By 1951, Simon was a member of Trinidad All Stars

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Steel Percussion Orchestra, a band that attracted some of the most talented steel pan players in the country. It was also the first band to take the music of steel beyond the shores of Trinidad and Tobago. In 1950, Trinidad All Stars Steel Percussion Orchestra went on tour to England. Simon’s great contribution to the invention of the steel pan was immortalized in 1975 in a calypso rendered by Lord Kitchener titled “Winston Spree.” He died on 18 August 1976. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. SOCA WARRIORS. This is the popular name of the National Senior Football Team that represented Trinidad and Tobago in the 2006 World Cup competition in Germany. The members of the team were Dwight Yorke, Russell Latapy, Shaka Hislop, Ian Cox, Avery John, Marvin Andrews, Brent Sancho, Dennis Lawrence, Chris Birchell, Cyd Gray, Aurtis Whitley, Carlos Edwards, Collin Samuel, Cornell Glen, Stern John, Kenwyne Jones, Evans Wise, Atiba Charles, Densill Theobald, Jason Scotland, Kelvin Jack, Clayton Ince, Anthony Wolfe, and Silvio Spann. For their performance, the team was awarded the nation’s second highest award, the Chaconia Medal (Gold). Led by Captain Dwight Yorke, the Warriors booted themselves into football history when they qualified to compete in the World Cup, the first Caribbean and smallest nation to qualify for the World Cup. SPAIN. See SPANISH IN TRINIDAD. SPANISH IN TRINIDAD. Spanish conquistador Christopher Columbus sighted and claimed Trinidad for Spain in 1498, and the island remained a Spanish colony until it was captured by the British in 1797. Trinidad possessed no known precious metals and, as such, was ignored by Spain for a number of centuries, with only irregular settlements being established. The few Spanish settlers in the colony engaged with the First Peoples, employing forced labor on encomiendas. The Spanish administration established St. Joseph as the first capital, which served as the administrative and religious center. The Cabildo (town council) was established to run the colony under the governor, and a small police force provide security. Under the few Spanish settlers, and with the labor of the declining population of First Peoples and a few enslaved Africans, tobacco, cotton, and cocoa were grown in the colony. The colony remained, however, largely underpopulated and undeveloped. In 1776, under a new reformist king, and implemented by Governor Falquez, an immigration policy was implemented to encourage the migration of Catholic planters residing in other West Indian (Caribbean) territories to the colony. The initiative was further expanded in 1783 through the Cedula of Population after which the colony’s population expanded to include West Indian planters from the French islands (both white and free

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persons of mixed heritage) and their enslaved African workers. In consequence, the plantation system based on enslavement became entrenched, and significant infrastructural, service, and economic development occurred on the island. This achievement was also a result of the diligence and adroitness of Don José María Chacón, the governor who was brought in to oversee implementation of the Cedula and its effects. In 1797, however, the Spanish lost the territory to Britain, after an assault by Sir Ralph Abercromby, considered the best soldier of his time. SPIRITUAL SHOUTER BAPTIST. Regarded as a religious tradition of Trinidad and Tobago, the Baptist faith was brought to Trinidad by African Americans who had served in the British forces during the War of 1812 when these “Merikins” were recruited as troops of the Corps of Colonial Marines to fight against American forces. With the cessation of the war, they were resettled in Trinidad near to Savannah Grande (known today as Princes Town) in six villages, which became known as the Company villages. They brought with them their religious faith, which incorporated aspects of Protestant Revivalism of the Baptist and Methodist churches and, for members of the African diaspora in particular, strong elements of African religiosity. Some of the “Merikins” had been transferred from Georgia and their religious faith incorporated aspects of Gullah religious culture. For all these African American arrivals, their African religiosity was reflected in strong African-derived syncopated poly-rhythms and chants, accompanied by dancing, hand clapping, and shouting. Their rituals and services also incorporated spirit possessions, speaking in tongues (today’s glossolalia), and mourning, a practice that combined fasting and abstinence and induced what practitioners see as travel of the soul and mind, and the seeing of visions. From the point of view of doctrine, the Spiritual Baptist faith is rooted in Christianity, identifying strongly with the practice of water baptism, as initiated by John the Baptist in the biblical text. However, some of their rituals reflect African spiritual traditions. The Spiritual Shouter Baptist faith in Trinidad emerged primarily as an indigenous syncretized faith constituted in the “Africanization” of Christianity. From the Company villages that were overwhelmingly populated by African-descendants, it spread to various other parts of the island among the poor, marginalized African masses. The faith, however, was to spread also with the coming of Caucasian Baptist missionaries from Britain, whose religious practices were markedly different from those of the African-descended Baptists who made up the vast majority of the local Baptist congregation. The Baptist community had always tended to develop small splinter groups, led by particular household heads or individual leaders. Many such groups preferred to operate under their own banner or nomenclature, and through their own self-definition. Many different groupings could be found: those

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referring to themselves simply as Baptist, others as Spiritual Baptist, some as Shouter Baptist, and others as fundamental Baptist. There were many subdivisions. Some Baptist congregations took on simply the aspect of wayside preachers. The tendency toward division took an added dimension as among the Baptist community there were schisms between those that promoted the more staid Eurocentric practices of the London-based missionaries, and those persuaded in the direction of African-derived dynamics within the culture of the faith. Basically, however, the African-descended Baptist communities were stereotyped by the colonial authorities and wider local community, both of whom viewed them at times as either Shango Baptists or Spiritual Shouter Baptists, or saw these groups as one and the same. The so-called Shango Baptists, often confused with members of the Orisha faith, tended to incorporate more African drumology in their services and rituals. Some Afro-based Baptist congregations tended to avoid the use of African drumming in the liturgy, even though much else remained African. Categorically, the colonial authorities tended to view all locally derived, predominantly African-dominated Baptist congregations with contempt. The colonial authorities and other Christian congregations viewed those they regarded as the Spiritual Shouter Baptist community with suspicion. Particularly annoying to them was the shouting, chanting, and loudness of the Baptist services, which were perceived as disturbances of the peace. In 1917, the activities of the Spiritual Shouter Baptists in Trinidad and Tobago were prohibited through the Shouter Baptist Prohibition Ordinance, which prevented adherents from gathering, preaching, and practicing their religion. Similar prohibitive legislation had been imposed against Spiritual Shouter Baptist communities (the Shakers) in St. Vincent. In Trinidad, the Spiritual Shouter Baptists took the practice of their religion underground, with their faith spreading as a grassroots movement, much to the chagrin of the Roman Catholic and other established Christian churches. In 1951, the ordinance was repealed largely as a result of the persistence of the Spiritual Shouter Baptist community in the pursuance of their religious practices and also through their determination to have the prohibition annulled legislatively. The repeal of the prohibition ordinance saw the end of 34 years of religious oppression of the Spiritual Shouter Baptist faith by the colonial authorities. In 1996, in honor of this achievement, the Basdeo Panday–led administration granted the community a public holiday to be commemorated annually. Accordingly, 30 March was declared “Spiritual Shouter Baptist Liberation Day.” SPORTS. The sporting culture of Trinidad and Tobago is wide-ranging and prominent and has been supported by the spectacular sporting talent of the country. Cricket, one of the oldest and most loved sports in Trinidad and Tobago, continued throughout the 20th century to attract players and fans

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alike. Cricketers excelled within the local clubs, and since the late 19th century, numerous professional players have been chosen to be a part of the internationally renowned West Indies Cricket Team, which engages in international test and one-day cricket. In the 21st century, a new form of the game, Twenty20 cricket, became increasingly popular and led to regional tournaments in which the national team was competitive. Favored cricket venues in the country include the Queen’s Park Oval in Port of Spain, where club, first-class, and test matches are played, as well as Guaracara Park in Pointe-a-Pierre, in southwest Trinidad. Brian Lara, recognized as one of the greatest batsmen of all time, is Trinidad and Tobago’s most successful international cricketer. Athletics has also been quite popular in Trinidad and Tobago, and locals have excelled internationally. Some of the most noteworthy have been Olympic medalists Hasely Crawford (gold in 1976), Ato Boldon (one silver in 2000 and three bronze—two in 1996 and one in 2000), and Richard Thompson (silver in 2008) for track and field. Trinidad has also produced Olympic bronze medal swimmer George Bovell III (2004) and javelin thrower Keshorn Walcott who won gold in 2012 and bronze in 2016. Football since the latter 20th century has been extremely popular in the country. Football competitions at all levels—school (through the intercollegiate competition or InterCol), Pro-League, national, and international—attracts local players and fans. The sport is governed by the Trinidad and Tobago Football Association, and Trinidad and Tobago is a member of CONCACAF, the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football, which governs association football in North America, Central America, and the Caribbean. In 1989, the National Football team, nicknamed the “Strike Squad” came within one game of qualifying for the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy. In 2006, the team, renamed the Soca Warriors, was more successful, qualifying for the FIFA World Cup in Germany. Dwight Yorke is considered the most successful local footballer, having played premier football for Aston Villa, Manchester United, Blackburn Rovers, Birmingham City, Sydney, and Sunderland between 1988 and 2009. Numerous sporting sites built in the latter 20th century and the 21st century provided opportunities for training, exhibition, and sporting competitions. The Jean Pierre Complex, opened in 1979 and named after the country’s most renowned netballer, is located in Port of Spain and is the most popular arena for netball, basketball, and other indoor sports. The Hasely Crawford Stadium, named after the country’s first Olympic gold medalist (100 meters), is adjacent to the Complex and facilitates athletics and football competitions. Horseracing, which from 1828 took place in the Queen’s Park Savannah, was centralized in 1992 at the Arima Racing Complex in north central Trinidad. The country is also known for its watersports—boating, game fishing,

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surfing, yachting, and kayaking—which are concentrated in the northwest in Chaguaramas and in Tobago where the annual Power-Boat Great Race from Trinidad to Tobago culminates. This competition was first started in 1969. Other sporting activities, though popular, operate on a smaller scale. These include hockey, squash, volleyball, cycling, rugby, badminton, gymnastics, rifle shooting, boxing, and body building. Female sportswomen, such as Cleopatra Borell (shot-putter) and the late Giselle Salandy (boxer), have also flourished within the Trinidadian sporting arena. See also BAILEY, GEORGE (1933–1970); BAILEY, McDONALD EMMANUEL (1920–2013); BAPTISTE, KELLY-ANN KAYLENE (1986– ); BLEDMAN, KESTON (1988– ); CONSTANTINE, LEARIE NICHOLAS (1901–1971); CROPPER, SIOBHAN TRICHELLE (1978– ); DENNISBAIRD, ELIZABETH (1958– ); DOOKIE, MANNIE ALBERT (1915–1968); GORDON, JEHUE AUGUSTUS (1991– ); PIERRE, LAURA (1956– ); RAMADHIN, SONNY (1929– ); ROBERTS, EDWIN ANTHONY (1941– ); WILKES, RODNEY ADOLPHUS (1925–2014). SPRINGER, EINTOU PEARL (1944– ). Springer, a poet, playwright, and cultural activist, was born in Cantaro Village, San Cruz, in Trinidad on 24 November 1944. She is a former student of St. George’s College in Trinidad and is a graduate of City University, London. From 1993, she held the post of director of the National Heritage Library of Trinidad and Tobago. She is also a founding member of the Writers’ Union of Trinidad and Tobago, the Caribbean Theatre Guild, and the National Drama Association of Trinidad and Tobago. She has written six books: Moving into the Light, Focussed, God Child, Stories and Poems for Children, Out of the Shadows, and Loving the Skin I’m In, all published from 2001 to 2005. In 1996, the government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded her the Hummingbird Medal (Silver) for her contribution to culture, and in 2002, she was named poet laureate of Port of Spain. In 2011, her play How Anansi Brings the Drum celebrated the United Nations’ International Year for People of African Descent and was part of UNESCO’s Youth Theatre Initiative. ST. AUGUSTINE GIRLS’ HIGH SCHOOL (SAGHS). This all-girls secondary school located in St. Augustine, Trinidad, was founded by the Presbyterian Church on 19 September 1950 and first opened in 1952 as part of the Archibald Institute with an initial intake of 49 girls. In 1951, the school was relocated on land leased from Caroni Ltd. Two of the pioneer teachers in the new school were Grace Beattie and Constance Wagar. By 1954, the St. Augustine School Choir was established under choir mistress Undine Giuseppe, and in 1957, the school became a government-assisted secondary school. The school’s longest-serving principal, Anna Mahase, was appointed

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in 1962 and served to 1992. She left a legacy of a solid prefect system, dean of studies, dean of discipline, physical education, curriculum revision, compulsory music and physical education, and art for all students up to form three. She improved the infrastructure with the construction of the science wing in 1966. Over the years, the school has established a track record of academic excellence winning, for instance, in 1988, Best Performance in the CXC examinations and President’s Gold Medal for topping the country in the “A” Level examinations of 1991. In 2016, the school won 45 national scholarships. See also EDUCATION; RELIGION. ST. BENEDICT’S COLLEGE. Located in La Romaine, a rural community in south Trinidad, this school was founded by Dom Basil Matthews, a monk in the Order of St. Benedict, and built on land purchased from the Lucky Family in La Romaine. The school opened on 11 September 1956, and in the following year, it became a government-assisted school offering a comprehensive range of traditional grammar subjects like and technical vocational studies. The school has excelled in college football, winning the south zone intercollegiate football competition on five occasions between 1988 and 2000. See also EDUCATION; RELIGION. ST. GEORGE’S COLLEGE. This was the first of the modern or central schools that came as a result of chief minister Dr. Eric Williams’s policy to extend secondary education in the country. Located in Barataria, Trinidad, its doors were first opened in 1955 as the first secondary school in Trinidad to provide coed education. ST. JOHN’S BAPTIST CHURCH. This church is located at 8 Pembroke Street, Port of Spain, opposite Trinidad and Tobago’s Hall of Justice. The then governor of Trinidad, His Excellency Lord Harris, laid the foundation stone of the church in 1853, and by March of 1854, it was completed, and its doors opened for worship. Solid masonry was used to construct the building. In the 1880s, renovation of the building, including expansion to its present size, occurred. In 1909, one Mr. John Smith donated to the church the stained-glass window titled “Christ the Light of the Word.” This feature is installed behind the altar located on the eastern side of the church. See also EDUCATION; RELIGION. ST. JOSEPH’S CONVENT, PORT OF SPAIN. Established in 1836, St. Joseph’s Convent (SJC), Port of Spain (POS), is Trinidad’s first secondary school and the first girls’ school on the island. French Creole planters of Trinidad who maintained close connections with their counterparts in Martinique, through Abbé Bertin, former chaplain of Martinique, invited the sis-

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ters of St. Joseph de Cluny, who were already established as missionaries there, to Trinidad to set up the school. The school was born out of the need to fill the gap in providing secondary school education for girls of Catholic parents. The Reverend Mother Anne Marie Javouhey came to Trinidad in 1835 to facilitate the establishment of the school. The next year, she was joined by the following Sisters of Cluny: Pauline Lefevre, Sister Onesime, Superioress; Adelaide Delorme, Sister Scholastique; Antoinette Beurier, Sister Pelagie; Marguerite de Wint, Sister Louis de Gonzague; Marie Josephine Remi, Sister Theotiste; and Civilise Jacqumel, Sister Gabrielle. From 1836 to 1895, the curriculum of the school was delivered in French until it gave way in the latter year to the Anglicization policy that swept Trinidad from the end of the 18th century. Although, SJC is Trinidad’s oldest secondary school, it was not until 1911 that it was recognized by the government and granted affiliation with Queen’s Royal College (QRC). Having gained affiliation with QRC, SJC qualified for government grants, principal’s salary payment, and student participation in university exhibitions. This changed status was based on the school’s performance in the 1911 London Examinations. High academic achievement is a hallmark of SJC, POS as was evident as early as 1948 when it won the island’s first Girl Scholarship. In 1944, the compound was almost completely destroyed by fire. The science laboratory was built in the 1970s; in the 1980s, the school library was enlarged and the audiovisual and computer rooms were installed. In 2016, the school won the President’s Medal and 29 national scholarships. See also RELIGION. ST. JOSEPH’S CONVENT, SAN FERNANDO. This was the third secondary school that was established by the Cluny Sisters of St. Joseph in Trinidad for the education of girls. It began operation in 1882, and in 1891, a new school was built. Under the direction of Sister Elizabeth Smyth who pioneered secondary education in the school, the school came of age during the 1920s and presented its first candidates for the Cambridge Overseas Examination with outstanding success. In 1950, the school entered its first students, three in number, in the Cambridge Higher School Examination. By 1955, the student population had expanded to 520, and 14 in the 6th Form, one of whom, Kimlyn Ching (the late Dr. Kim Laurence), won the Queen Elizabeth Coronation Scholarship. The school underwent curriculum expansion in 1957 and major physical expansion in 1965, 1973, and 2000, and it established itself as one of the top secondary schools in the country. In 2009, the school won 11 national scholarships, 10 in 2012, 13 in 2015, and nine in 2016. See also RELIGION.

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ST. JOSEPH’S CONVENT, ST. JOSEPH. This was the second secondary school that was established by the Cluny Sisters of St. Joseph in Trinidad for the education of girls. It began in 1870 and initially operated as both a primary and secondary school specializing in religious education. Its founder was Anne Marie Javouhey. In the early years right up to 1955, the school accommodated boarders, mainly from Venezuela, in the garret of its threestory building. Two of the principals of the school in the first half of the 20th century were Sister Anthony Eagney, who retired in 1943, and Sister Magdalen Mathieu, who served from 1944 to 1946. The school was first registered as a private school in 1954 with a total enrollment in that year of 385 girls, and in the following year, it was upgraded to a government-assisted, Roman Catholic secondary school for girls. In 1957, the school was rebuilt to accommodate its growing student population. Archbishop Finbar Ryan dedicated the new school. The school has a reputation of producing high academic achievers who go on to excel in a wide range of professions. The school won six national scholarships in 2015 and 11 in 2016. See also RELIGION. ST. MARY’S COLLEGE. See COLLEGE OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION (CIC)/ST. MARY’S COLLEGE. ST. STEPHEN’S COLLEGE. This Anglican secondary school originated from the private classes conducted by Reverend and Mrs. Herbert BindleyTaylor in 1943 at St. Clements Church hall, Naparima, in south Trinidad. By 1955, the classes blossomed into a private school called Bishop’s High School in Princes Town, which gained government recognition and funding in 1958. It was renamed St. Stephen’s College in 1959 in honor of the apostle Stephen whose statue is erected in the auditorium. School expansion projects include the 1984 agricultural science block and the 1985 language laboratory; in 1993, the computer, lunch room, car park extension, playing field, and business studies laboratory were constructed. The high academic performance of its students makes it one of the premier educational institutions in south Trinidad. See also RELIGION. STEEL PAN/STEELBAND. A musical instrument indigenous to Trinidad and Tobago, and hailed as the only new acoustic instrument to be invented in the 20th century, the steel pan has its origin in the Trinidad tamboo bamboo bands, which were ensembles of percussion instruments made from pieces of bamboo, tied together and placed on the ground where they were stamped upon to produce sound. This particular instrument, the tamboo bamboo, was played during the Carnival season. During the 1930s, players of the tamboo bamboo began trying to beat sounds out of empty metal containers of different sizes and metallic texture, by hitting the metal objects with sticks in order

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to produce a register of pitches. Eventually they began to experiment in this way with cylindrical discarded oil drums from the petroleum industry, which they began to refer to as steel pans. By heating, sinking, and establishing demarcated grooves on the sunken surface of the pan, it became possible to get as much as 15 consecutive pitches, and later much more, from a single pan. The overall process is known as “pan tuning” or “tuning the pan.” In the 1940s, steel pan tuners began to create an orchestral range of pitches. While its origin is widely attributed to Winston “Spree” Simon, the steel pan developed among the poor and marginalized blacks in the capital city and its environs. In the 1940s, it began to spread across Trinidad and even to other parts of the Caribbean. Today the steel pan is recognized officially as the national instrument of Trinidad and Tobago, but it is a very popular instrument in other Caribbean islands, North America, and Europe. Since its beginnings, considerable development has taken place. There has been substantial experimentation by local innovators such as Bertie Marshall, who introduced the amplified pan, and Ellie Mannette, the recipient of an honorary doctorate from the University of the West Indies (UWI). The government of Trinidad and Tobago, in collaboration with Professor Brian Copeland of the UWI, has manufactured and patented the G-Pan and the PHI. The former is produced from metal developed exclusively for the production of the steel pans and steel pan music. The latter is a highly digitalized, new age, new look, multi-trimbal steelband instrument that reproduces a potentially unending variety of digitally sampled musical tones through the use of a MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface). Meanwhile, locally, a major annual high point of steelband music remains the Panorama Competition, which takes place during the Carnival season. For the most part, issues affecting the Panorama Competition and the steelbands fall under the purview of the organization known as Pan Trinbago, whose remit is to look after what is commonly referred to as the steelband movement. A typical or conventional steelband or steel orchestra now has between 30 to 100 instruments played by 40 to 120 performers and a number of different instruments: the tenor, double tenor, guitar pan or double seconds, cello, four basses, six basses, and quadraphonics. Performances are done by solo artistes or with others as part of a small band, “pan around the neck” ensemble, or large steel orchestra. The number of steelbands in Trinidad and Tobago totals more than 100, and they produce a range of music, although calypso, classical, and jazz are among the most common. There are annual competitions that test the skill and creativity of the players and arrangers in these musical and other genres. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT.

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STOLLMEYER’S CASTLE/KILLARNEY. Part of the group of Magnificent Seven buildings and constructed in Scottish baronial style, Stollmeyer’s Castle was designed by Scottish architect Robert Guilles, who modeled it after a wing of Balmoral Castle in Scotland. Contractor Charles Fourier Stollmeyer began construction on the property, which was formerly the Government Stock Farm in 1902, and the building, which was completed in 1904, was the very first house to be built in St. Clair. Construction materials included imported bricks, marble from Italy, wood from Guyana, stained glass, and local limestone; its exterior is decorated with robust stone and brick facade. The design did not appeal to Mrs. Stollmeyer and so the house was presented as a wedding gift to their son Conrad. The new Mrs. Stollmeyer gave the edifice its first name, Killarney, after a district in Ireland, and it was commonly referred to as a castle from the time of the U.S. forces occupation during World War II. Members of the Stollmeyer family inhabited the building until 1972 when Jessy Henry A. Mahabir, an insurance executive, bought it. The government of Trinidad and Tobago purchased the building in 1979 and placed it under the care of Citizens for Conservation. It remains part of the Office of the Prime Minister, but it is currently unoccupied because of serious structural weaknesses. SUNDARLAL POPO, BAHORA (1943–2000). Known as Sundar Popo to the world of music and entertainment, he was born into a musical family on 4 November 1943 in Monkey Town, Barrackpore. A singer of classical and popular Indian music in Trinidad and Tobago, he is widely regarded as the father of chutney music. He began singing at the age of 15, performing at first bhajans at weddings. His career took off in 1970 with his recording “Nana and Nani.” The accompanying music on the recording was done by Harry Mahabir, the maestro whose stage band, the popular British West Indian Airways National Indian Orchestra, provided accompaniment to many artists and contestants of the popular television talent contest, Mastana Bahar. Sundar Popo went on to record 22 musical albums and to become a household name. He won several awards. These included a national award for excellence, and a Sunshine Award for Indian Soca in 1993. That year he also captured the title “King of Chutney” at Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and, at home in Trinidad and Tobago, he was awarded a Hummingbird Medal (Silver). He won a Caribbean Music Award in 1994. He was also a four-time winner of the Indian Cultural Pageant in Trinidad and Tobago. In 1996, he captured the Caribbean Chutney Bachanal trophy. At the time of his passing, he was the most well-known singer of popular and classical Indian music in Trinidad and Tobago, and his songs, many of them hits, were performed by the mega-star Indian husband-and-wife duo Babla and Kanchan. At the time of his passing, Sundar Popo was also the most renowned chutney singer in the English-speaking Caribbean and wider world. He died on 2 May 2000.

T TAAKVEEYATUL ISLAMIC ASSOCIATION (TIA). During the 1920s, Indian Muslim leaders in Trinidad became very proactive. As a result, several formal Muslim organizations were formed, the first of which was the Taakveeyatul Islamic Association (TIA). Founded in 1926, it was headed by Sayad Abdul Aziz, a well-known Muslim activist from Princes Town. The TIA was the first Islamic organization to be recognized by the colonial government, having been incorporated by an Act of Legislative Ordinance No. 39 (1931). Consequently, it became the first Islamic organization to receive state aid toward the establishment of schools. One of the principal causes of division among the Islamic community was differing interpretations of Islamic doctrine regarding issues such as marriage and divorce. One of the TIA’s main aims was the unification of all Muslims in Trinidad and Tobago. In multiethnic Trinidad, Islam was influenced by Hinduism and, as was the case elsewhere, given to varying interpretations of the Quran. The early 20th century saw a desire on the part of local Muslims to be instructed by learned clerics from India. The first Islamic missionary in Trinidad was Moulvi Haji Sufi Shah Mohammed Hassan Hanfi Qudri who arrived in 1914. Claiming Sufi lineage, he applied the system of “Peeree Mureedee” through which he elevated himself to the role of leader, an approach that mandated his followers to embrace him as their spiritual head. He soon encountered differences of opinion regarding Sufi thought and was forced to leave Trinidad in 1918. The year 1921 saw the arrival of the Ahmadiyya missionary Fazal Karim Khan Duranni, whose opinions and beliefs centered on the acceptance of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as the promised messiah, conflicting primarily with that of the local Sunni community with its Hanafi school of thought. The latter established the logic, order, and preference for Islamic law presented in the Quran and Hardiths. Karim was forced to leave Trinidad prematurely in 1921. Well into the 1960s, divergent views and thinking on Islamic law and practices continued, notwithstanding the constant presence of Islamic missionaries in Trinidad. Thus, the arrival then of Sayd Husein Saqqaf, and his 333

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subsequent alliance with the early Islamic Missionaries Guild of the Caribbean and South America, only exacerbated the division as he had to contend with the Anjuman Sunnat-ul Jamaat Association and the Trinidad Muslim League, both founded in 1947. The desire for unity and indeed an umbrella body would continue toward the end of the 20th century until improvements in the relationships between the groups came with the establishment of the Muslim Coordinating League in 1980. See also RELIGION. TAPIA HOUSE MOVEMENT. A political think tank, this movement was founded by Lloyd Best to address the need for thorough detailed research and writing on the political, social, and economic problems that faced Trinidad and Tobago and the wider Caribbean, which were due to the existing faulty social, political, and economic systems. The mouthpiece of the movement was a weekly newspaper, Tapia; its first issue appeared on Sunday 29 September 1969. The purpose of the newspaper was to educate and empower the people, stimulate independent thought, and help create a truly liberated society as envisioned by the members of the movement. The final issue was published on 26 December 1976. The Tapia Movement, whose symbol was a tapia (mud house) of the First Peoples, was intended to inspire the local society through the notion of building from the earth or from what was of Caribbean origin and, therefore, unique in the world. It was an appeal to Caribbean people to commit themselves toward building their own intellectual traditions, and economic and political infrastructure; to recognize their creativity and invest in it to liberate themselves from colonial hegemony and plantation-derived socioeconomic, political, and intellectual dysfunctionalism. The movement evolved into a political party, which, according to its founder, was to be a party of parties. This was first attempted through the establishment of the National Alliance for Trinidad and Tobago in 1962, which, it was felt, represented a new level of coalition politics that would incorporate the diverse elements of the society as perceived by the members: the educated Afro-Saxon community of urban Trinidad and Tobago and the East–West Corridor; the Garveyite-Black Power community occupying the fringes of urban communities; the Grenadian and “small-island” workingclass representative of the classic European-Marxist proletariat, with nothing to sell but their labor; the Tobagonian, aggrieved by Trinidad; the Hindus of Caroni; the Muslim; the Presbyterian Indian; the French Creoles who are bonded together by economic interest and high color and the group that does not fit into any of the other groups. Tapia contested its first national election in 1972 but managed to attract only 3.9 percent of the votes and was unable to win a seat. In 1981, it participated in the election as part of the National Alliance for Trinidad and Tobago (whose other members consisted of the United Labour Front and the Democratic Action Congress), when, with its

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support reduced to 2.3 percent of the voters, the party decided to withdraw from electoral politics. Tapia subsequently decided to amalgamate with other parties to form the National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR), but, in the run-up to the 1986 election, Lloyd Best and Tapia withdrew from the NAR on the grounds that the necessary preparatory work had not been done for any effective political accommodation to be achieved. Although it is now a defunct political party, efforts to attain some of the ideals of the Tapia House Movement continue to be attempted through the Trinidad and Tobago Institute of the West Indies, which Best established in 1977. After his passing in 2007, his wife renamed the institute the Lloyd Best Institute of the West Indies (LBIWI), and as its managing director, she promotes LBIWI as an independent agency for research and discussion on public policy and other issues and for networking communities of indigenous knowledge and activity. One result so far has been the Caribbean Yard Campus, an initiative designed to bridge the informal and formal knowledge system of the Caribbean. TEACHERS’ ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL ASSOCIATION (TECA). During its existence, the Welfare Office and its work had been acknowledged and supported by the Teachers’ Economic and Cultural Association (TECA). The membership of the TECA was later to form the core of the People’s National Movement (PNM), which came to power in 1956 and steered the country to independence in 1962. The period between World War II and 1956 saw women becoming increasingly involved in national politics. Many of the women involved in the TECA, including a significant number of female teachers and educated women, eventually formed the backbone of the PNM Women’s League. TEMPLE IN THE SEA. See SIEWDASS SADHU SHIV MANDIR. TESHEA, URSULA ISABEL (NÉE CADOGAN) (1911–1981). She was a social worker, political activist, politician, and ambassador for the People’s National Movement (PNM) government of Trinidad and Tobago at a time when few women participated in the country’s politics. Teshea grew up in Princes Town, south Trinidad; attended the Princes Town Government Primary School; and became a pupil-teacher. She later enrolled at the University of Puerto Rico to study community education and then became heavily involved in social and community work. She mobilized young people and organized them into clubs including a club for boys in her hometown of Princes Town. She brought the community of Princes Town and its environs together by the various social activities such as concerts, parties, and debates that she frequently organized. She was particularly interested in helping the

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needy, which she did through her church, St. Stephen’s Anglican Church. Teshea came to national prominence from 1956 to 1961 when she emerged as the first and only lady vice chairperson of the PNM, of which she was a founding member. She was the first woman among the male-dominated PNM to be presented as a candidate of the party and to become a cabinet minister in Trinidad and Tobago. Following the PNM victory in the elections of 1961, Teshea was appointed as parliamentary secretary in the Ministry of Local Government and Community Development responsible for health, water, and sanitation, a post she held until 1963. From 1963 to 1966, Teshea was parliamentary secretary to the minister of health and from 1966 to 1970 she held responsibility for two ministerial portfolios: Health and Housing. Her final posting as a cabinet minister was in Education and Culture from 1971 to 1975. Teshea’s public service career culminated in her appointment as ambassador of Trinidad and Tobago to the African countries of Ethiopia and Zambia in the years from 1970 to 1971, and to Senegal from 1975 to 1976. In addition, she also served as the high commissioner to Guyana in the Caribbean from 1974 to 1977. She has the distinction of being the first woman to hold these positions. Teshea retired from active service in 1977. In 1981, four months after her death on 14 April at age 69, in recognition of distinguished and outstanding public service, the government of Trinidad and Tobago posthumously awarded Isabel Ursula Cadogan Teshea its highest national award, the Trinity Cross. TETERON BAY. The site of the military barracks and administrative environs of the Trinidad and Tobago Defense Force, it is located on the northwestern tip of Trinidad. In April 1970, members of the Trinidad and Tobago Regiment, led by lieutenants Raffique Shah, Mike Bazie, and Rex Lasalle, staged a mutiny at this site. It coincided with the Black Power uprising of 1970. THOMASOS, CLYTUS ARNOLD (1906–1990). Thomasos was the longest-serving Speaker of the House in the Commonwealth. Born in the district of Arima, his father was a poet from whom he seemed to have inherited both a passion and flair for writing poetry. However, since his father traveled frequently, Thomasos grew up with his beloved grandmother from whom he developed tremendous care and concern for the community and the elderly. Thomasos received his education at Arima Roman Catholic (RC) Primary School, but at the age of 14, he left school to work in a store in Arima. However, he returned to the education system as a pupil-teacher. He taught for many years at the Arima RC School, then became a head teacher at the La Pastora San Raphael School, and at the Boissiere Village RC Primary School. Apart from being a teacher, he was a poet and short story writer. He

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was also a member of a literary group that included Seepersad Naipaul, the father of Shiva and Vidia Naipaul; the group published a book called Papa Bois. Thomasos himself published two books of poems, and he was also a columnist. He also engaged in voluntary service and worked closely with the St. Vincent de Paul Society. He also served as a lieutenant in the Special Police Service during World War II. Thomasos entered politics in the runup to the general elections of 1956. Inspired by the nationalist rhetoric and leadership of Dr. Eric Williams, he joined the People’s National Movement and successfully fought the St. George East seat as the party’s candidate for the constituency. Accordingly, he was appointed as Deputy Speaker of the Lower House. Then, in the general elections of 1961, he won the Arima seat and became the first elected Speaker of Trinidad and Tobago. He would serve in this portfolio for 20 years. He is widely regarded as the most outstanding Speaker to have presided in the House of Representatives as he was very conversant with the standing orders and was charismatic and firm. In 1976, he was awarded the Trinity Cross. After surviving a heart attack, he was advised by his doctors to retire from politics, and he died in 1990. THOMPSON, RICHARD (1985– ). Thompson was born in Cascade, Trinidad, to parents Ruthven and Judith Thompson and was educated at Queen’s Royal College and Louisiana State University. Thompson was a member of the 4 x 100 meters relay team along with Keston Bledman, Emmanuel Callendar, and Marc Burns, which clocked a time of 38.15 seconds to finish second and earn a silver medal for Trinidad and Tobago in the Beijing Olympics in 2008. Thompson also received an individual silver medal when he finished second in the finals of the men’s 100-meter race clocking a time of 9.89 seconds. His best time of 9.82 seconds in the men’s 100-meter sprint was set in the 2014 Trinidad and Tobago national championships. Thompson’s relay team also won silver in the World Championships of Athletics in 2009. In 2012, with the same men’s 4 x 100 meters relay team, he secured a bronze medal in the London Olympics. TITUS, NOEL FITZALLAN (1939– ). A renowned religious and intellectual leader, Canon Dr. Titus has made an indelible mark on West Indian religious education through a career that amounts to a tour de force among regional clerics. Born 1 August 1939 in Mt. St. George, Tobago, to Benjamin and Gertrude Titus, Titus was educated at the Mt. St. George Methodist Primary School; Bishop’s High School; Codrington College, Barbados; the University of Durham, United Kingdom; and the University of the West Indies (UWI), St. Augustine. In 1963, he earned a bachelor of arts degree in theology from Durham University, England; he was then ordained as a deacon and, a year later, was ordained as an Anglican priest. He obtained an MA

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in theology from the University of Durham in 1968; an MA in history from the UWI, St. Augustine, in 1974; a PhD in history in 1991; and an advanced certificate in educational management from the University of Leicester in 2002. In the Diocese of Trinidad and Tobago, Rev. Titus served as assistant priest at St. Paul’s San Fernando in 1964–1965; priest in charge of Holy Cross Marabella from 1966, on a part-time basis from 1979 to 1980 and full time 1980–1986; rector at Holy Saviour Parish, Curepe, from 1966 to 1971, during which time he also pursued his master’s degree in theology at Durham University, which he earned in 1968. From 1971 to 1972, he held a second appointment as rector of St. Andrew’s Parish, Scarborough. His affinity for scholarship then led him to teaching, but he continued to give service to Trinidad and Tobago as examining chaplain to the bishop of Trinidad and Tobago, 1997–2000. In the Diocese of Barbados, he lectured at Codrington College, the oldest theological college in the Western Hemisphere, from 1972 to 1975. Returning fully to religious life, he served as the first rector of St. Lawrence Church from 1975 to 1978, laying a strong foundation through education and enlightened management. Again Rev. Titus exhibited his aptitude for academics, earning another master’s degree in history from UWI in 1974. From 1978 to 1981, he assumed the post of Canon Residency at the St. Michael Cathedral and was made honorary Canon from 1981. He returned to lecturing at Codrington College in 1981 and was appointed principal in 1983. Canon Titus has been credited with developing postgraduate programs, a scholarship fund, lay training, restructuring and revitalizing the training program offered to Anglican priests, and acquiring archival material related to church history at this renowned college. His appointment occurred when the college was in danger of closure, but through his resuscitative interventions, the college attained longevity to the present day. He was appointed professor of church history in 2003 and served as priest in charge of St. Phillips Church in 1998 and St. David’s Parish from 2005 to 2006. Canon Professor Titus has also served on various Church Commissions, including the Mission, Evangelism and Stewardship Committee (1976–1987) and its replacement, the Church Mission Committee and the Diocesan Regulations Committee; the Synod Council (1979–1981 and 1988–1988); the Doctrinal Commission from 1983 to 1992; the Commission on Ministry from 1983 to 2004, which is responsible for training clergy and laity for various forms of ministry; the Church Mission Committee (1990–2000); and the Commission on Liturgy and Music from 2004. He was also chairman of the Mission on Stewardship, which prepared the booklet for the Diocesan Stewardship campaign in 1999. Between 1993 and 2005, he also served as examining chaplain to the bishop of Barbados.

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In the Province of the West Indies, Canon Professor Titus served on a number of committees. These included the Doctrinal Commission, from 1983 to 1992 and 2001 to the present; the Commission on Ministry, 1983–2005; and the Commission on Liturgy and Music, 2004 to 2009. He was the examining chaplain to the bishop of the North East Caribbean and Aruba from 1983 to 2005, and he conducted seminars on Christian Stewardship (February 1991) in Antigua, Montserrat, and St. Kitts and Nevis, and he was prolocutor, House of Clergy, Provincial Synod, in 1983, 2001, 2004, and 2007. In addition to a priest and teacher, Canon Professor Titus is a fully functioning academic. He has published five works: Church on the Edge (1998), Conflicts and Contradictions: The Introduction of Christianity to the Sixteenth Century Caribbean (1998); The Development of Methodism in Barbados, 1823–1883 (1993); and Amelioration and Abolition in Trinidad: Experiments and Protests in a New Slave Colony (2009), as well as over 33 book chapters, articles, encyclopedia entries, and newspaper articles. In addition, he has supervised and examined graduate theses and presented papers at conferences. His work outside of the religious sphere has also been significant. He has, for instance, worked on improving accreditations standards in the region through his work as a member of the Caribbean Community Working Group on Regional Accreditation and as the chairman of the Barbados Accreditations Council (2005–2007). Furthermore, he has served as a member of the Professional Advisory Committee of the Faculty of Humanities and Education at the UWI, Cave Hill Campus (2005); consulting editor for the Caribbean Religious Project run by York University, Canada, in 1997; and the international editor of Anglican and Episcopal History. He is also a fellow of the Royal Historical Society (1999) and of Durham University. His pursuit of excellence also fed into his hobbies, leading him to join the Sine Nomine Singers (1995–2003), to establish and direct the Codrington Chorale (1989–2003), and to become a member of the Royal Photographic Society. Canon Professor Titus has made an outstanding contribution to religious life and education in the Caribbean. See also ANGLICAN CHURCH OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO; RELIGION. TOBAGO BOTANIC GARDENS. Though popularly called the Botanic Gardens, this institution began as one of the 13 Botanic Stations established by the Imperial Department of Agriculture (IDA) in the British colonized Caribbean. The IDA was established by the imperial government acting on the recommendation of the Royal Commission of 1897 (Norman Commission), which was established to investigate the prevailing distress in the sugar industry of the region and improve and diversify agriculture. The 18 acres, 1

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rood, and 25 perches garden was established in June 1899 on the former Dealfair Estate in Scarborough, which had been purchased from the Scobie sisters. Prisoners provided the labor for all aspects of the preparation and establishment of the garden. The garden included a nursery to propagate plants for distribution to farmers, a collection of varieties of mangoes, citrus, ornamentals, an orchid house, and a fish pond. Considerable effort was also devoted to cocoa and rubber cultivation and the dissemination of information to farmers. In addition to its mandate to improve agriculture, the gardens were used to contribute to the development of tourism on the island. Facilities provided for visitors included the construction of a bandstand where public concerts were held. See also TRINIDAD BOTANIC GARDENS. TOBAGO DISTRICT TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION (TDTA). The Tobago District Teachers’ Association (TDTA) was established in 1935 to succeed the Trinidad and Tobago Teachers’ Union, which had become dormant. The TDTA was instrumental in a number of education initiatives during the 1930s. Under the influence of Lionel Mitchell, the TDTA made efforts to develop the teaching of handicraft in schools and hosted a handicraft show at Bishop’s High School, Tobago, in 1939. The association also made strides in the area of music. Singing competitions, which used a test piece based on a local composition, were held during the 1930s. Education reform was another area that was given attention. In 1935, the association organized its first Teachers’ Week. An All Tobago Teachers’ Conference, which became an annual event, was arranged in 1937. The TDTA saw to the establishment of pupil-teacher training centers at Scarborough and Roxborough, provided opportunities for the expression of public opinion on education reform, and sought to influence policy. In 1935, the TDTA obtained 1,200 taxpayer signatures to a petition questioning several provisions of the new Education Code at the time. The annual meeting of teachers continues to be an important event where matters pertinent to education on the island are discussed. TOBAGO HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY (THA). The Tobago House of Assembly, which administers Tobago, was established by Act No. 37 of 1980 to establish the THA for the purpose of making better provision for the administration of the island and Act No. 40 of 1996. The original THA was established by a declaration of General Melville on 1 July 1768, vesting Tobago with a chamber of 10 councillors and a 13-member representative assembly with two representatives for each of the five leeward parishes and one each for the parishes of St. John and St. Paul and the town of Plymouth. The first meeting of the assembly was held in Georgetown on 11 July 1768, and the body proceeded to make laws for the conduct of enslavement and estate

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business; however, the constitution given by Melville was disallowed, and an amended constitution was provided in April 1769 by order of the king in council giving each parish two representatives and one for the town of Plymouth. This THA was representative of planters and devoted itself to advancing planter interests. Although in 1876 planters supported constitutional changes that reduced their powers, they were opposed to the Union of Trinidad and Tobago in 1889–1899, which was the British government’s solution to the mounting costs of colonial administration and the economic woes of the Tobago plantation sector. The planter elite felt demoted in the union and unsuccessfully campaigned for a reinstatement of their self-governing status. But the difficulties endured by the wider population prompted many complaints about the union and led the representatives of the island to clamor for greater autonomy. This culminated much later with the rise of A. N. R. Robinson, as the champion for the Tobago autonomy movement and the ultimate passing of Act No. 37 of 1980, which gave a measure of autonomy to Tobago in a reconstituted THA with 12 elected members. Once operative, the limited powers of the THA made it unable to satisfy the needs and desires of the people of Tobago and resulted in another phase of complaint and advocacy for change. In response, the act was amended by Act No. 40 of 1996, which still does not provide the desired level of autonomy. This matter remains high on the agenda of the people of Tobago and their representatives and is currently under consideration by the country’s present administration. See also CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1925–1962); POLITICAL STRUCTURE. TOURISM. Tourism has not been as important to the economy of Trinidad and Tobago as it has been to the economy of other Caribbean islands. By the mid-20th century when tourism was becoming the main revenue earner of such islands as Antigua and the Bahamas, it accounted for just 2 percent, 4 percent, and 3 percent of GDP in Trinidad and Tobago in the decades of the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, respectively. In 1985, the total number of tourists visiting the country totaled 18,090 while 6,000 cruise ships docked at the ports. The limitation can in part be explained by government’s control over the spread of private beaches, casino gambling, and land sales to nonnationals. Limited hotel accommodation both in Trinidad and Tobago as late as 1990, water distribution problems in Tobago, delays in upgrading airport facilities both at Piarco in Trinidad and at Crown Point in Tobago, and limited infrastructural developments at ports in both islands in the 20th century also hindered potential growth in this sector of the economy. Nevertheless, thousands of tourists visit Trinidad and Tobago every year attracted to several of the country’s unique offerings. The masquerade, steel pan, and calypso of Carnival have always drawn huge crowds from around the world to Trinidad in particular. Hindu and Muslim festivals such as Divali and Eid

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also attract large numbers of international visitors every year. The sand and sea especially of Tobago and other nature trails of the smaller island, along with the annual Heritage Festival first introduced in 1987, have contributed to making tourism even more viable in Tobago. Almost half of the tourists to the twin island nation originate from North America while about 30 percent travel from neighboring Caribbean islands followed by Western Europeans and travelers from South America. The Trinidad and Tobago Hotel Development Act of 1963 facilitated the construction of a number of inns, guest houses, and full-fledged hotels, which added buoyancy to this small but far from negligible sector of the economy. By the 1980s, following the oil boom of the previous 10 years when it was not necessary to turn to tourism to earn revenue, there was a resumption of hotel construction. Historically, the government of Trinidad and Tobago was a major participant in the country’s tourism sector as evidenced by its ownership and management of British West Indian Airways, the oldest air carrier of the region, and by its management of the Trinidad and Tobago Hotel and Catering School in operation since 1960. Today, tourism has become more important to the economy of Tobago than it was in the 20th century, and the people of Tobago have been assiduous in promoting their home as the ideal green, clean, and serene destination for international tourists. See also EMPEROR VALLEY ZOO; FORT KING GEORGE; HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM INSTITUTE; MAGNIFICENT SEVEN; TRINIDAD BOTANIC GARDENS. TRADE. During the Spanish 300-year colonization of Trinidad, trade was a negligible dimension of the economic life of the colony. In the early 17th century under Governor Don Fernando de Berrío, Spanish settlers in Trinidad conducted a brisk trade in tobacco with British, French, and Dutch traders in exchange for clothing, food, other supplies, and even enslaved Africans. The king of Spain, however, frowned on this illegal trade and effectively brought it to an end. Again, in the 18th century, Spanish settlers in Trinidad attempted to trade cocoa. They did succeed for just about two decades. However, by 1725, Trinidad’s cocoa industry was attacked by fungus and died a natural death. Trade in late 18th-century and 19th-century Trinidad, now virtually in British hands, was characterized mainly by the shipment of muscovado sugar to Britain, although at this time there was some diversification in the economy with the production of cocoa, coffee, and cotton. In fact, from the second half of the 19th century, when the fortunes of sugar were failing not only in Trinidad and Tobago but almost throughout the British West Indies, cocoa reemerged as the chief export crop of Trinidad. The economic history timeline of Tobago differs from that of Trinidad. As early as 1672 under temporary British colonial rule, Tobago was already taking shape as a producer and exporter of agricultural products such as sugar, cotton, and indigo. By 1777, settlers in Tobago had added rum

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to its list of exports. A severe hurricane in Tobago in 1847 destroyed the island’s sugar trade, and by the end of the century and facing economic depression, the British decided to unite the islands of Trinidad and Tobago into one colony. With the discovery of oil in Trinidad by the beginning of the 20th century, petroleum and later its byproducts became the main export items of the twin island colony. Exports of cocoa and coconut from Tobago were also important trade products in this period. By the 1950s through import substitution and industrialization, Trinidad and Tobago found another window for trade. The local car assemblage and sales began to take off from this period. By the 1970s, petroleum’s potential to almost singlehandedly sustain the economy of Trinidad and Tobago was evident in the quadruple increase in the price obtained for this trade item. Petrochemical plants, using the country’s abundant supply of natural gas, produced and sold ammonia, urea, and methanol from the 1980s. The relatively comfortable material existence enjoyed by citizens stemming from good petroleum sales has resulted in heavy import bills, especially for food and other consumer goods and capital goods. Yet, its balance of trade history on average has been favorable with, for example, 80 percent exports of oil and 20 percent imports of food in the 1980s. The chief market for its exports of petroleum and petroleum products has been the United States. Much of its export trade has also been conducted with its Caribbean neighbors. See also FISHING. TRADE UNIONS. See LABOR ORGANIZATIONS. TRANSPORT/TRANSPORTATION. The history of transportation begins with the indigenous systems of overland transport and dugout canoes to commute inland up the Caroni River and from one island to the next or to and from the South American mainland to visit friendly tribes, trade, or search for space for new settlements. From Trinidad, they are reported to have reached as far as the islands of the Greater Antilles. Inland, they tended to establish trails. The Spanish contribution to overland transport was the horse, a key aspect of their lifestyle as conquistadores. While horses were among the animals off-loaded by Columbus in the New World, not much record has been left of this regarding the earliest days of Spanish colonial Trinidad. Nor did the Spaniards appear to do so well at roads. When Walter Raleigh put in his appearance in Trinidad, Port of Spain had only one street. Having developed mainly from tracks, both in Tobago and Trinidad, the streets were essentially quite winding and narrow. Improvements in internal communications were always extremely slow in coming. When the British took over Trinidad in 1797, they found in the capital city some better developed roads that were established to provide transport for agricultural produce to and from major estates or from factories to ports, and where they had

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emerged to facilitate the movement of people and goods or access to and from businesses and official buildings in the capital city. Largely until the arrival of more widespread physical infrastructure, including overland communication, transportation facilities developed mainly along the west coast. Even here, however, land transportation from north to south was so difficult for the major part of the 19th century that most of it was conducted by sea. British rule saw inland development and in additional directions, such as toward the northwest and central and southwestern Trinidad. In the 1880s, mules were still an important form of transportation. August 1876 marked the beginning of the passenger railway system in Trinidad, one that linked Port of Spain, San Juan, St. Joseph, and Arima, essentially establishing an early East–West Corridor. In a bid to serve the sugar planters of central Trinidad, the system was extended to Couva by 1880. In 1882, it was extended farther south to San Fernando. In 1884, a further extension was added from San Fernando to Princes Town. The railway system made transportation along the East–West Corridor between these destinations far more accessible and affordable. This development prompted the cocoa planters, like their central sugar-growing counterparts, to agitate for an extension of the lines from Arima to Guanapo and Sangre Grande. The Guanapo extension was granted in 1896, and the one in Sangre Grande in 1897. In 1898, services were established between Cunupia, Caparo Valley, and Tabaquite. In 1913, three years after the establishment of the oil industry, the railway line was extended from San Fernando to the oil regions to Siparia. One year later, the railway system was extended to Rio Claro. In 1953, the colonial administration began the gradual closing down of the train service. The reasons for this move were ongoing financial losses due to the high cost of maintenance and modernization, and the vast increase in the number of cars in Trinidad, which had been catalyzed by the improvement in the road network. The coming of the railway had also given way to the arrival of the red, blue, and green tramcars, which were imported from Philadelphia, in the capital city. The Belmont tramcar route extended to and from the railway station and Belmont Circular Road. As had always been the case, town planning was minimal. Although in urban districts, cars were becoming frequent and more widespread, tramcar lines traversed the streets and made their use by cars difficult. While for many, using the tramcar in the city was a showy business, travel by taxi was considered more prestigious and ostentatious than taking the train. The rising use of taxi cars helped to weaken prospects of the passenger railway system. The “Last Train to San Fernando” (from the capital, Port of Spain) departed just after 5:00 p.m. on 30 August 1965, an event immortalized in a calypso of the same name. Subsequently, the passenger train system continued on the East–West Corridor until it was finally closed in December 1968.

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Today, Trinidad and Tobago has various systems of overland and international transport. The country is crisscrossed by numerous highways named after outstanding international or local personalities who contributed in some way to the development of the country. In Trinidad, the most important highways for passenger and cargo are the six-lane freeways: Beetham Highway, named after the Britain-born colonial governor (he presided over the colony’s transition to internal self-government); and Uriah Butler Highway, named after the famed labor leader. There are also four-lane freeways: the Solomon Hochoy, named after the country’s first and only locally born governor; Audrey Jeffers, named after the first female member of the Port of Spain Legislative Council and founder of the Coterie of Social Workers; the Churchill–Roosevelt constructed during World War II and named after the British and American leaders; Rienzi Kirton Highway, named after both a labor leader and a community development activist; and the Diego Martin Highway. Taxi stands are scattered all over the country, providing service to specific routes in the various districts and municipalities. Both in Tobago and Trinidad, an American-type taxi service, not uncommon to other British Caribbean islands, provides for hiring of a taxi to any part of the country rather than service only along fixed routes. In Tobago, the major freeway, Claude Noel Highway, is named after one of the country’s most famous boxing heroes. Specialized, privately owned minibuses known as maxi taxies crisscross the country. Some—namely, the famous red band maxis—are permitted to use the specialized route known as the Bus Route along the East–West Corridor. The latter extends from Port of Spain to Arima. The historic site of the Trinidad Government Rail (TGR) building is still located on the street known today as South Quay in downtown Port of Spain. It was the administrative headquarters of the TGR and now operates as the administrative and bus loading headquarters of the Public Transport Service Corporation and the downtown loading facility (popularly referred to as “City Gate”) for passengers bound for the East–West Corridor, or commuting from the capital city Port of Spain to Chaguanas or San Fernando. In 2008, the Patrick Manning administration established a consortium of local and foreign stakeholders to construct and operate a rapid rail service. The government conceptualized that project as including a 50-kilometer north to south line linking Port of Spain to San Fernando, and a 54-kilometer east–west route linking Port of Spain and Sangre Grande, which was scrapped by the Kamla Persad-Bissessar administration in 2012. A water-taxi service operated by the National Infrastructure Development Company traverses the Gulf of Paria on the west coast and commutes passengers between San Fernando and Port of Spain. See also AIRPORT/AIR TRANSPORT; BUS WORKERS’ STRIKE.

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TREASURY BUILDING. The first Treasury Building of Trinidad was constructed under the auspices of British governor Sir Lewis Grant in 1831. Since the governor used sections of the premises as his residence, it was also referred to as Government House. A historic event for which the original Treasury Building will be remembered is that this was the building from which the end of the Apprenticeship system and the complete abolition of enslavement on 1 August 1838 was proclaimed in Trinidad by Governor Sir George Fitzgerald Hill. Just 100 years after the Treasury Building of Trinidad was established, it was gutted by fire on 25 June 1932. British architect Hubert Brinsley designed the new structure. The foundation stone was laid in 1936, and it was completed in 1938. In the history of the rebuilt Treasury Building, the General Post Office, Central Bank, and Auditor General’s Department shared its compound, but from 1986, the sole occupant has been the Treasury Division. TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO TELEVISION (TTT). Trinidad and Tobago Television (TTT) was the independent nation’s first television station, and the only television broadcaster for 29 years. The station began broadcasting on independence day on 31 August 1962, and its first images were of the raising of the new flag, and one of its first sounds was the national anthem. The initial stations were channels 2 and 13 and the Alternative Television on channels 9 and 14. In 1994, it merged with the state-owned radio company National Broadcasting Service to form the International Communication Network. It was later joined by AVM Television (channels 14 and 16) to create the National Broadcasting Network. One of its iconic programs was Parnorama, the only news program in Trinidad and Tobago for 29 years. In 1990, the station played a central role in the attempted coup as it was taken over by the Muslim fundamentalist group Jamaat al Muslimeen, and a hostage crisis ensued for the duration of the coup. The station was shut down in 2005. TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO UNIFIED TEACHERS ASSOCIATION (TTUTA). The Trinidad and Tobago Unified Teachers Association (TTUTA) is a major trade union and representative bargaining body for the teachers of Trinidad and Tobago. It was formed out of the membership of teachers hitherto represented by three different unions: the Public Service Association under the leadership of James Manswell, Trinidad and Tobago Teachers’ Union (TTTU) led by St. Elmo Gopaul, and the Secondary School Teachers Association headed by Osmond Downer. The existence of these three unions often weakened the power of any of them to bargain effectively on behalf of teachers, and there was usually conflict among them. In 1979, a number of teachers took a resolution to form a new union and to take steps to ensure that it legally formed the recognized union for all teachers and the sole bargaining

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body for negotiations with the chief personnel officer, the bargaining representative of the government. To put this plan into action, they established a body known as the Committee for the Unification of Teachers, putting into place a program of mass mobilization of primary and secondary school teachers across the country. The result was the establishment of a new body, TTUTA. The government and the other teachers’ unions were reluctant to accept a new trade union representative of all the teachers. However, due to strikes, protests, and demonstrations, TTUTA was officially registered as a trade union in 1980, and recognized also as the sole bargaining body on behalf of the nation’s teachers in March 1980. TRINIDAD BOTANIC GARDENS. In 1818, Governor Sir Ralph Woodford established the Trinidad Botanic Gardens on an abandoned sugar estate that was purchased in 1816 from the Peschier family. The 62-acre (25-hectare) gardens housed the governor’s residence and 10-acre grounds, quarters for the superintendent of the gardens with an allocation of 8.5 acres for grounds, and the remaining 42.5 acres for botanical activity. The Trinidad Gardens inherited all the portable holdings of the St. Vincent Gardens when it faced problems in 1823. The gardens’ holdings were increased significantly and included nutmegs, spices, breadfruit, and varieties of mangoes. The gardens were administered by David Lockhead (1818–1846), William Purdie (1846–1857), Herman Cruger (1857–1864), Henry Prestoe (1864–1886), and John Hart (1887–1905). These curators made excursions across the island and the region to search for exotic, medical, and potentially profitable species; build plant collections; identify native plants and their uses; and exchange and distribute plants. They also established the herbarium to keep a record of native and introduced plants on the island. See also TOBAGO BOTANIC GARDENS. TRINIDAD MUSLIM LEAGUE INC. The Trinidad Muslim League was one of the formal Muslim organizations formed in the aftermath of the incorporation of the Taakveeyatul Islamic Association (TIA). Its founder, Ameer Ali of Pointe-a-Pierre in Trinidad, was the first qualified Moulvi, and this led to his appointment as the mufti, or interpreter, of Islamic law. His teaching brought forward the Ahmadiya ideology, which made it a nonconformist Islamic group that was significantly different from the TIA and the Anjuman Sunnat-Ul-Jamaat. TRINIDAD ROYAL GAZETTE (1835–1962). The Royal Gazette was a government newspaper that started circa 1833, in opposition to the Port of Spain Gazette, which upheld the interests of the owners of enslaved Africans. There are differences in the amount and type of information given

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by the Trinidad Royal Gazette, which is basically the government advertising sheets, during different time periods. Early 19th-century gazettes were not indexed and had no contents page. It is possible to find useful information about families in the gazettes and about government businesses and properties. It is also possible to find the names of defaulters with respect to the arrears of taxes on lands and buildings and arrears of quit rent, together with details of the locality and acreage of the property. Sales resulting from failure to pay water rates are indexed according to districts, but the early gazettes also mention the names of defaulters. The gazette lists the names of defaulters on house rate payments in San Fernando and provides lists of unclaimed packet and shipped letters in the general post office, Port of Spain and San Fernando Post Office. The paper also includes a section on the inland post. There are lists of teachers, members of the fire brigade, applications for liquor and blacksmith licenses, as well as data on the issue of titles to land, and debts and insolvency pertaining to all classes. Data on the purchases of crown land by immigrants, on Indian immigrants and their canceled contracts, and on absconded immigrants are included. The paper also provides data regarding the offences committed and the sentence passed on cases tried at various magistrate courts. After 1846, there are, for some years, references to “Police Court and Complaint Court cases.” Data is also provided on grants of letters of administration and probate, individuals dying intestate, and matters related to last wills and testaments. There are also jury lists. The late 19th-century version of the Trinidad Royal Gazette, circa 1870 to 1900, contains minutes of the Legislative Council, which include messages from the governor, bills read and passed, and votes taken. The Trinidad Royal Gazette was officially renamed Trinidad and Tobago Gazette in 1962 and is still in operation. See also COUNCIL PAPERS (1877–1961); NEWSPAPERS, MAGAZINES, AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS (LOCAL 19TH CENTURY); APPENDIX E. TRINIDAD WORKINGMEN’S ASSOCIATION (TWA). The Trinidad Workingmen’s Association (TWA) was founded by Walter Mills, a middleclass druggist in 1897, to assist black workers. After its formation, there was a lapse of organization and activity over the next few years. Its members consisted mainly of dockworkers. From 1906, the organization was led by another druggist, Alfred Richards, who restructured and revamped the organization and registered it as a nontrading corporation. Richards, however, refused to allow the organization’s participation in trade union activity and was relieved from leadership. At the beginning of the century, the organization collaborated with the Ratepayers’ Association, founded in 1802, to protest the Waterworks Ordinance, a legislative initiative that ultimately led to the Water Riots. Subsequently, the TWA focused on two issues: the restoration of the Port of Spain Borough Council and the termination of

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Indian indentureship; the organization was effective only with respect to the first issue. During 1919, the association, then led by W. Howard Bishop of British Guiana and James Braithwaite, a stevedore of Barbados, was at the forefront of the bloody Waterfront Strike. The TWA constituted one of the most dynamic political forces in the country between 1906 and the early 1930s and spawned many future labor leaders and politicians. TRINITY CROSS. See NATIONAL AWARDS. TRIVENI MANDIR. This is a Hindu temple located on the top of a hill on Sister’s Road in Hardbargain, Williamsville, south Trinidad. The name “Triveni” originated from the spot in India where three holy rivers, the Ganges, Jamuna, and Saraswati, converge. The Mandir was built over an older temple, and its main financier is Shri Rampersad Ramrattan Ramoonsingh, whose family currently owns and manages the complex. In many regards, the Triveni Mandir is a palatial temple that is both a place of worship and a shrine of art. It consists of several sanctums for different deities including a mini shrine for Hanuman, the monkey god. Among its many fine pieces of artwork, the life-size sculptures of elephants, which capture the court-like living of the maharajas (kings) in the palaces of India, stand out. Murtis (statues), made of marble and imported from India, adorn both the interior and exterior of the complex. On some of the interior walls, the colorful paintings of the talented artist Zainool, a retired school teacher from Barrackpore, are on display. Etched into the many pillars of the Mandir are stuccolike floral and foliage motifs in rich gold. The windows consist of frosted and stained glass. Blending majestic living with art and worship, the Triveni Mandir in Williamsville is a popular destination for marriage ceremonies and receptions. See also RELIGION. TURE, KWAME (1941–1998). Christened Stokely Carmichael, Ture was born in the suburban district of Belmont in Port of Spain to Adolphus and Mabel Carmichael on 29 June 1941. When he was two years old, his parents migrated to the United States, and at age 11, he joined them in New York. He was educated at Tranquility Methodist School in Trinidad and Bronx High School of Science in New York before going to Howard University. He emerged over time as leader of two major organizations that came to influence the U.S. civil rights movement, the global Black Power Movement, and Pan-Africanism—the Student Non-violating Coordination Committee and the All African People Revolutionary Party. In 1966, he began to popularize “black power” to encourage blacks to develop greater awareness of their depraved situation, the need for self-appreciation and self-determination, and their power to change things. In 1967, he coauthored, with George

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Charles Hamilton, Black: The Politics of Liberation in America, which exposed the extent of racialism in the United States and highlighted the fact that meaningful and lasting change will only result from African American unity and the complete rejection of the old order and way of thinking. A charismatic and powerful platform speaker, he was very influential during black protest movements across the United States, Canada, and Trinidad and Tobago. He addressed the protest movements emphasizing the need for the redefinition of the black self and for reclaiming black history. Carmichael was strongly opposed to the Vietnam War, particularly the military draft, and shared the platform with Martin Luther King Jr. and others on these matters. Because of his increasing influence, he was targeted by the Central Intelligence Agency and had to demit office in the face of carefully orchestrated moves to discredit him, and to make him look like one of their double agents. By 1969, he had migrated to Guinea where he worked as an aide to President Sékou Touré. He changed his name to Kwame Ture in honor of the two leaders with whom he worked, Sékou Touré and Kwame Nkrumah. Ture coauthored many books on his life and the black power struggle. He was banned from Trinidad by the Eric Williams administration because of his radical stand on black power, but the ban was later lifted by the United National Congress administration. On 18 November 1998, Carmichael died in Guinea from cancer, leaving a rich legacy of philosophy activism that still informs black consciousness thought and undertakings today.

U UNITED KINGDOM (UK). See BRITISH IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. UNITED NATIONAL CONGRESS (UNC). The United National Congress (UNC) is a political party founded in 1989, a consequence of a rift in the National Alliance for Reconstruction arising out of conflict between A. N. R. Robinson and frontline members of the United Liberation Front (ULF), a party led by Basdeo Panday who had collaborated with Robinson to remove the People’s National Movement (PNM) from office. Calling itself Club 88 at first, the name UNC was introduced for the 1991 general elections. In the general elections of 1995, the UNC tied with the PNM at the polls, each party winning 17 seats. However, a coalition with the NAR, which had won two seats in Tobago, enabled the UNC to form the next government. In the elections of 2000, the UNC was able to secure an outright victory at the polls, and to form the government for a second time. But a rift in the party forced the government to return to the polls. This time around the party was unseated as a result of President Robinson’s decision to install Patrick Manning and the PNM into office, in accordance with the Crowne Plaza Agreement. Having regard to the hung parliament, the agreement brokered between President Robinson, sitting Prime Minister Panday, and opposition leader Patrick Manning had committed the two party leaders to acceptance beforehand of Robinson’s decision regarding who would be the next prime minister and which party would form the government. Consequently, between 2001 and 2010, the UNC found itself once again as the parliamentary opposition. When the UNC formed the opposition between 1989 and 1995, the party was under the leadership of its founder Basdeo Panday, who had also led the party to victory and into government between 1995 and 2001. In opposition between 2001 and 2010, the party was led by Panday until he was unseated by Kamla Persad-Bissessar in the party’s internal elections of January 2010. The UNC is currently the major political party in the People’s Partnership (PP) coalition government of Trinidad and Tobago. Persad-Bisses351

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sar functions in a dual capacity as both the political leader of the UNC and that of the PP. In the 2015 national elections, the PP was voted out of office, and the UNC currently forms the opposition. UNITED STATES. See UNITED STATES–TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO RELATIONS. UNITED STATES–TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO RELATIONS. The first significant involvement of the United States and Tobago took place during World War II with the signing of the Land Lease Agreement, also known as the Bases for Destroyers Agreement. The pact was made between the United States and Great Britain and was signed in April 1941 and December 1942. The lease granted the United States the right to a 99-year lease over Trinidad’s northwestern bays of Chaguaramas, Carenage, Teteron, and Scotland, as well as the Chaguaramas and Tucker valleys. Additionally, the Americans erected and controlled the Waller Air Force Base and Carsen Air Force Base in east Trinidad. The bases in the northwest were quite valuable in defending against and in attacking German U-boats operating in the region. The Germans targeted Trinidad for it was strategically linked to the oil trade with Venezuela, Curacao, Aruba, the Mexico Gulf States, and eventually with the Panama Canal. Approximately eight to 10 vessels entered or set sail from Trinidad waters every day. So frequently did the German U-boats attack vessels in Trinidad that the locals in dry jest referred to the northwestern bays as “Torpedo Junction”; Captain Lieutenant Commander Achilles of the U161 (whom locals in Trinidad called the “Trinidad Well Borer”) sank two ships in the Port of Spain harbor in February 1942. By June 1943, however, the Chaguaramas air and naval facilities on the island, along with a secret intelligence called “Ultra,” broke the secret code of the German U-boats resulting in German reverses in the War of the Caribbean. The presence of Americans in Trinidad during the war brought much infrastructural development to the country including the construction of roads, a hospital in Tucker Valley, and the establishment of a quarry. Dredging in the valleys of Chaguaramas and Tucker reduced infections spread by mosquitoes. Base construction work also provided employment for thousands of locals who gained some experience in managing new kinds of heavy vehicles and machinery although high-skilled jobs were reserved for Americans. The wages paid on the base were far more attractive than the wages of manual laborers in other industries on the island. In the immediate post–World War II period, however, the U.S. base in Chaguaramas, Trinidad, proved to be a great source of contention. Local politicians perceived Chaguaramas as a clash between the interests of U.S. imperialism and the burgeoning of West Indian nationalism. As early as

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1945, Trinidadian Albert Gomes complained that the U.S. bases constituted a threat to the prestige and self-respect of West Indians, as well as to their aspirations for federation and self-government. This was the time when the movement toward the creation of a federated West Indian group of islands was drawing to a climax. On 8 May 1957, the Standing Federation Committee insisted that Chaguaramas would be the site of the federal capital. Both the British and the Americans were alarmed, but their fears were initially alleviated by the chief minister of Trinidad and Tobago at the time, Dr. Eric Williams, who promised to respect all international agreements of his country. By 1960, however, it was clear that Williams was using Chaguaramas as a tool to stir up, not so much support for a federated West Indies, but growing nationalist sentiments, independence, and, conversely, anti-Americanism in Trinidad. Dr. Williams’s leadership of the fight for Chaguaramas was formally and forcefully launched in the march in the rain that he led to Woodford Square on 22 April 1960. The massive crowd that followed him carried placards that screamed such phrases as “Uncle Sam, we want back we land” (Photograph, Eric Williams Memorial Collection, Alma Jordan Library, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad). From about 1960 to 1977, when the Americans significantly downscaled their claim on Chaguaramas, Williams highlighted all the injuries including loss of land, subjection to curfews, rigorous military patrols, speed limits, and the rise in prostitution and sexually transmitted diseases. By 1960, matters came to a head. From 28 November to 9 December of that year, Iain McLeod, British secretary of state for the colonies, proposed three stage talks that culminated in the decision for a phased withdrawal of the Americans from Trinidad to be completed by the end of 1977. The withdrawal was accompanied by a developmental project including construction of the College of Arts and Sciences at the University College of the West Indies. International relations between the United States and the twin island nation of Trinidad and Tobago became formalized on 31 August 1962. This is the anniversary date of the independence of Trinidad and Tobago as well as the anniversary of the establishment of the American embassy in Port of Spain, Trinidad’s capital. The first chargé d’affaires ad interim was William H. Christensen while the first U.S. ambassador to Trinidad and Tobago was Robert G. Miner. Over the years, the major areas of collaboration between the two countries include investment, trade, and the American promotion of political and social development in Trinidad and Tobago through crime prevention initiatives and youth programs, as well as treaties covering extradition, mutual legal assistance, maritime matters, and taxation. UNION BUILDING. This building presently located at the corner of Independence Square (formerly called King Street) and Abercromby Street (formerly Abercrombie Street, named after Trinidad’s first English governor)

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was constructed in the early 19th century and is just over 100 years old. Cemented into the walls of the building are iron rings that were used in the 19th century to secure carriages. Street signs in Port of Spain that were displayed on the Union Building in the 19th century are still affixed to it to this day. UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTHERN CARIBBEAN (USC). Housed on 384 acres of land in the Maracas Valley in northern Trinidad, this university was established in 1927 to educate students within the Caribbean Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, which includes Barbados, Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, the British and U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Windward and Leeward Islands, excluding the French Dependencies. This private, coeducational institution was initially called the East Caribbean Training School and was renamed Caribbean Training College in 1929. In 1947, its mandate was extended when it was declared a junior college and began to offer two-year postsecondary certificates in theology, teacher training, and business and secretarial science. In 1956, the name of the institution was once again changed to Caribbean Union College. In 1970, the two-year program was extended to a four-year bachelor of theology program. Fifteen years later, through an affiliation with Andrews University in Michigan, bachelor of arts, bachelor of science, bachelor of business administration, and various associate degrees were established. In February 2006, the college was conferred the title of “university.” It currently has three locations in Trinidad and Tobago and sites in Antigua, Barbados, Guyana, and St. Lucia. See also EDUCATION; UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES (UWI); UNIVERSITY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO (UTT). UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES (UWI). Historically, the premier institution of tertiary education in the English-speaking Caribbean, with its motto Oriens Ex Occidente Lux (A Light Rising from the West), the University of the West Indies (UWI) was born as a small external college of the University of London in 1947. Consequently, the very first campus was established in 1948 as the University College, at Mona, Jamaica. Following this, campuses were established at St. Augustine, Trinidad, in 1960 and Cave Hill, Barbados, in 1962. These have since remained the three main campuses of the institution. Additionally, the UWI comprises the Centre of Hotel and Tourism Management in the Bahamas, the Institute of Business at St. Augustine and Mona, and 11 noncampus centers located in other English-speaking Caribbean countries that formed part of the Extra Mural Department. These have now been integrated into a fourth campus called the Open Campus. At the time of writing, the St. Augustine campus, with a student enroll-

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ment of over 18,000, is the largest campus of the university. See also EDUCATION; UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTHERN CARIBBEAN (USC); UNIVERSITY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO (UTT). UNIVERSITY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO (UTT). The University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT) was established in 2004 by the government of Trinidad and Tobago to provide access to tertiary-level education for a larger proportion of the population and, specifically, to support the aims of the government’s Vision 2020. The university focused on tertiary education and specialized skills training and, thus, established the Academy of Letters and Public Affairs, Caribbean Academy of Fashion and Design, Academy for the Performing Arts, and the Academy of Sports. The development of these programs was facilitated by the GATE (Government Assistance for Tuition Expenses Programme) initiative, which covered 100 percent of tuition fees for undergraduate programs in public universities. UTT currently has 13 campuses across the country with offerings in arts, education, engineering, and sciences. See also EDUCATION; UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTHERN CARIBBEAN (USC); UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES (UWI). UNIVERSITY OF WOODFORD SQUARE. Flanked by the Red House on the west, the University of Woodford Square, meaning Woodford Square (named after British governor Ralph Woodford) in downtown Port of Spain has been a center of political discussion and activity ever since Dr. Eric Williams delivered his first lecture there in 1955. Literally an open public square, the University of Woodford Square became a part of Williams’s successful effort to lead Trinidad and Tobago, and to take the colony to independence. It became, as he himself saw it in 1967, “a center for free political education for the masses for political analysis and training in selfgovernment for a parallel of which we must go back to the city state of Athens” (Frank McDonald, Doctor Politics: Eric Williams and the P.N.M. Report to Richard Nolte, Executive Director of Institute of Current World Affairs [New York: Institute of Current World Affairs, 15 July 1969], 9). According to Williams, the lectures given there had been “university dishes served with political sauce,” which have “given to people of Trinidad and Tobago political vision and perspective . . . by placing them in the context of the world struggle for human freedom and colonial emancipation. They have taught the people what one French writer of the 18th century saw as the greatest danger, that they had a mind” (Eric Williams, Inward Hunger: The Education of a Prime Minister [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969], 133). See also WOODFORD SQUARE.

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U.S. BASES IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. In 1941 during World War II, Britain, under the Anglo-American Destroyers for Bases Agreement, leased several sites throughout its empire for 99 years to the United States as part of a Western Hemispheric Defense System and in exchange for 50 old destroyers. These sites included Bermuda, St. Lucia, Antigua, British Guiana, Newfoundland, Jamaica, and Trinidad. In Trinidad, two areas of prime real estate were chosen: Chaguaramas Tucker Valley on the northwestern peninsula to establish a naval base to house the U.S. fleet, and Wallerfield, the site of the army and air base. Despite public outcry about the displacement of families and the loss of land, livelihood, and beach and general recreational sites (which led the then governor, Sir Hubert Young, to suggest that the Caroni Swamp be reclaimed instead), the U.S. military moved into the territory in 1941 and began to construct the bases. Construction activities and base work drew workers from all sectors of society and, in fact, attracted significant numbers of agricultural laborers, which caused conflict within colonial administration and with estate owners. After the war, the majority of the troops stationed on the bases were deployed elsewhere, but the United States maintained control of the areas. In the late 1950s, the return of these sites to the local government became a major platform issue for Dr. Eric Williams, who organized a movement for the return of these critical sites to the people of Trinidad. As a result, on 22 April 1960, he organized a March for Chaguaramas, which forced the British Government to pursue the return of the site and was successful. The land was returned to local government though the buildings were only returned in 1977.

V VELASQUEZ, LEWICITO (1928–2006). Also known as Cito, Velasquez was born on Frederick Street, Port of Spain. His career as a designer of costumes for Trinidad Carnival began in the late 1940s after he had years of training sculpting in his family’s doll factory. In the early years, he was an apprentice to well-known and very talented wire bender Tennessee Brown. Soon Velasquez made a reputation for himself as the master craftsman in the art of wire bending, papier-mâché, and revolutionizing the traditional sailor character into the fancy sailor. In 1959, Velasquez launched out on his own, established a mas camp at his Barataria home, and brought out his first mas band, Fruits and Flowers. The huge objects, made from wire and papiermâché and painted in vivid colors, assumed lifelike appearances and were used as the headpieces of Velasquez’s fancy sailors. In 1962, when Trinidad and Tobago celebrated its independence, the headpieces from Fruits and Flowers were used to decorate sections of the capital city. In 2006, Geraldo Vieira Sr., king of Velasquez’s band, took first place in the Dimanche Gras Competition. Velasquez was honored for this contribution to the development of Carnival in Trinidad with the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) in 1973. He died on 8 April 2006. VOISIN, ALEXANDRA DAISY (1924–1991). Known as Daisy, Voisin was the most well-known parang singer and composer of Trinidad. Of Spanish and French parentage, she was born in Carapal, Erin, on 23 September 1924, and was the youngest of six girls. She attended Lorensotte Government School and, after graduating, worked as an apprentice teacher at the school. She later worked at the Canadian Mission School in Siparia. Daisy also pursued midwifery for many years and is credited with over 300 deliveries. However, it was her singing that brought her national and regional fame. Her entrance into parang (hymns/songs sung in Spanish during the Advent and Christmas season largely) came in 1968 when she, inspired by La Divina Pastora, joined the Siparia Village Council, Fyzabad Choir, and Morne Diablo Group. In 1974, she sang, led, and soon rose to prominence in the art form. She became the undisputed queen of parang at the head of her own 357

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parang group, La Divina Pastora. Daisy is credited with many compositions including “Alegria Alegria,” “Sereno Sereno,” “Daisy Voisin,” “Daisy Daisy Daisy,” and “El Nacimiento de la Verdad.” Her songs were always punctuated by her distinctive cry of “Aiyee!” In 1982, she received the Parang Association’s highest award, a gold medal. This was followed in 1988 with a National Hummingbird Medal (Silver) from the government. She died on 7 August 1991. VILLAGE COUNCILS. The support of the Teachers’ Economic and Cultural Association for social welfare programs was guaranteed to be continued or expanded in some form in the likely event of the formation of a People’s National Movement (PNM) government in Trinidad and Tobago. From 1963, in the aftermath of the acquisition of independence, the social welfare programs of the state were expanded. As part of the government’s initiative to promote community development and improve social welfare, an effort was made to establish village councils across Trinidad and Tobago. The village councils were to participate in the construction of community centers all over the country. These community centers were to be used for the development and promotion of cultural activities and the teaching of handicraft and nutrition. They were also to support social work initiatives, which were to include care for the young, the aged, and the needy. The bulk of such work was done by women, some operating as employees of the government’s welfare departments or, voluntarily, as member of the village councils. These initiatives were intended to serve as the cornerstone for community development and the provision of social welfare. They turned out to be part of a master strategy for the political organization and mobilization of women within the constituencies controlled by the PNM. VISION 2020. Vision 2020 is a national strategic plan and policy framework enunciated in 2000 by the then opposition leader Patrick Manning and the People’s National Movement (PNM); the plan aimed at advancing the economic, social, and politic development of the country so that it will achieve country status by the year 2020. The Vision sought to transform Trinidad and Tobago into a country economically wealthy and organized in its programs so that citizens would realize a standard of living comparable to that in developed countries. The strategy, which was based on four pillars—ensuring future prosperity, productivity, opportunity, and transformation—sought to impact many aspects of national life. Following the PNM’s return to office in 2002, a number of thinkers, social activists, and academics representative of a cross section of the society joined in consultations to come up with a blueprint for achieving the Vision. The result was a very detailed strategic development road map, the Draft National Development Plan (Vision 2020),

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characterized by a step-by-step mapping of the short-, medium-, and longterm goals involved and an identified process for their implementation. It analyzed the socioeconomic conditions existing in communities throughout the country, the resources and potential of the country and each community, and the development strategy for each community that was consistent with the national development agenda. Vision 2020 was, therefore, a very detailed phased development initiative, characterized by time-bound initiatives and measurable indicators and comparators for attaining specific goals and objectives. It examined and made recommendations regarding virtually all aspects of national development. The range includes domestic, regional, and global conditions; financial and economic policy objectives; trade and investment; law, order, and justice; national development planning; foreign policy; public administration; local government; telecommunications; intellectual property; human capital development; living conditions; transportation; crime reduction; personal health and safety; the energy sector; the economy and economic diversification; business development and wealth creation; employment; poverty reduction; agriculture; and tourism. The Vision 2020 concept went into abeyance with the defeat of the PNM at the polls in 2010.

W WALCOTT, CLOTIL (1925–2007). Walcott was a grassroots, workingclass woman who championed the cause of domestic workers in Trinidad and Tobago. Born in September 1925 in St. Joseph, Trinidad, she grew up in the district of Arima where she attended a Roman Catholic school administrated by nuns. It is quite possible that this educational environment forged in her, from childhood, a keen interest in issues affecting women and the poor. There was also the fact that her mother was a domestic servant and single parent who had to cope with the difficulty of supporting Walcott and her five siblings, following the death of their father. Walcott’s own experience as an employee and unionized worker also led her to become even more concerned about the plight of exploited female employees. In 1965, she became actively involved in the labor movement, after joining the trade union, which represented the workers of the large private sector company where she was employed. Walcott was soon to recognize that the union was not given to operating in the best interest of the workers at the company. In 1967, she joined another trade union hoping to learn more about the strategies used in solving the problems of male employees so that these could be applied to the problems of female employees, given that generally the latter was more exploited and oppressed. Walcott took what she perceived as her “calling” seriously. To adequately prepare herself for the challenge, she pursued a correspondence course in industrial relations and gained certification in labor law, negotiations, and collective bargaining. In 1974, together with female friends and supporters in the trade union movement, she established the National Union of Domestic Employees (NUDE). At the time, it was unable to survive on its own, and was therefore set up as a unit of the Union of Ship Builders, Ship Repairers and Allied Workers. This new unit was aimed at unionizing and representing cooks, kitchen helpers, maids, butlers, seamstresses, laundresses, barmen, babysitters, chauffeurs, messengers, yardmen, receptionists, and workers in fast food establishments across the country—the most exploited and lowly paid workers in the country. NUDE categorized them into various groups of

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domestic workers. In addition to fighting for better working conditions for such workers, the organization also preoccupied itself with women’s rights issues. In 1982, NUDE was registered as a trade union. Through the efforts of Walcott and NUDE, a number of legislative and other changes were introduced in Trinidad and Tobago. These included the passing of the Minimum Wages and Terms and Conditions of Service for Household Assistants Order under the Minimum Wages Act of November 1982. This provided for minimum wages, a 44-hour work week, overtime rates for public holidays, maternity leave, and vacation leave for domestic workers. Additionally, in 1995, the Unremunerated Work Act was passed. This provided for the counting of unwaged labor in national statistics. With this development, Walcott transformed the country into a pioneer in the field of legislation regarding these workers, although, unfortunately, the vast majority of them remained ununionized and exploited. Among the recognitions she received was the Hummingbird Medal (Silver) for Loyal and Devoted Service to the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago in the sphere of trade unionism. WALCOTT, KESHORN (1993– ). Walcott is a Trinidad-born 2012 winner of the Olympic men’s javelin gold medal. He is the first black man in the history of the Olympics to have won this event and the youngest person to have done so. Born to Beverly Walcott and Endy King in the northeastern village of Toco, Walcott was nurtured in a family of athletes. His aunt, Anna Lee-Walcott, was a competitor in the heptathlon, and his brother, Elton Walcott, is a triple jumper. He grew up in Toco, where he played cricket and football and attended the Toco Composite School. He began throwing the javelin at the age of 15, and shortly after his 16th birthday, he made his debut as an international athlete in the javelin throw at the Caribbean Free Trade Agreement (CARIFTA) Games in St. Lucia in 2010 winning the gold medal, and he became the Caribbean youth (under 17) champion. Between 2010 and 2012, he became the three-time winner of the junior (under 20) championship at the CARIFTA Games, also setting a new junior record at the North American, Central American and Caribbean Athletic Association (NACAC) Games. Walcott’s greatest sporting feat to date was becoming Trinidad and Tobago’s first Olympic javelin gold medalist at the London Olympics of 2012 when he was 19, defeating defending champions Andreas Thorkildsen of Norway and Vítězslav Veselý of the Czech Republic. Walcott’s victory throw of 84.58 meters in London 2012 made him the second Trinidadian ever to win gold at the Olympic Games, not only securing Olympic gold but also setting a new national record. His other outstanding achievements include the first Olympic non-European champion in the javelin event, the NACAC junior record in the javelin throw, the first athlete in a single year to win the World Junior and Olympic

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medals, four-time CARIFTA Games gold medalist, and Pan American Games gold medalist. The government of Trinidad and Tobago awarded Walcott the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago in 2012. Additionally, the Toco Light House and Secondary School were renamed in his honor. WALCOTT-HACKSHAW, ELIZABETH (1964– ). Elizabeth WalcottHackshaw—daughter of the late great laureate Derek Walcott, winner of the 1992 Noble Prize for Literature—was born in Trinidad. She is a professor of Francophone Caribbean literature and 19th-century French poetry at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. She is a short story writer and has conducted considerable research in the cultural landscape of the Caribbean. Walcott-Hackshaw obtained her BA in English and French literature and language, MA in French literature and language, and PhD in French literature and language from Boston University in the United States. Her publications include Reinterpreting the Haitian Revolution and Its Cultural Aftershocks, released in 2006; a collection of short stories titled Four Taxis Facing North, released in 2007; and two coedited collections of essays, Echoes of the Haitian Revolution: 1804–2004 (2008) and Border Crossings: A Trilingual Anthology of Caribbean Women Writers (2012), as well as her first novel, Mrs. B, released in 2014. WALKE, OLIVE (1911–1969). Walke was born in Belmont, Port of Spain, on 21 December 1911. Her father. Arthur Walke, was an outstanding tenor, pianist, and organist. She attended Tranquility Girls’ School and Bishop Anstey High School, and after graduating from secondary school, Walke followed in her father’s footsteps and developed a career in music. She attained the diploma of licentiate of the Trinity College of London in 1929, and then she obtained the diploma of licentiate of the Royal Academy of Music in the United States. Walke helped establish a group of door-to-door Christmas carolers who also sang for institutions and individuals who were willing and able to pay for the performances. All the proceeds gathered were collected for charitable causes in Trinidad and Tobago channeled largely through the Red Cross. By the 1940s, Walke’s group, which was named La Petite Musicale, included Edric Connor the tenor, the soprano Elsa Pierre, Lorna Pierre, and Lennox and Lance Pierre, as well as the Mahabir brothers (Winston, Rodney, and Dennis). It was through caroling and La Petite Musicale that Olive Walke was able to research and popularize well-known folk songs such as “Mangoes” and “Every Time Ah Pass” and rescue the folk music of Trinidad from the realm of oblivion. Walke used her radio programs, such as Musicians in the Making, and publications, such as Folk Songs of Trinidad and Tobago, to expose Trinidad’s folk music. When Olive

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Walke became a senator in the first Senate of Trinidad and Tobago, she used the political platform the position afforded her to promote culture. She held this post from 1961 to 1966. In 1969, a few days before she died, Olive Walke was the recipient of the Hummingbird Medal (Gold) for folk music in recognition of her contribution to the development in Trinidad and Tobago. WARNER, AUSTIN JACK (1943– ). An internationally known official for FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association) and CONCACAF (Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football), Warner—though successful in the world of football where he had risen to the position of vice president of FIFA—was dogged by allegations of corruption. Warner was born in the rural district of Rio Claro and grew up in the district of Chaguanas. Later, he qualified as a secondary school history teacher and taught at the Sixth Form Government Secondary School/Polytechnic Institute. It was while serving as a teacher that he became involved in the organization of football. The first black individual to be in charge of organized football on a national level was Eric James, the brother of noted intellectual C. L. R. James. Warner took over from James after his retirement and soon acquired a reputation as a fundraiser and financial wizard. In 1983, Warner successfully ran for the presidency of the Caribbean Football Union that James had established, and this provided him with an automatic seat on the FIFA executive committee. Here, he met and became a favorite of Joao Havelange and Seff Blatter, although the relationship between Warner and Blatter ultimately became strained. Warner, who felt he had been shabbily treated by the People’s National Movement (PNM) administration, became actively involved in national politics as a member of the United National Congress (UNC), particularly during the period of the Basdeo Panday administration. He became one of the major leaders of the party and, reportedly, one of its key financiers. Warner, however, fell into disfavor with Panday and vice versa in the aftermath of the UNC’s failure to defeat the PNM in the general elections of 2007, as Panday accused him of being unable to account for party finances entrusted to him during the election campaign. Warner, on the other hand, had sought Panday’s removal as political leader of the UNC, opting, in the first instance, to have him replaced by Ramesh Lawrence Maharaj and, subsequently, by Kamla Persad-Bissessar. During the 2010 general elections, Warner contested the Chaguanas West seat, a traditionally UNC stronghold and safe seat for the UNC. Following the PP victory at the polls in 2010, Jack Warner was installed as minister of works and transport and quickly acquired the reputation as the most hardworking cabinet minister of the new administration. The description was not unjustified, as “Action Jack,” as he was called, kept a rigorous schedule,

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performing well in his cabinet post, assisting other ministries, and serving his constituency with a level of commitment and dedication associated with only a handful of past and current members of Parliament, cabinet ministers, and other government officials. There is evidence that this provoked some level of anxiety and envy among certain government officials with whom Warner previously had conflicts. Warner referred to this particular group of cabinet ministers as the “Cabal.” In 2013, he resigned as chairman of the UNC, member of Parliament for Chaguanas West, and minister of national security—the portfolio to which he had been appointed by Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar in an effort to lower the crime rate that, spiraling even before the elections of 2010, had escalated under the watch of the People’s Partnership (PP) administration. Warner’s intention was to seek a fresh mandate from the constituents and to return to Parliament after securing victory in a by-election, a predictable outcome given his immense popularity within the constituency. But the Persad-Bissessar administration took the opportunity to isolate Warner in order to stem the negative fall-out for the party as a result of the allegations of corruption against him. In consequence, relations between Warner and the PP soured through the accusations and counteraccusations that surfaced during the campaign for the Chaguanas West seat. By the time the elections were over, Warner, who had successfully contested the seat, had significantly damaged the reputation of the PP and was willing to rejoin that party but was persona non grata to the PP and its supporters. Warner has now retired from active politics. WATER RIOTS. In 1903, a riot took place in Port of Spain, and as a result, the Red House, the seat of the colony’s executive and legislative councils, was gutted by fire. The cause of the riot was the draft of the Waterworks Ordinance, which sought to conserve water and increase its cost via the installation of water meters in municipal residences in the capital city. Although the specific measure did not directly affect the working classes, the majority of whom lived in slum dwellings, they were encouraged to protest by disgruntled local white, colored, and black middle-class politicians agitating for political reforms. But the lower classes faced serious water problems including inadequate and irregular supply, and the laundry women were forced to conduct their business in the public wash houses, for the use of which they had to pay. Consequently, there was a strong response to the protest call by the lower classes. On 23 March 1903, a large crowd gathered around the Red House and began to hurl missiles into the chamber of the Red House while the ordinance was being debated. The police and volunteer forces fired on the mob, bayoneting some of the protestors. Sixteen people, including four women, were killed, and 51 were wounded. See also MOURNFUL MONDAY.

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WATERFRONT (DOCKWORKERS) STRIKE (1919). This was a series of disturbances led by the Trinidad Workingmen’s Association in 1919. Although agitation over the dismantling of the Port of Spain Council and the destruction of the Red House by riot in 1903 had increased the restiveness of the population, little was done by the British government and colonial administration to address the concerns of the masses. At the political level, the call for constitutional reform during the close of the previous century had spilled over into the new. Meanwhile the urban working class was agitating for socioeconomic change. In the run-up to World War I, the commitment of the local population to supporting Britain’s war effort and that of its allies had provided temporary distraction from the many economic, social, and political ills at home. After the war, however, the attention was turned once again to domestic challenges: widespread poverty and destitution, the absence of any say in political decision making, racial discrimination, and the insensitivity of the colonial authorities. Further, the masses were incensed with the treatment meted out to disbanded troops of the British West Indies (BWI). In Trinidad, as elsewhere, British colonial subjects had not only proven themselves eager to fight on behalf of Her Britannic Majesty but also had given a good account of themselves during the war. Following the conclusion of hostilities, colored disbanded soldiers of the BWI became victims of vicious and murderously violent race riots wherever they set foot on metropolitan soil en route to their native homeland. Not only were the contingents from Trinidad and Tobago subjected to such attacks, but they also returned home to discover that there were no jobs available for them, and they were to receive no financial recompense for their participation as troops in the war effort. Many joined the swelling ranks of the homeless and poverty stricken, and participated in the 1919 dockworkers strike. WEBBER, ALBERT RAYMOND FORBES (1880–1932). One of the earliest Caribbean writers and political visionaries, Forbes Webber was born on New Year’s Day 1880 in Scarborough, Tobago. At the age of 19, he migrated to Guyana to join his father and uncles who were prominent members of the colored middle class of Guyana and were partners in Crosby and Forbes, one of the largest gold traders. In 1900, he married Beatrice Elizabeth Glassford and had two children. After the collapse of Crosby and Forbes in 1906, he moved from company to company, becoming the secretary of British Guiana (Purini) Gold Concession in 1906, a clerk at L. L. Chapman in 1907, and a secretary at Peter’s Mine, a U.S. gold-mining company, in 1908. In 1909, he moved again joining the Mara Mara Gold Company. In 1910, he moved permanently out of the gold prospecting business taking a position as an advertising agent for the Daily Argosy in 1910, beginning his literary career. He would later shift to another firm, Bookers Brothers.

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In 1917, he penned his first novel, Those That Be in Bondage: A Tale of Indian Indentures and Sunlit Western Waters, chronicling the experience of the Indian indentured laborers in Guyana and went on to publish An Innocent’s Pilgrimage 10 years later. In 1921, he began his political journey, becoming an elected official and supporting the movement for representative government in the region. In 1926, he formed the first political party in the West Indies, the Popular Party, which advocated universal suffrage, self-government, women’s vote, and trade unionism. As a progressive and erudite politician, he was chosen to represent the British Guiana Labour Union at various labor conferences in England. He used his position as editor of the two most prominent papers, the Daily Chronicle (1919–1925) and the New Daily Chronicle (1925–1930) to encourage progressive political and social ideas within Guyana. His efforts to encourage a unified movement against European imperialism led to his championing of the working and poor classes of Guyana. Regionally, he also established himself as a leader, for instance, in helping the foundation of the West Indies Press Association in 1929. He also left his mark on history and economics, making a strong literary contribution through his publications in the Centenary History and Handbook of British Guiana and the article “Why I Am an Economic Heretic.” Webber died on 29 June 1932, but his life and contribution to Guyanese and West Indian political, economic, and social development has been immortalized in the text Caribbean Visionary: A. R. F. Webber and the Making of the Guyanese Nation written by Selwyn Cudjoe. WEEKES, GEORGE HENRY HILTON (1921–1995). Weekes was viewed by many as an individual who provoked or habitually engaged in controversial tactics against foreign employers in the energy sector and the early postcolonial administration. A renowned local trade unionist, Weekes was born on 9 March 1921 to Edgar and Rebecca Weekes in Toco, where he grew up with a strict father who was headmaster at the local primary school. He moved to Port of Spain and attended Richmond Street Boys and Tranquility Intermediate schools. He was an energetic and investigative child, and at times, his father brought him along when meetings were being held with other teachers to discuss the restrictions placed on them with respect to travel and other activities. These meetings did not appear to impact on young Weekes who showed no signs of being politically inclined. However, when World War II began, he joined the Caribbean Regiment, which was a squadron of the British army. It was during this stint abroad with the regiment that Weekes became politically minded as he experienced segregation and saw the ill treatment of African soldiers and other discriminatory practices. He also learned about fascism, capitalism, and socialism

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while following press debates on the different economic, social, and political systems and various issues. Weekes returned a changed man from the war in 1945, eager to learn more and to raise the awareness among the people regarding the social injustices perpetuated against them. A strong sense of justice eventually propelled him into politics. Weekes registered with the British Empire Workers, Peasants and Ratepayers Union, which was established by Uriah “Buzz” Butler, but soon moved on to become a member of a political party called the West Indian Independence Party. He was heavily influenced by two of its members, Lennox Pierre and John La Rose, who remained his close allies during his 25year leadership of the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union (OWTU). Apart from his political activity, Weekes supported any movement treating with the positive projection of African identity. By 1960, Weekes joined the OWTU when he became a staff member of Texaco Limited. In 1962, he was elected president-general where he fought for the rights of workers and planted in them seeds of liberation that moved beyond salaries and working conditions. He inculcated in them ideas of selfconsciousness, worldview, economics, and government. He stroked and inflamed ideological fires in the oil belt by appealing to the innermost suppressed feelings of a people dehumanized by a racist system. His leadership was powerful and imbued his members with confidence to stand for what was just and right. In the 1970s during the Black Power Movement, he played a significant role by supporting the National Joint Action Committee in a broad-based attack on the government. According to Raffique Shah, “Weekes was one of those leaders who sincerely believed that the workers could not win true justice through purely economic struggles but through political education.” He was one of those arrested and detained during the Black Power Movement. In 1978, he was appointed as a government senator during the A. N. R. Robinson–led National Alliance for Reconstruction administration and was awarded the Trinity Cross. He died in 1995. WEST INDIAN INDEPENDENCE PARTY (WIIP). The West Indian Independence Party (WIIP) was a labor-based political party formed in 1952 by Marxist aspiring labor leaders and thinkers, including Lennox Pierre, John Poon, and John La Rose. Initially they had formed the Workers Freedom Movement in 1948. They attempted to influence the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union and the All Trinidad Sugar Estates and Factory Workers Trade Union, but they were targeted for ridicule and isolation by British onlookers, propagandists, and advisors, including F. W. Dalley, who were trying the steer the local labor movement in the direction of responsible trade unionism. By the elections of 1956, the WIIP was totally off the local political scene.

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WEST INDIES FEDERATION. The idea of some sort of confederation of its West Indian possessions was also British colonization policy for the region. However, efforts to achieve this objective, which was intended for easier and more cost-effective administration, proved unsuccessful during the mid-19th century and particularly in the last quarter of the 19th century. During the interwar years the concept of nationalism in some British West Indian colonies was always considered largely within the framework of two alternatives. One was political independence for the colonies within a framework of a West Indian federation operating as an independent nation. The other was through the pursuit of national independence by countries on an individual basis. The British West Indies Federation was, from inception, largely an idea conceptualized by the British government. Between 1926 and 1933, a series of meetings were held. In the aftermath of World War II, the British government had convened a conference in Montego Bay, Jamaica, in 1947 to discuss the idea of a federation of the British West Indies. There were always difficulties regarding the development of consensus on exactly how the federation would function, particularly with respect to economic matters such as the question of an economic union, internal free trade, and freedom of movement within the federal community. The West Indian islands displayed a considerable level of parochialism regarding many matters, and British Guyana and British Honduras opted out of the discussions. The British West Indies Federation was established by an Act of the British Parliament—namely, the British West Indies Federation Act 1956. Ten colonies were included: Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts–Nevis–Anguilla, St. Lucia, Grenada, St. Vincent, and Trinidad and Tobago. Its constitution came into effect on 31 July, through the West Indian Order in Council 1957, which provided that certain parts of the constitution would come into force on such a date as Her Majesty would appoint. Those parts of the constitution came into effect on 3 January 1958. Trinidad was chosen as the site of the federal capital. The governor-general of the British West Indies Federation, Lord Hailes, arrived in Trinidad on 3 January 1958 and became resident in Port of Spain. According to the constitution, there were to be 45 federal members of Parliament (MPs), of which five were to be selected from Barbados, 17 from Jamaica, 10 from Trinidad and Tobago, one from Montserrat, and two from each of the other territories. Accordingly, the federal election to determine who these MPs would be was scheduled for 25 March 1958. The People’s National Movement (PNM) was defeated in these elections by a margin of 6–4. Eric Williams, who had been one of the key protagonists behind West Indian nationalism and unification, lost his zeal for the federal idea. Two matters bear significant reflection on how Trinidad and Tobago, led by Williams, saw itself in the march toward the development of the West Indies Federation. One was the question of Chaguaramas, which was chosen

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as the federal capital. Williams battled for the return of Chaguaramas, which had been leased by the British government to the United States for the establishment of a military base during World War II. The struggle for Chaguaramas proved successful with the base being relinquished to the government and people of Trinidad and Tobago. The other matter was the position of Jamaica by 1961 with respect to the federation. A major development in Jamaica was a call for a national referendum on the federation. Eric Williams had always suggested first that the PNM administration was prepared to pursue political independence of Trinidad and Tobago within five years of its ascension to political power. Further to this, the government and people of Jamaica pursued political independence after a referendum vote against the federation. Following Jamaica’s withdrawal from the federation, Dr. Williams quipped humorously that “one from ten leaves zero,” and between 1961 and 1962, the governments of Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica busied themselves with preparation for their independence. WEST INDIES FEDERATION ACT (1956). This was the legislation passed in the Parliament of the United Kingdom to establish the first West Indies Federation. Constitutionally, the institution came into effect on 31 July 1957 through the West Indies (Federation) Order in Council (1957), the British Order in Council that provided for the establishment of the British West Indies Federation. The legislation provided for a federal constitution with a governor-general who was to preside over a council of state, composed of a prime minister and other ministers; a Senate composed of two members from each territory; and a House of Representatives composed of 45 members from all the territories. The legislation allowed for certain aspects of the constitution to come into effect as Her Majesty elected to appoint. The first provision of the constitution came into effect with the arrival of Lord Hailes in Port of Spain on 3 January 1958. Port of Spain had been chosen as the site of the federal capital, and Lord Hailes had arrived to take up his position as governor-general of the West Indies Federation. The other aspects of the constitution came into force with the inauguration of the federal cabinet in the presence of Her Royal Highness Princess Margaret. In June 1958, the House of Representatives passed a resolution permitting a conference to be convened to work out the details for the federation to enable its progress to independence. Also, by June of 1959, a chief minister was appointed in each territory, and a federal cabinet replaced the council of states. WHITE HALL OR ROSENWEG. One of the Magnificent Seven buildings, White Hall, formerly called Rosenweg, was designed in Venetian and Moorish Mediterranean style, popular in Corsica, by cocoa planter Joseph Leon Agostini, whose family originated from Corsica, and who owned cocoa

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estates in the Caura Valley. Construction on White Hall, the largest private dwelling on upper Maraval Road, began in 1904 and was completed in 1907. Joseph Agostini died in 1906, and the family was unable to meet mortgage payments; consequently, William Gordon Grant, the mortgagee, foreclosed. American businessman Robert Henderson bought the house, took up residence with his family in 1907, and changed the name of the building from Rosenweg to White Hall after the coral stone used in its construction. During World War II, the Seigert family, who inherited the house from the Hendersons, allowed U.S. forces in Trinidad to use White Hall as the headquarters of the Air Raid Precaution. From the end of the war until 1949, White Hall was used as the British Council Cultural Centre, the Trinidad Central Library, the Regional Library, the National Archives, the Government Broadcasting Unit, the headquarters of the Trinidad Art Society, and the Cellar Club. From 1949 to 7 October 1954, the building remained vacant and was purchased by the government of Trinidad and Tobago. In 1957, it was occupied by the pre-federal interim government, and in 1963, Dr. Eric Williams, the first prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago, used White Hall as his office. The building was refurbished in 2000 and continued to be used as the Office of the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago up to 2009. WILKES, RODNEY ADOLPHUS (1925–2014). Also called the “Mighty Midget,” Wilkes was born in San Fernando, south Trinidad, on 11 March 1925; he attended the Coffee Street Anglican Boys’ Primary School, San Fernando, and the Nelson Street Boys’ Roman Catholic School in Port of Spain. With a passion for weightlifting, he honed skills in this sport and participated in the 1946 Central American and Caribbean Games where he won his first gold medal. He became the first sportsman from Trinidad and Tobago to have entered the Olympic Games and the first to have ever won an Olympic medal. He also has the distinction of being Trinidad and Tobago’s first double Olympic medalist. Wilkes represented Trinidad and Tobago as a weightlifter of the featherweight division in the 1948 London Olympic Games and won a silver medal with a lift of 317.5 kilograms (699 pounds). In 1951, he reverted to the gold-winning streak at the Pan American Games. In 1952, as the sole Trinidad and Tobago representative, he carried the Trinidad and Tobago flag at the Olympic Games in Helsinki where he won bronze and improved both the national and his personal record with a lift of 322.5 kilograms (711 pounds). In 2011, the government of Trinidad and Tobago, for the first time, formally recognized the pioneering role of Wilkes in securing an international forum to showcase the sporting genius of sportsmen and women of Trinidad and Tobago with the award of the Spirit of Sports Lifetime Achievement Award. He died at age 89, on 24 March 2014.

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WILLIAMS, ANTHONY (1931– ). Also known as Tony or Skip, Williams was born on 24 June 1931 in Port of Spain and grew up on Nepal Street, St. James. He is an inventor, pioneer, steel pan tuner, and musician. His contribution to the development of steel pan music dates to 1945 when he was a member of the Trinidad All Stars Percussion Orchestra, which participated in the Festival of Britain held in 1951. In 1953, he invented the “spider pan,” a soprano pan with notes laid out in a cycle of fifths. He was the leader of the Pan Am North Stars who won the Panorama finals in 1963 and 1964. Some of his pioneering innovations with the steel pan as a tuner included being the first to add the notes fa, la, and ti to the sweet oil drum, which, at the time, only played do, re, mi, and sol. He was one of the first pan tuners to include a semitone into the ping pong pan at a time when it did not include a full chromatic scale, and he was the first to use caustic soda drums to make bass pans. In 1950, he led Casablanca Steel Orchestra in playing the first ever European classical piece on the steel pan, Nocturne in E Flat. In the North Stars Steel Orchestra, he replaced the single strumming pan, or alto pong, with the double strumming pan; he made stands for the double pans using wooden material; for the ping pong pan, he used metal stands liberating players from the strenuous neck strap; and he placed the double cellos on legs and was the first to put bass pans on legs. These innovations made the pan more mobile, and by the 1960s, most orchestras adopted these measures. Williams was also the pan man who made the important innovation of the meticulous placement of notes into the face of the steel pan. His method of note placing, the “spider web” pattern, greatly enhanced the tonal quality of pans and formed the basis of the modern method of note placement. He also successfully experimented with using larger pans with diameters ranging from 26 to 29 inches. This experiment allowed for additional—as well as clearer—tones. His accolades include two national awards—the Chaconia Medal (Gold) in 1992 and the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago in 2008 for his contributions to steel pan development. WILLIAMS, ERIC EUSTACE (1911–1981). Williams, the first prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago, served as the country’s first and only chief minister from 1956 to 1959; its first and only premier, from 1959 to 1962; and its prime minister, from 31 August 1962 until his death in 1981. Williams’s life is series of remarkable achievements in academia and politics. The first of 11 children, he was born in Port of Spain on 11 September 1925 to Thomas Henry Williams, a post office clerk, and his wife, Eliza Frances Boissierre. He received his primary school education at Tranquility Boys. From there, he won a College Exhibition (scholarship) to Queen’s Royal College, the premier secondary school in the country. In 1931, he secured a scholarship to St. Catherine’s College, Oxford, from which he graduated in 1934, placing first among the first class honors of its School of

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History. He proceeded to study for his DPhil in history, which he completed in 1938. Following this he migrated to the United States where, at Howard University, he secured an appointment as an assistant professor of politics and social sciences. In 1942, the Anglo-American Caribbean Commission was established by Britain and the United States to assist the region in its social and economic development. Two years later, Williams, ideally academically suited for involvement with the work of the commission, took up an appointment as the deputy chairman of its Caribbean Research Council. His was a consultancy portfolio on West Indian affairs, and the commission was headquartered in Port of Spain. This provided Williams with the opportunity to deliver stimulating lectures on philosophy, economics, politics, race, and nationalism, as well as to develop a reputation as an intellectual of tremendous capability and political promise. In 1942, he had written The Negro in the Caribbean: Slavery and Freedom, and, in 1944, Capitalism and Slavery, his most celebrated work. Over his 12 years at the commission, its officials became increasing concerned about his anticolonial writings and rhetoric. Williams, meanwhile, had developed the view that the commission was not seriously concerned about the problems of West Indian people. His quarrel with the commission reached its peak in 1955 when his contract was terminated. On 15 January 1956, following his break with the commission, he launched his own political party, the People’s National Movement (PNM). Within nine months, Dr. Williams and the PNM wrested political control from the incumbent local administration via the electoral process. Williams and the PNM promised a new dimension in politics for the future of the country. Williams was fiercely nationalistic. Between 1956 and 1962, he foisted a series of constitutional changes on the colonial administration taking the colony from internal self-government, to independence, and then to republicanism. Between 1958 and 1960, he waged a fierce campaign against the United States for the return of Chaguaramas peninsula to the people of Trinidad and Tobago. The areas had formed the most important part of the 1940–1941 lease-base agreement between Britain and the United States during World War II. His well-remembered dictum “Massa Days Done,” viewed then by some as racist, black, nationalist rhetoric, was really an insightful discourse of the colonial problem and its challenges. He was the architect of what he dubbed the University of Woodford Square. Williams’s assumption of office in multiethnic Trinidad and Tobago in 1956 meant that he had to navigate very carefully a system of governance that would meet the various developmental challenges, among them the development and maintenance of a democratic system of government characterized by free and fair elections, achievement and maintenance of economic stability, and the development of interracial solidarity. Accordingly, Williams adopted a middle-of-the-road system of governance that was based

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on political pragmatism, albeit more so right than left of center. He implemented two successive five-year development plans that sought to court foreign investors for the development of pioneering industries and local manufactures, and promote diversification of what was essentially a sugar monoculture. But he sought to keep faith with the grassroots. His administration offered increased credit to sugarcane farmers and fishermen; his government also engaged in a range of community development projects and introduced free secondary education. In later years, from the 1970s, Williams focused considerably on the development of the country’s energy sector, in the process transforming Trinidad and Tobago into the industrial capital of the Caribbean through the development of major upstream and downstream industries. With less than 1 percent of the world hydrocarbon reserve, the country became the center for experiments in the exploration and manufacture of crude oil and natural gas, with the latter being converted into urea, ammonia, methanol, and a range of other downstream products. Arguing that no country in the world had ever become successful without producing iron and steel, Williams in the 1970s initiated the manufacture of these products in Trinidad and Tobago. Through such initiatives, the premier visionaries of the region laid the foundations for the modern economic development of Trinidad and Tobago. In terms of his relationship with the Caribbean and its people, Williams was the most aggressive and persistent advocate of Caribbean integration. He believed that individually the islands and their populations were too small and their arable land too inadequate to permit extensive diversification or the development of worthwhile industries. Moreover, he asserted that the region had a history of fragmentation and parochialism that stood in the way of its progress. Through his research at the Anglo-American Commission, he had become integrally familiar with the problems facing the colonies of the region, and he was convinced that the solution to the problems of the various islands lay in political unification, economic integration, and regional interdependence. Outside of Fidel Castro, whose Marxist orientation he despised, Williams was the most ardent and aggressive nationalist leader in the Caribbean. His radical anticolonial and anti-imperial positions on issues often landed him into conflict with other Caribbean leaders. Many, for example, perceived him as punching against his weight and threatening relations between their territory and the metropolitan powers, when he took on Britain and the United States in the fight for the return of Chaguaramas. Incidentally, Chaguaramas had been chosen as the site of the capital of the British West Indies Federation. In pursuing the matter, however, Williams was forcing its return, not only to the people of Trinidad and Tobago, but for all of the Caribbean. Williams, always logical, could at times be perceived mistakenly as complex and paradoxical.

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He vociferously advocated the West Indies Federation as a pathway toward independence and regional development. However, following Jamaica’s withdrawal from the federation in 1961, Williams memorably quipped “one from ten leaves zero,” and, following suit, set about pursuing the independence of Trinidad and Tobago. Williams, however, remained committed to Caribbean integration, for, in the aftermath of the breaking up of the federation, he set about promoting the establishment of a Caribbean economic community, and worked assiduously behind the scenes, encouraging regular meetings of heads of independent and self-governing states. Trinidad and Tobago was among the four Caribbean nations that signed the Caribbean Free Trade Agreement (CARIFTA) in 1986. CARIFTA was ultimately superseded by the elaborate and ambitious institution of CARICOM (Caribbean Community), which was established via the Treaty of Chaguaramas of 1973. But Williams became frustrated when in 1977 Jamaica and Guyana imposed measures to curtail imports from Trinidad and Tobago in order to protect their endangered industries. On 29 March 1981, Dr. Williams passed away after having served as head of state for 19 years and contributing 25 years of his life to the leadership of Trinidad and Tobago. Among his legacies are the promotion of civil society through a provision of a variety of mechanisms for the protection and preservation of human rights and the dignity of the people; and transformation of the country from colonialism to independence, and from thence into a republic in which the people of Trinidad and Tobago assumed sovereign responsibility for the nation. He is also to be credited with initiation of the political, social, and economic mechanisms and processes that enabled citizens to forge one nation out of the disparate social elements that, owing to historical accident, had been brought together in Trinidad and Tobago. He is continually viewed as a world-renowned Caribbean historian, statesman, and politician, and one of the most outstanding national and regional personalities of the last century. WILLIAMS, FRANKLYN DENNIS (MERCHANT) (1943–1999). Merchant was a gifted Trinidad-born composer whose life was plagued with misfortune. Orphaned by age 11, he grew up in the Belmont orphanage and had several bouts with the law as a young man. Despite his troubles, he shot to instant fame in the calypso world with his classical “Um Ba Yo,” which was based on an African theme. He was a finalist in the National Calypso Competition in 1978 with the memorable “Let No Man Judge” and “Norman Is That You?,” and in 1985 with “Pan in Danger” and “Caribbean Connection.” Merchant’s greatest contribution to calypso was as a composer. Although he could neither read nor write music, he developed a skill for composing under the tutelage of the Mighty Sniper. He worked out lyrics and melody

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simultaneously in his head and then committed them to his guitar. He also had a penchant for snatching simple, everyday phrases from people in the street and setting them to an appropriate melody. While he did not secure a place for himself in the National Calypso Monarch Competition, other calypsonians for whom he composed, often for little or no charge, would make it. In 1994, for example, the Original de Fosto Himself and the Mighty Trini made it to the finals singing tunes that Merchant composed. In that year, he was diagnosed HIV positive, and his life spiraled downward to drug addiction and related ills. Despite his troubles, he composed more songs after he learned of his illness than he did before. In the last years of his life, he composed at least 40 songs, many of which were successfully used by calypsonians such as Bally, Baron, Crazy, Designer, and Drupatee. Musical bands such as Atlantik, Byron Lee and the Dragonaires, and Leston Paul and the New York Connection also benefited from his talent. His burning ambition to record his music before his death became a reality in 1996 when he released a CD with such compositions as “Private Conversation,” “Symphony of Love,” “Be Careful,” “Soca Powerplay,” “Simmer Down,” and “Hot Line Baby.” Merchant died on 19 May 1999 at age 55. See also CULTURE; FESTIVALS AND ENTERTAINMENT. WILLIAMS, HENRY SYLVESTER (1867–1911). A lawyer, writer, and internationally famous Pan-Africanist, Williams is widely credited with the coining of the term “Pan-Africanism” and played a key role in the establishment of the first major Pan-African organization formed in London in 1900. He was born in Barbados and grew up in Arouca, Trinidad, where he attended school, and as a young man, he became an elementary school teacher. In 1891, he left Trinidad for New York, but by early 1893, he migrated to Canada where he enrolled in the Faculty of Law at Dalhousie University, Halifax. He later migrated to London where, in 1896, he enrolled at King’s College, and in 1897, he became a law student at Gray’s Inn. He also led the African Association, which aimed to unite and support people of African descent. He was also a tireless writer of African-centered articles, and he organized meetings of the African Association to plan a massive Pan-African Conference, which was attended by African-centered leaders, including spokespersons and other activists from the United States, Liberia, and Ethiopia. The success of this conference and the enthusiasm of distinguished African-descended leaders—such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Alexander Walters of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and M. Benito Sylvain—led to the transformation of the African Association into a new body, the PanAfrican Association, which Williams sought to spread far and wide. In 1901, he visited Trinidad, Jamaica, and the United States where he established branches of the African Association. On returning to Britain, he began to publish a journal, Pan African. In 1903, following his visit to South Africa,

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he decided to practice law there. His championship of African civil rights disturbed the white power structure and its collaborators, and it therefore became necessary for him to leave. On his return to Britain, he joined the Fabien Society, gravitating increasingly toward its brand of leftist ideology. In 1906, having won a seat on the St. Marylebone Borough Council, he became one of the earliest African-descended individuals to be elected to high political office in Britain. In 1908, at the request of President Arthur Barclay, he visited Liberia where he addressed the National Bar Association before returning to Trinidad with his family. There, he became associated with the Trinidad Workingmen’s Association, practiced law in the capital city, and associated with other African-conscious colleagues. He died in Trinidad in 1911. WILSON, SAMUEL HERBERT (1873–1950). Brigadier General Sir Samuel Wilson was the governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 1 January 1922 to 1924. He made significant progress in promoting football in the colony. He was a pioneer of the Boy Scout Association of Trinidad and Tobago and was chief scout in 1922. He also supported the campaign to erect a war memorial in Port of Spain to honor the servicemen and women of World War I. He agreed at a public representative meeting held on 22 November 1922 that the site of Memorial Park would be the Little Savannah in Port of Spain. On 1 May 1924, in a simple ceremony, Wilson laid the foundation stone of Memorial Park and embedded in its base a sealed bottle that contained documents on plans for the memorial, copies of newspapers of the day, and coins in circulation in Trinidad and Tobago at the time. Memorial Park was completed on 28 June 1924. WINSTON, VALENTINE (CHANG KAI CHEK KAI) (1934– ). Born on 23 March 1934 in Siparia, south Trinidad, he was the first successful Trinidadian calypsonian of Chinese descent. He took his sobriquet from the Chinese nationalist who had fought against the Chinese Communist Party. His first calypso, “The Obeah Man,” was an instant hit. His most famous rendition was “Four Famous People,” and he is also remembered for his calypso in the first ever Independence Calypso Competition, titled “Independence.” He has no recordings after the 1960s. WOMEN. From the end of the 19th century with the advent of elite women making their entry into social life and social work in the Caribbean as a whole, and in Trinidad and Tobago in particular, there emerged a number of outstanding women in all spheres of life. Audrey Jeffers, founder of the Coterie of Workers in 1921 and the first female to sit on the Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago, was one such woman. Isabel Teshea in

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politics, McCartha Lewis in calypso, Anna Mahase in education, Louise McIntosh and Euris Arnold Elliott in music, Helen Bhagwansingh in business, Jean Pierre in sports, Janelle Penny Commissiong-Chow in pageantry, Dolly Nicholas in science, Hazel Ward Redman in broadcasting, Shirley King in acting, Heather Headley in singing, Margaret Sampson-Browne in the police service, and pianists Winnifred Atwell and Hazel Scott have all demonstrated that there is a solid basis for the study of the history of women in Trinidad and Tobago. WOODFORD SQUARE. Woodford Square is located in the heart of downtown Port of Spain. It was originally called Brunswick Square. However, when the 1808 fire of Port of Spain destroyed several buildings including structures at Brunswick Square, Governor Sir Ralph Woodford, who was largely responsible for directing the reconstruction following the great fire, renamed it Woodford Square. From the mid-1950s until independence in 1962, when Trinidad and Tobago was in the throes of the struggle for selfrule, Dr. Eric Williams, leader of the People’s National Movement, unofficially renamed it the University of Woodford Square. Williams’s rechristening appropriately reflected the major activities that unfolded in the square such as political and religious gatherings and discussions, entertainment, and craft market sales. WOODING, HUGH OLLIVIERE BERESFORD (1904–1974). Wooding is a noted jurist and politician. He was born in Trinidad to Barbadian parents and emerged as one of the most eminent and exemplary legal minds in Trinidad and Tobago. His brilliance in his early years manifested itself when he was awarded an exhibition in Queen’s Royal College in 1914. From there, he gained an Island Scholarship to pursue law at the Middle Temple where he distinguished himself by copping three awards: first, the Inns of Court Law and History Practice in 1925; second, the Inns of Court Studentship in 1926; and third, the Inns of Court Certificate of Honor in the same year. In 1926, he returned to Trinidad and was admitted to the bar in 1927. He excelled in his private practice to which he had first gravitated. He functioned, however, equally well in the domains of prosecution and defense; he operated with such excellence and integrity that he was able to practice throughout the Caribbean. Wooding also had an interest in politics and, during the 1940s, became involved with the municipality of Port of Spain. Not surprising in 1943 he was elected mayor of the capital city. His on-and-off relationship with Eric Williams may have been responsible for his limited advancement in the local political arena. He remained nonetheless very active. He was, however, key to the constitutional reform undertaken by the People’s National Movement during the 1970s. In 1971, he was appointed

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chancellor of the University of the West Indies and died on 26 July 1974 of a heart attack. In tribute to his invaluable contribution to the development of jurisprudence in Trinidad and Tobago, the Hugh Wooding Law School, one of only three institutions permitted by the Legal Council of Britain to award legal education certificates, was posthumously named in his honor. WORKINGMEN’S REFORM CLUB. The Workingmen’s Reform Club was an organization formed in March 1897 by Charles McKay, a tally clerk on the wharves. Its objectives were the reduction of unemployment, poverty, and destitution of the masses. Testifying before the commission of inquiry of 1897 to 1900, McKay described himself as the father of the local labor movement in the colony of Trinidad. WORLD WAR I. On 6 August 1914, Britain and Germany declared war on each other, plunging Europe and the wider world into military conflict. Trinidad and Tobago was of vital strategic importance because of its hydrocarbon reserves and, in consequence, was immediately drawn into the conflict by the imperial government. The St. James Barracks immediately became a training ground for volunteers to the war front. Military policy soon followed the racist orientation that characterized the colonial administration. Local black men were prohibited from serving until a separate regiment—the West India Regiment—was formed. The men suffered severe discrimination in the service, only being allowed to work in the most degrading positions. Their treatment encouraged the growth of militancy, and the veterans of the war, upon their return to Trinidad, became instrumental in the struggle for improved working and living conditions, assuming leadership of proletariat groups such as the Trinidad Workingmen’s Association. Additionally, the dramatic rise in inflation and prohibitions on trade encouraged a decline in social conditions and a rise in unscrupulous behavior by local merchants. See also CIPRIANI, ARTHUR ANDREW (1875–1945). WORLD WAR II. Trinidad and Tobago was affected by and played an important role in World War II. During the war, Chaguaramas in the northwest peninsula of Trinidad was leased, by Britain, to the United States for 99 years in return for 50 U.S. warships known as destroyers. The area was used for the construction and utilization of a military base by U.S. troops and for joint military operations from Trinidad and Tobago by Britain and the United States. The agreement, commonly referred to as the lease-base agreement, also provided for the use, by the Americans, of other areas as an extension of the base. The lease-base agreement also provided for similar occupation and utilization of other areas in Trinidad and Tobago, in what is known today as Wallerfield and Carsen Field. During the war, lease-base

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agreements had been made between Britain and the United States with respect to a number of British-controlled territories in the Western Hemisphere. Significantly decapitated after the war, the British government, moved to reduce the cost of maintenance of the administration of its empire in the West Indies and elsewhere, encouraged the establishment of a West Indies Federation. As the major British West Indian colonies moved toward the organization of a federation of West Indies, the lease-base agreement became a major source of contention between Eric Williams, Trinidad and Tobago’s premier, and U.S. government officials who were reluctant to relinquish the base to the government and people of Trinidad and Tobago. The construction of the base at Chaguaramas notably had impacted social and economic life on the island. Many urban working-class blacks acquired employment as construction workers and domestics during the construction of the base. Wages at the base were higher than those paid to workers in the sugar and oil industries. This caused an appreciable level of rural to urban drift as individuals in search of employment gravitated to Port of Spain and other environs near to the location of the base. The presence of American troops on the island impacted on the way of life of the locals. Trinidadians inculcated some of the attitudes, habits, code of dress, orientation to fast music, and aspects of the leisure-related and material culture of the United States. Film and cinema, encouraged during the war as agency for U.S. propaganda, became popular sources of entertainment. The United States was the major North Atlantic and world power in the Western Hemisphere. Not surprisingly, at many levels, locals aspired to an American way of life. Some American soldiers were accompanied by their wives, but relationships did, in fact, develop here and there between military officers and local women. Port of Spain and suburban areas saw an increase in prostitution. During the war, Tubal Uriah “Buzz” Butler was incarcerated as he was viewed as potential trouble who could easily set up disturbances during the war.

Y YANKARAN, ISAAC (1932–1969). Born at Waterloo village to parents who were indentured workers of Madrasi lineage, Yankaran was gifted with musical talent. He grew up in Barataria, then a center for the revival of Indian culture, and became a famous local singer of popular and classical Indian melodies. From 1947, he began appearing on radio programs featuring Indian culture. He made his first record in 1966, and in 1982, a second was released posthumously. YOUNG, HUBERT WINTHROP (1885–1950). A soldier, politician, diplomat, and British colonial governor, Young was governor of Trinidad and Tobago from 1938 to 1942. He was born in 1885, was educated at Eton College, and joined the Royal Artillery in 1904. He married Margaret Rose Mary Reynold in 1924, and they had three sons. He served in Mesopotamia during World War I as an assistant political officer. He was assistant secretary in the Middle East, colonial secretary in Gibraltar, first minister in Baghdad, and governor of Nysaland, Northern Rhodesia, and Trinidad and Tobago. The Lady Young Road, which in part connects Belmont in the west to Trinidad’s capital, Port of Spain, was built during Young’s governorship. When it was completed, the road was named the Lady Young Road in honor of the governor’s wife. Young died on 20 April 1950 in Portugal. YORKE, DWIGHT EVERSLEY (1971– ). Yorke, a Tobago-born football star and leading striker for UK teams, such as Aston Villa and Manchester United, became the most famous of all Trinidad and Tobago nationals to play professional football outside of Trinidad and Tobago. Born in Canaan on 3 November 1971, he attended Bon Accord Government, Signal Hill Senior Comprehensive, and St. Augustine Senior Comprehensive schools. He first attracted the attention of foreigners scouting for football talent in 1989, when executives of the Aston Villa were touring the Caribbean and, in consequence, signed a £120,000 deal with the club and migrated to England. Yorke made 231 appearances for Aston Villa and scored 99 goals for the club. This caused him to attract the attention of Manchester United with 381

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whom, after much negotiation, he signed a record-breaking deal for £12.6 million. Between 1998 and 1999, he became the club’s leading goal scorer and helped the club become champions of the English Premier League, the FA Cup, and the European Cup. He made 188 appearances for Manchester and scored 64 goals. He subsequently played for Blackburn Rovers, Birmingham City, Sydney FC, and Sunderland. Along with Russell Latapy, also a citizen of Trinidad and Tobago, and Pat Jennings of Northern Ireland, Yorke held the record for participation in different World Cup competitions. For all his achievements with the international clubs, he remained an integral part of Trinidad and Tobago’s World Cup campaign in 1989, although the team was narrowly edged out of the qualifying stages of the competition. Seventeen years later, however, he captained the national team to an impressive debut at the 2006 World Cup in Germany, where Trinidad and Tobago made history as the smallest country ever to qualify. Not surprisingly, Yorke has amassed an impressive list of awards. In 1993, he was awarded the Trinidad and Tobago Hummingbird Medal (Silver) for Sport. Three years later, he was named Aston Villa’s Player of the Year for the 1996/1997 season, and in the following year, he won England’s Carling Player of the Year. Then he was awarded the Chaconia Medal (Gold) in Trinidad and Tobago’s 1999 National Awards for Sport. He was honored in 2001, when the first stadium in Tobago, the Dwight Yorke Stadium, was named after him. In 2005, he was presented with the Tobago House of Assembly Chief Secretary’s Award and the Joe Marston Medal, an Australian A-League award given to the player of the match in the A-League Grand Final each year. After the 2006 World Cup, Yorke was made a sports ambassador for Trinidad and Tobago, and in 2011, he became the first Tobagonian to be inducted into Trinidad and Tobago’s Sports Hall of Fame. Yorke was named one of Trinidad and Tobago’s 50 Sporting Legends at the 30 August 2012 ceremony marking the 50th anniversary of the country’s independence. YORKE, ROBERT “BOB” THEOPHILUS (1933–2015). A prominent businessman, a trailblazer in the construction and tourist industry, and a philanthropist, Yorke was born in Patience Hill, Tobago, on 14 May 1933. He attended Patience Hill Primary School and, at age 15, found employment as a mason then moved to Trinidad to live with family members and work in a brick factory in Longdenville at age 16. In 1956, Yorke migrated to England to further his education. He completed secondary schooling at Greenford High School and went on to Hammersmith College of Art and Building to pursue a diploma in structural engineering. He was employed with a number of prestigious British consultancies (including Mott, Hay and Anderson [now Mott MacDonald] and Andrews, Kent and Stone) but left the United Kingdom in 1966 to assume

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the position of chief engineer at the Ministry of Works in Antigua. After returning to Trinidad in 1968, he was employed at Sanders and Foster for four years, until the company left Trinidad. Then in 1972, he started his own construction business, Yorke Structures Limited, with 10 employees, the first black-owned business in this industry. This company eventually became one of the largest construction firms in the Caribbean, employing a staff of close to 250 people. His clients included companies from the petrochemical, energy, marine, industrial, commercial, and municipal sectors. Yorke’s entrance into the tourism sector came in the mid-1970s when he purchased Mt. Irvine Bay Hotel and Golf Club Tobago, a lifelong dream after experiencing prejudice at a young age when he and other black Tobagonians were not allowed to set foot on that property and when his father was beaten for querying a job rejection. Under his ownership, it remained one of the island’s leading tourist destinations and best golf courses in the Caribbean, and he successfully weathered the many crises that assailed the Tobago tourism industry from the latter part of the 20th to the early 21st century. Yorke was responsible for organizing many cultural events at this hotel, including the annual Jazz on the Beach at Mt. Irvine, Tobago’s longest running jazz event, that, from 2017, has been relocated to another venue. He served as chairman of Industrial Fastenings Ltd., was a qualified chartered structural engineer, and a fellow of the Institution of Structural Engineers and fellow of the Association of Professional Engineers of Trinidad and Tobago. He was, as well, property advisor to the Anglican Diocese in Trinidad and Tobago. His philanthropy was renowned. York Structures Limited assisted in the rebuilding of Grenada after Hurricane Ivan in 2004 and built a library in Plymouth, Montserrat, before the volcanic eruption destroyed half of the island, and he supported the National School Feeding Programme and the Boy Scouts. He also assisted students and young professionals with scholarships and merit awards. In 2002, the Tobago House of Assembly recognized Yorke’s contribution to business and Tobago’s development, which was the first of many other distinctive accolades. Some of these include the highest award given by the Association of Professional Engineers of Trinidad and Tobago for a “Career of Excellence,” which he received in 2004; the Service Award from the Institution of Structural Engineers in 2004; and an honorary doctorate degree in engineering and entrepreneurship from the University of Trinidad and Tobago in November 2005. In November 2010, Dr. Yorke was inducted into the Business Hall of Fame and, in 2011, was further awarded the Chaconia Medal (Gold) for Business from the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. This entrepreneur and visionary passed away on 26 March 2015, leaving to mourn his wife, daughter, and a host of employees and clients.

Z ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO (ZSTT) (1947). The Zoological Society of Trinidad and Tobago (ZSTT) was founded on 23 April 1947 on a motion raised by C. L. Williams, first vice president of the Field Naturalist Club, at a meeting convened by the secretary of the club and attended by many of its members. Its objectives were to advance popular knowledge and understanding of animals by the establishment of a zoological garden that would be used to introduce new and interesting animal species to the country and develop youth interest and involvement in zoological matters. The society was incorporated on 3 April 1952 by Order No. 12 of 1952, and the zoological garden was established on the 23-acre extension of the Botanical Gardens. It was called the Emperor Valley Zoo after the Emperor butterfly, which proliferated in the area. The zoo was opened to the public on 8 November 1955. The ZSTT was made a statutory body by the Statutory Authorities Service Commission Declaration Order No. 128 of 1968 and was supported by government funds that are now channeled through the Ministry of Tourism. Its mission is to protect and conserve the environment and local fauna, to introduce nonindigenous animals to the country, and to manage the operation of the zoo.

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Appendix A Government Officials

TOBAGO Lieutenant Governors of Tobago Alexander Brown

November 1764–July 1766

William Hill

1766–October 1767

Roderick Gwynne

1767–1769

Robert William Stewart

1769–1771

William Young

1771–1777

Peter Campbell

1777–1779

John Graham

1779–1781

George Ferguson

1781–June 1781

Philibert François Rouxel de Blanchelande (French)

June 1781–1784

Rene Maria Viconte d’Arrot (French)

1784–1786

Arthur Count Dillon (French)

1786–1789

Antoine de Jobal de Poigny

1789–1792

Philippe Marie de Marguenat

1792–1793

Laroque de Mointeil

1793

Governors and Administrators of Tobago William Myers

April 1793–1793

George Poyntz Ricketts

1793–1795

Joseph Robley

1795

William Lindsay

1795–1796

James Campbell

1796–1797 387

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Stephan de Lancey

1797–1799

Joseph Robley

1799–1800

Richard Master

1800

Joseph Robley

1800–1801

Hugh Lyle Carmichael

1801–November 1802

Jean Joseph François Leonard Damarzit de Laroche Sahuguet

November 1802–1803

Louis Cesar Gabriel Berthier

1803

Thomas Picton

June 1803–July 1803

William Johnstone

July 1803–August 1803

Donald MacDonald

August 1803–July 1804

John Halkett

July 1804–1807

Sir William Young, 2nd Baronet

1807–1815

John Balfour

1815–1816

John Campbell

1816

Sir Frederick Philipse Robinson

November 1816–September 1828

Nathaniel Blackwell

1828–1833

Alexander Gardner

1833–(acting)

General Sir Lionel Smith

1833

General Sir Henry Charles Darling

1833–1845

Laurence Graeme

1845–1851

David Robert Ross

April 1851–June 1851

Henry Yates

1851–1852 (1st time/acting)

Dominick Daly

1852

Henry Yates

1852–February 1854 (2nd time/ acting)

Willoughby J. Shortland

February 1854–1856

James Kirk

1856–(acting)

James Henry Keens

1856–1857–(acting)

James Vickery Drysdale

June 1857–April 1864

Cornelius Hendricksen Kortright

1864–1872

Herbert Taylor Ussher

1872–1875

Robert William Harley

1875–1877

APPENDIX A

Augustus Fredrick Gore

1877–1880

Edward Laborde

1880–1882

John Worrell Carrington

1883–1884

Lorraine Geddes Hay

1885

Robert Baxter Llewellyn

1885–1888

Lorraine Geddes Hay

1888–1892

Thomas Crossley Rayner

1892

William Low

1892–1893

H. H. Sealy

1893

William Low

1893–1897

S. W. Snaggs

1897

J. C. O’Halloran

1897–1899

TRINIDAD Governors of Trinidad Spanish

Diego Colón Moniz

1521–1526

Antonío Sedeño

1530–1538

Juan Ponce de León

1571–1591

Antonio de Berrío y Oruña

1580–1597

Fernando de Berrío

1597–1612

Diego Palomeque de Acuña

1615–1618

Fernando de Berrío

1619–1622

Luís de Monsalve y Saavedra

1624–1631

Cristóval de Aranda

1631–1636

Diego Lopez de Escobar

1636–1641

Martín de Mendoza de la Hoy y Berrío

1642–1657

Juan de Viedma

1657–1664

José de Haspe y Zuñiga

1665–1668

•

389

390

•

APPENDIX A

Diego Ximenes de Aldana

1670–1677

Tiburcio de Haspe y Zuñiga

1678–1682

Diego Suárez Ponce de León

1682–1684 (1st time)

Sebastian de Roseta

1684–1690

Diego Suárez Ponce de León

1693–1696 (2nd time)

Francisco de Menez

1696–1698

José de León y Echales

1698–1699

Francisco Ruíz de Aguirre

1701–1705

Felipe de Artieda

1705–1711

Cristóbal Félix de Guzmán

1711–1716

Pedro de Jara

1716–1721

Martín Pérez de Anda y Salazar

1721–1726

Agustín de Arredondo

1726–1730

Bartolomé de Aldunate y Rada

1730–1733

José Orbale

1733–1735

Esteban Simón de Liñan y Vera

1735–1745

Félix Espinosa de los Monteros

1745–1746

Juan José Salcedo

1746–1752

Francisco Manclares

1752–1757

Pedro de la Moneda

757–1760

Jacinto San Juan

1760–1762

José Antonio Gil-Knight

1762–1765

José de Flores

1766–1773

Juan de Dios Váldez y Yarza

1773–1776

Manuel Falquez

1776–1779

Rafael Delgar

1779–1781

Martín de Salaverría

1779–1781

Juan Francisco Machado

1781–1784

José María Chacón y Sanchez

1784–1797

British

Sir Ralph Abercromby

1797

APPENDIX A

Thomas Picton

1797–1803

Commission 1803: William Fullerton, Thomas Picton, Samuel Hood

1803

Sir Thomas Hislop

1803–1811

Hector William Munro

1811–1813

Sir Ralph James Woodford

1813–1828

Sir Charles Felix Smith

1828

Lewis Grant

1829-1833

Sir George Fitzgerald Hill

1833–1839

Sir Henry George Macleod

1840-1846

George Francis Robert Harris (Lord Harris)

1846–1854

Sir Charles Elliot

1851–1856

Robert William Keate

1857–1864

Sir John Henry Thomas Manners

1864–1866

Sir Arthur Charles Hamilton-Gordon 1866–1870 James Robert Longden

1870–1874

William Wellington Cairns

1874

Henry Turner Irving

1874–1880

Sir Sanford Freeling

1880–1884

Sir William Robinson

1885–1891

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Governors of the United Colony Sir Frederick Napier Broome

1891–1897

Sir Hubert Edward Henry Jerningham

1897–1899

Sir Cornelius Alfred Moloney

1900–1904

Sir Henry Moore Jackson

1904–1908

Sir George Ruthven Le Hunte

1909–1916

Sir John Robert Chancellor

1916–1921

•

391

392

•

APPENDIX A

Sir Samuel Herbert Wilson

1922–1924

Sir Horace Archer Byatt

1924–1930

Sir Alfred Claud Hollis

1930–1936

Sir Arthur George Murchison Fletcher

1936–1938

Sir Hubert Winthrop Young

1938–1942

Sir Bede Edmund Hugh Clifford

1942–1947

Sir John Valentine Wistar Shaw

1947–1950

Sir Hubert Elvin Rance

1950–1955

Sir Edward Betham Beetham

1955–1960

Sir Solomon Hochoy

1960–1962

Speakers of the Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago, 1950–1961 John L. H. V. Savary

1950–1955

Asford Sinanan

1955–1956

Edgard Mortimer Duke

1956–1961

Governors of Trinidad and Tobago since Independence Sir Solomon Hochoy

1962–1972

Sir Ellis Clarke

1972–1976

Speakers of the House of Representatives of Trinidad and Tobago Arnold Thomasos

1961–1981

Matthew Ramcharan

1981–1986

Nizam Mohammed

1986–1991

Occah Seapaul

1992–1995

Hector McLean

1995–2000

Rupert Griffith

2001–2002

Barendra Sinanan

2002–2007

Barendra Sinanan

2007–2010

APPENDIX A

Wade Mark

2010–2015

Bridgid Anissette-George

2015–

•

393

In Trinidad and Tobago, the Speaker presides over the sittings of the House of Representatives. In his absence, the Duty Speaker presides. Presidents of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Sir Ellis Clarke

1976–1987

Noor Hassanali

1987–1997

A. N. R. Robinson

1997–2003

George Maxwell Richards

2003–2013

Anthony Thomas Aquinas Carmona

2013–2018

Leaders of the Opposition Ashford Sastri Sinanan

1951–1956

Rudranath Capildeo

1962–1967

Vernon Jamadar

1967–1971

John R. F. Richardson

1972–1976

Basdeo Panday

1976–1977

Raffique Shah

1977–1978

Basdeo Panday

1978–1986

Patrick Manning

1986–1990

Basdeo Panday

1990–1995

Patrick Manning

1995–2001

Basdeo Panday

2001–2006

Kamla Persad-Bissessar

2006–2007

Basdeo Panday

2007–2010

Kamla Persad-Bissessar

February 2010–May 2010

Keith Rowley

2010–2015

Kamla Persad-Bissessar

2015–

Appendix B The Reestablished Tobago House of Assembly (THA)

OFFICERS OF THE TOBAGO HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY (THA) Chairman 1980–1986

Arthur N. R. Robinson Jefferson G. Davidson (Deputy Chairman)

1986–1988

Jefferson G. Davidson Hochoy Charles (Deputy Chairman)

1988–1989

Jefferson G. Davidson Benedict Armstrong (Deputy Chairman)

1989–1996

Lennox Denoon Benedict Armstrong (Deputy Chairman)

Chief Secretary 1996–2001

Hochoy Charles Cecil Caruth (Deputy Chief Secretary)

2001–2005

Orville London Cynthia Alfred (Deputy Chief Secretary)

2005–2009

Orville London Cynthia Alfred (Deputy Chief Secretary)

2009–2013

Orville London Hilton Sandy (Deputy Chief Secretary)

2013–2017

Orville London Tracey Davidson Celestine (Deputy Secretary)

2017–

Kelvin Charles Joel Jack (Deputy Secretary)

395

396

•

APPENDIX B

Presiding Officers 1996–2000

Jefferson G. Davidson Christo Gift (Deputy Presiding Officer)

2001–2005

Anne Mitchell-Gift Anthony Arnold (Deputy Presiding Officer)

2005–2009

Anne Mitchell-Gift Albert Pilgrim (Deputy Presiding Officer)

2009–2013

Anne Mitchell-Gift Albert Pilgrim (Deputy Presiding Officer)

2013–2017

Kelvin Charles Ancil Dennis (Deputy Presiding Officer) Dion Isaac (Deputy Presiding Officer)

2017–

Denise Tsoi a Fatt Angus Ancil Dennis (Deputy Presiding Officer)

Appendix C National Holidays and Observances of Trinidad and Tobago

NATIONAL HOLIDAYS New Year’s Day (1 January) Carnival Monday (celebrated the day before Carnival Tuesday) Carnival Tuesday (celebrated the day before Ash Wednesday) Good Friday (Christian) Easter Monday (Christian) Spiritual Shouter Baptist Liberation Day (30 March) Corpus Christi (Christian) (celebrated on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday) Indian Arrival Day (30 May) Labour Day (19 June) Eid Al Fitr (Muslim) (date determined each year) Emancipation Day (1 August) Independence Day (31 August) Republic Day (24 September) Diwali (Hindu) (30 October) Christmas Day (Christian) (25 December) Boxing Day (Christian) (26 December)

OBSERVANCES Ash Wednesday Valentine’s Day (14 February) Easter Sunday Mother’s Day (2nd Sunday in May) Father’s Day (3rd Sunday in June) Phagwa Tobago Heritage Festival Old Year’s Day

397

Appendix D Schools (Secondary Denominational)

Anglican Bishop Anstey High School, Trinidad (girls) Bishop’s High School, Tobago (coed) Fyzabad Anglican Secondary School (coed) St. Stephen’s College, Princes Town (coed) Bishop’s Centenary College, Port of Spain (girls) Trinity College, Maraval (boys) Bishop Anstey High School East, Trincity (girls) Trinity College East, Trincity (boys) Baptist Cowen Hamilton Moruga Hindu Lakshmi Girls’ Hindu College Parvati Girls’ Hindu College Saraswati Girls’ Hindu College Shiva Boys’ Hindu College Vishnu Boys’ Hindu College Muslim ASJA Boys’ College, Charlieville ASJA Boys’ College, San Fernando ASJA Girls’ College, Barrackpore ASJA Girls’ College, Charlieville ASJA Girls’ College, San Fernando ASJA Girls’ College, Tunapuna Presbyterian Hillview College, El Eldorado (boys) 399

400

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APPENDIX D

Iere High School, Siparia (coed) Naparima College, San Fernando (boys) Naparima Girls’ High School St. Augustine Girls’ High School Roman Catholic Fatima College, Woodbrook (boys) Church of the Immaculate Conception (CIC), St. Mary’s College, Port of Spain (boys) Corpus Christi College, Diego Martin (girls) Holy Cross College, Arima (boys) Holy Faith Convent, Couva (girls) Holy Faith Convent, Penal (girls) Holy Name Convent, Port of Spain (girls) Holy Name Convent, Point Fortin (girls) Presentation College, San Fernando (boys) Presentation College, Chaguanas (boys) Providence Girls’ Catholic, Belmont St. Andrew’s Academy, Chaguanas St. Anthony’s College, Westmoorings (boys) St. Benedict’s College, La Romaine, San Fernando (girls) St. Charles High School, Tunapuna (girls) St. Joseph’s College St. Joseph’s Convent, Port of Spain (girls) St. Joseph’s Convent, San Fernando (girls) St. Joseph’s Convent, St. Joseph (girls) St. Joseph’s Convent, Tobago Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) Southern Academy of SDA San Fernando Bates Memorial High School (Sangre Grande) Caribbean Union College Secondary School (Maracas, St. Joseph)

Appendix E Prominent Newspapers

During the 19th century, a number of local newspapers emerged and made important contributions to national discourses. Most of them peddled points of view, ideological or otherwise, that represented class or group interests. In the 20th century, the pattern continued with many local figures who later assumed national or international significance cutting their teeth as journalists working for these newspapers: • Evening News—an evening newspaper that ran from 1935 to 1989. • Minerva Review—a quarterly magazine published between 1937 and 1944 and issued by the Minerva Club, which was made up of welleducated Indo-Trinidadians. • New Dawn—a monthly magazine published between November 1914 and February 1942. Some members of its first editorial board—namely, Kay Donellan and Frank Cahill—were incarcerated during World War II. • Newsday—published 1993–. • Teachers’ Herald—a monthly publication that first appeared in 1934. It was published by Alexander Brown of Belmont. The name of its editor was not mentioned, and all its writers wrote under pseudonyms. It was anticolonial and addressed issues affecting teachers and education. • The Beacon—a magazine that published local literature in the 1930s. • The Bomb—a weekly tabloid newspaper started in 1960 by Bhadase Maraj and Satnarayan Maharaj. • The Express—a daily newspaper started in 1967 that offers a special Sunday edition. • The Indian—a monthly publication that appeared from 1937 to the 1940s. It represented the voice of the increasingly vocal and politically agitated Indians during the 1937–1938 labor disturbances and during the early years of World War II. • The Labour Leader—the organ of the Trinidad Labour Party headed by Captain A. A. Cipriani. It began publishing in 1922. • The Mirror—a daily newspaper that ran from 1898 to 1932. • The Nation—a newspaper published by the People’s National Movement (PNM). 401

402

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APPENDIX E

• The Observer—a monthly publication, which described itself as the organ of Indian opinion and spoke for educated Indians. It was published between December 1941 and 1945. Its editors were Dennis Mahabir, Martin Sampat, H. P. Singh, and S. M. Rameshwar. • The People—published weekly between 1933 and 1941. It was edited and published by L. A. Walcott, a former schoolteacher and member of the Garveyite movement of New York where he had spent some time. He joined the movement in Port of Spain on his return to Trinidad. Walcott served as a member of the Port of Spain City Council in 1937, and was reelected in 1940. The People resurfaced after World War II under the management of Tubal Uriah Butler. The People was very critical of Cipriani and his party. • The Trinidad Guardian—owned and established mainly by white businessmen and planters. It reflected patriotism and loyalty to the crown during the war and was often querulous about the pro-labor stand and communist rhetoric of other newspapers and opinion leaders. The first edition was published in 1917. • The TnT Mirror—a daily newspaper started in 1981. • The Vanguard—the organ of the Oilfield Workers’ Trade Union (OWTU) and the mouthpiece for several unions, which formed part of the Rienzi-led umbrella body known as the Trinidad and Tobago Trade Union Council (TTTUC). The Vanguard went into publication in January 1940 but suspended publication between July 1940 and February 1941. Its first editor was McDonald Moses. Ralph Mentor, an official of both the OWTU and the TTTUC and a member of the San Fernando Borough Council, edited the newspaper after resumption of its publication, until the conclusion of World War II. Religio-cultural • • • • • • •

Anglican Review, 1959–1978 Anglican Lookout, 1982–2001 Anglican News, 1971–1972 Catholic News, 1892–2012 Rastafari Speaks, 1981–1983 Panyard Vibrations, 1981– Torch of Islam, 1966–1963

Some papers sought to reflect, either through quality or focus, a subregional orientation. These included the Southern Star (1977–1977), which had a short run. On the Tobago front, there are the following:

APPENDIX E

• • • • • • • •

The Tobago Chronicle and Gazette, 1871–1898 Tobago Gazette and West Indian News, 1839–1840 Tobago Chronicle, 1839–1865 Daylight, 1884–1885 Tobago Times, 1984–1984 The News, 1876–1888 Tobago Herald, 1964 Tobago News, 1984–2012

•

403

Appendix F Panorama: Steelband Competition Winners (Large Band Category)

1962 North Stars 1964 North Stars 1965 Cavaliers 1966 Desperadoes 1967 Cavaliers 1968 Harmonites 1969 Starlift 1970 Desperadoes 1971 Harmonites and Starlift 1972 Harmonites 1973 All Stars 1974 Harmonites 1975 Hatters 1976 Desperadoes 1977 Desperadoes 1978 Desperadoes 1978 Starlift 1979 No Contest 1980 Trinidad All Stars 1981 Trinidad All Stars 1982 Renegades 1983 Desperadoes 1984 Renegades 1985 Renegades and Desperadoes 1986 Trinidad All Stars 1987 Phase II Pan Groove 1988 Phase II Pan Groove 1989 Renegades 1990 Renegades 1991 Desperadoes 1992 Exodus 1993 Renegades 1994 Desperadoes 405

406

•

APPENDIX F

1995 Renegades 1996 Renegades 1997 Renegades 1998 Nu Tones 1999 Desperadoes 2000 Desperadoes 2001 Exodus 2002 Trinidad All Stars 2003 Exodus 2004 Exodus 2005 Phase II Pan Groove 2006 Phase II Pan Groove 2007 Trinidad All Stars 2008 Phase II Pan Groove 2009 Silver Stars 2010 Silver Stars 2011 Trinidad All Stars 2012 Trinidad All Stars 2013 Phase II Pan Groove 2014 Phase II Pan Groove 2015 Trinidad All Stars 2016 Desperadoes 2017 Trinidad All Stars 2018 Renegades

Appendix G Population (2016 Estimates)

Population of Trinidad and Tobago Population

1,220,479

Age Structure Age

Population (%)

Sex

0–14 years

19.34

male 120,214/female 115,821

15–24 years

12.24

male 77,738/female 71,629

25–54 years

46.1

male 292,819/female 269,855

55–64 years

12.09

male 73,457/female 74,062

65 years and over

10.23

male 54,334/female 70,550

Sex Ratio At birth

1.03 male(s)/female

0–14 years

1.04 male(s)/female

15–24 years

1.09 male(s)/female

25–54 years

1.09 male(s)/female

55–64 years

0.99 male(s)/female

65 years and over

0.77 male(s)/female

Total population

1.03 male(s)/female

Deaths Death Rate

8.7 deaths/1,000 population

407

408

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APPENDIX G

Infant Mortality Under Five Mortality

18.5/1000 live births

Appendix H Population by Age: 1960 and 2000

1960 Census Population by Age. Source: Central Statistical Office, Trinidad and Tobago, p. 580

409

410

•

APPENDIX H

2000 Census Population by Age. Source: Central Statistical Office, Trinidad and Tobago, p. 580

Bibliography

CONTENTS Introduction History General Imperialism Enslaved Society and Emancipation Immigration 19th Century 20th Century Postindependence 21st Century Trinidad Tobago Calypso, Carnival, and Culture Crime Cuisine Economics Education Foreign Relations Health Labour, Protest, and Revolutions Literature and Language Politics Religion Science Society Tourism and Nature Guides Women

411 413 413 415 416 418 421 421 423 423 424 426 428 430 430 432 434 436 437 438 441 442 445 447 448 448 449

INTRODUCTION Many challenges exist for local historians and authors of nonfiction of Trinidad and Tobago because, as a colonial society, the vast majority of sources on the history of the territory are housed outside of the region in the archives 411

412

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

of Europe. Though access has been granted to most British archives, problems of expense and authorization have arisen when attempting to transfer documents and other historical material to local archives. Further hindrances exist in relation to other European repositories; the barrier of language and access to Spanish and French archives, for instance, continue to encumber development of literature on the colonial period. Problematic record-keeping in Trinidad and Tobago and the growing apathy toward history have also plagued the discipline and the production of historical works on the country. Nonetheless, significant efforts have been made to establish repositories in Trinidad and Tobago. The most prominent archives of Trinidad and Tobago are the National Archives of Trinidad and Tobago; the West Indiana and Special Collections Division of the Alma Jordan Library of the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus; and the Public Library (including its Heritage Library collection—Rare Books and Special Collections). The Tobago Archives is a project in its nascent stages. The early literature of the West Indies was dominated by the power holders, the British or local white elite, whose narrative excluded the “voices from below,” the experiences and impact of those of the lower socioeconomic groups. These works focused on political issues and elite perspectives on the consequent conditions and challenges of the laboring populations, which affected the profit margins of the local economy. These narrow perspectives were challenged when a black, middle-class, and educated group emerged in the latter 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. The members of this group were fed by anti-imperial sentiment, pan-Africanism, nationalist movements, and the ideology of the Annales School and later postmodernism, which encouraged a broadening perspective on history and inclusion of the local experience. As revisionists, they began to question, through their writings, the status quo and gave voice to the previously disenfranchised African and Indian groups. The deliberate expansion of education in the mid-20th century and the efforts to create and embrace a more Caribbean–Trinidadian and Tobagonian curriculum also contributed to strengthening a nationalistic identity and the rise of local literature. The growth of the University of the West Indies with a campus in Trinidad also sparked new literature—philosophy, history and fiction as prime examples—on both the region and Trinidad and Tobago. The presence of the United States and its imperialist implications as well as the dramatic cultural transformation during World War II also influenced the growth of literature on the country. Federalism and the independence movement of the 1950s and 1960s brought new perspectives and opportunities, engendering a nationalistic spirit that was reflected in the country’s literary works. Trinidad and Tobago’s rising importance as an oil producer brought a certain focus to its contribution to the global economy and regional engagement and support. However, the disillusionment of the independence

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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413

experience bred more acrimonious works as the intelligentsia attempted to grapple with the colonial legacies that continued to hamper societal, economic, and political development. Ethnic complexities pervasive in the country have also colored the historiography and evolution of its literature. The white elite (largely British and French Creole) was marginalized by the rise of Afro-consciousness and the decolonization process, and the Indian voice has been firmly established often as counter to the Afro-Creole narrative. As Bridget Brereton suggests, the history has been dominated by the Afro-Creole narrative; however, in terms of fiction the Indo-Caribbean narrative has been prevalent with the works of V. S. Naipaul and Samuel Selvon being some of the most recognized locally and internationally. Literature on Tobago is sparse in comparison to Trinidad, reflecting the historical relationship between the two islands. In the late 20th century and the 21st century, attempts have been made to highlight the history and contribution of Tobago. Books and articles specifically on Tobago and by Tobagonians have been produced leading to revelations about the differences in the experiences of the two islands as well as the deep and complex contribution of the smaller island to local, regional, and international developments during its history. This disparity in literature between the two islands, however, fed by the difficulty of acquiring sources on Tobago, continues to the determent of a holistic understanding of the local experience. With notable exceptions, the female voice has also been limited. Despite the growth of female authors in the latter 20th century and the beginning of the 21st, and the rising imbalance in female-to-male ratios in terms of education in favor of the female, the literature continues to be male dominated. The attempts at engendering the history of Trinidad and Tobago have been less successful than the efforts to do so in the wider West Indian literature. Despite these limitations, the works produced on the country are widely eclectic, spanning history, philosophy, religion, cuisine, sport, economics, foreign relations, and geography, to name a few, and have been defined by the country’s colonial, multicultural, and nationalistic experiences as reflected in the following list.

HISTORY General Aleong, Joe Chin, and Edward B. Proud. The Postal History of Trinidad and Tobago. Heathfield, East Sussex, England: Proud-Bailey, 1997.

414

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Ali, Arif. Trinidad and Tobago: Terrific and Tranquil. Hertford, Hertfordshire, UK: Hansib Publications, 2012. Anthony, Michael. A Better and Brighter Day. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Circle Press, 1987. ———. Glimpses of Trinidad and Tobago: With a Glance at the West Indies. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Columbus Publishers, 1974. ———. Heroes of the People of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Circle Press, 1986. ———. Towns and Villages of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Circle Press, 1988. Anthony, Michael, and Andrew Carr, eds. David Frost Introduces Trinidad and Tobago. London: André Deutsch, 1975. Bertrand, Jean Marc. Trinidad and Tobago History: The Road to Independence, Population, Economy, Tourism. Amazon Digital Services LLC, 2016. Besson, Gérard, and Bridget Brereton. The Book of Trinidad. 2nd ed. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Paria Publishing, 1992. Bissessarsingh, Angelo. Virtual Glimpses of the Past: Snapshots of the History of Trinidad and Tobago. Marabella, Trinidad: Queen Bishop Publishing, 2014. ———. A Walk Back in Times: Snapshots of the History of Trinidad and Tobago. Marabella, Trinidad: Queen Bishop Publishing, 2015. ———. Walking with the Ancestors: The Historic Cemeteries of Trinidad. Siparia, Trinidad: Kairi Heritage Publications, 2013. Brereton, Bridget. A History of Modern Trinidad, 1783–1962. Exeter, NH: Heinemann, 1981. Bryans, Robin. Trinidad and Tobago: Isles of the Immortelles. London: Faber & Faber, 1967. Campbell, Carl. Colony and Nation. A Short History of Education in Trinidad and Tobago 1834–1986. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers, 1992. Carmichael, Gertrude. The History of the West Indian Islands of Trinidad and Tobago, 1498–1900. London: Alvin Redman, 1961. CIA and State Department. Trinidad and Tobago Country Studies: A Brief, Comprehensive Study of Trinidad and Tobago. Covington, WA: Zay’s Publishing, 2012. Fraser, L. M. History of Trinidad, 1814–1839. Vol. 2. London: Frank Cass, 1971. Green, William A. British Slave Emancipation: The Sugar Colonies and the Great Experiment 1830–1865. Oxford: Clarendon, 1976. House of Angostura. The Angostura Historical Digest of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Paria Publishing, 2001.

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Khan, Nasser. Profiles: Heroes, Pioneers and Role Models of Trinidad and Tobago Celebrating Our Independence 50 Years 1962–2012. Port of Spain, Trinidad: First Citizens Bank, 2012. Knight, Franklin W. General History of the Caribbean. Vol. 3. London: UNESCO, 1997. Lewis, G. The Growth of the Modern West Indies. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1968. Murray, Eric John. National Biography Handbook of Trinidad and Tobago. 1st ed. Port of Spain, Trinidad: privately printed, 1996. National Trust of Trinidad and Tobago. The Built Heritage of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: National Trust of Trinidad and Tobago, 2012. Richards, Alfred. Trinidad Discovery Day Celebrations. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Government Printers, 1927. Williams, Eric. From Columbus to Castro: The History of the Caribbean 1492–1969. London: André Deutsch, 1970. ———. History of the People of Trinidad and Tobago. London: André Deutsch, 1963. Wise, K. S. Historical Sketches of Trinidad and Tobago. Vols. 1–3. London: Baines and Scarsbrook, 1936, 1938. Imperialism Anthony, Michael. The Golden Quest: The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus. London: Macmillan, 1992. Borde, Pierre Gustave Louis. The History of Trinidad under the Spanish Government. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Paria Publishing, 1982. Burnley, W. H. Observations on the Present Condition of the Island of Trinidad and the Actual State of the Experiment of Negro Emancipation. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1842. Campbell, C. “The Death of the Cabildo of Port-of-Spain, Trinidad.” In Social Groups and Institutions in the History of the Caribbean. Association of Caribbean Historians Conference, Puerto Rico, 1975. De Verteuil, Anthony. Sir Louis De Verteuil: His Life and Times, Trinidad, 1800–1900. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Columbus Publishers, 1973. Fradera, Josep M., and Christopher Schmidt-Nowara. Slavery and Antislavery in Spain’s Atlantic Empire. New York: Berghahn, 2013. Hollis, Sir Claud. A Brief History of Trinidad under the Spanish Crown. Port of Spain, Trinidad: GPO, 1941. Lynch, J. Spanish Colonial Administration, 1782–1810. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 1958.

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CALYPSO, CARNIVAL, AND CULTURE Aguiton, B. Trinidad Carnival Tourism Marketing Study, TIDCO. Waterloo, Canada: University of Waterloo, 1996. Anthony, M. The Chieftain’s Carnival and Other Stories. Harlow, UK: Longman, 1993. ———. King of the Masquerade. Walton-on-Thames, UK: Nelson Caribbean, 1980. ———. Parade of Carnivals of Trinidad 1839–1989. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Circle Press, 1989. ———. Profile Trinidad. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1975. Baptiste, Rhona S. Trini Talk: A Dictionary of Words and Proverbs of Trinidad & Tobago. N.p.: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011. Bird, A. Curtis. Trinidad Sweet. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Imprint Caribbean, 1992. Boyke, R., ed. Trinidad Carnival: The World’s Most Colourful Festival. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Key Caribbean Publications, 1981. Browne, M. Trini Talk. Port of Spain, Trinidad: M. Browne, 1994. Cowley, I. Carnival, Canboulay and Calypso: Traditions in the Making. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Cozart Riggio, Milla. Carnival: Culture in Action; The Trinidad Experience. New York: Routledge, 2004. Dudley, Shannon. Carnival Music in Trinidad: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture (Global Music Series). New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ———. Music from behind the Bridge: Steelband Aesthetics and Politics in Trinidad and Tobago. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Gibbons, Rawle. No Surrender: A Biography of the Growling Tiger. Tunapuna, Trinidad: Canboulay Productions, 1994. Goddard, G. Forty Years in the Steelbands 1939–1979. London: Karia Press, 1991. Grant, Cy. Ring of Steel: Pan Sound and Symbol. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1999. Green, Garth L., and Philip W. Scher. Trinidad Carnival: The Cultural Politics of a Transnational Festival. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007.

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Guilbault, Jocelyne. Governing Sound: The Cultural Politics of Trinidad’s Carnival Musics. Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. Henry, C. Carnival, Landscape and Language. Arouca, Trinidad: C. Henry, 1970. Hill, D. Calypso Callaloo: Early Carnival Music in Trinidad. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993; 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006. Hill, E. The Trinidad Carnival: Mandate for a National Theatre. Austin: University of Texas, 1972. Kroningsbruggen, P. Von. Trinidad Carnival: A Quest for National Identity. London: Macmillan Education, 1977. Liverpool, Hollis. Rituals of Power and Rebellion: The Carnival Tradition in Trinidad and Tobago, 1763–1962. Chicago: Research Associates School Times and Frontline Distribution, 2001. Mason, Peter. Bacchanal! The Carnival Culture of Trinidad. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998. Matthews, Gelien. “Elevating the Masses through the Masquerade: George Bailey’s Afrocentric Mas in Trinidad’s Carnival.” In In the Fires of Hope: Essays on the Modern History of Trinidad and Tobago, vol. 2, 1962–2012, edited by Debbie McCollin, 186–97. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2016. Pearse, Andrew. “Carnival in Nineteenth-Century Trinidad.” Caribbean Quarterly (Mona, Jamaica) 4 (1956): 175–93. Regis, Louis. The Political Calypso: True Opposition in Trinidad and Tobago. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998. ———. “The State and the Song: Our Anniversary of Independence Calypso Competitions 1962–2012.” In In the Fires of Hope: Essays on the Modern History of Trinidad and Tobago, vol. 2, 1962–2012, edited by Debbie McCollin, 198–213. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2016. Riggio, Milla Cozart. Carnival: Culture in Action—the Trinidad Experience. Worlds of Performance. New York: Routledge, 2004. Rohlehr, G. Calypso and Society in Pre-independence Trinidad. Port of Spain, Trinidad: G. Rohlehr, 1988. ———. My Whole Life Is Calypso: Essays on Sparrow. Tunapuna, Trinidad: G. Rohlehr, 2015. Scher, Philip W. Carnival and the Formation of a Caribbean Transnation. New World Diasporas. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004. Sherlock, Phillip (ed.). “Trinidad Carnival Issue.” Caribbean Quarterly (Mona, Jamaica) 4 (1956). Republished Port of Spain: Trinidad, 1990. Smith, Angela. Steel Drums and Steelbands: A History. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.

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Stuempfle, Stephen. The Steelband Movement: The Forging of a National Art in Trinidad and Tobago. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. Thomas, V. L. Singing in Steel: Poems on the Steelband. Toronto: Elvidge, 1983. Trotman, David V. “The Image of Indians in Calypso: Trinidad 1946–1986.” In Indenture and Exile: The Indo-Caribbean Experience, edited by F. Birbalsingh, 176–90. Toronto: TSAR Publications, 1988. Zeno Obi, Constance. Tassa, Chutney and Soca: The East Indian Contribution to the Calypso. Fyzabad, Trinidad and Tobago: Zeno Obi Constance, 2002.

CRIME Figueira, Daurius. Cocaine and Heroin Trafficking in the Caribbean: The Case of Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and Guyana. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, 2004. Seepersad, Randy and Dianne Williams. Crime and Security in Trinidad and Tobago. Kingston, Jamaica and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2016. Trotman, David V. Crime in Trinidad: Conflict and Control in a Plantation Society 1838–1900. Knowsville, New Brunswick: University of Tennessee Press, 1986. Wilson, Shirvan. The Forensic Response to Crime in Contemporary Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: privately printed, 2015.

CUISINE Adams, Ruth B. Callaloo and Pastelles Too (Plus Hundreds of Other Delightful Recipes). Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press Publishing Association, 1973. Angostura Trinidad Ltd. From Everyday to Gourmet: The Angostura Cookbook. Laventille, Trinidad: House of Angostura, 1968. ———. The Taste That Changed the World. Laventille, Trinidad: House of Angostura, 1999. Arnold, Chef. Trinidad and America, Town and Country Cuisine Connection: A New Concept Blended with Traditional Cooking. New York: Vantage Press, 2003. Baptiste, Rhona, ed. Trinidad & Tobago Cookbook: The Favourite Recipes of Twenty-Five Popular Trinidadians and Tobagonians. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Imprint Caribbean, 1987.

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Bissessar, Sylvia, Polly Indar, and Dorothy Ramesar, eds. Naparima Girl’s High School Diamond Jubilee 1912–1987: Trinidad and Tobago Recipes. San Fernando, Trinidad: Naparima Girls’ High School, 1988. Deen, Badru. Out of the Doubles Kitchen: A Memoir of the First Family of Doubles—the Number One Street Food of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Caritrade, 2013. Dewitt, Dave, and Mary Jane Wilan. Callaloo, Calypso & Carnival: The Cuisine of Trinidad and Tobago. Freedon, CA: Crossing Press, 1993. Furlonge, Nicole L. B. Kitchen Passports Trinidad and Tobago: Trinidad and Tobago. N.p.: CreateSpace Independent Online Publishing Platform, 2012. Ganeshram, Ramin. Sweet Hands: Island Cooking from Trinidad and Tobago. 2nd ed. New York: Hippocrene Books, 2010. Hadad, Norma, Linda Hadeed, and Sandra A. Salloum, eds. Ah’ Len: A Culinary Journey through the Eyes of the Syrian Lebanese Women’s Association of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Syrian Lebanese Women’s Association, 2010. Higman, B. “Cookbooks and Caribbean Cultural Identity: An English-Language Hors d’Oeuvre.” New West Indian Guide/Nieuwe West-Indische Gids (Leiden) 72, no. 1/2 (1998): 77–95. Hunt, Sylvia. Sylvia Hunt’s Cooking: Proud Legacy of Our People. Cascade, Port of Spain, Trinidad: privately printed, 1985. Hurd Clovis, Cynthia. Cooking Kariwak Style: Tastes of Tobago. Victoria, Canada: First Choice Books, 2012. Jackson, Martina. Mama’s Secret Recipes: Mama Shares 50 of Her Recipes for Delicious Food from Trinidad (Caribbean Recipes, Caribbean Cooking). N.p.: MCJ Online Publishing, 2015. Lakhan, Anu. Best Caribbean Street Food: Trinidad and Tobago. Oxford: Macmillan Education, 2009. Lyons, John. Cook up in a Trini Kitchen: Recipes, Poetry, Paintings, Anecdotes. Leeds, UK: Peepal Tree Press, 2009. Mahabir, Kumar. Caribbean East Indian Recipes. San Juan, Trinidad: Chakra Publishing House, 1992. Naparima Girls’ School. Celebrate Food: The Naparima Girls’ High School Centenary Cookbook, 1912–2012. Naparima, Trinidad: Naparima Girls’ High School, 2012. ———. The Multi-Cultural Cuisine of Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean. 2nd ed. Naparima, Trinidad: Naparima Girls’ High School, 2002. Parkinson, Rosemary. Culinaria: The Caribbean: A Culinary Discovery. Cologne: Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, 1999. Pitt, Yvonne, and Vilma Bier. Our Own Cookbook of Trinidad and Tobago and Brazil. Port of Spain, Trinidad: College Press, 1984. Rahamut, Wendy. Caribbean Flavours. Oxford: Macmillan Caribbean, 2002.

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———. Curry, Callalloo and Calypso: The Real Taste of Trinidad and Tobago. Oxford: Macmillan Education, 2011. ———. Quick Fixing Recipes. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Wendy Rahamut, 1996. Reynolds-James, K. Trinidad Recipes Cookbook: Most Wanted Trinidad Cooking Recipes (Caribbean Recipes). N.p.: CreateSpace Independent Online Publishing Platform, 2013. Singh, Bina. The Definitive Trinidad Cookbook. West Indian Recipes 3. Amazon Digital Services LLC, 2013. Skinner, Hugh. Wild Fruits (Vegetables and Other Goodies of Trinidad and Tobago). Port of Spain, Trinidad: Hugh Skinner, 2012. Slater, Mary. Caribbean Cooking for Pleasure. London: Hamlyn, 1970. St. John, Lystra. Remedies and Recipes of My Ancestry. Princes Town, Trinidad: Lystra Elder-St. John, 1997. Teesdale, Clevon. 13 Classic Trinidad & Tobago Snack Recipes: A How to Guide to Making Your Favorite Trini Snacks! N.p.: One40 Publishing, 2015. Tobago Anglican Regional Council. Cooking through the Years. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Tobago Anglican Regional Council, 1998. Trinidad and Tobago Hospitality and Tourism Institute. Cooking with Confidence for Every Occasion. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Trinidad and Tobago Hospitality and Tourism Institute, 2014. Wood, Beryl. Meal Planning and Preparation for Caribbean Students. Port of Spain, Trinidad, and Kingston, Jamaica: Longman Caribbean, 1973. Woolfe, Linda, and Editors of Time Life Books. The Cooking of the Caribbean Islands. London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1985.

ECONOMICS Alleyne, D. Export/Import Trends and Economic Development in Trinidad 1919–1939. Kingston, Jamaica: Canoe Press, 2010. Bekele, Frances. The History of Cocoa Production in Trinidad and Tobago. In Proceedings of the APASTT Seminar: Exhibition Entitled Re-vitalisation of the Trinidad and Tobago Cocoa Industry, 4–12. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Cocoa Research Unit, 20 September 2003. https://sta.uwi.edu/ cru/documents/bekeleHistoryCocoaProductionTT.pdf. Francis, Lovell. “A Dance with Death: Labour Problems and the Sugar Crisis of World War II in Trinidad.” In World War II and the Caribbean, edited by Karen E. Eccles and Debbie McCollin, 17–38. Mona and Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2017.

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———. “Drunk on Oil: The 1974 Oil Boom and Economic Development in Trinidad and Tobago 1974–2005.” In In the Fires of Hope: Essays on the Modern History of Trinidad and Tobago, vol. 2, 1962–2012, edited by Debbie McCollin, 282–303. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2016. Haraksingh, K. “Labour Technology and the Sugar Estates in Trinidad, 1870–1914.” In Crisis and Change in the International Sugar Economy 1860–1914, edited by B. Albert and A. Graves, 133–46. Norwich, UK: ISC Press, 1984. ———. “Sugar, Labour and Livelihood in Trinidad, 1940–1970.” Social and Economic Studies (St. Augustine, Trinidad) 37, nos. 1–2 (March–June 1988): 271–91. ———. “The Uneasy Relationship: Peasants, Plantocrats and the Trinidad Sugar Industry, 1919–1938.” In The World Sugar Economy in War and Depression, 1914–40, edited by B. Albert and A. Graves, 109–20. London: Routledge, 1988. ———. “The Worker and the Wage in a Plantation Economy: Trinidad in the Late Nineteenth Century.” In From Chattel Slaves to Wage Slaves: The Dynamics of Labour Bargaining in the Americas, edited by Mary Turner, 224–38. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers, 1995. Higgins, George. A History of Trinidad Oil. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Express Production House, 1995. Johnson, H. “Merchant Credit and the Dispossession of the Cocoa Peasantry in Trinidad in the Late 19th Century.” Journal of Peasant Studies (New York) 15, no. 1 (Fall 1987): 27–38. ———. “Oil, Imperial Policy and the Trinidad Disturbances, 1937.” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 4, no. 1 (1975): 5–54. Knowles, W. H. Trade Union Development and Industrial Relations in Trinidad. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959. Lewis, W. A. Labour in the West Indies: The Birth of a Workers’ Movement. London: Fabian Society, 1939. Lobdell, R. A. “Patterns of Investment and Sources of Credit in the British West Indies Sugar Industry, 1838–1897.” Journal of Caribbean History (Mona, Jamaica) 4 (May 1972): 31–53. Look Lai, W. Indentured Labour, Caribbean Sugar: Chinese and Indian Migrants to the British West Indies 1838–1918. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Mottley, Wendell. Trinidad and Tobago Industrial Policy 1959–2000. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers, 2008. Ng Wai, Sean. “A Competitive Force: The Case of Credit Unions in Trinidad and Tobago.” In In the Fires of Hope: Essays on the Modern History of Trinidad and Tobago, vol. 2, 1962–2012, edited by Debbie McCollin, 304–26. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2016.

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Petroleum Association of Trinidad. Trinidad’s Oil: An Illustrated Survey of the Oil Industry in Trinidad. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Petroleum Association of Trinidad, 1952. Ramdin, R. From Chattel Slavery to Wage Earner: A History of Trade Unionism in Trinidad and Tobago. London: M. Brian and O’Keeffe, 1982. Ryan, S., and T. Stewart, eds. “Entrepreneurship in the Caribbean: Culture Structure, Conjuncture.” ISER (St. Augustine, Trinidad) (1994): 93–118. Shepherd, C. Y. Agricultural Labour in Trinidad. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Government Printing Office, 1936. ———. “Agricultural Labour in Trinidad.” Tropical Agriculture (St. Augustine, Trinidad) 12, no. 2 (1935): 3–9, 43–47, 56–64, 84–88, 126–31, 153–57,187–92. ———. The Cacao Industry of Trinidad: Some Economic Aspects, Part 1. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Government Printing Office, 1932. ———. The Sugar Industry of the British West Indies and British Guiana with Special Reference to Trinidad. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad and Tobago and Government Printer, 1929. Taitt, Glenroy. “Rice, Culture and Government in Trinidad 1897–1939.” In The Colonial Caribbean in Transition: Essays on Postemancipation Social and Cultural History, edited by Bridget Brereton and Kevin A. Yelvington, 174–88. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press; Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999. Will, H. A. “Colonial Policy and Economic Development in the British West Indies 1895–1905.” Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 23 (1970): 129–47.

EDUCATION Boehm, Ullrich, and Volker Lenhart. Technology Education in Trinidad and Tobago. Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang, 1992. Brereton, Bridget. From Imperial College to University of the West Indies: A History of the St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers, 2011. Campbell, C. “Charles Warner and the Development of Education Policy in Trinidad, 1838–70.” Journal of Caribbean History (Mona, Jamaica) 10–11 (1978): 54–81. ———. “The College Exhibition in Trinidad and Tobago, 1872–1938.” History Teachers’ Journal (St. Augustine, Trinidad) no. 2 (March 1983): 44–46.

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———. Colony & Nation: A Short History of Education in Trinidad & Tobago, 1834–1986. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 1992. ———. “Education and Black Consciousness: The Amazing Capt. J. O. Cutteridge in Trinidad and Tobago, 1921–42.” Journal of Caribbean History (Mona, Jamaica) 18, no. 1 (1983): 35–66. ———. Endless Education: Main Currents in the Education System of Modern Trinidad and Tobago, 1929–1986. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 1997. ———. “The Establishment of Queen’s Collegiate School in Trinidad, 1857–1867.” Caribbean Journal of Education (Mona, Jamaica) 2, no. 2 (1975): 71–86. ———. The Young Colonial: A Social History of Education in Trinidad and Tobago 1834–1938. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 1996. Dottin, Ambrose Cornelius. Secondary Education and Employment in Trinidad and Tobago: Implications for Educational Planning. New York: Columbia University, 1973. Duke, Eric. “A Beacon for a United and Independent West Indian Nation: Charles Petioni, Black Diaspora Politics and Transnational Nation Building.” In In the Fires of Hope: Essays on the Modern History of Trinidad and Tobago, vol. 2, 1962–2012, edited by Debbie McCollin, 78–101. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2016. Feheney, John P. M. Catholic Education in Trinidad in the Nineteenth Century. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2001. Hall, Cecilia, Ian Green, and Carol Joseph. “The Evolution of Teacher Education in Trinidad and Tobago 1962–2012.” In In the Fires of Hope: Essays on the Modern History of Trinidad and Tobago, vol. 2, 1962–2012, edited by Debbie McCollin, 259–80. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2016. Keenan, Patrick Joseph. Report upon the State of Education in the Island of Trinidad. Dublin: Alexander Thom, 1869. Libert, Robert. Practice of Education in Trinidad and Tobago: Does It Infringe on the Human Rights of Disabled Students? Lynchburg, VA: Libert Education, 2007. Liverpool, Hollis. Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago: Its Implications for Education in Secondary Schools. Burnaby, Canada: Simon Fraser University Press, 1977. Mohammed, Brenda. Memoirs of Dr. Andrew Moonir Khan: A Great Educator in Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: privately printed, 2014.

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Pantin, Shane. “Water in the City: The Water Riot of 1903.” In In the Fires of Hope: Essays on the Modern History of Trinidad and Tobago, vol. 2, 1962–2012, edited by Debbie McCollin, 61–77. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2016. QRC 100: Being a Record of the Queen’s Royal College 1870–1970. Port of Spain, Trinidad: n.p., 1970. Rampersad, A. A History of Naparima Girls’ High School 1912–1967. Port of Spain, Trinidad: n.p. Romain, Ralph. History Reader for the Children of Trinidad and Tobago. London: Collins, 1966. St. Mary’s College of the Immaculate Conception, Port of Spain: Its First Fifty Years 1863–1913. Port of Spain, Trinidad: n.p., 1913.

FOREIGN RELATIONS Basdeo, Sahadeo, and Graeme Mount. The Foreign Relations of Trinidad and Tobago (1962–2000): The Case of a Small State in the Global Arena. New York: Lexicon, 2001. Clarke, Ellis. The Origins of the Foreign Policy of Trinidad and Tobago. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Institute of International Relations, University of the West Indies, 1988. Dookeran, Winston. Crisis and Promise in the Caribbean: Politics and Convergence. New York: Routledge, 2015. Ince, Basil. “The Administration of Foreign Affairs in a Very Small Developing Country: The Case of Trinidad and Tobago.” In Size, Self-Determination and International Relations: The Caribbean, edited by Vaughan A. Lewis, 310–34. Mona, Jamaica: Institute for Social and Economic Research, 1976. ———. “Leadership and Foreign Policy Decision-Making in a Small State: Trinidad and Tobago’s Decision to Enter the OAS.” In Issues in Caribbean International Relations, edited by Basil Ince, Anthony T. Bryan, Herb Addo, and Ramesh Ramsaran, 265–95. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1983. Trinidad and Tobago, Office of the Prime Minister, Eric Eustace Williams. The Foreign Relations of Trinidad and Tobago: Speech by the Honourable Dr. Eric Williams, Prime Minister and Minister of External Affairs of Trinidad and Tobago in the House of Representatives, 6th December, 1963. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Government Printing Office, 1962.

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HEALTH Bissessar, Ann Marie, and Edison Haqq. The Historical Development of the Health System in Trinidad and Tobago. PHP Departmental Publication no. 34. London: Department of Public Health and Policy, Health Policy Unit, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2001. Jacklin, Laurie. “A Caribbean Health Crusade: Imperial Policies, Public Activism, and Trinidad’s 1903 Water Riots.” In Public Health and the Imperial Project, edited by Juanita De Barros and Sean Sitwell, 83–120. Trenton, London, Cape Town, Nairobi, and Addis Ababa: Africa World Press, 2016. Lans, Cheryl Alison. Creole Remedies of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: privately printed, 2012. Laurence, K. O. “The Development of Medical Services in British Guiana and Trinidad.” Jamaican Historical Review 4 (1964): 59–67. McCollin, Debbie. “Chacachacare: The Island of Lepers, 1922–1979.” In Hospitals and Communities, 1100–1960, edited by Christopher Bonfield, Jonathan Reinarz, and Teresa Huguet-Termes, 263–90. Oxford, UK, and Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang, 2013. ———. “Health and Decolonisation in Trinidad and Tobago.” In In the Fires of Hope: Essays on the Modern History of Trinidad and Tobago, vol. 2, 1962–2012, edited by Debbie McCollin, 236–58. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2016. ———. “Ravages and Rejuvenation: World War II and Public Health in the British Caribbean.” In World War II and the Caribbean, edited by Karen E. Eccles and Debbie McCollin, 327–56. Mona and Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2017. ———. “World War II to Independence: Health, Services, and Women in Trinidad and Tobago, 1939–1962.” In Health and Medicine in the circumCaribbean, 1800–1968, edited by Juanita De Barros, Steven Palmer, and David Wright, 227–48. New York and London: Routledge, 2009. Paul, Jennifer H. A., and Compton E. Seaforth. “Harmful Plants in Caribbean Folk Medicine.” Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies Special Issue: Caribbean Herbal Medicine (St. Augustine, Trinidad) 16 (2011): 261–65. Pavy, Albertina. Treatments and Cures with Local Herbs. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Paria Publishing, 1987. Pemberton, Rita. “A Different Intervention: The International Health Commission/Board of Health and Sanitation in the British Caribbean 1914–1930.” In Public Health and the Imperial Project, edited by Juanita De Barros and Sean Sitwell, 83–120. Trenton, London, Cape Town, Nairobi, and Addis Ababa: Africa World Press, 2016.

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———. “Isolation and Disease: The Separation of Patients in the Hospitals of Trinidad and Tobago, 1876–1938.” In Hospitals and Communities, 1100–1960, edited by Christopher Bonfield, Jonathan Reinarz, and Teresa Huguet-Termes, 97–122. Oxford, UK, and Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang, 2013. Tikasingh, Elisha S., and Caribbean Epidemiology Centre. Studies on the Natural History of Yellow Fever in Trinidad. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, Pan-American Health Organization/ World Health Organization, 1991. Tothil, Vincent. Trinidad’s Doctor’s Office: The Amusing Diary of a Scottish Physician in Trinidad in the 1920s. Cascade, Trinidad: Paria Publishers, 2009. Wong, Wesley. The Folk Medicine of Blanchisseuse. Port of Spain, Trinidad: privately printed, 1967.

LABOUR, PROTEST, AND REVOLUTIONS All Trinidad Sugar Workers and General Workers Trade Union. From Rienzi to Panday: 50 Years of Service to the Working People of Trinidad and Tobago 1937–1987. San Fernando, Trinidad: Battlefront Publishers, 1993. ———. A Tribute to Rienzi: A Collection of Speeches Delivered at the Opening of the Rienzi Complex. San Fernando, Trinidad: Battlefront Publishers, 1982. Alpers, Edward A., and Pierre-Michel Fontaine. Walter Rodney, Revolutionary and Scholar: A Tribute. Los Angeles, CA: Center for Afro-American Studies and African Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles, 1982. Baptiste, F. The United States and the West Indian Unrest, 1918–1939. Working Paper no. 18. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of the West Indies, 1978. Basdeo, Sahadeo. “Foundation of British Caribbean Working-Class Co-operation: The Case of Trinidad and British Guiana, 1906–1944.” Journal of Caribbean Studies (Río Piedras, Puerto Rico) 16 (2001): 45–60. ———. Labour Organization and Labour Reform in Trinidad and Tobago, 1919 to 1939. San Juan: Lexicon, 2003. Bennett, Herman L. “The Black Power February Revolution in Trinidad.” In Caribbean Freedom: Economy and Society from Emancipation to the Present, edited by Hilary Beckles and Verene Shepherd, 548–56. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers; London: J. Curry Publishers, 1993.

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Buhle, P., ed. C .L. R. James: His Life and Work. London: Allison and Busby, 1986. Calder-Marchall, A. Glory Dead. London: Michael Joseph, 1939. Clegg, H. A History of British Trade Unions since 1899. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. Clement, Burkett. Reflections of a Soldier: A Memoir of 1970 and Events before and After. Port of Spain, Trinidad: C.A.R.B., 2009. Craig, S. “Background to the 1970 Confrontation.” In Contemporary Caribbean: A Sociological Reader, vol. 2., edited by S. Craig, 385–423. Port of Spain, Trinidad: College Press, 1982. ———. Smiles and Blood: The Ruling Class Response to the Workers’ Rebellion of 1937 in Trinidad and Tobago. London: New Beacon Books, 1988. Cumpston, I. “Radicalism in Trinidad and Colonial Office Reaction, 1855–56.” Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research (London) 36 (1963). De Verteuil, L. The Years of Revolt: Trinidad 1881–1888. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Anthony de Verteuil, 1984. Dyer, Clifford V., and Linda Dyer, eds. History of Industrial Education and Training in Trinidad and Tobago. 2nd ed. Carapichaima, Trinidad: privately printed, 2007. Edwards, Hilton. Lengthening Shadows: Birth and Revolt of the Trinidad Army. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Imprint Caribbean, 1982. Elkins, W. “Black Power in the British West Indies: The Trinidad Longshoremen Strike of 1919.” Science and Society (New York) 33, no. 1 (1969): 71–75. ———. “A Source of Black Nationalism in the Caribbean: The Revolt of the British West Indies Regiment at Taranto, Italy.” Science and Society (New York) 34, no. 1 (1970): 99–103. Figueira, Daurius. Jihad in Trinidad and Tobago, July 27, 1990. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, 2002. Forte, M. Against the Trinity: An Insurgent Imam Tells His Story: Religion, Politics and Rebellion in Trinidad and Tobago. Binghampton, NY: Ahead Desktop Publishing House, 1997. Hackshaw, John Milton. Has the Labour Movement a Future in Trinidad and Tobago? Diego Martin, Trinidad: Citadel, 2000. ———. One Hundred Years of Trade Unionism. Diego Martin, Trinidad: Citadel, 1997. Headley, David. Labour and Life. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Trinidad Workingmen’s Association, 1921. Hooker, James R. Black Revolutionary: George Padmore’s Path from Communism to Pan-Africanism. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1967.

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Teelucksingh, Jerome. Labour and the Decolonization Struggle in Trinidad and Tobago. Cambridge Imperial and Post-colonial Studies Series. Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. ———. “Trinidad, Labour Protest.” In International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest, edited by Immanuel Ness, 3318–19. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2009. Thomas, Roy. The Development of Labour Law in Trinidad and Tobago. Wellesley, MA: Calaloux Publications, 1989. Thomas, Tony, and John Riddell. Black Power in the Caribbean: The 1970 Upsurge in Trinidad. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1971. Thomas, Roy Darrow. The Trinidad Labour Riots of 1937: Perspectives 50 Years Later. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Extra Mural Studies Unit, University of the West Indies, 1987. Trotman, David V. “The Law and Labour Control in Nineteenth-Century Trinidad.” In Latin America and the Caribbean: Geopolitics, Development and Culture, edited by A. R. M. Ritter, 328–44. Toronto: Canadian Association of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 1984.

LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE Besson, Gerard. Folklore and Legends of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Paria Publishing, 2007. ———. Roume de St. Laurent: A Memoir. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Paria Publishing, 2016. Coomansingh, Johnny. Sweet and Sour Trinidad and Tobago. Bloomington, Indiana: Xlibris, 2010. Drappier, Amber. Unnatural Encounters: Only in Trinidad and Tobago. N.p.: privately printed, 2015. Joseph, Lynn. A Wave in Her Pocket: Stories from Trinidad. San Anselmo, CA: Sandpiper, 1996. Lalla, Barbara. Cascade: A Novel. Mona and Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2010. Leid, Jjosanne, and Shaun Riaz. Myths and Maxims: A Catalog of Superstitions, Spirits and Sayings of Trinidad and Tobago, and the Caribbean. N.p.: CreateSpace Independent Online Publishing Platform, 2014. Lovelace, Earl. The Dragon Can’t Dance. London: André Deutsch, 1979; Faber & Faber, 1998. ———. Is Just a Movie. London: Faber & Faber, 2011. ———. Salt. London: Faber & Faber, 1996; New York: Persea Books, 1997. ———. The Schoolmaster. London: Collins, 1968.

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———. While Gods Are Falling. London: Collins, 1965; Chicago: Regnery, 1966. ———. The Wine of Astonishment. Oxford: Heinemann, Caribbean Writers Series, 1983; New ed., 2010. Maharaj, J. Vijay. “Unknown Protagonists of Independence: In Dialogue with Bridget Brereton’s Narratives of the Nation in Trinidad and Tobago.” In In the Fires of Hope: Essays on the Modern History of Trinidad and Tobago, vol. 2, 1962–2012, edited by Debbie McCollin, 167–85. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2016. Naipaul, Shiva. Beyond the Dragon’s Mouth: Stories and Pieces. New York: Penguin, 1984. Naipaul, V. S. A Flag on the Island. London: André Deutsch, 1967. ———. A House for Mr Biswas. London: Picador, 1961. ———. Miguel Street. London: André Deutsch, 1959. ———. The Mimic Men. London: André Deutsch, 1967. ———. The Mystic Masseur. London: André Deutsch, 1957. ———. The Suffrage of Elvira. London: André Deutsch, 1958. Selvon, Samuel. A Brighter Sun. Washington, DC: Three Continents Press, 1952. ———. I Hear Thunder. London: London: MacGibbon and Kee, 1963. ———. Moses Migrating. Washington, DC: Three Continents Press, 1992. ———. Those Who Eat the Cascadura. London: Davis-Poynter, 1972. ———. Turn again Tiger. London: MacGibbon and Kee, 1958. ———. Ways of Sunlight. Washington, DC: Three Continents Press, 1959. Walcott-Hackshaw, Elizabeth. Four Taxis Facing North. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Flambard Press, 2007. ———. Mrs. B. Leeds, UK: Peepal Tree Press, Limited, 2014. Walsh, William. V. S. Naipaul. New York: Harper & Row, 1973. Winer, L., ed. Dictionary of English Creole of Trinidad and Tobago: On Historical Principles. Kingston, Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2009.

POLITICS Bahadoorsingh, Krishna. Trinidad Electoral Politics: The Persistence of the Race Factor. London: Institute of Race Relations, 1968. Bissessar, Ann Marie, and John Gaffar La Guerre. Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana: Race and Politics in Two Plural Societies. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013. Blouet, W. B. “Land Policies in Trinidad, 1838–1850.” Journal of Caribbean History (Mona, Jamaica) 9–10 (1976): 43–59.

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Campbell, C. “The Opposition to Crown Colony Government in Trinidad before and after Emancipation, 1813–46.” In Trade, Government and Society in Caribbean History, 1700–1920, edited by B. W. Higman, 57–68. Kingston, Jamaica: Heinemann Educational Books Caribbean, 1983. Carrington, S. “The Union of Tobago and Trinidad: The Emergence of Under-development and Dependency.” In Forging a New Democracy, edited by R. Sebastien, 55–66. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Office of the Leader of the Opposition, 1985. Craig, Hewan. The Legislative Council of Trinidad. London: Faber & Faber, 1952. Deosaran, Ramesh. A Society under Siege: A Study of Political Confusion and Legal Mysticism. St. Augustine, Trinidad: McAl Psychological Research Centre, University of the West Indies, 1993. Figueira, Daurius. The Politics of Racist Hegemony in Trinidad and Tobago. Bloomington, Indiana: iUniverse, 2010. Hackshaw, John. Party Politics and Public Policy. Diego Martin, Trinidad: Citadel Publishing Services, 1997. Henke, Holger, and Fred Reno, eds. Modern Political Culture in the Caribbean. Mona and Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2003. Kiely, Ray. The Politics of Labour and Development in Trinidad. Mona and Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 1996. LaGuerre, J. “The General Elections of 1946 in Trinidad and Tobago.” Journal of Social and Economic Studies (St. Augustine, Trinidad) 21, no. 2 (1972): 184–204. ———. The Politics of Communalism: The Agony of the Left in Trinidad and Tobago, 1930–1955. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Institute of Social and Economic Research, 1983. Lewis, G. “The Trinidad and Tobago General Elections of 1961.” Caribbean Studies (Río Piedras, Puerto Rico) 2, no. 2 (1962): 2–30. Lipscomb, Patrick. “Party Politics 1801–1802: George Canning and the Trinidad Question.” Historical Journal (Cambridge) 12 (1969): 442–66. Luke, Learie. Identity and Secession in the Caribbean: Tobago versus Trinidad, 1889–1980. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2007. MacDonald, Scott B. Trinidad and Tobago: Democracy and Development in the Caribbean. New York: Praeger, 1986. Majid, A. Urban Nationalism: A Study of Political Development in Trinidad. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1988. Malmsten, N. R. “The British Labour Party and the West Indies, 1918–39.” Journal of Commonwealth History (New York) 5, no. 2 (1977): 172–205.

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Meighoo, Kirk, and Peter Jamadar. Democracy and Constitution Reform in Trinidad and Tobago. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2008. Millette, James. The Genesis of Crown Colony Government: Trinidad, 1783–1810. Curepe, Trinidad: Moko Enterprises, 1970. Nimblett, Lennie. Massa Day Done: The Republican Constitution of Trinidad and Tobago; Origins and Issues. Bloomington, Indiana: Author House UK, 2016. Premdass, R. Secession and Self-Determination in the Caribbean, Nevis and Tobago. St. Augustine, Trinidad: School of Continuing Studies, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, 1998. Ramdhanie, Ian K., and Vidya Lall, eds. The Deosaran Files: Two Decades of Social and Political Commentary (1971–1991); Volume 2: Race, Politics and Democracy. St. Augustine, Trinidad: School of Continuing Studies, University of the West Indies, 2005. Ray, Karen A. The Abolition of Indentured Emigration and the Politics of Indian Nationalism, 1894–1917. Montreal: McGill University, 1981. Robinson, A. N. R. Caribbean Man: Selected Speeches from a Political Career, 1960–1986. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Inprint Publication, 1986. ———. The Mechanics of Independence: Patterns of Political and Economic Transformations in Trinidad and Tobago. Mona and Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2001. Rowley Keith. From Mason Hall to White Hall: “His Name Is Keith Rowley”; Memoirs of a Boy’s Journey from Dennett, Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Office Authority Limited, 2016. Ryan, S. The Confused Electorate: A Study of Political Attitudes and Opinions in Trinidad and Tobago. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of the West Indies, 1979. ———. Race and Nationalism in Trinidad: A Study of Decolonization in a Multiracial Society. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1972. ———. Selwyn Ryan Selected Writings: Race Class and Gender in Trinidad and Tobago and the Struggle for Hegemony. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Multimedia Production, University of the West Indies, 2016. Samaroo, B. “Cyrus Prudhomme David: A Case Study in the Emergence of the Black Man in Trinidad Politics.” Journal of Caribbean History (Mona, Jamaica) 3 (1971): 73–89. ———. “The Making of the 1946 Constitution.” Caribbean Studies (Río Piedras, Puerto Rico) 15, no. 4 (1976): 5–28. Simpson-Holley, B. “Members for Trinidad.” Journal of Caribbean History (Mona, Jamaica) 6 (1973): 81–93. Sutton, P. K. Forged from the Love of Liberty: Selected Speeches of Dr. Eric Williams. St. Joseph, Trinidad: College Press, 1981.

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Teelucksingh, Jerome. Ideology, Politics and Radicalism of the Afro-Caribbean. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016. Thomas, Roy Darrow. The Development of Labour Law in Trinidad and Tobago. Wellesley, MA: Calaloux Publications, 1989. Will, H. A. Constitutional Change in the British West Indies 1884–1903: With Special Reference to Jamaica, British Guiana, and Trinidad. Gloucestershire, UK: Clarendon Press, 1970. Williams, Eric. Inward Hunger: The Education of a Prime Minister. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969. Wylie, J. C. W. The Land Laws of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Government of Trinidad and Tobago, 1986.

RELIGION Carmichael, Gertrude. “Trinidad’s Two Cathedrals.” Chronicle of the West India Committee (London) 80, no. 1413 (1965): 540–42. Carr, A. “A Rada Community in Trinidad.” Caribbean Quarterly (Mona, Jamaica) 3 (1953): 35–45. Gibbs De Peza, Hazel Ann. My Faith: Spiritual Baptist Christian. St. Augustine, Trinidad: School of Education, University of the West Indies, 1999. Greene, Trevor. Gold Standard: The Canon Laws of the Holy Orthodox Catholic Church of Trinidad and Tobago. In Spirit and in Truth Book 3. Amazon Digital Services LLC, 2016. Hamid, Idris. A History of the Presbyterian Church in Trinidad 1868–1968: The Struggles of a Church in Colonial Captivity. San Fernando, Trinidad: St. Andrews Theological College, 1980. Harricharan, J. The Catholic Church in Trinidad, 1498–1852. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Imprint Caribbean, 1981. ———. The Catholic Church in Trinidad, 1853–1863. Vol 2. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Hitlal’s Printery, 1993. Korom, Frank J. Hosay Trinidad: Muharram Performances in an Indo-Caribbean Diaspora. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003. Matthews, Gelien. History of the Church of the Nazarene, Trinidad and Tobago. St. James, Trinidad: District of the Church of the Nazarene, 2008. Morton, Sarah. John Morton of Trinidad. Toronto: Westminster Company, 1916. Mount, G. Presbyterian Missions to Trinidad and Tobago and Puerto Rico. Falmouth, Canada: Lancelot Press, 1983.

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Murray, Aakeil. “Solid Ground: PAOC’s Early Efforts to Establish Pentecostalism in Trinidad 1926–1960.” In In the Fires of Hope: Essays on the Modern History of Trinidad and Tobago, vol. 2, 1962–2012, edited by Debbie McCollin, 102–27. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2016. Pinnington, J. “The Anglican Church in the Catholic Caribbean: The CMS in Trinidad, 1836–44.” Journal of Caribbean History (Mona, Jamaica) 1 (1970). Prorok, Carolyn V. Hindu Temples in Trinidad: A Cultural Geography of Religious Structures and Ethnic Identity. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, 1987. Rétout, Marie Thérèse. Called to Serve: A History of the Dominican Sisters in Trinidad and Tobago 1868–1988. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Paria Publishing, 1988. Samaroo, Brinsley. “The Canadian Presbyterian Mission to Trinidad.” Conference of the Association of Caribbean Historians, St. Augustine, University of the West Indies, 1972. Singh, Sherry-Ann. The Ramayana Tradition and Socio-religious Change in Trinidad, 1917–1990. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2012. Taitt, Glenroy. “The Other CM: Catholic Missionary Outreach to the Indians of Trinidad in the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of Caribbean History (Mona, Jamaica) 44, no. 1 (2010): 151–66. Teelucksingh, Jerome. Caribbean Flavoured Presbyterianism: Education as a Prescription for Socio-political Development 1868–2008. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Open Campus, University of the West Indies, Trinidad, 2010. Trotman, David V. “Community of Believers: Trinidad Muslims and the Return to Africa, 1810–1850.” In Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam, edited by Paul E. Lovejoy, 219–32. Princeton, NJ: Markus Weiner Publishers, 2004. ———. “Reflections on the Children of Shango: An Essay on a History of Orisa Worship in Trinidad.” Slavery & Abolition (New York) 28, no.2 (2007): 211–34. ———. “The Yoruba and Orisha Worship in Trinidad and British Guiana, 1838–1870.” African Studies Review (New Brunswick, New Jersey) 19, no. 2 (1976): 1–19. Warner, Maureen. “African Feasts in Trinidad.” African Studies Association of the West Indies Bulletin (Mona, Jamaica) 4 (1971): 85–94. ———. “Yoruba Religion in Trinidad: Transfer and Reinterpretation.” Caribbean Quarterly (Mona, Jamaica) 24, nos. 3–4 (1979): 18–32.

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SCIENCE Bacon, P. R. The Ecology of Caroni Swamp, Trinidad. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Central Statistical Office, 1970. Barcant, M. Butterflies of Trinidad and Tobago. London: Collins, 1970. Beard, John Stanley. The Natural Vegetation of Trinidad. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946. Boomert, Arie. The Indigenous Peoples of Trinidad and Tobago: From the First Settlers until Today. Leiden, Holland: Sidestone Press, 2016. ———. Trinidad, Tobago and the Lower Orinoco Interaction Sphere: An Archaeological/Ethnohistorical Study. Alkmaar, Holland: Cairi Publications, 2000. Boos, H. E. A. The Snakes of Trinidad and Tobago. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001. Branday, W. J. “Tuberculosis in Trinidad.” Caribbean Medical Journal (Port of Spain) 22, no. 1–2 (1960): 41–47. Bryans, Robin. Trinidad and Tobago: Isles of the Immortelles. London: Faber, 1967. Ffrench, Richard. Birds of Trinidad and Tobago. 2nd ed. Oxford: Macmillan, 2004. Horticultural Society of Trinidad and Tobago. Horticultural Society of Trinidad and Tobago: Souvenir Edition 75th Anniversary 1914–1989. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Horticultural Society of Trinidad and Tobago, 1989. James, C. Wetlands in Trinidad and Tobago: National Report for Trinidad and Tobago. 5th Caribbean Foresters’ Conference. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Government Printing Office, May 1990. James, N. Nathai-Gyan, and G. Hislop. Trinidad and Tobago: A Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. Cambridge: UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1986. Mahabir, D., and M. C. Gulliford. “Use of Medicinal Plants for Diabetes in Trinidad and Tobago.” Rev Panam Salud Publica/Pan American Journal of Public Health (Washington, DC) 1, no. 3 (1997): 174–79. National Institute of Higher Education, Research, Science and Technology (NIHERST). The Contribution of Local Chinese to Science, Technology and Innovation. Port of Spain, Trinidad: NIHERST, 2009. ———. Trinidad and Tobago Icons in Science and Technology. Vol. 2. St. Augustine, Trinidad: NIHERST, 2009.

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SOCIETY Brereton, B. “Social Organisations and Class, Racial and Cultural Conflict in 19th-Century Trinidad.” In Trinidad Ethnicity, edited by Kevin Yelvington, 33–35. London: Macmillan, 1993. Craig, Susan. Community Development in Trinidad and Tobago, 1943–1973: From Welfare to Patronage. Mona, Jamaica: Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of the West Indies, 1974. Crawford-Brown, Claudette. Children in the Line of Fire: The Impact of Violence and Trauma on Families in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. Kingston, Jamaica: Arawak Publications, 2010. Higman, B. “African and Creole Slave Family Patterns in Trinidad.” Journal of Family History (Los Angeles) 3 (1978): 163–80. ———. “Africans in 19th-Century Trinidad, Part 2.” African Studies Association of the West Indies Bulletin (Mona, Jamaica) 6 (1973): 13–39. Lloyd, Anthony, and Elaine Robinson. Social Welfare in Trinidad and Tobago. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Antilles Research Associates, 1971. McClean, Geoffrey. Cazabon: An Illustrated Biography of Trinidad’s Nineteenth-Century Painter. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Aquarela Galleries, 1986. Moodie-Kublalsingh, Sylvia. The Cocoa Panyols of Trinidad: An Oral Record. London and New York: British Academic Press, 1994. Premdas, Ralph. “The Ascendance of an Indian Prime Minister in Trinidad and Tobago: The 1995 Elections.” In Identity, Ethnicity and Culture in the Caribbean, edited by Ralph Premdas, 323–58. St. Augustine, Trinidad: School of Continuing Studies, University of the West Indies, 2000. Reddock, Rhoda E., ed. Interrogating Caribbean Masculinities: Theoretical and Empirical Analyses. Mona and Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2004. Taitt, Glenroy. An Inquiry into the Tapia Method of Building Construction. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Archdiocesan Pastoral Centre, 1988. Warner, M. “Africans in 19th-Century Trinidad, Part 1.” African Studies Association of the West Indies Bulletin (Mona, Jamaica) 5 (1972): 27–59.

TOURISM AND NATURE GUIDES Bacon, Peter R., and R. P. Ffrench. The Wildlife Sanctuaries of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Fisheries, 1972. Boodoosingh, Edison. Trinidad and Tobago: A Caribbean Expression of Colourful Diversity. New York: Plain Vision Publishing, 2012.

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Boos, Hans. The Snakes of Trinidad and Tobago. W. L. Moody Jr. Natural History Series. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2001. Cameron, Sarah. Trinidad & Tobago: Footprint Focus Guide. Bath, UK: Footprint Handbooks, 2014. Collens, James Henry. A Guide to Trinidad: A Handbook for the Use of Tourists and Visitors. London: Elliot Stock, 62 Paternoster Row, 1887; 2nd ed., revised and illustrated, 1888. Ewbank, Tim. Trinidad and Tobago—Culture Smart! The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture. London: Kuperard, 2011. Ffrench, Richard. Birds of Trinidad and Tobago. Macmillan Caribbean Natural History. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 2004. ———. A Guide to the Birds of Trinidad and Tobago. 3rd ed. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates, 2012. Gordon, Lesley. Insight Guide Trinidad and Tobago 4. London: Insight Guides, 2005. Kenefick, Martyn. Birds of Trinidad and Tobago. Helm Field Guides. 2nd ed. London: Christopher Helm Publishing, 2011. Murphy, John C. Amphibians and Reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago. Malabar, FL: Krieger, 1997. Murphy, William L. A Birdwatcher’s Guide to Trinidad and Tobago. Indianapolis, IN: Peregrine Enterprises, 1986; 2nd ed., 1995. Nautical Publications. Cruising Trinidad and Tobago. N.p.: CreateSpace Independent Online Publishing Platform, 2015. O’Donnell, Kathleen. Adventure Guide to Trinidad and Tobago. Palm Beach, FL: Hunter Publishing, 2013. Skinner, Ivor. Enchanting Trinidad and Tobago. Oxford: John Beaufoy Publishing, 2015. Thomas, Polly. The Rough Guide to Trinidad and Tobago. 6th ed. London: Rough Guides (Penguin), 2015. Trinidad and Tobago, Field Naturalists. Living World: Journal of the Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists’ Club, 1991–92. Port of Spain, Trinidad: The Club, 1991.

WOMEN Chatterjee, Sumita. “Indian Women’s Lives and Labor: The Indentureship Experience in Trinidad and Guyana: 1845–1917.” PhD diss., University of Massachusetts, 1997. Daly, Stephanie, ed. The Developing Legal Status of Women in Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad: National Commission on the Status of Women, 1982.

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Eccles, Karen E. “Volunteerism during World War II: Trinidadian Women Mobilize in Time of War.” In World War II and the Caribbean, edited by Karen E. Eccles and Debbie McCollin, 357–80. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2017. McGee, Kristin. “Swinging the Classics: Hazel Scott and Hollywood’s Musical-Racial Matrix.” In Some Liked It Hot: Jazz Women in Film and Television, 1928–1959, by Kristin A. McGee. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2009. Mohammed, Patricia. “The ‘Creolisation’ of Indian Women in Trinidad and Tobago.” In Engendering Caribbean History: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, a Student Reader, edited by Verene Shepherd, 601–11. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2009. Reddock, Rhoda. Elma François: The NWCSA and the Worker’s Struggle for Change in the Caribbean. London: New Bacon Books, 1988. ———. Women, Labour and Politics in Trinidad and Tobago: A History. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 1994. Toussaint, Michael. “Engendering Nationhood: Women in Social and Political Activism in Twentieth-Century Trinidad and Tobago.” In Engendering Caribbean History: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, a Student Reader, edited by Verene Shepherd, 689–706. Kingston, Jamaica, and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers, 2009. Trotman, D. V. “Women and Crime in Late 19th-Century Trinidad.” Caribbean Quarterly (Mona, Jamaica) 30, nos. 3–4 (1984): 251–59.

About the Authors

Rita Pemberton is an independent researcher and former senior lecturer, head of the Department of History, and deputy dean of Student Affairs of the Faculty of Humanities and Education, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago, and past president of the Association of Caribbean Historians. She is a 2013 Queen’s Jubilee Research Scholar conducting research on “Plants as Secret Agents of Cultural Change in Barbados” and the recipient of a Bishop’s High School Distinguished Alumnae Award in 2008 and the Chief Examiner CSEC Caribbean History 2008–2016. Her research interests include the history of health and environment in the Caribbean and the history of Trinidad and Tobago with particular reference to culture and gender. Her most recent publications include “Disease and Intercolonial Relations: Smallpox in the British Caribbean, 1902–1904,” in Cultures of Cabotage: History and Reciprocal Visions in the Spanish, French and British Antilles, edited by Loles González-Ripol (January–April 2015), and “Isolation and Disease: The Separation of Patients in the Hospitals of Trinidad and Tobago, 1876–1938,” in Hospitals and Communities, 1100–1960, edited by Christopher Bonfield et al. (2013). Debbie McCollin has been a lecturer at the University of the West Indies (UMI), St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago, since 2012. She holds a PhD in history (2010) and a Certificate in University Teaching and Learning (2014) also from UMI. Her recent publications include an edited volume titled In the Fires of Hope: Fifty Years of Independence in Trinidad and Tobago 1962–2012; “Chacachacare: The Island of Lepers, 1922–1979,” a chapter in Hospitals and Communities 1100–1960, edited by Christopher Bonfield et al. (2013); “Friend or Foe: Venereal Disease and the American Presence during World War II,” History in Action (online journal of the Department of History, St. Augustine, 2010); and “Health, Services and Women in Trinidad and Tobago 1938–1962,” a chapter in Health and Medicine in the Circum-Caribbean 1800–1968, edited by Juanita De Barros et al. (2009). Her current research is focused on the pre-independence era in Trinidad and Tobago, the history of health and medicine in the West Indies in the 20th century, the impact of World War II on the West Indies, and digital history. Gelien Matthews is a lecturer in the History Department of the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. She received her PhD from the University of Hull in 2002. In addition to several online and print articles on American and 451

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Caribbean history, she has two major publications: Caribbean Slave Revolts and the British Abolitionist Movement (2006) and History of the Church of the Nazarene Trinidad and Tobago (2008). She currently lectures in Caribbean, American, and gender history. Michael Toussaint is a lecturer at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago. He specializes in the history of the Caribbean, the African diaspora, and European imperialism. His most recent publications include “Historiographical Intervention and the Cosmopolitan History of Trinidad and Tobago: A Review of Bridget Brereton’s History of Modern Trinidad 1763–1962 and Race Relations in Colonial Trinidad 1870–1890”; “Law, Justice and Empire: The Colonial Career of John Gorrie 1829–1892” (Part 1), History in Action (online journal of the Department of History, St. Augustine, 2016); “The Eric Williams Diaries,” in In The Fires of Hope, vol. 2, Essays on the Modern History of Trinidad and Tobago, edited by Debbie McCollin (2016); and “Manifest Destiny or Continuity Agenda: Contextualising British Imperial Policy in the Southern Caribbean before and after Vienna,” in Outros Tempos (2015). His current research interests are pedagogy and methodology of the teaching of tertiary-level history, constitutional development and party politics in Trinidad and Tobago, Black Power in the Caribbean, and African West Indian migration to Latin America.