Historical Dictionary of the American Frontier 1442249587, 9781442249585

Table of contents :
Contents
Editor’s Foreword
Preface
Maps
Chronology
Introduction
THE DICTIONARY
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Bibliography
About the Authors

Citation preview

The historical dictionaries present essential information on a broad range of subjects, including American and world history, art, business, cities, countries, cultures, customs, film, global conflicts, international relations, literature, music, philosophy, religion, sports, and theater. Written by experts, all contain highly informative introductory essays of the topic and detailed chronologies that, in some cases, cover vast historical time periods but still manage to heavily feature more recent events. Brief A–Z entries describe the main people, events, politics, social issues, institutions, and policies that make the topic unique, and entries are cross-referenced for ease of browsing. Extensive bibliographies are divided into several general subject areas, providing excellent access points for students, researchers, and anyone wanting to know more. Additionally, maps, photographs, and appendixes of supplemental information aid high school and college students doing term papers or introductory research projects. In short, the historical dictionaries are the perfect starting point for anyone looking to research in these fields.

HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF U.S. POLITICS AND POLITICAL ERAS Jon Woronoff, Series Editor From the Great War to the Great Depression, by Neil A. Wynn, 2003. Revolutionary America, by Terry M. Mays, 2005. Early American Republic, by Richard Buel Jr., 2006. Jacksonian Era and Manifest Destiny, by Terry Corps, 2006. Reagan–Bush Era, by Richard S. Conley, 2007. Kennedy–Johnson Era, by Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa, 2008. Nixon–Ford Era, by Mitchell K. Hall, 2008. Roosevelt–Truman Era, by Neil A. Wynn, 2008. Eisenhower Era, by Burton I. Kaufman and Diane Kaufman, 2009. Progressive Era, by Catherine Cocks, Peter C. Holloran, and Alan Lessoff, 2009. Gilded Age, by T. Adams Upchurch, 2009. Political Parties, by Harold F. Bass Jr., 2010. George W. Bush Era, by Richard S. Conley, 2010. United States Congress, by Scot Schraufnagel, 2011. Colonial America, by William Pencak, 2011. Civil War and Reconstruction, Second Edition, by William L. Richter, 2012. Clinton Era, by Richard S. Conley, 2012. Old South, Second Edition, by William L. Richter, 2013. Carter Era, by Diane Kaufman and Scott Kaufman, 2013. From the Great War to the Great Depression, Second Edition, by Neil A. Wynn, 2014. Barack Obama Administration, by Michael J. Pomante II and Scot Schraufnagel, 2014. Kennedy–Johnson Era, Second Edition, by Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa, 2015. U.S. Supreme Court, by Artemus Ward, Christopher Brough, and Robert Arnold, 2015. American Frontier, by Jay H. Buckley and Brenden W. Rensink, 2015.

Historical Dictionary of the American Frontier

Jay H. Buckley Brenden W. Rensink

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD Lanham • Boulder • New York • London

Published by Rowman & Littlefield A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB Copyright © 2015 by Jay H. Buckley and Brenden W. Rensink All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Buckley, Jay H. Historical dictionary of the American frontier / Jay H. Buckley, Brenden W. Rensink. pages cm. — (Historical dictionaries of U.S. politics and political eras) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-4422-4958-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-4422-4959-2 (ebook) 1. West (U.S.)—History—Dictionaries. 2. West (U.S.)—Biography—Dictionaries. 3. West (U.S.)— Social life and customs—Dictionaries. 4. Frontier and pioneer life—West (U.S.)—Dictionaries. I. Rensink, Brenden W. II. Title. F591.B897 2015 978.003—dc23 2014047420 TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Printed in the United States of America.

Contents

Editor’s Foreword

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Preface

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Maps

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Chronology

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Introduction

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THE DICTIONARY

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Bibliography

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About the Authors

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Editor’s Foreword

Ever since Christopher Columbus “discovered” the New World, the variously defined frontiers of its territory were explored: Spain, Holland, Great Britain, France, Russia, and, in due course, the United States. Each country had different interests, sometimes overlapping, and trade was important for all. Overall, however, the Spanish sought gold, the French and Russians were interested in fur, and the early American settlers wanted land. Imperial powers fought one another in open battle, with the Americans eventually taking the choice parts, Britain retaining Canada, and the others largely withdrawing. The clashes among the major powers were nothing compared to what happened to the indigenous peoples, or “Indians,” as the frontier advanced, a process sometimes referred to as manifest destiny. This Historical Dictionary of the American Frontier recounts this story. As with other books in this series on U.S. politics and political eras, an extensive chronology broadly covers the long period from the late 15th to the late 19th centuries, and the introduction examines the process and explains the role of the leading imperial powers and the United States, tracing the main expeditions and explorations. The dictionary section contains crossreferenced entries on people, places, events, institutions, and countries. Further information can be found by way of the extensive bibliography. The authors are Jay H. Buckley and Brenden W. Rensink, both of whom have worked extensively on this subject. Dr. Buckley is an associate professor of history at Brigham Young University, where he teaches courses on the American West and Native American history and also directs the Native American studies minor. He has written numerous articles and several books on leading figures, including Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, and Zebulon Pike, his most recent work being Zebulon Pike, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West. Dr. Rensink is a historian and documentary editor at the Joseph Smith Papers in Salt Lake City, Utah, who has also published articles and chapters on the North American West, indigenous history, and transnational borderlands. He will soon publish the book Native but Foreign: Transnational Cree, Chippewa, and Yaqui Refugees and Immigrants in the U.S. Canadian and U.S.-Mexican Borderlands, 1880–Present. Between them, they have covered an interesting, crucial, and still contested part of American history. Jon Woronoff Series Editor vii

Preface

For as long as the United States has existed as an independent nation, the North American lands it controls were an ever-shifting landscape of multiple colonial and indigenous frontiers. While the details of many of these frontier exchanges between explorers, adventurers, traders, religious orders, developers, and indigenous peoples may seem far removed from recent U.S. history, many of them exacted lasting legacies upon various regions. Understanding how the early stages of the frontiers evolved provides essential tools to building a more complete picture of North America. It has therefore been a great pleasure to produce this volume as a ready guide to exploring snapshots in the history of the many American frontiers. The initial drafting of this volume was undertaken by Jay H. Buckley at Brigham Young University. Most recently, Brenden W. Rensink, who had conducted research for the project while an undergraduate at Brigham Young University, signed on to coauthor the volume. Taking the work completed by Buckley and others at Brigham Young, Rensink finished the remaining half of the manuscript for publication. The authors are grateful to one another— Buckley for Rensink helping bring the project to fruition and Rensink for Buckley offering him the tremendous opportunity to participate. Together, the authors would like to recognize and thank the various entities and individuals who supported this project over the years. Financial support was provided through a grant from the Charles Redd Center for Western Studies and several research assistantship grants provided by the Brigham Young University Department of History. We are so grateful for the assistance of a number of undergraduate students who assisted with preliminary research and editing of the entries, including Julie Harris Adams, Nicholas Gentile, Chase Grames, Jesseca Roberts, Daniel Sorenson, and Bethie Willian. We also thank Chris Madeira for his cartographic expertise and Wendy Raney McCann for initial editorial assistance on an early draft. Finally, the publishing staff at Scarecrow Press and Rowman & Littlefield Publishing have been wonderful to work with. Jon Woronoff, historical dictionary series editor, has exhibited more patience with us than is humanly conceivable. We express our sincere gratitude for his never-ending assistance and support. In order to facilitate the rapid and efficient location of information and to make this book as useful a reference tool as possible, extensive cross-references have been provided in the dictionary section. Within individual entries,

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terms that have their own entries are in boldface type the first time they appear. Related terms that do not appear in the text are indicated by See also. See refers to other entries that deal with this topic.

Maps

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MAPS

MAPS

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Chronology

986–1010 Norse Vikings, including Leif Erikson, explore and settle Greenland and Vinland, establishing the first European settlements in North America. 1492 Christopher Columbus leads his first expedition, making landfall in the Caribbean. 1493–1502 Christopher Columbus conducts three additional voyages to the Caribbean and the coastlines of Central America and northern South America. 1497–1498 John Cabot leads two expeditions to North America to explore Newfoundland and Labrador. Some claim that he sailed as far south as the Chesapeake Bay. 1501 Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real from Portugal explore the areas of Newfoundland and Labrador. 1507 Martin Waldseemüller creates the first world map that used the name America to reference the New World. 1509 Sebastian Cabot attempts to find the Northwest Passage and explores Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Long Island. 1513 Juan Ponce de León leads expeditions through Puerto Rico and Florida in an attempt to find the Fountain of Youth. 1518–1519 Alonzo Álvarez de Pineda explores the Gulf Coast between Florida and Mexico. 1520–1527 Lucas Vásquez de Ayllón explores the area of present-day South Carolina and Georgia and leads a colonization effort in the region for Spain. 1524 Giovanni da Verrazzano is the first to survey the coast of North America between North and South Carolina and Newfoundland. 1527 Pánfilo de Narváez leads a colonizing attempt to Mexico but ends in disaster in Florida. 1528–1536 Álvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca and three other survivors of Pánfilo de Narváez’s failed expedition travel by foot from Florida to Mexico.

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1534–1542 Jacques Cartier conducts three expeditions, exploring the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence River. 1539 Fray Marcos de Niza searches for the cities supposedly made of gold in the American Southwest. He reports seeing one, Cíbola, from a distance. 1539–1540 Francisco de Ulloa explores the Gulf of California and finds the mouth of the Colorado River. 1539–1543 Hernando de Soto leads a Spanish expedition into the present-day southeastern United States. 1540 Hernando de Alarcón explores the Colorado River and dispels the myth that California was an island. 1540 Hernando de Alvarado leads a three-month expedition from the primary camp of the Coronado expedition to become the first European to glimpse the High Plains. 1540–1542 Francisco Vásquez de Coronado leads an expedition through present-day Arizona, New Mexico, and Kansas in search of the legendary city of gold, Cíbola, and later, Quivira. 1542–1543 Jean-François de la Rocque de Roberval leads the French effort to colonize the area near Quebec City. 1542–1543 Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo and Bartolomé Ferrelo sail along the Pacific Coast from Mexico to northern California. 1562–1569 The importation of slaves to the Americas from Africa—the transatlantic slave trade—begins. 1564 René Goulaine de Laudonnière establishes French Huguenot Fort Caroline in Florida. 1565 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés leads a Spanish expedition to destroy the French Fort Caroline. 1565–1567 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés establishes St. Augustine, Florida, the first European continuously settled area in North America. 1576 Humphrey Gilbert writes A Discourse of a Discoverie for a Passage to Cataia, which perpetuated the belief that there was a Northwest Passage through North America. 1576–1578 Martin Frobisher explores Canada in search of a Northwest Passage on three voyages for the Cathay Company. 1579 Sir Francis Drake makes the first English claims in North America as he surveys California and the Pacific Northwest coastline.

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1580 Richard Hakluyt begins publishing his influential series of exploration reports, narratives, maps, and translations. 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert leads the colonizing effort to Newfoundland. 1584–1590 Sir Walter Raleigh organizes English voyages to Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina to found England’s first colony in North America. 1595 Sebastían Rodríguez Cermeño discovers Monterey Bay while exploring the California coastline. 1598–1605 Juan de Oñate explores the southwestern area of the present-day United States, including present-day Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. 1602–1603 Sebastián Viscaíno surveys the coastline along present-day California and Oregon and explores Monterey Bay. 1603 Samuel de Champlain explores eastern Canada looking for furs. 1604–1605 Samuel de Champlain helps lead a French mission to establish Port Royal. 1605–1607 Samuel de Champlain explores the Atlantic coast of the presentday United States, including Maine and Massachusetts. 1606 The Virginia Companies of Plymouth and London form a joint expedition to colonize North America. 1607 Jamestown, England’s first permanent settlement in North America, is established under the leadership of John Smith. 1608 Samuel de Champlain establishes Quebec, where the village of Stadacona had previously been. 1609 Henry Hudson explores New York Bay and the Hudson River looking for a Northwest Passage. 1609–1616 Samuel de Champlain explores the inland of the present-day United States as far as the eastern shore of Lake Huron. 1610–1611 Henry Hudson discovers and explores Hudson Bay. 1612 The Northwest Company is formed in part to find the Northwest Passage. 1614 While exploring the northeastern coastline of the present-day United States, John Smith names the region New England.

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1620 Led by William Bradford, Pilgrims sail across the Atlantic and found Plymouth Colony. 1621 The Dutch West India Company is established. 1621–1622 Pilgrims, with help of local natives, explore present-day Massachusetts. 1634–1670 Trading and missionary expeditions led by the French to the Great Lakes region. 1642 Montreal is established. 1654–1656 Médard Chouart des Groseillers explores the area of present-day Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. 1669–1670 John Lederer explores the Piedmont and Blue Ridge regions. 1670 A charter is granted to the Hudson’s Bay Company, giving the company a monopoly on fur trade within all regions that drain into Hudson Bay. 1671–1673 On two expeditions, Abraham Woods explores the Appalachian Mountains and then the areas of Virginia, North Carolina, West Virginia, and Tennessee. 1673 Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette travel as far as the mouth of the Arkansas River by exploring the Mississippi River. 1678–1687 René-Robert Cavalier, Sieur de La Salle, leads various explorations to the Great Lakes and the Gulf coast and down the Mississippi River. 1679–1680 Daniel Duluth searches for the headwaters of the Mississippi. 1682 René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, claims all of the Mississippi River drainage for France, naming it Louisiana in honor of King Louis XIV. 1687–1702 Father Eusebio Francisco Kino explores the lower parts of the Colorado and Gila rivers. 1698–1699 The Le Moyne brothers travel up the Mississippi River while leading a French colonizing expedition. 1701 Antoine Laumet de la Mothe, Sieur de Cadillac, founds Fort Ponchartrain de Detroit. 1713–1714 Louis Juchereau de St. Denis establishes a trading post at Natchitoches and then begins to explore into Texas. 1724 Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont, explores parts of Kansas. 1728 Vitus Jonassen Bering charts the Bering Strait.

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1738–1743 Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de La Vérendrye, leads explorations on the northern parts of the Great Plains. 1739–1740 French influence spreads to southern Great Plains as far as Santa Fe in large part through the efforts of brothers Pierre and Paul Mallet. 1741 Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov lead a Russian expedition to North America; Chirikov makes the first European sighting of Alaska. 1763 The Treaty of Paris is signed, which, in part, transferred French holdings in North America to Great Britain. 1763–1764 St. Louis is founded. 1766 Jonathan Carver searches for the River of the West by exploring the upper Mississippi River and publishing an influential book about his travels in 1778. 1767–1771 Daniel Boone’s travels spark white settlement in the Trans-Appalachian West. 1769–1770 Gaspar de Portolá and Junípero Serra explore California from San Diego to the Monterey and San Francisco bays and begin establishing missions. 1772 Athanase de Mézières surveys Texas. 1774 Juan Bautista de Anza charts the first Spanish trail from Sonora north to Monterey. 1774–1779 Spain sponsors several expeditions up the Northwest coast as far as present-day Alaska to respond to challenges from Russia and England. 1775 Bruno de Heceta leads an expedition that maps the Pacific Northwest coastline to Alaska and discovers the mouth of the Columbia River for Spain. Daniel Boone establishes the Wilderness Trail through the Cumberland Gap of the Appalachian Mountains for westward expansion and settlement. The Domínguez-Escalante expedition explores and provides the first maps of the Four Corners and Great Basin for Spain. 1775–1778 Peter Pond conducts expeditions into the Canadian northwest and provides influential maps of the region. 1776–1780 James Cook discovers Hawaii and searches for the Northwest Passage along the Pacific coast. 1779 North West Company is established by Scottish fur traders in Montreal. 1783–1786 Grigory Ivanovich Shelikov leads an expedition to the Gulf of Alaska.

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1786–1787 Pedro Vial establishes a route from Santa Fe to San Antonio. 1789–1793 Alexander Mackenzie crosses the North American continent in order to find a route to the Pacific Ocean. 1790–1792 Peter Fidler conducts expeditions into the Canadian interior and north, producing highly influential maps, charts, and reports. 1795–1797 James Mackay and John Evans explore and map the Missouri River from St. Louis to the Mandan villages. 1798 David Thompson maps the headwaters of the Mississippi River. 1799 The Russian-American Company is founded, with Aleksandr Andreyevich Baranov as governor, and given a monopoly of the fur trade in Russian Alaska. 1801 Alexander Mackenzie’s Voyages from Montreal is published. 1803 Thomas Jefferson instructs Meriwether Lewis about the planned expedition to the Pacific. The Louisiana Purchase is made, transferring the full drainage of the Missouri River, west of the Mississippi River, from France to the United States. 1804 William Dunbar leads a government expedition to explore the Louisiana Territory. 1804–1806 Meriwether Lewis and William Clark lead the Corps of Discovery on an expedition to find a Northwest Passage via the Missouri River, traveling from St. Louis to the Pacific Ocean and back. 1806 Thomas Freeman leads a government expedition up the Red River into Texas. 1806–1807 Zebulon Pike conducts an expedition on the southern Great Plains and is captured when he crosses into Spanish territory. 1807 Manuel Lisa founds the Missouri Fur Company. 1807–1808 John Colter travels into present-day Yellowstone National Park via the Bighorn Basin. 1807–1811 David Thompson, an explorer for the North West Company, searches for routes to the Pacific Ocean through the upper Columbia River country. 1808 John Jacob Astor establishes the American Fur Company. 1809 Manuel Lisa, Jean Pierre Chouteau, and others organize the St. Louis, Missouri Fur Company.

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1810–1811 John Jacob Astor sends the ship Tonquin to Oregon to establish Fort Astoria. 1811 David Thompson is the first to travel and map the Columbia River in its entirety. 1811–1812 Under the direction of John Jacob Astor, Wilson Price Hunt directs the second American overland expedition to the Pacific. 1812 Astorian Robert Stuart is the first American to discover the South Pass in present-day Wyoming that crosses the Continental Divide. 1814 Nicholas Biddle publishes History of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark. 1816–1819 The North West Company dispatches fur trappers throughout the Rockies and the Northwest. 1818 The Anglo-American Convention and Treaty allows for joint occupation of Oregon Country by the United States and Great Britain. 1819 The Adams-Onís Treaty is signed between the United States and Spain, establishing the boundary between the two. 1819–1820 Major Stephen H. Long leads the first American exploration of the central area of the Great Plains and labeled the area the “Great American Desert.” 1821 The Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company merge. Mexico achieves independence from Spain. William Becknell, Thomas James, and Hugh Glenn open trade on the Santa Fe Trail, establishing relations between Missouri and New Mexico. 1822–1826 Henry Ashley and Andrew Henry found the Rocky Mountain Fur Company and sponsor extensive trapping and exploration along the Missouri River and into the Rocky Mountains. 1824 Jedediah Smith rediscovers the South Pass, sparking an expansion of fur enterprises in the Rocky Mountains. 1824–1830 Peter Skene Ogden explores present-day Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, and California for the Hudson’s Bay Company. 1825 On separate expeditions, Jim Bridger, Étienne Provost, and Peter Skene Ogden are the first Europeans to see the Great Salt Lake. 1827 Jedediah Smith, Silas Gobel, and Robert Evans cross the Great Basin in present-day Utah, becoming the first Americans to do so.

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1829–1835 Benjamin Louis Eulalie de Bonneville explores Utah and Oregon while sending another group across the Great Basin and Sierra Nevada Mountains. 1832 George Catlin takes his first journey up the Missouri River in order to paint Native Americans. 1832–1842 Kit Carson explores throughout the Rocky Mountains. 1833 Henry Leavenworth and Henry Dodge lead a government expedition to explore the Red and Arkansas rivers. 1840 Last rendezvous on the Green River in present-day Wyoming for the fur trade. 1841 The first emigrant party to travel overland by wagon to California. Pierre Jean de Smet leads the first large wagon train across the Oregon Trail. 1842 James Bridger establishes Fort Bridger as a major resupply point for overland trails. 1842–1844 John C. Frémont leads three scientific survey expeditions along the Oregon Trail, exploring South Pass, the Rocky Mountains, and California. 1845 Stephen Watts Kearny leads a government expedition to the Platte and Arkansas rivers as well as the eastern Rocky Mountains. 1846 The Oregon Treaty is signed in which Great Britain relinquishes claim to land south of the 49th parallel. 1847 Brigham Young leads the Mormons across the Mormon Trail to settle in the Great Basin. 1848 The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo is signed, ending the war between the United States and Mexico and transferring Mexico’s northern provinces to the United States. James Marshall starts the California gold rush by finding gold in the American River. 1850 James Beckwourth discovers Beckwourth Pass over the Sierra Nevada Mountains. 1851 The Treaty of Fort Laramie is signed between the United States and eight Plains Indian nations in which Indian lands were protected and Indians agreed to allow safe passage of Americans through their lands. 1853 The United States makes the Gadsden Purchase, procuring a strip of land south of the Gila River in Arizona from Mexico. John C. Frémont and John Gunnison independently explore the Wasatch Mountains and areas of Utah.

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1853–1855 The Army Corps of Topographical Engineers conducts seven Pacific Railroad Survey expeditions. 1857–1859 The Ives and Macomb expeditions provide new cartographic and environmental surveys of the Four Corners and Great Basin regions for the United States. 1862 The Homestead Act passes, making western public lands available for individual farming. 1863 The Bozeman Trail is established, connecting mining camps in Montana and Colorado. 1867 The British North American provinces unite in a confederation government as Canada. 1868 The Treaty of Fort Laramie creates large reservation lands for Lakota, Dakota, and Arapahoe peoples, with a promise that Americans would not violate their territorial integrity. 1869 The transcontinental railroad is completed at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. 1869–1871 John Wesley Powell surveys the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon on two expeditions, leading to his 1878 Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States. 1903–1906 Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen becomes the first to successfully navigate a Northwest Passage through the Canadian Arctic.

Introduction

SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY This volume explores various peoples, industries, nations, events, and themes related to the early Euro-American discovery, exploration, and development of various frontiers in North America. As the topic involves a complex array of actors operating over multiple geographies and spanning centuries, a discussion of definitions and methodological parameters is necessary. First, the very concept of the “frontier” needs to be explored. In the 19th century, the United States regarded the frontier as a contiguous stretch of unpopulated land that advanced westward ahead of the expanding American populace. In 1890, the U.S. Census Bureau declared that the frontier was closed. The continent had been filled in with white settlement. Three years later, historian Frederick Jackson Turner presented his seminal thesis “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” and theorized that the very frontier that had recently closed was the very thing that had made Americans American. The process of successive generations moving west, conquering the wild frontier, and building civilization anew forged a unique American character. The frontier was not simply a geographic location but a process that moved across the North American landscape, taking Euro-Americans with them and transforming them through its rigors. This definition of “frontier” is fraught with problems, and the present volume will take a much more complex view of North American frontiers. Rather than viewing the frontier as an Anglo-American and, later, U.S.oriented process that rolled over an empty landscape, this volume considers multiple frontiers of European exploration and development that advanced and retreated over indigenous landscapes. While European exploration is regularly discussed in terms of “discovery,” such terminology belies the complexity of the already dynamic world of Native mobility and negotiation in North America. The discussion of frontiers herein is framed within EuroAmerican frontiers but attempts to highlight the existing indigenous worlds in which Euro-Americans operated. The frontier activities of multiple empires will be considered, broadening the topic from Turner’s American-centric conception. This volume may well be titled a “Historical Dictionary of American Frontiers” (plural).

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The methodology for what entries are included and excluded from this volume seeks to offer diverse coverage within a carefully constructed scope. Geographically, the volume focuses on North America, with the inclusion of portions of the Arctic in the north and Central America in the south where relevant. Chronology stretches from early European forays into the Americas to some of the last 20th-century attempts to fill in the remaining gaps in Euro-American knowledge of isolated regions of the continent. The European empires of Great Britain, Spain, France, and Russia are explored in the early eras and activities stemming from Mexico and the United States in the latter. Motivations for the exploration of frontiers were fueled by economic, military, geopolitical, and even religious factors. Empires sought to capitalize on natural resources in North America, and that required an understanding of the land and its indigenous peoples. Likewise, many private companies, such as those involved in the fur trade, funded and directed frontier exploration and development in hopes of controlling resources and derivative revenues. With these considerations, the entries range from cartographers disseminating visual conceptions of North American geography to actual EuroAmerican explorers creating maps and surveys and from fur traders gaining knowledge of the frontier through personal travels to official military reconnaissance trips to explore and fortify regions against rival incursions. Preference is given to individuals or events that had lasting impact on present and subsequent frontier explorations and development. This may include those who increased knowledge, clarified cartography, funded or directed the exploration of others from administrative positions, claimed lands and extended geopolitical boundaries, established lasting new trade connections, led EuroAmerican settlement, or impacted relations with Indian peoples. Entries offer a selection of details, such as biographic information, itineraries, or chronologies, as well as broader discussion of historical context and significance. For every entry included, there are many excluded from this volume, as preference is given to those whose activities were focused on Euro-American frontiers and boundaries and their development and expansion. For clarity, entries often employ present-day place-names in describing landscapes and locations. Thematic entries offer broad context to support individual entries that cross-reference to them. Bibliographies are based mainly on English language sources and are not comprehensive, offering rather a selection of the most significant sources for consideration.

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THE AGE OF “DISCOVERY” Although Vikings made landfall and established short-lived settlements in North America sometime around AD 1000, most credit the onset of the Age of Discovery with Christopher Columbus’s first voyage to the Caribbean in 1492. In the preceding decades, a number of economic, sociocultural, and technological changes had set European nations on a course toward expansion and empire building. Not only were coffers filling from trade, but many realized that the opportunity to monopolize and control new trade routes and resources would lead not only to increased profits but also to regional dominance. Coupled with this incentive to look outward for new economic opportunities, European monarchies oversaw quickly growing populations that accelerated the need to expand and secure new lands and resources. During the late 15th century, a number of developments led to Columbus’s first landfall in the Americas and the foreshadowed flood of European explorers and settlement that would follow. Portugal provides a useful example of these developments and expansionist impulses. In the early to mid-15th century, Portugal stood to profit from trade with West African empires such as Mali but was frustrated with the North African middlemen through which it had to work. This led the crown, under Prince Henry “The Navigator,” to pursue maritime navigation down the West African coast, thus obviating the need for middlemen. Through various efforts, the Portuguese mastered the eastern Atlantic trade winds, and by 1488, Bartolomeu Dias successfully navigated around the Cape of Good Hope at Africa’s southern tip. Eight years later, Vaco de Gama did the same and continued on to India, initiating a lucrative new maritime trade route. The mastery of Atlantic trade winds, confidence in navigating in the Southern Hemisphere, and various advances in maritime technology increasingly convinced Portugal and other European empires that global trade was not only a possibility but a certain eventuality. There was tremendous profit and power to be gained by controlling trade with Africa and Asia, and for the first time a growing consensus looked to maritime rather than overland routes to exploit. This is the context in which Christopher Columbus approached a number of European powers to fund an expedition westward across the Atlantic to reach Asia. After numerous failed attempts, he found patrons in Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Emboldened by the previous centuries of crusades, which combined religious fervor with the desired acquisition of wealth and power, the immediate Reconquista of Spain from the Moors, Spain likewise wanted to combat the growing commercial dominance of its Portuguese neighbors. Thus, in 1492, Columbus led three ships westward, picking up trade winds off the Canary Islands and continuing to a small island in the

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present-day Bahamas, Cuba, and Hispaniola before returning to Spain. Assuming that he had reached Asia, incorrectly identifying Cuba as Japan, Columbus’s successful navigation westward brought not only the promise of lucrative trade with Asia but also reports of gold and indigenous peoples whose labor would benefit Spain. In the following decades and centuries, Spain would be joined by a number of other European empires, each claiming “discovery” of “new lands,” although all these were inhabited by a diversity of indigenous peoples and empires. 1 Briefly reviewing the actions of the major European empires that conducted exploration and implemented different settlement schemes in and along their North American frontiers, with Native peoples, and into unexplored territories will provide a useful broad context for the volume.

SPAIN AND MEXICO When Columbus initiated Spanish exploration and conquest in the Americas, the empire followed precedents it had recently set in its Reconquista of Spain and conquest and subjugation of the Canary Islands. 2 Their economic motives in controlling resources and peoples in the Americas and restricting rival access to the same were uniquely imbued by a “moral crusade to spread Spanish culture and Catholicism” and encouraged by an “optimism born of religious zeal, ignorance, and intolerance.” 3 Although not all individuals always justified their lust for wealth and power with the ethos of religious proselytism and conversion of pagan Natives, the two motives were always concurrent in the broader Spanish imperial project. Spain’s early explorers were termed adelantados, essentially licensed adventurers. Under this system, Spanish men could obtain licenses to specified lands and direct settlement. If successful, they were often granted administrative powers over the new settlements and stood to profit greatly thereby. 4 The system was mutually beneficial to both the adelantado and the Spanish monarchy. As the adventurer funded his own exploits and stood to secure power and wealth, Spain assumed little risk. Once successful settlement was made, Spain absorbed the new regions into its sphere of influence and profited from taxation and by establishing its own, more directly controlled schemes of resource extraction, Native labor impressment, and regional control. Other explorations were funded by the crown and led by conquistadors. They acted as more official agents of the Spanish crown, claiming lands in their name, but stood to profit as well for successful expeditions and eventual settlements.

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Juan Ponce de León was one of the first to conduct major new exploration beyond the Caribbean and to the North American mainland for Spain. In 1513, he sailed along the coast of Florida, then returned in 1521 and tried to establish a settlement. His second trip, however, proved fatal when his expedition fought with the local Indians. A contemporary of de León, Alonzo Álvarez de Pineda, sailed along the Gulf coast from Florida to Texas searching for a waterway connecting to the Pacific. He found that no such passage existed in the region. In 1526, Louis Vásquez de Ayllón became the next prominent Spaniard to try settling the mainland; this settlement also failed when disease killed Ayllón and most of his settlers. During these early years, Spain also began exploring the Pacific coast of North America. Back on the eastern frontier of North America, Pánfilo de Narváez was given the right to settle along the Gulf coast of Mexico. Due to navigational errors, his expedition landed on the opposite west-facing coast of Florida, and only four of the original group survived. Eight years later, Álvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca and three other survivors appeared in Mexico, having made their way by foot the entire distance. 5 They brought with them reports of wealthy Indian kingdoms to the north. These reports (and others like them) would culminate in the expeditions of Hernando de Soto and Francisco Vásquez de Coronado. Both expeditions began around 1540 in search of Indian wealth, and both failed to find it. De Soto’s expedition into the present-day American Southeast provided useful geographic information but little else. Its greatest long-term impact was the spread of disease, which led to rapid depopulation of the region. Coronado’s expedition likewise failed to discover mineral wealth, and the disappointment stalled Spanish exploration and frontier development for decades. A notable element of many Spanish exploratory efforts was the legal and political processes used in conquest. A document, the Requerimiento, was read to local Native peoples before conquest. The document announced Spain’s claim of the region and its peoples and set forth obligations owed between the crown and its new indigenous subjects. Included in this was the express goal of converting Native peoples to Christianity. This “Doctrine of Discovery” was used to justify not only conquest but also systematic mistreatment and enslavement of Native peoples. 6 While many of these expeditions were authorized and funded with the express purpose of securing mineral resources, some also aimed to create settlements. Narváez’s disastrous 1527 attempt is a good example. The Gulf coast of Mexico and Florida were the primary locales for such effort. Strategically situated to influence the control of transatlantic trade, Florida was the location of considerable intrigue. When persecuted French Huguenots established a settlement near present-day Jacksonville in 1564, Spain immediately dispatched Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, who destroyed the settlement. Spanish settlement of the peninsula was not immediate, but its geopolitical impor-

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tance was clear. It would continue to be a location of violence and contention between European nations, often allied with rival indigenous peoples, for centuries. On the northern Spanish frontier, the earliest large-scale settlement came in the late 16th century. Juan de Oñate received authorization to establish settlements and missions along the Rio Grande Pueblos of present-day New Mexico. Despite a revolt that temporarily pushed the Spanish out of the region, it would be the locale of more permanent and successful Spanish settlement. The system of establishing presidios and missions along with farming and ranching enterprises expanded in later years to present-day Texas, Arizona, and California. At times, the Spanish had control over a vast territory in North America that stretched from the Pacific coast to the Atlantic. Their grip on these territories, however, was nearly always tenuous, as few settlers were persuaded to move into these new regions. Despite their unsteady hold on their colonies, Spaniards explored much of the southwestern United States. Franciscan and Jesuit missionaries, always looking for new converts, traveled extensively throughout Spanish territories. Father Eusebio Kino is a perfect example: during his travels, he covered thousands of miles in search of new Indian tribes. Junípero Serra is another example of the missionary explorer; accompanying Portolá’s expedition, he helped found the missions at Monterey and other areas of Alta California. Trade also led to exploration, as shown by Pedro Vial’s attempts to create trade routes. The Spanish remain a critical piece of the history of North American exploration. They were the earliest European power in North America, and while England and France would eventually overshadow them on the continent, Spain’s contributions to cartography, early understandings of indigenous peoples, resource development and exploitation, and settlement were of tremendous significance to the various regions’ history.

FRANCE France’s contribution to the European exploration and development of frontiers in North America grew from the presence of French fishing off the Grand Banks. 7 French and Basque fishermen, as well as those from other nations, had made a habit of landing onshore to dry and prepare their catches for transport to Europe. While on land, they traded with local Natives for furs. Quickly, the lucrative possibilities of a North American fur trade became apparent, and in 1524, France sent Giovanni de Verrazano to explore the Atlantic coast. This first exploration did not provide France with strong claim to lands, so, in 1534, Jacques Cartier made the first of three voyages to North America, exploring the St. Lawrence River and surrounding regions

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for France in search of a Northwest Passage and sites for future settlement. Due to continued troubles in Europe, France did not undertake serious settlement efforts until 1603, when Samuel de Champlain conducted exploration of the St. Lawrence and some of the Great Lakes. He established various settlements that provided permanent bases for French activities in North America, including what would become Quebec City in 1608. The growing French presence was strengthened even further under the control of Louis XIV and Jean-Baptiste Colbert. By building alliances with Hurons, Montaignes, and other Indian groups, the colonies were able to grow and firmly establish themselves. As French officials looked to expand fur trade networks and Catholic missionizing efforts into the interior, new waves of French exploration unfolded. In 1673, Louis Jolliet was joined by Jesuit priest Jacques Marquette, and they led an expedition south down the Mississippi River. They failed to reach its outlet into the Gulf of Mexico but did strengthen a growing French claim to new lands. Moreover, they did follow the river far enough to surmise that it would not lead to the Pacific Ocean. In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, completed a journey tracing the full length of the Mississippi River, claiming its entire drainage for the French. He started an ultimately failed colony on the Gulf coast but did succeed in helping France stake a claim to a vast area of the North American interior and establish plans to control the region down to the Gulf of Mexico. Back north, France struggled for some time in efforts to tightly regulate the activities of French fur traders operating out of the core colonies along the St. Lawrence River. Realizing the futility, it adopted more flexible policies that allowed traders to travel into the interior, intermarry with Native peoples, and set up extensive trader networks and relations to funnel furs back to Europe. This became the true backbone of French successes and growth along its North American frontiers. Revenues from France’s Caribbean sugar plantations were more lucrative for the empire, but the fur trade established control over much more territory. The fur trade also led to extensive exploration as voyageurs and coureurs de bois explored vast regions in search of furs and Indian contacts. The Vérendrye family provides an excellent example. Father and son Pierre and Louis La Vérendrye were among the earliest European explorers to push west of the Great Lakes and establish contacts on the Great Plains, eventually traveling as far as the northern reaches of the Rocky Mountains. Along with traders, French missionaries also numbered among early explorers. Men such as Claude-Jean Allouez, Jacques Marquette, and Isaac Jogues served their religion and the cause of French exploration simultaneously. Conflict with Great Britain in the mid-18th century led to the withdrawal of France from its North American colonies. From the first stages of French and British colonization in the Northeast, the two empires competed with one another for Indian trade and military alliances. Building off of long-standing

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conflicts between Hurons and Iroquois, as well as other rival Indian groups, France and England fought a series of wars. They culminated in the Seven Years’ War, or French and Indian War, after which France lost its North American claims in 1763. France briefly regained the Louisiana Territory in 1800, encompassing an enormous tract of land from the Mississippi to the Rockies, in an effort to re-create its American Empire but sold it to the United States in 1803. Although its colonial holdings terminated with British and American ownership, France’s efforts to explore, map, and economically develop its frontiers directed the course of much of the continent’s history.

RUSSIA Russia’s colonial project in North America began much later than the other European powers and was the most limited in scope. Expeditions in the early and mid-1720s sought to discover a land bridge between Russia and North America, but the 1741 expedition of Vitus Jonassen Bering explored the Bering Strait between the two continents, and Aleksei Ilyich Chirikov made first sight of Alaska. On his return, Chirikov reported of the natural bounty of valuable sea otter and other fur-bearing mammals. The first Russians to return were private traders and investors. For the next several years, the Russian businessmen established themselves in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, often through violent encounters with indigenous Aleuts and Tlingits and the coercion of the same. Demand for sea otter pelts in China provided tremendous profits and drove Russian exploration further. 8 The most influential figure in this early era was Grigory Ivanovich Shelikov. In the 1780s, he established a number of permanent Russian settlements and created a fur company that would later provide the basis for the RussianAmerican Company. Shelikov viewed Russian America as the future locale for an active cultural and commercial hub for Russian expansion into the Americas. He continually sought to obtain a royal charter, granting his company a monopoly, but failed to do so. During this time, Spanish, British, and eventually American explorers and traders increased their own activities on the Pacific Northwest coast during the late 18th century, while the Russian government established firmer control over the fur trade in the region. In 1799, Tsar Peter I granted a monopoly to the Russian-American Company, formed out of a number of competing outfits, including Shelikov’s. It was directed by Aleksandr Baranov, who had been governor of the region since 1790 and would continue until 1818. Under the directorship of Baranov, Russian activities expanded dramatically. The practice of coercing Natives into participating in the fur trade continued under Baranov and led to a series of wars, especially with the

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Tlingits. Due to harsh conditions and continued violence, the Russian settlements were perpetually on the brink of collapse and starvation. Baranov attempted to address this by establishing Fort Ross, near present-day San Francisco, California, as an agricultural outpost to supply the northern settlements. Attempts at trade with Hawaii were also undertaken. The peripheral geography of Alaska in the broader Russian empire, along with the declining fur market, stymied the region’s development. It remained under Russian colonial control until its sale to the United States in 1867.

ENGLAND AND GREAT BRITAIN England began its exploration of North America soon after Columbus’s first voyages in the 1490s. Convinced that the newfound lands were a separate continent from Asia, a Venetian named John Cabot convinced King Henry VII to fund an expedition to discover a Northwest Passage around North America. In 1497, he successfully explored portions of the Atlantic coast of North America. After going missing, he was followed by his son Sebastian Cabot, also financed by England. Their discoveries were limited, and there did not appear to be mineral wealth to exploit as Spain had found in the Caribbean and Mexico. Attempts at permanent settlement would not come for another century. Sir Walter Raleigh led England’s first effort, and he was the one who chose Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina as the location of his colony. Roanoke, or the “Lost Colony” as it came to be known, failed with all of the colonists going missing. In 1606, two charters were granted for new settlements, though only the Virginia Company of London settlement, Jamestown, survived. Established in 1607, the settlement was on the verge of extinction for a number of years due to disease, malnutrition, and a number of wars with local Natives but eventually survived. It did not, however, initially produce profits for its investors. By the mid-1600s, however, a cash crop, tobacco, was expanded to large-scale cultivation, and the colony’s lasting success was built on its profits. The requisite labor was filled by indentured servants and, later, African slaves. The next successful colony was far different from Jamestown. At Plymouth, to the north a group of Puritan separatists, among others, established a colony in the name of England. Led by William Bradford, they struggled to survive. With the help of Native groups who grew tired of having their own food supplies pilfered, the settlement eventually found stability. These and other settlements grew as British colonists arrived and settled. Distinct from the colonial projects of Spain, which focused on the extraction of mineral wealth, and France and Russia, which relied on the harvesting of furs, Eng-

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land’s colonies fell into different categories. At Virginia and later the Carolinas, large-scale plantations were used to grow and sell products. Others, such as those in Plymouth, are more commonly termed settler colonial projects. Rather than basing the colony purely on extraction of wealth, though that was still important, these featured large-scale importation of European settlers and building of replica European societies in North America. With this establishment of several successful colonies, British settlements began expanding rapidly. The British viewed North America as virgin soil, ready for occupation and cultivation. Settlers expanded into new areas, eventually creating 13 royal colonies, with the British controlling all lands east of the Mississippi River in what is now the United States. From the beginning, many of these settlers showed behavioral characteristics of what was later known as a frontiersman. John Smith provides one of the earliest examples with his extensive explorations and more extensively exaggerated tales. Later, men such as John Finley and Daniel Boone provide examples of why the British colonies continued to grow westward and increased in population while Spanish and Russian colonies remained small. Expansion was resisted by Native peoples and French and Spanish rivals, but the growth of British colonies outpaced all others. When, in the 1770s, the American Revolution forced Great Britain to relinquish much of its holdings to the nascent United States, it still maintained vast though undeveloped lands to the north. In the British North American provinces, the crown steered the European exploration and development of various frontiers for decades. Through the Hudson’s Bay Company and Northwest Company, they dominated the fur trade across the continent—even vying with the United States for control of the Oregon Country for years. In 1867, its provinces confederated as Canada, the region continued to build on the settler colonial model initiated by England.

UNITED STATES The United States eventually controlled the portions of North America whose frontiers would be most quickly developed by Euro-American enterprise. Initially, as the early republic struggled to find cohesion and unity, little exploration was undertaken. However, settler expansion was immediate. As settlement moved west of the Appalachian Mountains and beyond, the government eventually began more systematic measures to explore its frontier boundaries. Although sparsely settled by Europeans, the lands were not uninhabited, and considerable energies were spent removing Native peoples

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from the lands that white settlers sought. Native removal and settler expansion were the dominant themes in the early years of U.S. frontier development. In 1803, the possibilities for American expansion increased multifold as the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from France. This added the entire Missouri River drainage to the United States, stretching to the Rocky Mountains in the West and bordering Spain’s holdings to the south and Great Britain’s to the north. In 1804, the Corps of Discovery, led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, set forth on a journey to find the headwaters of the Missouri River, hopefully revealing a Northwest Passage or at least an easy portage to a river leading to the Pacific. While no easy passage or portage was discovered, they did collect a tremendous amount of scientific, geographic, ethnographic, and botanical knowledge. They also initiated trade with Native peoples along the route to the Pacific and back. Other government explorations were sent out, with Zebulon Pike and Thomas Freeman conducting expeditions that explored the central Great Plains and southwestern United States, respectively. These efforts were followed up by men such as John C. Frémont, Stephen Long, and many others who ventured out into these regions, providing new maps and information until the current United States was charted. In general, these government-sponsored expeditions were not the first appearance of Europeans or Americans on the frontiers. Fur traders from France, Russia, Great Britain, and the United States had all traveled extensively beyond the frontier boundaries of Euro-American development. In many cases, fur companies themselves sponsored great expeditions across the frontiers. The American Fur Company, Rocky Mountain Fur Company, Missouri Fur Company, North West Company, Hudson’s Bay Company, and others all sponsored extensive exploration. Aside from official expeditions, trappers and mountain men who were engaged in the fur trade built and disseminated their knowledge of the frontier, including important passes, routes, and so forth. Many of these men later found employment leading and scouting for government and military expeditions into lands they knew from their fur trade travels. The exploration, resource development, and eventual settler expansion of the United States came at the expense of indigenous peoples and often the environment itself. By the 1840s, expansion across the continent to the Pacific Ocean was thought of by many Americans as the nation’s “manifest destiny,” appointed by God. Obstacles presented by Native peoples, challenging environmental realities, or other nations, such as England, Spain, or Mexico, were met with determination to overcome. With such a singular aim, the unfolding of American frontier development was rarely undertaken in the most efficient or humane ways. Often, policy was dictated by the immediate needs of local Americans moving into and across the frontier and more often

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than not led to conflict. Like Great Britain before, American settlement sought to establish permanent populations, so temporary measures to deal with the previously mentioned problems were eschewed for more permanent solutions. The legacies of these decisions are complex and continue to exert a considerable impact on the United States. 9

NOTES 1. For general information on the early stages of the Age of Discovery, see Zvi Dor-Ner and William Scheller, Columbus and the Age of Discovery (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991); J. H. Parry, The Age of Reconnaissance (New York: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1963); and Ronald Wright, Stolen Continents: Five Hundred Years of Conquest and Resistance in the Americas (Boston: A Mariner Book, 2005). 2. David J. Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 20. 3. Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, 20. 4. John L. Kessell, Spain in the Southwest: A Narrative History of Colonial New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, and California (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2002), 11. 5. For an excellent treatment of this trek, see Andrés Reséndez, A Land So Strange: The Epic Journey of Cabeza de Vaca (New York: Basic Books, 2007). 6. Kessell, Spain in the Southwest, 29. 7. For general overviews of French activities in North America during these early years, see W. J. Eccles, France in America (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1990), and James Pritchard, In Search of Empire: The French in the Americas, 1670–1730 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004). 8. For general information on Russians in North America, see Lydia T. Black, Russians in Alaska, 1732–1867 (Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press, 2004), and John R. Bockstoce, Furs and Frontiers in the Far North: The Contest among Native and Foreign Nations for the Bering Strait Fur Trade (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010). 9. For the seminal treatise on the legacies of frontier development, see Patricia Limerick, Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: Norton, 1987).

A AGUAYO, MARQUÉS DE SAN MIGUEL DE (?–1734). The Marqués de San Miguel de Aguayo was born José de Azlor y Virto de Vera, and with his marriage to Spanish heiress Ignacia Xaviera, he became a marquis with large holdings in New Spain. In 1712, he and his wife left Spain to live on their hacienda in Coahuila, Mexico. When France took Natchitoches in East Texas in 1719, Aguayo volunteered to reconquer it. It was a bloodless affair, and the French abandoned their new holding on the approach of Aguayo’s large force in 1721. His actions would secure Spain’s sovereignty over Texas; the French would never again be a threat in the region. The marquis established eight missions and four presidios, introduced the first large-scale cattle presence in the territory, and recommended that settlement begin between the San Antonio mission and East Texas, with 400 families coming from the Canary Islands, Havana, and Mexico. AIRD, JAMES (?–1819). James Aird, a prominent Scottish fur trader, spent nearly 40 years among the Dakota Sioux in what is now Iowa and Minnesota. Aird arrived in Mackinac as early as 1779, and he was one of the earliest and most respected British settlers of Prairie du Chien. By the early 1790s, he and others were extending the British fur trade south into Spanish territory, west of the Minnesota, Des Moines, and Big Sioux river headwaters. Aird encountered the Corps of Discovery on his return journey down the Missouri River and met Zebulon Pike on his expedition, all of whom left favorable reports of Aird’s character. Aird’s two brothers, Robert and George, were also prominent and well-respected traders. Together with Robert Dickson and others, Aird helped found a short-lived fur company in 1805 that attempted to stave off the growing American presence along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. In 1807, it was absorbed by the Michilimackinac Company and later forced by international treaty to sell to John Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company in 1810. Aird’s activities furthered Great Britain’s expansion in the region and deepened Sioux involvement in the British fur trade, all developments that expeditions like the Corps of Discovery and Zebulon Pike were designed to counter. 13

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ALAMINOS, ANTONIO DE (FL. 1510S)

See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ALAMINOS, ANTONIO DE (fl. 1510s). Atonio de Alaminos was born in southern Spain in 1482. He gained fame as an influential navigator and pilot in the early exploration of the West Indies and Gulf coast of New Spain. Originally accompanying Christopher Columbus’s final voyage to the Americas, he piloted voyages for Juan Ponce de León in 1513, Hernandez de Cordoba in 1517, Juan de Grijalva in 1518, and Hernan Cortes in 1519 before returning to Spain at the decade’s end. His expertise as a navigator greatly enhanced the impact of the expeditions he piloted, rapidly expanding Spanish knowledge of the Gulf coast, pioneering a number of important routes through the Caribbean, and furthering subsequent explorations into the continental interiors. ALARCÓN, HERNANDO DE (fl. 1540s). Hernando de Alarcón was a Spanish navigator who gained notoriety in 1540 for a resupplying expedition intended to aid Francisco Vásquez de Coronado’s search for the fabled Cíbola. Originally from Trujillo, Spain, little is known of his arrival or other activities in New Spain. In 1540, he was dispatched to resupply the Coronado expedition. While sailing three ships up the Gulf of California, Alarcón discovered the mouth of a river and decided to proceed upstream. This was significant in beginning to dispel the popular notion that California was an island, separate from the mainland—as featured on many maps of the era. His estimation was confirmed later by Eusebio Kino. Alarcón named the watercourse Rio de la Buena Guia, which would later be named the Colorado River. Alarcón eventually ventured up to the junction with the Gila River. Along the way, he established friendly relations with Indians, including the Yumas. Alarcón never met up with Coronado’s party, but his expedition represented the first European navigation of the Colorado River. See also ALTA CALIFORNIA; CONQUISTADORS; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. ALARCÓN, MARTÍN DE (fl. EARLY 1700s). Born in Spain, by the time he arrived in the West Indies in the early 1700s, Martín de Alarcón had already served in the army in North Africa and the Royal Spanish Navy. On arrival in Mexico, Alarcón was appointed as a sergeant in the militia of Guadalajara and later served at a variety of posts on the northern frontier of Mexico. In 1716, Viceroy Marquez de Valero appointed Alarcón as commander of the Presidio San Francisco de Coahuila and governor of the province of Texas. Alarcón also was instructed to head north and resupply a group of Spaniards who had gone to settle in Texas the previous year under the command of Domingo Ramón. The Spanish grip on the region was

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tenuous, and settlements depended on overlong supply routes to survive. His 1718 expedition helped strengthen Spanish control over their northern frontier and bolster their regional claims against rival France. During the expedition, Alarcón helped found the mission and pueblo of San Antonio de Béxar, present-day San Antonio, which eventually became one of the most important towns in Spanish Texas. ALLANDE Y SAAVEDRA, PEDRO DE (fl. LATE 1700s). Allande was a Spanish nobleman who already had seen military action against the Moors and Portuguese before arriving in New Spain. Capitan Allande came to Sonora, Mexico, by sea in 1768 as a lieutenant in the Mexican Dragoons, part of an expeditionary force sent to pacify the Pima, Seri, and Suaqui Indians. Superiors recognized Allande’s effective leadership and in 1777 assigned him to establish a new presidio at present-day Tucson. At the time, Spain was struggling to fend off raids and attacks from Apaches and others. Although Allande had early successes against Apaches, violence escalated in the early 1780s. During the following years, Allande’s leadership was credited with saving Tucson on a number of occasions. His success gained him a promotion to lieutenant colonel, and in 1788 he retired to Mexico City. Tucson continued to struggle on Spain’s northern frontier, but Allande had succeeded in shepherding the settlement and, by extension, Spain’s grasp on the region through nine potentially ruinous years. See also ALTA CALIFORNIA; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; MISSIONPRESIDIO SYSTEM. ALLEN, HENRY T. (fl. 1885). Henry T. Allen was born in 1859 in Sharpsburg, Kentucky. After graduating from West Point, he led an 1885 expedition that traveled some 1,500 miles in a little more than five months and explored the Copper, Kuyukuk, and Tanana river valleys in Alaska. Alaska had just recently been purchased from Russia in 1867, and while members of the fur trade had frequented the region in the previous decade, none had left a detailed account of the region’s peoples and geography. Enduring bitter cold, hunger, and fatigue, the expedition made important scientific observations and charted the land. These maps served as guides for later explorers and travelers. His reports of Natives and a seeming lack of big game along many of the river valleys likewise influenced subsequent reluctance of Americans to more fully develop the region. In subsequent years, Allen served in the Spanish-American War, the Punitive Expedition to capture Pancho Villa, and World War I. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

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ALLOUEZ, CLAUDE-JEAN (1620–1689). Born in southern France, Claude-Jean Allouez entered Jesuit training at age 17. In 1658, he left France for his ministry in the New France. He worked among Indian tribes in the St. Lawrence River valley and the Trois-Rivières Mission, learning their languages and preaching. Allouez left the St. Lawrence area in 1665 to preach to the Natives region south of Lake Superior. He concentrated his next 32 years of labor among the Illinois and Miami Indians, reportedly baptizing some 10,000 neophytes as well as building the first missions in Wisconsin. Allouez’s accurate reports gave a better understanding of the Great Lakes country and the Midwest. He helped map Lake Superior and was among the first Europeans to transmit reports of the Mississippi River back to eager European rulers. Because of his work among the Indians, Allouez became known as the “Father of Christianity in the West.” See also CARTOGRAPHY; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION. ALTA CALIFORNIA. Alta California was a regional designation used by Spain in reference to the lands along the Pacific coast of New Spain north of California’s Baja peninsula. While most often used to refer to the coastal region, Alta California in many contexts encompassed portions of presentday Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming. The majority of Spanish settlement would remain along the Pacific coast. Early explorations of the region were conducted from New Spain in the 17th century, but Spain did not pursue settlement in earnest until the establishment of the first Spanish mission in San Diego by Junípero Serra in 1769. Thereafter, the mission-presidio system spread up the coast, and Natives were brought under increasing Spanish influence. Separated from other regions of New Spain by mountains and desert, the coastal region of Alta California operated and developed uniquely from the rest of the north Spanish frontier in Sonora, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and elsewhere. The region became its own province of New Spain 1804 and a separate Mexican territory after the 1821 War of Mexican Independence. See also ANZA, JUAN BAUTISTA DE (1736–1788); AYALA-CANIZARES EXPEDITION (1775); BELETA, DON PEDRO FAGES (1734–1794); BODEGA Y QUADRA, JUAN FRANCISCO DE LA (1744–1794); CABRILLO, JUAN RODRÍGUEZ (1500?–1543); DOMÍNGUEZ-ESCALANTE EXPEDITION (1775); GARCÉS, FRANCISCO HERMENEGILDO TOMÁS (1738–1781); KINO, EUSEBIO FRANCISCO (1645–1711); MARTÍNEZ FERNÁNDEZ Y MARTÍNEZ DE LA SIERRA, ESTEBAN JOSÉ (1742–1798); MEXICO; MORAGA, GABRIEL (1765–1823); ORTEGA, JOSÉ FRANCISCO (1734?–1798); PORTOLÁ, GASPAR DE (1720?–1784?); RIVERA Y MONCADA, FERNANDO DE (1725–1781); VIZCAÍNO, SEBASTIÁN (1550?–1628?).

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ALVARADO, HERNANDO DE (fl. 1540s). Hernando de Alvarado, presumably born in Spain, was a lieutenant under Francisco Vásquez de Coronado during his 1540s exploration beyond the northern frontier of New Spain searching for Cíbola. Alvarado participated in the takeover of Hawikah pueblo, reportedly saving Coronado’s life in battle. In August 1540, he led a party on a near three-month exploration to the northeast, where they encountered Acoma, Tiguex, Taos, and Pecos pueblos. At one of the Pecos pueblos, Alvarado met two Plains Indians, The Turk and Ysopete, who said they could lead them farther to lands containing buffalo, one of the party’s charges. Being led to the edge of the High Plains, Alvarado was the first European to glimpse the vast region. In the process, The Turk also related stories of a mineral-rich empire farther inland: Quivira. Ysopete (likely a Pawnee) refuted these claims, but his advice went unheeded. On returning to Coronado’s main camp, these tales were related, and The Turk eventually led Coronado and his men as far as Kansas before they turned back in disappointment. Alvarado was one of the major expeditionary subgroup that Coronado sent to branch out from his grand albeit fruitless adventure that explored enormous tracts of the Southwest. See also CONQUISTADORS; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; LEGENDS AND MYTHS. ÁLVAREZ DE PIÑEDA, ALONSO (1494–1520). Alonso Álvarez de Piñeda was born in Spain in 1494. In 1519, he was chosen by Francisco de Garay, the governor of Jamaica, to search for a western route to the Pacific and Asia. The four-ship expedition explored and mapped the Gulf coast from Florida to Cabo Rojo in Mexico. Although they never found a western water route to the East Indies, he was the first European to provide accurate sketches of the Gulf of Mexico and definitively proved that Florida was not an island. After his 1519 expedition, Álvarez de Piñeda tried founding a Spanish settlement near present-day Tampico, Mexico, but Piñeda and most of the settlers were killed by the Natives. By 1520, the surviving colonists had abandoned the settlement. Álvarez de Piñeda’s account is the earliest European report and map of the full Gulf of Mexico coast. See also CARTOGRAPHY; COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. AMERICAN FUR COMPANY (1808–1847). This company was founded in 1808 by John Jacob Astor to pursue the findings of the Corps of Discovery and capitalize on the vast resources of the interior lands of the United States. Astor had already made a fortune in the fur trade, importing furs from Canada to New York, and quickly invested in the new venture. One of Astor’s first initiatives was to establish a fur-trading post at the mouth of the

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Columbia River. He sent two groups on this mission, one by ship, the other on an overland journey. The Tonquin sailed from New York in September 1810 and established Fort Astoria in March 1811. This group began establishing a settlement and created an uneasy relationship with the local Natives. Meanwhile, the overland expedition led by Wilson Price Hunt left from St. Louis in 1811. This expedition was plagued with problems, including a drowning along the Snake River and a very difficult winter in the rugged West. The survivors arrived in Astoria in January and February 1812. With the onset of the War of 1812, the company was forced to sell Astoria to the British, although it eventually would regain the post. The overland expeditions and fur traders of the American Fur Company greatly improved American knowledge of their newly acquired and uncharted territories. Robert Stuart, a member of the company, provides the perfect example. On his return to St. Louis in 1812, Stuart discovered the South Pass through the Rocky Mountains, which later became an essential path for settlers. The company also helped establish the fur trade in the West, and its post at Astoria was the first American settlement on the Pacific coast. The American Fur Company expanded with a subsidiary, the South West Company and Pacific Fur Company, before splitting up in the 1830s. The company stood as one of the largest corporations in the country and made Astor a multimillionaire. See also CHOUTEAU, PIERRE, JR. (1789–1865); ENGLAND; FERRIS, WARREN ANGUS (1810–1873); FINANCES AND FUNDING; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; MACKENZIE, DONALD (1783–1851); MCKENZIE, KENNETH (1797–1861); MOUNTAIN MEN; NICOLLET, JOSEPH (1786–1843); OGDEN, PETER SKENE (1794–1854); ROSS, ALEXANDER (1783–?); UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. AMUNDSEN, ROALD (fl. 1900s). Born in Borge, Norway, in 1872, Roald Amundsen stood at the tail end of a long succession of explorers who attempted to navigate a Northwest Passage through the Canadian Arctic. Although the previous attempts may well be credited with more influential exploration, discovery, and mapping of the uncharted northern frontiers, Amundson deserves mention for completing a full northwest passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean when so many others had failed. His crew of seven made the voyage from 1903 to 1906 in a small ship named the Gjoa. Amundson would rise to greater fame for his expeditions to the North and South poles in the 1910s and 1920s. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; CANADA.

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ANZA I, JUAN BAUTISTA DE (1693–1740). Born in the Basque region of Spain, Juan Bautista de Anza I came to New Spain in 1712 and quickly engaged himself in frontier exploration of northern Sonora and Sinaloa, Mexico. There was considerable mining activity in the northern reaches of the provinces, and de Anza was involved in their development. This was instrumental in pulling Spanish military, industrial, commercial, and social influences toward the expanding frontier. Over the course of the 1730s–1740s, de Anza grew his own holdings in the north, presided over the discovery of enormous silver deposits at Arizonac (for which Arizona would be named), held various governmental and military positions in Sonora, and directed the founding of a number of important Spanish settlements in present-day Arizona. He had larger schemes in mind, including the forging of new trails to Alta California, but it would be his son, Juan Bautista de Anza (1736–1788), who would complete those plans. ANZA, JUAN BAUTISTA DE (1736–1788). Son of Juan Bautista de Anza I, Juan Bautista de Anza was born in Fronteras, Sonora, Mexico, in 1736. De Anza came from a long line of frontier military service, and he joined the army in 1751. By 1759, he had been promoted to captain and was given command of the presidio at Tubac, Arizona. In 1772, de Anza requested permission to explore a route to Alta California for Spain, something his father had requested to do before being killed by Apaches in 1740. Accompanied by Fray Francisco Hermenegildo Tomás Garcés, de Anza blazed the first overland trail from Sonora to Monterey in 1774. Their trail ran west from Tubac until crossing the Colorado River near its confluence with the Gila River. From there, they continued west to the San Gabriel Archangel mission, just east of present-day Los Angeles, and then north along established lines to Monterrey. The following year, de Anza led a group of civilian colonizers (including women and children) over his new trail to California, with the loss of only one life. During his travels, de Anza established friendly relations with the Yuma Indians, who previously had saved his first expedition from starvation. On arriving in California, Anza designated the future sites of San Francisco and Misión Dolores. Anza, Garcés, and Fray Pedro Font each left valuable journals of both expeditions. Due to his meritorious service, de Anza was made governor of New Mexico after his expeditions to California and served in that position from 1778 until his death in 1788. As governor, Anza helped establish a long-lasting peace treaty with Comanches to the north, halting fighting between the tribe and the Spanish. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; MISSION-PRESIDIO SYSTEM; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; NEW SPAIN; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS.

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APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. This is the second-largest mountain system in North America (after the Rocky Mountains) at around 1,500 miles long. They are a worn and eroded mountain chain divided into several smaller regions. It also incorporates a number of gaps and valley systems, most notably the Cumberland Gap, the Shenandoah Valley, and so forth. They serve as the Eastern Great Divide, diverting watersheds either to the Gulf of Mexico or to the Atlantic. The Appalachians served as one of the earliest barriers for European expansion and exploration, and when Europeans finally began crossing, they used established Indian trails. Hernando de Soto led the first Europeans across the Appalachians from 1539 to 1543 as they explored parts of present-day Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama before heading toward the Mississippi River. The French largely circumvented them, using the Great Lakes to travel west. Some French missionaries did make small incursions looking for converts, but the French were largely uninvolved in the exploration of this range. Englishmen John Lederer explored the Piedmont region in 1669–1670, and Abraham Wood sent several expeditions from 1670 to 1673, but the majority of travelers were traders. In 1750, Thomas Walker led the first known group of Europeans through the Cumberland Gap. These trail systems found new importance during the French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War), as the armies were forced to use them to get across the mountains. By 1775, Daniel Boone and others had established the Wilderness Trail, and many settlers soon followed them. The Appalachian Mountains no longer served as a deterrent to westward movement. See also BATTS AND FALLAM EXPEDITION (1671); ENGLAND; FINLEY, JOHN (1722?–1769?); FRANCE; NEEDHAM AND ARTHUR EXPEDITION (1673–1674); OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; ROBERTSON, JAMES (1742–1814); UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ARCTIC EXPLORATION. A tremendous amount of energy was expended over the course of centuries by England, France, Spain, and the United States to discover a Northwest Passage around or through the North American continent. Much of this activity took place in the present-day Artic regions of Canada. Successive generations of explorers pushed through the Hudson Strait, seeking northwestern outlets from Hudson Bay, north through the Foxe Basin, around Baffin Island and through the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, and beyond through the Parry Channel and countless other inlets, straits, and waterways. The primary struggle of these expeditions was the short seasons available when the passages were free from sea ice. Many expeditions spent long winters with ships entrapped by the ice, some ending in tragedy. Over the course of centuries, large sums of money, from both

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private and government sources, were expended in exploring the region. Eventually, some Arctic explorers began other pursuits, such as pushing northward toward the North Pole. See also AMUNDSEN, ROALD (fl. 1900s); BACK, GEORGE (fl. 1810–1830s); BERING, VITUS JONASSEN (1681–1741); BERNIER, JOSEPH-ELZÉAR (1852–1934); BUTTON, THOMAS (?–1634); BYLOT, ROBERT (fl. 1610–1618); CANADA; DEASE, PETER WARREN (1788–1863); ERIKSON, LEIF (970–1020); FINANCES AND FUNDING; FRANKLIN, JOHN (1786–1847); GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; HUDSON, HENRY (1570s?–1611); KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787–1846); MUNK, JENS (1579–1628); NORTHWEST PASSAGE; ROSS, JOHN (1777–1856); RUSSIA AND RUSSIAN AMERICA; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION; STRAIT OF ANIAN. ASHLEY, WILLIAM HENRY (1778–1838). William Henry Ashley spent his youth in Virginia, but he migrated to upper Louisiana (now Missouri) around 1799. There, he became involved in various business interests, including land speculation, lead mining, and gunpowder manufacture. Ashley distinguished himself in the War of 1812 and was promoted to brigadier general in the Missouri militia. In 1822, he and Andrew Henry started one of his most profitable business ventures, the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. Their Rocky Mountain Fur Company flooded the Missouri River drainage with new fur trappers and led to the opening of a central route to the Pacific via the South Pass, established the revolutionary rendezvous system in 1825, and expanded the practice of hiring white mountain men trappers, such as Jedediah Smith and William Lewis Sublette, as well as Iroquois Indian trappers. In 1826, Ashley led an expedition of his own into the Great Basin, discovering Utah Lake and mapping much of the region and in 1828 led an expedition up the South Platte River into present-day southern Wyoming. See also FUR TRADE; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ASTOR, JOHN JACOB (1763–1848). Astor was a German migrant who amassed an enormous fortune in the fur trade by selling furs to China. After the Corps of Discovery publicized their expedition, Astor realized the economic potential of the far West and organized the American Fur Company in 1808. His company became the first American-owned monopoly in the American fur trade. Astor also was involved in the Southwest Fur Company and the Pacific Fur Company. With trading posts strung across America to the Pacific, Astor’s trappers explored the American West, with such important accomplishments as the discovery of the South Pass and the creation of Fort Astoria on the mouth of the Columbia River. The latter eventually was sold to the British during the War of 1812, and Astor later sold the remainder

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of his business interests in the region. Astor acquired substantial New York real estate and at his death was the richest man in America and one of earliest documented American multimillionaires. See also UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. AYALA-CANIZARES EXPEDITION (1775). In 1775, Juan Manuel de Ayala, a 15-year veteran in the Royal Spanish Navy born in the Andalucia region of Spain, was sent to develop an accurate description of the San Francisco Bay for use by other Spanish captains. By 1775, Spain was also concerned about mapping its northern frontier to prevent southern incursions by Russia, whose fur trade interests were expanding. His pilot, Don Jose de Canizares, made the first map of the area. Alaya’s ship, the San Carlos, had the distinction of being the first ship to pass through the Golden Gate. See also ALTA CALIFORNIA. AYLLÓN, LUCAS VÁZQUEZ DE (1475?–1526). Born to a prominent family in Toledo, Spain, Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón arrived in Santo Domingo, New Spain, where he served as a government official starting in 1502. In 1521, he organized an expedition to explore the coast of South Carolina, as led by a Native captured at Winyah Bay, Francisco de Chicora. Chicora told of a blessed land that Ayllón used to convince the Spanish crown to grant him colonization rights to the region. He falsified its latitude so as to match with the familiar Andalucia and suggested it would support similar agricultural pursuits. Charles V granted him license to colonize a broad range of the Atlantic coast. In 1525, Ayllón sent Captain Pedro de Quejo to map and explore the Atlantic coast from Florida to Delaware Bay. In 1526, Ayllón led a group of around 500 settlers to establish a colony in South Carolina. They quickly explored the immediate region, perhaps as far south as Georgia. Sickness decimated the colony, eventually killing Ayllón himself. Only 150 of the initial group returned to Santo Domingo. His failed colony was one of the earliest European colonization attempts on the North American mainland. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; FINANCES AND FUNDING; LEGENDS AND MYTHS.

B BACK, GEORGE (fl. 1810–1830s). Born in 1796 in Stockport, England, George Back joined a number of significant Arctic and Northwest coast expeditions under John Franklin in 1818, 1819, and 1824. Taking a decade’s experience surveying and mapmaking for those endeavors, he went on to lead two expeditions of his own. In 1832, he led a rescue attempt to locate the missing 1929 John Ross expedition. Word soon reached Back that Ross had already returned to England, and he went on to explore the Canadian Arctic archipelago north of the Great Slave Lake. In 1836, he returned to lead an ill-fated expedition to map the areas around Prince Regent Inlet, where his ship was trapped in the ice for nearly a year. In all, his work under Franklin and on his own spanned the entire Canadian Arctic and contributed considerable knowledge to the era’s cartographic efforts. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; CANADA; CARTOGRAPHY; ENGLAND. BARANOV, ALEKSANDR ANDREYEVICH (1747–1819). Born into a peasant family in northern Russia, Aleksandr Andreyevich Baranov moved to Moscow as a young man and served as a clerk. He eventually was offered a post as managing agent of a Russian fur trade company recently established by Grigoriy Shelekhov on Kodiak Island. Baranov rose to become the dominant figure in the Russian America fur trade from 1790 to 1818. When the Russian-American Company was founded and given a royal monopoly of the region in 1799, he became governor of all Russian activities in North America. In spite of military and commercial clashes with Alaskan Natives, England, Spain, and the United States, Baranov kept the Kodiak settlement alive and managed to turn over healthy profits for the company. In return for a monopoly in the regional fur trade, Baranov agreed to extend Russian Orthodox missions into the region, leading to a lasting Russian cultural presence in Alaska. His relations with Native Tlingits and Aluets cast a long shadow, however, marked with brutal violence, extortion, and manipulation. Baranov died on a return journey to Russia after being removed from his post. 23

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See also MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION. BARREIRO, FRANCISCO ÁLVAREZ (fl. 1710–1720s). Francisco Álvarez Barreiro is presumed to have been born in Spain sometime in the late 1600s. In New Spain, he played an important role in exploring and mapping the Texas coast for Spain. He was a member of Martín de Alarcón’s group in establishing the important frontier settlement of San Antonio. A more personal contribution to the exploration efforts of New Spain came in 1724–1728, when he joined expeditions led by Brigadier General Pedro de Rivera y Villalón to map the Texas coast. His Plano Corográfic y Hidrográfico contained a number of errors but also provided a highly detailed inspection of unmapped territories. His report also included useful information about the locations and range of flora, fauna, and indigenous peoples along New Spain’s northern frontier. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. BARROTO, JUAN ENRÍQUEZ (1660s–1693). Little is known of Juan Enríquez Barroto’s background, but he was likely born in New Spain in the 1660s. Barroto left an important legacy of exploration and maps during his travels along the Gulf of Mexico coast for Spain. His primary voyage was in 1686, when he led the search for René-Robert Cavelier Sieur de La Salle’s reported colony near the mouth of the Mississippi River. Barroto discovered the wreckage of La Salle’s ships at Matagorda Bay and continued to survey, producing the first maps and accounts of a number of bays and inlets in the region. His skills with mathematics and astronomy allowed him to make far more accurate maps of the region than the Spanish had previously produced. Barroto joined an expedition to root out further settlements by France on the Louisiana coast in 1688, explored the outlet of the Rio Grande River, and sailed farther upriver in 1692. The accuracy of his maps and information about potential sites for future settlement influenced Spanish expansion in the region and competition against the French. See also CARTOGRAPHY. BARTRAM, JOHN (fl. 1730s–1760s). Born in Pennsylvania, John Bartram made significant contributions to early colonial American’s knowledge of the geography and botany of the colonial western frontiers. Starting in 1738, he made a number of field expeditions to collect and map botanical specimens from upstate New York to Virginia, Ohio, Georgia, and Florida. The geography he covered had long been mapped by other explorers, but the flora that filled in those frontier lands had yet to be studied. His contributions to botanical knowledge were noteworthy in colonial America and eventually gar-

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nered him considerable fame as the premier botanist in the British colonies. His son, William Bartram, would carry on the tradition through the end of the century for the United States. See also CARTOGRAPHY; ENGLAND; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. BARTRAM, WILLIAM (1739–1822). William Bartram was the son of John Bartram, the famous colonial botanist who was a founding member of the American Philosophical Society. William joined his father on several botanical expeditions throughout the American Southeast on which they discovered hundreds of new plant species, including the Venus flytrap. When the younger Bartram’s botanical illustrations caught the eye of botanist Dr. John Fothergill, Fothergill offered to finance William’s next botanical walking tour through the American South. Between 1773 and 1777, Bartram wandered throughout the old Southwest collecting and describing plants and animals and describing the Indian tribes he met in great detail. His book, The Travels of William Bartram, had a great influence on later authors and philosophers, including Henry David Thoreau, William Wordsworth, James Fenimore Cooper, and John Muir. In fact, Bartram was the first writer to use the word sublime when describing nature, a hallmark of later romantic authors. Not only was Bartram America’s first genuine naturalist, but he also provided some of the best available pre–Revolutionary War descriptions of the Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole Indians. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. BATTS AND FALLAM EXPEDITION (1671). In 1671, Thomas Batts, Robert Fallam, and others were sent from Fort Henry (near present-day Petersburg, Virginia) by Abraham Wood to explore the southern Appalachian Mountains and search for a suitable route to the Southern Sea (Gulf of Mexico). The expedition reached as far inland as the New River valley, likely making them the first Europeans to enter present-day West Virginia. Their route may have taken them as far as Kanawha Falls, but they were forced to turn back, as their Indian guides warned of hostile tribes in the area. The Batts and Fallam expedition represents a very early English attempt to forge inland trails for trade and commerce. Although it was quickly apparent that a watercourse passage through the continent was not to be found in the Appalachians, this was only the beginning of Virginia colonists’ westward movements and explorations. England would later use the Batts and Fallam expedition to make a rival claim against France for the Ohio River drainage, as their travels in West Virginia entered that watershed. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS.

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BECKNELL, WILLIAM (1787?–1865). Prior to 1821, Becknell lived as a trader in Franklin, Missouri. His work in the frontier trade naturally led to his activities as an explorer. Most significant was his 1821 push to the West in hopes of opening up trade with the Plains Indians and beyond. The trip eventually blazed a trail all the way to Santa Fe and proved to be a highly lucrative route. In 1822, he returned with a larger group and attempted to make the route with wagons to facilitate greater freight capacity. By necessity, the previous route had to be altered to map a trail amenable to wagon and freight traffic. Forging this new trail gained him considerable wealth and fame as the “father” of the Santa Fe Trail. Becknell continued to make trips to the western United States before becoming involved in the Texas Revolution and settling down in the Red River region. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. BECKWOURTH, JAMES (1800–1866). Born to a Virginia planter and a slave mother, James Beckwourth (alternately spelled Beckworth) moved from Virginia to Missouri with his family in the early 1800s. When his father emancipated him, Beckwourth joined William Ashley’s Rocky Mountain Fur Company trapping brigades, where he associated with other famous mountain men, such as Jedediah Smith, James Bridger, James Clyman, Thomas Fitzpatrick, and William Lewis Sublette. Although modern historians doubt many of the “facts” in James Beckwourth’s autobiography, it is apparent that this famous mountain man participated in many key events that shaped the American West. He experienced the first fur trade rendezvous, the Bear Flag Revolt, the Sand Creek Massacre, the Mexican-American War, and the California gold rush, and he lived with the Crow Indians for years, becoming a respected member of the tribe. More significant to the exploration and mapping of the frontier, he discovered the eponymous Beckwourth Pass over the Sierra Nevada Mountains in 1850. It became a major route in subsequent years, shorter and at lower elevation than other, more dangerous routes. Beckwourth is also noteworthy for providing one of the first African American records of the exploration, opening, and development of the American frontier for European settlement. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. BELETA, DON PEDRO FAGES (1734–1794). A pioneer of Alta California exploration, Don Pedro Fages Beleta left his native Spain as a young man to join the Catalan soldiers fighting Indians in Sonora in 1767. The four years of exploration that highlighted his career, 1769–1772, began with his appointment to lead the sea division of the first exploring party of the area—

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the expedition of Gaspar de Portolá to find Monterey Bay. Beleta commanded the San Carlos, which sailed on 10 January 1769 and, after a harrowing journey, sailing miles off course and with many sailors afflicted with scurvy, arrived in San Diego on 29 April 1769. The overland party eventually reached Monterey, and with his orders fulfilled, Portolá left California to return to Mexico, leaving Beleta as the second independent military governor of New California, headquartered in Monterey. Late in 1770, of his own initiative, Beleta began to explore overland routes from Monterey to San Francisco and scouted possible sites for a presidio and missions. In November, he led an expedition through the Santa Clara Valley as far down as San Leandro Creek, near Oakland. On 28 November 1770, the party looked down onto the San Francisco Bay, most likely the first explorers to do so. In a letter to the viceroy regarding this trip, Beleta reported to have traveled seven leagues farther than explorers had the previous year and also enclosed a report and diagrams of the San Francisco Bay. His final great trip, in 1772, was a return to the bay and exploration of the eastern and southern shores—San Pablo and Suisan bays and the San Joaquin River. It was during this time, in San Luis Obispo, that Beleta earned his nickname “El Oso” from hunting the first grizzly bears the Spanish had encountered. In 1780, while in Mexico City, he met the daughter of a Spanish captain, Eulalia Callis, and married her on 3 June. He spent 1784–1790 fighting for the Spanish against Yuma Indian uprisings in Colorado and in 1791 retired and returned to Mexico City, where he died three years later. Although his expeditions did not result in any established settlements in San Francisco, his reports led to the Juan Bautista de Anza expedition of March 1776 and the eventual founding of a mission in San Francisco in June 1776. See also CARTOGRAPHY. BELL, JOHN (1799–1868). The Scottish-born Bell joined the North West Company at age 18, shortly before its merger with the Hudson’s Bay Company. In 1824, Bell was transferred to the Mackenzie River region, where he married Nancy Dease, the daughter of the Hudson’s Bay chief factor, Peter Warren Dease. As a result of the company’s ambition to expand trade and guard against Russian intrusion of French fur lands, Bell was ordered to lead an expedition westward in 1838. The following summer, the expedition explored the Peel River and established Fort McPherson, which Bell commanded until 1845. During this time, he continued his exploration and made some of his most valuable discoveries. In 1842, Bell crossed the Rocky Mountains and descended the Rat River (later named Bell River in his honor), following it to its junction with the Porcupine River. In 1845, he discovered the longest river in Alaska and the Yukon Territory, the Yukon River. The last 15 years of his career were spent in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company at different tasks, most notably his involvement in the

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search for Sir John Franklin in 1848. Under the direction of Sir John Richardson, Bell organized living accommodations and provisions at Fort Confidence, though the search party never found the crew of the English Arctic explorer. In 1860, Bell retired to Ontario, where he spent his final years farming in Saugeen. He died in 1868, distinguished in the history of the Hudson’s Bay Company for the Yukon trade route he established, which not only proved an extremely lucrative expansion for the company but also bolstered Canada’s claim to the Yukon Territory. See also BRITISH NORTH AMERICA; FUR TRADE. BENAVIDES, ALONSO DE (1578–1635). A native of the Azores, off the Portuguese coast, Alonso de Benavides arrived in New Spain around 1600. Within three years, he had taken his vows in the Franciscan order. After service in Puebla and Cuernavaca, Benavides was sent to the New Mexico province. As part of his labors, Benavides wrote a memorial of the missions that he later presented to King Philip IV of Spain. He presented a revised edition of his work to Pope Urban VIII in 1634. Both exaggerated indigenous demographic number in order to stress the need for more support from the crown yet provide invaluable information about mission conditions and Indian life in the early 17th century. His works are fundamental sources for the history of the Southwest, as they contain the most accurate descriptions available of the towns, pueblos, climate, geography, peoples, and products of the Southwest in that era. Instead of returning to America, Benavides was appointed as auxiliary bishop in Gao, India, but died en route to his new position. See also MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. BENT, CHARLES, AND WILLIAM BENT (1799–1849 and 1809–1869). The Bent family moved from Ohio to St. Louis when Charles and William were very young. As they grew older, the brothers became attracted to the fur trade, and both trapped for furs during the 1820s and 1830s. They realized the potential for greater profits in trading at Santa Fe. The brothers first made the dangerous journey to the Mexican outpost in 1829 with a U.S. Army escort protecting their caravan from Indians. After their first successful venture to New Mexico, Charles and William began cultivating an enduring friendship with the Cheyenne Indians, including the influential chief Yellow Wolf. Again seeing a potentially lucrative business opportunity, they constructed an adobe fort on the Arkansas River and by 1833 had opened for trade. For 15 years, the Bents owned one of the most prosperous and influential trading posts in the West, where they traded with

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the Indians for buffalo robes. While the majority of their business was with the Cheyenne, they also catered to most of the southern Plains tribes, including the Arapaho, Kiowa, Comanche, Prairie Apache, and Ute. During the U.S.-Mexican War, General Steven Watts Kearny used the fort as a government depot, for which they never were compensated. In 1846, Charles became the first territorial governor of New Mexico but was killed three years later by a mob. Soon after Charles’s death, business at Bent’s Fort took a turn for the worse, and eventually William burned down his fort and resumed a smaller trading operation. He sadly watched the decline of the Cheyenne tribe, and, having several half-Cheyenne children by his wife, Owl Woman, he watched his family divide against itself. One of his sons, George Bent, worked as a scout for the Colorado volunteer cavalries responsible for the Sand Creek massacre, while two of his children were killed in Black Kettle’s camp in the same atrocity. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; MEXICO; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. BERING STRAIT. This waterway connecting Siberia and Alaska also connects the Arctic and Pacific oceans. It was of enormous importance in the search for both the Northeast Passage and the Northwest Passage. Fabled in early explorations as the Strait of Anian, a fictional waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific, the Bering was first charted by Vitus Jonassen Bering in 1728 and named after him. The Beringia Land theory posits that this was the location of an ice-age land bridge that allowed the migration of indigenous peoples from Asia to North America. It served as a route for exploration of Alaska by Russia and was an important conduit for the Russian-American fur trade. BERING, VITUS JONASSEN (1681–1741). Vitus Jonassen Bering left his home country of Denmark in 1704 to seek opportunities in the newly formed Russian navy. During the Great Northern War against Sweden, Bering rose in rank and popularity and gained a reputation for dependability and loyalty. In 1725, Czar Peter the Great of Russia sent Bering to the northeastern coast of Asia to explore the area and determine its geographical relationship with North America. On his first expedition in 1728, Bering traversed the Bering Strait between Asia and Alaska now bearing his name, in the process discovering the Big Diomede and Little Diomede islands and St. Lawrence Island. Poor seasonal conditions forced him back before he could explore farther. In 1740, Bering undertook a second expedition and this time sailed past Kodiak Island and landed on the southern coast of Alaska, where he and his men continued to chart and explore. Although Bering and his crew once again had to turn back because of severe weather conditions, they effectively opened up

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Russian exploration of the northern Pacific coast of North America. On the return trip, Bering’s crew was shipwrecked on an island off Kamchatka, where Bering died. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; CARTOGRAPHY. BERNIER, JOSEPH-ELZÉAR (1852–1934). Born in Quebec, New France, Joseph-Elzéar Bernier came from a family with rich maritime heritage. Showing early aptitude, by age 17 he already gained the captaincy of his own ship. Starting in the early 1900s, he led a series of annual explorations of the Canadian Arctic, charting largely already known waters and lands, retrieving caches of documents left by previous explorers, depositing his own, and raising the Canadian flag. Hence, Bernier’s was not a task of discovering new lands but rather one of helping to secure Canadian sovereignty over the region. Bernier’s actions helped secure the region for Canada, and his extensive public speaking helped maintain national interest in their Arctic holdings and the perpetual hope for the successful navigation of a Northwest Passage through to the Pacific. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION. BIDWELL, JOHN (1819–1900). John Bidwell, born in New York, spent most of his adult life in California. His impact on frontier exploration in the United States came as the head of the Bartleseon-Bidwell Party in 1841. He and Army Captain John Bartleson led the first wagon train across the continent from Missouri to California. Overland emigrants, explorers, and fur traders had traversed the route numerous times, but Bidwell and his party were the first to attempt to follow the California Trail as a wagon train. After passing through South Pass in present-day Wyoming, a portion of the party split north to Oregon while Bidwell forged south toward the Salt Lake. They were forced to abandon their wagons but completed the trip over the Sierra Nevada Mountains and into California. The party’s feat greatly popularized the route and was influential in the subsequent American development of the Oregon, California, and Mormon overland trails. Bidwell went on to become a prominent citizen in California, participating in the Bear Flag Revolt and Civil War, founding the city of Chico, and eventually becoming a politician, statesmen, and presidential candidate. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. BIENVILLE, JEAN-BAPTISTE LE MOYNE, SIEUR DE (1680–1767). Son of pioneer Frenchman Charles Le Moyne, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, grew up on the Canadian frontier, where he learned firsthand about wilderness life and Indian relations. As a young man, he enlisted in the French navy and in 1698 accompanied his older brother Pierre Le

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Moyne d’Iberville on a colonizing expedition at the mouth of the Mississippi River for France. After d’Iberville’s departure, Bienville assumed leadership of the struggling colony. Bienville spent much of the next 40 years as an official in Louisiana, where he constantly sought more recognition from the French government. Bienville’s tenure also was marred by fighting against the Natchez and Chickasaw tribes. Bienville’s skilled leadership and fierce determination helped to ensure permanent French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi River. He established a settlement at Mobile, Alabama, in 1702 and also founded New Orleans in 1718. He also served briefly as governor of Pensacola, which he had captured from the Spanish during war in 1719. Governor Bienville introduced both African slaves and the oppressive Black Codes to his colony. Often referred to as the father of Louisiana, Bienville also was responsible for moving the seat of government from Biloxi to New Orleans. In 1743, after years of struggling on the Louisiana frontier, Bienville retired to Paris, where he continued to work for greater French support and involvement in Louisiana. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM. BILLINGS, JOSEPH (1758?–1806). English by birth, Billings began his naval career as astronomer for James Cook’s expedition from 1776 to 1780. In 1783, he entered the Russian navy and two years later became head of the Northern Secret Geographical and Astronomical expedition to locate the Northeast Passage. After getting involved in the fur trade, Billings and Gavril Andreyevich Sarychev explored the Aleutian Islands and parts of Alaska by land. Their explorations provided some of the earliest maps of Russian America and alerted Moscow to the abusive treatment of Alaska Natives by Russian fur traders. This would lead to the establishment of the Russian-American Company, though violence and abuse would continue. See also RUSSIA AND RUSSIAN AMERICA. BLACK BEAVER (1806?–1880). Black Beaver was a Delaware Indian from Illinois who spent years in the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains as a mountain man and trapper. Black Beaver then turned his services to Henry Dodge and the Dragoon Expedition, in which he served as a guide and interpreter in negotiations with Indians in 1834–1835. In 1849, he served as guide for Captain Randolph Barnes Marcy’s expedition to escort 500 emigrants from Fort Smith to California via Santa Fe. Later expeditions along the Canadian and Red rivers regularly referenced Black Beaver as the most knowledgeable interpreter and guide in the region. He also served as a guide for numerous expeditions over the following years. He served in the U.S.-

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Mexican War and Civil War as a guide for Union troops before spending his last years as a spokesman for the Delaware tribe. He also played a role in opening the Chisolm Trail to the cattle drives of the mid- to late 1880s. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. BODEGA Y QUADRA, JUAN FRANCISCO DE LA (1744–1794). Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, born in Lima, Peru, to parents of Basque heritage, was a prominent officer in Spain’s naval fleet along the Pacific coast of North America. In 1775, he took part in an expedition to explore the northwest coast above Alta California. After a disastrous encounter with local indigenes near present-day Gray’s Harbor, Washington, the expedition split. The group’s leader, Bruno de Hezeta, returned south to New Spain, Bodega y Quadra continuing as far north as Sitka Island. In 1779, he joined a subsequent expedition to the same regions, from which important maps of the coastline were produced. After serving in various positions in the following years, Bodega y Quadra returned to the Pacific Northwest in 1792 to negotiate a peaceful settlement to the Nookta Sound crisis between Spanish and British traders in the region. In the aftermath, he remained, co-commanding at Nootka with British Captain George Vancouver. The island was named the Island of Quadra and Vancouver but was later shortened to Vancouver Island. Bodega y Quadra’s efforts at Nootka led to an acceleration of European fur trade in the area, though it would represent Spain’s last attempt to assert influence in the region. Bodega y Quadra fell ill in 1793 and died in Mexico City on 26 March 1794. See also ENGLAND; GRAY, ROBERT (1755–1806). BONNEVILLE, BENJAMIN LOUIS EULALIE DE (1796–1878). Benjamin Louis Eulalie de Bonneville was brought to the United States in 1802 by his mother, who fled France to escape the political turmoil of the French Revolution. Once in America, their family friend Thomas Paine helped the Bonnevilles. In 1813, Bonneville joined the U.S. Army and then entered West Point, where he studied mapmaking, drawing, mathematics, and engineering. In 1831, Bonneville requested a one-year leave of absence from the army, supposedly because he wanted to get involved in the fur trade, although some historians speculate that he was actually a spy for the U.S. government. In 1832, he left with 110 men and 20 wagons, becoming the first person to bring wagons through the South Pass, and discovered the headwaters of the Green River. Bonneville was the first to accurately map Yellowstone, the Bighorn Mountains, and other parts of the Great Basin where he definitively proved that the Great Salt Lake was indeed landlocked. While on the Green River, Bonneville ordered the construction of a fort that

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later became dubbed “Bonneville’s Folly” and “Fort Nonsense” due to its poor location and the fact that it was quickly abandoned. When Bonneville returned from his expedition, he found that he had been removed from the army for returning two years late, and he had to fight to be reinstated. In 1837, after Bonneville’s journey, Washington Irving published The Adventures of Captain Bonneville, a book that described Bonneville’s Western explorations. He later served in the second Seminole War, the MexicanAmerican War, and the Civil War before retiring in 1866. See also CARTOGRAPHY; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. BOONE, DANIEL (1734–1820). Daniel Boone was born in western Pennsylvania, where he learned to read and write and became an excellent marksman, guide, hunter, and frontiersman. In 1756, he married Rebecca Bryan, with whom he would eventually raise 10 children. The Boones’ moved several times, first to Virginia, then North Carolina, and finally Kentucky, where the lure of new land was strong. In the process, Boone widened the Warrior’s Path and in 1775 cleared the Wilderness Road through the Cumberland Gap, which finally opened Kentucky for settlement. Boone gained a reputation as an Indian fighter during the French and Indian, Lord Dunmore, and Revolutionary wars. During his frequent contact with the Shawnee, Boone was captured and then adopted into the tribe. Following the establishment of a town called Boonesborough, his entrepreneurial spirit led him to own a tavern, a limestone business, and a surveying business, and he continued to pursue land speculation. Boone served in the Virginia legislature and as a county sheriff before wanderlust led him farther west in 1798. This time, Boone settled along the Missouri River in Spanish Louisiana in a place that became known as Boone’s Lick, Missouri. Boone’s exploits were celebrated, and Boone quickly became a romanticized frontier hero whose reputation remains well known. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. BOSQUE, FERNANDO DEL, AND JUAN LARIOS (fl. 1675). Fernando del Bosque was a military commander who was to accompany Franciscan Juan Larios in his missionary work. Bosque led a small group of soldiers across the Rio Grande into Texas. Although the scope of their travels was extremely limited, this was one of the earliest authenticated expeditions into Texas, and Bosque left a detailed account of the expedition. See also MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; SPAIN.

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BOURGMONT, ÉTIENNE DE VENIARD, SIEUR DE (1679–1734). Born to a genteel family in Normandy, France, Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont, left for New France in 1698, possibly to avoid a confrontation with the law. Enlisted as an ordinary soldier, Bourgmont rose in rank and in 1706 took command of Fort Pontchartrain at Detroit. During his time there, Bourgmont was involved in several battles with Indians that resulted in the deaths of several of his men and many Indians. Shortly after the arrival of his superiors at the fort, Bourgmont deserted and lived on the frontier as an illegal trader for the next several years, resulting in an arrest warrant being issued for him. During these outlaw years, Bourgmont lived among the Missouri Indians, traveling and trading among several tribes and becoming acquainted with the lower Missouri basin and its peoples. Bourgmont may have offered to explore and document the area for the French government in exchange for his pardon because Bourgmont soon wrote a detailed report of his systematic exploration of the area, leading to the creation of the first accurate map of the Missouri River up to its confluence with the Platte. Back in favor with his government, Bourgmont continued to mediate peace talks between many of the Indian tribes of the area, including the Missouri, Oto, Kansa, Osage, and Padoucahs. Bourgmont later built Fort d’Orléans in present-day Missouri, the first official French establishment in the area. When Bourgmont returned to France for the last time in 1725, he created a stir by bringing an Indian delegation to Paris, where they met the king and associated with the elite of Paris society before returning to New France. Bourgmont spent the rest of his life in Paris and Normandy. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS. BOWLES, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS (1763–1805). Born to a Tory family on the Maryland frontier, William Bowles joined the Loyalists during the American Revolution. He soon deserted, however, and went to live with the Creek Indians. Bowles next traveled to the Bahamas, England, and Nova Scotia, where he looked for support for a free Indian state he called Muskogee. Bowles soon was wanted by the Spanish government for his pirating activities in the Caribbean and after his capture spent several years as a prisoner in Cuba, Spain, and the Philippines. Bowles eventually escaped back to Florida via Africa and the Bahamas, where he regathered British support and funds for the state of Muskogee. Bowles even went so far as to proclaim himself “Director General and Commander-in-Chief of the Muskogee Nation,” and he threatened at separate times to declare war on both Spain and the United States for ignoring Indian sovereignty in Florida. Because of his activities, the Americans, Spanish, and British considered William Bowles to be a troublemaker. However, to many factions of the Creeks and Seminoles, Bowles represented the fight for Indian sovereignty. His free state of Muskogee, though never formally recognized by any government, had a

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flag and a small navy. In 1803, Bowles was captured by the United States and handed over to the Spanish. He was imprisoned in Havana until his death in 1805. Bowles created tension that helped to foment years of fighting between the United States and many bands of the Creeks and Seminoles. BOZEMAN, JOHN M. (1835–1867). In 1849, John M. Bozeman’s father left his family to look for Californian gold, and John followed his example in 1860. Leaving behind a wife and three children, John headed west for the gold fields of Colorado. After a brief stay, he directed his search to Montana. In an effort to find a shortcut from the main Platte road to the Montana mines, Bozeman and his partner John Jacobs began to blaze a new trail through the Powder River country in 1864. Although the new trail had ample water and grass and was a good wagon road, it cut straight through lands promised by treaty to the Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne Indians. This trail, used by many miners, deeply angered the Sioux, who, led by Red Cloud, retaliated against immigrant wagon trains and the U.S. Army, earning the trail the nickname the “Bloody Bozeman.” The army then built several forts along the trail, creating serious warfare with the Indians until the trail was abandoned by the military in the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868. Ironically, John Bozeman was one of those who died on the trail that he had created. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. BRIDGER, JAMES (1804–1881). In 1812, Jim Bridger and his family moved from Richmond, Virginia, to St. Louis, Missouri. After the premature deaths of his parents, Jim began earning his own living at the age of 14. In 1822, at just 17, Bridger signed up as the youngest member of William Henry Ashley’s 100-man, three-year expedition to hunt and trap on the upper Missouri River. During his years as a trapper, Bridger participated in some of the most influential events in western history, including the discovery of the South Pass and the first rendezvous. He also left the first eyewitness account of the Great Salt Lake. One of Bridger’s most important discoveries was a shorter route than South Pass through the Rocky Mountains. This pass, now known as Bridger’s Pass, became a branch of the overland mail route, the site for a line of the Pacific Railroad, and eventually Interstate 80. Fort Bridger, established in 1842 in southwestern Wyoming, became a main supply station on the Oregon-Mormon Trail. His years of experience trapping and trading in the Rocky Mountains gave him knowledge that he later used to guide many companies across the West, thus permitting him to remain in the Rockies long after the demise of the fur trade. Bridger guided numerous parties through the Rocky Mountains on their way to Utah, Cali-

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fornia, or Oregon country. During the Utah War, he guided Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston and his army to Salt Lake City. In his declining years, Bridger returned to Missouri, where he died in 1881. See also FUR TRADE; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. This refers to the colonial possessions of England and Great Britain in North America prior to the independence of the United States in 1776 and confederation of Canada in 1867, though Canadian provinces were regularly referred to as such long before confederation. BROUGHTON, WILLIAM ROBERT (1763–1821). Born in Great Britain, William Broughton served in the British navy during the Revolutionary War, where he rose through the ranks. When George Vancouver was sent to explore the northwestern coast of North America, Broughton was chosen to command the second ship in the expedition, the Chatham. In 1792, Vancouver charged Broughton to take the Chatham up the Columbia River, which Broughton did, eventually charting as far as present-day Portland, Oregon. After further exploration, Vancouver sent Broughton back to England to obtain instructions for negotiating with the Spanish. Broughton’s exploration was not limited to North America, and later in his life, he charted the South Seas and discovered the Chatham Islands off the coast of New Zealand. He eventually rose to become colonel of marines in the British navy before dying in Florence, Italy. See also ENGLAND. BRÛLÉ, ÉTIENNE (1592–1632). Étienne Brûlé was born in France and moved to New France sometime before 1610. He left no personal records of his travels, but his various expeditions and exploits can be inferred from the writings of Samuel de Champlain and others. Due to the lack of records, many of the details of his accomplishments are based on circumstantial evidence or secondary accounts. Apparently, in 1610, Champlain sent the young Brûlé to live with Hurons, learn their language and customs, and establish good relations with Natives. In 1615, Brûlé reported to Champlain of extensive travels. Champlain dispatched him again to entreat with other indigenous groups a number of times throughout the Great Lakes region. He may have been the first European to establish effluvial trade routes from the St. Lawrence River to Lake Huron, sight as many of four out of the five Great Lakes, and descend the Susquehanna River through Pennsylvania to its mouth. His travels and establishing of trade networks with Native peoples greatly furthered the growth of the French fur trade in the region.

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BUSTILLO Y CEBALLOS, JUAN ANTONIO (fl. 1724–1731). From 1724 to 1731, Juan Antonio Bustillo y Ceballos served as the captain of Nuestra Señora de Loreto Presidio at La Bahía del Espíritu Santo in New Spain. Due in part to his success in relocating the Queretaran missions in East Texas to San Antonio, Bustillo soon was appointed governor of Texas in 1731. Governor Bustillo played a key role in the settlement of San Antonio, and he vigorously fought the Apaches, who were threatening Spanish settlements in Texas. He soon resigned as governor, however, and returned to Mexico City, where he served as alcalde ordinario and acted as a member of the Audiencia, the most important administrative body in Mexico. He later returned to the frontier, where he acted as lieutenant governor in Coahuila and aided in the founding of the San Lorenzo mission for the Apaches. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; SPAIN. BUTTON, THOMAS (?–1634). Sir Thomas Button was born in Wales sometime in the late 16th century. He first went to sea in 1592, achieving sufficient distinction for promotion to captain by 1604. In 1612, he commanded an expedition to search for the Northwest Passage and the lost expedition of Henry Hudson. His two ships spent the better part of a year exploring the western shore of Hudson Bay and wintered at Port Nelson. His explorations of the coast made him the first European to make landfall in Manitoba and successfully lay claim to the various river systems draining into the western Hudson Bay for England. Some early-17th-century maps even labeled the northwestern portions of Hudson Bay as “Button’s Bay,” and the small Nunavut bay west of the Churchill River outlet into Hudson Bay still bears his name. He was knighted for his accomplishments and eventually raised to the rank of admiral. Later, he fell out of favor with the naval leadership and did not command any subsequent expeditions. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION. BYLOT, ROBERT (fl. 1610–1618). The details of Robert Bylot’s birth and early life are unknown. He enters the historical record as a first mate in Henry Hudson’s 1610 expedition to search out a Northwest Passage in the region of Hudson Bay. Two years later, Bylot joined the 1612 expedition of Sir Thomas Button. In 1615 and 1616, Bylot commanded two expeditions funded by the Muscovy Company. In the latter expedition he was joined by William Baffin, and they were the first to successfully map the entire coastline of Baffin Bay. They also discovered both Smith and Lancaster sounds, through which future expeditions would first reach the North Pole and successful navigation of a northern passage through sea ice to the Pacific Ocean.

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Their expedition reached farther north than any other of their era, and the maps they produced proved invaluable to future generations of English explorers. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; CARTOGRAPHY; ENGLAND.

C CABEZA DE VACA, ÁLVAR NÚÑEZ (1490?–1557?). Having heard many tales of his grandfather’s famous conquest of the Canary Islands, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca joined the army as a young man in Spain. He proved himself an able military leader during his service with Charles V’s Spanish army in defending Pope Julius II against an invasion by France. It was likely this service to the crown that earned him an appointment as treasurer of Pánfilo de Narváez’s 1527 expedition, which mistakenly sailed to the Gulf coast of Florida. When the expedition shipwrecked and was overtaken by Natives in an inland expedition, survivors made rafts and began an attempt to follow the Gulf coast west and south. By the time they reached the coastal Texas islands, Cabeza de Vaca, two other Spaniards, and a slave named Estevanico were all that remained. They were taken captive by Indians and traded between various indigenous groups along the coast. Acting as a healer, he proved his worth, and the four captives survived for years, though under trying conditions. Eventually, they escaped, made their way south into northern Mexico, and made contact with Spanish slavers who aided their return to Mexico City. These men provided the first descriptions of the indigenous peoples of the Gulf coast and Southwest. Their descriptions of bison provide the first European account of the animal and southern Great Plains. Cabeza de Vaca’s exaggerated tails of gold-laden Indian civilizations inspired further Spanish exploration into the modern United States, notably Francisco Vásquez de Coronado’s expedition. Cabeza de Vaca later became the governor of Paraguay before being exiled for misconduct. See also LEGENDS AND MYTHS. CABOT, JOHN (1450?–1499?). As a native of Venice, Giovanni Caboto (or John Cabot) honed his navigational skills while sailing in the eastern Mediterranean in the employ of a Venetian merchant. While Christopher Columbus was still making his third and fourth voyages, Cabot doubted Columbus’s claim to have made landfall in Asia. Instead, Cabot argued that there was a separate American continent and that a Northwest Passage to the Orient needed to be discovered and explored. He proposed expeditions 39

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but failed to receive royal commissions and support from the two premier royal financiers of maritime exploration, Spain and Portugal. Rebuffed, he turned to Henry VII of England and secured the royal financing he sought. After a failed voyage in late 1496, Cabot’s second expedition made landfall in North America on 24 June 1497. This may well have made him the first European to set foot on North America since Leif Ericson. He explored the area of Newfoundland (probably for about 30 days), claiming all the land for England. The exact sites of his various landfalls are still hotly contested. After returning to England, Cabot embarked on a final expedition to explore further and engage in trade. The fate of the expedition is still contested, but the Cabot and his men disappeared along with most of his accounts and maps. His son, Sebastian Cabot, claimed many of his father’s accomplishments by joining them to his own, which has caused confusion for historians. See also FINANCES AND FUNDING. CABOT, SEBASTIAN (1476?–1557). The son of John Cabot, Sebastian’s contributions to exploration and discovery are somewhat disputed. He may have participated in one of his father’s early voyages in 1497–1498, exploring the Northeast coast of North America for England. But some contend that he later attributed firsthand accounts of his father to himself. The record is clear of his actual 1508–1509 expedition. He then explored the coast of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Hudson Bay in search of the Northwest Passage. In 1525, he made a voyage under the Spanish crown that was to replicate Magellan’s circumnavigation of the globe but instead dedicated his time exploring South America. He later served as Henry VIII’s chief cartographer, explored South America, and headed the Muscovy Company, which funded the search for a Northeast Passage. See also SPAIN. CABRILLO, JUAN RODRÍGUEZ (1500?–1543). Cabrillo was a prominent figure in Spain’s early conquests and explorations of the American continent, participating in a number of notable expeditions. Originally from Portugal, he was yet a teenager when he arrived in New Spain and began his career among numerous, more famous conquistadors. After arriving in Havana, he traveled to Mexico from Cuba with Pánfilo de Narváez but soon joined forces with Hernán Cortéz during his conquest of the Aztecs. Next, he fought with Pedro de Alvarado in the conquest of Guatemala, where he later made a fortune in gold mining and commerce. In 1542, Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza requested that Cabrillo explore the unknown northwest coast of New Spain in search of wealthy Native civilizations and a viable waterway to Asia or the Atlantic. With these instructions, Cabrillo left Acapulco on 27 June 1542 and sailed north. He soon discovered San Diego Bay, continued

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north, and also discovered the Bay of Monterey. Although Cabrillo sailed possibly as far as present-day Oregon, he missed San Francisco Bay, which would not be discovered by the Spanish until Gaspar de Portolá’s expedition to Alta California in 1769. His tiny fleet of three ships eventually turned back to winter on San Miguel Island, near Catalina. There, Cabrillo broke his leg and died of complications soon thereafter. With his death, Bartolomé Ferrelo took charge of the expedition’s return to Mexico. Although Cabrillo was the first explorer to make a reconnaissance of the Alta Californian coast and claim it for the Spanish crown, he failed to discover new sources of indigenous wealth or a Northwest Passage. Disappointed, the Spanish did not commission a follow-up expedition for more than a century. CADILLAC, ANTOINE LAUMET DE LA MOTHE, SIEUR DE (1658–1730). Born in France as Antoine Laumet, Cadillac came to New France in 1683 and quickly engaged himself in the regional fur trade. During his initial years, he explored extensively along the Atlantic coast, from New England and New Holland, south to the Carolinas. In 1694, he was granted command of Michilimackinac, which gave him control over French interest farther west and north in the pays d’en haut (upper countries). In 1701, Cadillac led a party that founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, which later became Detroit, Michigan, and commanded there until 1710, when he was made governor of the entire French Louisiana. From that position, he led numerous expeditions into the Louisiana interior and Illinois country, prospecting for ore and trading with Indians. Over the course of his career in New France, Cadillac’s various positions of authority gave him considerable influence of the growth and development of French interests along its frontiers. Under his supervision, French fur trade extended considerably, and antagonisms with England along their shared frontiers set the stage for future conflicts. CALAHORRA Y SAENZ, JOSÉ FRANCISCO (fl. mid-1700s). Little is known about the early life of Fray José Francisco Calahorra y Saenz. His influence as a missionary in East Texas, however, reveals that he was a dedicated missionary and a skilled diplomat. During his more than 20 years of service as a Franciscan missionary, Fray Calahorra preached Catholicism as well as mediated peace between the Indians and Spain. He also served as an informant to the government about French encroachment into Spanishclaimed territory. His report in 1745 that France sent sailors to the Texas coast generated several government inquiries and led to further policies to discourage French activity in the Texas-Louisiana frontier. After 1759, Calahorra negotiated for peace with the Tawakonis and Yscanis and successfully

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bargained to regain many Spanish captives. Calahorra’s career reveals that the importance of missionaries for New Spain extended beyond the purely religious. The maintenance and expansion of Spain in the Americas often depended on missionaries such as Calahorra to act in diplomatic roles of broad geopolitical importance and intrigue. See also MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION. CALDERA, MIGUEL (1548–1597). Miguel Caldera was a mestizo born in the Zacatecas region of Mexico in 1548 and raised by Franciscans. He moved through the military ranks in the 1570s, distinguishing himself in battle and attaining the rank of captain by 1580. In 1585, he led a number of expeditions to entreat with Chichimec Indians of north-central Mexico, against whom he had previously fought, and pioneered the less violent forms of subduing Indian populations by diplomacy and gift giving. The process established a pattern of pacifying Indians, encouraging sedentary rancheria settlement through annual gifts, establishing missions to Christianize settled Indians, and protecting Spanish interests with military outposts at a presidio. This mission-presidio system was widely applied at various times across New Spain’s northern frontier in centuries to come. He discovered immense silver deposits and founded the settlement that would become San Luís Potosí, governed initially by Juan de Oñate. As Justicia Mayor from 1590 to 1597, Caldera oversaw the settlement, pacification, and protection of a broad stretch of New Spain’s northern frontier. Between his frontier Indian policy and mining exploits, Caldera stands as a highly influential but often-overlooked individual in New Spain’s frontier history. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; SPAIN. CAMPBELL, ROBERT (1804–1879). Born to a landed Scotch-Irish family, Campbell was reared and educated in Ireland. In 1822, Robert followed his brother Hugh to the United States in search of greater economic opportunities. Campbell settled initially in North Carolina with his brother, but a lung ailment drove him west in search of a healthier climate. Campbell entered the fur trade as a clerk and in 1825 became connected with William Ashley’s Rocky Mountain Fur Company. While working for Ashley, Campbell gained a reputation as a good leader as well as a shrewd Indian fighter. Campbell rapidly rose in the company ranks, and in 1830, he and William Lewis Sublette formed their own business that outfitted and supplied fur trappers on the upper Missouri River. Campbell participated in and helped foment some of the most important developments of the fur trade. He witnessed the creation of the rendezvous system and later assisted in its demise when he and Sublette began supplying trappers once more from centrally located forts. Campbell and Sublette also challenged John Jacob

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Astor’s powerful American Fur Company, which was forced to buy out Sublette and Campbell’s forts at a favorable rate to the sellers. Their company built Fort Laramie, which later became an important army outpost and stopover on the Oregon Trail. During his time in the fur trade, Campbell became friends with many respected Indian leaders, and after he officially left the fur trade, he aided the government in several important treaties, including the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie. On his return to St. Louis, Campbell again competed against his old rivals Astor and Jean Pierre Chouteau in other business interests. CANADA. Present-day Canada was formed in 1867, when former British North America provinces united in a confederation government. At the time of confederation, Canada consisted of the Colony of British Columbia, the North-Western Territory, Rupert’s Land, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, the Colony of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, the Colony of Prince Edward Island, and Labrador. In subsequent years, provinces would be divided to include Manitoba, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Nunavut, and others. As such, Canada inherited dominion over the Arctic archipelagos and waterways through which many still sought a Northwest Passage. Likewise, Canada’s domain included vast interior lands, populated by diverse indigenous peoples, or, as Canada terms them today, First Nations. See also AMUNDSEN, ROALD (fl. 1900s); ARCTIC EXPLORATION; BACK, GEORGE (fl. 1810–1830s); DEASE, PETER WARREN (1788–1863); FIDLER, PETER (1769–1822); FRASER, SIMON (1776–1862); HENDAY, ANTHONY (fl. 1750s); MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1764–1820); MACKENZIE, DONALD (1783–1851); MCKENZIE, KENNETH (1797–1861); NORTH WEST COMPANY; PALLISER AND HIND EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859); ROSS, ALEXANDER (1783–?); SETTLER COLONIALISM; THOMPSON, DAVID (1770–1857); VOYAGEURS. CÁRDENAS, GARCÍA LÓPEZ DE (fl. 1539–1542). Cárdenas was a Spanish-born conquistador who was a member of the 1539 expedition of Francisco Vásquez de Coronado. When, by September 1540, the expedition had reached Cíbola, the Zuni Pueblos, and found them not to be the cities of gold reported by Marcos de Niza, Coronado was desperate to continue the expedition and discover the much-fabled rich indigenous empires to the north. Eager to rid themselves of the Spanish explorers, Zunis and other Pueblos along the way were quick to direct the expedition to other locals. At Cíbola, Coronado was told of a large river to the northwest, and he deemed it worth further exploration. He sent Cárdenas as the head of this side expedition, and after 20 days of travel, they reached the south rim of the Grand

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Canyon. He is credited with being the first European to reach the canyon. Multiple attempts were made to descend to the Colorado River, but they failed to do so. See also SPAIN. CARDERO, MANUEL JOSÉ (1766–?). Manuel José Cardero entered the Spanish navy as a teenager and then accompanied Alejandro Malaspina’s survey for Spain of the Northwest coast of North America as a cabin boy. When one of the expedition’s official artists took sick and the other was dismissed, Cardero, who was talented if untrained, began making sketches of the people and animals the expedition encountered. Although the expedition later regained a professional artist, Cardero continued on as an assistant. Cardero’s drawings sometimes lacked refined artistic qualities, but his attention to detail and accuracy proved extremely valuable to later ethnologists and historians. Many of Cardero’s best portraits are of Natives on Vancouver Island and Nootka Sound and in southern Alaska. After the expedition, Cardero was promoted and once more accompanied Malaspina on a continued search for the Northwest Passage, this time in an official position of artist, cartographer, scribe, pilot, and journalist. Cardero eventually became an officer in the Spanish navy, but no record exists showing that he continued his artistic endeavors professionally. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. CARSON, CHRISTOPHER “KIT” HOUSTON (1809–1868). Born in Kentucky, in 1812 Carson’s family had moved to the Missouri frontier, where he eventually apprenticed as a saddle maker. Unsatisfied with prospects in the trade, in 1826 he covertly joined a trade caravan to Taos, New Mexico. He spent the next several years near Taos trading and in 1829 joined Ewing Young on a trapping expedition from New Mexico to California. In 1832, he joined Thomas Fitzpatrick and spent the next decade engaged in the fur trade, trapping throughout the Rocky Mountains among other famed mountain men. Several of those years were spent at Bent’s Fort in Colorado, where he continued his service as a guide and hunter. In 1842, while traveling in the East, Carson met John C. Frémont, who hired him for his upcoming expedition. Their first expedition from Fort Laramie explored the Wind River Mountains in Wyoming. In subsequent explorations, Carson served as a guide in the Great Basin region and California, notably the Snake and Columbia River valleys, Sierra Nevadas, and Rocky Mountains. Carson again used his extensive knowledge of the region to serve as guide and messenger in the Bear Flag Revolt.

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He served in the same capacity in several Indian campaigns waged by the United States, even becoming involved in the infamous Long Walk of the Navajo people before dying in Taos. His legacy with Native peoples is mixed. On the one hand, he married at least two indigenous women and had various warm relations with Native peoples throughout his career. On the other hand, his involvement with the U.S. Army in different campaigns, especially against the Navajos, presents a more complicated picture. Carson, like many other mountain men, gained a reputation that was larger than life. Regardless of exaggeration, factual accounts forward Carson as a leading frontiersmen and important asset to various exploratory ventures. CARTIER, JACQUES (1491–1557). Although little is known about Cartier’s early life, it is possible that he accompanied exploratory expeditions both to Brazil and to Newfoundland in the early 1500s. In 1532, Francois I of France commissioned Cartier to explore the coast of North America in search of a Northwest Passage to Asia, and two years later, Cartier departed with two ships. Between 1534 and 1542, he conducted three voyages to the Canadian coast hoping to find a waterway to Cathay and establish a French settlement on the St. Lawrence River. Although the Newfoundland coast had already been frequented by fishermen from all over Europe, Cartier became the first European to officially chart the area and claim it for France. Cartier also became the first European to explore the St. Lawrence River, which he initially hoped would lead all the way to the Pacific Ocean. During his voyages, Cartier came into contact with several Iroquoian-speaking Natives. His accounts contain valuable descriptions of the Natives’ vocabularies, customs, and religious beliefs. Cartier even went so far as to kidnap an Iroquois chief and his sons who he hoped would serve as interpreters. Unfortunately for Cartier, his captives died shortly after arriving in France. After his third voyage, Cartier fell out of favor with the French government and contented himself at his family estate until his death in 1557. Although his colonization efforts were not successful, Cartier’s explorations and colonial endeavors marked the initial effort in what would become successive waves of French exploration and settlement in Canada. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. CARTOGRAPHY. For obvious reasons, the production of maps played an important role in nearly all expeditions. Often, expeditions were dispatched with the express purpose of creating charts, surveys, and maps for their respective employers or government benefactors to use for various interests. With the production of a map, regardless of its accuracy, subsequent expeditions could go forth, refine geographic knowledge, amend mistakes, and

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chart further unexplored lands. Cartography served as a requisite antecedent to settlement, economic development, or conquest. The publication of expedition reports with their maps (or the individual publication of maps) served an important role in disseminating knowledge and piquing interest in further explorations as well as providing support for future funding. See also ÁLVAREZ DE PIÑEDA, ALONSO (1494–1520); BACK, GEORGE (fl. 1810–1830s); BARREIRO, FRANCISCO ÁLVAREZ (fl. 1710–1720s); BARTRAM, JOHN (fl. 1730s–1760s); BELETA, DON PEDRO FAGES (1734–1794); BERING, VITUS JONASSEN (1681–1741); BONNEVILLE, BENJAMIN LOUIS EULALIE DE (1796–1878); BYLOT, ROBERT (fl. 1610–1618); CARDERO, MANUEL JOSÉ (1766–?); CARVER, JONATHAN (1710–1780); CASA CALVO, SEBASTIÁN CALVO DE LA PUERTA Y O’FARRILL, MARQUÉS DE (1751–1820); CERMEÑO, SEBASTIÁN RODRÍGUEZ (1560–1602); CHIRIKOV, ALEKSEI ILYICH (1703–1748); CLARK, WILLIAM (1770–1838); COLLOT, GEORGESHENRI-VICTOR (1750–1805); COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER (1451?–1506); COOK, JAMES (1728–1779); DAVIS, JOHN (fl. 1580s–1590s); DEASE, PETER WARREN (1788–1863); DOMÍNGUEZESCALANTE EXPEDITION (1775); EMORY, WILLIAM HEMSLEY (1811–1887); FERRIS, WARREN ANGUS (1810–1873); FIDLER, PETER (1769–1822); FINANCES AND FUNDING; FRANKLIN, JOHN (1786–1847); FREEMAN, THOMAS (?–1821); FRÉMONT, JOHN C. (1813–1890); GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; HAKLUYT, RICHARD (ca. 1552–1616); HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792); HENDAY, ANTHONY (fl. 1750s); HECETA, BRUNO DE (1743–1807); HUDSON, HENRY (1570s?–1611); IVES AND MACOMB EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859); JOLLIET, LOUIS (1645–1700); KINO, EUSEBIO FRANCISCO (1645–1711); KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787–1846); LAHONTAN, LOUIS ARMAND DE LOM D’ARCE, BARON DE (1666–1713/1715?); LAVAZARES, GUIDO DE (fl. 1550s); LAWSON, JOHN (?–1712); LEDYARD, JOHN (1751–1789); LEGENDS AND MYTHS; LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774–1809); LONG, STEPHEN HARRIMAN (1784–1864); MACKAY AND EVANS EXPEDITION (1795–1797); MARCY, RANDOLPH BARNES (1812–1887); MARQUETTE, JACQUES (1636–1675); NICOLLET, JOSEPH (1786–1843); NORTHWEST PASSAGE; PALLISER AND HIND EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859); POND, PETER (1740–1807); POPE, JOHN (1822–1892); POWELL, JOHN WESLEY (1834–1902); PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION; STRAIT OF ANIAN; TEBENKOV, MIKHAIL (1802–1872); THOMPSON, DAVID (1770–1857); TRUTEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1748–1827); WHEELER, GEORGE MONTAGUE (1842–1905); WILKES, CHARLES (1798–1877).

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CARVAJAL (OR CARBABAJAL) Y DE LA CUEVA, LUIS DE (1539–1595). Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva was born to “New Christian” parents in Spain, meaning recent converts from Judaism. He moved to New Spain in 1567, settling in Tampico, Mexico, where he gained renown in campaigns against Indians. On that reputation, he was granted rights to settle and populate a large region, including what today constitute the states of Nuevo León and Coahuila, and also founded Monterrey. Carvajal was allowed to bring in hundreds of families directly from Spain under his own jurisdiction and without having to prove their Christian conversions. In this, he established a large Jewish presence in the region. As governor, Carvajal aggressively directed campaigns to subdue local indigenes and expanded the practice of slave raiding. He claimed to have explored his territory in full, which would have made him the first European to enter present-day Texas. He was later tried by the inquisition for his practice of Judaism and died in prison, while his family went on to establish a lasting Jewish presence in Mexico. Carvajal’s tenure in Nuevo León was instrumental in successfully securing the region for Spanish settlement and led to continued Spanish subduing of the region’s indigenous peoples. See also CONQUISTADORS. CARVER, JONATHAN (1710–1780). Raised in Canterbury, Connecticut, Carver eventually moved to the frontier town of Montague, Massachusetts, where he probably worked as a cobbler. Carver advanced to the rank of captain while fighting in the French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War) and became acquainted with several influential colonial military leaders, including Robert Rogers and James Tute. These men hired him after the war as a draftsman for an expedition into the Great Lakes region. Carver followed Rogers west in 1766 when the latter received command of Fort Michilimackinac, located in present-day Michigan. During the years of 1766–1768, Carver explored and charted regions of present-day Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. The first British explorer west of the upper Mississippi River, Carver was asked to scout out a waterway to the Pacific, chart the geography, report on the French, and record the number and locations of Natives. While Carver wintered with Sioux groups, he revised his journals into an account that he hoped to publish. When Carver returned from the expedition, the colonial government refused to reimburse him for his services in what proved to be an unauthorized expedition, so he headed to London, where he continued to petition for payment and finally found a publisher for his book. His book came out in 1778, but Carver died before he could see it become a best seller, which ran through more than 30 editions. Unfortunately, his editor doctored much of Carver’s text with accounts from other travelers, leading to posthumous charges of plagiarism for Carver. In spite of its controversial nature, the book was read widely by both European and American

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scientists and encouraged further exploration of the interior of North America. It was also the first book to talk about a mountain range to the south (possibly the Rocky Mountains) that served as a continental divide and of western-flowing rivers that could be used for commercial purposes. When Carver’s original journals were located and edited in the early 1900s, historians found out that his editor was responsible for the plagiarism. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. CASA CALVO, SEBASTIÁN CALVO DE LA PUERTA Y O’FARRILL, MARQUÉS DE (1751–1820). Sebastián Calvo de la Puerta y O’Farrill, Marqués de Casa Calvo was born to an elite family in Cuba and quickly rose through military leadership as a young man as he participated in a number of expeditions to North America. He joined expeditions to New Orleans in 1769 and sieges on a number of French ports in the early 1780s. In 1799, he was appointed as interim governor of Spanish Louisiana and dealt with a number of challenges in staving off British, American, and Native threats to Spanish control of the territory. When, in 1800, the territory was returned back to French control, Casa Calvo helped facilitate the transition. When the United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803, Casa Calvo aided in establishing the boundary between the United States and Spanish Texas, a frontier that would later cause contention and lead to the 1819 Adams-Onis Treaty. In 1805, he led the boundary commission on a four month expedition, mapping and exploring a broad geography in Louisiana and East Texas. Casa Calvo’s influence in New Orleans and the surrounding region led to his eventual expulsion by American authorities. See also CARTOGRAPHY; LOUISIANA PURCHASE; SPAIN. CASTAÑO DE SOSA, GASPAR (1550–?). Gaspar Castaño de Sosa was born in Portugal and emigrated to New Spain in 1579 as part of Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva’s settlement in Nuevo León, Mexico. This has led some to suspect he may have been a converso, or recent Christian convert from Judaism, like Carvajal. He was appointed lieutenant governor and captain general of Nuevo León, but when Carvajal was arrested and tried by the inquisition for practicing Judaism, Castaño de Sosa fled on an unauthorized expedition to establish a settlement along the Rio Grande in New Mexico. With over 150 settlers but no attendant clergy for missionizing efforts among Natives, Castaño de Sosa’s group proceeded to the confluence of the Rio Grande and Pecos rivers, from which they followed the Pecos north. They were forced to take Pecos Pueblo by storm, from which point he launched explorations of the surrounding regions. He visited Tesuque, San Ildefonso, and San Juan Pueblos in his initial excursions and then moved his main encampment to Santo Domingo. From there, he launched prospecting mis-

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sions into the mountains surrounding present-day Albuquerque. Within a month of his arrival among the Rio Grande pueblos, he was arrested and returned to Mexico City. Although a failed settlement, Castaño de Sosa’s activities in New Mexico contributed to the subsequent 1596 conquest of the region by Juan de Oñate. Castaño de Sosa died sometime in the mid-1590s during exile in the Philippines. See also CONQUISTADORS; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; SPAIN. CASTILLO-MARTIN EXPEDITION (1650). In 1650, Spanish officers Hernan Martin and Diego del Castillo led a small expedition from Santa Fe that traveled into the land of the Tejas Indians. In total, they traveled over 500 miles and spent some six months with Tejas in the region. During their trip, they found freshwater pearls in the Concho River, and their reports helped lead to further exploration of the region for Spain by Diego de Guadalajara in 1654 and Domínguez de Mendoza in 1683. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. CATHAY COMPANY. In 1576, Martin Frobisher discovered what he thought to be gold in present-day Canada. To confirm his finds, Frobisher took the gold to several experts on his return to England. Most of these scientists said that it was not gold, but one alchemist claimed that it was. On hearing this affirmative report, a number of prominent businessmen organized the Cathay Company to mine the riches that had been discovered by Frobisher. The company received a royal monopoly and sole rights to explore in the region, with Frobisher being named high admiral of all lands he discovered sailing for the company. In 1577 and 1578, the Cathay Company sent expeditions, only to have it conclusively confirmed that the ore was worthless. While the Cathay Company did lose its investors enormous sums of money, the expeditions it financed explored vast areas. See also FINANCES AND FUNDING. CATLIN, GEORGE (1796–1872). Born and raised in Pennsylvania, Catlin took an early interest in the western frontier and its indigenous peoples. For a short time, Catlin studied law but by the mid-1820s was shifting his focus to art. In 1824, Catlin encountered a delegation of Indians and decided to paint them. This moment led to a lengthy career as an artist, especially of portraiture of Indians. In the 1820s, he painted numerous images of Indians on reservations as well as visiting delegations. In 1830, he met the superintendent of Indian Affairs, William Clark, and embarked on a mission to meet with Natives along the upper Mississippi River. Two years later, he traveled

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up the Missouri River, spending time among Mandans in North Dakota, and began a series of travels throughout the Missouri River drainage meeting with and painting Indians. By the time of his return east in 1838, he had visited numerous tribes and produced hundreds of portraits of individual Indians. In the following years, he regularly made public showings of the portraits and gave lectures. In the 1850s, he extended his travels to South America and the far West. His portraits significantly impacted how Americans and Europeans envisioned Native peoples. The portraits and a series of published accounts were widely consumed and presented indigenes in new lights. Whereas other depictions cast Indians in savage cravens, Catlin’s staged portraits emphasized their nobility and pride. While not candid accurate snapshots of Native peoples, his portraits did present the diversity of Native peoples and the depth of their cultural makeup and traditions. As explorers and cartographers filled out empty spaces on Euro-American maps, Catlin made significant contributions to adding humanity to the evolving picture of the West and its Native inhabitants. In addition to Indian portraits, Catlin also painted scenes of western wildlife that had an impact on informing Americans about the unique flora and fauna of the West. See also PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. CÉLORON DE BLAINVILLE, PIERRE-JOSEPH (1693–1759). PierreJoseph Céloron de Blainville was born in Montreal to a prominent family in the administration and government of New France. He served in various military and civil offices, including the position of lieutenant commander at Michilimackinac from 1734 to 1739, commandant of Detroit from 1740 to 1744 and 1749 to 1753, Fort Niagara from 1744 to 1746, and Fort St. Frederic from 1746 to 1734. This placed him in a position of influence at one of the most important military and fur trade sites in the region. In 1739, he led an expedition in Louisiana against British-allied Chickasaws but found little resistance. More significant was his later efforts in the establishment of French claims to the North American interior and Ohio River valley. In 1749, Céloron led an expedition through the rivers of the Ohio River drainage, burying six lead plates inscribed with France’s claims to the adjacent lands. This represented an attempt to refute overlapping British claims to the land and repel encroaching colonial British settlement in the area. While it represented important symbolism for France, it served to exacerbate regional indigenous concerns about European intentions concerning their lands. Céloron died in Montreal in 1759. See also ENGLAND; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES.

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CERMEÑO, SEBASTIÁN RODRÍGUEZ (1560–1602). Sebastián Rodríguez Cermeño (Sebastião Rodrigues Soromenho in Portuguese) was a Portuguese-born explorer who sailed for Spain in the late 16th century. His most notable expedition departed from the Philippines in 1595 with a full cargo of trade goods. After making landfall near Drake’s Bay, which Sir Francis Drake had claimed for England in 1579, Cermeño made a counterclaim of the port for Spain. Unfortunately, Cermeño’s ship ran aground soon thereafter in a storm, and the entire cargo was lost. This signaled an end to the practice of using trade ships from Asia to conduct extensive explorations of the Alta California coast on their way to unload their cargo in ports to the south in New Spain. Cermeño’s crew constructed a new though smaller ship that they used to continue south. The expedition mapped the coastline south to northern Baja California, and their reports of harbors, arable land, and Natives were used by later Spanish actions up the coast. Oddly, they failed to map San Francisco Bay on their voyage south. See also CARTOGRAPHY. CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567–1635). Little is known of Champlain’s early life except that he was likely born in France and distinguished himself in military service, defending King Henry IV and Catholicism. Due to his loyal service, Champlain was chosen to explore the New World, search for a Northwest Passage, and also identify a good site to colonize. Between 1602 and 1616, Champlain led several expeditions in exploration of vast regions of the St. Lawrence Seaway evaluating locations for a settlement. In 1608, he founded what would become Quebec City and cemented French presence in the region. Champlain recorded large amounts of information, particularly on the culture and habits of the Natives he encountered, likely Micmacs or Armouchiquois as well as Hurons and Algonquins. He maintained amicable relations with the latter and established the French practice of trading with and supplying them in opposition to the powerful Iroquois Confederacy to the south. Early encounters with Iroquois led to a lasting animosity. During the 1610s, Champain explored further, claiming broad swaths of territory in the name of France, being the first European to sight Lake Champlain, Lake Huron, and Lake Ontario. In 1620, Champlain shifted to run the administrative governing of New France. In the following years, he grew the colony, extending influence through a growing fur trade, commissioned additional expeditions to explore further, and published several books that promoted investment and settlement of New France. At his death, both the French colonists and the Huron allies in Quebec mourned his passing. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM.

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CHAMUSCADO-RODRÍGUEZ EXPEDITION (1581–1582). In 1581, Captain Francisco Sanchez (commonly known as Chamuscado) and Augustín Rodríguez, both likely born in Spain, led the first Spanish expedition back into New Mexico since the failed Francisco Vásquez de Coronado expedition some 40 years previous. They were accompanied by eight soldiers and two other Franciscan friars, Juan de Santa María and Francisco López, Rodríguez being a Franciscan himself. According to some sources, Rodríguez made a petition to Viceroy Lorenzo Suárez de Mendoza to proselytize among the Rio Grande pueblos after hearing rumors of a sophisticated indigenous civilization to the north. Hence, Chamuscado was assigned to protect the priests on their journey. While in the Rio Grande Valley, Chamuscado was also commanded to explore and weigh prospects for future settlement. The group departed from Santa Barbara on 5 June 1581, and disputes quickly arose about the expedition’s leadership and goals. One friar, against the wishes of the party, departed alone for Mexico only to be killed by Indians a few days later in the Sandía Mountains. While in the region, Chumascado explored widely before deciding to return to Mexico. The two remaining friars, Rodríguez and López, decided to remain at a pueblo called Puaray, but shortly after Chumascado’s departure, they were killed by Indians. Chumascado did not fare much better, dying en route in early 1582 in Chihuahua. Although it ended in the demise of its leaders, the expedition did succeed in exploring new territory and returning Spanish interests and curiosity to its far northern frontiers. Their reports of mineral wealth and large Indian populations inspired the viceroy and the king to promote further settlement in New Mexico. Two years later, the Mexican government sent a second exploratory party, the Espejo and Beltrán expedition, to aid the missionaries if they were alive and complete further prospecting. These efforts contributed to the settlement of New Mexico by Juan de Oñate a few years later. See also GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. CHARBONNEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1805–1866). Born to Toussaint Charbonneau and Sacagawea, the newborn Jean Baptiste accompanied his parents with the Corps of Discovery from 1805 to 1806. During the expedition, Captain William Clark named a large stone formation on the Yellowstone River “Pompy’s Tower” after Jean Baptiste, or “Pomp,” as Clark affectionately called him. After the expedition, Clark offered to educate Charbonneau and paid for his formal education, room, and board in St. Louis. As a youth, Charbonneau returned to the frontier, where in 1823 he met Prince Paul Wilhelm of Wuertemburg, Germany. Charbonneau accompanied the prince back to Europe, where he lived for six years, becoming fluent in

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several European languages and further polishing his education. After his sojourn in Europe, Charbonneau took up residence in the far West, working in the fur trade as a trader, scout, guide, and prospector. From 1846 to 1847, he acted as a guide and scout for the Mormon Battalion on their trek to southern California. Discharged in 1847, he was appointed alcalde of the San Luis Rey Mission but soon resigned, possibly because of the harsh treatment of the Natives and prejudice that he himself faced as a half-breed. Charbonneau soon entered the California gold rush but evidently did not strike it rich. In 1866, he and a companion headed for the new gold mines in Montana, but Charbonneau succumbed to pneumonia and died in Oregon. Today, he is memorialized with his mother, Sacagawea, on a one-dollar coin. See also GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. CHARBONNEAU, TOUSSAINT (1759?–1843?). Born in Quebec of mixed French-Indian heritage, Toussaint Charbonneau became an employee of the North West Company sometime before 1793. In 1796, he quit the company and became an independent trader, living with the Hidatsas and Mandans at the Knife River and Mandan villages. Thus engaged in the regional fur trade, he bought two young Shoshone girls for wives from their Hidatsa captors in 1801, one of which was Bird Woman, or Sacagawea. During the winter of 1804–1805, Charbonneau brought Sacagawea and their newborn son Jean Baptiste “Pomp” Charbonneau with him to work with the Corps of Discovery as interpreters. Their most prominent contribution to the expedition was in providing vital communication with the Shoshones, some of whom turned out to be Sacagawea’s relatives. After the expedition, Charbonneau occasionally worked as an interpreter for the United States government and a trader for the Missouri Fur Company and other enterprises. Charbonneau helped mediate several disputes with the Arikaras, Gros Ventres, Mandans, and Hidatsas during his years as an interpreter, and he is mentioned in several frontier journals as being an excellent cook but an unreliable employee. With a short stint in St. Louis, he returned to North Dakota until his death in the late 1830s or early 1840s. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE-FRANÇOIS-XAVIER DE (1682–1761). Born in France, Charlevoix entered the Jesuit Order at the age of 16. In 1705, after several years of schooling in Paris, Charlevoix was sent to New France to teach at a Jesuit college in Quebec. After a short return to France to continue his education, he once more departed for Canada in 1719 on a double assignment to assess the boundary between French Acadia and the British colonies to the south and to make an investigation about a Northwest Pas-

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sage to the Pacific Ocean. Charlevoix spent two and a half years traveling through North America and making notes on its people, plants, animals, and history. He journeyed extensively through the St. Lawrence River area as well as the Great Lakes, where he spent extended periods of time observing the indigenous peoples of the area. Eventually, Charlevoix traveled down the Mississippi River to New Orleans, from where he eventually returned to France. After his return to Europe, Charlevoix compiled his journals and letters into his Histoire et Description Générale de la Nouvelle France, which was published in 1744. His important work included one of the best descriptions of the interior of North America of the 18th century and remained the definitive source on North American science and history for many years. Charlevoix was widely considered the most authoritative historian on the New World, and he proceeded to write seminal works on Paraguay and Japan as well. See also MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. CHICORA, FRANCISCO DE (fl. early 1500s). Francisco was a Native American captured by a Spanish slave ship in 1521 at Winyah Bay in present-day South Carolina. His indigenous name is unknown, but his Chicora tribe is thought to have been Catawban. He and many other Indians were carried to Hispaniola, where Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón took Chicora into custody. Ayllón took Chicora with him when he traveled to Spain to secure royal permission to return to South Carolina for further exploration, conquest, and settlement. During Ayllón’s visit to Spain, Chicora told Spanish historians Peter Martyr and Gonzalo Fernández Oviedo tales of the wealth and wonder of his homeland. Ayllón received a royal patent to settle the area, and he set out from Hispaniola in 1526 with five ships and around 500 people. The expedition, however, was a disaster. Chicora and the other Indians who were instructed to act as guides and translators quickly abandoned the party and escaped to their own people. Ayllón died, and the surviving 150 people made their way back to the Antilles four months later. Chicora’s tales and Ayllón’s enthusiasm for a new “Andalucía” rich in olives, grapes, pearls, gold, and silver, however, gave rise to the Chicora legend of wealthy and fertile land that encouraged further Spanish, French, and English exploration on the southeastern coast of North America. The promise of undiscovered indigenous wealth and environmental bounty drove international rivalries in the Southeast for centuries. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; LEGENDS AND MYTHS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION.

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CHIRIKOV, ALEKSEI ILYICH (1703–1748). Born in Russia, Aleksei Ilyich Chirikov entered the Moscow School of Navigation at age 12 and later attended St. Petersburg Naval Academy until his graduation in 1721. He served under Vitus Jonassen Bering on his first 1724 Kamchatka expedition looking for a land bridge between Russia and North America. In 1741, on a second expedition, Chirikov sighted Alaska after he had become separated from Bering’s ship. He ordered his men to separate in order to explore Alaska, and as a result several got lost. Eventually, the expedition was forced to turn back. He returned the next year heading a search party for Bering, whose ship had gone missing during their previous expedition. Chirikov’s reports and maps were the first of much of the Alaskan coast and Aleutian Islands, inspiring further Russian exploration and eventually a booming Russian America fur trade. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. CHOUTEAU, AUGUSTE PIERRE (1786–1838). Son of prominent fur trader Jean Pierre Chouteau and brother to Pierre Chouteau Jr., Auguste Pierre Chouteau worked for his father and uncle, during which time he developed an enduring relationship with the Osage Indians. Although a West Point graduate and captain of the territorial militia during the War of 1812, Chouteau abandoned the military in search of a fortune in the fur trade. He never succeeded in making money, but Chouteau served in many capacities as an Indian agent for the United States government and an unofficial advocate for the Osage people. For instance, he and Sam Houston, the ex-governor of Tennessee, were appointed commissioners to make peace between the Osage and Delaware. In 1832, Chouteau was asked by Secretary of War William Eustis to aid a commission assigned to examine the country designated for removing Native Americans west of the Mississippi River. When the Five Civilized Tribes were removed to Indian Territory, Chouteau advised the Osage on policy, and in 1833 he and his brothers, including Pierre Chouteau Jr., prevented a treaty that would have forced the Osages onto an inferior reservation. He also established a trading post, Chouteau Creek, along the Canadian River 100 miles west of Fort Gibson in Oklahoma, where he traded with the Comanches, Wichitas, and other tribes. Chouteau was deeply in debt to eastern interests when he died in 1838 and was mourned deeply not only by the Osages but also by the Comanches, Wichitas, and many other Indian tribes of the southern Plains. CHOUTEAU, JEAN PIERRE (1758–1849). Jean Pierre Chouteau, a French creole born in New Orleans, led a prosperous career working in the fur trade. In particular, his amicable relationship with the Osage Indians

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and other Indians helped him extend the fur trade far into present-day Oklahoma. After the United States occupied St. Louis, Chouteau became the first U.S. Indian agent to the Osage. He also organized the St. Louis Fur Company. In 1794, Chouteau established the first white settlement in Oklahoma. Because of his ties to the Osage, he was instrumental in treaty negotiations with the Osage and the Sac and Fox tribes. Chouteau was known for serving as host to important delegations, including Meriwether Lewis and William Clark and prominent Indian leaders heading to Washington. He was halfbrother to René Auguste Chouteau and father to Auguste Pierre Chouteau and Pierre Chouteau, all of whom also played important roles in the regional fur trade and European expansion. CHOUTEAU, PIERRE, JR. (1789–1865). Pierre Jr., a son of Jean Pierre Chouteau and brother to Auguste Pierre Chouteau, was involved in the fur trade by the time he was 15. Like his older brother Auguste, he worked for his uncle and father as both a clerk and a trader with the Osage Indians. At the age of 24, Chouteau began his first successful business venture when he and his brother-in-law opened a dry-goods store in St. Louis, where they outfitted trappers and traders. Eventually, Chouteau and his partner bought interests in the American Fur Company, through which they made a fortune dealing with the mountain men of the various fur companies. In 1834, John Jacob Astor retired from the American Fur Company, and Chouteau’s company bought its Western Department, calling it Pratte, Chouteau and Co. In 1837, with the United States suffering a financial panic, Chouteau advised the Sac and Fox tribes to refuse anything from the government except money. As the beaver population became increasingly depleted, Chouteau turned his efforts to buffalo robes. He was known as a ruthless competitor and highly successful businessman. He also advocated cessation of alcohol sales to Indians. Chouteau continued his business venture until his death in 1865. CHOUTEAU, RENÉ AUGUSTE (1749–1829). Together with his stepfather Pierre de Laclède Liguest, René Auguste Chouteau was a founding member of the French settlement, St. Louis. René Auguste, with his stepfather and half-brother Jean Pierre Chouteau, also established a thriving fur-trading business, and the family remained leading citizens of St. Louis through French, Spanish, and American control of the area. Chouteau played a key role in the development of the western frontier thanks to his establishment of what eventually became the “Gateway of the West,” St. Louis. His business acumen, as well as his skills in negotiating with Natives, helped secure the prosperity of St. Louis as a commercial center in the western United States. He later established the Bank of Missouri, and he continued

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to act as a spokesperson for the French community of St. Louis. After the War of 1812, he helped conclude several general treaties with the Indians of the upper Missouri. At his death, Chouteau was the largest landowner in Missouri. CHOZAS, VERÁSCOLA, AND SALAS EXPEDITION (1597). In the early summer of 1597, two Franciscan priests, Pedro de Chozas and Francisco de Veráscola, led an expedition from the Spanish mission at Tolomato in the city of St. Augustine, Florida, inland up the Oconee Valley, to entreat with indigenous peoples and proselytize. Accompanying them were a small number of coastal Indians and Gaspar de Salas, who would serve as interpreter. After initial warm receptions among inland Altamahas and Ocutes groups, their expedition failed, and the group returned south and east to the coast. The expedition was the last of its size to originate from St. Augustine but did have a lasting impact. The Spanish gained valuable geographic information and learned a great deal of how the region’s indigenes thrived in the challenging environment. Moreover, the expedition returned with tales of silver mines and rich lands farther in the interior. The expedition prompted a series of small expeditions in the following decades to further pursue the rumors originating in this 1597 expedition. The expedition also furthered Spanish efforts to repel English settlement efforts down the Atlantic coast or into the interiors of what would become Georgia and South Carolina. At a time when the viability of St. Augustine was under question, the expedition served to support local leaders’ requests for continued support and funding from Spain. With the lasting success of St. Augustine, Spain established a longstanding presence in the region. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; ENGLAND; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION. CÍBOLA. The legend of Cíbola arose from one of the most enduring and influential fabled locals in motivating exploration of the North American interior. The legend originated in Spain as a tale about seven priests who fled west into the Atlantic during the Moorish invasion in the 16th century. In their new homes, they reportedly established seven cities of gold, boasting unsurpassed wealth and riches. As conquistadors toppled the mineral-rich Incan and Aztec empires in central South America, logic dictated that riches must also exist beyond their northern frontiers. The hunger for acquiring further indigenous wealth fueled and propagated rumor, and each new explorer hoped to become the next to find riches and glory in the New World. Survivors of the 1527 Pánfilo de Narváez expedition, led by Alvar Nuñez

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Cabeza de Vaca, traveled the full Gulf of Mexico coast and on their return to Spanish territories reaffirmed rumors of a wealthy Indian civilization to the north. Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza decided to investigate these rumors, sending out a small contingent led by Marcos de Niza and Estevanico, the latter having survived with Cabeza de Vaca. On the trip, Estevanico died, but not before confirming enormous riches to his companion, who continued to hear rumors from Indians. Finally, before returning to Mexico City, De Niza sighted one of the seven cities of Cíbola from a distance—shining gold in the sunlight. It was on this reconnaissance information that Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was chosen to lead a large expedition to conquer Cíbola in 1540. It was a vast undertaking with both land and naval elements, including more than 1,000 men in total. To his great dismay, when Coronado arrived at the location identified by de Niza, it was the Zuni pueblo. Disappointed, Coronado was led further on rumors of a different wealthy indigenous empire—Quivira. The quest for Cíbola and Quivira greatly increased Spanish knowledge of the geography and Native inhabitants of the Southwest. See also LEGENDS AND MYTHS. CLARK, WILLIAM (1770–1838). William Clark was the youngest son of a Virginia planter family that included Revolutionary War hero George Rogers Clark. When Clark was 14 years of age, his family moved to Kentucky, where he grew up on the frontier and participated in numerous militia actions against Natives in the region. In 1790, he enlisted in the army and fought in the decisive battle of Fallen Timbers against Native forces in the Ohio River Valley. Soon thereafter, he resigned from the army and returned to manage his family’s plantation. When Thomas Jefferson chose Meriwether Lewis to lead an expedition, the Corps of Discovery, to explore the land acquired in the Louisiana Purchase, Lewis requested that Clark, his army comrade in the Ohio Country, be made his co-commander. Lewis requested that Clark be promoted to the rank of captain, to suggest a true co-command. The request was denied, but Lewis referred to Clark as captain throughout the expedition. Lewis and Clark and their contingent of men were the first Americans to cross the interior of the continent to the Pacific. During their journey, they made contact with many Indian tribes and carefully observed the countryside. As the expedition’s chief cartographer, Clark was the first American to chart the land of the Louisiana Purchase and Oregon Country west of the Mandan villages in North Dakota. After the expedition, Clark was appointed governor of the Territory of Missouri. Although he lost his bid for governor after Missouri became a state, he served as the influential superintendent of Indian affairs from 1822 to 1838, known for his sympathy for Native Americans. During the War of 1812, he led an expedition to Prairie du Chien, and he raised the first American flag in what later became Wisconsin.

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See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. CLYMAN, JAMES (1792–1881). James Clyman was born on a Virginia farm leased from George Washington. His family later moved west to Pennsylvania and then Ohio. After fighting in the War of 1812, he moved to Indiana to pursue farming but soon found himself working as a surveyor. In 1823, he met William Ashley in St. Louis and joined him on a Rocky Mountain Fur Company expedition that year. He remained in the fur trade for four years trapping and made companions with Jedediah Smith, William Lewis Sublette, Moses Harris, Jim Beckwourth, and other famous mountain men. In fact, it was Clyman who sewed Smith’s ear back on after Smith was mauled by a grizzly bear, and he accompanied Smith when they rediscovered the South Pass. With a small party of Ashley’s men, Clyman also circumnavigated the Great Salt Lake, where they discovered that the lake did not have an outlet. His trapping was interrupted by the Black Hawk War of 1832, in which he participated. After the war, he returned to the West. Clyman explored what became known as the infamous Hastings Cut-off but advised the ill-fated Donner party against taking it. He wrote extensive journals and memoirs that provided a vivid impression of his life as a fur trapper. After his mountain man days, Clyman farmed in northern California, where he lived to be 89 years old. See also PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. COLLOT, GEORGES-HENRI-VICTOR (1750–1805). In the spring of 1796, French-born Georges Henri Victor Collot set forth on a covert mission to explore the geographic features and status of American military readiness along the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys. At the time, he was the former governor of Guadeloupe and on parole in the United States from Great Britain. France was anxious to reclaim the Louisiana Territory from Spain and sought to gauge the possibility of fomenting rebellion among western frontier Americans. Collot traveled extensively through the Illinois and Mississippi territories, making careful notes of his discoveries and producing maps. Spanish reconnaissance observed him throughout the voyage and arrested him immediately on arrival in New Orleans. In 1804, Collot published an extensive report, “Voyage dans l’Amérique Septentrionale,” which included inflammatory language about fortifying mountain passes against the United States. As Louisiana had been sold by France to the United States in 1803, the moment for the report to cause considerable geopolitical trouble had passed.

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See also CARTOGRAPHY; LOUISIANA PURCHASE; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM. Colonization is the process of exploiting and controlling a foreign area for the interests of the parent country. European nations with colonial holdings in North America included England, France, the Netherlands, Russia, Spain, and Sweden. The earliest European colonizers were the Vikings, although their presence failed to last. By the 15th century, the major European powers were in an intense power struggle. With the discovery of the Americas, this competition spread to the New World, where they competed for land and natural resources. The English were the most successful colonizers, although much of their colonial land was lost in the American Revolution, leaving them in possession of only Canada. A need for raw materials and economic growth fueled exploration in much of America, and significant colonization and imperialism in the Western Hemisphere continued well into the 20th century. The process of colonization was often justified by European doctrines of their rights to acquire lands by discovery or conquest, implemented by the Spanish, for instance, in their reading of the Requerimiento to indigenous nations. Colonization was not a unidirectional flow of resources out of the colonies but involved a significant influx of peoples, flora, fauna, and contagion into the colonies as well. In many aspects, these inflows had much greater impact on the colonies than the extraction of resources. These inflows also had significant impacts on the process and speed of frontier explorations. Different colonial powers exercised different forms of colonization and colonialism. Russia and France were marked by a focus on extractive industries, such as the fur trade, while Spain sought more for mineral wealth. English colonization and, by extension, that of the United States was unique and is often interpreted as settler colonialism. As opposed to other forms of colonization that may have had the extraction of wealth and resources for a primary goal, settler colonialism placed a premium on relocating full-scale settlement, industry, urban growth, infrastructure development, and so forth. The United States exerted its own form of colonization and colonialism as it extended control over indigenous lands, fought wars for and annexed lands from European empires, and politically, legally, and culturally integrated them into the growing nation. This process involved exploration of cartographic frontiers and a much longer process of overcoming ethnic, cultural, and racial frontiers as well. See also ÁLVAREZ DE PIÑEDA, ALONSO (1494–1520); AYLLÓN, LUCAS VÁZQUEZ DE (1475?–1526); BIENVILLE, JEAN-BAPTISTE LE MOYNE, SIEUR DE (1680–1767); CARTIER, JACQUES (1491–1557); CARTOGRAPHY; CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567–1635); CHICORA, FRANCISCO DE (fl. early 1500s); CHOZAS, VERÁSCOLA, AND SALAS

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EXPEDITION (1597); DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY; ERIKSON, LEIF (970–1020); FINANCES AND FUNDING; GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (1539–1583); GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (1572–1607); GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; HAWAII; HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792); INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; KINO, EUSEBIO FRANCISCO (1645–1711); LA SALLE, RENÉ-ROBERT CAVELIER, SIEUR DE (1643–1687); LAUDONNIÈRE, RENÉ GOULAINE DE (1529?–1574); LAVAZARES, GUIDO DE (fl. 1550s); LAWSON, JOHN (?–1712); LE MOYNE D’IBERVILLE, PIERRE (1661–1706); LEDERER, JOHN (fl. 1660s–1670s); LOUISIANA PURCHASE; MISSION-PRESIDIO SYSTEM; MORAGA, GABRIEL (1765–1823); MORTON, THOMAS (1579–1647); NARVÁEZ, PÁNFILO DE (1470?–1528); OÑATE, JUAN DE (1550–1626); OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; PILGRIMS; PONCE DE LEÓN, JUAN (1474–1521); PORTOLÁ, GASPAR DE (1720?–1784?); RIBAULT, JEAN (1520–1565); ROANOKE COLONY; ROBERTSON, JAMES (1742–1814); SERRA, JUNÍPERO (1713–1784); SETTLER COLONIALISM; SMITH, JOHN (1580?–1631); VARGAS, DIEGO DE (1643?–1704); VIRGINIA COMPANY OF LONDON. COLORADO RIVER. The Colorado River is the longest river west of the Rocky Mountains, flowing 1,700 miles from northern Colorado to the Gulf of California. It drops 14,000 feet in elevation, draining some 244,000 square miles, including a number of massive tributary systems, in the process. In 1539–1540, Francisco de Ulloa became the first European to know of its existence while exploring the Gulf of California. As part of the 1540 Francisco Vásquez de Coronado expedition, Hernando de Alarcón became the first to explore beyond the mouth of the Colorado, while García López de Cárdenas discovered the Grand Canyon. Eusebio Kino and other Spaniards used the river for economic and missionary travel purposes. In 1857, Lieutenant Joseph Ives was commanded to explore the navigable extent of the river, and in 1869, John Wesley Powell explored the Colorado River as part of his scientific survey. This river is still an important though highly contested water source for the western United States and a significant recreational resource. See also ANZA, JUAN BAUTISTA DE (1736–1788); COLTER, JOHN (1774–1813); IVES AND MACOMB EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859). COLTER, JOHN (1774–1813). It is assumed that John Colter’s family moved from Virginia to Kentucky when Colter was very young. Little is known of his upbringing or education, but it seems that he likely was able to read. He fulfilled the requirements for the Corps of Discovery, as he was a good hunter, stout, healthy, and unmarried when he joined the expedition in

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1804. After the expedition, he enjoyed a strong career as a trapper and mountain man. He had several famous run-ins with Blackfeets but successfully built more amicable relations with Crows. Colter was likely the first non-Native person to view a number of important geographic features in the western United States, including present-day “Colter’s Hell” in Wyoming and the geothermal features of present-day Yellowstone National Park, the valley of the Bighorn River, the passes at the head of the Wind River, the headwaters of the Colorado River, the Teton Mountains, Jackson Hole, and Pierre’s Hole. He served as a guide to a few early trapping parties, including Manuel Lisa, helping to open the West to the fur trade. After several years in the wilderness, Colter returned to Missouri to farm, but he soon died of jaundice. COLUMBIA RIVER. This river flows a little more than 1,200 miles from Columbia Lake in British Columbia, Canada, to Astoria, Oregon, and drains some 260,000 square miles. For some time, early explorers of the Pacific Northwest coast hoped it may be the fabled “River of the West,” which may lead to a Northwest Passage. Eventually, explorers realized that it would not connect them back to the Atlantic. In 1775, Bruno de Heceta discovered the river but did not follow up his find. Robert Gray entered the mouth of the Columbia and named the river after his ship in 1792. George Vancouver heard of this and sent William Broughton the same year to explore it. Broughton succeeded in entering the mouth of the river and explored it for about 100 miles. The Corps of Discovery later floated the Columbia to the Pacific, and soon after John Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company built Fort Astoria at the river's outlet. See also CARSON, CHRISTOPHER “KIT” HOUSTON (1809–1868); CLARK, WILLIAM (1770–1838); COMCOMLY (?–1830?); FUR TRADE; HUNT, WILSON PRICE (1783–1842); LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774–1809); MEEK, JOSEPH L. (1810–1875); MONCACHT-ÁPE (fl. 1680s–1700); THOMPSON, DAVID (1770–1857); WILKES, CHARLES (1798–1877). COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER (1451?–1506). Born in the Republic of Genoa, Christoforo Columbo probably became a sailor in his teens, working on trading vessels throughout the Mediterranean and Atlantic. In 1479, he settled in Portugal and began trading and sailing to Portuguese ports in West Africa. By 1485, he had developed a plan to sail west across the Atlantic to reach Asia. The Portuguese crown declined to fund his expedition multiple times, and he was likewise rebuffed by Genoa, Venice, and England. In 1486, he approached Spain, but Queen Isabella likewise declined, citing that Columbus miscalculated the latitudinal breadth of Asia. Columbus was one

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of many hypothesizing about the general circumference of the earth, but there was no consensus about the feasibility of sailing across the Atlantic to reach Asia, as nautical considerations of trade winds and currents risked major disaster. In 1492, he finally prevailed on Ferdinand and Isabella and was granted royal approbation, funding, and promises of titles and lands if he succeeded. Columbus’s first voyage departed with three ships, Santa Maria, Niña, and Pinta, on 3 August 1492 and sighted land, probably in the Bahamas, on 12 October 1492. From initial landfall, he continued to explore the northern coasts of Cuba and Hispaniola as well. In subsequent years, he made three additional voyages. In 1493–1494, his second voyage explored the south coasts of Cuba and Hispanola and much of the Lesser Antilles. His third voyage in 1498 crossed from Cape Verde west to the South American mainland in present-day Venezuela and explored the coast before sailing northwest to Hispanola. His final voyage, in 1502, explored a number of Caribbean Islands as well as the Central American Gulf coast from Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica south to Panama. By the time of his final voyage, others were increasingly convinced that they had discovered a new continent, but Columbus’s maps continued to place the newfound lands as connected to Asia. Although other European sailors may have “discovered” America first, Columbus’s voyage was the first European contact that opened large-scale commerce and communication between the Old and New worlds. While Columbus has been given a hero’s homage by some, others view his accomplishment as the inauguration of wholesale genocide of America’s indigenous peoples, the introduction of deadly diseases, and the destruction of Native American civilization and culture. See also CARTOGRAPHY; FINANCES AND FUNDING. COMCOMLY (?–1830?). Comcomly was a powerful Chinook trader on the north side of the Columbia River near what is now known as Haley’s Bay. He is known to have associated with many of the Europeans who came to explore or trade at the mouth of the Columbia. He traded with the Corps of Discovery and also offered assistance to Americans and British at Fort Astoria. He wielded considerable power in the region and commanded respect and even tributes from the European traders dependent on his cooperation to run successful trade. His sphere of influence, therefore, impacted the exploratory efforts in the region and in some respects directly where and when Europeans could move across the landscape. See also ENGLAND; FUR TRADE; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

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COMPANY OF MERCHANTS OF LONDON, DISCOVERERS OF THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE (also known as the Northwest Company or Northwest Passage Company). Not to be confused with the North West Company, the Northwest Passage Company was organized in 1612 to discover the Northwest Passage, along with the wealth that would accompany an oceanic trade route to Asia. The company obtained a charter in 1612 and then its subsequent voyages on Henry Hudson’s ill-fated voyage of 1610–1611. They financed expeditions by Thomas Button in 1612, William Gibbons in 1614, and William Baffin in 1615 to explore the Hudson Strait. Eventually, the company failed without ever discovering the Northwest Passage. See also FINANCES AND FUNDING; HAKLUYT, RICHARD (ca. 1552–1616). CONQUISTADORS. Conquistadors (conquerors) were Spanish military leaders tasked with exploring the Americas, subjugating indigenous peoples, and claiming their lands and labor for Spain. The most famous were undoubtedly Hernán Cortés, who defeated the Aztecs, and Francisco Pizarro, who did the same with the Incas. However, some of their less famous counterparts played an important role in North American exploration. These men went in search of glory and wealth and during the process helped explore unknown regions of the world. Most had previous military experience, which helped them defeat indigenous peoples, but European diseases were the most devastating weapon. One common tactic was to capture the leader of a local people, which often led to the downfall of a society. As the number of European soldiers was often few, most conquistadors depended heavily on the aid of other indigenous allies who would agree to fight in order to defeat rival Indian nations and empires. Hernando de Soto and Francisco Vásquez de Coronado were the most important conquistadors in North America. In searching for Indian civilizations, including fabled empires like Cíbola and Quivira, to enhance their reputations, they conducted significant exploration of New Spain’s northern frontier. See also ALARCÓN, HERNANDO DE (fl. 1540s); ALVARADO, HERNANDO DE (fl. 1540s); CÁRDENAS, GARCÍA LÓPEZ DE (fl. 1539–1542); CARVAJAL (OR CARBABAJAL) Y DE LA CUEVA, LUIS DE (1539–1595); CASTAÑO DE SOSA, GASPAR (1550–?); ESPEJO AND BELTRÁN EXPEDITION (1582–1583); ESTEVANICO (ESTABANICO OR ESTEBAN) (?–1539); GUADELAJARA, DIEGO DE (fl. 1654); HUMAÑA-LEYVA EXPEDITION (1594–1595); LAVAZARES, GUIDO DE (fl. 1550s); LEGENDS AND MYTHS; MENDOZA, ANTONIO DE (1495–1552); MOSCOSO ALVARADO, LUIS DE (1505–1551); OÑATE, JUAN DE (1550–1626); PONCE DE LEÓN, JUAN (1474–1521); REQUERIMIENTO (1500s).

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COOK, JAMES (1728–1779). James Cook was born to humble parents in the Yorkshire village of Marton, Great Britain. In school, he showed a talent for mathematics and later was apprenticed to a grocer in the fishing village of Staithes. Cook soon felt an attraction to the sea and sought, instead, to work on collier boats shipping coal around Great Britain and the North Sea. During the French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War), Cook enlisted in the navy, where he distinguished himself as an excellent military leader, navigator, and cartographer. His service in Canada during the war helped him secure a post to command a voyage of discovery in the South Pacific. James Cook led a total of three grand exploratory expeditions in the Pacific from 1768 to 1771, 1772 to 1775, and 1776 to 1779. Cook was the first European to land on New Zealand, discovered Hawaii, claimed the eastern coast of Australia for Great Britain, and explored the Northwest coast of North America. Although ice prevented Cook from reaching Antarctica, he made the first circumnavigation of the Antarctic Ocean. Cook made careful charts and maps of all the territory he discovered and explored, and he brought hundreds of previously unknown botanical and zoological samples back to Europe. Captain Cook also became famous for maintaining the healthiest crews in the British navy. Cook put his men on a diet that included fruit and sauerkraut, thus guarding his crews against the ravages of scurvy and other illnesses that often took a heavy toll on sailors. Captain Cook died in Hawaii, which he named the Sandwich Islands, during a skirmish with the Native Hawaiians. In spite of his premature death, Captain Cook became the most renowned explorer of the Enlightenment. His journals were published posthumously, ensuring his fame as one of the greatest explorers of Europe. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. CORONADO, FRANCISCO VÁSQUEZ DE (1510–1554). Born in Salamanca, Spain, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado arrived in New Spain in 1535, hoping for opportunities to gain wealth and power. In 1539, he was named governor of Nueva Galicia in present-day western Mexico. When he heard the fantastic tales of the seven golden cities of Cíbola from Friar Marcos de Niza, he sought permission for a large-scale expedition beyond the northern frontier. On 23 February 1540, he set out with some 400 Spanish soldiers, a few Franciscan priests, and as many as 2,000 Indian auxiliaries. They proceeded first to the supposed sight of Cíbola, as reported by de Niza, but were disappointed to find the large though not golden Zuni Pueblo. From there, the expedition was directed to the northeast by successive Native groups, each eager to see the often-abusive conquistadors move beyond their borders. A side expedition led by García López de Cárdenas explored northwest across the Hopi mesas to the Grand Canyon. The expedition spent the winter of 1540–1541 among the Rio Grande pueblos, exacting brutal

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reprisals against any who opposed or refused to aid and supply his large camp. Two Plains Indians captives among the Pueblos, The Turk and Ysopote, then led the expedition onto the Great Plains in search of a different kingdom fabled to possess great wealth—Quivira. The search ended at a large Wichita settlement in Kansas, after which Coronado returned to Mexico City in considerable disgrace. Although great riches were not secured, the expedition extended Spanish claims deep into the uncharted North American interior. Spain would slowly exert control into the American Southwest but made few expeditions as far northeast as Coronado. Coronado’s expedition was the first European group to sight the Grand Canyon and the Colorado River; make contact with various new indigenous peoples; explore new parts of New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas; and lay the foundation for Spanish settlement in various regions. In the process, he introduced horses, Christianity, firearms, and disease to many of the Indians. To date, his was one of the largest and most expensive Spanish explorations into North America. The supreme disappointment it left, however, stalled further Spanish exploration northward for decades to come. See also LEGENDS AND MYTHS. CORPS OF DISCOVERY (LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION) (1804–1806). In 1803, United States President Thomas Jefferson commissioned a grand expedition to explore the Louisiana Purchase. The expedition was led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, who had met and become friends in the army, and totaled about 50 men. They left St. Louis in 1804, ascending the Missouri River until wintering among the Mandans. While there, they acquired the services of Toussaint Charbonnaeu and one of his wives, Sacagawea, who served as an invaluable guide and interpreter for the rest of their trip. They followed the Missouri River, crossed the Rocky Mountains, and then floated the Columbia River to its outlet at the Pacific Ocean. Their journey made them the first Americans to complete an overland journey to the Pacific. On their return trip to St. Louis in 1806, they examined rivers for better routes and created maps. They had accomplished the first great American expedition to the West, determining that the Missouri River did not present an economically feasible water route, or Northwest Passage, through the continental interior to the Pacific Ocean. Still, they accomplished tremendous feats, including creating and charting an overland route to the Pacific and obtaining detailed, reliable, and invaluable information on the indigenous peoples, plants, animals, and geography of the western United States. Their discoveries guided and inspired further exploration of the West. Many members of this expedition continued to explore and live on the frontier.

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See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. CORTE-REAL, GASPAR, AND MIGUEL CORTE-REAL (1450?–1501? and ?–1502). Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real were the sons of João Vaz Corte-Real, captain of Terceira of the Azores Islands. Thanks to their family’s prominence, both were personally acquainted with King Manuel I of Portugal. Gaspar was granted the right to plan an expedition in search of a Northwest Passage, and Miguel helped finance his brother’s voyages. In 1497, Gaspar Corte-Real was appointed deputy captain of Terceira of the Azores Islands for Portugal. This military position offered him further financial backing for two voyages to find a western route to the Orient. In 1500, he set sail on his first expedition. He went to Iceland and entered the Denmark Strait but was prevented from investigating far into the strait by icebergs. Next, he traveled to Greenland, which he presumed to be connected to mainland Asia, and traversed the Davis Strait. This put him either close to or past the Arctic Circle, but again ice turned the ship back. After returning to Portugal, he left again in 1501, this time taking three ships, one of which was captained by his brother, Miguel. Believing that his last expedition had indeed reached the northern coast of Asia, this meant that the spices and other trade goods he sought lay farther south. In Newfoundland, the team captured 50 Indians who were sent back on Miguel’s and the third ship as proof of reaching the Orient. Gaspar stayed and journeyed farther south but never returned to Portugal. In 1502, Miguel went to find his brother and disappeared as well. The two brothers undertook some of the earliest crossings of the North Atlantic, demonstrating the fervor for exploration that existed contemporaneously with the four voyages of Christopher Columbus. See also FINANCES AND FUNDING; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS. COUREURS DE BOIS. The coureurs de bois (runners of the woods) were French Canadian frontiersmen who specialized in the fur trade with Natives. In the early stages of France’s efforts to establish and grow a fur trade empire in North America, it attempted to keep strict control over operations by requiring licenses of its trappers and traders, carefully regulating their activities and where they lived, and insisting they maintain European and Catholic standards of culture, morality, and society. The coureurs de bois emerged as a growing number of men who ignored these laws, moved into the backcountry, trapped without a license, and often intermarried into Native tribes. French attempts to curtail their activities failed miserably, and the number of coureurs des bois grew throughout the 17th century. As France

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realized that the trend would not reverse, they employed an intermediary class of traders, voyageurs, to carry trade goods out to coureurs de bois in the field and return with furs and pelts. Much like the later mountain men, they explored vast territories in search of furs and intermarried with Indians, giving birth, over the course of decades, to significant mixed-blood Métis populations. Medard des Groseillers and Pierre-Esprit Radisson, who helped open the Hudson’s Bay Company, are two of the best examples. The backcountry explorations of coureurs de bois included the Great Lakes, the Mississippi River, and the Great Plains. Decline in fur trade markets in the 19th century forced even these independent men out of successful competition in the fur trade. COUTURE, JEAN (fl. 1680s–1700s). Born in Rouen, France, and trained as a carpenter, Jean Couture emerged as an influential character in the late17th-century southern French fur trade. In 1686, he opened the Quapaw trading house and maintained the post on the Arkansas River while many others returned north. After the death of René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, in 1687, his lieutenant, Henri de Tonti, took control of the French fur trade and activities of far-flung coureurs de bois trading with Indians throughout the interior of New France and along its frontiers. Couture was among those overseen by Tonti but by 1696 strayed from authorized French territory and became the first European to fully ascend the Tennessee River. After trading with Cherokees past its headwaters, he continued to Charles Town and offered his services to British colonists and traders there. In 1700, he led a group of Carolinians overland to the Tennessee River and led them downstream to the Mississippi River. This marked an important moment in colonial British desires to challenge French expansion down the Mississippi River. When, a year later, another group of French Canadians followed Couture’s Tennessee route, they found British traders already establishing posts in the region. See also ENGLAND. CUMBERLAND GAP. The Cumberland Gap is one of the major passes through the Appalachian Mountains of the United States. While the region previously had been explored, it was Thomas Walker working for the Loyal Land Company who discovered the pass while on a surveying expedition in 1750. In 1769, Daniel Boone and John Finley used the gap for hunting and exploring, and in 1775, Boone established the Wilderness Trail through the Cumberland Gap. The lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains were not unknown to colonial Americans, but the available routes west did not make large-scale migration, settlement, and trans-Appalachian commerce feasible.

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With the blazing of the pass, thousands of settlers would follow this path and in the process open the frontier beyond the Appalachian Mountains for a dramatic influx of settlement. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS.

D DABLON, CLAUDE (1618–1697). Claude was born in northern France and in 1655 as a Jesuit traveled to New France, where he served in an Iroquois mission. In 1661, he was member of an overland expedition to Hudson Bay to search for a Northwest Passage out of the bay and establish missions with local Natives. While they did make lasting contacts with the region’s Natives, no passage was found. Dablon’s most significant contribution to the exploration and development of the French frontier was vicarious through the explorations he commissioned. In 1673, he called on Jacques Marquette to search out the headwaters of the Mississippi River. The expedition of Marquette and Louis Jolliet led to a lasting French influence that would spread throughout the Mississippi River drainage. Dablon was instrumental in publicizing Marquette and Jolliet’s findings, and his own writings associated with his offices as superior general of the Jesuit Canadian missions in the 1670s–1680s were important, expanding knowledge of the French frontier. See also MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION. DAVIS, JOHN (fl. 1580s–1590s). John Davis was born in Devon County, England, around 1550. He made a number of important contributions to the exploration of North America’s northeastern coasts, especially in the search for a Northwest Passage. In 1585, he received funding from Queen Elizabeth I to retrace the route of Martin Frobisher’s 1576 expedition to Baffin Island. He made a second expedition in 1586, and his ships sailed around the southwestern coast of Greenland and entered the Davis Strait, which bears his name, before being blocked by sea ice. The following year, he led a third expedition and penetrated much farther north past the Davis Strait, charting both the western coast of Greenland and the eastern coast of Labrador Island. The maps, charts, and reports produced by his three expeditions in the search of a Northwest Passage were highly influential in subsequent explorations of the region by England and other empires. In the 1590s and early 1600s, he

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accompanied a number of expeditions in the southern Atlantic and Pacific oceans, discovering and claiming the Falkland Islands for England and eventually charting islands in the East Indies. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. DEASE, PETER WARREN (1788–1863). Peter Warren Dease was born in Canada to an Anglo-Canadian father and Mohawk mother in Michilimackinac in 1788. At the age of 13, he entered the fur trade and spent the remainder of his life in the Canadian north. From 1804 to 1835, he worked for the Northwest Company and Hudson’s Bay Company in the regions around the Great Slave Lake, Fort Good Hope, Fort Chipewyan, Peel River, Fort Simpson, Fort Halkett, and Fraser Lake as an increasingly influential trader. He accompanied John Franklin’s 1825 Arctic expedition and from 1836 to 1839 led an expedition of his own to the Artic in search of a Northwest Passage. He mapped hundreds of miles of coastline from the mouth of the Mackenzie River, west to Point Barrow in present-day Alaska, and eastward to Victoria Island. Although Dease led the expedition, the account left by Thomas Simpson had the greatest lasting impact. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; CARTOGRAPHY; GREAT BRITAIN. D’EGLISE, JACQUES (?–1806). Jacques D’Eglise was a French (or French Canadian) explorer and trader employed by Spain to explore the Missouri River. After the end of the French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War), France had transferred its lands west of the Mississippi River to Spain. Spain did not operate extensively in much of the territory before it was transferred back to France in 1800. During the decades under Spanish control, D’Eglise was one of Spain’s most northern exploratory figures. In 1790, Spain granted him a hunting license to embark for two years on a trip up the Missouri River. On reaching the Mandans in present-day North Dakota, he was surprised to find they were already participating in trade with the British to the north and east and with the Spanish in New Mexico. In 1792, D’Eglise reported to the lieutenant governor of Spain and set off again in 1793. On his return from the 1793 trip, he cited his contact with the Mandans as a pretense for being granted sole trade rights with the tribe. Much to his chagrin, the lieutenant governor already had granted those rights to the Missouri Company. D’Eglise was offered a position with the company, but he refused it. He chose, instead, to renew his hunting license and began planning another trip for July 1795. There is some speculation that D’Eglise spent time with James Mackay because of a sketch Mackay sent to John Evans that he allegedly had obtained from D’Eglise. From 1802 to 1806, D’Eglise was engaged in trade among various Indian tribes, but by 1804, he had moved

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from the Missouri area to New Mexico, where he remained until his murder in 1806. The activities of D’Eglise on the upper Missouri worried Great Britain and precipitated their heightened interest in controlling regional trade. DISEASE. The role of infectious disease in the Europeans’ colonizing of the Americas was significant. There is considerable debate about the total precontact population estimates in North America, ranging from under 1 million to 18 million or more. Regardless of the estimate, the postcontact demographic collapse of indigenous peoples was precipitous. Epidemic disease played a major role in these declines. In various cases, disease preceded European exploration and settlement via trade networks, and when European expeditions arrived to explore or conquer, they found large Native populations already decimated. New research suggests that the Americas were not void of epidemic diseases, but the destruction caused by the introduction of vectors such as smallpox into the virgin indigenous populations shocked even European observers. Disease also led to the rise and fall of different Native peoples as one population was infected and collapsed while a different tribe emerged unscathed and ascended to new regional superiority. For example, Natives who were living along trade routes—especially rivers— and who were more engaged in trade with Europeans were more at risk of being struck by epidemics sweeping through the trade networks. Conversely, tribes living removed from the primary trade routes would be spared and subsequently boast demographic growth as former rivals declined. DODGE, HENRY (1782–1867). Henry Dodge was born in Indiana, and while a boy, his family moved to Missouri, then still part of Spanish Louisiana. In the early 1800s, he served as a sheriff and in the militia, where he led troops in the War of 1812. In 1827, he moved to Wisconsin and founded several lead mines. He served in the militia in the Black Hawk War and participated in several key battles. In 1833, he was placed in charge of a new mounted regiment of Dragoons and over the next three years led several expeditions into Oklahoma, probably making it as far as the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. During his explorations, he helped establish relations between the United States and Indians on the southern Great Plains. He was accompanied by such people as Black Beaver, the Delaware guide and interpreter, and George Catlin, the famous Indian painter. He later served as territorial governor of Wisconsin and as a U.S. senator. See also GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS.

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DOMÍNGUEZ-ESCALANTE EXPEDITION (1775). Francisco Atanasio Domínguez (1740?–1805?) was a Franciscan priest, likely born in Spain, who was stationed in Vera Cruz, Mexico, before being sent in 1775 to survey the status of the missions in New Mexico. While fulfilling those duties, he gained a reputation for reliability and was commissioned to conduct an extensive expedition. He chose as a companion Silvestre Vélez de Escalante (1750–1780), also a Franciscan priest, who by the 1770s was working as a missionary among the Zuni Indians. The Dominguez-Escalante expedition, which also included cartographer Don Bernardo Miera y Pacheco, was tasked with finding a route from Santa Fe to Alta California. They were the first European group to explore and provide maps of the Four Corners area and the interior of present-day Utah, making it as far north as Utah Lake, and the first Europeans to make contact with many Great Basin Indians. They even promised the Utes of Utah Valley that they would return and establish a Catholic mission. They failed to reach California and returned to Santa Fe through Arizona, mapping new territories there as well. Although the expedition did not succeed in all of its goals, part of the route was successfully preserved and used heavily as part of the Old Spanish Trail in the 19th century. Their expedition contributed to the perpetuation of the myth of the Buenaventura River, which supposedly flowed to the California coast. See also CARTOGRAPHY; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. DORION, PIERRE, SR. (fl. 1803–1806). Pierre Dorion was a French Canadian who arrived in South Dakota sometime between 1775 and 1780. There, he married a Yankton Sioux and lived with the tribe for more than 20 years before the Corps of Discovery hired him as a guide and interpreter on their way through Sioux territory. As a part of those duties, he was an interpreter for a conference of Americans and Sioux chiefs. He also persuaded important Sioux leaders to travel to Washington, D.C., to meet with United States President Thomas Jefferson. Dorion later served as interpreter and guide for several other expeditions. The importance of Dorion’s aid to the Corps of Discovery cannot be overstated. Their early passage through Sioux country was fraught with danger and potential ruin. Excepting the later altercation with Blackfeet on their return trip, the Sioux-controlled stretches of the Missouri were the more perilous, and Dorion’s linguistic skills and role as diplomat were much needed. Dorion’s son, Pierre Dorion Jr., went on to work in the fur trade and as an interpreter and employee of Manuel Lisa’s Missouri Fur Company. See also CANADA; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES.

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DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (1541–1596). Born to a yeoman family in Tavistock, England, Sir Francis Drake became England’s premier privateer in the 16th century and helped the country emerge as the world’s dominant naval power. His successful though brutal pirating activity on the Spanish Main once netted 30 tons of Spanish silver. His efforts convinced Queen Elizabeth to license piracy against France and Spain. In 1579, Drake made the first English claim to the Americas (in California), and he was the first English sea captain to circumnavigate the globe. Some speculate that he traveled the Pacific Northwest coast into present British Columbia. He launched assaults against Spanish Caribbean holdings during the 1580s and acted as second in command in the British defeat of the Spanish Armada, further opening the way for English expansion in North America. In 1580, Queen Elizabeth I knighted Drake for his services to the crown. DULUTH, DANIEL GREYSOLON SIEUR (1639–1710). A French explorer and trader in Canada and the upper Mississippi River region, Duluth (sometimes spelled Dulhut or Du Lhut) was instrumental not only in claiming valuable fur trade territory for France but also in establishing friendly relations with both the Sioux and the Iroquois peoples of the region. His service in the French military as a young man proved to be valuable experience, after permanently immigrating to New France in 1675, both in exploration and in honing his battle readiness for Indian skirmishes. By 1678, Duluth, under the appointment of Governor Frontenac, set out from Montreal with three Indian guides and a party of Frenchmen. After traveling down the southwest side of Lake Superior and scouting a tributary of the Mississippi River, the party arrived at Mille Lacs, a large Sioux village, and claimed the territory for France. Following this ceremony on 2 July 1679, Duluth established trade in the region and negotiated a peace agreement between warring tribes. It was during this first expedition that Duluth encountered French priest Father Louis Hennepin sent by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, who had been captured by the Sioux along with two members of his party. Before Duluth could continue, possibly searching for a route to the Western Sea, he was called back to France. He traveled as far as Montreal with Hennepin and the others whose release he had arranged. When he returned to Quebec in 1681, Frontenac’s successor, Governor La Barre, ordered him back to Lake Superior, where he remained for three years, trading and working to keep peace among the Natives, even amid the Iroquois Wars of 1887, 1889, and 1896, in which he participated. During this time, he was responsible for building Fort Kaministikwia and Fort St. Joseph and for commanding Fort Frontenac during the wars, further establishing the presence of France in the region. Duluth died in 1710 in Montreal, possibly of gout, from which he had suffered for two decades. The city of Duluth, Minnesota, later

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was named in his honor. After claiming the Northwest region for France, Duluth lived where others merely explored. He acquired immense influence among the Indians, expressed often through their lasting friendship with the French. He paved the way for successive Frenchmen—trappers, traders, and priests—to establish more permanent enterprises in the region. They benefited greatly from the natural and cultural knowledge that Duluth gained. DUNBAR, WILLIAM (1750–1804). William Dunbar was born in Scotland and first sailed to North America in 1771 with the hopes of becoming a trader. Eventually, he traveled south and established a plantation near Natchez, Mississippi, where he raised indigo and cotton and gained some notoriety as a surveyor. In 1804, Dunbar was commissioned by United States President Thomas Jefferson to organize a scientific expedition of the lower portions of the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase. This expedition was concurrent with the Corps of Discovery expedition led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Dunbar’s expedition left in October 1804 and explored the Red, Black, and Ouachita rivers. Dunbar’s reports relayed a tremendous amount of geographic, scientific, and botanical information of the region. Subsequently, Dunbar helped plan the 1806 expedition of Thomas Freeman and Peter Custis up the Red River. See also PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION; SPAIN; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY. This company was organized in the Netherlands in 1621 to compete with other European powers in North America. It began operations in 1623, supposedly to control a monopoly regulating all Dutch trade between Africa and the Americas. It established a colony in New Netherland (New York), with an early focus on the fur trade. The Dutch relations with Natives were mixed. Moving away from a fur-based economy, the company shifted New Netherlands to the patron system, which allowed for continued limited settlement. The Dutch West India Company had lost its monopoly before England took control of the region from the Dutch. However, before losing power, the company had opened settlement in the region and helped open the fur trade, both causing an increase in European expansion in New Netherland. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM. DU TISNE, CLAUDE CHARLES (fl. 1710s). Born in France around 1688, Claude Charles Du Tisne entered military service in 1705 and traveled to New France. By 1719, he had served in various locations in the Ohio River valley, gaining experience on the frontier and developing skills in Native relations. In that year, he was ordered to organize and execute an

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expedition to the central Great Plains to establish trade relations with Pawnees, Wichitas, Apaches, and, by extension, Spanish traders in Santa Fe. The expedition left Illinois country in May 1719 and over the course of the summer visited Missourias, Osages, and Wichitas in present-day Missouri, Oklahoma, and Kansas, respectively. Jean Baptiste Bénard de La Harpe was making similar contacts with Wichitas in 1719. Together, they signaled increased French interest in extending their sphere of influence onto the Great Plains. In the course of the journey and subequent trading, Du Tisne learned of Spanish activites on the southern Plains. In response to increased trading among the French and Plains Indians, Spain would soon dispatch Pedro de Villasur on his disastrous expedition to the region to ascertain the level of French incursion. Following the expedition, Du Tisne returned to the Illinois frontier, where he died in 1730. See also FUR TRADE; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES.

E EMORY, WILLIAM HEMSLEY (1811–1887). William Hemsley Emory was born in Maryland to a family of some prominence. He graduated from West Point in 1831 and made major contributions in his United States Army career in a number of boundary commission expeditions. He was part of an 1844 expedition to survey lands claimed by Texas west of the Rio Grande River that were contested by Mexico. His reports were published in 1848, and his maps were used extensively by the U.S. military as well as settlers, miners, and investors. After the Mexican-American War, he directed the official boundary survey between the two countries for the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, surveyed further for the 1853 Gadsden Purchase, and conducted boundary surveys on the U.S.-Canadian border from 1844 to 1846 as well. The accuracy and wide distribution of his maps left an important mark on the American westward expansion and the controlling of new international borders. See also CANADA; CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. ENGLAND. In 1707, England united with Scotland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain, and both terms are used herein, depending on chronology, but general references utilize England. Along with France, Russia, and Spain, England was one of the primary European empires involved in the exploration and development of the frontier in North America. From the first permanent English settlement at Jamestown in 1607, England pursued a form of settler colonialism that both extracted resources from North American colonies, lands, and peoples and aggressively installed English populations there to grow, build, and develop new settlements. England was also the primary financier of maritime expeditions that engaged in Arctic exploration in search of a Northwest Passage. Eventually, lands colonized and claimed by England in North America would become Canada and the United States.

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See also BACK, GEORGE (fl. 1810–1830s); BATTS AND FALLAM EXPEDITION (1671); BILLINGS, JOSEPH (1758?–1806); BROUGHTON, WILLIAM ROBERT (1763–1821); BUTTON, THOMAS (?–1634); BYLOT, ROBERT (fl. 1610–1618); CABOT, JOHN (1450?–1499?); CABOT, SEBASTIAN (1476?–1557); CATHAY COMPANY; COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; COOK, JAMES (1728–1779); DAVIS, JOHN (fl. 1580s–1590s); DEASE, PETER WARREN (1788–1863); DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (1541–1596); FIDLER, PETER (1769–1822); FRANKLIN, JOHN (1786–1847); FROBISHER, MARTIN (ca. 1535–1594); GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (1539–1583); GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (1572–1607); HAKLUYT, RICHARD (ca. 1552–1616); HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792); HUDSON, HENRY (1570s?–1611); INGRAM, DAVID (fl. 1567–1569); KELSEY, HENRY (1667?–1724?); MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1764–1820); MORTON, THOMAS (1579–1647); NORTH WEST COMPANY; PILGRIMS; RADISSON, PIERRE-ESPRIT (1636–1710); RALEIGH, WALTER (1554–1618); ROANOKE COLONY; ROSS, JOHN (1777–1856); SETTLER COLONIALISM; SMITH, JOHN (1580?–1631); THOMPSON, DAVID (1770–1857); VANCOUVER, GEORGE (1757–1798); VIRGINIA COMPANY OF LONDON. ERIKSON, LEIF (970–1020). Leif Erikson was a Norse explorer and son of Erik the Red, who had discovered Greenland sometime in the 980s CE. After growing up in Greenland, Erikson traveled to Norway to pay homage to King Olaf sometime around 1000 CE. While in Norway, Erikson converted to Christianity and brought missionaries back to Greenland, where they had considerable success in bringing the pagan Vikings into the fold. Investigating a contemporary’s report of land to the west, Erikson became the first known European to explore the mainland of North America, where he established a base camp in Newfoundland that he named Vinland. This tale was long regarded as myth, but recent archaeological findings prove that the Vikings had indeed found the New World and maintained settlements there for a time. The settlement of Greenland and Vinland had been made possible by a climatic warming trend, and a subsequent cooling and loss of arable lands to growing ice likely contributed to the collapse of both sets of settlements. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM. ESPEJO AND BELTRÁN EXPEDITION (1582–1583). In 1582, a number of Spaniards stationed in Chihuahua, Mexico, on New Spain’s northern frontier embarked on an expedition to present-day New Mexico and Arizona to prospect mining locations. The journey was directly prompted by the

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preceding Chamuscado-Rodríguez expedition to the same region. The expedition was led by Antonio de Espejo, a wealthy rancher from Cordova, Spain, and accompanied by Friar Bernardino Beltrán and a handful of soldiers. Beltrán was particularly motivated to return to the region in order to rescue missing Franciscan missionaries Augustín Rodríguez and Francisco López as they had remained among the Pueblos when Chamuscado returned south in August. Leaving in November 1582, they followed the Chamuscado-Rodríguez route up the Conchos River and then the Rio Grande River, passing through the territories of Jumanos and other Indians. The group arrived at the southernmost Pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley in February 1583 to find that Rodríguez and López had been killed. Undaunted and hoping to yet find riches and rumored lakes of gold, Espejo led the group westward into present-day Arizona, eventually following the Pecos River back to the confluence of the Conchos and Rio Grande, from whence they returned south. On their return in September 1583, they brought with them thousands of Hopi Indian blankets, and descriptions of the mineral wealth led to an increase in the colonization of New Mexico. The expedition likely made them the first Europeans to see the Little Colorado River. Espejo published his report in 1636, titled Relacion del Viaje al Nuevo Mexico. This work contained the first accurate descriptions of the geography and people in New Mexico. See also CONQUISTADORS; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. ESTEVANICO (ESTABANICO OR ESTEBAN) (?–1539). Likely a Muslim from Morocco, Estevanico was a slave owned by Spaniard Andres Dorantes. He accompanied his master on the Pánfilo de Narváez expedition in 1527. After their ship sank, Indians enslaved Estevanico and his master in what is now Florida. Together with Cabeza de Vaca and two other Spaniards, they escaped and hoped to find a Spanish settlement in Texas. Instead, they spent the next eight years traveling between different bands of Natives along the Texas coast, suffering considerably and wandering through New Mexico, Arizona, and northern Mexico. Eventually, the men escaped and made their way south into Spanish territory, where Estevanico was sold to Antonio de Mendoza to serve as a guide in the search for the Seven Cities of Cíbola along with Marcos de Niza. The expedition departed in 1539 with Estevanico leading an advance group that was the first to reach the Zuni Indians. The Zunis viewed Estevanico as a god because of his dark skin and presented him with gifts. Unfortunately, Estevanico offended one of the chiefs and was murdered by a group of warriors. De Niza turned back after hearing of Estevanico’s death. See also CONQUISTADORS; LEGENDS AND MYTHS.

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EWING, GEORGE WASHINGTON, AND WILLIAM GRIFFITH EWING (1804–1866 and 1801–1854). The “House of Ewing” trading company was owned by the Ewing brothers from Indiana. George Washington and William Griffeth Ewing were important figures in the American West, as they grappled with larger competition, clashed with Congress, and helped dictate economic policy on United States Indian affairs. These pioneer capitalists gained experience in their profession early in life by accompanying their father, Alexander Ewing, on his trading ventures with the Shawnee before the War of 1812. When William returned to Indiana after a summer of practicing law in Mississippi, the brothers formed a company with their father, holding $500 in capital and a license to trade on the Kankakee River. After the Miami and Potawatomi tribes negotiated treaties with the government in 1826 that exchanged land for annuity payments, the brothers devoted themselves completely to trade with Indians. After their father’s death in 1827, the brothers restructured the company as W.G. & G.W. Ewing, a mercantile business. For the next decade, they gained control of trade in the Great Lakes region, where John Jacob Astor and the American Fur Company had dominated since 1819, initiating an unmitigated rivalry with that firm. They expanded rapidly, forming the wholesale merchandise company Ewing, Avaline & Co. and W.G. Ewing & Co. as a trade store in Peru, Indiana, under their original firm. By 1838, William Ewing was elected state senator from Adams, Wells, and Allen counties, demonstrating the brothers’ influence not only in trade but in the political arena of northern Indiana as well. As their operations expanded westward (trading among the Sac and Fox tribes in southern Iowa; the Potawatomi at Council Bluffs, Iowa; and the Osage in southeastern Kansas), the Ewings’ influence in Indian affairs deepened. They clashed with the Bureau of Indian Affairs over trade restrictions and were involved with negotiations of Indian removal measures that resulted in massive dispossession and displacement, specifically the removal of the Miami from Indiana and Ohio to Kansas in 1846. Their greatest trouble came with Indian Commissioner Medill, appointed in 1845. He was committed to reforming Indian trade relations, which was realized with the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act of 1847. The act modified annuity payments by distributing money among heads of families, not to the chief, and tightened the liquor trade. The resulting losses to the company provoked a bitter battle between the Ewings and other traders against Medill. The Ewings had extended immense amounts of credit to Indians during the interval between annuity payments, with only the hope of that payment as capital—they would lose huge claims for these payments in Washington. However, the setbacks were small compared with the overall financial profits reaped in the trading business. Although the brothers believed that without their aid the Indian tribes would have suffered or even perished, they often were accused of taking advantage

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of the Indians, plundering their payments without a fair concern toward the tribes’ well-being, and advocating for their removal. Regardless of motivations, the Ewings were among the most influential forces dictating federal Indian policy from Washington until their deaths.

F FERRIS, WARREN ANGUS (1810–1873). Originally from New York, Warren Ferris was a student of civil engineering. By age 19, however, he had moved to St. Louis and joined the American Fur Company. Soon, he joined a fur trade expedition heading west. He worked as a trapper through the northern Rocky Mountains and in 1834 joined an expedition into the Yellowstone region, recording accounts of the unique geothermal features in the region. His published journals and maps provided accurate accounts of the Yellowstone region and the Rockies, areas he came to know well through his explorations. Eventually, he settled near Dallas, Texas, and worked as a surveyor. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. FIDLER, PETER (1769–1822). Peter Fidler was born in Derbyshire, Great Britain, and spent the majority of his life working for the Hudson’s Bay Company deep in the Canadian north. After originally being stationed at York Factory in 1788, he transferred to Cumberland House and joined an expedition to discover a Northwest Passage around the Great Slave Lake and Lake Athabasca. The expedition lasted from 1790 to 1792, and Fidler brought back a wealth of cartographic information of the region. Moreover, his reports contained invaluable information about indigenous peoples of the far north and how they thrived in the challenging environment. This information was utilized by the Hudson’s Bay Company to further their expansion into the far north and northwest of the continent. Over the course of this subsequent career with the Hudson’s Bay Company, Fidler founded a number of trading posts, including Cartlon House, Bolsover House, and Chesterfield House, and directed affairs at Cumberland House and Nottingham House for a number of years. See also CANADA; CARTOGRAPHY; FUR TRADE; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION.

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FINANCES AND FUNDING. Over the course of the centuries when European empires explored and developed North American frontiers, enormous sums of money were spent on the ventures. Planning and outfitting exploratory expeditions, whether maritime or land based, required capital investment, and few explorers could afford such undertakings without sponsors. Many turned to imperial powers, and government expeditions represent a large portion of frontier exploration. Private companies, such as those involved in the fur trade, often financed exploration. The American Fur Company, the Hudson’s Bay Company, the Missouri Fur Company, the North West Company, the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, and the Russian-American Company are the primary examples. From Europe, jointstock companies or groups of private investors also financed exploration. The Cathay Company, the Company of Merchants of London, and the Muscovy Company represent these types of private sponsors. As explorers were so entirely dependent on outside funding for their expeditions, this sometimes encouraged them to exaggerate what they anticipated to find in their petitions for funds or to falsify reports on their return to increase the chances for further financing. This led to the perpetuation of many frontier legends and myths, mostly rooted in tales that supported the greatest financial return for potential investors or sponsors. See also AYLLÓN, LUCAS VÁZQUEZ DE (1475?–1526); CABOT, JOHN (1450?–1499?); CARTOGRAPHY; COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER (1451?–1506); CORTE-REAL, GASPAR, AND MIGUEL CORTE-REAL (1450?–1501? and ?–1502); FRANKLIN, JOHN (1786–1847); FROBISHER, MARTIN (ca. 1535–1594); FUCA, JUAN DE (APOSTOLOS VALERIANOS OR IOANNIS PHOKAS) (1536–1602); GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (1539–1583); HAKLUYT, RICHARD (ca. 1552–1616); IVES AND MACOMB EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859); MCTAVISH, SIMON (1750–1804); PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. FINLEY, JOHN (1722?–1769?). Originally from Ireland, John Finley moved to Pennsylvania in his early 20s and in 1744 received a license to trade with the Indians. In 1752, he was captured by Indians and taken down the Ohio River, where he became one of the first Europeans to see the bluegrass region of Kentucky. Eventually, he was released and later served in Braddock’s disastrous campaign in the French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War). It was during his service that he met and befriended Daniel Boone. In 1769, Finley served as guide when Boone led a small group through the Cumberland Gap and explored the Yadkin region of North Carolina looking for new lands to settle. This group was captured by Indians but managed to escape. On a subsequent trip, Finley disappeared, but not before he had helped open early settlement over the Appalachian Mountains.

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See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. FITZPATRICK, THOMAS (1799–1854). In the winter of 1822–1823, an Irish immigrant, Thomas Fitzpatrick, arrived in St. Louis and responded to calls by the Rocky Mountain Fur Company of William Henry Ashley and Andrew Henry looking for fur trappers. Among his contemporaries were Jedediah Smith, James Bridger, Étienne Provost, Louis Vasquez, and William Lewis Sublette. Fitzpatrick survived the famous Arikara attack on the Rocky Mountain Fur Company in 1823. He participated in the first American fur trade rendezvous held at Henry’s Fork in 1825 and became part owner of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company by 1830. In 1824, he and Jedediah Smith rediscovered the important South Pass. Fitzpatrick later guided the Whitman-Spalding party overland to Oregon and also served as a guide for Charles C. Frémont’s second expedition. During the Mexican War, Fitzpatrick served as a scout for General Stephen Watts Kearny and in 1846 was appointed Indian agent for the upper Platte and Arkansas rivers. He also helped mediate the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty, making arrangements for the overland trail with the Arapaho, Cheyenne, Shoshone, and Sioux. He had survived several hair-raising adventures in the wilderness as a trapper, but Fitzpatrick succumbed to pneumonia while on government business in Washington, D.C., in 1854. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. FRANCE. The North American interests of France began with the Frenchfunded expedition of Giovanni de Verrazano in 1524 and was followed a decade later by expeditions of Jacques Cartier and the establishment of the first French settlement at Quebec City in 1541. French settlement and exploration was centered in the eastern portions of the continent. With centers along the St. Lawrence River, upper Great Lakes, and Mississippi River delta, France sent generations of explorers into the interior to explore and chart waterways, search for a Northwest Passage, and collect information on regional resources. The regions were collectively referred to as New France. A major factor in French colonization and colonialism was deep involvement in the fur trade. Often, French traders traveled deep into the interior, intermarried with Natives (the Métis offspring of which grew into a substantial population), and used new familial ties to further fur trade activities. This was unique to France and not practiced by England, Spain, or Russia in their colonial projects. By the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, all of France’s colonial possessions in North America had been transferred to the domain of England (later Canada) and the United States by treaty, sale, or war.

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See also ALLOUEZ, CLAUDE-JEAN (1620–1689); BERNIER, JOSEPH-ELZÉAR (1852–1934); BIENVILLE, JEAN-BAPTISTE LE MOYNE, SIEUR DE (1680–1767); BOURGMONT, ÉTIENNE DE VENIARD, SIEUR DE (1679–1734); BRÛLÉ, ÉTIENNE (1592–1632); CADILLAC, ANTOINE LAUMET DE LA MOTHE, SIEUR DE (1658–1730); CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567–1635); CHARLEVOIX, PIERREFRANÇOIS-XAVIER DE (1682–1761); COLLOT, GEORGES-HENRIVICTOR (1750–1805); COUREURS DE BOIS; COUTURE, JEAN (fl. 1680s–1700s); DABLON, CLAUDE (1618–1697); DULUTH, DANIEL GREYSOLON SIEUR (1639–1710); DU TISNE, CLAUDE CHARLES (fl. 1710s); GROSEILLIERS, MÉDARD CHOUART, SIEUR DES (1618–1696?); HENNEPIN, LOUIS (1626–1705?); JOGUES, ISAAC (1607–1646); JOLLIET, LOUIS (1645–1700); LA HARPE, JEAN-BAPTISTE BÉNARD DE (1683–1765); LA SALLE, RENÉ-ROBERT CAVELIER, SIEUR DE (1643–1687); LAHONTAN, LOUIS ARMAND DE LOM D’ARCE, BARON DE (1666–1713/1715?); LAROCQUE, FRANÇOISANTOINE (1784–1869); LAUDONNIÈRE, RENÉ GOULAINE DE (1529?–1574); LE MOYNE D’IBERVILLE, PIERRE (1661–1706); LE PEROUSE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS GALAUP, COMTE DE (1741–1788?); LE SUEUR, PIERRE-CHARLES (1657–1704); MALLET, PIERRE-ANTOINE (1700–1753?); MARQUETTE, JACQUES (1636–1675); MÉZIÈRES, ATHANASE (OR ATHANAZE) (fl. 1770s); MICHAUX, ANDRÉ (1746–1802); NICOLET, JEAN (1598–1642); PERROT, NICOLAS (1644–1717); RADISSON, PIERRE-ESPRIT (1636–1710); RIBAULT, JEAN (1520–1565); ST. DENIS, LOUIS JUCHEREAU DE (1676–1744); TONTI, HENRI DE (1650?–1704); TRUTEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1748–1827); VÉRENDRYE, LOUIS JOSEPH GAULTIER DE (1717–1761); VÉRENDRYE, PIERRE GAULTIER DE VARRENNES DE LA (1685–1749); VOYAGEURS. FRANKLIN, JOHN (1786–1847). John Franklin was a British naval officer who undertook a number of expeditions in the early 19th century to discover a Northwest Passage through the Canadian Arctic. His early naval career featured distinguished service during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812, and these successes placed him in a position of leadership where he could direct exploratory efforts. First, from 1819 to 1822, he led an overland expedition from Hudson Bay to follow the Coppermine River north to its outlet into the Arctic Ocean and then chart the coast and lands eastward. The expedition proved disastrous, suffering from troubled relations with Indians and Europeans in the regional fur trade. It spurred rumors of murder and cannibalism, failed to chart much of the territory set forth in the original plan, and resulted in the death of over half the party. Nevertheless, valuable information was collected, Franklin’s published report was read widely, and the popularity allowed him to secure funding for further expeditions. In 1825, he

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led an expedition to travel westward from the mouth of the Mackenzie River. He successfully reached its outlet, only the second European to do so after Alexander Mackenzie in 1789, and charted a few hundred miles westward, but little else was accomplished. He was appointed to command one final expedition in 1845. Sailing under steam power, the expedition was far better equipped and more technologically advanced than those he had led decades earlier. Nevertheless, sometime after being last seen in the summer of 1845 in Lancaster Sound, the expedition went missing. Later reports suggested that it became icebound and perished, and more recent studies strongly suggest that the crew resorted to cannibalism in their desperation. The tragedy of the lost expedition marked the ebbing interest and funding that Great Britain would provide to such endeavors. The location of the wreckage remained one of the greatest mysteries of Arctic history until, in 2014, Canada announced that it had found the remains of Franklin’s ship on the seafloor of Victoria Strait, just off the northwest coast of King William Island. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; CARTOGRAPHY; FINANCES AND FUNDING; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. FRASER, SIMON (1776–1862). Born during the Revolutionary War and the eighth and youngest child of a British army captain, Fraser was uprooted when his mother fled to Canada with her children after his father was taken prisoner and later died. At age 14, Fraser moved from Quebec to Montreal, where he apprenticed with the North West Company. In 1792, he began 13 years of work in the Athabasca department, during which time he was made full partner at age 25. His assignment to extend company operations west of the Rocky Mountains came in 1805. Fraser’s transfer reflected a definite decision of the company to build trading posts, take possession of the country, and explore travel routes in the unexplored frontier, unlike Alexander Mackenzie’s earlier reconnaissance trips to the Pacific. In the autumn of 1805, Fraser ascended the Peace River and established a trading post, Rocky Mountain Portage House, followed by the establishment of Trout Lake Fort (later Fort McLeod) at McLeod Lake. Fraser called this first permanent European settlement west of the Rockies in Canada New Caledonia. In 1806, he built Fort St. James on Stuart Lake and later Fort Fraser on Fraser Lake. Encouraged by information from the Natives living along the Fraser River, Fraser built Fort George the following year as a starting point for a trip down the Stuart River in hopes of reaching Mackenzie’s route. He left on 28 May 1808, and after 13 days of running treacherous rapids, the group abandoned its canoes and set out on foot. Realizing they had never reached the Columbia River and faced with Native hostilities and forced to flee, the crew nearly mutinied. After quelling the panic, Fraser returned with his men to Fort George on 6 August 1808. He spent 10 more years engaged in the North West Company’s fur trade until his retirement in 1818. Settling near

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Cornwall, Ontario, he married in 1820 and lived out his life until 18 August 1862, when he died and was buried in a single grave with his wife, who had died a day later. Fraser was among the last surviving partners of the North West Company and instigated settlement of the western frontier in Canada. His efforts and fort building created the first permanent establishments in British Columbia and expanded the trade of the North West Company. Furthermore, his claim influenced the establishment of Canada’s boundary at the 49th parallel after the War of 1812 since he, as a British subject, was the first European to establish permanent settlements in the area. See also ENGLAND. FREEMAN, THOMAS (?–1821). Thomas Freeman migrated to the United States from Ireland in 1784 and at some point gained experience in topography and surveying, including a surveying job of the District of Columbia. In 1796, he was sent to explore and survey the borders between the United States and New Spain in the Southwest, but the project collapsed when Freeman and his partner Andrew Ellicott could not work together. In 1804, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson sent Freeman to explore the new Louisiana Purchase borders along the Red and Arkansas rivers. Freeman left in April 1806, accompanied by soldiers, guides, and Peter Custis, a naturalist. After traveling roughly 600 miles in flatboats, the men were forced back down the river by Spanish soldiers. The party established contact with a number of indigenous peoples. Freeman continued his surveying work and later mapped the Alabama-Tennessee border as well as lands south of Tennessee. Jefferson sent out several other expeditions, including the Corps of Discovery and Zebulon Pike, who, along with Freeman, provided some of the earliest descriptions, journals, and maps of the southwestern borderlands of the United States. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS. FRÉMONT, JOHN C. (1813–1890). Born to a French émigré father and a Virginia socialite mother, John C. Frémont drifted with his family across the southeastern United States, eventually settling in Charleston, South Carolina, where Frémont received a preparatory school education. Frémont worked for the U.S. Topographical Engineers as a surveyor in Georgia, mapping out the lands acquired from the recent dispassion of the Cherokee nation. He gained frontier experience on a government survey of the lands between the upper Missouri River and upper Mississippi River. With his marriage to Jessie Benton, he gained a powerful political ally in his father-in-law, Thomas Hart Benton, a Jacksonian senator from Missouri. With such support, Frémont conducted several scientific surveys of the Oregon Trail in 1842 (South Pass), 1843 (Rocky Mountains), 1844 (California), 1848 (Southern

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Pacific Railroad route), and 1853 (Great Basin Railroad route). His reports, skillfully edited by his wife, Jessie, propelled him and his scout, Christopher “Kit” Houston Carson, to fame and popularized and romanticized the Oregon Trail and western expansion. He helped to lead the Bear Flag Revolt, which liberated California from Mexico (and was arrested for it despite having been instructed to do so when dispatched to California). He explored and mapped the Great Basin, definitively proving that the Buenaventura River did not exist. After his exploring days, Frémont resigned from the army, became a fabulously wealthy gold miner and a U.S. senator for California, and the first presidential candidate for the Republican Party in 1856. A controversial Civil War general, Frémont was relieved of his command in 1862 and resigned from the army in 1864. Frémont later was appointed Arizona territorial governor and then major general but died shortly thereafter in relative obscurity after having lost his fortune. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. FROBISHER, MARTIN (ca. 1535–1594). Martin Frobisher was born in Wakefield, England, and raised in London. He first went to sea at age nine and eventually captained his own ship as a pirate. Boasting considerable expertise in navigation, he became a significant figure in some of the earliest European attempts to find a Northwest Passage around or through North America to reach Asia. He conducted three expeditions, all of which explored the islands of the Canadian Arctic and northeastern coast. The first, funded by the Muscovy Company in 1576, mapped Labrador and Baffin Island. The second voyage, organized by the Cathay Company in 1577, collected ore, suspected to contain gold, around Frobisher Bay on Hall Island. His third voyage in 1578, now blessed by Queen Elizabeth I, was launched to establish a colony and conduct further collection of ore, which was disappointingly found to be iron pyrite. He died of a gunshot wound while commanding during the Anglo-Spanish War in 1594. See also FINANCES AND FUNDING. FUCA, JUAN DE (APOSTOLOS VALERIANOS OR IOANNIS PHOKAS) (1536–1602). Born in Greece as Apostolos Valerianos or Ioannis Phokas, Juan de Fuca played a short but intriguing role in the history of the search for a Northwest Passage. By the time of his primary voyage in 1592 from New Spain up the Pacific coast, he was a seasoned pilot and had commanded various expeditions elsewhere, including one failed expedition on the same route. According to his account, de Fuca sailed north to presentday Washington State, where he found the fabled Strait of Anian. He claimed to have sailed through it and after 20 days exited into the North

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Atlantic Ocean. When he returned to New Spain to collect pay for his discovery, he found officials doubting his claims. He later returned to Spain and there found the crown likewise doubtful. His account was published by Michael Lok, and years later the inlet between the Olympic Peninsula of Washington State and Vancouver Island of British Columbia was named after him, the Strait of Juan de Fuca. It lay at the correct latitude with his account’s strait and matched some of his physical descriptions, so it is likely that he actually did sight the waterway. While few believed de Fuca’s story, it illustrates the eagerness explorers exhibited in telling financiers what they most desired to hear. See also FINANCES AND FUNDING; LEGENDS AND MYTHS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. FUR TRADE. The fur trade was one of the major factors that encouraged exploration as French, Dutch, Russian, English, and American trappers all tried their hand in this lucrative business. These trappers and traders were always in the frontier regions, where they helped create trails, maps, and accounts of the new territories. Especially important was their role in establishing contact with indigenous peoples, often living among them. The French were probably the most heavily involved, with Jacques Cartier essentially beginning the trade in 1534. With Samuel de Champlain, the French really began their colonization and colonialism efforts, and it quickly became clear that the economy of New France was built on furs. Through their pursuits, the French eventually expanded their empire along the Mississippi River to the Gulf coast. Unique to the French were the classes of couereurs de bois and voyageurs who operated deep into the continental interior. England, most notably the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company, also competed in the fur trade. Overlapping claims with France and the United States led to considerable competition for Native allegiance and trade relationships and for control of regional resources. The Russians took their share of pelts, mostly from Alaska, where the RussianAmerican Company was granted a monopoly. Theirs was primarily a maritime fur trade, focused on sea otter pelts. Although American historiography tends to feature the interior fur trade, the maritime was no less significant or lucrative. Traders in the United States often employed mountain men to trap throughout the Mountain West region. These men learned survival skills from the Natives and explored vast regions of the western United States. They pioneered trails, mapped, opened settlement, and often served as guides for later official expeditions, such as Christopher “Kit” Houston Carson with John C. Frémont and Black Beaver with Thomas Freeman. The companies that employed these men, such as the American Fur Company, the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, and the Missouri Fur Company,

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were the vehicles for bringing some of the earliest capital investment, corporate presence, and global markets to the frontiers. The fur trade was a definitive factor that led to the expansion and eventual demise of the American frontier. Indigenous involvement in the fur trade also had a lasting impact on European exploration of North American frontiers. Fur traders and explorers alike often depended on Native knowledge of the land and Native compliance in allowing expeditions to travel through their territories. As Native relations strengthened or soured, so too did Euro-American access to the vast interior for trapping, trading, or exploration. A continued legacy of the fur trade and settlement of the interior are the sizable mixed-blood Métis populations resulting from extensive intermarriage between trappers and Natives. See also AIRD, JAMES (?–1819); ASHLEY, WILLIAM HENRY (1778–1838); ASTOR, JOHN JACOB (1763–1848); BARANOV, ALEKSANDR ANDREYEVICH (1747–1819); BECKWOURTH, JAMES (1800–1866); BELL, JOHN (1799–1868); BENT, CHARLES, AND WILLIAM BENT (1799–1849 and 1809–1869); BILLINGS, JOSEPH (1758?–1806); BRIDGER, JAMES (1804–1881); CADILLAC, ANTOINE LAUMET DE LA MOTHE, SIEUR DE (1658–1730); CAMPBELL, ROBERT (1804–1879); CHARBONNEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1805–1866); CHARBONNEAU, TOUSSAINT (1759?–1843?); CHIRIKOV, ALEKSEI ILYICH (1703–1748); CHOUTEAU, AUGUSTE PIERRE (1786–1838); CHOUTEAU, JEAN PIERRE (1758–1849); CHOUTEAU, PIERRE, JR. (1789–1865); CLYMAN, JAMES (1792–1881); COLTER, JOHN (1774–1813); COMCOMLY (?–1830?); COUTURE, JEAN (fl. 1680s–1700s); DEASE, PETER WARREN (1788–1863); DORION, PIERRE, SR. (fl. 1803–1806); DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY; EWING, GEORGE WASHINGTON, AND WILLIAM GRIFFITH EWING (1804–1866 and 1801–1854); FERRIS, WARREN ANGUS (1810–1873); FIDLER, PETER (1769–1822); FINANCES AND FUNDING; FITZPATRICK, THOMAS (1799–1854); FRANCE; GLASS, HUGH (?–1833); GRAY, ROBERT (1755–1806); GROSEILLIERS, MÉDARD CHOUART, SIEUR DES (1618–1696?); HAMILTON, WILLIAM T. (1822–1908); HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792); HENDAY, ANTHONY (fl. 1750s); HENRY, ANDREW (1755?–1833); LE SUEUR, PIERRE-CHARLES (1657–1704); LEDYARD, JOHN (1751–1789); LISA, MANUEL (1772–1820); MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1764–1820); MACKENZIE, DONALD (1783–1851); MALLET, PIERRE-ANTOINE (1700–1753?); MARTÍNEZ FERNÁNDEZ Y MARTÍNEZ DE LA SIERRA, ESTEBAN JOSÉ (1742–1798); MCKENZIE, KENNETH (1797–1861); MCTAVISH, SIMON (1750–1804); MEEK, JOSEPH L. (1810–1875); MENARD, PIERRE (1766–1844); NICOLLET, JOSEPH (1786–1843); OGDEN, PETER SKENE (1794–1854); PARKER, SAMUEL (1779–1866); PERROT, NICOLAS (1644–1717); PILCHER, JOSHUA (1790–1843); POND, PE-

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TER (1740–1807); RADISSON, PIERRE-ESPRIT (1636–1710); REZANOV, NIKOLAI (1764–1807); ROBIDOUX, ANTOINE (1794–1860); ROSS, ALEXANDER (1783–?); RUSSIA AND RUSSIAN AMERICA; SHELIKOV, GRIGORY IVANOVICH (1747–1795); SMITH, JEDEDIAH STRONG (1799–1831); SMITH, JOHN SIMPSON “BLACKFOOT SMITH” (1810–1871); SUBLETTE, WILLIAM LEWIS (1799–1845); THOMPSON, DAVID (1770–1857); TONTI, HENRI DE (1650?–1704); TRUTEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1748–1827); VÉRENDRYE, LOUIS JOSEPH GAULTIER DE (1717–1761); VÉRENDRYE, PIERRE GAULTIER DE VARRENNES DE LA (1685–1749); WILLIAMS, WILLIAM SHERLEY (1787–1849).

G GARCÉS, FRANCISCO HERMENEGILDO TOMÁS (1738–1781). Francisco Hermengildo Tomás Garcés joined the Catholic Franciscan order while still a teenager and was sent to Mexico in 1768 as a missionary after the Jesuits were expelled from the region. He began his work at San Xavier del Bac, near present-day Tucson, before heading west among the Yuma Indians in 1771. During this time, he explored the southern California deserts up to the southernmost San Jacinto Mountains of the Sierra Nevadas. In 1774 and again in 1775, he joined Juan Batista de Anza in two expeditions to find overland routes to the settlements in Alta California. On the second trip, Garcés split from the main group and conducted extensive exploration to enhance his missionary work among the Indians. During this time, he explored the Needles region, the Mojave Desert, and as far as the San Joaquin Valley. Garcés died in 1781 during an Indian uprising that greatly disrupted Spanish activities in the area. During his life, he helped create an overland trail from New Spain to California, established contact with numerous Indian peoples, and explored new areas of southern California and Arizona. He wrote extensively about his life, leaving numerous accounts. See also MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; SPAIN. GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (1539–1583). Humphrey Gilbert was born to a wealthy family in Devon, England, and when his mother remarried, he became the stepbrother of Sir Walter Raleigh. After attending Eton and Oxford, he entered the service of Princess Elizabeth and continued to serve her after she became queen. Gilbert also served in the military in France and Ireland and was knighted for his service. Gilbert believed in the Northwest Passage and pushed the queen to allow him to explore and colonize. Eventually, in 1578, he was granted the right to explore and establish a colony. His first attempt was thwarted by storms, but by 1583, Gilbert finally succeeded in reaching the shores of Newfoundland. Gilbert and his men searched for the Northwest Passage but could not establish a colony and were forced to return

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to England. On the return trip, Gilbert’s ship was lost in a storm, ending the life of one of the early and influential promoters of English exploration, expansion, and colonization and colonialism in the Americas. See also FINANCES AND FUNDING; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS. GIST, CHRISTOPHER (1706–1759). The first of six children born to Richard and Zepporah Murray Gist, Christopher Gist would distinguish himself as one of the earliest explorers of the Ohio country and the first to provide detailed descriptions and maps of the area. Born in Maryland, Gist joined the Baltimore County Rangers in the 1730s. Known for their knowledge of the frontier, the Rangers began Gist’s training in surveying, mapmaking, and living among the Indians. Later, after half a dozen failed business ventures, he sold out to his creditors in 1745 and moved his wife, Sarah Howard, and their family to western North Carolina. They settled on the Yadkin River, where he pioneered a settlement alongside neighbor and frontiersman Daniel Boone. In 1750, Gist was selected by the Ohio Company to serve as its representative west of the Allegheny Mountains to fulfill its ambition to settle homesteaders and establish trade with local Indians. Gist made two yearlong journeys of exploration in 1750 and again in 1751. He first traveled through Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, returning through Kentucky, West Virginia, and North Carolina. During his expedition, he scouted good land, investigated trading conditions, established friendly relations with the Indians, and made maps and surveys. The second expedition took place largely in West Virginia. Following his years in the wilderness, Gist became a pioneer settler as the chief agent for the Ohio Conference. At a conference with the Indians in the summer of 1752, his persuasion led the Indians to endorse the Logstown Treaty, which secured an agreement allowing the English to build a fort in Ohio and start a settlement there. Soon after, Gist built a plantation home on the very spot that later became a famous frontier post in the region. His final notable journey came in 1753, when he accompanied George Washington as a guide on an errand for Robert Dinwiddie, governor of Virginia. They were to travel to Fort Le Beouf to demand that the French leave Ohio, during which time Gist saved Washington’s life on two separate occasions. In 1754, Gist joined the Virginia militia as a guide, scout, frontier fighter, and Indian emissary. He was present at the defeat of the Battle of Fort Necessity (in the midst of which his plantation home was burned to the ground) on 3 July 1754, marking the start of the French and Indian War. The conflict called for him to lead a company of Virginia frontiersman soldiers known as the Scouts, although he was removed from this position with his appointment as secretary of Indian affairs on 25 July 1757 by Edmund Atkin. His lifelong experience among the Indians and prior relationships with many

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of them in the Ohio area proved very valuable to Gist in this endeavor. In 1759, Gist contracted smallpox and died somewhere in South Carolina or Georgia. In addition to preserving the life of the nation’s first president, his accomplishments in exploration allowed successive Americans to occupy and settle the interior of the country, finding experienced guides and trails already blazed. See also ENGLAND; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. GLASS, HUGH (?–1833). Few facts on Glass’s upbringing and background are verifiable. Some biographers claim that Glass was a sailor and at one point was impressed to work on a pirate ship under the command of the famous Jean Lafitte. Thus, he later escaped while anchored off the Texas coast, and he made his way overland, spending an unknown period of time living with the Pawnees. In any event, Glass was middle aged by the time he appeared in St. Louis and enlisted in William Henry Ashley’s fur-trapping brigade in 1822. Hugh Glass made his mark on history and western legend when he miraculously survived a grizzly attack near the Grand River in present-day South Dakota. Horribly maimed, he could not continue on with his party, so Andrew Henry offered a monetary reward to two trappers who volunteered to remain with Glass until he died. Glass clung to life, however, and the other trappers, growing more nervous about their vulnerability to Indian attack, abandoned him after five days, carrying off his rifle and gear. Miraculously, Glass recovered enough to crawl almost 200 miles to Fort Kiowa. After his recovery, Glass set out, driven to take revenge upon his deserters. Glass pardoned one of the men, perhaps 19-year-old James Bridger. The other had enlisted in the United States Army and was under military protection, so Glass had to be satisfied with reclaiming his beloved rifle. Glass continued to work as a trapper and hunter for 10 more years until he was killed in a skirmish with Arikaras in 1833. See also FUR TRADE. GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (1572–1607). Bartholomew Gosnold was born in Grundisburgh, England, to Anthony Gosnold, an English squire, and Dorothy Bacon. Gosnold graduated from the University of Cambridge and studied law at Middle Temple University in the 1590s, marrying before he settled at Bury St. Edmunds. After obtaining backing to establish a colony in the New World from the Earl of Southampton, he sailed with 32 others on The Concord in 1602. The first European expedition to Cape Cod pioneered the direct route west from the Azores to New England, anchoring at Cape Elizabeth in Maine on 14 May 1602. The following day, Gosnold sailed to Cape Cod, which he is credited with naming, and along the way discovered

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Martha’s Vineyard, which he named after his daughter. Accounts of the voyage, written by sailors, soon helped to popularize subsequent voyages of exploration and colonization on the New England seaboard of America. After returning to England, Gosnold obtained an exclusive charter from King James I for the Virginia Company to settle Virginia. Distinguished as the most prominent promoter of the settling venture, he served as vice admiral of the expedition and captain of Godspeed, one of the three ships that made the voyage. He recruited his cousins, Edward Wingfield and John Smith, to help form Jamestown and served as a member of its original governing council. Unfortunately, on 22 August 1607, Gosnold succumbed to a combination of scurvy and dysentery and died. This was only four months after they landed. In 2003, the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (APVA) discovered the grave of a high-ranking colonial male just outside colonial Jamestown at the site of where Fort James had been located in 1607. Based on forensic estimates of age and cause of death and historical clues, such as the decorative staff found with the coffin, the APVA considers it likely to be the remains of Gosnold, though DNA tests based on tooth analysis conducted in late 2006 returned inconclusive. Gosnold was one of the earliest and most passionate catalysts for EnglishAmerican settlement of the colonies, leading to the formation of the British colonies and later the United States. Historians acknowledge that without his claim, North America likely would have been settled by another country, presumably Spain. See also PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS. Starting with Christopher Columbus, a precedent was set: governments often provided the funding and force that supported exploration. The United States, following the example of England, France, and Spain, funded official expeditions to create maps, forge trails, discover routes for commerce, establish relations with Natives, conduct reconnaissance against other nations’ expansion, and so forth. Without government encouragement, financing, and sanction, many of the most important expeditions and careers of individual explorers would not have been possible. See also ALLEN, HENRY T. (fl. 1885); BOURGMONT, ÉTIENNE DE VENIARD, SIEUR DE (1679–1734); CARTOGRAPHY; CHAMUSCADORODRÍGUEZ EXPEDITION (1581–1582); CHARBONNEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1805–1866); CHICORA, FRANCISCO DE (fl. early 1500s); CHIRIKOV, ALEKSEI ILYICH (1703–1748); CLARK, WILLIAM (1770–1838); COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; CORPS OF DISCOVERY (LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION) (1804–1806); CORTEREAL, GASPAR, AND MIGUEL CORTE-REAL (1450?–1501? and ?–1502); DODGE, HENRY (1782–1867); DU TISNE, CLAUDE

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CHARLES (fl. 1710s); EMORY, WILLIAM HEMSLEY (1811–1887); FINANCES AND FUNDING; FRANCE; FREEMAN, THOMAS (?–1821); FRÉMONT, JOHN C. (1813–1890); GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (1539–1583); IVES AND MACOMB EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859); LE PEROUSE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS GALAUP, COMTE DE (1741–1788?); LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774–1809); LONG, STEPHEN HARRIMAN (1784–1864); MARCY, RANDOLPH BARNES (1812–1887); MENDOZA, ANTONIO DE (1495–1552); MOUNTAIN MEN; NICOLLET, JOSEPH (1786–1843); PALLISER AND HIND EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859); POPE, JOHN (1822–1892); POWELL, JOHN WESLEY (1834–1902); PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION; SETTLER COLONIALISM; WHEELER, GEORGE MONTAGUE (1842–1905); WILKES, CHARLES (1798–1877). GRAY, ROBERT (1755–1806). Son of William and Elizabeth Gray, Robert Gray of Rhode Island went on to become a merchant captain, fur trader, and explorer. His two major expeditions were related to the fur trade of the Pacific coast from 1787 to 1793 and were financed by New England merchants to obtain sea otter pelts from the Pacific coast and sell them to China. Traveling for less than a year from Boston, the Lady Washington, under Gray, and the Columbia, under Captain John Kendrick, arrived in British Columbia on 17 September 1788. After idling until March, Gray sailed on a trading cruise to Alaska for four months before transferring his furs to the Columbia and sailing for China. When the ship docked in Boston on 9 August 1790, after a successful trading stop in Canton, it gained distinction as the first vessel from the United States to circumnavigate the globe. Gray was eager to set out again, and just six weeks after returning from his threeyear voyage, he sailed on the Columbia bound again for the Pacific coast, arriving in Clayoquot Sound on 5 June 1791. The crew built Fort Defiance for winter quarters and in spring sailed south, along the way naming Gray’s Harbor in Washington. On 11 May 1792, Gray made his most illustrious discovery—the mouth of the Columbia River, which he sighted, mapped, and navigated. By 24 July, he returned to Nootka Sound and reported to British Captain George Vancouver his discovery of the Columbia River, sharing a rough sketch of its estuary. Gray sailed for home in October, returning to Boston again by way of China, and finally anchored on 26 July 1793. The next year, he married Martha Atkins and spent his final decades sailing coasting ships out of Boston. It is believed he died of yellow fever while at sea in 1806. Gray’s discovery of the Columbia River was a marked accomplishment in the exploration of the Pacific coast. The river helped initiate trade between the New England ports with those on the Northwest coast for the next 40 years. It also gave the United States a strong claim to the Oregon Country, standing on par

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with those of England and superseding those of the Russia and Spain. As a result of Gray’s voyages, American ships dominated the maritime fur trade, establishing claim to territories and enjoying the riches of trading sea otter furs and beaver pelts with the Chinese. GREAT BRITAIN. In 1707, England combined with Scotland to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Hence, 1707 stands as the dividing date between when subjects and activities of the nation are referred to as English versus British. GROSEILLIERS, MÉDARD CHOUART, SIEUR DES (1618–1696?). Born in France to Medard Chouart and Marie-Poirer, Medard Chouart, Sieur des Groseilliers, became a prominent fur trader and explorer and enjoyed a career marked by an initiative to find the best routes and the most cooperative employers. The date of his arrival in New France is unknown, but his presence in Quebec was recorded in 1641. Five years later, Groseilliers was part of the Jesuit Mission of Huronia in Ontario, working among the Hurons. His marriage to Helene Martin Etienne on 3 September 1647 lasted only a few short years before he was widowed. He remarried the widow Marguerite Hayet, the half-sister of Pierre-Esprit Radisson. This initiated a partnership that would serve both men considerably in their professional careers. From 1654 to 1661, Groseilliers not only made his first excursion into unexplored regions of the Great Lakes but also fathered four children—Jean-Baptiste, Marie-Anne, Marguerite, and Marie-Antionette. He also had a son, Medard, from his first marriage. Years of raids by the Iroquois nearly ended fur traffic around the Great Lakes until a peace treaty between the French and Iroquois in 1654 ended the hostilities. When Huron and Ottawa Indians resumed trade in Quebec, they brought news of a great river they had discovered as they were pushed north to avoid the wars. These reports enticed Groseilliers to travel with them. He returned in 1656 after exploring the great sea, which the river ran into— either Lake Superior or Lake Michigan. No narrative of this journey survives, yet the geographical information obtained was praised by the Jesuits in New France. After three prosperous years living with his family in Trois-Rivières, Groseilliers paired with Radisson to once again journey north of Hudson Bay. They set out in August 1659 despite the protests of Governor d’Argenson, who never sanctioned their involvement in the French fur trade. Radisson’s record of the journey says that they passed Sault Ste. Marie on Lake Huron. After enduring a harsh winter, they visited the Sioux west of Lake Superior for six weeks, learning their previously unknown customs. Finally, in the summer of 1660, they returned home along the St. Lawrence River, bringing thousands of furs, and immediately sparked ensu-

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ing expeditions to the region. Governor d’Argenson, indignant over their disobedience, arrested Groseilliers for trading without a license and seized their furs. Groseilliers’s revenge was to align with England in his future trading expeditions. He spent 1665–1668 in England. Charles II received Groseilliers in his court to hear his plan to transform the trade route in the Great Lakes region. Avoiding the transportation problems of the arduous St. Lawrence River route and circumventing the Indian middlemen along the way, he proposed shipping furs and goods across Hudson Bay. On 5 June 1668, Groseilliers set out on the Nonsuch alongside Radisson in the Eaglet to make the first exploration of Hudson Bay. The Eaglet was forced back to London by a violent storm, but the Nonsuch entered Hudson Bay. The crew settled at Charles Fort, which they had built in the mouth of the Rupert River. They spent the winter trading with Indians, and when they returned to London in October 1669, their success prompted the formation of a corporation by their English backers who obtained a monopoly of trade in Hudson Bay. The charter issued on 2 May 1670 marked the beginning of the Hudson’s Bay Company and foreshadowed extended conflict between Britain and France. Groseilliers sought and provided the information necessary for the development of the English fur trade and the Hudson’s Bay Company checking the power of France and reaping enormous profit for the British. He worked for the company until 1675, establishing the initial posts and further exploring the region. In 1676, however, Groseilliers and Radisson began to work for the French under the enticement of the Compagnie du Nord. Sometime in 1684, after spending considerable time in France dealing in legal matters of the fur-trading companies, Groseilliers returned to New France and may have died in 1696. His career opened an area to exploration that yielded the richest fur spoils to date. His exploration of the area and the people and his insight into establishing Hudson Bay as the preferred route of transportation guaranteed his legacy. GUADELAJARA, DIEGO DE (fl. 1654). In 1650, the Castillo-Martin expedition, led by two Spanish officers, Diego del Castillo and Hernan Martin, explored eastward from Santa Fe into present-day north-central Texas. There, they discovered and named the Concho River, which potentially boasted rich stores of freshwater pearls. The 1654 exploration of Diego de Guadalajara aimed to explore further and capitalize on the possible source of valuable pearls. The expedition did harvest pearls, but not to the extent they had hoped. Native slaves were also obtained and brought back to Santa Fe. As with the previous expedition of Castillo and Martin, Guadalajara’s expedition did not produce major discoveries but was influential in furthering Spain’s expansion onto the southern Plains. Subsequent expeditions by Juan Domínguez de Mendoza and others would follow their routes, establish mis-

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sions in Texas, and have a much longer lasting impact on the region and its Jumano and Tejas Native inhabitants. Few details of Guadelajara’s origins or background exist. See also CONQUISTADORS; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES.

H HAKLUYT, RICHARD (ca. 1552–1616). Richard Hakluyt was an English writer and publisher who played an instrumental role in publicizing and promoting exploration of North America. He made no explorations of his own, but it was by his hand that the expeditions of so many others were presented to the public and widely read by monarchs, court officials, military leaders, and potential financiers. Beginning in 1580, Hakluyt edited or translated a number of volumes for publication. These included expedition accounts from England, France, Portugal, and other nations that charted and mapped the coasts and interiors of North America. Many dealt with attempts to discover a Northwest Passage, and in 1612, Hakluyt even invested in the Company of Merchants of London, also known as the Northwest Passage Company. He directed the Virginia Company of London beginning in 1589 and proved instrumental in promoting the settlement of Virginia and placing its capital at Jamestown. See also CARTOGRAPHY; ENGLAND; FINANCES AND FUNDING; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. HAMILTON, WILLIAM T. (1822–1908). William T. Hamilton was born in England but brought to the United States as a young child and raised in St. Louis. Hamilton’s father purchased William a partnership in a trapping and trading expedition in the West hoping that the air would improve William’s asthmatic condition. In 1842, Hamilton and his two partners, along with five other men, set out for the Rocky Mountains. This expedition lasted until 1845, when Hamilton signed on with the North West Fur Company to explore the Bighorn Mountains. The leader of the trip decided to turn back after trouble with Blackfeet Indians and paid off Hamilton and the other members of the party. In 1848, Hamilton met a group of friends at Fort Bridger, and after hearing of the gold strikes in California, the men decided to try their luck at mining. The men trapped on their way to California, earning enough money to buy mining equipment. After a year, they grew tired of mining and were hired to fight Indians who had been attacking miners. In 1858, Hamilton’s abilities in Indian sign language secured him a 103

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job scouting for Colonel Wright at Fort Walla Walla. As a part of this job, Hamilton went on several spy missions among the Indians. In 1859, he opened a trading post in present-day Missoula, Montana, that he sold by 1869. Hamilton was part of the Yellowstone expedition in 1874 and a campaign under Crook in 1876. Hamilton continued to trap and trade the remainder of his life and was referred to by many as “Master of the Signs.” See also FUR TRADE; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. HAWAII. Hawaii is an island chain that consists of eight main islands that had been inhabited by Polynesian people for centuries before the arrival of Europeans. The earliest European discovery may have been by Gaetano in 1555, although this cannot be verified. The first known Europeans to visit the island were members of James Cook’s expedition in 1778. Despite initial good relations, Cook was killed in a fight with Natives on his return visit the following year. In 1810, the kingdom was unified under one monarchy, but by this time, Europeans already were entering and settling on the islands. Sugar soon grew into a booming trade, and by the 1890s, Americans had taken control of the Hawaiian islands, although the islands were not annexed officially until 1897. While small in territory and involving little exploration, Hawaii could be viewed as the extreme western “American” frontier, and many argue that policies of colonization developed on the frontiers of the North American interior were brought to full fruition in Hawaii. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; SETTLER COLONIALISM. HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792). Samuel Hearne was born in London, England, and served in the British Royal Navy and Army before joining the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1766. Among his responsibilities was the exploration of the coast of Hudson Bay to improve cod fishing efforts. In 1767, two Indians the company had sent five years earlier to search for mines returned with copper that reportedly came from a river flowing between three mines in an area rich with furs. These reports were the catalyst for Hearne’s 1769–1772 journeys to the Northwest, dedicated to searching for copper mines described by the Indians. His first attempt failed because the Indian guides accompanying him deserted. On 23 February 1770, Hearne again left Hudson Bay on an expedition. This time, he was accompanied by a Cree Indian, Conneequese, with hopes of his helping to guide them, but the group became lost. They made a difficult journey through the Northwest Territories, their possessions were stolen, and Hearne’s quadrant was broken. After returning in November, Hearne embarked on a third try just 12 days later. In July 1770, they reached the Coppermine River, where Hearne’s guide, Chipewyan Chief Matonabbe, proceeded to massacre a group of Inuit people. This

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became known as the “Bloody Falls” massacre. The party soon arrived at the Arctic Ocean, which Hearne claimed for the Hudson’s Bay Company, and examined copper deposits, which they found small and unworkable. They wintered at Great Slave Lake, establishing Hearne as the first European to reach the Arctic overland from the interior. The greatest significance of this journey was what Hearne did not find—a river in the region that flowed west, a passage to Asia through Hudson Bay, or a navigable route on the Coppermine River. When he reappeared at Fort Prince of Wales on 30 June 1772, his report influenced Captain James Cook to abandon a serious search for a fluvial Northwest Passage. Hearne continued his work in the Northwest. In 1774, he built the first Hudson’s Bay Company trading post in the interior of the continent on Cumberland Lake and called it Fort Cumberland, allowing the company to compete with the French traders in the area. Just a year later, Hearne was named governor of Fort Prince of Wales. After the French took him prisoner in 1882, he returned to England and spent his final five years writing about his explorations. He provided a wealth of information about geographical places, fauna, and the Chipewyan people of the explored area, including cultural information, such as their treatment of women and hunting methods, all the first information of its kind to reach Europe. A Journey from Prince of Wales’s Fort in Hudson’s Bay to the Northern Ocean was published in 1795, three years after his death. Hearne was mentioned in Charles Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species. Hearne has had a great impact because of his journeys to the Arctic region. Although his impact has been great, he has not received as much recognition as he deserves. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; CARTOGRAPHY; FUR TRADE; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. HECETA, BRUNO DE (1743–1807). Bruno de Heceta was a Basque explorer who sailed for Spain, conducting explorations along the Pacific coast north of New Spain. In the 1770s, Spanish officials were increasingly concerned by reports coming from the north of expanding activities by England and Russia in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska. In hopes of reestablishing their claims to the Pacific coast, Spain sent a number of expeditions north. Heceta was given command of an expedition in 1774, and he traveled the full coastline north to Sitka, Alaska. On his return trip south in 1775, he penetrated the mouth of the Columbia River, being the first European to do so. His report matched the fabled “River of the West,” which some believed bisected through the heart of the continent. From Louis Armand de Lom d’Arce, Baron de Lahontan’s 1683 reports of a “Long River” that emptied into the

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Pacific Ocean, Heceta’s discovery furthered hopes of a Northwest Passage through the continent. Later expeditions of the Corps of Discovery and others hoped to find such a passage. See also CARTOGRAPHY; LEGENDS AND MYTHS. HENDAY, ANTHONY (fl. 1750s). Beyond that he was born on the Isle of Wright and convicted in 1748 for smuggling, little is known of Anthony Henday’s origins. He first appears on official record when he was hired by the Hudson’s Bay Company to work as a laborer and net maker at Fort York in Manitoba in 1750. Governor James Isham sent Henday to travel to the interior of the fur trade region to convince Indian trappers to bring their goods to company posts on Hudson Bay. This would conveniently redirect business from the French who had strengthened their hold on trade after Louis-Joseph Gaultier de La Vérendrye’s explorations of the 1740s. On 26 June 1754, Henday embarked with a small shipment of English goods to present as gifts to indigenous people—a symbol of the reward of trading with Great Britain. Cree Indians guided his journey, which began by paddling canoes up the Saskatchewan River. On 22 July 1754, the group reached a French post, where traders threatened to capture Henday and send him to France, but protection from his Indian companions prevented this, and the danger passed. On 18 October, Henday reached a point southeast of Red Deer and became the first European to encounter the Blackfeet Indians. Henday was the first to see the Rocky Mountains north of Colorado, and his reports added a valuable piece of knowledge to the geography of North America. The party camped for the winter in forests near the Clearwater River, traveling in early spring back to the Saskatchewan River, where they built canoes while waiting for the ice to melt. They finally returned to Fort York on 20 June 1755, having completed a journey of 2,500 miles in 51 weeks. Henday’s conclusions from his journey enlightened the leaders of the company to the need for adjustment of their strategy. He found that the western Indian tribes were using the Plains Cree as middlemen traders to avoid journeying all the way to Hudson Bay. Western tribes needed their young men to hunt and could not spare them for such a long time period. Furthermore, it was evident to Henday that the French had established themselves as the primary tradesmen in the area. They had a relationship with the interior tribes and spoke their languages. These reports prompted the company to expand westward and establish western posts. Henday attempted another expedition the following year but returned to Fort York after just one week because of illness. It is known that he accompanied an expedition to Alberta and Saskatchewan during the winter of 1759–1760 but had returned to England by 1763. Although Henday was released from the company’s service with an honorable discharge and granted a gratuity of ₤20, he was frustrated by his lack of promotion and

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appreciation, perhaps withheld because his journey had not accomplished the increase in trade that the Hudson’s Bay Company had desired. Although fur trade politics muddled his legacy, Henday was the first European to explore deep into the western interior of Canada, and he provided valuable information to the Hudson’s Bay Company on the geography and people of the region. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. HENNEPIN, LOUIS (1626–1705?). Louis Hennepin was born in Ath, then part of the Spanish Netherlands but currently located in Belgium. In 1675, he traveled to New France as one of five missionaries from the Franciscan Catholic Recollet order. By 1676, he was serving at René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle’s headquarters in Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario. He accompanied La Salle’s expedition to the Great Lakes region in 1678, becoming one of the first Europeans to describe Niagara Falls. In 1679–1680, he was sent to explore the upper Mississippi River. He claimed to have reached the mouth of the Mississippi River, but this was likely untrue. During this trip, a band of Sioux captured Hennepin and his companions. While being held captive, he studied the tribe’s culture and language and explored regions up to the Wisconsin River. Eventually, he was rescued by Daniel Duluth and then returned to France. Little is known of Hennepin after his return to Europe. His accounts of his North American experiences were filled with exaggerations, and they helped influence popular, if not untrue, notions of the Americas. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; LEGENDS AND MYTHS; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. HENRY, ANDREW (1755?–1833). Little is known of Andrew Henry’s origins. By 1806, he had purchased partnership in a Missouri lead mine. In 1809, he joined Manuel Lisa’s Missouri Fur Company. That year, he left on his first expedition on the Missouri River, and for the next few years, he trapped in present-day Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho. In 1810, after being driven out of the Three Forks of the Missouri by Blackfeet, he fled through Jackson’s Hole, over Targhee Pass, and to the North Fork of the Snake River. There, he established one of the earliest fur trade posts west of the Continental Divide, and Henry’s Fork of the Snake River is named after him. The fort was abandoned the next year after a difficult winter trapping in the region. Henry subsequently served in the War of 1812 and returned to the frontier in 1822–1823 with William Henry Ashley to resume trapping and establish several more trading posts. Together with Ashley, they formed the Rocky Mountain Fur Company and employed men like James Bridger,

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Thomas Fitzpatrick, Jedediah Smith, William Lewis Sublette, and others to ascend the Missouri River in search of furs and challenge the Hudson’s Bay Company dominance in the Northwest. HUDSON BAY. This massive bay, which is larger than a number of the world’s seas, is between 475,000 and 500,000 square miles and borders Canada and the Arctic and Atlantic oceans. Native Americans were familiar with its geography before European contact, and indigenous knowledge was greatly utilized by European nations, companies, and individuals as they explored the surrounding region. In 1509, Sebastian Cabot may have entered the bay, but Henry Hudson is credited as the first European to pass through the Hudson Strait, where he later died in a mutiny. Much of its exploration occurred because explorers incorrectly thought that it was the entrance to the Northwest Passage. It later served as a major stage for the British-French rivalry and played a large role in the fur trade and other economic ventures. The Hudson’s Bay Company had exclusive monopoly rights over the fur trade in all lands that drained into the bay. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; BUTTON, THOMAS (?–1634); BYLOT, ROBERT (fl. 1610–1618); DABLON, CLAUDE (1618–1697); GROSEILLIERS, MÉDARD CHOUART, SIEUR DES (1618–1696?); HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792); JOLLIET, LOUIS (1645–1700); KELSEY, HENRY (1667?–1724?); MUNK, JENS (1579–1628); RADISSON, PIERRE-ESPRIT (1636–1710). HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY. The Hudson’s Bay Company was one of the two great British fur companies. It was started by Medard Chouart, Sieur des Groseilliers, and Pierre-Esprit Radisson when they convinced several other businessmen of the enormous profits to be found in the fur trade. In 1670, the company’s charter gave them a monopoly over the fur trade of all lands that drained into Hudson Bay—an enormous swath of the Canadian interior. During the 1700s, the company continued its expansion despite competition from the North West Company. Like many others, the company relied heavily on the participation of indigenous peoples for trapping and trading. After years of intense competition and intermittent violence, the two companies were forced to merge in 1821, reestablishing a monopoly in the process. With the merger, the Hudson’s Bay Company began to compete with the fur companies and mountain men from the United States, such as the American Fur Company, the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, and the Missouri Fur Company. The company sent traders throughout Canada, the Yukon, and the northwestern United States. The company backed additional exploration in fruitless efforts to find the Northwest Passage.

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See also COUREURS DE BOIS; DEASE, PETER WARREN (1788–1863); FIDLER, PETER (1769–1822); FINANCES AND FUNDING; HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792); HENDAY, ANTHONY (fl. 1750s); KELSEY, HENRY (1667?–1724?); PARKER, SAMUEL (1779–1866). HUDSON, HENRY (1570s?–1611). Little is known of Hudson’s life before the Muscovy Company of England hired him in 1609 to find a northeast passage to Asia and access a valuable trade route. Under this direction, Hudson sailed the Hopewell just 577 miles south of the North Pole, going beyond 80 degrees north latitude. He traveled farther north than anyone would for at least 100 years, but entrapping sea ice forced him to return home. The next year, he endeavored to reach Asia via the Arctic coast. He sailed north of Scandinavia beyond the Barents Sea and was rebuffed again by ice at Novaya Zemlya and could not continue. In 1609, unable to find backers in his own country for a third attempt, Hudson was hired by England’s rival in trade, the Dutch East India Company, again to find an eastern passage to Asia around the Arctic Ocean north of Russia. This replication of his 1608 voyage produced identical results. Hudson’s first successful voyage was prompted by reports from Jamestown and John Smith that encouraged further exploration of a Northwest Passage to Asia through the interior of North America. He crossed the Atlantic in Halve Mæn (Half Moon) and sailed briefly in the Chesapeake and Delaware bays but decided they did not lead to the Pacific and moved into New York Harbor. He traveled up the Hudson River as far as Albany, where the river narrows, trading with Indians along the way. This secured Dutch claims to the region and its profitable fur trade. New Amsterdam in Manhattan was later chosen as the capital of New Netherlands in 1625. In Europe, Hudson returned to the service of the English and was financed by Sir Dudley Digges and Sir John Wolstenholme, both promoters of exploration through the Virginia Company, along with the support of the British East India Company. These merchant companies and their financiers were eager to find a route through North America to Asia, though one did not exist until the Panama Canal opened in 1914. On the ship Discovery, Hudson sailed with 22 men on 17 April 1610. Once beyond the eastern coast of England, they passed Iceland (11 May) and Greenland (4 June). After sailing around the southern tip of Greenland, they reached the Hudson Strait (northern tip of Labrador) and entered Hudson Bay on 2 August. The crew spent the fall battling ice and searching both land and sea around the area of James Bay. By 1 November, however, the ship was set firmly in ice, and the men were forced to move ashore. The only notable achievement of the months in James Bay occurred when Hudson bartered with an Indian to obtain two skins (instead of one) for an ax, marking the beginning of the fur trade in the

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region. After struggling through a difficult winter in which most of the men developed scurvy and survived on meager rations, the crew was eager to return home when the ice broke. Hudson insisted on further exploration, making multiple trips along the coast of James Bay seeking the entry to a Pacific passageway. Abacock Prickett, a crewman, penned the only record from the voyage: that a combination of factors led the crew to mutiny. Prickett wrote that Hudson promoted unpopular crew members based on favoritism and rash emotional responses to arguments. The greater rumored offense was that Hudson hoarded food for himself and his favorites. In June 1611, the men bound Hudson, his teenage son John, and seven loyal crewmen, forcing them into the ship’s shallop (a small, open boat) without provisions. They were never seen again. The mutinous crew members, who barely made it home alive after being attacked by Inuits at Salisbury Island, were never found guilty of mutiny or convicted for the murders they later were charged with. Justice likely was diverted by attention to the many subsequent expeditions to explore the Northwest Passage, which crew members reported they had found. Robert Bylot, the man who took charge after Hudson’s removal, led one of the subsequent expeditions. A reliable portrait of Hudson does not exist. Although he never found the passage he sought, he successfully instigated the North American fur trade that occupied the major European powers for hundreds of years. The circumstances of his death have been debated, and there are scattered reports of Native lore that recall his arrival on their shores, but most historians agree that he likely died of dehydration or exposure long before he could devise an escape from his exile. Among other namesakes, the prominent straight, river, and bay all bear his name. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. HUMAÑA-LEYVA EXPEDITION (1594–1595). Little is known of the two Spaniards Antonio Gutiérrez de Humaña and Francisco Leyva de Bonnila outside of their illegal expeditions north of New Spain’s frontier into New Mexico and beyond. In 1594, they led a small group into present-day New Mexico without proper sanction from Spain. They made their home among the Rio Grande Pueblos at San Ildefonso. From there, in 1595, they pushed eastward, following the Pecos River to the northeast. They recorded reaching Quivira, the Wichita settlements along the Arkansas River, and possibly the Platte River to the north. The expedition broke apart after Humaña killed Leyva, and the indigenous guides fled back to New Mexico. One of the survivors was captured by Apaches and later found his way into the service of Juan de Oñate, to whom he related the expedition’s story. Oñate later followed their route to Quivira, where he discovered further that the remain-

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ing Humaña expedition members had been killed. Although unauthorized, the expedition illustrates eager Spanish interests in the region, and sanctioned expeditions would soon follow. See also CONQUISTADORS; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. HUNT, WILSON PRICE (1783–1842). Born in New Jersey, William Price Hunt traveled in 1804 to St. Louis, where he entered into partnership with John Hankinson as a merchant and commanded the St. Louis militia. In 1810, he partnered with John Jacob Astor and was selected by him to lead an overland expedition along the same route as the Corps of Discovery. The expedition’s goal was to establish trading posts along the route and at its terminus gain control of the fur trade in the Pacific. A sea component carried people and supplies to establish a fortified post at the mouth of the Columbia River. At the request of the Pacific Fur Company (half of whose shares were held by the American Fur Company, solely owned by Astor) and with no previous experience, Hunt started on 21 October 1810 and traveled 450 miles up the Missouri River before camping near St. Joseph. They hurried to begin, as Manuel Lisa’s planned expedition of the Missouri Fur Company represented strong competition. Hunt resumed travel on 21 April 1811 and by 26 May had abandoned the plan to follow the Corps of Discovery’s route up the Missouri. To avoid an encounter with hostile Blackfeet Indians, they instead continued overland. In mid-September, during a meeting with friendly Shoshone Indians, Hunt traded for pelts and promised further regular trade in an effort to accomplish his mission. In an Arikara village in northern South Dakota, Hunt’s party quarreled with Lisa’s crew, which they had unexpectedly joined for protection from the Indians. In the end, they traded their boats for Lisa’s horses and trekked overland. At Fort Henry, in present-day Idaho, they left the horses and built canoes, which soon capsized in rapids where the river became impassable. In a dire situation, the party divided into three groups around present-day Twin Falls, Idaho. Donald Mackenzie went north via the lower Snake River and Columbia River to reach Fort Astoria in January 1812. Hunt’s men and the third group, led by Crooks, traveled on opposite sides of the Snake River until they reached Hell’s Canyon and then traveled down the Columbia to Fort Astoria, the first permanent American settlement on the Pacific (although it was purchased by the Northwest Fur Company in 1813). The winter they spent on land was brutal. The men nearly starved to death and survived only on rainwater, as the high canyon walls made it impossible to reach the river below. Finally, the main party arrived on 15 February 1812, with 45 of its 60 original members, having traveled more than 3,000 miles. Hunt left Astoria by ship on 4 August, but Robert Stuart led the return of the overland party that had left in June, discovering the South Pass through the Rocky Moun-

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tains in Wyoming. This discovery benefited hundreds of thousands of settlers as they traveled the California, Oregon, and Mormon trails. Hunt later sailed on the supply ship Beaver to Russian settlements in Alaska and opened trade there. After traveling as far as the Kamchatka peninsula in Siberia and Hawaii, he sailed for China in January 1816. After trading fur seal skins and furs for goods in Canton, Hunt arrived on the Pedler in New York on 17 October 1816. Returning to Missouri in 1817, Hunt took up farming just outside of St. Louis and served as the area’s postmaster for 18 years. Hunt did not abandon trade, advertising himself as a dealer in furs in 1837. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; RUSSIA AND RUSSIAN AMERICA.

I INDIANS OR AMERICAN INDIANS. These are general terms used to describe groups of the indigenous inhabitants of North America. They are synonymous with Natives, Native Americans, or, in Canada, First Nations. Where possible, specific tribal, linguistic, or cultural names are the preferred usage. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. This is a general term, synonymous with Natives, Native Americans, Indians, American Indians, or, in Canada, First Nations. In nearly all locations that Europeans explored and settled along North American frontiers, various indigenous peoples were already inhabitants. A common misconception surrounding the pre- versus postcontact world was that the Native world was largely static prior to European arrivals and that the locations where Europeans first encountered Native groups are the locations where they had always resided. To the contrary, precontact Native North America was highly dynamic and fluid. Europeans entered a Native world that was in constant flux as groups combined and split, made alliances, waged war, traded, and so forth. Across the continent, Native cultures boasted a tremendous linguistic, cultural, religious, social, and economic diversity. These peoples inhabited widely different environments and employed appropriately disparate methods to survive and thrive in the same. Successful Euro-American exploration and settlement in North America required policies to account for Native peoples. These took the form of cooperation, war and conquest, enslavement or impressed labor, intermarriage, and trade. England, France, Spain, Russia, and the United States all employed different Indian policies at different times and each with unique goals and purposes. One of the more important relationships between Indians and Euro-Americas came in the form of the fur trade. At many stages of different nations’ and companies’ fur trade activities, they were fully dependent on Native cooperation and input. These relationships brought irreversible change to Native peoples. Moreover, at various points, contact and sustained relationships led to catastrophic demographic collapses of indige113

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nous populations, leading to the complete disappearance of some groups. Although many predicted the full extinction of the continent’s indigenes, they persisted and through mixed-blood Métis or Mestizo populations or clearly identified tribal affiliations survive to the present. See also BLACK BEAVER (1806?–1880); CATLIN, GEORGE (1796–1872); CHICORA, FRANCISCO DE (fl. early 1500s); CÍBOLA; COMCOMLY (?–1830?); DU TISNE, CLAUDE CHARLES (fl. 1710s); DISEASE; EWING, GEORGE WASHINGTON, AND WILLIAM GRIFFITH EWING (1804–1866 and 1801–1854); MISSION-PRESIDIO SYSTEM; MONCACHT-ÁPE (fl. 1680s–1700); REQUERIMIENTO (1500s); SACAGAWEA (1788?–1812); SLAVERY AND RACE; SMITH, JOHN SIMPSON “BLACKFOOT SMITH” (1810–1871); THE TURK (?–1541). INGRAM, DAVID (fl. 1567–1569). Little is known of David (Davyd) Ingram’s origins, but he was presumably born in England. In the mid-16th century, he was employed by privateer John Hawkins in the Gulf of Mexico. In 1567 or 1568 (sources vary), he shipwrecked near present-day Tampico, Mexico. Eleven months later, in either 1568 or 1559, Ingram appeared at Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, claiming to have walked the entire distance. Few believed his tale then (and fewer today), but his published account reflects a number of important truths about European conceptions of the largely unknown North American interior. Beyond the frontiers of European settlement on the coasts, the lack of knowledge of the interior invited stories like Ingram’s to fill the void. Later discoveries quickly and fully discredited the fanciful tales he related of indigenous kingdoms and wild beasts. Interest in Ingram’s account, however dubious, match that paid to Moncacht-Ápe some 100 years later. See also LEGENDS AND MYTHS. IVES AND MACOMB EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859). From 1857 to 1859, Joseph C. Ives (1829–1868) and John N. Macomb (1811–1889) led a series of influential expeditions to survey and chart wilderness portions of the American Southwest for the United States. In response to the growing Mormon empire in the Great Basin, the War Department sought routes to get military personnel or materials to and from Utah. In 1857, the U.S. Topographical Corps enlisted Ives to lead an expedition to the Colorado River to weigh its usefulness as a navigable channel for transport, discover all routes into and out of Utah, and determine the possibility of Native alliances. The Colorado River was viewed by both Brigham Young and the Mormons and the U.S. government as integral to controlling the Great Basin. The expedition surveyed the region from 1857 to 1858 and deemed the river route impractical, and Ives estimated the entire region as holding no value. Next,

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the U.S. Topographical Corps dispatched Macomb to explore northwest of Santa Fe in 1859 to locate a feasible route for military transport between New Mexico and Utah. From Santa Fe, the Macomb survey traveled to the confluence of the Green and Colorado rivers and returned south by way of the eastern flank of the Abajo Mountains to the San Juan River, which they explored upstream for over 100 miles. These were lands just recently acquired from Mexico, and the continued appropriation of funds by the United States government to explore the region reflected both the nation’s interest in the lands and anxiety of how little they understood the area. While the geographic surveys were useful, the expeditions also produced a tremendous wealth of geologic and botanical data. John S. Newberry, an influential geologist, accompanied both expeditions, and his detailed reports and botanical specimens were rich resources for others studying the region. See also CARTOGRAPHY; FINANCES AND FUNDING; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION.

J JOGUES, ISAAC (1607–1646). Isaac Jogues was born in France and in 1636 was sent as a Jesuit to New France to serve as an Indian missionary. In his search for converts, he explored the Great Lakes region before being captured by Mohawks in 1642. Eventually, he was released to the Dutch and after a short stay in France returned as a peace emissary to Canada’s Indian tribes. On one of his trips, he discovered Lake George, which he called Lac du Saint Sacrement. On a later trip, he was taken captive and killed. As a martyr, he was beatified and canonized by the Catholic Church in 1925 and 1930. JOLLIET, LOUIS (1645–1700). Born in Quebec, Jolliet spent his early years preparing to enter the priesthood, where he took his minor orders in 1662. Five years later, in 1667, he left the priesthood and traveled to France, only to return to Canada in 1669 to work in the fur trade. The next year, he established a trading post where he met Jacques Marquette. In 1673, he was commissioned to explore the Mississippi River, or “Great River to the West.” With Marquette along to serve as an interpreter, Jolliet explored the Wisconsin River system from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River and followed it down to the mouth of the Arkansas River. At this point, Jolliet deduced that it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, not the Pacific Ocean, and turned back to Canada. Instead of following the Mississippi River, they returned along the Illinois River. His great journey of exploration had covered more than 2,000 miles and contributed greatly to European knowledge of the interior of the continent. During the return, his canoe flipped, and he lost all of the records. Because of this, the accounts come from memories, and one account, Recit, is especially questionable, and scholars are still unsure about the authorship. Jolliet later explored Hudson Bay and the Labrador coast before being appointed as the royal hydrographer. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION.

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K KELSEY, HENRY (1667?–1724?). Born and raised in London, England, Henry Kelsey joined the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1684 and traveled to Canada. By 1690, he had established a role at the York Factory trading post. In 1690–1692, Kelsey was sent to expand his company’s trade routes and explored large areas of the Canadian wilderness in the process. He also made contact with numerous indigenous peoples and became the first European to see the Canadian prairies. After this land expedition, he also made oceanic voyages north of Hudson Bay, but none were as extensive or important as his exploration of the Canadian interior. The scope of his explorations would not be publicized until the 1750s. KINO, EUSEBIO FRANCISCO (1645–1711). Eusebio Francisco Kino was born in Taio, then part of the Holy Roman Empire and located in present-day northern Italy. He was educated in mathematics and astronomy in Austria before becoming a Jesuit priest. The Jesuit order offered him an opportunity to travel to New Spain. In 1681, Kino arrived in Mexico and was part of a failed colonizing attempt in Baja California under Admiral Antillon in 1683. In 1687, Kino was sent to the Pimeria Alta region as a missionary and for the next 25 years traveled throughout the region establishing missions, preaching, and exploring. Kino would, among other things, follow the Colorado River down to the Gulf of California and explore the Gila River region, the Santa Cruz River, and the San Pedro region. His explorations dramatically improved Spain’s knowledge of its northern frontier and disproved the theory that Baja California was an island. Throughout his journeys, he helped establish generally good relations with Natives and strongly protested Spanish impressment of Native labor. Kino’s comprehensive maps of his explorations, of which there were more than 40, depicted thousands of square miles and were instrumental in subsequent Spanish settlement in Alta California and Arizona. See also CARTOGRAPHY; COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. 119

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KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787–1846). Of German descent from the Russian Baltics, Otto von Kotzebue trained as a youth with the Russian navy. At age 15, he was recruited for Admiral Baron von Krusenstern’s circumnavigation voyage and from 1803 to 1806 sailed around the globe. In 1815–1818, Kotzebue led an expedition funded by Russia to explore the northeastern Russian Arctic and northwestern coasts of North America, along with various Pacific islands. Kotzebue explored along the Alaskan coastline, mapping it in detail and naming the strait he discovered after himself. Eventually, poor health forced him to return, and he would retire in Estonia after completing another circumnavigation in 1823–1826. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; CARTOGRAPHY.

L LA HARPE, JEAN-BAPTISTE BÉNARD DE (1683–1765). Born in St. Malo, France, Jean-Baptiste Bérnard de La Harpe’s early years were riddled with financial, marital, and political failures in both France and Peru. These failures included an early publication of supposed autobiographical experiences that was largely filled with fictitious adventures. Eventually, La Harpe relocated in North America and in 1718 led an expedition to establish a French settlement on the Red River. This was the first European expedition to explore the area. In 1719, he led an expedition to initiate trade relations with Wichitas on the Great Plains. Although tentative, these French forays onto the Great Plains ran concurrent with similar activities by Claude Charles Du Tisne and signaled French interest in extending their influence in the region. Later, La Harpe served as commandant of René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle’s expedition to Matagorda Bay on the Texas coast. He later explored parts of the Mississippi River and Arkansas River. Throughout these years in North America, he kept journals that included significant data on Indian-European relations and a very poorly documented period of Arkansas history. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. LA LANDE, BAPTISTE (?–1821). Very little is known of Baptiste La Lande, and he might never have entered historical narratives had it not been for the journal of Zebulon Pike. According to Pike, in 1804, La Lande was sent to Santa Fe as a trader by business interests in Illinois who had aspirations of creating a lasting trade route between the United States and the Spanish town. On reaching Santa Fe, La Lande severed his ties with his financial backers and remained in Santa Fe. Pike gave a negative portrayal of La Lande, likely because he had been given the responsibility to settle a $1,787 debt that La Lande owed to one William Morison. In addition, Pike held the notion that La Lande was a spy for Spain. There is a certain amount of controversy surrounding Pike’s purposes in his expedition; it has even been suggested that he himself was a spy, which could explain his discomfort

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at encountering La Lande. In 1806, La Lande accompanied Pedro Vial’s expedition to the Pawnees, becoming the first American to travel through what is now Colorado. LA SALLE, RENÉ-ROBERT CAVELIER, SIEUR DE (1643–1687). La Salle was born to a merchant family of wealthy financial standing in the Normandy region of France. He was educated in a Jesuit college and joined the Jesuit order in 1660, thus renouncing his inheritance. In 1666, he sailed for New France, where he soon renounced his vows, left the Jesuit order, and was awarded a tract of land outside of Montreal. There, he pursued his interest in the fur trade, Indian languages, and subsequently exploration. During his time in Canada, La Salle did a great deal to extend France’s influence across the North American continent. He discovered the Ohio River, and his ship, Le Griffon, was the first French vessel to sail on the Great Lakes. In 1682, he claimed the whole drainage of the Mississippi River for France, named the area of Louisiana in honor of Louis XIV, and established forts along the river. His plans for the region included an empire of trading posts down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico. In 1684, La Salle sailed with four ships to establish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River. One ship was lost to pirates, and two others, including La Belle, wrecked and ran aground in Matagorda Bay. Nevertheless, they did establish Fort Saint Louis in present-day Victoria County, Texas. In 1687, he attempted to start another colony on the Mississippi, only to be killed by mutinous French colonists. Although his dreams of empire were never realized, La Salle’s exploration of the Mississippi River valley gave the French lasting influence in the area, much to the dismay of Spain. His activities along the Gulf of Mexico coast prompted Spain to commission reconnaissance by Juan Enríques Barroto as well as the Rivas and Iriarte expedition. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM. LAHONTAN, LOUIS ARMAND DE LOM D’ARCE, BARON DE (1666–1713/1715?). Born to an aristocratic family in France, Lahontan inherited his father’s title of baron at the age of eight. By 1683, he had joined the French Marine Corps and was sent by Louis XIV as part of three companies to New France. Their mission was to defend French holdings against the Iroquois, who were long allied with England. Eventually, he received the rank of lieutenant but deserted in 1693 and lived the balance of his life in Europe, sojourning as a successful writer. His highly popular and influential writings about North America changed the way Europeans viewed the indigenous peoples of North America. Lahontan cast Native societies as utopias, free of the social evils extant in France. During his stay, he had learned

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Indian languages and sincerely studied their culture, and his laudatory reports stood in stark contrast to other portrayals being published. Lahontan’s writings also had a lasting effect on North American exploration because he incorrectly reported geographical information about the “Long River,” which supposedly extended from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. Some explorations of the Columbia River and Missouri River were motivated by the concept of Lahontan’s Long River. See also CARTOGRAPHY; LEGENDS AND MYTHS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. LAND BRIDGE. Scholars from the fields of archaeology, anthropology, history, genetics, and linguistics have arrived at a general consensus on how the Americas were populated. The general belief is that a land bridge once existed connecting Siberia and Alaska, allowing migrants to cross over the Beringia area, making them the real “discoverers” of America. While the exact timing is unknown, the most probable timing is around 10,000 to 12,500 years ago as the indigenous peoples migrated following their large animal food sources. Their spread throughout the continent would make them the first explorers. See also CHIRIKOV, ALEKSEI ILYICH (1703–1748). LAROCQUE, FRANÇOIS-ANTOINE (1784–1869). Born in Quebec, New France, François-Antoine Larocque was sent to the United States in 1792 to learn English, the language he would prefer for the remainder of his life. He was employed in the fur trade at age 17 with the XY Company but soon left and joined the North West Company, during which time he visited extensively with the Corps of Discovery while trading at Fort Mandan. He even requested to accompany the expedition but was denied. Ascending the Yellowstone River in 1805 before Lewis and Clark, Larocque was the first European to meet with Crow Indians. Larocque left two detailed journals of his fur-trading expeditions on the Missouri River and Yellowstone River that provide significant information about the British fur trade. His trading aroused the suspicion of Meriwether Lewis, who was worried that the North West Company would turn Natives against the United States. Larocque eventually became a successful businessman in the East and lived the last 14 of his 84 years in prayer and meditation. LAUDONNIÈRE, RENÉ GOULAINE DE (1529?–1574). René Goulaine de Laudonnière was from France, but historians disagree as to the particulars of his origins. Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, head of the French Protestant Huguenots, sent Laudonnière to North America as part of a Huguenot colonizing effort. As head of a voyage in 1564, Laudonnière established Fort

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Caroline near what is now Jacksonville, Florida. Unfortunate for the French settlers, in 1565, Spain massacred and extinguished the French fort. It was viewed as a severe threat of Spanish domination of the Caribbean under the command of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. Laudonnière was one of the few survivors of the attack, and in 1566, he finally made it back to France, where his journals were later published. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. LAVAZARES, GUIDO DE (fl. 1550s). A native of Seville, Spain, Lavazares arrived in New Spain in the 1530s as an experienced navigator. In 1558, he was appointed by Spanish officials to make an official survey of the Gulf coast of Mexico, starting at the Río de las Palmas and sailing eastward to the west Florida coast. Poor conditions hindered his ability to survey the coast in a contiguous manner, but he did make a number of important landfalls at Río Pánuco (present-day Kingsville, Texas), Matagorda Bay, the Mississippi River delta, Mobile Bay, and Choctawhatche Bay on the Florida panhandle. In the course of his expedition, he gathered information concerning ecology, resources, and Native peoples. More significant, he was the first European to claim portions of the Gulf coast, namely, Matagorda Bay, which he named San Francisco Bay for a European empire. A short subsequent voyage explored Pensacola Bay. After disastrous expeditions, such as that of Pánfilo de Narváez, the successful reconnaissance of Lavazares reestablished Spanish interest in the region and, in particular, Florida. It was followed by the failed Florida colonization attempts of Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano and the successful establishment of San Augustine in 1565. Lavazares later commanded an expedition across the Pacific to the Philippines, where he was named governor. See also CARTOGRAPHY; CONQUISTADORS. LAWSON, JOHN (?–1712). John Lawson, a man of status and education in colonial North Carolina, was appointed surveyor general of the colony in the early 18th century. His extensive surveying work on the western frontier of North Carolina helped further English settlement of the region. He also helped found cities such as Bath and New Bern. His travels brought him in contact with numerous indigenous peoples, of which he left detailed accounts. His book A New Voyage to Carolina is perhaps the most valuable document on early North Carolina. Lawson was eventually caught in a clash between colonists and Indians and was killed by Tuscaroras in 1712. See also BRITISH NORTH AMERICA; CARTOGRAPHY; COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; ENGLAND; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SETTLER COLONIALISM.

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LE MOYNE D’IBERVILLE, PIERRE (1661–1706). Pierre le Moyne D’Iberville was born in Montreal in July 1661. He was the third son of Lord Charles Le Moyne and Catherine Thierry, two of the wealthiest citizens of Montreal and New France. Iberville became a soldier at an early age, volunteering under Chevalier de Troyes in Hudson Bay. In 1686, he fought as a French soldier against England, a rivalry that he pursued his entire life. When Compagne du Nord, the French counterpart to the Hudson’s Bay Company, launched an attack on the English, Iberville led troops to Moose Fort on the south end of James Bay. On this expedition, Iberville captured the fort and three other posts. He became governor over the area in August 1686 and returned to France to solicit funds from Compagne du Nord for its new acquisitions. On his return in 1688, he again confronted the English, who wanted to regain their territory. By 1694, Iberville was heading an expedition to York Fort, which then belonged to the English, leaving the French with no claim in the north. Iberville left Quebec on 10 August 1694, forced the English to surrender, and renamed the position Fort Bourbon. During the next two years, over 450 canoe loads of pelts were delivered by the Indians to Fort Bourbon, making it the most lucrative fur trade posts at the time. Iberville skirmished with the English repeatedly over control of this profitable post. The second half of his career, however, was spent in the south, starting with an expedition of rediscovery to the Mississippi River. Louis XIV ordered Iberville to find a strong, defendable site to protect entry to the region by other nations, and thus began the French colonization of Louisiana. When Iberville returned to France in 1699, after two years, he left an established garrison of 81 men, an achievement that contributed to his acceptance of the Cross of the Order of Saint-Louis, the first time a man of Canadian birth received the French honor. His second exploratory voyage to the region arrived in Biloxi in January 1700. There, they built Fort Mississippi 40 miles inland; later, Mobile became the center of French influence in the Gulf of Mexico, the result of Iberville’s third expedition. In 1706, while harassing the English in the Caribbean, Iberville sought Spanish reinforcements from Cuba for a surge against the English province of Carolina. In Havana, he died of yellow fever, ending a remarkable career as the most valuable French marauder of his time. Iberville’s battles on land and sea helped hinder English efforts and keep French affairs relevant in the area, establishing claim to new land and the valuable furs therein. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM. LE PEROUSE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS GALAUP, COMTE DE (1741–1788?). Jean-François Galaup, Comte de Le Perouse was born in Albi, France, and participated in a number of supply expeditions to New France as a young naval cadet as well as fighting in the French and Indian

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War (Seven Years’ War). In 1785, he was dispatched to conduct a massive scientific expedition to the Pacific Ocean. At the time, the Pacific coast of North America was claimed by countless indigenous peoples and the European empires of Great Britain, Russia, and Spain. France had a rich history of exploring, settling, and colonizing the portions of the North American interior and Atlantic coast but had done very little along the Pacific coast and claimed no territories there. The purpose of the expedition was not to claim territories but, as James Cook had done for the English in the preceding decades, to gather scientific information about the region. After rounding Cape Horn and visiting Chile, Le Perouse made landfall at Easter Island and Hawaii before continuing to the Pacific Northwest coast. His expedition explored the coast of southeastern Alaska and some islands of the inside passage of British Columbia and down the coast to San Francisco. The expedition then sailed east, visiting Macau, Japan, Russia, Australia, and various South Pacific Islands before vanishing. In terms of the development of the Pacific coast, Le Perouse did not cause any great advancements, but reports that reached France did provide information about Spanish activities in the region, their treatment of indigenous peoples, and various notes of geographic, ecological, and botanical value. See also GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. LE SUEUR, PIERRE-CHARLES (1657–1704). Pierre-Charles Le Sueur was born in Artois, France, first coming to New France to serve at the Jesuit mission at Sault Sainte Marie. His life in North America, however, quickly turned to the fur trade and a number of important explorations. During the 1680s and 1690s, he rose as an important figure in the regional fur trade, gained fluency in multiple Native languages, and proved instrumental in various negotiations with Indian trading partners. After finding possible copper deposits in 1683, he was given permission to open mines on the Minnesota River. In 1699, he embarked to ascend the Mississippi River from the Gulf coast, making it as far north as Saint Anthony Falls, near present-day Minneapolis, Minnesota. From there, he continued up tributaries to the Blue Earth River, where his group established Fort L’Huillier with the intent of mining copper from the region and trading furs. Further samples of the suspect ore from the region revealed it to not contain copper, and the fort was closed in 1702. In the end, Le Sueur’s attempt to establish a permanent French mining post failed, but he was the first European to explore the greater Minnesota River valley, and his actions further deepened French interest in the region and, though troubled, extended French trading efforts among regional Indians.

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LEDERER, JOHN (fl. 1660s–1670s). John Lederer was born in Hamburg, Germany, in 1644 and there studied medicine before emigrating to Virginia in the 1668. From 1679 to 1680, he undertook three expeditions into the Piedmont and Blue Ridge Mountain areas. On his second expedition, Lederer explored into North Carolina as far as the Catawba River, and on his third expedition, he explored as far as the Shenandoah Valley. He later settled in Maryland and wrote extensively about his exploits. His writings were often inaccurate, but they were widely read and piqued the interests of colonial readers, drawing their attention toward expanding their western borders to and beyond the Appalachian Mountains. See also BRITISH NORTH AMERICA; COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. LEDYARD, JOHN (1751–1789). John Ledyard’s family came from Puritan Massachusetts, making him one of the first truly American-born explorers. He enrolled at Dartmouth College in 1772 to become a missionary to the Indians but stayed for only one year, much of which he spent living with Native tribes. In 1776, he had traveled to England, enlisted in the British navy, and joined Captain James Cook’s final voyage. After visiting the Pacific Northwest with Cook, Ledyard’s primary goal became that of establishing an American fur trade in that region. Ledyard worked directly with United States President Thomas Jefferson in developing many of his plans. His insistence on the Northwest’s economic possibilities influenced the journeys of John Jacob Astor, Samuel Hearne, Alexander Henry, and Peter Pond, who in turn inspired Alexander Mackenzie. Also, his publication A Journal of Captain Cook’s Last Voyage to the Pacific Ocean had lasting value and impact. In a daring 1787 expedition of his own, Ledyard crossed Siberia in hopes of reaching the Pacific Northwest by heading east. His goal was thwarted when he was arrested as a French spy and deported by the Russian government. Eventually, he would die of dysentery in Egypt while attempting to discover the headwaters of the Niger River. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. LEGENDS AND MYTHS. Myths, legends, and rumors were often key factors that would cause exploration of North America. While none of the major myths were ever proved true, it did not stop glory seekers from conducting extensive expeditions, hoping to find cities of gold, magical fountains, or Indians who had descended from Welsh princes. Moreover, nations and companies eager to find such fabled locations or riches were eager to finance the expeditions of individuals who produced believable reports about their existence. Conversely, this encouraged many explorers to exaggerate or falsify their accounts in hopes of securing future funding. This greatly per-

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petuated many myths. Juan Ponce de León, for example, indeed searched for a Fountain of Youth, although that was not his primary goal. More important and enduring, however, were the myths of kingdoms and empires of wealthy Native empires and kingdoms. It should be noted that these did not seem completely far-fetched after the enormous riches of the Aztec and Incan empires, and there were many men willing to risk their lives to find another such empire. When Álvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca and Estevanico returned with reports of Cíbola, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was quickly sent out by the Spanish to find it. However, the cities of Cíbola were simply a collection of Pueblo villages. Disappointed but not despairing, Coronado followed The Turk all the way to Kansas after hearing his reports of Quivira, which turned into another disappointment. In South America, the legend of El Dorado, a supposed city of gold, prompted similar expeditions up the Amazon River and elsewhere. The attempt to find passages around or through North America also took the form of many legendary waterways. The Strait of Anian, for instance, was supposed to run between North America and northeastern Asia, or Russia, as the Bering Strait does. On some maps, however, it was depicted as a long strait, running fully from the Atlantic to the Pacific. For centuries, explorers searched exhaustively for this waterway. A supposed “River of the West,” described by Louis Armand de Lom d’Arce, Baron de Lahontan, imagined a great river running through the continent. Some later suspected the Columbia River or Missouri River to fulfill his descriptions, but numerous expeditions proved otherwise. More broadly, the search for a fabled Northwest Passage engulfed centuries of expeditions. With all of these examples, expeditions were conducted to investigate a legend or a myth, and while they never did find what they were looking for, they did lead to exploration of North America. See also ALVARADO, HERNANDO DE (fl. 1540s); AYLLÓN, LUCAS VÁZQUEZ DE (1475?–1526); CÁRDENAS, GARCÍA LÓPEZ DE (fl. 1539–1542); CARTOGRAPHY; CHICORA, FRANCISCO DE (fl. early 1500s); ENGLAND; FINANCES AND FUNDING; FUCA, JUAN DE (APOSTOLOS VALERIANOS OR IOANNIS PHOKAS) (1536–1602); GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; HECETA, BRUNO DE (1743–1807); INGRAM, DAVID (fl. 1567–1569); MACKAY AND EVANS EXPEDITION (1795–1797); MADOC (1170s); MONCACHT-ÁPE (fl. 1680s–1700); NIZA, MARCOS DE (1495?–1558); PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; ROANOKE COLONY; SPAIN. LEON, ALONSO DE (1640?–1691). Alonso de Leon was born in Cadereyta, a town in the Nuevo León province of northern Mexico. As a teenager, he joined the Spanish navy. He returned to New Spain at age 20 and went on to serve as governor of the provinces of Nuevo León and Coahila, among other

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offices. In response to word that France was establishing settlements and forts along the Gulf coast, he led four expeditions from 1686 to 1689. By the fourth voyage, he discovered the remnants of abandoned René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle’s Fort St. Louis, which he burned to prevent future French usage. De Leon also found a number of French survivors who were scattered throughout the indigenous peoples of the region before returning to Mexico. In order to strengthen the Spanish presence, he established a number of posts, including San Francisco de los Tejas. LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774–1809). Meriwether Lewis was born in Virginia and first entered military service during the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794. He served as a personal secretary to United States President Thomas Jefferson from 1801 to 1803. Jefferson then chose Lewis as leader of the Corps of Discovery, which departed on 14 May 1804. Lewis asked William Clark to serve as his co-commander for this journey, which would lead them overland to the Pacific coast and back. Their expedition was the first American exploration to cross North America to the Pacific Ocean, the first to contact many indigenous peoples, and the first to map out the Missouri River to its headwaters. Lewis’s journals provided a wealth of biological, ecological, geographical, and ethnological information about the American interior. Jefferson had hoped that the expedition would discover a navigable river system that would connect the Atlantic and the Pacific, but as Lewis and Clark discovered, the immense size of the Rocky Mountains prevented any feasibly navigable passage. The expedition did spread America’s geopolitical influence westward, and it helped extend the American fur trade farther up the Missouri River into the Rocky Mountains. Meriwether Lewis and his expedition turned the terra incognita of the American West into a land ready for further exploration, development, and eventual settlement. Soon after his return, Lewis was appointed as the governor of the Louisiana Territory, but crushing responsibilities, mounting financial troubles, and poor health soon weighed Lewis down. He died on the Natchez Trace in Tennessee en route to Washington, D.C., and there is still controversy over whether his death was a murder or a suicide. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. LISA, MANUEL (1772–1820). Manuel Lisa was born to Christobal de Lisa and Maria Ignacia Rodriguez in New Orleans, Louisiana, when it was controlled by Spain. In the late 1700s, he traveled the Ohio River and Mississippi River as a trader, and in June 1802, he received a monopoly from the Spanish government on the lucrative fur trade with the Osage Indians. After the Corps of Discovery returned from their trip up the Missouri Riv-

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er, Lisa was quick to capitalize on the fur-trading opportunities reported by the expedition. In 1807, he founded the Missouri Fur Company. On his numerous trips up the Missouri River, he perfected techniques that subsequent fur companies would follow. Trade with Indians located along the rivers was necessary to ensure safe passage and friendly relations, but white trappers were the key to real profit. Supplied yearly from downriver, these mountain men were stationed at permanent outposts where they trapped and then sent their furs to St. Louis. This system stood in stark contrast to the systems used by France and Great Britain to the north. Although of fiery temperament and disliked by many, Manuel Lisa’s endeavors opened and established the lucrative Missouri River fur trade, which would continue for years after his death. See also UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. LONG, STEPHEN HARRIMAN (1784–1864). After being born and raised in New Hampshire, Stephen Harriman Long graduated from Dartmouth College, served in the army for two years, and taught mathematics at the United States Military Academy at West Point. In 1816, he was promoted to major in the U.S. Corps of Topographical Engineers. In 1819, Long was given orders to explore the headwaters of the Arkansas River and to trace the Red River from its headwaters to the Mississippi River. Although he had failed in these endeavors, his explorations provided a wealth of topographical, botanical, and geological information. His travels also helped keep America interested in exploring the West in the time between the Corps of Discovery and the travels of John C. Frémont. Perhaps his most lasting contribution was the concept of “the Great American Desert.” His description and title for the supposed barren wasteland of the American interior soon found its way onto maps and into America’s perception of the West. His report of the Great Plains significantly slowed westward migration and expansion. Stephen Long remained in the Corps of Topographical Engineers until near his death in 1864. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. LOUISIANA PURCHASE. For much of the 18th century, France controlled the vast North American interior lands west of the Mississippi River that drained into the Missouri River. This included present-day Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska and portions of Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, New Mexico, Texas, Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado and a small portion of southern Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 1762, at the end of the French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War), France gave the territory to Spain, which controlled it until 1800, when Napoleon

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reclaimed it for France. By 1803, Napoleon was short on funds and overextended due to his wars in Europe. Eager to acquire the land, United States President Thomas Jefferson had already dispatched agents to propose and negotiate the purchase of the territory. Although the U.S. Constitution did not expressly permit the president to purchase new territory, Jefferson felt it was essential to the growth and continued development of the nation. A deal was struck in April 1803, and in the form of direct cash and debt cancellation, the United States purchased Louisiana for approximately $15 million. Soon thereafter, Jefferson and others dispatched expeditions like the Corps of Discovery, Zebulon Pike, Thomas Freeman, William Dunbar, and others. This purchase immediately allowed for the expansion of American fur trade into the West, and exploration, settlement, industrial development, and American culture would soon follow. The geopolitical impact on Spain and England were immediate and drastic. Whereas Spain had enjoyed having a nonexpanding French neighbor to the north, it now bordered the aggressively expansionist Americans. The extension of American power into the West likewise added new pressure to English interests on the northern Great Plains and in the Pacific Northwest. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; SETTLER COLONIALISM.

M MACKAY AND EVANS EXPEDITION (1795–1797). In 1794, Scottishborn James MacKay (1759–1822) became the leader of an expedition, financed by the Company of Explorers of the Upper Missouri, into Indian territory and began preparing for an expedition the following year. A Welshman, John Evans (1770–1799?), joined MacKay after impressing him with frontier knowledge. Evans himself had previously traveled into Indian country in search of a fabled lost group of Welsh Indians but was arrested and imprisoned by the Spanish government in Missouri. The expedition left as planned in 1795 from St. Louis, MacKay and Evans leading 33 men to find a route from the source of the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean. After traveling as far as the Omaha Village in present-day Nebraska, the party stopped and built Fort Charles. MacKay was concerned that the trip was falling behind schedule and sent Evans ahead to the Mandan villages to make an accurate account of the land, plants, and animals he encountered. MacKay returned to St. Louis in May 1797, and Evans followed in July. On his return, Evans’s reports were published in the New York Daily Gazette, the Philadelphia Gazette Aurora, and the Monthly Magazine for March 1798. Together, MacKay and Evans created a map of the Missouri River from St. Charles to the Mandan villages that was later used by the Corps of Discovery. See also CARTOGRAPHY; MADOC (1170s); UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1764–1820). Alexander Mackenzie and his father moved from Scotland to New York in 1774 after the death of his mother. After some schooling in Montreal, Mackenzie joined the fur trade with Finlay, Gregory and Company until its merger with the North West Company in 1787. Mackenzie’s first expedition, in 1789, was in search of a Northwest Passage. Starting at Lake Athabasca, where he had helped found Fort Chipewyan a year earlier, he followed the Mackenzie River system to the north, hoping it would eventually veer west and lead to the Pacific Ocean. Much to his disappointment, the river continued north, emptying into the Arctic Ocean. His second attempt in 1793 succeeded in reaching the Pacific 133

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Ocean, but he still did not find an easily navigable route. He followed the Peace River west but found that a lengthy portage across was required to reach the Fraser River or Bella Coola River drainages into the Pacific. He reached one of the Bella Coola River outlets into the Pacific on 22 July 1793 and made an inscription into a rock stating his accomplishment. Although the Corps of Discovery is often hailed as the first Europeans to cross the North American continent, Mackenzie beat them by about 10 years. His two expeditions left invaluable geographic information that would be extensively utilized by the British fur trade. While he did not succeed in finding a practical water route to the Pacific, he mapped much of the Northwest. Three years after reading Mackenzie’s account, United States President Thomas Jefferson was so impressed by the possibility of a Northwest Passage that he sent out the Corps of Discovery under the command of Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Mackenzie’s reports were of such influence that Jefferson even gave the captains a copy of his expedition journal, Voyages from Montreal. In 1802, Mackenzie was knighted for his many accomplishments. See also CARTOGRAPHY; ENGLAND; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. MACKENZIE, DONALD (1783–1851). Having received some education in his native Scotland, Donald McKenzie migrated to Canada in 1800 and joined the North West Company as a clerk. In 1809, he joined John Jacob Astor in the Pacific Fur Company, a smaller company owned partially by the American Fur Company. His initial trip to the Pacific familiarized him extensively with the Snake River area. After leaving Astor’s group, he later made three expeditions to that same area for the North West Company between 1818 and 1821. McKenzie’s explorations of the Snake River not only helped map the area but also proved it to be a prime site for fur trade. He organized trappers in the area with assurance of lucrative profits. Despite his accomplishments, his well-laid plans were overlooked during the merger of the North West Company with the Hudson’s Bay Company. His plans for the Snake country would have otherwise led to greater development of the area. His later years were spent serving in various government positions in the Red River district. Unfortunately, he never succeeded in compiling his memoirs and journals, which would have provided much valuable information. They were destroyed by his wife because the project was causing him so much stress. He eventually retired and died in Mayville, New York. See also ENGLAND.

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MADOC (1170s). The case of Madoc, or Madog ab Owain Gwynedd, a 12th-century Welsh prince, is intriguing. It is unclear if his narrative may be based on an actual historical figure with legendary exploits, though exaggerated, or simply pure fabrication. According to legends, Madoc sailed west from Wales and made landfall in North America. He then returned home and reported of his finding, gathered settlers for another voyage, and was never seen again. His legend grew over time, and there were repeated rumors of Welsh-speaking Indians. In many accounts, Mandans were proposed as possible descendants of Madoc. Madoc’s real importance, however, was political. In 1583, George Peckham claimed the right of an English discovery of America based on the Madoc legend. Despite a complete lack of geographical, archaeological, or historical support, this legendary tale was used for nationalist purposes, giving it an importance beyond folklore. The Madoc story was widely published, adapted, republished, and otherwise embellished over the course of centuries, with numerous indigenous peoples across North America being identified as possible descendants of Welsh Indians. See also LEGENDS AND MYTHS. MALASPINA, ALEJANDRO (1754–1810). Alejandro Malaspina was born into a distinguished aristocratic family in northern Tuscany. He attended school in Rome and eventually joined the Order of Malta, where he learned the rudiments of sailing. In 1774, Malaspina joined the Royal Navy of Spain and spent the following years working up in rank and prestige. With hopes of regaining some of its lost maritime glory, in 1791 the king of Spain sent Malaspina on an expedition designed to rival that of Captain James Cook. The crew included expert astronomers, cartographers, hydrographers, and other scientists in hopes of producing scientific reports of the Pacific Northwest coast of North America. The voyage was very much rooted in the ideology of the Age of Enlightenment, and his primary goal of attaining knowledge was a success. They traveled as far northwest as Prince William Sound and recorded invaluable information on the people and geography of the Northwest coast. Shortly after the expedition, Malaspina’s mistakes in political matters sent him to prison for seven years. With the help of Napoleon, he was released and subsequently deported to Italy, where he spent the rest of his life. Had the reports of his expedition not been sequestered by the Spanish government, Malaspina would have likely been placed alongside Cook and George Vancouver as a famous Enlightenment explorer. See also SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. MALLET, PIERRE-ANTOINE (1700–1753?). When Mallet was about six years old, his family moved from Montreal, where he was born, to Detroit. A few years later, he moved to New Orleans, hoping to work in the Missouri

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fur trade. In 1734, Mallet and his brother Paul moved again, this time to Illinois. From 1739 to 1741, Mallet followed the Canadian and Red rivers to make three voyages between the Great Plains, Santa Fe, and New Orleans. Mallet’s 1739 trip was the first successful expedition from French Canada to Santa Fe, and it marked the beginning of a French attempt to start regular trade with Santa Fe. This trade was soon terminated by the French government. Unfortunately, the expedition’s journals are no longer extant, but extant information from the expedition gives insight into the placement and actions of many Plains Indians, including the Sioux, Caddos, Padoucahs, Apaches, and Comanches, in the 18th century. It also highlights a tense period between Spain and France, as both were yet exploring their frontiers in the North American interior and contested boundaries between the two growing empires. MARCY, RANDOLPH BARNES (1812–1887). Randolph Barnes Marcy was born in Massachusetts and served as a career army officer for the United States. He saw service in the 1832 Black Hawk War, the Mexican-American War in 1846, the Utah War in 1857, and later the Civil War, when he was promoted to brigadier and brevet major general. His contributions to the exploration and development of the frontier came in two parts. First, in 1852, he led an expedition to discover the headwaters of the Red River. He had been stationed on the southern Great Plains since 1848; had forged the Marcy Trail, a route from Fort Smith to Santa Fe that the Butterfield Overland Mail Company would later adopt; and had developed a deep familiarity with the region and its peoples. His 1852 expedition covered previously unexplored regions of Texas and Oklahoma and in the end successfully mapped both headwaters of the Red River. Second, as a captain in the Utah War expedition of 1857, he produced a widely read account of the routes across the Plains and over the Rocky Mountains, including a harrowing account of a midwinter expedition from Utah to New Mexico titled The Prairie Traveler. Although the overland trails would soon be replaced by railroads, his text continued to find readers in the pioneer settlers of the Great Plains who found his advice indispensable. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. MARQUETTE, JACQUES (1636–1675). Born in Laon, France, Jacques Marquette spent his early adult life studying and teaching at Jesuit colleges in France before being sent to Quebec as an Indian missionary in 1666. His labors took him among the Great Lakes Indians, and during this time he became an expert in Native languages. On hearing word of a river with no end from local Indians, Marquette joined Louis Jolliet in 1673 to explore the

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Mississippi River. Marquette and Joliet’s exploration of the Mississippi River helped France gain commercial domination of the region, and Marquette’s journal of his exploration of the Mississippi River gives detailed descriptions of topography, wildlife, and Native tribes and their customs. After the expedition, Marquette continued his missionary work before dying on Lake Michigan at age 39. See also CARTOGRAPHY; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. MARTÍNEZ FERNÁNDEZ Y MARTÍNEZ DE LA SIERRA, ESTEBAN JOSÉ (1742–1798). Esteban José Martínez Fernández y Martínez de la Sierra was born in Seville, Spain, beginning a naval career early in life and reaching a small post in Mexico by 1773. In the 1770s, Martínez became well acquainted with the Pacific coast of North America as he worked shipping routes bringing supplies from Mexico and Baja California to Spanish missions and forts in Alta California throughout the 1770s and 1780s. During this time, Spain was increasingly aware of competing European claims along the Pacific coast, namely, those of Great Britain and Russia. In 1774, Martínez was second in command in an expedition to push as far north up the coast as possible to ascertain the extent of Russian southward expansion. They reached as far north as the lower islands along the coast of present-day British Columbia. On their return, they anchored at Nootka Sound, on Vancouver Island’s west coast, and established some trade with local Natives. Later, in 1786, he brought reports to officials in New Spain that Russia had established a permanent post at Nootka Sound, and in 1789, he commanded a hasty voyage to establish a fort there to strengthen Spanish claims to the region. From Nootka, Martínez established fur trade with the Natives and petitioned Spanish officials to fund an expedition up the Strait of Juan de Fuca, which he suspected to be the outlet of a river passage through the continent, a Northwest Passage. In 1790, conflicts with English traders and sailors around Nootka Sound led to Martínez’s expulsion from the Northwest coast, and he spent his remaining eight years running supply ships along the southern coast as he had previously. His involvement at Nootka represented an important moment in Spain’s most northerly activities along the coast, and the Nootka Sound crisis, as it came to be known, led to resolutions in which Spain agreed to permanently withdraw from the region—leaving it to Russian, British, and, later, United States interests. MCKENZIE, KENNETH (1797–1861). Born of prominent heritage in Scotland, Kenneth McKenzie left for Canada in 1816. He worked as a clerk for the North West Company and eventually migrated to St. Louis in 1822.

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By 1825, he was the president of the Columbia Fur Company and effectively controlling much of the upper Missouri River. Meanwhile, John Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company had beat out all of its competition except for McKenzie’s outfit. Eventually, an agreement was made between the two, and McKenzie took over the Upper Missouri Outfit and set up headquarters in 1828 at Fort Floyd, later known as Fort Union, near the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers. His fort soon became the most powerful trading post on the Missouri. He was often called the “King of the Missouri” and “Emperor of the West.” Through his influence, many fur trade alliances with Native tribes were won over for the United States from their British competitors. These included Assiniboines, Blackfeets, Crees, Crows, Sioux, and other Plains Indians. Starting in 1830, he was instrumental in bringing steamboats to the upper Missouri River, an act that only increased the trade and profit. Eventually, he was forced to retire after building an illegal liquor still, and he returned to St. Louis, where he ran a liquor store. MCTAVISH, SIMON (1750–1804). Although born in Scotland, by age 13, Simon McTavish was employed in the North American fur trade, where he worked sorting furs in a warehouse in New York. In 1775, he moved to Montreal to engage in his own fur-trading enterprises and was among the original founding members of the North West Company in 1779. He soon became the chief director and the guiding force of the company. The firm went on to become one of the most successful fur-trading companies in North America and would fund some of the most important exploratory expeditions of the continent. The success of the company made him the wealthiest man in Montreal, and without his instrumentality in creating and leading the North West Company, many regions of the North American interior and northwestern coasts would have remained unexplored for quite some time. See also ENGLAND; FINANCES AND FUNDING. MEDINA, MARIANO (early 1800s–1878). Probably born in Mexico, Mariano Medina ran away from home at a young age and joined the American fur trade. He became familiar with a number of Indian tribes and was especially close to the Flatheads, whose language he learned and from whose tribe he married a wife. He spent several years guiding immigrants to California and raising cattle. Medina served as an aide to John C. Frémont and gained a reputation as an expert guide when he led Captain Randolph Barnes Marcy over the Rocky Mountains during the Mormon War. It is believed that Medina assisted Marcy find Cochetopa Pass when they became lost on their expedition to Fort Massachusetts in the winter of 1857–1858. Medina eventually settled down near present-day Loveland, Colorado, on

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Big Thompson Creek in 1858. He built a toll bridge, a fort, a trading post, and a stage station at the site he called Namaqua, known to locals as “Marianne’s Crossing.” Medina is one of the only examples of a Mexican who was a successful fur trapper and trader in the Western United States. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. MEEK, JOSEPH L. (1810–1875). Joseph L. Meek, originally from Virginia, entered the fur trade at an early age and got a job with the Rocky Mountain Fur Company in 1828 as a trapper. During his 12 years in the fur trade, he worked as a free trapper and for numerous fur companies. In 1833, he crossed the Sierra Nevada Mountains into the Yosemite Valley with Joseph Walker as one of the first Americans to go overland to California. In 1840, he helped open the wagon road from the Rocky Mountains to the Columbia River, a route to be used intensively in the following years. Later, in 1840, he settled in Oregon and served for the rest of his life in various military and political offices, including an important delegation to United States President James K. Polk after the 1847 Whitman Massacre. When Meek narrated his history to Frances Victor in the late 1860s, he told a story full of adventure. He epitomizes the rowdy, brave, and adventuresome mountain man image. He was often associated with James Bridger, Christopher “Kit” Houston Carson, and other mountain men, and he witnessed many important events in westward migration. The stories he related were of such fantastic nature that their credibility has been questioned. His biography, however, gives tremendous insight into the life and trials of the mountain men in the early-19th-century fur trade. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. MENARD, PIERRE (1766–1844). Pierre Menard left his home in Quebec at age 15 to join an expedition exploring the Illinois Territory. By 1790, Menard had moved to Kaskaskia on the Mississippi River, where he opened a store. He prospered there and involved himself in the fur trade as well as local politics. In 1809, he joined a party of the Missouri Fur Company that ventured up the Missouri River to the Rocky Mountains. In addition to expanding the company’s trade, the party was in charge of returning the Mandan chief Sheheke, who had come east with the Corps of Discovery, to his home. Also on this trip was Manuel Lisa, who later revolutionized the fur industry in the United States and with whom Menard worked closely. While he would never again return to the West, Menard remained deeply involved in the fur trade. In reality, Menard was ill suited for life in the rough wilderness and instead served as a major, colonel, legislator, judge, and lieutenant governor.

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MENDOZA, ANTONIO DE (1495–1552). Born to an influential Spanish family, Antonio de Mendoza played an integral role in Spain’s early exploration of its frontiers north of Mexico. In 1535, he was appointed as the viceroy of New Spain and held the post for 15 years. As viceroy, he oversaw significant Spanish development in Mexico but also attempted expansions. He commissioned the expedition of Melchior Díaz in 1539–1541 to investigate claims of Quivira, the subsequent monumental expedition of Francisco Vásquez de Coronado in 1540–1542 past New Spain’s northern border and into the pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley and onto the Great Plains, and Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo’s 1542 expedition to explore the California coastline. These represented a landmark era in Spanish exploration. In 1550, he took over as viceroy of Peru and remained there until his death two years later. See also CONQUISTADORS; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS. MENÉNDEZ DE AVILÉS, PEDRO (1519–1574). At the age of 14, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés ran away from his home in Spain to become a sailor. By age 35, he had become the captain general of Spain’s Indies Fleet. During his rise to the highest rank in the Spanish navy, he was trusted with great responsibilities, including his 1561 journey with a fleet of treasure-laden ships from Mexico to Spain. Tragically, the ship carrying his family was lost, and in 1565, Aviles was given permission to return to look for his family on the condition that he would also explore and settle Florida. The Spanish were especially worried about the French Huguenots based at René Goulaine de Laudonnière’s newly established Fort Caroline and wanted to establish stronger Spanish influence in Florida. While not eager to fight with France, Aviles realized it would allow him to search for his family and accepted. He carried out his orders and massacred the French Protestants before establishing St. Augustine, which remains today the oldest city in the United States. Aviles would eventually die while on a diplomatic mission to Spain. MEXICO. For much of the Spanish era of colonialism in Central and North America, the lands encompassed by present-day Mexico and portions of Central America were referred to collectively as Mexico. In 1821, the country of Mexico achieved independence from Spain, with territories including all of present-day Mexico as well as much of the American Southwest. Unfortunately, the fledgling country inherited a deteriorating situation on its northern frontier and for the decades leading up to the Mexican-American War struggled to control the region. With large expanding Native empires, such as the Comanches, and other mobilized and powerful Indian groups, such as Apaches, Utes, and Yaquis along the northern frontier, Mexico sought policies to impose order and control over the region. One policy was

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to invite American settlers into Texas, a decision that it would later regret as the Americans declared independence from Mexico and were quickly annexed into the United States in 1845. Under Mexican rule, new exploration of the frontier was minimal, and, likewise, there was little aggressive development of frontier regions. There was a significant and growing Mexican population in the region as well as older populations of Californios, Nuevo Mexicanos, and Tejanos who claimed older colonial Spanish stock than their contemporary Mexican or Hispanic neighbors. These peoples, along with the diverse indigenous populations of the American Southwest, Great Basin, southern Great Plains, and California, would be integrated into the United States in 1846 at the end of the Mexican-American War. The resulting U.S.Mexico borderlands would persist as a region of conflict where neither EuroAmerican nation exacted full control for decades to follow. MÉZIÈRES, ATHANASE (OR ATHANAZE) (fl. 1770s). Athanase Mézières came from a noble family in Paris, France, born sometime in the late 1710s and baptized in 1719. By the early 1730s, he had moved to North America and enlisted in the infantry in French Louisiana. For the next two decades, Mézières served in various positions in Louisiana. When Louisiana passed to the Spanish, he was appointed as the Spanish lieutenant governor of Natchitoches. Starting in 1772, he was sent by Spain to undertake a series of expeditions to the Red River region in northern Texas. His first expedition in 1772 successfully negotiated treaties with the Kichais, Taovayas, Tawakonis, and Tonkawas. In 1778, Mézières was sent out to the Comanches and Nortenos tribes with a similar objective. The next year, he was appointed governor of Texas but was unable to assume the office when his health waned due to an injury on his last expedition. His impact on directing European-Native affairs and trade on the frontier cannot be overstated. See also FUR TRADE; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. MICHAUX, ANDRÉ (1746–1802). André Michaux was born near presentday Versailles, France, in 1746. He trained as a botanist and found employment for the monarchy of France, for which he produced a great deal of botanical knowledge and specimens. In 1785, he was appointed as a royal botanist and sent to the United States. Accompanied by his son François André Michaux, who would go on to become a noted botanist in his own right, he traveled extensively throughout the eastern United States and Canada, cataloging new plant specimens, establishing botanical gardens, and publishing two influential texts of his discoveries. His activities themselves did not contribute significantly to the development of the frontier, but their legacy did. Inspired by his initial travels and discoveries, Thomas Jefferson began planning similar expeditions into the West. He initially aimed to have

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Michaux direct an expedition, but those plans were abandoned after Michaux was deported for geopolitical intrigues. The scientific and botanical studies conducted by the Corps of Discovery were a direct outgrowth of Jefferson’s initial plans for Michaux. See also PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. MISSION-PRESIDIO SYSTEM. As Spain expanded its territorial possession in New Spain toward the northern reaches of settled Mexico, colonial officials struggled to control its northern frontier. There were countless indigenous peoples who inhabited the regions beyond the direct control of Mexico City, and many were powerful and able to repel Spanish expansion efforts. Hence, a system was developed to subjugate, assimilate, and employ the labors of Native peoples. It was a three-part system consisting of a mission, where Catholic orders, such as the Dominicans, Franciscans, or Jesuits, would focus on converting Natives who agreed to live in proximity to the mission; a presidio, where troops would be garrisoned to protect the mission, its assimilating indigenous inhabitants, and the broader region from hostile Indian attacks and also to police the region for foreign interlopers; and a rancheria or pueblo, where Natives remained sedentary and often labored in agriculture or ranching. The system spread across the northern Spanish frontier and was the location of Spanish private investment (as wealthy Europeans were given land grants in the area) and often indigenous resistance. See also MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION. MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION. Across the various frontiers of the multiple competing European empires in North America, religion was used as both a justification for the conquest of indigenous peoples and a means of control. In New Spain, Spain gave Catholic orders a central role in the settlement of frontier areas and attempted subjugation of Indians though conversion. Augustinian, Dominican, Franciscan, Jesuit, and other orders often maintained the most direct contact with Natives along the Spanish frontier. The mission-presidio system was the primary focus of settlement efforts. Jesuits in New France had particular influence and were regularly among the expeditions exploring the interior. In the 19th century, a multitude of Protestant churches from the United States established missions among Indians in the West. Russian Orthodox missions were established throughout Russian America as well. The sites of these missions were the focal point for settlement efforts but also violence.

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See also ALLOUEZ, CLAUDE-JEAN (1620–1689); BENAVIDES, ALONSO DE (1578–1635); BOSQUE, FERNANDO DEL, AND JUAN LARIOS (fl. 1675); CABRILLO, JUAN RODRÍGUEZ (1500?–1543); CALAHORRA Y SAENZ, JOSÉ FRANCISCO (fl. mid-1700s); CASTAÑO DE SOSA, GASPAR (1550–?); CHAMUSCADO-RODRÍGUEZ EXPEDITION (1581–1582); CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE-FRANÇOIS-XAVIER DE (1682–1761); CHOZAS, VERÁSCOLA, AND SALAS EXPEDITION (1597); DABLON, CLAUDE (1618–1697); DOMÍNGUEZ-ESCALANTE EXPEDITION (1775); ESPEJO AND BELTRÁN EXPEDITION (1582–1583); GARCÉS, FRANCISCO HERMENEGILDO TOMÁS (1738–1781); HENNEPIN, LOUIS (1626–1705?); JOGUES, ISAAC (1607–1646); JOLLIET, LOUIS (1645–1700); KINO, EUSEBIO FRANCISCO (1645–1711); MARQUETTE, JACQUES (1636–1675); MORTON, THOMAS (1579–1647); NIZA, MARCOS DE (1495?–1558); PARKER, SAMUEL (1779–1866); PILGRIMS; REQUERIMIENTO (1500s); SALAS, JUAN DE, AND DIEGO LÓPEZ (fl. 1629–1632); SERRA, JUNÍPERO (1713–1784). MISSISSIPPI RIVER. Measuring approximately 2,300 miles and draining some 125,000,000 square miles, the Mississippi River is the second-longest river in America, behind only the Missouri River. While it was known by many names, the name “Mississippi” comes from the Indian words for “big water.” Hernando De Soto’s 1539–1543 expedition was the first Europeans to discover the river while they were exploring the Southeast, but they never discovered its full extent. The French would explore the river far more extensively, vainly hoping for an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. For this search, they sent Louis Jolliet and James Marquette, who explored the Mississippi to the mouth of the Arkansas. At this point, Jolliet realized that the river would empty into the Gulf of Mexico, and feeling that they had fulfilled their mission, they returned to Canada. It was not until 1682 that René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti would voyage from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. La Salle later led a disastrous colonizing expedition near the river on the Gulf of Mexico, losing his life in the process. In the following years, the French continued building forts, thereby establishing French dominance along the river for many years. With the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, the United States took control of the river from France and used it as a major economic and transportation route. Throughout the years, the Mississippi has served as a major commercial highway and been subject to intensive exploration. See also ALLOUEZ, CLAUDE-JEAN (1620–1689); BIENVILLE, JEANBAPTISTE LE MOYNE, SIEUR DE (1680–1767); CARVER, JONATHAN (1710–1780); CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE-FRANÇOIS-XAVIER DE (1682–1761); COLLOT, GEORGES-HENRI-VICTOR (1750–1805); COU-

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TURE, JEAN (fl. 1680s–1700s); DULUTH, DANIEL GREYSOLON SIEUR (1639–1710); HENNEPIN, LOUIS (1626–1705?); LA HARPE, JEAN-BAPTISTE BÉNARD DE (1683–1765); LAVAZARES, GUIDO DE (fl. 1550s); LE MOYNE D’IBERVILLE, PIERRE (1661–1706); LE SUEUR, PIERRE-CHARLES (1657–1704); MENARD, PIERRE (1766–1844); MONCACHT-ÁPE (fl. 1680s–1700); MOSCOSO ALVARADO, LUIS DE (1505–1551); NICOLLET, JOSEPH (1786–1843); PERROT, NICOLAS (1644–1717); POND, PETER (1740–1807); SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY ROWE (1793–1864); THOMPSON, DAVID (1770–1857). MISSOURI FUR COMPANY. Alternately named the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company, this company was organized by Manuel Lisa and a number of other prominent St. Louis businessmen in 1809 to exploit resources along the upper Missouri River. Lisa was already engaged in the fur trade, sending a group of trappers before the company’s formation. The Missouri Fur Company was never as successful as its competitors, although it too contributed to the fur trade and its impact on the exploration of America. For a period, it held considerable sway over indigenous peoples on the upper Missouri and factored into the geopolitical rivalry with the Hudson’s Bay Company. See also DORION, PIERRE, SR. (fl. 1803–1806); FINANCES AND FUNDING; HENRY, ANDREW (1755?–1833); MENARD, PIERRE (1766–1844); PILCHER, JOSHUA (1790–1843); UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. MISSOURI RIVER. Measuring roughly 2,540 miles, the Missouri River is the longest river in the United States. Divided into upper and lower regions, it flows from Montana and across the northern Great Plains before joining into the Mississippi River just north of St. Louis, Missouri. Louis Jolliet and James Marquette became the first Europeans to discover its mouth while exploring the Mississippi in 1673, although it is likely that the Spanish knew of its existence. Claude Charles Du Tisne and others explored the lower reaches of the river in 1719, and the Louis Joseph Gaultier de Vérendrye wintered with Mandans on the upper Missouri River in 1738. The next major exploration was the Corps of Discovery in 1803, as Meriwether Lewis and William Clark followed the river to its source before heading to the Pacific Ocean. With St. Louis being established just downstream, the Missouri’s economic potential increased, and with the fur trade, it quickly lived up to that potential. In the ensuing years, trappers would use the Missouri as a thoroughfare for their pelts. Scientists and artists also traveled in the region, helping to improve American knowledge of the American frontier.

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See also ASHLEY, WILLIAM HENRY (1778–1838); BOONE, DANIEL (1734–1820); BOURGMONT, ÉTIENNE DE VENIARD, SIEUR DE (1679–1734); BRIDGER, JAMES (1804–1881); CAMPBELL, ROBERT (1804–1879); D’EGLISE, JACQUES (?–1806); HENRY, ANDREW (1755?–1833); LAHONTAN, LOUIS ARMAND DE LOM D’ARCE, BARON DE (1666–1713/1715?); LAROCQUE, FRANÇOIS-ANTOINE (1784–1869); LISA, MANUEL (1772–1820); LOUISIANA PURCHASE; MACKAY AND EVANS EXPEDITION (1795–1797); MCKENZIE, KENNETH (1797–1861); MISSOURI FUR COMPANY; MONCACHT-ÁPE (fl. 1680s–1700); NICOLLET, JOSEPH (1786–1843); ROCKY MOUNTAIN FUR COMPANY; SMITH, JEDEDIAH STRONG (1799–1831); SUBLETTE, WILLIAM LEWIS (1799–1845); VIAL, PEDRO (1746–1814). MONCACHT-ÁPE (fl. 1680s–1700). Moncacht-Ápe was a Yazoo Indian who lived in the Mississippi Valley around the turn of the 18th century and may have undertaken a monumental cross-continental journey on foot. The accounts of his travels were recorded by Dumont de Montingy and Le Page du Pratz. The circumstances surrounding the account’s relation call its veracity into question, as the French authors offered no corroborating evidence. In hopes of learning the origins of his race, Moncacht-Ápe traveled the North American continent coast to coast visiting tribes and learning their languages. He was reported to be of exceptional intelligence and character. His journey, which took him to the Pacific Ocean via the Mississippi River, Missouri River, and Columbia River, is the first record of an overland journey across North America. The considerable interest expressed in the journey demonstrated European interest in the North American interior, much as the dubious cross-county account of David Ingram had some 100 years prior. See also LEGENDS AND MYTHS. MORAGA, GABRIEL (1765–1823). Originally from Fronteras, Sonora, Mexico, Gabriel Moraga and his mother accompanied Fernando de Rivera y Moncada’s 1769 expedition to Alta California. Later, Moraga joined the Spanish army and spent much of his adult life exploring Alta California. First, he participated in both of Juan Bautista de Anza’s expeditions to Alta California in 1774 and 1775. In 1806, Moraga led his own expedition north, crossing the San Joaquin Valley and becoming the first European expedition into central California. Two years later, as the ensign of the San Francisco Company, Moraga explored parts of the Great Valley and Sacramento. As the first European to extensively explore the interior of California in some 42 expeditions, Moraga earned himself the nickname “Columbus of the Sier-

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ras.” While his explorations did not lead to immediate settlement of the areas, the information he provided would prove valuable for future European settlement. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; SPAIN. MORTON, THOMAS (1579–1647). Originally from Devon, England, Thomas Morton journeyed to New England in 1622, leaving his job as a lawyer in London. Despite arriving only two years after the Mayflower, he came not as a Pilgrim but as an investor. Morton established a trading post at Mount Wollaston in 1625. This outpost, which later became known as Merry Mount, stood in stark contrast to his puritanical neighbors to the south. Thomas had soon earned a reputation for being a heathen and was often depicted by contemporary William Bradford as scandalous, mad, and licentious. The most infamous incident was his erection of a Maypole around which he and his Native companions danced to the beating of drums. Despite his unsavory reputation, Morton’s depictions of the new Pilgrim settlements in New England are incredibly useful, providing a fresh perspective in contrast to the more traditional accounts of William Bradford. Additionally, they provide a less dogmatic and probably more accurate depiction of the surrounding indigenous peoples. Eventually, Morton was arrested and deported by Puritan leadership. After returning in 1645, Morton was again arrested before moving north to Maine, where he died several years later. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; SETTLER COLONIALISM. MOSCOSO ALVARADO, LUIS DE (1505–1551). Luis de Moscoso Alvarado was born in 1505 in Badajoz, Spain, to a family with considerable connections to Spanish enterprises in New Spain. After participating in conquests of portions of Central and South America in the 1530s, he joined Hernando de Soto’s 1538 expedition to Florida. Under de Soto’s command, the expedition traveled up the Florida Gulf coast, ascended the Mississippi River, and began inland incursions before de Soto was killed in 1542. Moscoso assumed command for the remainder of the expedition. On their return to Mexico City, Moscoso led de Soto’s army west into Louisiana and Texas and along the Texas Gulf coast. The Spanish incursion into the American Southeast under de Soto and Moscoso was short lived but cast a long shadow. During their expedition, the group came into extensive contact with various large and powerful indigenous peoples in the region. European diseases were spread through that contact, and though Spain would not send further expeditions into the region for decades, when later explorers entered

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the area, they found populations decimated by the diseases introduced a generation earlier. On returning to Mexico City, Moscoso joined Antonio de Mendoza in traveling to Peru, where he died in 1551. See also CONQUISTADORS. MOUNTAIN MEN. Working as fur hunters, trappers, and traders, these rugged men traveled throughout the Mountain West of the United States in search of pelts. They were especially active in the 1820s–1830s as the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, the American Fur Company, and other companies were heavily involved in the fur trade. Much like the French coureurs de bois, these men often lived with Natives and adapted their survival techniques to endure the harsh wilderness. Because of their role in the fur trade, these men were often the first non-Indians to explore areas as they traveled far and wide to find new sources of furs. When the fur trade eventually declined, these men often used their extensive knowledge of the land to serve as guides and interpreters for settlers, the military, and, most important, government expeditions. See also BECKWOURTH, JAMES (1800–1866); CARSON, CHRISTOPHER “KIT” HOUSTON (1809–1868); CLYMAN, JAMES (1792–1881); COLTER, JOHN (1774–1813); COUREURS DE BOIS; FITZPATRICK, THOMAS (1799–1854); GLASS, HUGH (?–1833); HENRY, ANDREW (1755?–1833); MEEK, JOSEPH L. (1810–1875); OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; ROBIDOUX, ANTOINE (1794–1860); SMITH, JEDEDIAH STRONG (1799–1831); WALKER, JOSEPH REDDEFORD (1789–1876); WILLIAMS, WILLIAM SHERLEY (1787–1849). MOURELLE, FRANCISCO ANTONIO (1750–1820). Francisco Antonio Mourelle was born in Galicia, now part of northwest Spain. He had an extensive career sailing from New Spain along the Pacific coast of North America. In 1775, he piloted a ship in the expedition of Bruno de Hezeta and Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra to the Pacific Northwest. In 1779, he again piloted a ship in an expedition of Bodega y Quadra that explored the full coast to the northernmost reaches of the Gulf of Alaska. He later led expeditions to the South Pacific. An unexpected legacy of Mourelle came when an unauthorized publication of his journals was produced in Great Britain. English explorers such as James Cook used them extensively in their later voyages to the Pacific Northwest. See also PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. MUNK, JENS (1579–1628). Jens Munk was born into a noble Danish family while they were living in Norway. As a boy, Munk moved to Denmark, and by the age of 12, he joined an English captain en route to Portugal.

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Eventually, Munk reached Brazil, where he remained for several years, but by 1598, he had returned to Denmark. Munk then began his illustrious naval career, which included several expeditions, capturing pirates, and eventually earning recognition as one of the most respected officers of the Danish navy. Among his greatest accomplishments were his polar explorations off the Northeastern American coasts. While his search for the Northwest Passage in the region of Hudson Bay was a failure, Munk did produce detailed accounts of his voyage and became one of the most influential Danish explorers. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION.

N NARVÁEZ, PÁNFILO DE (1470?–1528). Narváez was born in Castille, Spain, and joined the Spanish army at a young age and was later one of Jamaica’s first settlers. Later, he served in the conquest of Cuba, where he became the lieutenant governor. When the Spanish government heard of Cortez’s unauthorized activities in Mexico, Narváez was sent to arrest Cortez. Instead, Cortez imprisoned Narváez for the next three years. In 1526, after being released and returning to Spain, Narváez was given a patent to colonize the coastal areas between Florida and Texas. In 1527, Narváez left Hispaniola with five ships and around 600 men, among them Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca and Estevanico. After a bad start, they were forced to stop in Cuba before continuing toward the mainland. The expedition was supposed to sail west to colonize the Gulf coast of Mexico, north of Cortez’s activities. Due to navigational mistakes, it sailed northeast, making landfall on the western coast of Florida instead of the eastern coast of Mexico. It forged inland but met disaster, and his expedition’s brutality ruined NativeSpanish relations for decades. After suffering significant casualties from numerous fights with Indians, the remainder of the expedition built rafts hoping to get back to Mexico on these. Unfortunately, these rafts were destroyed, and all of the men drowned except four survivors who were captured. Eventually, the four made it overland to Spanish settlements in Mexico, including Cabeza de Vaca, who came back with rumors of a wealthy Pueblo kingdom. His stories led to further exploration, most notably under Francisco Vásquez de Coronado. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS. NATIVES OR NATIVE AMERICANS. These are general terms used to describe groups of the indigenous inhabitants of North America. They are synonymous with Indians, American Indians, or, in Canada, First Nations. Where possible, specific tribal, linguistic, or cultural names are the preferred usage. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. 149

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NEEDHAM AND ARTHUR EXPEDITION (1673–1674). In 1673, Abraham Wood commissioned an expedition to cross the Appalachian Mountains and search for a Northwest Passage to the Pacific Ocean. At the time, Wood was a former member of the Virginia House of Burgesses, current member of the Virginia Governor’s Council, and major general in the colonial militia. From Fort Henry, present-day Petersburg, Virginia, he wielded considerable influence as a fur trader and was eager to capitalize on trade opportunities farther west. To this end, he had dispatched the 1671 Batts and Fallam expedition and intended the 1673 Needham and Arthur expedition to continue what Batts and Fallam had started and develop relations with Cherokees in Tennessee. Little is known of the origins of either James Needham or Gabriel Arthur, but both presumably were born in England. At the time of the expedition, James Needham was a prominent member of the regional community and economy, and Gabriel Arthur was a young man apparently associated with Needham, possibly an indentured servant. After an initial failure to push past the powerful Occaneechi Indians in April 1763, middlemen whom Wood wanted to circumvent, they banded with Tomahitan Indians and traveled to the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina. In the course of their early travels, Needham was killed, and Arthur was taken in by Cherokees. Over the course of a year, he traveled extensively with the Cherokees, visiting present-day Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North and South Carolina, and portions of Virginia beyond contemporary English settlement. He accompanied Cherokees on raiding parties to Spanish settlements in Florida and may have also visited present-day West Virginia, which would make him the first European to do so. He was eventually captured by Shawnees along the Ohio River but was allowed to return to Virginia. Gone for over a year, the information he brought was welcomed by Wood but not distributed widely in the colonies. His routes included the Wilderness Road that Daniel Boone and others would later use. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. NEW FRANCE. This term refers generally to the colonial possessions of France in North America. NEW SPAIN. This term refers generally to the colonial possessions of Spain in North, Central, and South America. NICOLET, JEAN (1598–1642). Raised in Normandy, France, in 1618, Jean Nicolet moved to New France. It was here that Samuel de Champlain saw Nicolet’s integrity and potential and hired him to live among the Huron Indians. While living among the Hurons, Nicolet quickly learned Native

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languages and became assimilated into the Native society. His greatest exploratory achievements were in the Great Lakes region, but there is some controversy over what he discovered in his journey of 1634. Tradition purports that he traveled west across Lake Huron, past Mackinac Island, across northern Lake Michigan, and into Green Bay and the Fox River. This would make him the first European to explore Green Bay. Current examinations of primary documents, however, suggest otherwise. The new theory is that he may have gone north instead of west, passing through the Sault de Ste. Marie and then traveling along the southern shore of Lake Superior. Both theories have strong arguments in their support, as the documents can be interpreted in different ways. Regardless of where his journey went, Nicolet made important exploratory discoveries for New France. He later drowned at age 44 while fishing on the St. Lawrence River. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. NICOLLET, JOSEPH (1786–1843). Joseph Nicollet was born in the Savoy region of France in 1786 and had a career as a professor of mathematics and astronomy before immigrating to the United States in 1832. Using his academic expertise, Nicollet gained employment with the American Fur Company to produce a more accurate map of the upper Mississippi River drainage. To accomplish this, he undertook three expeditions. The first expedition (1836–1837) followed the Mississippi River to its source in Minnesota and explored the adjacent St. Croix River as well. The updated cartography produced by Nicollet replaced previously flawed maps of Zebulon Pike. He was subsequently appointed as the head of the U.S. War Department’s Corps of Topographical Engineers and led an 1838 expedition to chart the lands between the upper Mississippi River and the Missouri River. Joined by John C. Frémont, the expedition mapped significant territories in Minnesota, Iowa, and elsewhere. In 1839, he led another expedition up the Missouri into South and North Dakota. Maps produced from Nicollet’s work were unprecedented in their accuracy, featured indigenous place-names, and were utilized extensively for fur trade, military, overland emigration, and settlement purposes. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. NIZA, MARCOS DE (1495?–1558). Fray Marcos de Niza was born sometime in the 1490s in Nice, currently located in southeastern France but at the time under the control of the Italian House of Savoy. He journeyed to South America in 1531, living in Guatemala and Peru before arriving in Mexico in 1537. The next year, Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza sent de Niza to investigate the validity of Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca’s reports of riches some-

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where in the American Southwest. After exploring in 1539, de Niza returned and reported having seen Cíbola, including a golden city larger than any in New Spain. Scholars now conclude that he was mistaken on what he saw or perhaps that he was simply lying. He had, in fact, sighted Zuni Pueblo. At the time, his account was believable enough to prompt Mendoza to send Francisco Vásquez de Coronado on one of the grandest expeditions up to that time hoping to find these seven wealthy cities. When they were not found, de Niza was relieved as a guide and returned to Mexico City in disgrace. Had de Niza not confirmed the report of Cabeza de Vaca, the Coronado expedition would not have been undertaken. In short, de Niza’s account, whether exaggerated, simply fraudulent, or a product of an imaginative mind, greatly encouraged Spain’s exploration along its northern frontier. See also LEGENDS AND MYTHS; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; SPAIN. NORTH WEST COMPANY. The North West Company, different in purpose and practice from the Northwest Company (Company of Merchants of London, Discoverers of the North-West Passage), was one of the two largest British fur companies in North America. This company was founded in Montreal in 1779 by several Scottish fur traders looking to make their fortunes in the fur trade. In essence, it was more of a joint business venture, with each of the companies retaining its own identity. However, by combining, they had made themselves a serious force in the fur trade. By 1787, the North West Company had merged with even more of its rivals and had become one of the most dominant leaders of the fur trade. In its need for furs, the company sent trappers throughout the Canadian frontier, most notably Donald MacKenzie, who explored enormous regions of Canada. Its main competition was with the Hudson’s Bay Company and was occasionally marred by violence. In 1821, the two competitors merged under the Hudson’s Bay Company’s name to become the most powerful force in the North American fur trade. See also BELL, JOHN (1799–1868); CHARBONNEAU, TOUSSAINT (1759?–1843?); DEASE, PETER WARREN (1788–1863); ENGLAND; FINANCES AND FUNDING; FRASER, SIMON (1776–1862); LAROCQUE, FRANÇOIS-ANTOINE (1784–1869); MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1764–1820); MCKENZIE, KENNETH (1797–1861); MCTAVISH, SIMON (1750–1804); OGDEN, PETER SKENE (1794–1854); POND, PETER (1740–1807); ROSS, ALEXANDER (1783–?); STUART, ROBERT (1785–1848); THOMPSON, DAVID (1770–1857).

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NORTHWEST PASSAGE. In 1519–1522, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan charted a course around the southern tip of South America and successfully reached the trade ports of Asia that had long been the object of European exploration. The route, however, was not economically feasible, so a shorter passage, one that went through or around North America, was required. The search for this supposed route, the Northwest Passage, continued, as it was believed that a waterway existed that would connect the Atlantic and Pacific while running through the continent. In the late 1490s, John Cabot searched along the eastern seaboard and was later followed by his son and the Corte-Real brothers, all of whom failed. Jacques Cartier searched extensively in the Lawrence River, while the Spanish searched along the Pacific coastline. As interest began to wane, the search may have ended, but Sir Humphrey Gilbert revived the search with his firm belief in the passage. In 1576, Sir Martin Frobisher started a “fool’s gold rush” when he brought back pyrite, and Sir Francis Drake, the English privateer, also continually sailed along the coastlines searching for this elusive route to Asia. Henry Hudson was the next major explorer to look for it in 1610–1611, when he explored the Chesapeake, Hudson Strait, and Hudson Bay before dying in a mutiny. Eventually, George Vancouver proved that there was no western outlet between Alaska and California. Alexander Mackenzie failed to produce a viable route in Canada, and after the Corps of Discovery found immense ranges of mountains between the headwaters of the Missouri River and the Columbia River to the west, the hopes for an interior passage were dashed. It should be noted that the search continued in Arctic waters and was eventually found. However, like Magellan’s route, it was too far out of the way to be considered economically feasible and was usually icebound. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; BERNIER, JOSEPH-ELZÉAR (1852–1934); BUTTON, THOMAS (?–1634); CABOT, SEBASTIAN (1476?–1557); CABRILLO, JUAN RODRÍGUEZ (1500?–1543); CARDERO, MANUEL JOSÉ (1766–?); CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567–1635); CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE-FRANÇOIS-XAVIER DE (1682–1761); COMPANY OF MERCHANTS OF LONDON, DISCOVERERS OF THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE (also known as the Northwest Company or Northwest Passage Company); DABLON, CLAUDE (1618–1697); DAVIS, JOHN (fl. 1580s–1590s); FIDLER, PETER (1769–1822); FRANKLIN, JOHN (1786–1847); FUCA, JUAN DE (APOSTOLOS VALERIANOS OR IOANNIS PHOKAS) (1536–1602); HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792); HECETA, BRUNO DE (1743–1807); LEGENDS AND MYTHS; MARTÍNEZ FERNÁNDEZ Y MARTÍNEZ DE LA SIERRA, ESTEBAN JOSÉ (1742–1798); MUNK, JENS (1579–1628); NEEDHAM AND ARTHUR EXPEDITION (1673–1674); ROSS, JOHN (1777–1856); STRAIT OF

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ANIAN; ULLOA, FRANCISCO DE (fl. 1539); VÉRENDRYE, LOUIS JOSEPH GAULTIER DE (1717–1761); VERRAZANO, GIOVANNI DE (1485?–1528).

O OGDEN, PETER SKENE (1794–1854). Born into an erudite Canadian family in Quebec, Ogden studied at law but became bored with it. At the same time, he developed a fascination with the fur trade, working for the American Fur Company for a short time and at age 17 joining the North West Company in a clerical position. While a Nor’wester, Ogden became notorious as an enemy of the Hudson’s Bay Company, even participating in a seizure of a Hudson’s Bay Company outpost. Ogden rose to partnership but then lost his position with the merger of the two companies. Eventually, he worked his way back up and was assigned to trap the Snake River country to prevent American fur trade expansion. Ogden covered a huge amount of western territory during his travels, including his discovery of the Humboldt River and Mount Shasta. In a skirmish near present-day Mountain Green, Utah, Ogden clashed with American fur traders but was forced to retreat when many of his party deserted. This important event helped to establish the United States presence in the Rocky Mountains, ensuring that it would become the dominant force in the region. Ogden was also instrumental in establishing friendly Indian relations and was pivotal in achieving regional stability in the aftermath of the Whitman massacre. OÑATE, JUAN DE (1550–1626). Juan de Oñate’s family were prominent members of Creole society in Zacatecas, Mexico, and for much of his early life, he was involved in Indian wars and searching for silver. Additionally, Oñate married the great-granddaughter of the chief Moctezuma. Between his wealth from silver and his high family connections, Oñate was given permission to begin settlement along New Spain’s northern frontier. In the spring of 1596, Oñate was given the title of governor of New Mexico, and he left with 600 people to begin settling the region. For a brief time, he was recalled before regaining his commission. However, his treatment of the Pueblo Indians and the settlers was so harsh that he was eventually exiled from New Mexico. Oñate’s main contributions to the Spanish lay in the fact that he had established the first settlements in New Mexico, including present-day El Paso and Santa Fe, and that he extended the Camino Real over 600 miles, 155

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connecting the new settlements. In 1601, he also led a large expedition onto the southern Great Plains, traveling over to present-day western Oklahoma. After being recalled, Oñate returned to Mexico and eventually Spain, where he served as a mining inspector. See also CONQUISTADORS. OROBIO BAZTERRA, JOAQUÍN DE (fl. 1730s–1740s). Little is known of Joaquin de Orobio before 1736, when he was appointed as captain of the Spanish presidio Bahia del Espiritu Santo on the Gulf coast of modern Texas. In 1745, he reported to the Spanish viceroy about French activity in the area and was ordered to investigate further. On 20 December, Orobio left with 21 men to investigate the situation and soon learned from Natives that 15 shipwrecked Frenchmen had passed through the region. Additionally, he learned that France had been making annual visits for six years and, even more alarmingly, had made promises to return in greater numbers and settle the area. During his exploration, Orobio did much more than conduct reconnaissance on French activity. He also gathered information on the Orcoquiza Indians, soon leading to increased trade with the tribe. More important, his explorations increased Spain’s geographical knowledge of previously uncharted sections of the Texas Gulf coast. Orobio strengthened Spain’s hold in the area and led to an increased commercial and military presence in the region. ORTEGA, JOSÉ FRANCISCO (1734?–1798). José Francisco Ortega likely grew up in a wealthy family in Mexico before joining the Spanish Royal Army in 1755. By 1769, Ortega had seen serious service as a scout for the Gaspar de Portolá expedition to Alta California. At the head of the forward scouts, Ortega was among the first to reach Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, and Santa Cruz and was also responsible for mapping the expedition’s route. On 31 October 1769, he was the first member of the party to sight San Francisco Bay, and Ortega has also been credited by many with discovering the Golden Gate entrance. The expedition expanded Spain’s limited knowledge of the California coastline north of San Diego and discovered ports that would be valuable in the future. Later, in 1775, Ortega himself led an expedition between Alta California and Loredo and also established a pueblo at Los Angeles, a presidio at Santa Barbara, and other mission sites. Ortega eventually retired at age 61 at the rank of brevet captain. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. From the very beginning of the European discovery of the Americas, people came across the Atlantic looking to settle. By the 18th century, settlement west of the Appalachian

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Mountains had started in earnest, and by the 19th century, American pioneers were looking to move farther west. For numerous reasons, including the fur trade, gold rushes, religious persecution, and cheap land, thousands flooded west. They came on the Oregon, California, Mormon, and other trails, using these “highways” for easier access to the West. This is perhaps one of the most important themes on the idea of the frontier because as settlers came west, the frontier itself disappeared. These migrations were disastrous for western Indians, as the Americans brought war, disease, and other factors that decimated Native populations. Overland trails were likewise forged by Spanish and Mexican explorers coming north into Alta California and elsewhere. The establishment of well-mapped routes was essential to all colonial projects of expansion, commerce, and military domination. See also ANZA, JUAN BAUTISTA DE (1736–1788); BATTS AND FALLAM EXPEDITION (1671); BIDWELL, JOHN (1819–1900); BLACK BEAVER (1806?–1880); BONNEVILLE, BENJAMIN LOUIS EULALIE DE (1796–1878); BOONE, DANIEL (1734–1820); BOZEMAN, JOHN M. (1835–1867); BRIDGER, JAMES (1804–1881); CASTILLO-MARTIN EXPEDITION (1650); COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; CUMBERLAND GAP; DOMÍNGUEZ-ESCALANTE EXPEDITION (1775); FINLEY, JOHN (1722?–1769?); FITZPATRICK, THOMAS (1799–1854); FRÉMONT, JOHN C. (1813–1890); GARCÉS, FRANCISCO HERMENEGILDO TOMÁS (1738–1781); HUNT, WILSON PRICE (1783–1842); MARCY, RANDOLPH BARNES (1812–1887); MEDINA, MARIANO (early 1800s–1878); MEEK, JOSEPH L. (1810–1875); MORAGA, GABRIEL (1765–1823); MOUNTAIN MEN; NEEDHAM AND ARTHUR EXPEDITION (1673–1674); ORTEGA, JOSÉ FRANCISCO (1734?–1798); RIVERA, JUAN MARIA ANTONIO DE (fl. 1760s); ROBERTSON, JAMES (1742–1814); ROBIDOUX, ANTOINE (1794–1860); SETTLER COLONIALISM; STUART, ROBERT (1785–1848); VIAL, PEDRO (1746–1814); WALKER, JOSEPH REDDEFORD (1789–1876); WILLIAMS, WILLIAM SHERLEY (1787–1849).

P PALLISER AND HIND EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859). In the mid-1850s, full European exploration and surveys of portions of the western frontiers of Canada had yet to be completed. A series of government-sponsored survey expeditions were undertaken to increase the Canadian government’s knowledge of the west, study regions for white settlement, and scout possible routes for railroad development. From 1857 to 1860, Irish-born John Palliser (1817–1887) led a series of surveys as the British North American Exploring Expedition. Over the course of the expedition, they mapped portions of the North and Saskatchewan rivers, the Red Deer River, and Cypress Hills on the northern Great Plains and in the Rocky Mountains surveyed a number of important passes and searched for easy passes through the Rockies north of the 49th parallel. Concurrent with Palliser’s expedition, Henry Youle Hind (1823–1908), an English-born geologist, led the Canadian Red River, Assiniboine, and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition from 1857 to 1859 to find routes between prairie settlements, such as those at Red River, and Lake Superior. Together, the Palliser and Hind expeditions filled in a number of uncertain areas on Canadian maps. More important, the information they provided to the government was published with the express purpose of furthering white development and settlement of the regions. The expansion of Canadian control and society across the Canadian prairies was greatly accelerated by their work. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. PARKER, SAMUEL (1779–1866). Samuel Parker was born in Ashfield, Massachusetts, and spent his adult life as a Presbyterian minister. In 1835, he traveled with Marcus Whitman to the Northwest, preaching at fur-trading rendezvous in Wyoming and continuing on to Oregon Country. There, he made contact with the Hudson’s Bay Company and scouted a number of locations for future missions to be established. His groundwork and publication of his exploration journals had an impact on the growth of American

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missionary culture and activities in the Northwest. Subsequent missions were influential in the development of Anglo-indigenous relations in decades to follow. See also FUR TRADE; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. PARRILLA, DIEGO ORTIZ (1715?–1775). Diego Ortiz Parrilla was born in Villa de Lúcar, Spain, and spent his early years in Spanish military service. In 1740, he was sent to Cuba to fight Great Britain. He later served in Vera Cruz, Mexico, and he eventually earned the ranks of colonel and lieutenant. In 1757, Ortiz was sent to establish the San Luis de las Amarillas Presidio and three missions in what is now south Texas. These missions were built in hopes of bringing the Apaches and other southwestern Indians of the surrounding regions to a settled mission life. On 16 March 1758, a band of Apaches, under the pretense of peace, entered the Spanish mission of San Sabá and set it on fire, killing most of the inhabitants. As the commandant of the nearby presidio, Ortiz Parrilla soon went to action. In the autumn of 1759, Parrilla marched out with a company of a several hundred men to punish the perpetrators of the San Sabá massacre. The army defeated a group of Tonkawas, but the subsequent march on to a larger Taovaya village inhabited by Yaceales, Tehacanas, and Comanches turned into a disaster for the Spanish troops. The defeat signaled to the Spanish that they faced a new type of enemy in their northern expansion and that they would have to adapt their military system on this new frontier. It was evident that in order to continue expanding, reform in the mission-presidio system would be needed. For the remainder of his life, Parrilla continued in military service, fulfilling numerous offices and commands, always advocating the strengthening of the frontier settlements against Indian attacks. Ortiz Parrilla was finally allowed to return home in 1767 to Spain, where he died in 1775. PATTIE, JAMES OHIO (1803?–1851?). In March 1812, the Pattie family moved from the banks of the Ohio River to Missouri, where they prospered and became prominent citizens of the community. After James Ohio Pattie’s mother died, the family moved to New Mexico in 1825. In New Mexico, James and his father, Sylvester, ran a mine near Silver City before James became one of the earliest Americans to enter California. However, when officials from Spain, who still controlled Alta California, apprehended Pattie, they arrested him as a suspected spy, sent from the newly independent Mexico. According to his own narrative, a romance with an influential local woman, working as a translator for the governor and having a smallpox vaccine, got him out of jail. In fact, Pattie claimed to have inoculated over

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10,000 Indians, missionaries, and settlers between San Diego and Fort Ross, although many historians doubt this claim. After six years of adventure, Pattie finally returned to St. Louis in 1830 and then published his Personal Narrative in 1831 hoping to earn some money. Although it contains many discrepancies of dates and place-names, Pattie’s travels in the American Southwest chronicle an intriguing chapter in the region’s history. He never claimed to have led any of the early expeditions that he was part of and holds no great accomplishments to himself, but he has left a lasting influence in his writing. His account painted a colorful picture of this period of history in the Southwest and has remained one of the most amusing and adventuresome narratives of the time. See also PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. PERROT, NICOLAS (1644–1717). Although it is not certain exactly when Nicolas Perrot arrived in Canada from France, it is believed he came around 1660 with the Jesuits. Perrot spent time among local Natives where he learned their languages before forming a fur trade company. Shortly thereafter, Perrot undertook several expeditions to Wisconsin, often being the first white man encountered by these tribes. Continuing his old practice, Perrot familiarized himself with the tribes around Lake Superior, even acting as an interpreter for the French commissary in 1670. The next year, Perrot married Madeleine Raclot and settled in Quebec. After settling, Perrot turned his attention from exploring to mediating negotiations between tribes and the French government. In 1685, as commandant of Green Bay, Perrot brought an end to the fighting between the Fox and Sioux. He also established a number of posts along the Mississippi River and continued negotiating peace between tribes. In 1695, he brought Sauk, Miami, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Fox chiefs to Montreal at the request of the governor, who hoped that Perrot could persuade them to fight against the Iroquois. In 1701, he negotiated his final peace treaty before settling on a small farm in Becancour, Quebec. During his final years, Perrot wrote his memoirs while serving as militia captain. His memoirs revealed valuable information about the Natives with whom he had spent so much of his time. With Perrot’s death in 1717, a void in French-Indian relations opened, particularly in the northwestern territories, where he had earned the trust of the numerous tribes. PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779–1813). Born in New Jersey, Zebulon Pike spent his early years in Ohio and Illinois before joining the United States Army in 1794 on the Illinois frontier. In 1805, General James Wilkinson chose to lead an expedition to explore the Mississippi River. Among his goals were to find sites for military posts, establish peace among indigenous peoples, and find information about British trading activity. On

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his first expedition, Pike purchased the future sight of Fort Snelling near present-day St. Paul, Minnesota, and attempted to create peace between the Sioux and Chippewas. Several months later, Pike set out again, and this time tried to broker peace between the Kansas and Osage as well as establish friendly relations with the Comanches. In July 1806, Pike embarked on an expedition to find the southwestern boundary of the United States. With only a meager $600, Pike explored the Arkansas River across Kansas into Colorado, where he found its source. He was the first American to site Pike’s Peak and unsuccessfully attempt to climb it. Inadequately clothed for the winter weather, his expedition straggled south, making a winter crossing of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. Pike located the Rio Grande River, which he mistook for the Red River, and the expedition was arrested by the Spanish. Eventually, they were released, although they lost their maps and papers. Pike did return to the United States with a wealth of information about Santa Fe and northern Mexico that he gained while in Spanish custody. His reports greatly increased American interest in the potential profits of trade with the region and Santa Fe in particular. After his expedition, Pike rapidly advanced through the military ranks but was killed in the War of 1812 after capturing York, the capital of Upper Canada. See also SPAIN. PILCHER, JOSHUA (1790–1843). In the spring of 1793, Joshua Pilcher moved with his family from Virginia to the Kentucky frontier. Joshua remained on his family’s Fayette County farm until 1806, when he moved to Lexington as an apprentice hatter. Pilcher received a modest education and may have been studying medicine in his free time. In 1811, after his father’s death, Joshua moved to Nashville and began working as a merchant hatter. In 1814, he moved on to St. Louis, where he joined the Missouri Fur Company some five years later. When the company’s founder, Manuel Lisa, died the next year, Pilcher became the new manager in the field. Working from Council Bluffs, Fort Lisa, and Bellevue, he continued the company’s trade through difficult years marred by lack of supplies, unsteady markets, and conflict with Arikaras. Finally, after an attack by Blackfeet Indians, and the resulting loss of over $15,000 of goods, the company was forced to merge with the American Fur Company in 1824. For the next few years, Pilcher tried his hand at his own fur company as well as consul to Chihuahua, neither of which was successful. After several positions in other fur companies, he was appointed as a subagent with the Sioux in 1835. In 1837, he was promoted to agent to the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Ponca tribes before being again promoted to the superintendent of Indian affairs after the death of William Clark. With a Whig administration elected in 1840, Pilcher, a staunch

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Democrat, was removed from his position against protests from numerous people. When he died in June 1843, Joshua Pilcher was eulogized as a good and honest man. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; FUR TRADE; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. PILGRIMS. In a search for religious toleration, a group of protestant dissenters fled England in the late 16th century to the Netherlands. However, community leaders soon looked to North America as an opportunity to build a new society, free from the corrupting influences of European and English society. In 1620, the Pilgrims (Separatists or Saints) reached America and settled in Plymouth harbor. In the first years, this small religious colony led by William Bradford was saved by the local Wampanoag Indians of Massasoit. As one of the earliest group of settlers, arriving just 13 years after Jamestown, their settlement demonstrated the allure of North America. Eventually, this group explored the region and established relations with the local Indians that were remarkably peaceful in the early years though soon turned violent in subsequent decades. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION. PINEDA, ALONSO ÁLVAREZ DE (1494–1519?). Born in Spain, Alonso Pineda was sent by the Jamaican governor Francisco de Garay to explore along the Gulf of Mexico coastline in 1517 and 1519. During the voyage, Pineda explored the coasts of present-day Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, and Mexico. He probably discovered Mobile Bay and the Mobile River, although some historians speculate that he may have found the Mississippi River, naming it the Rio des Espiritu Santo. His exploration proved that Florida was not an island and dispelled any notions of a passage to the Pacific. Near Tampico, Mexico, Pineda was killed in a fight with Indians. PONCE DE LEÓN, JUAN (1474–1521). Born in northern Spain, Ponce de León served against the Moors in Spain and sailed on Columbus’s 1493 voyage before conquering Puerto Rico in 1506. He was appointed as the island’s first governor in 1508. After a brief voyage in 1513, in 1521, he set his sights on Florida, looking to conquer land and gold, although perhaps encouraged by a legendary fountain of youth. Additionally, he was looking for the island of Beimini, for which he had a patent to colonize. Unfortunately, it did not exist. Ponce de León was the first European to attempt to settle

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North America since Leif Erikson, and he also made the first use of the Gulf Stream current in the Gulf of Mexico. During his voyage, Ponce de León was wounded and later died in Cuba due to complications. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; CONQUISTADORS; LEGENDS AND MYTHS. POND, PETER (1740–1807). Peter Pond was born in Milford, Connecticut, and at the age of 16 joined the colonial army despite his parents’ objections. Over the next three years, Pond fought in the French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War), present in battles at Forts Ticonderoga, Niagara, Lewis, and Montreal. After a short voyage to the West Indies, Peter returned home due to the deaths of his mother and father. Eventually, Peter entered the fur trade and for the first few years operated out of Detroit. Over the years, he started expanding his operation along the upper Mississippi River and into the Great Lakes. In 1775, Pond ventured into the Canadian northwest and then into the Athabasca region by 1778. It was here that he built the foundation for lucrative fur trade and also where the North West Company, which he helped found, would make enormous profits. Along with the fur trade, he conducted various explorative journeys in the areas of the Great Slave Lake and Lake Athabasca, collecting geographic information with which he later created maps of the Canadian northwest. These maps laid the foundation for the expeditions of Alexander Mackenzie and were used for many years. United States President Thomas Jefferson referenced them while planning the Corps of Discovery expedition. After Mackenzie’s expedition proved that some of Pond’s ideas were false, Pond could not get further funding. With this embarrassment and the accusation that he had murdered rival John Ross, Pond exited the public scene in 1790. After selling his shares, he moved home to Milford, Connecticut, to write his memoirs. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. POPE, JOHN (1822–1892). John Pope was born in Louisville, Kentucky, to a prominent family. He entered West Point in 1838, partially due to his father’s influence as an Illinois judge. Pope’s attempts to rise in rank and prestige soon earned him a negative reputation, and by 1844, he was ordered to report to Maine in a mission to survey the United States’ northeastern border with Canada as punishment for repeatedly breaching military etiquette. His stay there was short, as he was forced to join General Zachary Taylor’s army in 1846 to march across the Rio Grande to Monterrey, Mexico. Again, his actions received criticism, and as hostilities continued with Mexico, Pope was sent to survey the U.S.-Mexican border. Oddly enough, some of his greatest contributions from this time came during his fits of insubordination. While not acting on orders, he made important observations

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on the Red River topography, fauna, and wildlife and Native customs and culture and made many maps of the region. Angered by his actions, Pope’s superiors sent him to Fort Snelling. On his way down the Red and Crow Wing rivers, Pope took a leisurely pace and continued recording his findings of the region. On reaching Fort Snelling, he left his post without even checking in and continued on to Washington, D.C., to write up a report of his findings. He would later serve important roles in the Civil War and finally end his public life in the West directing campaigns against Plains Indians. Pope is best known for his actions in the Civil War, namely, his victories at Island No. 10 and New Madrid as well as for his loss at the Second Battle of Bull Run. His observations, maps, and explorations in Texas and in Minnesota remained important references. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. PORTOLÁ, GASPAR DE (1720?–1784?). Portolá was from a noble family in Catalonia, Spain, and arrived in the Americas with considerable military experience. In 1767, he was appointed governor of the Alta California province and two years later set out on a colonizing expedition that included Father Junípero Serra. After establishing a mission at San Diego, the expedition continued to explore farther north. They reached Monterey but did not recognize it and later became the first Europeans to see San Francisco Bay. Later in 1770, Portolá again found Monterey Bay and, recognizing it, established another mission. This expedition not only explored vast areas of California but also established some of the first permanent settlements. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM. POWELL, JOHN WESLEY (1834–1902). Powell was well educated in natural history and science, born in New York, and educated at various institutions of higher education. He served for the Union in the Civil War, where he lost his right forearm. After the war, Powell taught at Wesleyan University but soon left to explore the Grand Canyon. Powell’s team became the first men to descend the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon and survive. He wrote a Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States, in which he proposed that the federal government take charge of the water distribution west of the 100th meridian for purposes of irrigation and fair distribution. This report also suggested that territories and states in the western United States be divided along watersheds. He also devoted a large portion of his time fighting for the rights of indigenous peoples as he tried to improve reservation conditions. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION.

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PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. For many explorers, their fame and fortune came not from the expedition itself or riches gained while exploring a frontier but from the writing and publishing of expedition reports and narratives. The publicity of expedition exploits was central to many individuals’ efforts to secure sponsorship for further explorations. Moreover, published accounts often fueled rivalries between empires and companies. As one nation would read of the government-sponsored expeditions of another, it would often be motivated to fund its own. When searching for specific locales, such as a Northwest Passage, this was particularly important, as the nation who found it could control it and profit thereby. The publication of maps from government-funded, or national, expeditions also served the purpose of laying national claims to new territories. Rivalries between private entities, such as fur trade companies, worked much in the same fashion as they sought new regions with fur-bearing animals and Native alliances. Publishing of expedition accounts also served to disseminate scientific knowledge gathered. See also BARREIRO, FRANCISCO ÁLVAREZ (fl. 1710–1720s); BENAVIDES, ALONSO DE (1578–1635); BONNEVILLE, BENJAMIN LOUIS EULALIE DE (1796–1878); CARDERO, MANUEL JOSÉ (1766–?); CARTIER, JACQUES (1491–1557); CARTOGRAPHY; CARVER, JONATHAN (1710–1780); CATLIN, GEORGE (1796–1872); CHAMUSCADORODRÍGUEZ EXPEDITION (1581–1582); CHARLEVOIX, PIERREFRANÇOIS-XAVIER DE (1682–1761); CHICORA, FRANCISCO DE (fl. early 1500s); CHIRIKOV, ALEKSEI ILYICH (1703–1748); CLARK, WILLIAM (1770–1838); CLYMAN, JAMES (1792–1881); COLLOT, GEORGES-HENRI-VICTOR (1750–1805); COOK, JAMES (1728–1779); CORPS OF DISCOVERY (LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION) (1804–1806); DAVIS, JOHN (fl. 1580s–1590s); DUNBAR, WILLIAM (1750–1804); EMORY, WILLIAM HEMSLEY (1811–1887); ESPEJO AND BELTRÁN EXPEDITION (1582–1583); FERRIS, WARREN ANGUS (1810–1873); FIDLER, PETER (1769–1822); FINANCES AND FUNDING; FRANKLIN, JOHN (1786–1847); FUCA, JUAN DE (APOSTOLOS VALERIANOS OR IOANNIS PHOKAS) (1536–1602); GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (1572–1607); GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; HAKLUYT, RICHARD (ca. 1552–1616); HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792); HENDAY, ANTHONY (fl. 1750s); HENNEPIN, LOUIS (1626–1705?); HUDSON, HENRY (1570s?–1611); JOLLIET, LOUIS (1645–1700); KINO, EUSEBIO FRANCISCO (1645–1711); LAHONTAN, LOUIS ARMAND DE LOM D’ARCE, BARON DE (1666–1713/1715?); LAUDONNIÈRE, RENÉ GOULAINE DE (1529?–1574); LAWSON, JOHN (?–1712); LE PEROUSE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS GALAUP, COMTE DE (1741–1788?); LEDERER, JOHN (fl. 1660s–1670s); LEDYARD, JOHN (1751–1789); LEGENDS AND MYTHS; LEWIS, MERIWETHER

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(1774–1809); LONG, STEPHEN HARRIMAN (1784–1864); MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1764–1820); MARCY, RANDOLPH BARNES (1812–1887); MARQUETTE, JACQUES (1636–1675); MICHAUX, ANDRÉ (1746–1802); MOURELLE, FRANCISCO ANTONIO (1750–1820); PALLISER AND HIND EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859); PARKER, SAMUEL (1779–1866); PATTIE, JAMES OHIO (1803?–1851?); POND, PETER (1740–1807); POPE, JOHN (1822–1892); RIVERA, JUAN MARIA ANTONIO DE (fl. 1760s); ROSS, JOHN (1777–1856); SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION; TEBENKOV, MIKHAIL (1802–1872); TRUTEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1748–1827); VIAL, PEDRO (1746–1814).

Q QUIVIRA. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado began his 1540 expedition hoping to find the fabled Seven Cities of Cíbola. Unfortunately, Cíbola was not a city of gold, but a village of Pueblo Indians . Coronado sent out his lieutenants to explore further, and Hernando de Alarcón returned with two Plains Indians who were being held as slaves among the Pueblos. One of them, named The Turk by the Spaniards, told stories of Quivira, another reportedly wealthy Indian kingdom. Already frustrated with Cíbola, the Spaniards were eager to succeed in securing a new source of indigenous wealth. Accordingly, Coronado’s expedition continued, following The Turk out onto the southern Great Plains as far as Kansas before finding Quivira, a large Kansa village. Like Cíbola, Quivira did not possess mineral wealth. See also CONQUISTADORS; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; LEGENDS AND MYTHS.

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R RADISSON, PIERRE-ESPRIT (1636–1710). In the spring of 1651, PierreEsprit Radisson and his family moved from St. Malo, France, to Three Rivers, New France, where Radisson was captured by a band of Mohawks. Pierre was adopted into a Mohawk family with whom he lived for nearly a year and a half. Eventually, with the help of some Dutch settlers, Radisson escaped and sailed for Europe early in 1654. Soon thereafter, he returned to New France and used the knowledge he gained during his time with the Mohawks to begin a celebrated career in the fur trade. Following information given them by Indians, Radisson and his brother-in-law, Médard Chouart, Sieur des Groseilliers, traveled north from Lake Superior and trekked fully to Hudson Bay, where they procured a fortune in furs. When they returned to Quebec, their goods were confiscated by French officials due to their lack of proper licensing. Having received some notoriety for the lucrative field of trade they found, Radisson and Groseilliers were invited to England to meet with King Charles II to discuss commercial possibilities in the region. After conducting further explorations of the Hudson Bay region and presenting their reports, the two were granted the charter for the Hudson’s Bay Company in May 1670. In the years to follow, Radisson’s Hudson’s Bay Company grew to dominate the North American fur trade, spreading Britain’s influence in Canada and aiding in the eventual downfall of New France. During his career, Radisson switched sides between the French and the English on numerous occasions, using his knowledge of Native cultures to his advantage. Radisson negotiated various treaties between European powers and Native tribes as well as between Native tribes themselves. He not only left courageous tales of exploration in the fur trade but also was involved in mining, hotels, and other enterprises. Unfortunately, he failed to maintain his personal fortune, and in 1719, he died impoverished and forgotten in Great Britain. RALEIGH, WALTER (1554–1618). Sir Walter Raleigh was born to an impoverished but noble family in Devon, England. Although he had little capital himself, he had many wealthy connections. Raleigh attended Oxford 171

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and served in the French Huguenot army, after which he studied law in London. He participated in an unsuccessful voyage to plunder treasure in the West Indies with his half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, but he had more success leading some Irish campaigns in which he helped to quell a rebellion in Desmonds. Due to his success in Ireland as well as his and wit and skill as a poet, Raleigh soon became a favorite of Queen Elizabeth I. He joined her inner social circle at court, where he gained such favors as large estates in England and Ireland and, most important, a patent to colonize North America. Raleigh sponsored the ill-fated Roanoke Colony in the Outer Banks of North Carolina, the first English settlement in North America. The colony did not thrive, and many of the colonists were rescued by Sir Francis Drake. One of the settlers, John White, went to England for supplies and was delayed by war, and when he came back, he could find no sign of the colonists who had stayed on. Raleigh also explored Guiana and the Orinoco River in South America. After his failed attempts at colonization and with his marriage, he lost royal favor with Elizabeth and was later executed by her successor, King James, for alleged intrigues with Spain. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; SETTLER COLONIALISM. REQUERIMIENTO (1500s). In the early era of Spanish contact of the New World, many conquistadors employed the usage of the Requerimiento (or demand) to legitimize their conquest of indigenous peoples. It was a legal document, drafted in Spain in 1513 in order to increase the Spanish slave trade, conquer the New World, and exert the right of discovery. The document was taken by conquistadors and verbally read to the indigenous peoples they encountered. It was a declaration of Spanish sovereignty and rights over the land and its inhabitants. The document promised that Natives would be well treated, awarded privileges and benefits, and not compelled to convert to Catholicism, while it warned of utter destruction if they failed to comply with Spanish policies. By the mid- to late 16th century, it fell out of favor and faced considerable opposition by growing sentiments against systemic mistreatment of indigenes. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; NEW SPAIN. REZANOV, NIKOLAI (1764–1807). Nikolai Rezanov was born into a titled but impoverished family in St. Petersburg, Russia. After several years of schooling in St. Petersburg, he began military service at 14 and by 23 had become a captain in the Imperial Guard. In 1788, Rezanov met Grigoriy Ivanovich Shelikov, chief of the Shelikov-Golikov Fur Company, which had begun a lucrative fur trade in Alaska. Although young, Rezanov soon found

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favor with Shelikov, became a partner in the company, and married his new colleague’s daughter. After Shelikov’s death in 1795, Rezanov became the driving force behind the company’s activity. Tsar Paul soon gave him a charter for the Russian-American Company, a monopoly on all trade and land north of 55 degrees north latitude and all of the Kamchatka peninsula. In 1807, Rezanov set sail from the company’s headquarters in Sitka to trade with the Spanish settlements in California. He reached San Francisco in April 1807 and attempted to begin trade in hopes of supplying Sitka with desperately needed foodstuffs. Despite Spanish law that prohibited trade with foreign nations, Rezanov negotiated an informal agreement with the governor of Alta California to exchange food for the manufactured goods that the Spanish settlement lacked. During his six-week stay in California, Rezanov also courted and won the heart of María de la Concepción Argüello, daughter of the San Francisco presidio commandant. Rezanov died while en route to seek the pope’s approval for his marriage to Argüello, who never married. Aside from his immense influence in the spreading of Russian power into the Americas, Rezanov also served as registrar to the Russian Senate and as the Senate’s high procurator and was also Russia’s first diplomat to Japan. Nikolai Rezanov was the most influential Russian in the Pacific during his time, and his influence lasted long after his premature death. RIBAULT, JEAN (1520–1565). Jean Ribault was born in Normandy, France, and served in the French navy as a young adult. On 18 February 1562, Ribault left France with two ships of Protestant Huguenots and established Fort Charles in Florida to protect the fledgling French settlement. After returning to France for supplies, Ribault found a raging civil war and was forced to flee to England for safety. At first, he was welcomed but was later imprisoned. In his absence, the Fort Charles colony was disintegrating, and many of its settlers returned to Europe. In 1564, René Goulaine de Laudonnière began a new settlement at Fort Caroline, and Ribault joined him the next year. After the Spanish attacked and destroyed the settlement, led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Ribault set off on the ships looking to retaliate. Unfortunately, he shipwrecked, and after surrendering to Avilés under the pretense of protection, Ribault and his men were executed. His efforts, along with those of Laudonnière to establish a permanent French settlement in the Florida country, were short lived but significant during their time. Spain soon controlled the region and faced minimal opposition from the French. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM.

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RIVAS AND IRIARTE EXPEDITION (1687–1690). Martín de Rivas and Pedro de Iriarte set out from Vera Cruz, Mexico, on 25 December 1687 in search of the lost expedition of René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, and to ascertain the level of activities along the Gulf coast by France. Despite some difficulties with the weather, the expedition reached the Rio Grande River by spring. Sailing in shallow-draft piragua ships, the expedition was able to explore many bays and inlets along the Gulf coast that were not deep enough for larger ships. Eventually, Rivas and Iriarte found the wreckage of La Salle’s ships in Matagorda Bay but were unable to ascertain the exact location of the expedition’s members. It was evident, however, that La Salle’s settlement at Matagorda Bay had failed. While sailing around the Texas Gulf coast, the expedition gathered significant data on both the geography and the local Indians. Rivas was eventually killed in 1690 near Laguna de Términos during a pursuit of poachers and pirates in the Gulf of Mexico. RIVERA Y MONCADA, FERNANDO DE (1725–1781). Fernando de Rivera y Moncado was born and raised in Compostela, Mexico. Due to his family’s financial problems, he entered the Spanish military in Baja California at age 17. Ten years later, he was unexpectedly named captain of the Loreto Presidio in 1751. Rivera participated in the exploratory expeditions of the northern portion of Baja California by Jesuit Father Consag in 1751 and 1753, and later, he explored with Wenceslao Linck in 1766. He also played an important role in the expulsion of the Jesuits from the peninsula. His most significant activity came in March 1769, when he was sent ahead of the Gaspar de Portolá expedition to open a route from Baja California to San Diego. Once joined by the Portolá expedition in San Diego, Rivera again went ahead of the main party, helping choose routes, blaze trails, and pacify indigenous peoples during the northward exploration to Monterey and San Francisco. In the years following, Rivera made several expeditions between Baja California and Alta California bringing supplies to assist the new settlements in the northern regions. He was governor of Alta California from 1773 to 1777, during which time he was plagued by Indian revolts, uncooperative missionaries, and few troops. In the winter of 1774, he led an expedition northward from Monterey to explore possible sites for new missions and presidios. His recommendation of the San Francisco region led to the subsequent settlement of the area. In 1779, Rivera led the group that founded the city of Los Angeles, and in subsequent years, he led more settlers to the region. In was on one such trip that he was killed by a band of Indians. During his 40-year career, Rivera explored and settled some of what would later become California’s most important cities and missions, including Monterey, San Juan Capistrano, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.

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RIVERA, JUAN MARIA ANTONIO DE (fl. 1760s). Little is known of Rivera before or even during his explorations. Far less renowned than other Spanish explorers, Rivera was sent by New Mexico’s Governor Tomas Velez de Capuchin to explore northward into present-day Colorado and Utah. During his expeditions, he used and established sections of what later became the Old Spanish Trail. He left one cross with an inscription and several journals. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; SPAIN. ROANOKE COLONY. In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh received permission from Queen Elizabeth I of England to colonize North America. He sent Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe on an expedition to find a suitable location for a settlement. The location needed to provide suitable land for settlement as well as a proper harbor to serve as a base for English privateers who were raiding treasure ships transporting gold and silver from New Spain to Spain. Amadas and Barlowe initially explored the Outer Banks of North Carolina, where they established contact with coastal Indians and found Roanoke Island, where they eventually selected to place their colony. The next year, five ships and about 600 men set out, many of whom were soldiers. After a forced stop in the West Indies, the group sailed north, where they stopped again at Roanoke Island and continued to explore. More colonists would come across with Ralph Lane, including Thomas Hariot, who studied the Natives and wildlife, and John White, who painted images of the New World. By 1586, the colonists had alienated the Natives, and with the living conditions deteriorating, the colonists abandoned the town and returned to England. John White led another group of about 100 the next year, but White was soon forced to return to England to resupply. While he planned on a quick return, the approach of the Spanish Armada kept him from returning until 1590. When he arrived, the location was deserted. While speculation about the fate of the colonists abounds, nothing is really known. However, this was the earliest English attempt to colonize in North America, and much was learned from these early mistakes. Additional new information on the land, Natives, and wildlife helped to begin creating a public image of North America. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; LEGENDS AND MYTHS. ROBERTSON, JAMES (1742–1814). After spending his childhood years in Virginia, James Robertson spent much of his adolescence on his father’s farm in North Carolina. Robertson began his exploration at age 17 when he joined Daniel Boone on Boone’s third expedition across the Alleghenies. While Boone explored elsewhere, Robertson discovered a fertile valley on

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the Watauga River. The next year, in October 1770, he led a party of 10 families west over the mountains to farm and settle the region. As leader of the Watauga Association, Robertson founded the first city in what would become Tennessee. Unfortunately, the group had unknowingly settled nearly 30 miles inside Cherokee territory. As a result, the settlement had some conflicts with Indians during the following years, but Robertson’s diplomatic skills in negotiating with the Indians prevented serious conflicts, and the new community prospered. In the spring of 1779, Robertson left with nine men to explore the Cumberland region for Richard Henderson’s Transylvania Company and later led settlers from Watauga to the new area. In the winter of that year, Robertson helped establish the settlement of Nashborough, later renamed Nashville. He served as the chief military and civil leader for the settlement, and again, his respect for and understanding of Native tribes facilitated relatively peaceful relations with the Indians. During his life, Robertson was a farmer, explorer, surveyor, city builder, state legislator, and Indian agent. Fittingly, Governor William Blount and United States President Andrew Jackson dubbed him the “Father of Tennessee.” See also APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS; COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; SETTLER COLONIALISM. ROBIDOUX, ANTOINE (1794–1860). Antoine Robidoux was born in St. Louis to a family of French Canadian descent. Thanks to his father’s deep involvement in the Missouri fur trade, Robidoux was exposed to frontier life and the fur trade from an early age. In 1813, he spent a short period in military service but soon joined his brothers in running their deceased father’s fur-trading business. Antoine first ventured west in 1819 as part of Henry Atkinson’s expedition to Old Council Bluffs, and later, in 1824 and 1825, he traveled on his own to Santa Fe. By 1828, he had settled in Santa Fe, married Carmel Benevides, and became a citizen of Mexico. Robidoux soon reentered the fur-trading business, and by the late 1820s, he had become one of the first fur traders in the intermountain Great Basin region. In 1828, in what is now Utah, Robidoux established Fort Robidoux on the old trail from Taos to Fort Hall. The exact date for the construction of the fort, estimated between 1831 and 1838, has been widely debated and likely will remain elusive unless new documentary evidence surfaces. Regardless of when it was built, his fort had enormous influence on the intermountain region, and Robidoux’s profitable trade enticed many others to trap and trade furs in the region. In the 1840s, however, Robidoux faced dropping fur prices, scarce game, and Indian hostilities. He chose to leave the intermountain region for the last time and returned to St. Joseph, Missouri, in 1845. Along with many other former mountain men, Robidoux soon joined the Army of the West during

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the Mexican-American War. He guided General Stephen Watts Kearny’s army to Santa Fe and eventually on to California, where he was wounded in the Battle of San Pasqual. Robidoux spent his remaining years vainly trying to receive his military pension. He died in St. Joseph, Missouri, in 1860. Despite the misfortunes of his later years, Robidoux played in important role in the history of the intermountain region. His activities bridged the gap between the Corps of Discovery and James Bridger, who opened his fort in 1843. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. ROCKY MOUNTAIN FUR COMPANY. Andrew Henry and William Henry Ashley formed the Rocky Mountain Fur Company in 1822 with the purpose of trapping along the upper Missouri River and in the Rocky Mountains. Despite several early setbacks, including skirmishes with Indians, the company quickly became successful in the fur trade. They employed such famous mountain men as Jedediah Smith, James Bridger, and Thomas Fitzpatrick. It was with this company that the rendezvous system of the annual gathering of these rugged men began. Their main competition was John Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company, which proved to have better businessmen. Since most of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company’s workers were better adventurers and explorers, most of the profits made from the furs went into the pockets of a few businessmen. In 1834, the company's assets were acquired by the American Fur Company. Still, for over a decade, the Rocky Mountain Fur Company had explored and trapped in the Rocky Mountains and had employed a number of successful mountain men who later served as guides for missionaries, settlers, and military expeditions. See also BECKWOURTH, JAMES (1800–1866); CAMPBELL, ROBERT (1804–1879); CLYMAN, JAMES (1792–1881); FINANCES AND FUNDING; MEEK, JOSEPH L. (1810–1875). ROCKY MOUNTAINS. The Rocky Mountains, or Rockies, is the largest mountain range in North America. Of the various obstacles posted by North America to explorers intent on discovering an easy passage to the Far East, the Rocky Mountains are what frustrated all of their overland attempts. Members of the 1540 Francisco Vásquez de Coronado expedition became the first European discoverers in the Rockies, although they found only parts of the extreme southern tip of the range and heard more from regional Indians. Pierre Gaultier de Varrennes et de La Verendrye and Louis Joseph Gaultier de Verendrye later saw what are probably the Bighorn Mountains in Wyoming. In 1776–1777, the Dominguez-Escalante expedition explored the Rockies in what is now Colorado and Utah. Both Zebulon

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Pike and the Corps of Discovery traveled in the Rockies during their expeditions, and the Astorian Robert Stuart found the South Pass, one of the most accessible routes across these mountains. But it was the mountain men who would really explore the region while in search of furs. Later government expeditions led by scientists and surveyors would help begin to establish a working knowledge of the vast mountain region. See also BLACK BEAVER (1806?–1880); BRIDGER, JAMES (1804–1881); CARSON, CHRISTOPHER “KIT” HOUSTON (1809–1868); CORPS OF DISCOVERY (LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION) (1804–1806); FRÉMONT, JOHN C. (1813–1890); HENDAY, ANTHONY (fl. 1750s); HUNT, WILSON PRICE (1783–1842); MARCY, RANDOLPH BARNES (1812–1887); MEDINA, MARIANO (early 1800s–1878); MEEK, JOSEPH L. (1810–1875); MONCACHT-ÁPE (fl. 1680s–1700); PALLISER AND HIND EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859); ROCKY MOUNTAIN FUR COMPANY; SMITH, JEDEDIAH STRONG (1799–1831); SUBLETTE, WILLIAM LEWIS (1799–1845). ROSS, ALEXANDER (1783–?). Alexander Ross arrived in Canada in 1804 from his native Scotland and made failed attempts at land speculation. Soon, Ross realized that the true fortune to be made in North America was in the fur trade. After being hired as a clerk to John Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company, he traveled to Astoria and then to the headwaters of the Okanogan River in what is now Washington. He was placed in charge of a small trading post there. After the North West Company purchased Astoria, Ross decided to continue working there and helped in the surveying of the Snake River. In 1817, he transferred to Fort Kamloops 300 miles north of Fort Okanogan. He went with Donald Mackenzie to the point where the Columbia and Walla Walla rivers intersect and was left in charge of the construction of Fort Nez Perces. When the North West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company merged in 1821, Ross left Fort Nez Perces, citing health reasons. The year 1823 found him again in the employ of a fur company and leading an expedition to the Snake River country; he did this for only one year and received 100 acres of land near the Red River colony. Ross was more educated than most of his time and an avid record keeper who provided many journals for reference. ROSS, JOHN (1777–1856). John Ross was a British-born naval pilot who served in the British and Swedish navies. He led three Arctic expeditions, making significant contributions to the search for a Northwest Passage. In 1818, sailing for Great Britain, he explored around Baffin Island and Lancaster Sound but found no outlet to the Northwest. A second expedition was mounted in 1829, lasted four years, and pushed farther than before, reaching

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the Barrow Strait. In 1850, he led a third expedition in search of the missing John Franklin expedition but failed in that quest. Over the course of his career, Ross was a prominent figure in the exploration efforts of European nations. He is credited with the first sightings and naming of various places in the Canadian Arctic and was highly decorated for his accomplishments. His published expedition accounts were widely distributed and influential. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. RUSSIA AND RUSSIAN AMERICA. Russia’s colonial project in North America was confined to Alaska, the Pacific Northwest, and northern California. Russians began exploration in 1725 with the expedition of Vitus Jonassen Bering, and by the end of the 18th century, a robust fur trade had developed in the region, focused on the valuable sea otter pelts. While they shared the fur trade as primary motivator like France, they did not engage in systems of intermarriage to enmesh traders with indigenous peoples in the fur trade. Rather, consistent policies of intimidation and violence were employed to coerce local Aleut, Tlingit, and other Native groups to participate in fur trading with Russians. Eventually, Russia did require the RussianAmerican Company, which had a monopoly on the fur trade in the region, to support Russian Orthodox missions and priests in an attempt to ameliorate tensions, mistreatment of Natives, and continual Native resistance. The Russians extended their reach as far south as San Francisco, near where they established Fort Ross as an agricultural outpost to help with chronic food shortages in Alaska. They maintained it from 1812 to 1842. Russia sold Alaska to the United States in 1867 for $7.2 million, profits from fur trading having long since declined. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; BARANOV, ALEKSANDR ANDREYEVICH (1747–1819); BERING, VITUS JONASSEN (1681–1741); BILLINGS, JOSEPH (1758?–1806); CHIRIKOV, ALEKSEI ILYICH (1703–1748); COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787–1846); LEDYARD, JOHN (1751–1789); REZANOV, NIKOLAI (1764–1807); SHELIKOV, GRIGORY IVANOVICH (1747–1795); TEBENKOV, MIKHAIL (1802–1872). RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COMPANY. As soon as reports returned to Russia of the rich sea otter grounds in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, Russian fur traders moved to exploit the new supply. Initially, these were small groups, individuals, or impromptu companies. In the early 1780s, Grigory Ivanovich Shelikov began establishing settlements and eventually organized a fur company. He petitioned for years to obtain a royal charter granting his company a monopoly on the region’s trade but did not succeed. After his death, Aleksandr Baranov oversaw the merger of Shelikov’s enterprise with

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a number of other companies and obtained a monopoly in 1799 as the Russian-American Company. While small settlement did occur, it never extended beyond the purposes of the fur trade. In the process, large areas of Alaska and the Northwest were explored and mapped. The company even extended as far south as San Francisco Bay, California, where they established Fort Ross for agricultural purposes and exploited local Pomo Indians. The Russian relations with Aleuts, Tlingits, and other Alaska Natives were exceptionally brutal. See also BILLINGS, JOSEPH (1758?–1806); REZANOV, NIKOLAI (1764–1807); TEBENKOV, MIKHAIL (1802–1872).

S SACAGAWEA (1788?–1812). Sometimes spelled Sacajawea, as a Shoshone girl, Sacagawea was kidnapped by a group of Hidatsas (Minitaris) around 1800 and brought back to live in the Knife River villages in presentday North Dakota. There, she received her name (Bird Woman) and was eventually married to a French Canadian trader named Toussaint Charbonneau. Around the age of 16, she and her husband joined the Corps of Discovery as interpreters shortly after she had delivered her first child, Jean Baptiste, in February 1805. During the journey, Sacagawea helped mediate between the Shoshones and the expedition, helping to obtain valuable horses, without which the expedition could not have continued. Her contributions in identifying edible roots and other foods supplemented their protein diet. Also, her and her baby’s presence in the expedition were a token of peace for other Natives, preventing possible attack, because war parties typically did not travel with women and children. While her role as a guide has been debated by historians, she did recognize several geographic locations, particularly around the Three Forks of the Missouri River and the headwaters of the Yellowstone River. SALAS, JUAN DE, AND DIEGO LÓPEZ (fl. 1629–1632). Juan de Salas and Diego López were Franciscan friars in New Spain. In the early 1620s, both had joined a mission at Isleta Pueblo in New Mexico. Around 1629, a group of Jumano Indians came asking for preachers to come to their people. Interested in extending their presence to the southeast, Spain sent Salas and López to proselytize. He traveled to the Jumanos in 1630 and 1632 near present-day San Angelo, Texas, and named the adjacent Nueces River. His route was later utilized by the Castillo-Martin expedition in 1650. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION; SPAIN. SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY ROWE (1793–1864). Henry Rowe Schoolcraft was born in New York and led a prominent career as a geographer, geologist, and Indian agent for the United States. After early participation 181

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in exploring portions of Arkansas and Missouri in 1819, he was appointed to join an 1820 expedition west of the Mississippi River into present-day Minnesota, Iowa, and Michigan to establish the location of the Mississippi River headwaters. While that expedition was unable to follow the river to its source, in 1832, Schoolcraft led an expedition that did trace it fully to Lake Itasca. Schoolcraft’s participation led to the production of a great deal of geographic and geologic information. In the 1830s, he served in various positions in the Bureau of Indian Affairs and pursued Native American ethnographic research and publications. See also SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. A desire for a better scientific understanding of the world often led to exploration as well as better records. Both Meriwether Lewis and William Clark made extensive and detailed accounts of the natural world that they encountered as captains of the Corps of Discovery. Peter Custis, a trained naturalist, traveled with the Thomas Freeman expedition of the same period. Naturalists would also accompany the Stephen Long and John C. Frémont expeditions. John James Audubon and John Muir provide further examples of men who helped to create a better understanding of the West through their studies without directly being involved in exploration. Others participated as well, geologists and surveyors studied the West in these expeditions, and men like George Catlin could be seen as sociologists in their studies of the American Indians. See also ALLEN, HENRY T. (fl. 1885); BARTRAM, JOHN (fl. 1730s–1760s); BARTRAM, WILLIAM (1739–1822); CARTOGRAPHY; CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE-FRANÇOIS-XAVIER DE (1682–1761); COOK, JAMES (1728–1779); DUNBAR, WILLIAM (1750–1804); GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792); IVES AND MACOMB EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859); LE PEROUSE, JEANFRANÇOIS GALAUP, COMTE DE (1741–1788?); MALASPINA, ALEJANDRO (1754–1810); MICHAUX, ANDRÉ (1746–1802); NARVÁEZ, PÁNFILO DE (1470?–1528); NICOLLET, JOSEPH (1786–1843); PALLISER AND HIND EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859); POPE, JOHN (1822–1892); POWELL, JOHN WESLEY (1834–1902); SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY ROWE (1793–1864); WHEELER, GEORGE MONTAGUE (1842–1905); WILKES, CHARLES (1798–1877). SERRA, JUNÍPERO (1713–1784). Born in Petra, Spain, Fray Junípero Serra joined the Franciscan ministry in 1731, and after serving as a professor at the University of Palma, he volunteered to work as a missionary in Mexico in 1749. While in Mexico, Serra attended the Apostolic College of San Fernando and then worked in the Sierra Gordo and Santiago de Jalpan mis-

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sions, important training and experience that prepared him to take over the Baja California mission when the Jesuits were expelled in 1767. When the Spanish government heard of the Russian-American Company’s activities along the Pacific coast, it decided to settle Alta California. Serra founded the mission at San Diego in 1769 and then accompanied the Gaspar de Portolá expedition northward to San Francisco that same year. Over the next few years, Fray Serra oversaw the founding of additional missions in Monterey (Carmel), San Antonio, San Gabriel, San Luis Obispo, San Francisco, San Juan Capistrano, Santa Clara, and San Buenaventura before his death in 1784. These missions solidified Spanish claims and control over present-day California. Although revered as the founder of Californian settlement, Serra has also been criticized for the missions’ harsh treatment of indigenous peoples. The Catholic Church beatified Serra in 1988, the last step before sainthood. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; MISSIONARIES, PRIESTS, AND RELIGION. SETTLER COLONIALISM. Unique from other forms of colonialism, settler colonialism focused not only on extracting natural resources or labor from colonies but also on establishing new populations of immigrants from the home country in the colony. England and British North America is the primary example of this. In contrast to the colonial projects of France, Russia, or Spain in North America, England set forth to transplant a large English population to North America and support it to develop, grow, and expand. Settler colonial societies are not content in simply impressing Native labor or extracting resources, such as gold or furs. With a focus on growing a European population in the colony, settler colonialism requires land. This partially helps explain the unique nature of expansion in British North America, Canada, and the United States. Indigenous lands were needed to allow the expansion of Euro-American settlement. Native dispossession was driven as much by the need for lands to settle as the discovery of valuable resources, if not more so. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; HAWAII; HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792); INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; LOUISIANA PURCHASE; MORTON, THOMAS (1579–1647); OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; PILGRIMS; ROBERTSON, JAMES (1742–1814); SMITH, JOHN (1580?–1631); UNITED STATES OF AMERICA; VIRGINIA COMPANY OF LONDON. SHELIKOV, GRIGORY IVANOVICH (1747–1795). Shelikov was born in Rylsk, Russia, but in 1773 traveled to Irktusk, a major trading center, where he would become involved in the fur trade. He joined Ivana Goli-

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kov’s company and by 1775 was looking for ways to expand trade. In 1783, he began an expedition to the Gulf of Alaska, establishing a permanent settlement on Kodak Island. Over the next two years, he explored the Aleutians and the Alaskan coastline before returning in 1786 to Alaska, where he tried to obtain monopoly status for his company, which he never received, before his death in 1795. Shelikov had helped establish Russian dominance over Alaska and helped open the fur trade, leading to Russian exploration of the northwestern United States. SLAVERY AND RACE. Without slavery being introduced into the New World (particularly South America and to a lesser extent North America), the New World would never have been as profitable for the European powers. All of the new commodities, such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton, became productive only because of a constantly exploitable cheap labor force. Over 12 million Africans would cross the Atlantic to come to the Americas. The relationship between slavery and the frontier is complex. For many African slaves, the frontier represented a boundary beyond which potential freedom beckoned large. Numbers of Africans and African Americans fled or moved west to engage in the fur trade and cattle industries. As the United States Army worked to conquer the West and various indigenous peoples, African American soldiers, so-called Buffalo Soldiers, served broadly and with distinction. Indigenous slavery was also prevalent across the various frontiers. In the context of the Spanish mission system, Russian fur trade, and other interactions with Europeans, indigenous “labor” was often coerced. In regions where race-based African slavery grew, early stages of those labor markets often included the trade of Native slaves as well. In many pre- and postcontact Native regions, slavery was also a prominent feature of economies and trade networks. Slave raiding was often customary. In these cases, however, slaves were often integrated into captor societies and cultures through marriage (not a form of chattel slavery). Intertribal slaving and consequent intermarriage often build kinship networks and blurred the lines between ethnic and linguistic boundaries. Later, in the American South, many Indian nations held African slaves. See also RUSSIA AND RUSSIAN AMERICA; SPAIN. SMITH, JEDEDIAH STRONG (1799–1831). Perhaps no one knew the American West as well as Jedediah Strong Smith. Although born in New York, his family moved to Ohio in 1817, and Smith’s interest in the frontier was immediate. He joined William Ashley’s expedition to ascend the Missouri River when he was 22, marking the beginning of many explorations from the Great Plains to the Pacific. He became one of Ashley’s lieutenants

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in the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. He is attributed with the rediscovery of the South Pass in 1824, opening up Oregon and California to settlement. Smith was not a typical mountain man. He was deeply religious, did not drink or smoke, and followed his Methodist upbringing as best he could. When a grizzly nearly ripped his head off and left his scalp hanging by an ear, friends found him waiting patiently and reading his Bible. He was the first American to lead expeditions to and from California through the deserts of the Southwest and also traveled extensively in the Pacific Northwest, the Columbian Plateau, and the Great Basin and throughout the Rocky Mountains. Comanches ambushed and killed Smith while he traveled the Santa Fe Trail in 1831. See also FUR TRADE; OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. SMITH, JOHN (1580?–1631). By age 16, Smith had left his native England to serve in the English army. He also served as a mercenary and was captured by the Turks in battle, although he later escaped. In 1604, he returned to England, where he quickly joined the Virginia Company of London, which held a license to colonize in North America. The group had left for the Americas in 1606, arriving in 1607 in present-day Virginia, where they established Jamestown. Smith’s leadership and hard work were essential to the early survival of the colony, where he helped to bring in food. At some point, he was captured by Powhatan Indians and may have been saved by the young Indian girl Pocahontas. Sources are dubious, as he also recounted having been saved by various other Indian maidens at different times. He undertook constant explorations and produced maps, including two expeditions up the Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac and Rappahannock rivers. Smith was forced to return to England in 1609 by injury but returned in 1614, exploring the coastline farther north and naming the area New England. He was one of the early explorers of the area, his maps and detailed accounts of his experiences providing some of the earliest knowledge of North America. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; SETTLER COLONIALISM. SMITH, JOHN SIMPSON “BLACKFOOT SMITH” (1810–1871). John Simpson Smith was born in Kentucky and was allegedly given his nickname “Blackfoot Smith” by Sioux Indians after Smith had an altercation with six or eight Blackfeet Indians in which he came out the victor. He worked in the fur trade at Bents Fort for a time before his command of Fort Mann. His leadership of Fort Mann ended after an Indian attack resulted in the death of three men. Smith’s true notoriety comes from his work as a translator. In 1851, he was the interpreter for the Cheyenne Indians at the Fort Laramie Treaty, and during the following trip of key leaders of the Cheyenne, Arapa-

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hoe, and Sioux Indians to Washington, D.C., Smith has the distinction of having built the first log cabin in the area that is now Denver, Colorado. Smith had married a Cheyenne woman and was present at the Sand Creek Massacre, during which his son was killed. Smith even testified of the brutal nature of the attack at the congressional committee concerning the massacre. His language skills were again utilized by the government at the council on the Little Arkansas, and he was an interpreter as well as a guide for Colonel Henry Inman in 1868–1869. Smith spent the remainder of this life on a Cheyenne Indian reservation still using his abilities of interpretation to create understanding between the Indians and the United States. See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. SOTO, HERNANDO DE (1496–1542). Hernando de Soto was born in the Extremadura province of Spain to an impoverished noble family. Hernando de Soto left for New Spain at the age of 14. After participating in various Central American campaigns, de Soto achieved great success in the conquest of Nicaragua, amassing a small fortune in the process. He also participated in the conquest of Peru. He later became governor of Cuba, and in 1537, he received royal permission to colonize Florida. From 1539 to 1543, de Soto explored and plundered the Gulf coast in the modern states of South Carolina, Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas. The Indians, already having experienced the Pánfilo de Narváez expedition, offered stiff resistance, and half of de Soto’s men, including himself, died in battle of wounds or from illness. De Soto’s failure to find mineral riches or wealthy civilizations dampened willingness for future Spanish expeditions in the area. De Soto’s record, however, contained valuable descriptions of the mound-building cultures and powerful Native empires that were later devastated by disease and warfare before they could be fully documented. De Soto and his men also may have been the first Europeans to see the Mississippi River inland. See also CONQUISTADORS. SOUTH PASS. One of the major passes through the Rocky Mountains, the South Pass is wide and very accessible compared to many other routes. As it is low grade and quite wide, this pass provided access for the Oregon and Mormon trails. It was discovered by Robert Stuart and several other Astorians on a return trip to St. Louis but remained widely unknown until Jedediah Smith rediscovered it in 1824. It served as the route for thousands of settlers, gold rushers, mountain men, and missionaries.

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SPAIN. With the financing of Christopher Columbus’s 1492 voyage to the New World, Spain became the first European colonial empire in the Americas. Until the end of the Mexican War for Independence in 1821, Spain would remain one of the largest, alongside England, France, and Russia. Spain controlled much of the Caribbean, South and Central America, and the American Southwest for centuries. These territories were collectively referred to as New Spain. Unlike the settler colonialism of England and British North America or the fur trade empire of France in New France, Spain’s initial and most lasting pursuit was mineral wealth. The search for gold and silver motivated Spanish conquistadors as they searched for Cíbola, Quivira, or other fabled sources of riches. Where ore was found, Native labor was impressed, leading to dramatic population collapses for local Natives. On the far northern frontier, the mission-presidio system attempted to establish order and protect the core of central Mexico from raiding indigenous empires, such as the Comanches, Apaches, and others. Spain engaged in constant geopolitical intrigue as it vied for control of North America with England, France, Russia, and the United States. See also AGUAYO, MARQUÉS DE SAN MIGUEL DE (?–1734); ALAMINOS, ANTONIO DE (fl. 1510s); ALARCÓN, HERNANDO DE (fl. 1540s); ALARCÓN, MARTÍN DE (fl. EARLY 1700s); ALLANDE Y SAAVEDRA, PEDRO DE (fl. LATE 1700s); ALTA CALIFORNIA; ÁLVAREZ DE PIÑEDA, ALONSO (1494–1520); ANZA I, JUAN BAUTISTA DE (1693–1740); ANZA, JUAN BAUTISTA DE (1736–1788); AYALA-CANIZARES EXPEDITION (1775); AYLLÓN, LUCAS VÁZQUEZ DE (1475?–1526); BARREIRO, FRANCISCO ÁLVAREZ (fl. 1710–1720s); BARROTO, JUAN ENRÍQUEZ (1660s–1693); BELETA, DON PEDRO FAGES (1734–1794); BENAVIDES, ALONSO DE (1578–1635); BODEGA Y QUADRA, JUAN FRANCISCO DE LA (1744–1794); BOSQUE, FERNANDO DEL, AND JUAN LARIOS (fl. 1675); BUSTILLO Y CEBALLOS, JUAN ANTONIO (fl. 1724–1731); CABEZA DE VACA, ÁLVAR NÚÑEZ (1490?–1557?); CABRILLO, JUAN RODRÍGUEZ (1500?–1543); CALAHORRA Y SAENZ, JOSÉ FRANCISCO (fl. mid1700s); CALDERA, MIGUEL (1548–1597); CÁRDENAS, GARCÍA LÓPEZ DE (fl. 1539–1542); CARDERO, MANUEL JOSÉ (1766–?); CARVAJAL (OR CARBABAJAL) Y DE LA CUEVA, LUIS DE (1539–1595); CASA CALVO, SEBASTIÁN CALVO DE LA PUERTA Y O’FARRILL, MARQUÉS DE (1751–1820); CASTAÑO DE SOSA, GASPAR (1550–?); CASTILLO-MARTIN EXPEDITION (1650); CERMEÑO, SEBASTIÁN RODRÍGUEZ (1560–1602); CHAMUSCADO-RODRÍGUEZ EXPEDITION (1581–1582); CHICORA, FRANCISCO DE (fl. early 1500s); CHOZAS, VERÁSCOLA, AND SALAS EXPEDITION (1597); COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; CORONADO, FRANCISCO VÁSQUEZ DE (1510–1554); CORTE-REAL, GASPAR, AND MIGUEL CORTE-REAL

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(1450?–1501? and ?–1502); D’EGLISE, JACQUES (?–1806); DOMÍNGUEZ-ESCALANTE EXPEDITION (1775); ESPEJO AND BELTRÁN EXPEDITION (1582–1583); ESTEVANICO (ESTABANICO OR ESTEBAN) (?–1539); FUCA, JUAN DE (APOSTOLOS VALERIANOS OR IOANNIS PHOKAS) (1536–1602); GARCÉS, FRANCISCO HERMENEGILDO TOMÁS (1738–1781); GUADELAJARA, DIEGO DE (fl. 1654); HECETA, BRUNO DE (1743–1807); HUMAÑA-LEYVA EXPEDITION (1594–1595); KINO, EUSEBIO FRANCISCO (1645–1711); LAVAZARES, GUIDO DE (fl. 1550s); MALASPINA, ALEJANDRO (1754–1810); MARTÍNEZ FERNÁNDEZ Y MARTÍNEZ DE LA SIERRA, ESTEBAN JOSÉ (1742–1798); MENDOZA, ANTONIO DE (1495–1552); MENÉNDEZ DE AVILÉS, PEDRO (1519–1574); MEXICO; MÉZIÈRES, ATHANASE (OR ATHANAZE) (fl. 1770s); MORAGA, GABRIEL (1765–1823); MOSCOSO ALVARADO, LUIS DE (1505–1551); MOURELLE, FRANCISCO ANTONIO (1750–1820); NARVÁEZ, PÁNFILO DE (1470?–1528); NIZA, MARCOS DE (1495?–1558); OÑATE, JUAN DE (1550–1626); OROBIO BAZTERRA, JOAQUÍN DE (fl. 1730s–1740s); ORTEGA, JOSÉ FRANCISCO (1734?–1798); PARRILLA, DIEGO ORTIZ (1715?–1775); PINEDA, ALONSO ÁLVAREZ DE (1494–1519?); PONCE DE LEÓN, JUAN (1474–1521); PORTOLÁ, GASPAR DE (1720?–1784?); REQUERIMIENTO (1500s); RIVAS AND IRIARTE EXPEDITION (1687–1690); RIVERA Y MONCADA, FERNANDO DE (1725–1781); RIVERA, JUAN MARIA ANTONIO DE (fl. 1760s); SALAS, JUAN DE, AND DIEGO LÓPEZ (fl. 1629–1632); SERRA, JUNÍPERO (1713–1784); SOTO, HERNANDO DE (1496–1542);TRUTEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1748–1827); THE TURK (?–1541); ULLOA, FRANCISCO DE (fl. 1539); VARGAS, DIEGO DE (1643?–1704); VIAL, PEDRO (1746–1814); VILLASUR, PEDRO DE (?–1720); VIZCAÍNO, SEBASTIÁN (1550?–1628?). ST. DENIS, LOUIS JUCHEREAU DE (1676–1744). Louis Juchereau de St. Denis, a French Canadian, moved from Canada to Louisiana by 1699 and accompanied Jean Baptiste Le Moyne in 1700 on his expedition that explored up the Red River. St. Denis was eventually put in command of a French outpost where he continued his explorations. In 1713, Louisiana governor Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, Sieur de Cadillac, sent St. Denis on a mission to establish trading contacts in northern Mexico. This was illegal trade, he was arrested, and goods were confiscated. He was absolved and then joined Domingo Ramon in his expedition to settle East Texas. Eventually, he returned to French lands and made a second trip to Mexico, where he was again arrested and freed. He spent his last years in Natchitoches, the outpost he had established before his first trip into Mexico.

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STRAIT OF ANIAN. The idea for this strait came from Ptolemy’s geographical maps and Marco Polo’s exploits in Asia. From these ideas and the discoveries of the early explorers, a misconception arose that led Europeans to believe in a water passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The theory presupposed that the northern reaches of Asia and North America were separated by a narrow waterway, not a vast Arctic Ocean. Hence, the search for it was often the same as broader searches for the Northwest Passage. As early as 1567, maps portrayed a strait, sometimes short, sometimes lengthy, leading from the North Atlantic to the North Pacific. Although futile, the search for this mythical strait led men to explore vast areas of America to find what Christopher Columbus had come for to begin with, namely, an economically feasible passage to Asia. Three expeditions, led by Juan de Fuca in 1587, Lorenzo Ferrer Maldonado in 1588, and Bartholomew de Fonte in 1640, actually claimed to have discovered it, de Fuca reporting to have explored its western outlet and Maldonado claiming to have sailed through its entirety east to west and de Fonte from west to east. Both the Atlantic and the Pacific coastlines underwent repeated explorations. Eventually, the Strait of Anian was disproved, although a Northwest Passage was eventually discovered in the Arctic but too far north to serve any economic purpose. See also ARCTIC EXPLORATION; LEGENDS AND MYTHS; ULLOA, FRANCISCO DE (fl. 1539). STUART, ROBERT (1785–1848). Robert Stuart got his start in the fur trade when he moved to Montreal in 1807 to work as a clerk for the North West Company. He switched loyalties, however, and in 1810, he left for New York, where he found employment under John Jacob Astor and the American Fur Company. In 1812, while traveling eastward overland from Fort Astoria, he and his men crossed the Rocky Mountains through the South Pass, becoming the first documented group of white men to do so. Not only is he credited with finding the South Pass for European use, but his safe journey across the interior of the continent proved that overland travel to Oregon Country was possible. After his trapping days, Stuart moved to Michigan and became involved in real estate and politics. He served as the director of the State Bank of Michigan and the state treasurer. He was an active member of the local Protestant church, and he started a boarding school for traders’ daughters. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. SUBLETTE, WILLIAM LEWIS (1799–1845). William Lewis Sublette grew up in Pulaski County, Tennessee, but later moved to St. Charles, Missouri. He left Missouri in 1823 to become a fur trapper and trader with

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William Ashley. By 1826, Sublette, along with Jedediah Smith and David Jackson, bought the fur company, with Sublette in charge of transporting and selling the fur in St. Louis. Sublette organized and successfully completed the first wagon trip into the Rocky Mountains, making the fur trade rendezvous of 1830 the most successful to that date. Sublette’s wagon route later became part of the Oregon Trail. He and his business partners sold out while they were ahead, and Sublette later participated in the Missouri–Santa Fe trade and acted as a guide for the Nathaniel Wyeth Company headed for Oregon Country. After his western expeditions, Sublette became involved in farming and real estate in Missouri, becoming one of the original developers of Kansas City. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. SUTTER, JOHN AUGUSTUS (1803–1880). John Augustus Sutter fled Switzerland for the United States in 1834, leaving behind huge debts, a wife, and five children. He failed at business ventures in St. Louis and in Santa Fe, where he bragged that he was a captain in the Swiss army. Sutter eventually embarked for California, where he acquired a huge land grant from Mexico and became a Mexican citizen. He began his settlement in 1839, and Sutter’s fort was completed by 1844. His settlement, New Helvetia, encompassed 48,827 acres, and an additional grant consisted of 96,800 acres. Sutter’s fort/ trading post was an ideal location for trading with Indians as well as European fur traders and American overland immigrants. Sutter often served as a liaison between the Mexicans, Indians, Americans, and other Europeans. He employed hundreds of Indians and for the most part was reported to have treated them humanely. He also sent relief to the Donner party. John C. Frémont used Sutter’s fort as headquarters during the Mexican War and the Bear Flag Revolt. The gold rush was started when John Marshall discovered gold at Sutter’s mill in 1848. During the gold rush, his land was largely overrun by gold seekers, and squatters took possession of his land. The United States declared Sutter’s Mexican land grants invalid, and he lost his fortune. After his ranch was burned down, he and his family moved to Washington, D.C., where he spent his remaining years seeking compensation for his lost property.

T TEBENKOV, MIKHAIL (1802–1872). Mikhail Dmitriyevich Tebenkov was a Russian naval officer and director of the Russian-American Company who left a considerable legacy in the mapping of the coast of Russian America and Alaska. In the 1820s, he served in various positions for the Russian-American Company, eventually gaining command of his own ship. During the 1830s, he led a number of expeditions that mapped and named locations along the Alaskan coast. From 1845 to 1850, he served concurrently as the director of the Russian-American Company and the governor of Russian America. His maps were highly detailed and accurate, and their publication in 1852 greatly increased public knowledge and understanding of the region’s geography. See also CARTOGRAPHY; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION; RUSSIA AND RUSSIAN AMERICA. THOMPSON, DAVID (1770–1857). David Thompson left England as a 14year-old orphan to work for the Hudson’s Bay Company. He faithfully served the Hudson’s Bay Company as an apprentice and as an employee, where he refined his mathematical and navigational talents and learned important skills in cartography. Because the Hudson’s Bay Company lacked enthusiasm for some of Thompson’s geographic and cartographic aspirations, he switched loyalties and began work for the North West Company. His new employers welcomed Thompson’s skills, and he soon proved to be an able explorer and cartographer for the company. During his tenure with the North West Company, Thompson played the roles of geographer and scientist as well as trader and ambassador to the Indians he met. Thompson may be the first white man to discover the headwaters of the Mississippi River in 1798, the first white man to discover the source of the Columbia River and explore the river’s entire length in 1811, and the first to erect European establishments in the modern states of Washington, Idaho, and Montana, west of the Continental Divide.

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Because of the precision of his surveys and maps, which covered most of western Canada, they served as guidelines for modern maps that were made by the Canadian government. He also mapped almost the full shoreline of Lake Superior. In addition to his geographic accomplishments, Thompson made first contact with many western Indian tribes and was the first to introduce guns to them, thus infuriating the Blackfeet by giving firearms to their traditional enemies and undermining their status as the chief military and trading power on the northern Plains. After he retired from the fur trade, Thompson worked for the British Boundary Commission, plotting the location of the boundary between the United States and Canada. Thompson died poor, obscure, and unpublished. Later historians eventually located and published his maps, journals, and narrative of his travels, finally revealing the vast contributions Thompson had made to the exploration of the northwestern areas of Canada and the United States. TONTI, HENRI DE (1650?–1704). Alternately spelled Tonty, Henri de Tonti was born in France and served in the French military, where he lost a hand in a battle in Sicily and was taken prisoner. In 1678, Tonti became lieutenant for René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, in his upcoming expeditions, accompanying him to Canada that year. Stationed near Niagara, Tonti built the Griffon, the first European ship to sail on the upper Great Lakes. He also established a settlement at Crevecoeur near present-day Peoria, Illinois, and Fort Miami, remaining at Crevecoeur in La Salle’s absence. In 1682, Tonti was with La Salle’s famous exploration, following the Mississippi River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico. Tonti returned to Starving Rock, Illinois, where he built a fort and became heavily involved in the fur trade. In 1686, he went in search of the missing La Salle and also spent time fighting the Iroquois Indians. In 1689, after learning of La Salle’s death, Tonti again traveled to the Gulf of Mexico searching for other survivors, eventually returning to Illinois and the fur trade. He became very prominent in the business, including opening contacts with the Assinboine Indians. He joined Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville’s expedition to settle in the South, where he would die of yellow fever. Distinguished by his iron hand, Tonti helped establish French dominance along the Mississippi River area and also helped establish firm ties with Indians. TRUTEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1748–1827). Jean Baptiste Truteau was born in Montreal and was the first leader of an expedition for the Missouri Company—a short-lived Spanish fur trade company that explored and traded in the area surrounding the Missouri River. His expedition left in early June 1794 with the goals of building a fort among the Mandan Indians, mapping the rivers and streams that drain into the Missouri, and gathering

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information about the Native peoples and establishing relations with them. It seems that Truteau had some difficulties with the latter goals, as the Teton took many of his trade goods and the Omaha insisted that they trade on credit. Truteau encountered more problems, and instead of being at the Mandan villages by winter, he spent the season with the Arikara. The time was spent exploring and learning about other Indian tribes, such as the Cheyenne. Truteau returned to St. Louis in 1795 and made his report. The Corps of Discovery used a translation of his journal on the 1804 expedition. The journal was invaluable because of the detailed information of not only the land and rivers around the Missouri but also the peoples who inhabited the area. See also CARTOGRAPHY; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. THE TURK (?–1541). The Turk was a Plains Indian, commonly thought to be a Pawnee, who was living as a slave among the Pueblo Indians on the Pecos River at the time of Francisco Vásquez de Coronado’s quest for Cíbola. He led Hernando de Alvarado’s advance group onto the southern Great Plains before returning to Coronado’s expedition, which failed to find the wealth of the legendary Cíbola. For some reason, The Turk told the Spanish about Quivira, another supposedly wealthy Indian kingdom. In 1541, along with another Plains Indian, Ysopete, he led Coronado’s expedition back onto the Great Plains as far east as Kansas. Somewhere along the way, his credibility came into doubt, and they placed The Turk in chains. When they reached Quivira, it was actually a normal Indian village without gold, and the Spanish executed The Turk for lying. Before his death, he served as a guide and greatly extended the reach of one of the earliest and most extensive explorations of the continent’s interior.

U ULLOA, FRANCISCO DE (fl. 1539). Little is known of Francisco de Ulloa outside of his association with Hernán Cortés, the conquest of the Aztecs, and his explorations funded by Cortés. Presumably, he was from Spain, but details are uncertain. In 1539, he was commissioned to explore the western coast of Mexico to search for a Northwest Passage or, more specifically, the Strait of Anian. Beginning in July, Ulloa sailed north up the coast, following the Gulf of California to the Colorado River outlet. His report made him the first European to sight the Colorado River. Ruling out the gulf as the Strait of Anian, Ulloa’s ships turned south, mapping the eastern shore of Baja California, rounding its southern tip, and continuing north along its western Pacific coast. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The lands now under the domain of the United States at one time were colonial possessions of England, France, the Netherlands, Russia, Spain, and Sweden. After gaining independence from England in 1776, the United States acquired the remainder of its territory held by Euro-American empires through a series of purchases, treaties, and wars, including the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, the War of 1812, the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819, the Mexican-American War of the 1840s, the Oregon Treaty of 1846, the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, the Alaska Purchase of 1867, and the Spanish-American War of 1898. Throughout, innumerable purchases, treaties, and wars with Indians, nations, and empires were undertaken by the United States to further its legal claims to lands and enable American settlers to expand across the continent. The expansive nature of the United States matches the form of settler colonialism previously employed by England and was strongly powered by manifest destiny, or a belief that the United States was divinely commissioned to control the continent. This meant a full east-to-west domain but at times also included discussions of controlling the whole North America, including Mexico and Canada. See also AIRD, JAMES (?–1819); ALLEN, HENRY T. (fl. 1885); AMERICAN FUR COMPANY (1808–1847); ASHLEY, WILLIAM HENRY (1778–1838); ASTOR, JOHN JACOB (1763–1848); BARTRAM, 195

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JOHN (fl. 1730s–1760s); BARTRAM, WILLIAM (1739–1822); BECKNELL, WILLIAM (1787?–1865); BECKWOURTH, JAMES (1800–1866); BENT, CHARLES, AND WILLIAM BENT (1799–1849 and 1809–1869); BIDWELL, JOHN (1819–1900); BLACK BEAVER (1806?–1880); BONNEVILLE, BENJAMIN LOUIS EULALIE DE (1796–1878); BOONE, DANIEL (1734–1820); BOWLES, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS (1763–1805); BOZEMAN, JOHN M. (1835–1867); BRIDGER, JAMES (1804–1881); CAMPBELL, ROBERT (1804–1879); CARSON, CHRISTOPHER “KIT” HOUSTON (1809–1868); CARVER, JONATHAN (1710–1780); CATLIN, GEORGE (1796–1872); CHARBONNEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1805–1866); CHARBONNEAU, TOUSSAINT (1759?–1843?); CHOUTEAU, AUGUSTE PIERRE (1786–1838); CHOUTEAU, JEAN PIERRE (1758–1849); CHOUTEAU, PIERRE, JR. (1789–1865); CHOUTEAU, RENÉ AUGUSTE (1749–1829); CLARK, WILLIAM (1770–1838); CLYMAN, JAMES (1792–1881); COLTER, JOHN (1774–1813); CORPS OF DISCOVERY (LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION) (1804–1806); CUMBERLAND GAP; DODGE, HENRY (1782–1867); DORION, PIERRE, SR. (fl. 1803–1806); DUNBAR, WILLIAM (1750–1804); EMORY, WILLIAM HEMSLEY (1811–1887); EWING, GEORGE WASHINGTON, AND WILLIAM GRIFFITH EWING (1804–1866 and 1801–1854); FERRIS, WARREN ANGUS (1810–1873); FINLEY, JOHN (1722?–1769?); FITZPATRICK, THOMAS (1799–1854); FREEMAN, THOMAS (?–1821); FRÉMONT, JOHN C. (1813–1890); GIST, CHRISTOPHER (1706–1759); GLASS, HUGH (?–1833); GRAY, ROBERT (1755–1806); HAMILTON, WILLIAM T. (1822–1908); HAWAII; HENRY, ANDREW (1755?–1833); HUNT, WILSON PRICE (1783–1842); IVES AND MACOMB EXPEDITIONS (1857–1859); LA LANDE, BAPTISTE (?–1821); LAWSON, JOHN (?–1712); LEDERER, JOHN (fl. 1660s–1670s); LEDYARD, JOHN (1751–1789); LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774–1809); LISA, MANUEL (1772–1820); LONG, STEPHEN HARRIMAN (1784–1864); LOUISIANA PURCHASE; MACKAY AND EVANS EXPEDITION (1795–1797); MARCY, RANDOLPH BARNES (1812–1887); MCTAVISH, SIMON (1750–1804); MEDINA, MARIANO (early 1800s–1878);MEEK, JOSEPH L. (1810–1875); MENARD, PIERRE (1766–1844); MISSOURI FUR COMPANY; MONCACHT-ÁPE (fl. 1680s–1700); MOUNTAIN MEN; NEEDHAM AND ARTHUR EXPEDITION (1673–1674); NICOLLET, JOSEPH (1786–1843); OGDEN, PETER SKENE (1794–1854); PARKER, SAMUEL (1779–1866); PATTIE, JAMES OHIO (1803?–1851?); PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779–1813); PILCHER, JOSHUA (1790–1843); POND, PETER (1740–1807); POPE, JOHN (1822–1892); POWELL, JOHN WESLEY (1834–1902); ROBERTSON, JAMES (1742–1814);ROBIDOUX, ANTOINE (1794–1860); ROCKY MOUNTAIN FUR COMPANY; ROSS, ALEXANDER (1783–?); SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY ROWE (1793–1864);

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SMITH, JEDEDIAH STRONG (1799–1831); SMITH, JOHN SIMPSON “BLACKFOOT SMITH” (1810–1871); STUART, ROBERT (1785–1848); SUBLETTE, WILLIAM LEWIS (1799–1845); SUTTER, JOHN AUGUSTUS (1803–1880); WALKER, JOSEPH REDDEFORD (1789–1876); WHEELER, GEORGE MONTAGUE (1842–1905); WILKES, CHARLES (1798–1877); WILLIAMS, WILLIAM SHERLEY (1787–1849); WOOD, ABRAHAM (1610–1682).

V VANCOUVER, GEORGE (1757–1798). Of English birth, George Vancouver entered the Royal Navy at the age of 13, serving under Captain James Cook. During his time under Cook, Vancouver became an expert seaman, refining his considerable talents in navigation and cartography. While surveying the Northwest coast, Vancouver kept mostly to his ship, making little contact with the Natives. During his voyages, Vancouver often wintered in Hawaii, where he befriended the Hawaiian king Kamehameha. Vancouver was the first European to make an accurate scientific survey of the coastline of the Pacific Northwest, and he was also the first explorer to circumnavigate Vancouver Island. Disappointingly, he did not find a Northwest Passage, but he did serve as an element of friendly diplomatic relations with the Spanish. He co-ruled Vancouver Island for Great Britain with Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra of Spain for a number of years. Vancouver’s ship was the first non-Spanish vessel to sail into San Francisco Bay. After his voyages, he returned to England to publish his journals. Because he died before the journals were ready for the press, Vancouver’s brother, John, completed the project. VARGAS, DIEGO DE (1643?–1704). Originally from Spain, in 1692, Vargas was placed in charge of an expedition into New Mexico to regain control 12 years after the Pueblo Revolt. Despite immense concern, very little fighting occurred, most of the pueblos rather surrendering. Vargas quickly regained control over most of the area. In 1693, he led another expedition, this time to resettle the area. It ended in 1695 after intense hardships, most notably a lack of food. In addition, while Vargas’s first expedition had seen little fighting, his recolonization effort was marred by fighting against the local Indians. Vargas died as governor in 1704 while fighting the Apaches. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; INDIGENOUS PEOPLES.

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VÉRENDRYE, LOUIS JOSEPH GAULTIER DE (1717–1761). Louis Joseph Gaultier de La Vérendrye began his exploration with his father, Pierre Gaultier de Varrennes de La Verendrye, in 1735 in an effort to expand his father’s fur trade company. In 1738 on another trip with his father, they visited the Mandans of North Dakota to establish trade contacts and the next year explored the Lake Winnipeg area. In 1742 with his brother and several other fur traders, Louis led an expedition west of the Mandans hoping to find a Northwest Passage to the Pacific Ocean. Along the way, they established contacts with numerous indigenous peoples and probably explored into Montana and Wyoming, reaching the Bighorn Mountains before returning to French Canada. Louis served in both King George’s War and the French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War) against Great Britain. On his return to France, his ship wrecked off Cape Breton Island, where he died. VÉRENDRYE, PIERRE GAULTIER DE VARRENNES DE LA (1685–1749). Pierre was born into a prominent family in Trois-Rivières, Quebec. He served in the French military, even participating in raids on several English colonies. He was wounded in a war in Europe; he returned to Canada by 1712. He married and had several sons, including Louis Joseph Gaultier de La Vérendrye, who worked and explored under his direction. In 1726, he joined his brother in the fur trade above Lake Superior and had taken over the business within two years. During this time, Indian reports of a river that ran to the Western Ocean sparked a desire that he would pursue for the rest of his life. In 1730, Pierre received the support of the government to explore and the following year had expanded his business to the area around Rainy Lake and Lake Winnipeg. Until 1738, Pierre spent his time trapping, trading, and exploring, although during this time, he lost one of his sons who worked under him. In 1738, Pierre, accompanied by his son Louis, began an expedition that further explored Lake Winnipeg before turning south, where they came onto the Great Plains of North Dakota and established contact with the Mandan tribe. His later years were spent organizing and sending further exploration out under his son Louis, probably reaching as far as the northern Rocky Mountains in their search for the river that flowed into the Pacific. He received the Cross of St. Louis as an award for his exploration and was busy organizing another expedition when he died. VERRAZANO, GIOVANNI DE (1485?–1528). Little is known of Giovanni de Verrazano’s early life, but he was likely from the Florence region of Italy and was apparently well educated. He began his naval career on the Mediterranean, where he became an accomplished sailor. Some sources seem to suggest that he spent time as a privateer for France, but regardless, he got

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the attention of King Francis I of France. Verrazano was sent to the New World to look for a Northwest Passage that connected the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In 1523–1524, Verrazano explored the coastline of North America searching for the waterway. Sailing from the Madeiras Islands, Verrazano eventually reached land near Cape Fear in North Carolina. He turned southward for a short time before turning north, fearing contact with rival Spain. While he failed to explore the Chesapeake or Hudson areas, Verrazano did explore the interior of New York Bay for several weeks. While there, his expedition made contact with indigenous peoples before turning north, where he would eventually explore Newfoundland before returning to Europe. In 1527, Verrazano made a commercial expedition to Brazil; in 1528, he sailed to Florida and then on to the Lower Antilles in search of the waterway. While on Guadeloupe, Verrazano was killed in a fight with the Natives. Verrazano was one of the early explorers of the New World and the first European to see New York Bay, and he helped increase knowledge of the area. His reports were among the earliest based solely on exploration and encouraged further exploration of the Americas. VIAL, PEDRO (1746–1814). Vial was born in Lyon, France, and by the 1770s came to North America, where he lived and worked most likely along the Missouri River. In 1786, Vial was commissioned by Spain to explore and create a trail from San Antonio to Santa Fe. He left in October of that year with one other person and arrived in Santa Fe in May 1786. He was then commissioned to explore westward into present-day Louisiana before eventually returning to Santa Fe. In 1792, Vial’s skills were again needed to create a trail from Santa Fe to St. Louis. In one of the earliest recorded crossings of the southern Plains, Vial created what later became known as the Santa Fe Trail. Along the way, he was captured by Indians, although he managed to escape. Vial later settled in Santa Fe, serving as a guide to further explorations of the Southwest before dying in 1814. Vial greatly contributed to knowledge of the Southwest in addition to creating several very important overland routes. Indeed, he provides one of the more valuable accounts of the Comancheria and various Native peoples negotiating the southern Plains and their trade, warfare, and alliances. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; PUBLISHING AND PROMOTION. VIKINGS. Many of the exploits of the Norse Vikings are known from their Norse sagas and other European sources. In the “Viking Age,” they were far more advanced than the rest of Europe, having the ability to voyage on the open ocean. They began with raids on their neighbors, but eventually they would raid, settle, and trade throughout much of Europe. The Vikings dis-

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covered Iceland in the 800s and later found Greenland and North America. They tried to settle there, meeting Native Americans, whom they called “Skraelings,” before abandoning their American settlements. There was much debate over whether the Vikings had actually found America, but the debate was ended with the discovery of a Viking settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows. There is still scholarly debate about the extent and scope of Viking exploration in North America. VILLASUR, PEDRO DE (?–1720). Villasur served in the Spanish military, eventually becoming the lieutenant commander when he was sent to Santa Fe. He was then given command of an expedition on the Great Plains to compete with France. Officials in Santa Fe had received alarming news of French traders arming Indians on the central Great Plains and saw it necessary to ascertain how far onto the Plains the French or their influence had extended. Leaving Santa Fe in June 1720, Villasur crossed the Arkansas River and traveled northeast, eventually getting as far as the North and South Platte rivers in Nebraska. Here they found a Pawnee and an Otoe camp. Rather than retreating in the face of overwhelming numbers, Villasur ordered that some of his men make the full trek back to Santa Fe to inquire how he should proceed. The trip was unnecessary, as the Pawnees and others attacked, killing Villasur. One Spanish priest survived (but was later executed) and provided an account of Villasur’s demise. The expedition was Spain’s last major push onto the Great Plains and devastated Santa Fe. The expedition had taken the best men and most of the valuable arms and munitions, and their loss was significant. See also DU TISNE, CLAUDE CHARLES (fl. 1710s); LA HARPE, JEAN-BAPTISTE BÉNARD DE (1683–1765). VIRGINIA COMPANY OF LONDON. The Virginia Company of London actually consisted of two joint-stock companies that were chartered in 1606 to colonize North America, each given a separate geographical region. They were organized in order to form two separate colonies; they were also the first British attempts since the disastrous Roanoke Colony. In 1607, the company established Jamestown under John Smith, running it until 1624, when they were dissolved, making Virginia an official colony. The Plymouth group of the company never obtained much success in its endeavors. See also COLONIZATION AND COLONIALISM; GREAT BRITAIN; SETTLER COLONIALISM. VIZCAÍNO, SEBASTIÁN (1550?–1628?). Born in Spain, Sebastián Vizcaíno began his naval career as a merchant to the Philippines, where at one point he was captured by the British privateer Thomas Cavendish. In

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1594 and again in 1596, he explored the Baja California peninsula. In 1602, he led an expedition to explore northward to Alta California. On this expedition, he explored along the coastline, creating some of the earliest accurate maps of the coastline. He eventually discovered Monterey Bay, although he would later miss San Francisco Bay due to poor weather conditions. He got as far as the coast of southern Oregon before returning to Mexico. Later, he led other expeditions in the Pacific Ocean before settling in New Spain. After his exploration, the Spanish ceased serious exploration of the coast for over a century; Monterey Bay would not be rediscovered until Junípero Serra and Gaspar de Portolá in 1767. VOYAGEURS. By the end of the 17th century, France had built a robust fur trade into the interior of North America, but they were struggling to control it. Initial attempts to tightly regulate fur traders had quickly given way to French Canadian frontiersmen, named coureurs de bois (runners of the woods), who left the confines of French control to trade and intermarry with Natives. Their new system led to profits, and France began to employ an intermediary class of traders, voyageurs, to carry trade goods out to coureurs de bois in the field and return with furs and pelts. Like the coureurs de bois, voyageurs often developed strong ties with Native peoples, including intermarriage, and gave birth to large Métis populations. Voyageurs not only engaged in the fur trade but also made significant contributions to the exploration and mapping of the North American interior. See also CANADA.

W WALKER, JOSEPH REDDEFORD (1789–1876). Joseph Reddeford Walker was born to a pioneering family who carved farms out of the frontier in Virginia, Tennessee, and eventually Missouri. While in Missouri, Walker came into contact with various mountain men and in 1820 joined them on his first trapping expedition to New Mexico. He participated in Captain Benjamin Louis Eulalie de Bonneville’s near-failed expedition in 1832. Walker also assisted in opening up the Missouri–Santa Fe trade network, helping in the party that constructed a road from Missouri to the frontier with Mexico. Walker guided the first wagons over the California Trail, and he served as a guide for two of John C. Frémont’s expeditions. He also is credited for discovering Yosemite in 1833. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. WHEELER, GEORGE MONTAGUE (1842–1905). George Montague Wheeler was born in Grafton, Massachusetts, and graduated from West Point in 1866 as a second lieutenant in the Corps of Engineering. In 1871, he was assigned the enormous task of surveying the entire West and over the next eight years traveled to California, Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and Nevada. In addition to creating geographic maps, Wheeler was assigned to investigate and report on the inhabitants, mineral deposits, military concerns, and transportation issues. His maps essentially detailed one-third of the continental United States, and his 14 expeditions were enormously influential. He also made detailed reports, although he never finished his task completely. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. WILKES, CHARLES (1798–1877). Charles Wilkes was born in New York and as a son of a prominent businessman had become well educated by the time he joined the navy. Wilkes would eventually be placed in charge of the South Seas Surveying and Exploring Expedition, a major United States expedition. From 1838 to 1842, Wilkes and his men covered over 80,000 205

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miles. During this time, they charted numerous Pacific isles and part of Antarctica’s coastline. In 1841, Wilkes returned to the United States, where he surveyed 800 miles of Oregon’s coast and the Columbia River. Wilkes would later serve in the Civil War, where he was court-martialed for violating neutrality rights. Wilkes led one of America’s largest expeditions to date, completing a circumnavigation of the world. See also CARTOGRAPHY; GOVERNMENT EXPEDITIONS; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION. WILLIAMS, WILLIAM SHERLEY (1787–1849). William Sherley Williams, nicknamed “Old Bill,” moved to the Missouri frontier in his youth and soon decided to cast his lot with the Osage Indians. He lived among them for the better part of the next 25 years and had an Osage family, during which time he also acted as a preacher and worked as an interpreter and trader for the United States. He later drifted farther west, where his trapping and exploring prowess became legendary even while Williams was still alive. Williams used his knowledge of western geography to guide many exploratory government parties, including the Sibley Survey of the Santa Fe Trail in 1825 and two John C. Frémont railroad expeditions, the last of which ended in disaster when Frémont refused to listen to Williams’s advice. Williams also served as an interpreter for many indigenous peoples, and he even compiled the first English-Osage dictionary. Fluent in Spanish, French, Osage, Navajo, and Ute and familiar with the wilderness from Missouri to California and from the northern Rocky Mountains down to Mexico, Williams moved fluidly throughout the western frontier, acting as a guide, interpreter, and trapper until his death at the hands of a band of Natives in 1849. See also OVERLAND TRAILS AND PIONEERS. WOOD, ABRAHAM (1610–1682). Abraham Wood was a major landholder in Virginia who financed a number of expeditions to explore the areas west of the Appalachian Mountains. English born, he came to Virginia as a young boy and served under the governor of Jamestown in 1625. He rose to prominence as a member of the House of Burgesses in the mid-1640, became a member of the Virginia Governor’s Council, and was a major general in the colonial militia. From Fort Henry, present-day Petersburg, Virginia, he mounted a number of expeditions. He left Fort Henry in 1650 with several others and explored into the Piedmont region of North Carolina, but fighting caused them to cease exploration. In 1671, Wood dispatched the Batts and Fallam expedition to explore into North Carolina again. Two years later, he sent out the Needham and Arthur expedition to explore into Tennessee and

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the Alleghenies. These expeditions increased England’s knowledge of the backcountry beyond the fall lines and laid the groundwork for the subsequent English fur trade and settlement in those regions.

Bibliography

CONTENTS Introduction 1. General Sources 2. Companies and Corporations 2.1 Colonization and Exploration Companies 2.2 Fur Trade Companies 3. Entries by Nation of Origin or Regional Focus of Frontier Activities 3.1 Canada and England/Great Britain 3.2 France and New France 3.3 Miscellaneous Nationalities 3.4 Russia and Russian America 3.5 Spain, New Spain, and Mexico 3.6 United States 4. Geographic Features

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INTRODUCTION Concurrent with the earliest European efforts to explore, exploit, and develop North America, those engaged in such endeavors began to publish their accounts. The written word has gone hand in hand with such ventures, serving to help record information, secure additional funding for future plans, promote new findings, encourage migration and settlement, and so forth. The tracts often sold well, were translated into different languages, and were compiled into collections by publishers such as Richard Hakluyt. With those reports and attendant maps in hand, subsequent generations of Europeans moved across the continent, penning their own accounts in order. These provide a bedrock foundation of primary sources included in this bibliography. They are featured throughout, with original publication information (many of which are available as open access documents in various online repositories) and also more contemporary editions. The majority featured here are English language sources or, when available, English translations of other languages. For a number of particularly important documents where no English translation is readily available, the original foreign language citation is provided. Using these and other primary documents as source materials, 209

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generations of professional and amateur scholars have researched and written about the various stages of American frontier exploration, development, and settlement by Euro-American peoples. This bibliography is organized into four thematic categories, many with subcategories as well. Section 1, General Sources, includes a number of broad topics featured throughout the dictionary. For the lists featuring individual countries and colonial empires, it is worth highlighting a few of the key sources that prove the most valuable as broad reference works. For Canada, W. J. Eccles’s The Canadian Frontier (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983) and Margaret Conrad’s Canada: A National History (New York: Longman Publishing Group, 2003) provide an excellent starting point. For England/Great Britain, consider Bernard Bailyn’s The Peopling of British North America: An Introduction (New York: Knopf, 1986) and Eric Hinderaker and Peter C. Mancall’s At the Edge of Empire: The Backcountry in British North America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003). France is well introduced, again in Eccles’s The Canadian Frontier as well as in Robert Englebert and Guillaume Teasdale’s French and Indians in the Heart of North America, 1630–1815 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2013). The best overview of Russian Alaska is Lydia T. Black’s Russians in Alaska, 1732–1867 (Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press, 2004). For Spain, see the David J. Weber’s seminal The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992). Among the thematic lists included in section 1, there are a few subjects and relevant texts that feature prominently enough throughout the dictionary entries to warrant special mention: the fur trade and indigenous peoples. The fur trade was integral at various stages of frontier development for a number of rival colonial powers, and some of the best introductory sources on the fur trade include Paul C. Phillips and J. W. Smurr, The Fur Trade, 2 vols. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), LeRoy R. Hafen, ed., The Mountain Men and the Fur Trade of the Far West, 10 vols. (Glendale, CA: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1965–1972), Carolyn Produchny’s Making the Voyageur World: Travelers and Traders in the North American Fur Trade (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), and Sylvia Van Kirk’s Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur-Trade Society, 1670–1870 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983). Even more ubiquitous in its prominence throughout the dictionary is the presence of Native peoples. The field of indigenous history and studies is so rich that it was necessary to limit the titles highlighted here to those most relevant to Euro-America frontier exploration and development. Many of the texts in this bibliography include indigenous peoples, but there are a few noteworthy titles with a more clear focus on Natives. These include Juliana Barr’s Peace Came in the Form of a Woman: Indians and Spaniards in the Texas Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North

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Carolina Press, 2007), Ned Blackhawk’s Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), Colin Calloway’s One Vast Winter Count: The Native American West before Lewis and Clark (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), Brian DeLay’s War of a Thousand Deserts: Indian Raids and the U.S.-Mexican War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), Kathleen DuVal’s The Native Ground: Indians and Colonists in the Heart of the Continent (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), Daniel K. Richter’s Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), Alan Taylor’s The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 2006), and Richard White’s The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010). Section 2, Companies and Corporations, is subdivided first into entries for those engaged in colonization and exploration (2.1) and those engaged in the fur trade (2.2). Section 3, Entries by Nation of Origin or Regional Focus of Frontier Activities, constitutes the majority of the bibliography. It is subdivided into Canada and England/Great Britain (3.1); France and New France (3.2); Miscellaneous Nationalities (3.3); Russia and Russian America (3.4); Spain, New Spain, and Mexico (3.5); and the United States (3.6). The entries within each of these subsections correspond primarily to dictionary entries of individual people and expeditions. Due to overlaps in geography and the chronology of when colonial possessions became independent countries, dividing these further proved imprudent. Therefore, for example, entries that are part of the broader British North America are placed to correspond geographically with what would eventually become Canada or the United States. Similarly, the grouping of Spain, New Spain, and Mexico are kept together, as many entries transcend those delineations. Although the lands of New France would eventually become part of Canada, entries relating to the colonial efforts of France are separated into their own category. Finally, section 4, Geographic Features, contains a short list of entries focused on places, such as the Rocky Mountains or Alta California. The bibliography is most easily used by first referencing the desired entry in the contents above. One will find a number of titles listed numerous times, as its contents are relevant to various entries. Most represent monograph books. There are a small number of specific edited anthology chapters, but more often than not, the entire anthology is referenced. Scholarly and a few popular journal articles are featured throughout and are often associated with topics about which full-length studies have not been published. Locating journal articles can be more challenging, but most university and public libraries have interlibrary loan systems or subscribe to digital databases where many, if not all, can be accessed. The difficulty in accessing and

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researching graduate-level MA theses or PhD dissertations necessitated their not being featured. An intentional effort has been made to include primarily academic and scholarly work. Popular writing on some of these individuals has been quite extensive, but many do not represent reliable scholarship. In the few occasions where more popular works are included, it is usually, by necessity, created by no scholarly works having yet been published.

1. GENERAL SOURCES Allen, John Logan, ed. North American Exploration. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Balesi, Charles J. The Time of the French in the Heart of North America, 1673–1818. Chicago: Alliance Francaise, 1992. Beck, Warren E. Historical Atlas of the American West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989. Billington, Ray Allen. Westward Expansion: A History of the American Frontier. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2001. Bohlander, Richard E. World Explorers and Discoverers. New York: Macmillan, 1992. Brebner, John Bartlet. The Explorers of North America, 1492–1806. Cleveland, OH: World Publishing Company, 1964. Byrne, Pamela R., and Susan K. Kinnell, eds. Pioneers and Explorers in North America: Summaries of Biographical Articles in History Journals. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1988. Camp, Charles L. The Plains and the Rockies: A Bibliography of Original Narratives of Travel and Adventure, 1800–1865. Columbus, OH: Long’s College Book Company, 1953. Carter, Edward C., II, ed. Surveying the Record: North American Scientific Exploration to 1930. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1999. Chipman, Donald. Spanish Texas, 1519–1821. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992. Delgado, James P. Across the Top of the World: The Quest for the Northwest Passage. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1999. Delpar, Helen. The Discoverers. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980. ———. Early Encounters in North America [electronic resource]: Peoples, Cultures and the Environment. Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street Press, 2001. Eber, Dorothy. Encounters on the Passage: Inuit Meet the Explorers. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008.

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Erickson, Doug, Jeremy Skinner, and Paul Merchant. Jefferson’s Western Explorations: Discoveries Made in Exploring the Missouri, Red River and Washita by Captains Lewis and Clark, Doctor Sibley, and William Dunbar, and Compiled by Thomas Jefferson. Spokane, WA: Arthur H. Clark, 2004. Francaviglia, Richard V. Mapping and Imagination in the Great Basin: A Cartographic History. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2005. Goetzmann, William H. The Atlas of North American Exploration: From the Norse Voyages to the Race to the Pole. New York: Prentice Hall General Reference, 1992. Golay, Michael, and John S. Bowman. North American Exploration. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2003. Hafen, LeRoy R., ed. Mountain Man and Fur Trade of the Far West. 10 vols. Spokane, WA: Arthur H. Clark, 1965–1972. Harrisse, Henry. The Discovery of North America: A Critical, Documentary, and Historic Investigation. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1961. Hattendorf, John B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History. 4 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Hayes, Derek. America Discovered: A Historical Atlas of North American Exploration. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 2004. Hoig, Stan. Beyond the Frontier: Exploring the Indian Country. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998. Hollon, W. Eugene. Beyond the Cross Timbers: The Travels of Randolph B. Marcy, 1812–1887. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1955. Holmes, Kenneth L., ed. Covered Wagon Women: Diaries and Letters from the Western Trails, 1840–1890. 11 vols. Glendale, CA: Arthur H. Clark, 1983–1993. Johnson, David Alan. Founding the Far West: California, Oregon, and Nevada, 1840–1890. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Lamar, Howard R., ed. The New Encyclopedia of the American West. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998. Lawerence, Bill. The Early American Wilderness as the Explorers Saw It. New York: Paragon House, 1991. Limerick, Patricia Nelson. Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West. New York: Norton, 1987. Litalien, Raymonde. Les Explorateurs de l’Amerique du Nord, 1492–1795. Sillery: Septentrion, 1993. Litalien, Raymonde, Jean-Francoise Palomino, Denis Vaugeois, and Kathe Roth. Mapping a Continent: Historical Atlas of North America, 1492–1814. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2007. McFarling, Lloyd, ed. Exploring the Northern Plains, 1804–1876. Caldwell, ID: Caxton Printers, 1955.

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McLoone, Margo. Women Explorers in North and South America. Mankato, MN: Capstone Press, 1997. Milner, Clyde, et al., eds. The Oxford History of the American West. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Nugent, Walter, and Martin Ridge, eds. The American West: The Reader. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Palmer, Stanley H., and Dennis Reinhartz, eds. Essays on the History of North American Discovery and Exploration. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1988. Parry, J. H. The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration and Settlement, 1450–1650. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1969. Phillips, Charles, and Alan Axelrod, ed. Encyclopedia of the American West. New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan, 1996. Poole, Frederick King. Early Exploration of North America. New York: Franklin Watts, 1989. Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. The Negro on the American Frontier. New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1971. Quinn, David B. America from Concept to Discovery. Early Exploration of North America. New York: Arno Press, 1979. ———. European Approaches to North America, 1450–1640. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate, 1998. ———. Explorers and Colonies: America, 1500–1625. London: Hambledon Press, 1990. ———. New American World: A Documentary History of North America to 1612. 5 vols. New York: Arno Press, 1979. ———. North American Discovery: Circa 1000–1612. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1971. Ronda, James P. Revealing America: Image and Imagination in the Exploration of North America. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1996. Roth, Mitchel. Reading the American West: Primary Source Readings in the American History. New York: Longman, 1999. Ruxton, George Frederick. Life in the Far West. Edited by LeRoy R. Hafen. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1951. Speck, Gordon. Northwest Explorations. Portland, OR: Binfords & Mort, 1954. Thrapp, Dan L. Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography. 4 vols. Glendale, CA: Arthur H. Clark, 1994. Thwaites, Reuben G., ed. The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents. New York: Pageant Book, 1959. Viola, Herman J. Exploring the West. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 1987. Waldman, Carl, and Alan Wexler. Who Was Who in World Exploration. New York: Facts on File, 1992.

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Waldman, Carl, Alan Wexler, and Jon Cunningham. Encyclopedia of Exploration. 2 vols. New York: Facts on File, 2004. Weber, David J. The Spanish Frontier in North America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992. White, Richard. “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. Wishart, David J. ed. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2004. Arctic Exploration

Bockstoce, John R. Furs and Frontiers in the Far North: The Contest among Native and Foreign Nations for the Bering Strait Fur Trade. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010. Cavell, Janice. Tracing the Connected Narrative: Arctic Exploration in British Print Culture, 1818–1860. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008. Day, Alan. Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Northwest Passage. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2006. ———. Search for the Northwest Passage: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1986. Delgado, James P. Across the Top of the World: The Quest for the Northwest Passage. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1999. Fogelson, Nancy. Arctic Exploration and International Relations 1900–1932: A Period of Expanding National Interests. Anchorage: University of Alaska Press, 1992. Hoare, J. Douglas. Arctic Exploration. Boston: E. P. Dutton, 1906. Lopez, Barry. Arctic Dreams: Imagination and Desire in a Northern Landscape. New York: Charles Scribner & Sons, 1986. Robinson, Michael F. The Coldest Crucible: Arctic Exploration and American Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006. Williams, Glyndwr. Arctic Labyrinth: The Quest for the Northwest Passage. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010. ———. The British Search for the Northwest Passage in the Eighteenth Century. New York: Royal Commonwealth Society, 1962. ———. Voyages of Delusion: The Quest for the Northwest Passage. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003. Canada

Carter, Sarah Alexander. Aboriginal People and Colonizers of Western Canada to 1900. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.

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Rensink, Brenden. “‘If a Passage Could Be Found’: The Power of Myth (and Money) in North American Exploration.” We Proceeded On, May 2010, 8–17. Wallis, Helen. “England’s Search for the Northern Passages in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries.” Arctic 37 (December 1984): 453–72. Weber, David J. “Raising the Blindfold: The Earliest Published Graphic Images of the Desert Southwest.” Southwest Art, August 1984, 50–56. Withers, Charles W. J., and Innes M. Keighren. “Travels into Print: Authoring, Editing and Narratives of Travel and Exploration, c.1815—c.1857.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 36 (October 2011): 560–73. Russia and Russian America

Black, Lydia T. Russians in Alaska, 1732–1867. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press, 2004. Bockstoce, John R. Furs and Frontiers in the Far North: The Contest among Native and Foreign Nations for the Bering Strait Fur Trade. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010. Gerus, Oleh W. “The Russian Withdrawal from Alaska: The Decision to Sell.” Revista de Historia de América 75/76 (January 1973): 157–78. Gibson, James R. Imperial Russia in Frontier America: The Changing Geography of Supply of Russian America, 1784–1867. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. Mazour, Anatole G. “The Russian-American Company: Private or Government Enterprise?” Pacific Historical Review 13 (June 1944): 168–73. Scientific Exploration

Carter, Edward Carlos. Surveying the Record: North American Scientific Exploration to 1930. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1999. Cutright, Paul Russell. Lewis and Clark: Pioneering Naturalists. 2nd ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003. ———. “Meriwether Lewis: Zoologist.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 69, no. 1 (1968): 5–28. ———. “The Odyssey of the Magpie and the Prairie Dog.” Missouri Historical Society Bulletin 23, no. 3 (1967): 215–28. Goetzmann, William H. Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West. New York: Norton, 1978. Kramer, Howard D. “The Scientist in the West, 1870–1880.” Pacific Historical Review 12, no. 3 (September 1943): 239–51.

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McKelvey, Susan Dela. Botanical Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West, 1790–1865. Jamaica Plain, MA: Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 1955. Moring, John. Early American Naturalists: Exploring the American West, 1804–1900. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2002. Nichols, Roger L. “Stephen Long and Scientific Exploration on the Plains.” Nebraska History 52, no. 1 (Spring 1971): 51–64. Ronda, James P. “‘To Acquire What Knolege You Can’: Thomas Jefferson as Exploration Patron and Planner.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 150 (September 2006): 409–13. Stanton, William. American Scientific Exploration, 1803–1860. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society Library, 1991. Sterling, Keir B. “Naturalists of the Southwest at the Turn of the Century.” Environmental Review: ER 3 (October 1978): 20–33. Settler Colonialism

Ford, Lisa. Settler Sovereignty: Jurisdiction and Indigenous People in America and Australia, 1788–1836. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010. Harris, Cole. “How Did Colonialism Dispossess? Comments from an Edge of Empire.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 94 (March 2004): 165–82. Lambert, David, and Alan Lester. Colonial Lives across the British Empire: Imperial Careering in the Long Nineteenth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Preston, David L. The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009. Rifkin, Mark. Manifesting America: The Imperial Construction of U.S. National Space. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Smithers, Gregory D., and Brooke N. Newman. Native Diasporas: Indigenous Identities and Settler Colonialism in the Americas. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014. Whaley, Gray H. Oregon and the Collapse of Illahee: U.S. Empire and the Transformation of an Indigenous World, 1792–1859. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. Slavery and Race

Allmendinger, Blake. Imagining the African American West. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005.

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America, Richard F., ed. The Wealth of Races: The Present Value of Benefits from Past Injustices. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. Huston, James L. Calculating the Value of the Union: Slavery, Property Rights, and the Economic Origins of the Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003. Magliari, Michael F. “Free State Slavery: Bound Indian Labor and Slave Trafficking in California’s Sacramento Valley, 1850–1864.” Pacific Historical Review 81, no. 2 (May 2012): 155–92. McCarthy, Michael. “Africa and the American West.” Journal of American Studies 11, no. 2 (August 1977): 187–201. O’Rourke, David K. How America’s First Settlers Invented Chattel Slavery: Dehumanizing Native Americans and Africans with Language, Laws, Guns, and Religion. New York: Peter Lang, 2005. Rushforth, Brett. Bonds of Alliance: Indigenous and Atlantic Slaveries in New France. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, published for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 2012. Smith, Stacey L. “Remaking Slavery in a Free State: Masters and Slaves in Gold Rush California.” Pacific Historical Review 80, no. 1 (February 2011): 28–63. Taylor, Quintard. “African American Men in the American West, 1528–1990.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 569 (May 2000): 102–19. ———. In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528–1990. New York: Norton, 1999. White, Richard. “Race Relations in the American West.” American Quarterly 38, no. 3 (January 1986): 396–416. Wood, Peter H. Strange New Land: Africans in Colonial America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Spain

Barnes, Thomas C., and Thomas H. Naylor. Northern New Spain: A Research Guide. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1981. Bolton, Herbert Eugene. Spanish Exploration in the Southwest: 1542–1706. New York: Scribner, 1908. Reprint, New York: Barnes & Noble, 1963. Chipman, Donald. Spanish Texas, 1519–1821. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992. Foster, William C. Spanish Expeditions into Texas, 1689–1768. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995. Hudson, Charles. Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun: Hernando de Soto and the South’s Ancient Chiefdoms. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1997.

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Thomas, Alfred Barnaby. After Coronado: Spanish Exploration Northeast of New Mexico, 1696–1727: Documents from the Archives of Spain, Mexico, and New Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1935. Vigil, Ralph H., Frances W. Kaye, and John R. Wunder. Spain and the Plains: Myths and Realities of Spanish Exploration and Settlement on the Great Plains. Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 2007. Wagner, Henry Raup. The Spanish Southwest, 1542–1794. 2 vols. Albuquerque, NM: Quivira Society, 1937. Reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1967. ———. Spanish Voyages to the Northwest Coast of America in the Sixteenth Century. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1966. Weber, David J. The Spanish Frontier in North America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992. Weddle, Robert S. Spanish Sea: The Gulf of Mexico in North American Discovery, 1500–1685. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1985. ———. Wilderness Manhunt: The Spanish Search for La Salle. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973. United States of America

Haynes, Sam W., and Christopher Morris. Manifest Destiny and Empire: American Antebellum Expansion. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1998. Hietala, Thomas R. Manifest Design: American Exceptionalism and Empire. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002. Hine, Robert V. Edward Kern and American Expansion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1962. Lawson, Gary, and Mr. Guy Seidman. The Constitution of Empire. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004. Levinson, Sanford, Bartholomew Sparrow, H. W. Brands, Christina Duffy Burnett, David P. Currie, William W. Freehling, and Julian Go, eds. The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803–1898. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Nichols, Roger L. Warrior Nations: The United States and Indian Peoples. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013. Rifkin, Mark. Manifesting America: The Imperial Construction of U.S. National Space. New York: Oxford University Press 2009. Smithers, Gregory D., and Brooke N. Newman. Native Diasporas: Indigenous Identities and Settler Colonialism in the Americas. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014.

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Stephanson, Anders. Manifest Destiny: American Expansion and the Empire of Right. New York: Hill and Wang, 1996. Taylor, Alan. American Colonies: The Settling of North America. New York: Penguin Books, 2002. Valenčius, Conevery Bolton. The Health of the Country: How American Settlers Understood Themselves and Their Land. New York: Basic Books, 2003. Weeks, William Earl. Building the Continental Empire: American Expansion from the Revolution to the Civil War. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1997.

2. COMPANIES AND CORPORATIONS 2.1 Colonization and Exploration Companies Cathay Company

Hogarth, Donald D., Peter Boreham, and J. G. Mitchell. Martin Frobisher’s Northwest Venture 1576–1581: Mines, Minerals and Metallurgy. Gatineau: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1994. McDermott, James. Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001. McFee, William. Sir Martin Frobisher. London: John Lane, 1928. McGee, Robert. The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher: An Elizabethan Adventure. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001. Steffansson, Vilhjalmur, ed. The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher. 2 vols. New York: Da Capo Press, 1971. West, William N. “Gold on Credit: Martin Frobisher’s and Walter Raleigh’s Economies of Evidence.” Criticism 39, no. 3 (Summer 1997): 315–36. Company of Merchants of London, Discoverers of the North-West Passage (also known as the Northwest Company or Northwest Passage Company)

Andrews, Kenneth R. Trade, Plunder, and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480–1630. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Markham, Clements Robert, Sir. The Voyages of William Baffin, 1612–1622. 1st ser., no. 63. London: Printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1881.

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Dutch West India Company

Feister, Lois M. “Linguistic Communication between the Dutch and Indians in New Netherlands, 1609–1664.” Ethnohistory 20, no. 1 (Winter 1973): 25–38. Jacobs, Jaap. New Netherland: A Dutch Colony in Seventeenth-Century America. Leiden: Brill, 2005. Merwick, Donna. The Shame and the Sorrow: Dutch-Amerindian Encounters in New Netherland. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006. Merwick, Donna. Possessing Albany, 1630–1710: The Dutch and English Experiences. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Rink, Oliver A. Holland on the Hudson: An Economic and Social History of Dutch New York. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986. Salmon, Lucy Maynard. The Dutch West Indian Company on the Hudson. Poughkeepsie, NY: Lansing and Broas, 1915. Van Cleaf, Bachman. Peltries or Plantations: The Economic Policies of the Dutch West India Company in New Netherlands, 1623–1639. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970. Virginia Company of London

Craven, Wesley Frank. The Virginia Company of London, 1606–1624. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1957. Neill, Edward D. History of the Virginia Company of London. New York: Burt Franklin, 1968. 2.2 Fur Trade Companies American Fur Company (1808–1847)

Irving, Washington. Astoria, or Anecdotes of an Enterprise beyond the Rocky Mountains. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1976. Lavender, David Sievert. The Fist in the Wilderness. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1964. ———. “Some American Characteristics of the American Fur Company.” Minnesota History 40, no. 4 (1966): 178–87. Terrell, John Upton. Furs by Astor. New York: William Morrow, 1963.

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Hudson’s Bay Company

Burley, Edith. Servants of the Honourable Company: Work, Discipline, and Conflict in the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1770–1879. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Cline, Gloria Griffen. Hudson’s Bay Company: A Brief History. Winnipeg: Hudson’s Bay House, 1936. ———. Peter Skene Ogden and the Hudson’s Bay Company. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974. Galbraith, John S. The Little Emperor: Governor Simpson of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1976. Lent, D. Geneva. West of the Mountains: James Sinclair and the Hudson’s Bay Company. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1963. Newman, Peter Charles. Company of Adventurers. Markham: Penguin Books Canada, 1986. Pinkerton, Robert E. Hudson’s Bay Company. New York: Henry Holt, 1931. Ray, Arthur J., and Donald B. Freeman. “Give Us Good Measure”: An Economic Analysis of Relations between the Indians and the Hudson’s Bay Company before 1763. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978. Rich, E. E. Hudson’s Bay Company 1670–1870. Vols. 1–3. New York: Macmillan, 1961. Ruggles, Richard I., and Rupert’s Land Record Society. A Country So Interesting: The Hudson’s Bay Company and Two Centuries of Mapping, 1670–1870. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2011. Simmons, Deidre. Keepers of the Record: The History of the Hudson’s Bay Company Archives. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2007. Swagerty, William R. “‘The Leviathan of the North’: American Perceptions of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1816–1846.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 104, no. 4 (December 2003): 478–517. Missouri Fur Company

Aarstad, Rich. “‘This Unfortunate Affair’: An 1810 Letter from the Three Forks.” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 58, no. 4 (December 2008): 62–96. Binnema, Ted, and William A. Dobak. “‘Like the Greedy Wolf’: The Blackfeet, the St. Louis Fur Trade, and War Fever, 1807–1831.” Journal of the Early Republic 29, no. 3 (October 2009): 411–40. Douglas, Walter R. Manuel Lisa. New York: Antiquarian Ltd, 1964. Oglesby, Richard Edward. Manuel Lisa and the Opening of the Missouri Fur Trade. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.

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North West Company

Campbell, Marjorie Wilkins. The North West Company. Toronto: Douglas & McIntyre, 1983. Corbyn, Ronald C. “The North West Company Fort at Tongue Point, Oregon.” Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 23, no. 2 (Autumn 1989 ): 195–216. Davidson, Gordon Charles. The North West Company. New York: Russell and Russell, 1967. Duckworth, Harry W. The English River Book: A North West Company Journal and Account Book of 1786. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990. Glazebrook, G. de T. “A Document concerning the Union of The Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company.” Canadian Historical Review 14, no. 2 (June 1933): 183–88. Gough, Barry M. “The North West Company’s ‘Adventure to China.’” Oregon Historical Quarterly 76, no. 4 (December 1975): 309–31. Keith, H. Lloyd. “‘Shameful Mismanagement, Wasteful Extravagance, and the Most Unfortunate Dissention’: George Simpson’s Misconceptions of the North West Company.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 102, no. 4 (December 2001): 434–53. Keith, Lloyd. North of Athabasca: Slave Lake and Mackenzie River Documents of North West Company, 1800–1821. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001. Mitchell, Elaine Allan. “The North West Company Agreement of 1795.” Canadian Historical Review 36, no. 2 (1955): 126–45. Morton, W. L. “The North West Company: Pedlars Extraordinary.” Minnesota History 40, no. 4 (December 1966): 157–65. O’Neil, Marion. “The Maritime Activities of the North West Company, 1813 to 1821.” Washington Historical Quarterly 21, no. 4 (October 1930): 243–67. Sage, Walter N., ed. “The Appeal of the North West Company to the British Government to Forestall John Jacob Astor’s Columbian Enterprise.” Canadian Historical Review 17, no. 3 (September 1936): 304–11. Wallace, William Stewart. Documents Relating to the North West Company. Toronto: Champlain Society, 1934. Rocky Mountain Fur Company

Berry, Don. A Majority of Scoundrels: An Informal History of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1961.

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Chittenden, Hiram Martin. The American Fur Trade of the Far West. 3 vols. New York: Francis P. Harper, 1902. Russian-American Company

Black, Lydia T. Russians in Alaska, 1732–1867. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press, 2004. Bockstoce, John R. Furs and Frontiers in the Far North: The Contest among Native and Foreign Nations for the Bering Strait Fur Trade. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010. Fisher, Raymond Henry. Records of the Russian-American Company, 1802, 1817–1867. Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Service, 1971. Gerus, Oleh W. “The Russian Withdrawal from Alaska: The Decision to Sell.” Revista de Historia de América, no. 75/76 (January 1973): 157–78. Gibson, James R. Imperial Russia in Frontier America: The Changing Geography of Supply of Russian America, 1784–1867. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. Mazour, Anatole G. “The Russian-American Company: Private or Government Enterprise?” Pacific Historical Review 13, no. 2 (June 1944): 168–73. Michael, Henry N., ed. Lieutenant Zagoskin’s Travels in Russian America, 1842–1844: The First Ethnographic and Geographic Investigations in the Yukon and Kuskokwim Valleys of Alaska. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967. Okun, S. B., and Robert J. Kerner, eds. The Russian-American Company. Translated by Carl Ginsburg. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1951. Scheinder, Tsim D. “The Illusive Kostromitinov Ranch: A RussianAmerican Company Ranch in Sonoma County, California.” Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 27, no. 2 (January 2007): 165–71. Spencer-Hancock, Diane, William E. Pritchard, and Ina Kaliakin. “Notes to the 1817 Treaty between the Russian American Company and Kashaya Pomo Indians.” California History 59, no. 4 (December 1980): 306–13. Tikhmenev, P. A. A History of the Russian-American Company. Translated and edited by Richard A. Price and Alton S. Donnelly. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1978. Wheeler, Mary E. “Empires in Conflict and Cooperation: The ‘Bostonians’ and the Russian-American Company.” Pacific Historical Review 40, no. 4 (November 1, 1971): 419–41.

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———. “The Origins of the Russian-American Company.” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 14, no. 4 (December 1966): 485–94.

3. ENTRIES BY NATION OF ORIGIN OR REGIONAL FOCUS OF FRONTIER ACTIVITIES 3.1 Canada and England/Great Britain Back, George (fl. 1830s)

Back, George. Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition to the Mouth of the Great Fish River in the Years 1833, 1834 and 1835. London: John Murray, 1836. Reprint, Edmonton: M. G. Hurtig, 1970. Franklin, John. Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Polar Sea. New York: Greenwood Press, 1828. Reprint, Edmonton: M. G. Hurtig, 1970. Steele, Peter. The Man Who Mapped the Arctic: The Intrepid Life of George Back, Franklin’s Lieutenant. Vancouver: Raincoast Books, 2003. Bell, John (1799–1868)

Cowie, Isaac. The Company of Adventurers: A Narrative of Seven Years in the Service of the Hudson’s Bay Company during 1867–1874. Toronto: William Briggs, 1913. Karamanski, Theodore J. Fur Trade and Exploration: Opening the Far Northwest, 1821–1852. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. Mortin, Arthur. A History of the Canadian West to 1870–71. 2nd ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973. Wallace, Stewart. The Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Toronto: Macmillan Company of Canada Limited, 1945. Bernier, Joseph-Elzear (1852–1934)

Bernier, Joseph-Elzear. Master Mariner and Arctic Explorer: A Narrative of Sixty Years at Sea from the Logs and Yarns of Captain J. E. Bernier. Ottawa: Le Droit, 1939. Davis, Richard Clarke. Lobsticks and Stone Cairns: Human Landmarks in the Arctic. Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1996. Finnie, Richard S. “Joseph Elzéar Bernier (1852–1934).” Arctic 39 (September 1986): 272–73.

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Broughton, William (1763–1821)

Barry, J. Neilson. “Columbia River Exploration, 1792.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 33, no. 1 (March 1932): 31–42. Marshal, James S. Vancouver’s Voyage. Vancouver: Mitchell Press, 1967. First published in 1955 as Adventure in Two Hemispheres. Mockford, Jim. “Before Lewis and Clark, Lt. Broughton’s River of Names: The Columbia River Exploration of 1792.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 106, no. 4 (Winter 2005): 542–67. Button, Thomas (?–1634)

Clark, George T. Some Account of Sir Robert Mansel . . . and of Admiral Sir Thomas Button. Dowlais: George T. Clark, 1883. Bylot, Robert (fl. 1610–1818)

Mowat, Farley. The Polar Passion: The Quest for the North Pole. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1967. Wallis, Helen. “England’s Search for the Northern Passages in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries.” Arctic 37 (December 1984): 453–72. Cabot, John (1450?–1499?)

Dawson, Samuel. The Voyages of the Cabots in 1497 and 1498: With an Attempt to Determine Their Landfall and to Identify Their Island of St. John. Montreal: W. Brown, 1894. Harrissee, Henry. John Cabot, the Discoverer of North America, and Sebastian, His Son: A Chapter of the Maritime History of England under the Tudors, 1496–1557. London: Benjamin Franklin Stevens, 1896. Pope, Peter Edward. The Many Landfalls of John Cabot. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997. Williamson, James Alexander. The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery under Henry VII. Cambridge: Published for the Hakluyt Society at the University Press, 1962. Cabot, Sebastian (1476?–1557)

Cabot, Sebastian. Memoir of Sebastian Cabot: With a Review of the History of Maritime Discovery. Philadelphia: Carey and Lea, 1831. Reprint, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1914.

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241

Harrissee, Henry. John Cabot, the Discoverer of North America, and Sebastian, His Son: A Chapter of the Maritime History of England under the Tudors, 1496–1557. London: Benjamin Franklin Stevens, 1896. Sandman, Alison, and Eric H. Ash. “Trading Expertise: Sebastian Cabot between Spain and England.” Renaissance Quarterly 57, no. 3 (Autumn 2004): 813–46. Tytler, Patrick Fraser. Historical View of the Progress of Discovery on the More Northern Coasts of America: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time [electronic resource]. New York: J & J Harper, 1833. Winship, George Parker. Cabot Bibliography [microform]: With an Introductory Essay on the Careers of the Cabots Based on an Independent Examination of the Sources of Information. London: H. Stevens and Stiles, 1900. Carver, Jonathan (1710–1780)

Bourne, Edward Gaylord. “The Travels of Jonathan Carver.” The American Historical Review 11 (January 1906): 287–302. Browning, William. “The Early History of Jonathan Carver.” Wisconsin Magazine of History 3 (March 1920): 291–305. Carver, Jonathan. Travels through the Interior Parts of North America in the Years 1766, 1767, and 1768. Minneapolis: Ross & Haines, 1956. Kellogg, Louise Phelps. “The Mission of Jonathan Carver.” Wisconsin Magazine of History 12 (December 1928): 127–45. Parker, John, ed. The Journals of Jonathan Carver and Related Documents, 1766–1770. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1976. Widder, Keith R. “The 1767 Maps of Robert Rogers and Jonathan Carver: A Proposal for the Establishment of the Colony of Michilimackinac.” Michigan Historical Review 30 (Fall 2004): 35–75. Cook, James (1728-1779)

Beaglehole, John Cawte. The Life of Captain James Cook. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1974. Cook, James. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Edited by J. C. Beaglehole. Cambridge: Published for the Hakluyt Society at the University Press, 1955. Fisher, Robin, and Hugh Johnston, eds. Captain James Cook and His Times. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1979. Hough, Richard Alexander. Captain James Cook: A Biography. New York: Norton, 1995.

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Obeyesekere, Gananath. The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997. Sahlins, Marshall. How “Natives” Think: About Captain Cook, for Example. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Withey, Lynne. Voyages of Discovery: Captain Cook and the Exploration of the Pacific. New York: William Morrow, 1987. Davis, John (fl. 1580s–1590s)

Davis, John, and Albert Hastings Markham, eds. The Voyages and Works of John Davis, the Navigator. London: Hakluyt Society, 1880. Foster, William. “A Forgotten Voyage of John Davis.” Geographical Journal 2 (August 1893): 146–49. Markham, Clements Robert. A Life of John Davis, the Navigator, 1550–1605: Discoverer of Davis Straits. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1889. Dease, Peter Warren (1788–1863)

Barr, Warren, ed. From Barrow to Boothia: The Arctic Journal of Chief Factor Peter Warren. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002. Clark, R. C. “The Chief Factors of the Columbia Department (1821–1846).” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 28 (October 1937): 405–9. Dease, Peter Warren, and Thomas Simpson. “An Account of the Arctic Discovery on the Northern Shore of America in the Summer of 1838.” Journal of the Royal Geographic Society 9 (1839): 325–30. ———. “An Account of the Recent Discoveries by Messrs Dease and Simpson.” Journal of the Royal Geographic Society 8 (1838): 213–25. ———. “Narrative of the Progress of Arctic Discovery on the Northern Shores of America in the Summer of 1839.” Journal of the Royal Geographic Society 10 (1841): 268–74. Drake, Sir Francis (1541–1596)

Corbett, Julian. Sir France Drake. London: Macmillan, 1890. Kelsey, Harry. Sir Francis Drake: The Queen’s Pirate. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998. Roche, T. W. E. The Golden Hind. London: A. Barker, 1973. Stamm, Henry E., IV. People of the Wind River: The Eastern Shoshone, 1825–1900. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. Sugden, John. Sir Francis Drake. New York: Henry Holt, 1991. Thomas, George M. Sir Francis Drake. London: Secker and Warburg, 1972.

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243

Wathen, Bruce. Sir Francis Drake: The Construction of a Hero. New York: D. S. Brewer, 2009. Fidler, Peter (1769–1822)

Allen, Robert S. “Peter Fidler and Nottingham House, Lake Athabasca, 1802–1806.” History and Archaeology 69 (1983): 283–347. Hearne, Samuel, Philip Turnor, and Peter Fidler. Journals of Samuel Hearne and Philip Turnor. Toronto: Champlain Society, 1934. Helm, June. “‘Always with Them Either a Feast or a Famine’: Living Off the Land with Chipewyan Indians, 1791–1792.” Arctic Anthropology 30 (January 1993): 46–60. MacGregor, James G. Peter Fidler: Canada’s Forgotten Explorer, 1769–1822. Calgary: Fifth House Publishers, 1998. Franklin, John (1786–1847)

Delgado, James P. Across the Top of the World: The Quest for the Northwest Passage. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1999. Durey, Michael. “Exploration at the Edge: Reassessing the Fate of Sir John Franklin’s Last Arctic Expedition.” The Great Circle 30 (January 2008): 3–40. Fleming, Fergus. Barrow’s Boys. London: Granta Books, 2001. Hickey, Clifford G., James M. Savelle, and George B. Hobson. “The Route of Sir John Franklin’s Third Arctic Expedition: An Evaluation and Test of an Alternative Hypothesis.” Arctic 46 (March 1993): 78–81. Kane, Elisha Kent. The U.S. Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin: A Personal Narrative. Philadelphia: Childs & Peterson, 1856. Keenleyside, Anne, Margaret Bertulli, and Henry C. Fricke. “The Final Days of the Franklin Expedition: New Skeletal Evidence.” Arctic 50 (March 1997): 36–46. MacLaren, I. S. “From Exploration to Publication: The Evolution of a 19thCentury Arctic Narrative.” Arctic 47 (March 1994): 43–53. Ross, W. Gillies. “The Type and Number of Expeditions in the Franklin Search 1847–1859.” Arctic 55 (March 2002): 57–69. Simmonds, Peter Lund. Sir John Franklin and the Arctic Regions, a Narrative Showing the Progress of British Enterprise for the Discovery of the North-West Passage during the Nineteenth Century. London: Routledge, Warne, and Routledge, 1860. Woodman, David C. Unravelling the Franklin Mystery: Inuit Testimony. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1992.

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Fraser, Simon (1776–1862)

Hume, Stephen. Simon Fraser: In Search of Modern British Columbia. Madeira Park: Harbour Publishers, 2008. Lamb, W. Kaye. The Letters and Journals of Simon Fraser, 1806–1808. Toronto: Macmillan Company of Canada, 1960. Frobisher, Martin (ca. 1535–1594)

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Fleming, Thomas J. One Small Candle: The Pilgrim’s First Year in America. New York: Norton, 1963. Langdon, George D., Jr. Pilgrim Colony: A History of New Plymouth, 1620–1691. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1966.

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Cozzens, Peter. General John Pope: A Life for the Nation. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000. Ellis, Richard N. “After Bull Run: The Later Career of General John Pope.” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 19, no. 4 (October 1969): 46–57. ———. “General John Pope and the Southern Plains Indians, 1875–1883.” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 72, no. 2 (October 1968): 152–69. ———. General Pope and U.S. Indian Policy. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1970. Schutz, Wallace J., and Walter N. Trenerry. Abandoned by Lincoln: A Military Biography of General John Pope. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1990. Utley, Robert M., and John Pope. “Captain John Pope’s Plan of 1853 for the Frontier Defense of New Mexico.” Arizona and the West 5, no. 2 (July 1963): 149–63. Powell, John Wesley (1834–1902)

Crampton, C. Gregory. “F. S. Dellenbaugh of the Colorado: Some Letters Pertaining to the Powell Voyages and the History of the Colorado River.” Utah Historical Quarterly 37, no. 2 (Spring 1969): 214–43. Darrah, William C. “John Wesley Powell and an Understanding of the West.” Utah Historical Quarterly 37, no. 2 (Spring 1969): 146–51. Dolnick, Edward. Down the Great Unknown: John Wesley Powell’s 1869 Journey of Discovery and Tragedy through the Grand Canyon. New York: Perennial, 2002. Hess, Karl. “John Wesley Powell and the Unmaking of the West.” Environmental History 2, no. 1 (January 1997): 7–28. Kirsch, Scott. “John Wesley Powell and the Mapping of the Colorado Plateau, 1869–1879: Survey Science, Geographical Solutions, and the Economy of Environmental Values.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92, no. 3 (September 2002): 548–72. Powell, John Wesley. The Colorado River Region and John Wesley Powell: A Collection of Papers Honoring Powell on the 100th Anniversary of His Exploration of the Colorado River, 1869–1969. Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2001. ———. Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1879. Stegner, Wallace. Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the Second Opening of the West. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1954.

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Kelley, Sarah Foster. General James Robertson: The Founder of Nashville. Nashville: Privately published, 1980. Putnam, Albigence Waldo. History of Middle Tennessee; or, Life and Times of Gen. James Robertson. New York: Arno Press and New York Times, 1971. Rea, Robert R. “Lieutenant Colonel James Robertson’s Mission to the Floridas, 1763.” The Florida Historical Quarterly 53, no. 1 (July 1974): 33–48. Ross, Alexander (1783–?)

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Bremer, Richard G. “Henry Rowe Schoolcraft: Explorer in the Mississippi Valley, 1818–1832.” Wisconsin Magazine of History 66 (October 1982): 40–59. ———. Indian Agent and Wilderness Scholar: The Life of Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. Mount Pleasant: Central Michigan University, 1987. Clements, William M. “Schoolcraft as Textmaker.” Journal of American Folklore 103 (April 1990): 177–92. Severin, Timothy. Explorers of the Mississippi. New York: Knopf, 1968. Smith, Jedediah Strong (1799–1831)

Brooks, George R., ed. The Southwest Expedition of Jedediah S. Smith: His Personal Account of the Journey to California, 1826–1827. Glendale, CA: Arthur H. Clark, 1977. Burns, Peter J. “The Short, Incredible Life of Jedediah Smith.” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 17, no. 1 (Winter 1967): 44–55. Camp, Charles L. “Jedediah Smith’s First Far-Western Expedition.” The Western Historical Quarterly 4, no. 2 (April 1973): 151–70. Dale, Harrison C., ed. The Explorations of William H. Ashley and Jedediah Smith, 1822–1829. 1941. Reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991. Davis, Lee. “Tracking Jedediah Smith through Hupa Territory.” American Indian Quarterly 13, no. 4 (October 1989): 369–89. Maloney, Alice B. “Camp Sites of Jedediah Smith on the Oregon Coast.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 41, no. 3 (September 1940): 304–23. Morgan, Dale L. Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1953. Peattie, Donald Culross. “Jedediah Smith—Trail Maker Extraordinary.” Pacific Historian 10, no. 4 (Autumn 1966): 4–8. Sears, Stephen W. “Trail Blazer of the Far West.” American Heritage 14, no. 4 (June 1963): 60–64, 80–83. Smith, Alson J. “Jedediah Smith and the Honourable Company.” The Beaver 295 (Summer 1964): 28–39.

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Barbour, Philip L. The Three Worlds of Captain John Smith. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964. Glenn, Keith. “Captain John Smith and the Indians.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 52, no. 4 (October 1944): 228–48. Lemay, J. A. Leo. The American Dream of Captain John Smith. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1991. Price, David A. Love and Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Start of a New Nation. New York: Vintage Books, 2005. Randel, William. “Captain John Smith’s Attitudes toward the Indians.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 47, no. 3 (July 1939): 218–29. Rountree, Helen C. “Powhatan Indian Women: The People Captain John Smith Barely Saw.” Ethnohistory 45, no. 1 (January 1998): 1–29. Schmidt, Susan. Landfall along the Chesapeake: In the Wake of Captain John Smith. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006. Smith, John. The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580–1631). Edited by Philip L. Barbour. Chapel Hill: Published for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg, Virginia, by the University of North Carolina Press, 1986. Vaughan, Alden T. American Genesis: Captain John Smith and the Founding of Virginia. New York: HarperCollins, 1975. Smith, John Simpson “Blackfoot Smith” (1810–1871)

Hoig, Stan. The Western Odyssey of John Simpson Smith, Frontiersmen, Trapper, Trader and Interpreter. Glendale, CA: Arthur H. Clark, 1974.

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Stuart, Robert (1785–1848)

McCartney, Laton. Across the Great Divide: Robert Stuart and the Discovery of the Oregon Trail. Waterville, ME: Thorndike Press, 2004. Rollins, Phillip Ashton. The Discovery of the Oregon Trail: Robert Stuart’s Narratives. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1935. Spaulding, Kenneth A., and Robert Stuart. On the Oregon Trail. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1953. Sublette, William Lewis (1799–1845)

Dale, Harrison C. “A Fragmentary Journal of William L. Sublette.” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 6, no. 1 (June 1919): 99–110. Ellison, William Henry. “From Pierre’s Hole to Monterey: A Chapter in the Adventures of George Nidever, Pioneer of the Rocky Mountains and of California.” Pacific Historical Review 1, no. 1 (March 1932): 82–102. Nunis, Doyce B. “The Enigma of the Sublette Overland Party, 1845.” Pacific Historical Review 28, no. 4 (November 1959): 331–49. ———. “Milton Sublette: Thunderbolt of the Rockies.” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 13, no. 3 (July 1963): 52–63. Sunder, John E. Bill Sublette: Mountain Man. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959. Sutter, John Augustus (1803–1880)

Dillon, Richard. Fool’s Gold: The Decline and Fall of Captain John Sutter of California. New York: Coward-McCann, 1967. Hurtado, Albert L. “Empires, Frontiers, Filibusters, and Pioneers: The Transnational World of John Sutter.” Pacific Historical Review 77, no. 1 (February 2008): 19–47. ———. John Sutter: A Life on the North American Frontier. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008. Owens, Kenneth N., and John Augustus Sutter. John Sutter and a Wider West. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Zollinger, James Peter. Sutter, the Man and His Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, 1939. Thompson, David (1770–1857)

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Elliott, T. C. “David Thompson and Beginnings in Idaho.” The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 21, no. 2 (June 1920): 49–61. ———. “David Thompson, Pathfinder and the Columbia River.” The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 26, no. 2 (June 1925): 191–202. ———. “David Thompson’s Journeys in Idaho.” Washington Historical Quarterly 11, no. 2 (April 1920): 97–103. ———. “David Thompson’s Journeys in Idaho (Continued).” Washington Historical Quarterly 11, no. 3 (July 1920): 163–73. ———. “David Thompson’s Journeys in the Spokane Country.” Washington Historical Quarterly 9, no. 1 (January 1918): 11–16. ———. “David Thompson’s Journeys in the Spokane Country.” Washington Historical Quarterly 9, no. 2 (April 1918): 103–6. ———. “David Thompson’s Journeys in the Spokane Country.” Washington Historical Quarterly 9, no. 4 (October 1918): 284–87. ———. “Journal of David Thompson.” The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 15, no. 1 (March 1914): 39–63. Glover, Richard. David Thompson’s Narrative, 1784–1812: A New Edition with Added Material. Toronto: Champlain Society, 1962. Jenish, D’Arcy. Epic Wanderer: David Thompson and the Mapping of the Canadian West. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003. Nisbet, Jack. The Mapmaker’s Eye: David Thompson on the Columbia Plateau. Pullman: Washington State University Press, 2004. Smith, Allan H., and David Thompson. “An Ethnohistorical Analysis of David Thompson’s 1809–1811 Journeys in the Lower Pend Oreille Valley, Northeastern Washington.” Ethnohistory 8, no. 4 (October 1961): 309–81. Thompson, David. Columbia Journals. Edited by Barbara Belyea. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1994. ———. David Thompson’s Journals Relating to Montana and Adjacent Regions, 1808–1812. Missoula: Montana State University Press, 1950. Thompson, David, and T. C. Elliott. “Journal of David Thompson.” The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 15, no. 2 (June 1, 1914): 104–25. Tyrell, J. B., ed. A Brief Narrative of the Journeys of David Thompson: Narratives of His Exploration in Western America. Toronto: Champlain Society, 1916. ———. “David Thompson, a Great Geographer.” Geographical Journal 37, no. 1 (January 1911): 49–58. Wood, W. Raymond, and David Thompson. “David Thompson at the Mandan-Hidatsa Villages, 1797–1798: The Original Journals.” Ethnohistory 24, no. 4 (October 1977): 329–42.

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Walker, Joseph R. (1789–1876)

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Bidlack, Russell E., and Everett L. Cooley, eds. “The Kintner Letters: An Astronomer’s Account of the Wheeler Survey of Utah and Idaho.” Utah Historical Quarterly 34, no. 1 (Winter 1966): 62–80. Dawdy, Doris Ostrander. George Montague Wheeler: The Man and the Myth. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1993. Wilkes, Charles (fl. 1838–1842)

Borthwick, Doris Esch. “Outfitting the United States Exploring Expedition: Lieutenant Charles Wilkes’ European Assignment, August–November, 1836.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 109, no. 3 (June 1965): 159–72. Haskell, Daniel C. The United States Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842 and Its Publications 1844–1874. New York: Greenwood Press, 1968. Henderson, Daniel. The Hidden Coasts: A Biography of Admiral Charles Wilkes. New York: Sloane, 1953. Jackson, C. Ian. “Exploration as Science: Charles Wilkes and the U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–42: A Controversial Leader Who Mapped the Oceans in New Detail and Extended the Bounds of American Science.” American Scientist 73, no. 5 (September 1985): 450–61. Philbrick, Nathaniel. Sea of Glory: America’s Voyage of Discovery: The U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842. New York: Viking, 2003. Viola, Herman J. Magnificent Voyagers: The U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985. ———. “The Wilkes Expedition on the Pacific Coast.” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 80, no. 1 (January 1989): 21–31. Wilkes, Charles. Autobiography of Rear Admiral Charles Wilkes, US Navy 1798–1877. Washington, DC: U.S. Navy, 1978. ———. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. 5 vols. Philadelphia: Lee & Blanchard, 1845.

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Williams, William Sherley (1787–1849)

Favour, Alpheus H. Old Bill Williams, Mountain Man. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962. Wood, Abraham (?–1681?)

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4. GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES Alta California

Allen, Rebecca. “Alta California Missions and the Pre-1849 Transformation of Coastal Lands.” Historical Archaeology 44 (January 2010): 69–80. Archibald, Robert. “The Economy of the Alta California Mission, 1803–1821.” Southern California Quarterly 58 (July 1976): 227–40. Denis, Alberta Johnston. Spanish Alta California. New York: Macmillan, 1927. Forbes, Jack D. “Melchior Díaz and the Discovery of Alta California.” Pacific Historical Review 27 (November 1958): 351–57. Gentilcore, R. Louis. “Missions and Mission Lands of Alta California.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 51 (March 1961): 46–72. Osio, Antonio Maria, Robert M. Senkewicz, and Rose Marie Beebe. History of Alta California: A Memoir of Mexican California. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996. Thurman, Michael E. The Naval Department of San Blas: New Spain’s Bastion for Alta California and Nootka, 1767 to 1798. Glendale, CA: Arthur H. Clark, 1967. Whitehead, Richard. “Alta California’s Four Fortresses.” Southern California Quarterly 65 (April 1983): 67–94.

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Bloom, Jo Tice. “Cumberland Gap versus South Pass: The East or West in Frontier History.” The Western Historical Quarterly 3, no. 2 (April 1972): 153–67. Friend, Craig Thompson, ed. The Buzzel about Kentuck: Settling the Promised Land. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1999. Kincaid, Robert L. The Wilderness Road. Middlesboro, KY: Bobbs-Merrill, 1947. Hawaii

Alexander, W. D. A Brief History of the Hawaiian People. New York: American Book Company, 1899. Bradley, Harold Whitman. The American Frontier in Hawaii: The Pioneers, 1789–1843. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1942.

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Lightner, Richard. Hawaiian History: An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004. Silva, Noenoe K. Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism. Raleigh, NC: Duke University Press, 2004. Wilson, Aaron. “‘West of the West?’ The Territory of Hawai’i, the American West, and American Colonialism in the Twentieth Century.” PhD diss., University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 2008. Hudson Bay

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Athearn, Robert G. High Country Empire: The High Plains and Rockies. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1965. Chappell, Phil E. A History of the Missouri River. Kansas City, MO: Bryant and Douglas Book and Stationery, 1911. Schneiders, Robert Kelley. Big Sky Rivers: The Yellowstone and Upper Missouri. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003.

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About the Authors

Jay H. Buckley (PhD, University of Nebraska), associate professor of history at Brigham Young University, teaches United States, American West, and Native American Indian history courses and directs the Native American studies minor. He is the author of the award-winning book William Clark: Indian Diplomat (2008), coauthor of By His Own Hand? The Mysterious Death of Meriwether Lewis (2006) and Orem [Utah] (2010), and coauthor/ editor (with Matthew L. Harris) of Zebulon Pike, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West (2012). Brenden W. Rensink (PhD, University of Nebraska), assistant director of the Charles Redd Center for Western Studies and assistant professor of history at Brigham Young University, has held faculty positions at the Joseph Smith Papers; University of Nebraska, Lincoln; Nebraska Wesleyan University; the University of Nebraska, Kearney; and Weber State University. He has published articles and anthology chapters on the North American West, indigenous history, genocide studies, and transnational borderlands. His fulllength monograph Native but Foreign: Transnational Cree, Chippewa, and Yaqui Refugees and Immigrants in the U.S-Canadian and U.S.-Mexican Borderlands, 1880–Present is forthcoming in the Texas A&M Connecting the Greater West series.

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