Historical Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Classical Music [2 ed.] 1538122979, 9781538122976

Table of contents :
Contents
Editor’s Foreword
Preface
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Chronology
Introduction
THE DICTIONARY
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Bibliography
About the Author

Citation preview

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The historical dictionaries present essential information on a broad range of subjects, including American and world history, art, business, cities, countries, cultures, customs, film, global conflicts, international relations, literature, music, philosophy, religion, sports, and theater. Written by experts, all contain highly informative introductory essays of the topic and detailed chronologies that, in some cases, cover vast historical time periods but still manage to heavily feature more recent events. Brief A–Z entries describe the main people, events, politics, social issues, institutions, and policies that make the topic unique, and entries are cross-referenced for ease of browsing. Extensive bibliographies are divided into several general subject areas, providing excellent access points for students, researchers, and anyone wanting to know more. Additionally, maps, photographs, and appendixes of supplemental information aid high school and college students doing term papers or introductory research projects. In short, the historical dictionaries are the perfect starting point for anyone looking to research in these fields.

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HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF LITERATURE AND THE ARTS Jon Woronoff, Series Editor American Radio Soap Operas, by Jim Cox, 2005. Fantasy Literature, by Brian Stableford, 2005. Lesbian Literature, by Meredith Miller, 2006. Scandinavian Literature and Theater, by Jan Sjåvik, 2006. Hong Kong Cinema, by Lisa Odham Stokes, 2007. French Cinema, by Dayna Oscherwitz and MaryEllen Higgins, 2007. Australian Radio and Television, by Albert Moran and Chris Keating, 2007. Polish Cinema, by Marek Haltof, 2007. Old Time Radio, by Robert C. Reinehr and Jon D. Swartz, 2008. Chinese Theater, by Tan Ye, 2008. Italian Cinema, by Gino Moliterno, 2008. Postwar German Literature, by William Grange, 2009. Modern Japanese Literature and Theater, by J. Scott Miller, 2009. Animation and Cartoons, by Nichola Dobson, 2009. Modern Chinese Literature, by Li-hua Ying, 2010. Middle Eastern Cinema, by Terri Ginsberg and Chris Lippard, 2010. Spanish Cinema, by Alberto Mira, 2010. Film Noir, by Andrew Spicer, 2010. French Theater, by Edward Forman, 2010. Choral Music, by Melvin P. Unger, 2010. Westerns in Literature, by Paul Varner, 2010. Surrealism, by Keith Aspley, 2010. Science Fiction Cinema, by M. Keith Booker, 2010. Children’s Literature, by Emer O’Sullivan, 2010. Latin American Literature and Theater, by Richard A. Young and Odile Cisneros, 2011. German Literature to 1945, by William Grange, 2011. Neoclassical Art and Architecture, by Allison Lee Palmer, 2011. American Cinema, by M. Keith Booker, 2011. American Theater: Contemporary, by James Fisher, 2011. English Music: ca. 1400–1958, by Charles Edward McGuire and Steven E. Plank, 2011. Rococo Art, by Jennifer D. Milam, 2011. Japanese Cinema, by Jasper Sharp, 2011. Russian Music, by Daniel Jaffé, 2012. Music of the Classical Period, by Bertil van Boer, 2012. Holocaust Cinema, by Robert C. Reimer and Carol J. Reimer, 2012. Asian American Literature and Theater, by Wenjing Xu, 2012.

DRAFT Beat Movement, by Paul Varner, 2012. Jazz, by John S. Davis, 2012. Crime Films, by Geoff Mayer, 2013. Scandinavian Cinema, by John Sundholm, Isak Thorsen, Lars Gustaf Andersson, Olof Hedling, Gunnar Iversen, and Birgir Thor Møller, 2013. Chinese Cinema, by Tan Ye and Yun Zhu, 2013. Taiwan Cinema, by Daw-Ming Lee, 2013. Russian Literature, by Jonathan Stone, 2013. Gothic Literature, by William Hughes, 2013. French Literature, by John Flower, 2013. Baroque Music, by Joseph P. Swain, 2013. Opera, by Scott L. Balthazar, 2013. British Cinema, by Alan Burton and Steve Chibnall, 2013. Romantic Music, by John Michael Cooper with Randy Kinnett, 2013. British Theatre: Early Period, by Darryll Grantley, 2013. South American Cinema, by Peter H. Rist, 2014. African American Television, Second Edition, by Kathleen Fearn-Banks and Anne Burford-Johnson, 2014. Japanese Traditional Theatre, Second Edition, by Samuel L. Leiter, 2014. Science Fiction in Literature, by M. Keith Booker, 2015. Romanticism in Literature, by Paul Varner, 2015. American Theater: Beginnings, by James Fisher, 2016. African American Cinema, Second Edition, by S. Torriano Berry and Venise Berry, 2015. British Radio, Second Edition, by Seán Street, 2015. German Theater, Second Edition, by William Grange, 2015. Russian Theater, Second Edition, by Laurence Senelick, 2015. Broadway Musical, Second Edition, by William A. Everett and Paul R. Laird, 2016. British Spy Fiction, by Alan Burton, 2016. Russian and Soviet Cinema, Second Edition, by Peter Rollberg, 2016. Architecture, Second Edition, by Allison Lee Palmer, 2016. Renaissance Art, Second Edition, by Lilian H. Zirpolo, 2016. Sacred Music, Second Edition, by Joseph P. Swain, 2016. U.S. Latino Literature, by Francisco A. Lomelí, Donaldo W. Urioste, and María Joaquina Villaseñor, 2017. Postmodernist Literature and Theater, Second Edition, by Fran Mason, 2017. Contemporary Art, by Ann Lee Morgan, 2017. Popular Music, by Norman Abjorensen, 2017. American Theater: Modernism, Second Edition, by James Fisher and Felicia Hardison Londré, 2017. Horror Cinema, Second Edition, by Peter Hutchings, 2018.

DRAFT Australian and New Zealand Cinema, Second Edition, by Karina Aveyard, Albert Moran, and Errol Vieth, 2018. Baroque Art and Architecture, Second Edition, by Lilian H. Zirpolo, 2018. African American Theater, Second Edition, by Anthony D. Hill, 2018. German Cinema, by Robert C. Reimer and Carol J. Reimer, 2019. Leonard Bernstein, by Paul R. Laird and Hsun Lin, 2019. Romantic Art and Architecture, by Allison Lee Palmer, 2019. Irish Cinema, by Roderick Flynn and Tony Tracy, 2019. Woody Allen, by William Brigham, 2019. Modern and Contemporary Classical Music, Second Edition, by Nicole V. Gagné, 2019.

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Historical Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Classical Music Second Edition

Nicole V. Gagné

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD Lanham • Boulder • New York • London

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Published by Rowman & Littlefield An imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com 6 Tinworth Street, London SE11 5AL Copyright © 2019 by Nicole V. Gagné All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Gagné , Nicole V., 1954– author. Title: Historical dictionary of modern and contemporary classical music / Nicole V. Gagné . Description: Second edition. | Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield, 2019. | Series: Historical dictionaries of literature and the arts | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2019007851 (print) | LCCN 2019007902 (ebook) | ISBN 9781538122983 (Electronic) | ISBN 9781538122976 (cloth : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Music—Dictionaries. Classification: LCC ML100 (ebook) | LCC ML100 .G13 2019 (print) | DDC 780.9/0403—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019007851

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America

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Contents

Editor’s Foreword

ix

Preface

xi

Acronyms and Abbreviations

xiii

Chronology

xv

Introduction

1

THE DICTIONARY

17

Bibliography

409

About the Author

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Editor’s Foreword

Although this is a book about modern and contemporary music—namely, music of the period we are presently experiencing—it takes a bit more explanation than this. For it is not the music most of us hear most of the time, such as pop, rock, jazz, or world music. It addresses modern and contemporary music of the type commonly called “classical”—the sort one hears in concert halls, occasionally on the radio and television, and sometimes as background for films. Some of its composers are widely known and admired, like Béla Bartók, Alban Berg, Benjamin Britten, and others further down the alphabet, even if they are not as widely recognized as Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms, but this variety of music is still a mystery to many people today. While it has roots in older music, for more than a century it has taken many twists and turns, introduced innovations and variations, and experimented with things that do not readily appeal to the broader public such as atonality, dissonance, minimalism, serialism, and unfamiliar sounds and instruments. For such reasons, we are particularly pleased to be publishing a second edition of the Historical Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Classical Music. The best place to start is the introduction, which provides a broad overview of the subject, explaining how modern and contemporary classical music has moved in these new directions and why some composers have modified traditions and inserted new, sometimes totally unexpected elements. This has taken place for more than a century now, and the chronology charts the path flagged by new techniques and technologies and particularly significant works. But the most important section, as always, is the dictionary with more than 500 entries—substantially more than the previous edition—on composers, musicians, critics, musical works, techniques, and technologies. This will be quite adequate for many readers, but others will probably want to learn more, and the best place to start is the substantial and greatly expanded bibliography. Nicole V. Gagné, the author of this second as well as the first edition of this volume, has an amazingly broad and deep grasp of modern and contemporary classical music, and she has been passing her knowledge along for almost four decades now. Among other things, she has written extensively, including Soundpieces 1 and 2, Sonic Transports, and numerous articles in specialized periodicals. She has also taught widely, including lectures at Sarah Lawrence College, University of Pittsburgh, and California Institute of the Arts. Most recently she has written and hosted the SFCR radio series A 21st-Century Guide to 20th-Century Music. On top of this, Ms. Gagné was ix

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EDITOR’S FOREWORD

also the librettist and cocomposer of the opera Agamemnon. This makes her a particularly apt guide to a segment of music that certainly deserves to be better known. Jon Woronoff Series Editor

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Preface

The bulk of this volume deals with composers, but it also contains a representative sampling of entries on musicians who have specialized in modern and contemporary classical music, along with more than 70 topic entries, covering an array of musical subjects developed over the late 19th, 20th, and early 21st centuries. Omitted are several important composers born in the 19th century, whose music falls within its chronology but who were essentially post-Romantics, such as Edward Elgar, Giacomo Puccini, Sergey Rachmaninoff, and Jean Sibelius. Also excluded from this survey are composers of pop, jazz, and rock music, genres so large and ramified that they require their own studies. Instead, this dictionary contains entries on those post-Romantics who also had a foot in modernism, such as Leoš Janáček, Gustav Mahler, Carl Nielsen, and Richard Strauss; it also has entries for certain pop, jazz, and rock composers whose work either overlaps the realm of classical music, including Ornette Coleman, Duke Ellington, Fred Frith, George Gershwin, Scott Joplin, and Frank Zappa, or else is so radical within its own field that it merits discussion in this context, such as The Beatles, Robert F. Graettinger, The Residents, Sun Ra, and Cecil Taylor. My work on this book is especially indebted to two eminent music historians and authors, Sabine Feisst and Don C. Gillespie. I am profoundly grateful to them for their support, guidance, corrections, and kindness. What I have done is as good as it is because of their input. Sarah Cahill, Frank de Falco, Anne LeBaron, Michael Musgrave, Bruce Posner, “Blue” Gene Tyranny, La Monte Young, and Marian Zazeela were also generous in helping me with my research, and they have my deepest appreciation. Further thanks go to Jonathan Hiam of the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, for his kind efforts on my behalf, and a special thank you to the Rowman & Littlefield’s series editor for the Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts, Jon Woronoff. Any errors or misrepresentations in this dictionary are my own responsibility, and I welcome corrections and comments from readers. This book is respectfully dedicated to Kevin Lally and to the cherished memory of David Avidor, Gene Bagnato, and Tracy Caras. In order to make this volume a useful reference tool, extensive crossreferences have been provided in the dictionary section. Within individual entries, terms that have their own entries are in boldface the first time they

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appear in an entry. Related terms that do not appear in the text are indicated in the See also cross-references at the end of individual entries. See refers to other entries that deal with the topic.

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

AACM

Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians

BBC

British Broadcasting Corporation

CEMaMu

Centre d’Études de Mathématiques et Automatiques Musicales

EVI

Electronic Valve Instrument

GRM

Groupe de recherches musicales

IRCAM

Institut de Recherche et de Coordination Acoustique/ Musique

MEV

Musica Elettronica Viva

MIDI

Musical Instrument Digital Interface

NASA

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NHK

Nippon Hoso Kyokai (Japan Broadcasting Corporation)

RCA

Radio Corporation of America

RTF

Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française

UCLA

University of California, Los Angeles

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UPIC

Unité polyagogique informatique du CEMaMu

WDR

West-Deutscher Rundfunk

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Chronology

1888 Mahler: Symphony No. 1; Satie: Trois Gymnopédies; Strauss: Don Juan. 1889 Strauss: Tod und Verklärung. 1890 Satie: Trois Gnossiennes. 1892 Ives: Variations on “America”; Nielsen: Symphony No. 1; Scriabin: Piano Sonata No. 1. 1893 Satie: Vexations. 1894 Debussy: Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune; Ives: Song for Harvest Season; Mahler: Symphony No. 2. 1895 Satie: Messe des pauvres; Strauss: Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche. 1896 Mahler: Symphony No. 3; Strauss: Also sprach Zarathustra. 1897 6 April: Thaddeus Cahill patents his electrical instrument the Telharmonium. Debussy: Chansons de Bilitis; Scriabin: Piano Sonata No. 2; Strauss: Don Quixote. 1898 Busoni: Violin Sonata No. 2; Ives: String Quartet No. 1, Symphony No. 1; Scriabin: Piano Sonata No. 3, Réverie; Strauss: Ein Heldenleben. 1899 20 December: William Duddell builds his electrical instrument the Singing Arc. Debussy: Nocturnes; Joplin: Maple Leaf Rag, The Ragtime Dance; Ravel: Pavane pour une infante défunte; Schoenberg: Verklärte Nacht. 1901 Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande; Delius: A Village Romeo and Juliet; Farwell: American Indian Melodies; Mahler: Symphony No. 4; Ravel: Jeux d’eau. 1902 Ives: Symphony No. 2; Joplin: The Entertainer; Nielsen: Symphony No. 2. 1903 Delius: Appalachia; Janáček: Jenufa; Mahler: Symphony No. 5; Nielsen: Helios Overture; Ravel: String Quartet; Satie: Trois morceaux en forme de poire; Scriabin: Piano Sonata No. 4.

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1904 October: Alban Berg and Anton Webern become pupils of Arnold Schoenberg. Busoni: Piano Concerto; Ives: Symphony No. 3; Mahler: Symphony No. 6; Scriabin: Symphony No. 3; Vaughan Williams: In the Fen Country. 1905 Busoni: Turandot Suite; Debussy: La Mer, Images; Delius: A Mass of Life; Falla: La Vida breve; Joplin: Bethena; Mahler: Symphony No. 7; Ravel: Introduction and Allegro; Schoenberg: String Quartet No. 1; Strauss: Salome. 1906 November: Ferruccio Busoni completes Sketch of a New Aesthetic of Music. Bartók and Kodály: Twenty Hungarian Folksongs; Falla: Cuatro piezas españolas; Mahler: Symphony No. 8; Schoenberg: Chamber Symphony No. 1. 1907 Delius: Brigg Fair; Scriabin: Piano Sonata No. 5, Le poème de l’extase. 1908 Bartók: Violin Concerto No. 1, 14 Bagatelles; Farwell: Three Indian Songs; Ives: The Unanswered Question, Central Park in the Dark; Ravel: Rapsodie espagnole, Gaspard de la nuit; Schoenberg: String Quartet No. 2; Strauss: Elektra. 1909 Bartók: String Quartet No. 1; Ives: Piano Sonata No. 1; Joplin: Solace; Mahler: Das Lied von der Erde; Schoenberg: Das Buch der hängenden Gärten, Three Piano Pieces, Erwartung, Five Orchestral Pieces; Vaughan Williams: Overture: The Wasps; Webern: Six Pieces for orchestra. 1910 Busoni: Fantasia Contrappuntistica; Mahler: Symphony No. 9, Symphony No. 10; Scriabin: Prométhée; Strauss: Der Rosenkavalier; Stravinsky: L’oiseau de feu; Vaughan Williams: Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis, Symphony No. 1. 1911 Bartók: Duke Bluebeard’s Castle, Allegro Barbaro; Boulanger: Nocturne; Butterworth: Six Songs from “A Shropshire Lad”; Delius: Summer Night on the River; Joplin: Treemonisha; Nielsen: Symphony No. 3; Prokofiev: Piano Concerto No. 1; Schoenberg: Gurrelieder; Scriabin: Piano Sonatas Nos. 6 and 7; Stravinsky: Petrushka, Zvezdoliki. 1912 16 October: Arnold Schoenberg premieres his Pierrot lunaire in Berlin. Berg: Altenberg Lieder; Butterworth: Bredon Hill and Other Songs; Debussy: Images, Jeux; Delius: The Song of the High Hills, On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring; Joplin: Scott Joplin’s New Rag; Ravel: Daphnis et Chloé; Roslavets: String Quartet No. 1. 1913 29 May: Igor Stravinsky’s Le sacre du printemps has its premiere in Paris. 1 July: Luigi Russolo publishes his futurist manifesto The Art of Noises. Busoni: Nocturne symphonique; Butterworth: The Banks of Green

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Willow; Cowell: Adventures in Harmony; Ives: String Quartet No. 2; Milhaud: Agamemnon; Ravel: Trois poèmes de Stéphane Mallarmé; Schoenberg: Die glückliche Hand; Scriabin: Piano Sonatas Nos. 8, 9, and 10; Vaughan Williams: Symphony No. 2; Webern: Five Pieces for orchestra. 1914 Berg: Drei Orchesterstücke; Carpenter: Adventures in a Perambulator; Ives: Three Places in New England; Joplin: Magnetic Rag; Lourié: Synthèses; Ornstein: Three Moods; Prokofiev: Sarcasms; Russolo: Risveglio di una città; Scriabin: Vers la flamme; Vaughan Williams: The Lark Ascending. 1915 18 December: Edgard Varèse leaves France and immigrates to the United States. Falla: El amor brujo, Noches en los jardines de España; Grainger: Random Round; Griffes: Three Tone-Pictures, Fantasy Pieces; Ireland: The Holy Boy; Ives: Piano Sonata No. 2; Milhaud: Les choéphores; Prokofiev: Scythian Suite; Szymanowski: Mythes. 1916 Bartók: The Wooden Prince, Suite for Piano; Bloch: Schelomo; Boulanger: Psalm 24, Psalm 129; Cowell: Dynamic Motion; Grainger: In a Nutshell Suite, The Warriors; Griffes: Roman Sketches; Holst: The Planets; Ives: Symphony No. 4; Nielsen: Symphony No. 4; Satie: Parade. 1917 Bartók: String Quartet No. 2; Bax: Tintagel; Boulanger: Psalm 130, Vieille prière bouddhique; Griffes: The Pleasure-Dome of Kubla Khan; Prokofiev: Symphony No. 1; Ravel: Le tombeau de Couperin; Stravinsky: Le chant du rossignol. 1918 Boulanger: Pie Jesu; Grainger: Country Gardens; Milhaud: L’homme et son désir; Mompou: Scènes d’enfants; Satie: Socrate; Stravinsky: L’histoire du soldat. 1919 Bartók: The Miraculous Mandarin; Cowell: Two Rhythm-Harmony Quartets; Falla: El sombrero de tres picos; Griffes: Sho-Jo, Piano Sonata; Hauer: Nomos; Milhaud: Le boeuf sur le toit; Ruggles: Toys. 1920 January: Henri Collet publishes “Les cinq russes, les six français, et M. Satie,” conferring the name “Groupe des Six” upon Georges Auric, Louis Durey, Arthur Honegger, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, and Germaine Tailleferre. March: Erik Satie’s Musique d’ameublement is performed to enhance and complement ambient sound at an art-gallery exhibition in Paris. Hába: String Quartet No. 2; Hindemith: Das Nusch-Nuschi; Korngold: Die tote Stadt; Ravel: La Valse; Stravinsky: Symphonies of Wind Instruments.

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1921 23 June: Leon Theremin patents his electrical instrument the theremin. Bartók: Violin Sonata No. 1; Carpenter: Krazy Kat: A Jazz Pantomime; Honegger: Le roi David; Milhaud: Saudades do Brasil; Mompou: Fêtes lointaines; Ruggles: Angels; Varèse: Amériques; Vaughan Williams: Symphony No. 3; Walton: Façade; Webern: Six Songs. 1922 Bartók: Violin Sonata No. 2; Berg: Wozzeck; Eichheim: Oriental Impressions; Hindemith: Kammermusik No. 1; Milhaud: Les euménides; Nielsen: Symphony No. 5; Varèse: Offrandes; Warlock: The Curlew. 1923 March: Arnold Schoenberg completes the Piano Suite, his first fully twelve-tone composition. Antheil: Sonata No. 2 for Violin and Piano with Drums; Delius: Hassan; Hindemith: Das Marienleben; Honegger: Pacific 2.3.1; Janáček: The Cunning Little Vixen; Milhaud: La création du monde; Ruggles: Vox clamans in deserto; Sessions: Suite from The Black Maskers; Sorabji: Le jardin parfumé; Stravinsky: Les noces; Varèse: Hyperprism. 1924 Copland: Symphony for Organ and Orchestra; Cowell: Ensemble; Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue; Ives: Three Quarter-Tone Pieces; Ruggles: Men and Mountains; Satie: Entr’acte; Schoenberg: Wind Quintet; Varèse: Octandre; Wolpe: Hölderlin Lieder. 1925 14 February: Kurt Schwitters first performs his text-sound piece Ursonate at a private recital in Potsdam. 22 October: Henry Cowell’s New Music Society gives its first concert in Los Angeles, with works by Schoenberg, Varèse, Milhaud, Carl Ruggles, Dane Rudhyar, and Leo Ornstein. Antheil: Ballet mécanique; Berg: Chamber Concerto; Copland: Grohg; Cowell: The Banshee; Janáček: The Makropulos Affair; Mosolov: Piano Sonata No. 5; Nielsen: Symphony No. 6; Ravel: L’enfant et les sortilèges; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 1; Slonimsky: Five Advertising Songs; Varèse: Intégrales; Vaughan Williams: Flos Campi. 1926 Bartók: Piano Sonata, Piano Concerto No. 1; Berg: Lyrische Suite; Busoni and Jarnach: Doktor Faust; Carpenter: Skyscrapers; Copland: Piano Concerto; Falla: Harpsichord Concerto; Gershwin: Three Preludes; Hindemith: Toccata für mechanisches Klavier; Janáček: Glagolitic Mass; Kodály: Háry János Suite; Krenek: Jonny spielt auf; Ruggles: Portals; Salzedo: Concerto; Shostakovich: Piano Sonata No. 1; Thomson: Sonata de chiesa. 1927 Bartók: String Quartet No. 3; Caturla: Tres danzas cubanas; Chávez: HP; Riegger: A Study in Sonority; Rudhyar: Three Paeans; Schoenberg: String Quartet No. 3; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 2; Stravinsky: Oedipus Rex; Varèse: Arcana; Webern: String Trio; Weill: Mahagonny Songspiel; Weiss: Six Piano Preludes.

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1928 October: Eric Fenby arrives at Grez-sur-Loing, France, and begins working as amanuensis for the blind and paralyzed Frederick Delius. Bartók: String Quartet No. 4; Becker: 2 Poems of Departure; Cowell: The Irish Suite; Crawford: Piano Prelude No. 9; Grainger: Danish Folk-Song Suite; Hindemith: Sing- und Spielmusik; Janáček: From the House of the Dead; Mosolov: Zavod; Ravel: Boléro; Roldán: La Rebambaramba; Schoenberg: Variations for Orchestra; Shostakovich: The Nose; Thomson: Four Saints in Three Acts; Webern: Symphony; Weill: Die Dreigroschenoper. 1929 Becker: Symphonia Brevis; Berg: Der Wein; Copland: Vitebsk; Cowell: Piano Concerto; Crawford: Five Songs to Poems by Carl Sandburg; Delius: A Song of Summer; Foulds: Dynamic Triptych; Rudhyar: Granites; Weill: Happy End; Weiss: American Life; Wellesz: Die Bakchantinnen. 1930 January: Cowell’s New Musical Resources is published. Bartók: Cantata Profana; Becker: Concerto Arabesque; Caturla: Bembé; Carrillo: Fantasia Sonido 13; Copland: Piano Variations; Crawford: Three Chants for Women’s Chorus, Piano Study in Mixed Accents; Delius: Songs of Farewell; Foulds: Three Mantras; Hindemith: Wir bauen eine Stadt; Ibert: Divertissement; Roldán: Ritmicas; Roussel: Symphony No. 3; Sorabji: Opus clavicembalisticum; Stravinsky: Symphony of Psalms; Toch: Gesprochene Musik; Webern: Quartet; Weill: Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny, Der Jasager. 1931 Brant: Angels and Devils; Caturla: Primera suite cubana; Cowell: Rhythmicana; Crawford: String Quartet 1931; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 3; Varèse: Ionisation. 1932 Brant: Music for a Five and Dime; Crawford: Three Songs to Poems by Carl Sandburg; Gershwin: George Gershwin’s Song Book, Cuban Overture; Milhaud: La mort d’un tyran; Price: Symphony No. 1; Riegger: Dichotomy; Schoenberg: Moses und Aron; Shostakovich: Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk; Vaughan Williams: Riders to the Sea. 1933 6 March: Nicolas Slonimsky premieres Varèse’s Ionisation at New York’s Carnegie Hall, leading a percussion ensemble that includes Cowell, Henry Brant, Wallingford Riegger, William Russell, and William Schuman. October: Arnold Schoenberg settles in the United States. Antheil: La Femme 100 Têtes after Max Ernst; Bartók: Piano Concerto No. 2; Becker: Abongo; Beyer: Percussion Suite; Copland: Short Symphony; Harris: Symphony 1933; Krenek: Karl V; Partch: 17 Lyrics of Li Po; Pound: Le Testament, Cavalcanti; Ruggles: Sun-Treader; Still: Symphony No. 1; Weill: Die Sieben Todsünden der Kleinbürger; Weiss: Theme and Variations.

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1934 Berg: Lulu Suite; Beyer: String Quartet No. 1; Cowell: Ostinato Pianissimo; Messiaen: L’Ascension; Prokofiev: Lieutenant Kizhe; Varèse: Ecuatorial; Vaughan Williams: Symphony No. 4; Webern: Concerto for Nine Instruments; Weill: Symphony No. 2. 1935 Bartók: String Quartet No. 5; Becker: Psalms of Love, A Marriage with Space; Berg: Violin Concerto; Chávez: Sinfonía India; Cowell: Mosaic Quartet; Gershwin: Porgy and Bess; Hindemith: Der Schwanendreher; Honegger: Jeanne d’Arc au bûcher; Russell: Three Cuban Pieces; Webern: Das Augenlicht. 1936 Barber: Adagio for Strings; Bartók: Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta; Beyer: String Quartet No. 2; Blitzstein: The Cradle Will Rock; Copland: El Salón México; Grainger: Free Music Nos. 1 and 2; Hindemith: Trauermusik; McPhee: Tabu-Tabuhan; Orff: Carmina Burana; Prokofiev: Romeo and Juliet, Peter and the Wolf; Revueltas: Homenaje a García Lorca; Russell: Made in America; Schoenberg: Violin Concerto, String Quartet No. 4; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 4; Skalkottas: 36 Greek Dances; Varèse: Density 21.5; Wolpe: Duo im Hexachord. 1937 Bartók: Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion; Becker: Soundpiece No. 5; Caturla: Suite; Grainger: Beatless Music; Messiaen: Fête des belles eaux; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 5. 1938 December: Stefan Wolpe settles in the United States. Bartók: Contrasts, Violin Concerto No. 2; Beyer: Music of the Spheres; Brant: The Marx Brothers; Copland: Billy the Kid; Falla: Homenajes; Harris: Symphony No. 3; McPhee: Balinese Ceremonial Music; Revueltas: Sensemayá; Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 1; Stravinsky: Dumbarton Oaks Concerto; Webern: String Quartet. 1939 30 September: Igor Stravinsky arrives in New York and settles in the United States. 2 October: Manuel de Falla leaves Spain to settle in Argentina. Bartók: String Quartet No. 6; Britten: Les Illuminations; Cage: Imaginary Landscape No. 1; Prokofiev: Alexander Nevsky; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 6; Webern: First Cantata. 1940 February: Paul Hindemith immigrates to the United States. 8 October: Béla Bartók gives his farewell concert in Budapest; he immigrates to the United States later that month. Bartók: Mikrokosmos; Chávez: Xochipilli Macuilxochitl; Copland: Quiet City; Dallapiccola: Canti di prigioni; Hindemith: The Four Temperaments; Prokofiev: Piano Sonata No. 6; Russell: Chicago Sketches; Webern: Variations for Orchestra.

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1941 15 January: Olivier Messiaen premieres his Quatuor pour la fin du Temps in the German prisoner of war camp where he and his fellow musicians are prisoners. Eisler: Fourteen Ways to Describe Rain; Harrison: Fugue for Percussion; Nancarrow: Sonatina; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 7; Tippett: A Child of Our Time. 1942 Cage: The Wonderful Widow of Eighteen Springs; Copland: Lincoln Portrait, Rodeo, Fanfare for the Common Man; Hindemith: Ludus tonalis; Krenek: Lamentatio Jeremiae prophetae; Prokofiev: Piano Sonata No. 7; Schoenberg: Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte, Piano Concerto. 1943 Bartók: Concerto for Orchestra; Britten: Serenade; Hindemith: Symphonic Metamorphosis on Themes by C. M. von Weber; Martin: Ein Totentanz zu Basel, im Jahre 1943; Martinu: Memorial to Lidice; Messiaen: Visions de l’Amen; Partch: U.S. Highball; Prokofiev: War and Peace; Ruggles: Evocations; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 8; Vaughan Williams: Symphony No. 5; Webern: Second Cantata. 1944 Bartók: Sonata for Solo Violin; Copland: Appalachian Spring; ElDabh: Ta’abir al-Zaar; Hovhaness: Lousadzak; Martinu: Fantasia; Messiaen: Vingt regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus, Trois petites liturgies de la Présence Divine; Poulenc: Les mamelles de Tirésias; Prokofiev: Piano Sonata No. 8, Symphony No. 5; Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 2; Skalkottas: The Return of Ulysses; Yardumian: Desolate City. 1945 14 September: Anton Webern is killed in Austria by an American soldier. Bartók: Piano Concerto No. 3; Britten: Peter Grimes; Finney: Piano Sonata No. 4; Ruggles: Organum; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 9; Slonimsky: Gravestones in Hancock, New Hampshire; Strauss: Metamorphosen; Stravinsky: Ebony Concerto. 1946 Blitzstein: Airborne Symphony; Boulez: Première sonate; Carter: Piano Sonata; Copland: Third Symphony; Menotti: The Medium; Partch: Two Studies on Ancient Greek Scales; Schoenberg: String Trio; Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 3; Weill: Kiddush. 1947 Babbitt: Three Compositions for Piano; Barber: Knoxville: Summer of 1915; Bowles: Concerto for Two Pianos, Winds, and Percussion; Carrillo: Horizontes; Ellington: “The Clothed Woman”; Graettinger: Thermopylae; Schoenberg: A Survivor from Warsaw; Stravinsky: Orpheus; Thomson: The Mother of Us All; Vaughan Williams: Symphony No. 6. 1948 10 February: The Central Committee of the Communist Party denounces formalist Soviet composers, including Sergey Prokofiev and Dmitry Shostakovich. 5 October: Radiodiffusion-Television Française broadcasts the “Concert de bruit,” Pierre Schaeffer’s first musique concrète composi-

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tions. Babbitt: Composition for Four Instruments; Becker: Violin Concerto; Boulez: Deuxième sonate; Cage: Sonatas and Interludes; Copland: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra; Dallapiccola: Il prigioniero; Messiaen: Turangalîla-symphonie; Strauss: Vier letzte Lieder; Thomson: “Louisiana Story” Suite. 1949 17 March: Harry Partch’s Genesis of a Music is published. Blitzstein: Regina; Bowles: Night Waltz; Dahl: Concerto for Alto Saxophone and Wind Orchestra; Dlugoszewski: Moving Space Theater Piece for Everyday Sounds; Martin: Concerto for Seven Wind Instruments; Nancarrow: Study No. 1; Russell: “A Bird in Igor’s Yard”; Schoenberg: Phantasy; Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 4; Wolpe: Violin Sonata. 1950 Cage: String Quartet in Four Parts, Six Melodies; Carter: String Quartet No. 1; Copland: Twelve Poems of Emily Dickinson, Piano Quartet; Feldman: Projection No. 1; Finzi: Intimations of Immortality; Henry and Schaeffer: Symphonie pour un homme seul; Messiaen: Quatre études de rythme; Weber: Symphony on Poems of William Blake; Wolpe: Quartet. 1951 Boulez: Structures, Premier Livre; Britten: Billy Budd; Cage: Music of Changes, Imaginary Landscape No. 4; Graettinger: City of Glass; Hovhaness: Khaldis; Menotti: Amahl and the Night Visitors; Partch: Oedipus; Stravinsky: The Rake’s Progress; Vaughan Williams: The Pilgrim’s Progress. 1952 29 August: David Tudor premieres John Cage’s tacet piece 4'33" at the Maverick Concert Hall near Woodstock, New York. Barraqué: Piano Sonata; Berio: El Mar la Mar; Brown: December 1952; Ginastera: Piano Sonata No. 1; Macero: Areas; Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 5; Stockhausen: Klavierstück I–IV; Vaughan Williams: Symphony No. 7. 1953 Babbitt: Du; Brant: Antiphony One; Brown: Twenty-Five Pages; Cage: Williams Mix; Graettinger: This Modern World; Harrison: Rapunzel; Henry and Schaeffer: Orphée 53; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 10; Stockhausen: Kontra-Punkte; Wolpe: Enactments. 1954 Anhalt: Fantasia; Badings: Reeks van kleine klankstukken, Suite van kleine klankstukken; Berio and Maderna: Ritratto di città; Cowell: Symphony No. 11; Glanville-Hicks: Etruscan Concerto; Luening and Ussachevsky: Rhapsodic Variations; Sessions: Idyll of Theocritus; Varèse: Déserts; Xenakis: Metastasis; Yardumian: Armenian Suite. 1955 Babbitt: Two Sonnets; Boulez: Le marteau sans maître; Carter: Variations for Orchestra; Dallapiccola: Canti di liberazione; Finzi: Cello Concerto; Harrison: Strict Songs, Simfony in Free Style; Helps: Symphony No. 1; Hovhaness: Symphony No. 2; Le Caine: Dripsody; Mayuzumi: Tone Plero-

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mas 55; Nilsson: Frequenzen; Partch: The Bewitched; Poulenc: Les Dialogues des Carmélites; Stockhausen: Klavierstück V–X; Vaughan Williams: Symphony No. 8. 1956 9 August: Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson premiere selections from their string quartet Illiac Suite, created with computer composition programs. Cowell: Variations for Orchestra; Henze: Undine; Moondog: Moondog; Nono: Il canto sospeso; Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 6; Stockhausen: Zeitmasze, Klavierstück XI, Gesang der Jünglinge; Wolpe: Symphony; Xenakis: Pithoprakhta; Young: Five Small Pieces for String Quartet. 1957 Babbitt: All Set; Boulez: Troisième sonate; Cage: Winter Music; Copland: Piano Fantasy; Dlugoszewski: Archaic Timbre Piano Music; Feldman: Piece for Four Pianos; Finney: Chromatic Fantasy in E; Flanagan: Bartleby; Glanville-Hicks: Pre-Columbian Prelude and Presto for Ancient American Instruments; Graettinger: Suite for String Trio and Wind Quartet; Moondog: More Moondog, The Story of Moondog; Pousseur: Scambi; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 11; Stockhausen: Gruppen; Stravinsky: Agon; Takemitsu: Requiem for Strings; Vaughan Williams: Symphony No. 9; Wolff: Duo for Pianists I; Young: For Brass. 1958 Berio: Thema (Omaggio a Joyce); Boulez: Pli Selon Pli; Britten: Noye’s Fludde; Carrillo: Balbuecos; Cowell: Symphony No. 13; Eisler: Deutsche Symphonie; Hovhaness: Magnificat; Kagel: Anagrama; Lutoslawski: Musique funèbre; Mayuzumi: Nirvana Symphony; Nilsson; Quantitäten; Nørgård: Constellations; Rorem: Eagles; Shapey: Ontogeny; Stravinsky: Threni; Talma: The Alcestiad; Varèse: Poème électronique; Wolff: Duo for Pianists II; Young: Trio for Strings. 1959 Barraqué: . . . au-délà du hasard; Becker: At Dieppe; Brubeck: Time Out; Bussotti: Five Piano Pieces for David Tudor; Cage: Indeterminacy; Carter: String Quartet No. 2; El-Dabh: Fantasia-Tahmeel; Johnson: November; Martirano: O, O, O, O, That Shakespeherian Rag; Maxfield: Sine Music; Nilsson: Brief an Gösta Oswald; Scavarda: Groups for Piano; Scelsi: Quattro pezzi su una nota sola; Schuller: Seven Studies on Themes of Paul Klee; Shapey: Rituals; Stravinsky: Movements. 1960 Cage: Theatre Piece, Cartridge Music; Coleman: Free Jazz; Dlugoszewski: Suchness Concert; Foss: Time Cycle; Ginastera: Cantata para América Mágica; Jennings: String Quartet; Messiaen: Chronochromie; Partch: Revelation in the Courthouse Park; Penderecki: Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima; Shostakovich: String Quartets Nos. 7 and 8; Stockhausen: Carré; Young: Poem for Chairs, Tables, Benches, etc., Compositions 1960.

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1961 July: George Maciunas organizes the first Fluxus performances at New York’s AG Gallery. Arel: Music for a Sacred Service; Austin: Improvisations for Orchestra and Jazz Soloists; Babbitt: Composition for Synthesizer, Vision and Prayer; Brown: Available Forms I; Cage: Atlas Eclipticalis; Carter: Double Concerto; Cerha: Spiegel; Dahl: Sinfonietta; Falla and Halffter: Atlántida; Ligeti: Atmosphères; Lutoslawski: Jeux venitiens; Maxfield: Cough Music, Radio Music, Piano Concert for David Tudor; Nono: Intolleranza 1960; Oliveros: Sound Patterns; Partch: Water! Water!; Pousseur: Trois visages de Liège; Rautavaara: Symphony No. 3; Schuman: A Song of Orpheus; Sculthorpe: Irkanda IV; Shapey: Incantations; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 12; Takemitsu: Ring; Tenney: Collage #1: “Blue Suede”; Xenakis: Herma. 1962 Britten: War Requiem; Cacioppo: Cassiopeia; Copland: Connotations; Feldman: Structures; Finney: Still Are New Worlds; Hiller: String Quartet No. 5; Krumm: Formations, Music for Clocks; Ligeti: Volumina, Aventures, Nouvelles aventures; Mayuzumi: Bugaku; Reynolds: The Emperor of Ice Cream; Scott: Portofino; Sessions: Montezuma; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 13; Smith: Contours; Young: The Four Dreams of China (The Harmonic Versions). 1963 9–11 September: Satie’s Vexations is performed 840 times in succession by Cage and a team of pianists at New York’s Pocket Theater. Berio: Epiphanie; Cowell: 26 Simultaneous Mosaics; Foss: Echoi; Harrison: Pacifika Rondo; Maxfield: Bacchanale; Stockhausen: Plus-Minus; Xenakis: Eonta; Zimmermann: Die Soldaten. 1964 Ashley: The Wolfman; Babbitt: Philomel; Britten: Curlew River; Copland: Music for a Great City; Gerhard: The Plague; Ito: Tenno; Kagel: Match; Messiaen: Et exspecto resurrectionem mortuorum; Mimaroglu: Le Tombeau d’Edgar Poe; Nono: La fabbrica illuminata; Oliveros: Pieces of Eight; Riley: In C; Scelsi: String Quartet No. 4; Shostakovich: String Quartets Nos. 9 and 10; Stockhausen: Mixtur; Tenney: Ergodos II; Wolff: For One, Two or Three People; Wolpe: Trio in Two Parts; Xenakis: Akrata; Young: The Tortoise, His Dreams and Journey, The Well-Tuned Piano. 1965 Boulez: Éclat; Brown: String Quartet; Carter: Piano Concerto; Denisov: Crescendo e diminuendo; Henze: Die Bassariden; Jennings: Winter Trees; Johnston: Sonata for Microtonal Piano; Lucier: Music for Solo Performer; Oliveros: Bye Bye Butterfly; Reich: It’s Gonna Rain; Rochberg: Music for the Magic Theater; Rorem: Miss Julie; Sculthorpe: Sun Music I; Sun Ra: The Magic City.

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1966 Badings: String Quartet No. 4; The Beatles: Revolver; Bussotti: La passion selon Sade; Hovhaness: Symphony No. 19; Jennings: Winter Sun; Kirchner: String Quartet No. 3; Ligeti: Lux Aeterna; Mumma: Mesa; Partch: Delusion of the Fury; Reich: Come Out; Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 11; Stravinsky: Requiem Canticles; Takemitsu: The Dorian Horizon; Taylor: Unit Structures; Xenakis: Oresteïa; Yun: Réak. 1967 AMM: AMMMusic 1966; Anhalt: Symphony of Modules; Ashley: That Morning Thing; The Beatles: Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, Magical Mystery Tour; Birtwistle: Punch and Judy; Cardew: Treatise; Copland: Inscape; Crumb: Echoes of Time and the River; Henry: Messe pour le temps present; Reich: Piano Phase; Shapey: Songs of Ecstasy; Skempton: A Humming Song; Smiley: Eclipse; Somers: Louis Riel; Stockhausen: Hymnen; Subotnick: Silver Apples of the Moon; Takemitsu: November Steps; Zappa: Lumpy Gravy. 1968 The Beatles: The White Album; Berio: Sinfonia; Braxton: Three Compositions of New Jazz, For Alto; Cage and Hiller: HPSCHD; Gaburo: Maledetto; Henze: Essay on Pigs; Kagel: Der Schall; Martirano: L’s G.A.; Nørgård: Voyage into the Golden Screen; Rorem: Some Trees; Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 12; Stockhausen: Stimmung, Aus den Sieben Tagen; Thomson: Lord Byron. 1969 June: Cornelius Cardew publishes his Draft Constitution for the Scratch Orchestra in The Musical Times; the first public performance occurs on 1 November at Hampstead Town Hall in London. 24 October: R. Murray Schafer establishes the World Soundscape Project at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver. AMM: The Crypt 12th June 1968; The Beatles: Abbey Road; Brubeck: The Gates of Justice; Bryars: The Sinking of the Titanic; Carter: Concerto for Orchestra; Davies: Eight Songs for a Mad King; Druckman: Animus III, Valentine; Finney: Summer in Valley City; Husa: Music for Prague 1968; Maderna: Quadrivium; Moondog: Moondog; Musgrave: Clarinet Concerto; Sallinen: String Quartet No. 3; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 14; Stockhausen: Momente, Fresco; Subotnick: Touch; Tenney: For Ann (rising); Wolpe: String Quartet; Wuorinen: Time’s Encomium; Xenakis: Kraanerg. 1970 Amram: Triple Concerto; Ruth Anderson: Dump; Budd: The Oak of the Golden Dreams; Crumb: Black Angels, Ancient Voices of Children; Davidovsky: Synchronisms No. 6; Dlugoszewski: Space Is a Diamond; Ferrari: Presque rien No. 1; Glass: Music with Changing Parts; Hovhaness: And God Created Great Whales; Johnston: Carmilla; Kagel: Acustica; Lucier: I Am Sitting in a Room; Reich: Four Organs; Sessions: When Lilacs Last in the

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Dooryard Bloom’d; Shields: The Transformation of Ani; Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 13; Tippett: The Knot Garden; Zimmermann: Ekklesiastische Aktion. 1971 Bernstein: Mass; Bryars: Jesus’ Blood Never Failed Me Yet; Bussotti: I semi di Gramsci; Cardew: The Great Learning; Carter: String Quartet No. 3; Crumb: Vox Balanae; Dlugoszewski: Tender Theatre Flight Nageire; ElDabh: Opera Flies; Feldman: Rothko Chapel; Finney: Landscapes Remembered; Harrison: Young Caesar; Mimaroglu: Sing Me a Song of Songmy; Oliveros: Sonic Meditations I–XII; Reich: Drumming; Rorem: Ariel; Shapey: Praise; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 15; Sun Ra: Nuits de la Fondation Maeght; Tenney: Quiet Fan; Ustvolskaya: Composition No. 1; Wolff: Prose Collection, Burdocks; Wolpe: Piece for Trumpet and Seven Instruments; Yun: Namo. 1972 Andriessen: De Volharding; Ashley: In Sara, Mencken, Christ and Beethoven There Were Men and Women; Carlos: Sonic Seasonings; Coleman: Skies of America; Copland: Night Thoughts (Homage to Ives); Dlugoszewski: Densities: Nova, Corona, Clear Core; Dodge: Speech Songs; Druckman: Windows; Harrison: La Koro Sutro; Helps: Trois hommages; Hiller: String Quartet No. 6; Kagel: Exotica; Monk: Education of the Girlchild; Nono: Coma una ola de fuerza y luz; Partch: The Dreamer That Remains; Rasmussen: Genklang; Rautavaara: Cantus arcticus; Rochberg: String Quartet No. 3; Somers: Kyrie; Tal: Massada 967; Tenney: Clang; Wolff: Accompaniments. 1973 Arel: Fantasy and Dance for Five Viols and Tape; Britten: Death in Venice; Brown: Centering; Davies: Stone Litany; Eastman: Stay on It; Johnston: String Quartet No. 4; Jolivet: Yin-Yang; Oliveros: Sonic Meditations XIII–XXV; Portsmouth Sinfonia: Portsmouth Sinfonia Plays the Popular Classics; Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 14; Takemitsu: In an Autumn Garden; Tudor: Rainforest IV; Ustvolskaya: Composition No. 2; Wolff: Changing the System. 1974 Babbitt: Phonemena; Brand: Ilian 4; Cage: Empty Words; Curran: Songs and Views from the Magnetic Garden; Davies: Miss Donnithorne’s Maggot; Dlugoszewski: Fire Fragile Flight; Eastman: Femenine; Frith: Guitar Solos; Glass: Music in Twelve Parts; Grisey: Dérives; Henze: Tristan; Ligeti: Le grand macabre; Messiaen: Des canyons aux étoiles . . .; Palestine: Strumming Music; The Residents: Meet The Residents; Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 15; Spiegel: Appalachian Grove; Stockhausen: Inori.

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1975 Boulez: Rituel in memoriam Bruno Maderna; Cage: Etudes Australes; Del Tredici: Final Alice; Dlugoszewski: Abyss and Caress; Eno: Discreet Music; LeBaron: Concerto for Active Frogs; Rzewski: The People United Will Never Be Defeated; Spiegel: The Expanding Universe; Ustvolskaya: Composition No. 3; Wuorinen: A Reliquary for Igor Stravinsky. 1976 21 November: Philip Glass’s minimalist opera Einstein on the Beach has its American premiere at New York’s Metropolitan Opera House. Coleman: Dancing in Your Head; Górecki: Symphony No. 3; Kondo: Under the Umbrella; Mayuzumi: Kinkakuji; Reich: Music for 18 Musicians; The Residents: The Third Reich ‘N Roll; Tyranny: A Letter from Home; Yun: Cello Concerto. 1977 Andriessen: Hoketus; Berio: Opera; Carter: A Symphony of Three Orchestras; Chatham: Guitar Trio; Feldman: Neither; Pärt: Tabula Rasa; Rasmussen: Berio Mask; Rochberg: String Quartets Nos. 4 and 5; Subotnick: Liquid Strata; Vivier: Shiraz. 1978 Adams: Shaker Loops; Braxton: Composition No. 82; Budd: The Pavilion of Dreams; Dodge: Cascando; Duckworth: Time Curve Preludes; Eno: Music for Airports; Finney: Skating on the Sheyenne; Harrison: Main Bersama-sama; Johnston: Suite for Microtonal Piano; Kotik: Many Many Women; Rihm: Jakob Lenz; Rochberg: String Quartet No. 6; Shapey: 21 Variations; Sikorski: Music in Twilight; Tyranny: Harvey Milk (Portrait); Wolff: Wobbly Music; Xenakis: Mycenae Alpha. 1979 Ashley: Automatic Writing; Berg and Cerha: Lulu; Branca: The Spectacular Commodity; Brant: Orbits; Chambers: Music for Choreographed Rowboats; Eastman: Gay Guerrilla; Glass: Satyagraha; Hellermann: Three Weeks in Cincinnati in December; Hunt: Phalba (stream); Lutoslawski: Novelette; Nono: Con Luigi Dallapiccola; The Residents: Eskimo; Schafer: Music for the Wilderness Lake; Taylor: 3 Phasis; Tyranny: The White Night Riot; Vivier: Kopernikus. 1980 Ashley: Perfect Lives; Branca: The Ascension; Bussotti: Phaidra/Heliogabalus; Carter: Night Fantasies; Del Tredici: In Memory of a Summer Day; Denisov: Requiem; Eno and Budd: The Plateaux of Mirror; Frith: Gravity; Goldstein: Soundings; Harvey: Mortuos Plango, Vivos Voco; Reynolds: The Palace; Sikorski: Strings in the Earth; Stockhausen: Donnerstag; Sun Ra: Aurora Borealis; Tavener: Akhmatova Rekviem; Tenney: Chromatic Canon; Vivier: Lonely Child, Zipangu. 1981 Amram: Ode to Lord Buckley; Bolcom: Songs of Innocence and Experience; Boulez: Répons; Branca: Symphony No. 1, Indeterminate Activity of Resultant Masses; Byron: Tidal; Corigliano: Three Hallucinations; Duckworth: Southern Harmony; Eastman: The Holy Presence of Joan D’Arc;

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Frith: Speechless; Harrison: Double Concerto; Reich: Tehillim; The Residents: Mark of the Mole; Subotnick: Axolotl; Tavener: Prayer for the World; Tower: Sequoia; Vivier: Wo bist du, Licht! 1982 Branca: Symphony No. 2; Brant: Meteor Farm; Chatham: Guitar Ring; Curran: For Cornelius; Eno: On Land; Goldstein: The Seasons: Vermont; Hovhaness: Symphony No. 50; Oliveros: The Wanderer; The Residents: The Tunes of Two Cities; Riley: The Ethereal Time Shadow; Ruders: Manhattan Abstraction; Shapey: Double Concerto; Tyranny: The Intermediary. 1983 Laurie Anderson: United States; Branca: Symphony No. 3; Ginastera: Popul Vuh; Glass: Akhnaten; Hykes: Hearing Solar Winds; Knussen: Where the Wild Things Are; Lieberson: Piano Concerto No. 1; Marcus: Music for Japan; Messiaen: Saint François d’Assise; Monk: The Games; Radigue: Songs of Milarepa; Stockhausen: Samstag; Vivier: Glaubst du an die Unsterblichkeit der Seele; Zwilich: Symphony No. 1. 1984 Brant: Bran(d)t aan de Amstel; Davis: Wayang V; Frith: Live in Japan; Hellermann: Three Sisters Who Are Not Sisters; Lauten: Concerto for Piano and Orchestral Memory; LeBaron: Lamentation/Invocation; Sharp: Tessalation Row; Tenney: Bridge; Young: The Melodic Version of The Second Dream of the High-Tension Line Stepdown Transformer from The Four Dreams of China; Zorn: Cobra. 1985 Feldman: Coptic Light; Grisey: Les espaces acoustiques; Ligeti: Etudes for Piano, Book 1; Oliveros: Lion’s Eye; Rautavaara: Symphony No. 5; Sharp: Marco Polo’s Argali; Tan: On Taoism; Taylor: Segments II; Teitelbaum: Concerto Grosso; Xenakis: Nyuyo. 1986 January: The MacWorld Expo in Boston introduces Laurie Spiegel’s Music Mouse program for playing real-time computer music. 8 June: Cage performs with Sun Ra at Coney Island. Babbitt: Transfigured Notes; Bolcom: 12 New Etudes; Braxton: Composition No. 125; Carter: String Quartet No. 4; Davis: X—the Life and Times of Malcolm X; Eastman: Piano 2; Feldman: For Christian Wolff; Grisey: Talea; Harvey: Madonna of Winter and Spring; LeBaron: Noh Reflections; Moran: Open Veins; Payne: Crystal; Sculthorpe: Earth Cry; Tone: Music for 2 CD Players; Ustvolskaya: Piano Sonata No. 5; Vierk: Simoom; Zappa: Jazz from Hell; Zorn: Spillane. 1987 Adams: Nixon in China; Ashley: Atalanta (Acts of God); Cage: Europeras I/II; Marcus: Adam and Eve; Payne: Airwaves (realities); Rasmussen: Movements on a Moving Line; Sikorski: Omaggio; Spiegel: Lyric for MIDI Guitar; Weir: A Night at the Chinese Opera.

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1988 Branca: Symphony No. 6; Galás: Masque of the Red Death; Kurtág: . . . quasi una fantasia . . .; Lewis: Voyager; Lucier: Silver Streetcar for the Orchestra; Oswald: Plunderphonics EP; Reich: Different Trains; The Residents: God in Three Persons; Stockhausen: Montag; Taylor: Legba Crossing; Tenney: Critical Band; Ustvolskaya: Piano Sonata No. 6. 1989 Chatham: An Angel Moves Too Fast to See; Chou: Echoes from the Gorge; Johnston: Calamity Jane to Her Daughter; Kondo: Hypsotony; Marcus: Julia; Oliveros: Crone Music; Tüür: Insula deserta; Wolff: Mayday Materials. 1990 Berio: Rendering; Globokar: L’Armonia drammatica; Harrison: Fourth Symphony; Hannan: Variations on a Theme of Bill Conti; Mamlok: Girasol; Qin: Photographs from Edward Weston; Spiegel: Sound Zones; Westerkamp: École Polytechnique; Young: The Lower Map of the Eleven’s Division in the Romantic Symmetry (over a 60-Cycle Base) in Prime Time from 144 to 112 with 119, Chronos Kristalla. 1991 Dlugoszewski: Radical Quidditas for an Unborn Baby; Frith: Lelikovice; LeBaron: The E & O Line; Monk: Atlas; Moondog: Elpmas; Skempton: Lento; Smith: Dialogues and Commentary; Stockhausen: Dienstag; Xenakis: Gendy3; Zorn: Elegy. 1992 Ashley: Van Cao’s Meditation; Branca: Symphony No. 8; Cage: SixtyEight; Messiaen: Éclairs sur l’au-délà; Monk Feldman: Infinite Other; Nancarrow: Study No. 51; Ostertag: All the Rage; Rzewski: De Profundis; Subotnick: Five Scenes from an Imaginary Ballet; Westerkamp: Beneath the Forest Floor. 1993 Boulez: . . . explosante-fixe . . .; Branca: Symphony No. 9; Lam: The Child God; LeBaron: Southern Ephemera, Devil in the Belfry; Lewis: Virtual Discourse; Mamlok: Constellations; Oliveros: Njinga the Queen King; Schuller: Of Reminiscences and Reflections; Tone: Musica Iconologos; Weir: Blond Eckbert. 1994 Anhalt: Traces (Tikkun); Branca: Symphony No. 10; Chambers: Twelve Squared; Kondo: Hagoromo; Ligeti: Etudes for Piano, Book 2; Murail: L’esprit des dunes; Payne: Liquid Metal; Risset: Variants; Stockhausen: Freitag; Takemitsu: Achipelago S.; Teitelbaum: Golem; Tyranny: Country Boy Country Dog. 1995 Adès: Powder Her Face; Babbitt: Piano Quartet; Brant: Plowshares & Swords; Carter: String Quartet No. 5; Curran: Theme Park; Dlugoszewski: Disparate Stairway Radical Other; Johnston: String Quartet No. 10; Tone: Solo for Wounded CD; Zorn: Kristallnacht.

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1996 Andriessen: TAO; Braxton: Trillium R; Frith: Impur; Scriabin and Nemtin: The Prefatory Act; Zwilich: Peanuts Gallery. 1997 Chou: String Quartet No. 1; Corigliano: Chiaroscuro; Saunders: G and E on A; Stockhausen: Mittwoch. 1998 Adams: In the White Silence; Ashley: Dust; Bruce: Homage to Luigi; Carter: What Next?; Gubaidulina: In the Shadow of the Tree; Monk: Magic Frequencies; Ruders: The Handmaid’s Tale; Tan: Water Concerto; Weir: Natural History. 1999 Amacher: Sound Characters; Berg: Two Oscar Wilde Sonnets; Bussotti: Ermafrodito; Courvoisier: Concerto for Electric Guitar and Chamber Orchestra; Drummond: Congressional Record; Kagel: Entführung im Konzertsaal; Mundry: Geträumte Räume; Payne: Apparent Horizon. 2000 Bruce: CONVERGENCE; Deyhim: Madman of God: Divine Love Songs of the Persian Sufi Masters; Ibarra: Fractals. 2001 Branca: Symphony No. 13; Brant: Ice Field; Frith: Clearing; Harvey: Bird Concerto with Pianosong; Jenkins: The Three Willies; Ligeti: Etudes for Piano, Book 3; Monk: Mercy; Rihm: Jagden und Formen; Spiegel: Conversational Paws; Tilbury and MIMEO: The Hands of Caravaggio; Wolff: Ordinary Matter. 2002 Barrett: Prince Prospero’s Party; Ferrari: Les anecdotiques; Goehr: Marching to Carcassonne; Kancheli: Warzone; LeBaron: Hsing; León: A Row of Buttons; Shea: Chamber Symphony No. 2; Takahashi: Viola of Dmitry Shostakovich; Tavener: The Veil of the Temple. 2003 Anhalt: The Tents of Abraham; Ashley: Celestial Excursions; Chou: String Quartet No. 2; Harvey: String Quartet No. 4; Lucier: Fan; Oswald: Aparenthesi; Schuller: Encounters; Shields: The Mud Oratorio; Stockhausen: Sonntag; Tan: Paper Concerto. 2004 Ferrari: Après presque rien; Globokar: Les chemins de la liberté; Mundry: Dufay Arrangements; Oliveros: Ringing for Healing; Risset: Échappées; Saunders: miniata; Sculthorpe: Requiem; Tyranny: The Invention of Memory; Young: Raga Sundara. 2005 Adams: Doctor Atomic; AMM and MEV: Apogee; Bruce: The Bill of Rights; Chatham: A Crimson Grail Moves Too Fast to See; Chin: Cantatrix Sopranica; Lieberson: Neruda Songs; Sculthorpe: String Quartet No. 16; Teitelbaum: Z’vi. 2006 Carter: Horn Concerto; El-Dabh: Symphony for One Thousand Drums; Goehr: Broken Lute; Gosfield: A Sideways Glance from an Electric Eye; Harvey: Wagner Dream; Schafer: Ishfahan; Takahashi: yoru, ame, samusa.

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2007 Adams: The Light Within; Austin: John Explains; Bussotti: Variazione Russolo; Frith: Episodes; Henze: Phaedra; Musgrave: Points of View; Rasmussen: Postludier; Tavener: Towards Silence; Wolfe: Lad; Zorn: Six Litanies for Heliogabalus. 2008 Abrahamsen: Schnee; Amacher: TEO!; Branca: Symphony No. 14; Chou: Eternal Pine. 2009 Adams: Inuksuit; Chou: Ode to Eternal Pine; Globokar: Damdaj; Oliveros: Waking the Noise Intoners; Tan: Earth Concerto; Varèse and Chou: Étude pour espace. 2010 Adams: Become River; Branca: Symphony No. 15; Ott: Klangexpedition; Semegen: Bargello; Thorvaldsdottir: Hrím; Tyranny: Scriabin’s Chord, George Fox Searches; Zubel: Not I. 2011 Andriessen: Monument to Graettinger; Ashley: Quicksand; LeBaron: The Silent Steppe Cantata, Breathtails; Oliveros: Tower Ring; Rautavaara: Into the Heart of Light; Zubel: Oresteia. 2012 Chambers: Kun; Doolittle: Seven Duos for Birds or Strings; LeBaron: Crescent City; Mazzoli: Songs from the Uproar: The Lives and Deaths of Isabelle Eberhardt; Wuorinen: Brokeback Mountain; Zorn: The Holy Visions. 2013 Adams: Become Ocean; Del Tredici: Bullycide; Ibarra: Circadian Rhythms; Thorvaldsdottir: Into–Second Self. 2014 Barrett: A Soundwalk through Shanghai; Hope: The End of Abe Sada; Lauten: Waking in New York; Oswald: I’d Love to Turn; Paccione: The World Is Round; Ruders: Group Portrait with Smetana. 2015 Adès: The Exterminating Angel; Branca: Symphony No. 16; Hope: Bravo Compound; Tan: Secret of Wind and Birds; Van der Aa: The Book of Sand. 2016 Braxton: Trillium J; Fure: Bound to the Bow; Tyranny: Solving Scriabin’s Chord (Love, Consider, Imagine); Van der Aa: Blank Out. 2017 Adams: Become Desert; Eno: Reflection; Fure: The Force of Things: An Opera for Objects; Lam: Like Rain; Ott: Ausflug ins Gebirge; Saunders: Yes. 2018 Laurie Anderson: Landfall; Rzewski: Words.

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This revised and expanded second edition of the Historical Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Classical Music surveys a spectrum of 131 years, from 1888 to 2018. Besides echoing the year of completion of this revision, 1888 provides a convenient beginning insofar as it marks a moment when modernist sensibilities in music had reached a critical mass and were emerging more frequently; that year alone saw breakthrough works from such different sensibilities as Gustav Mahler and Erik Satie. This dictionary also includes composers from the 20th century who were modern but not modernist. Writing accessible works in a tonal idiom, they drew chiefly on classical, Romantic, and folk models; but they were also open in varying degrees to modernist techniques of dissonance and polyrhythm. Music that involved atonality and densities, known in the 1910s and 1920s as ultramodernism, evolved into two basic subgroups by mid-century, serial and non-serial. But by the 1950s, atonal composition was stripped of its modernist methods and rhetoric by chance and indeterminate music, as part of a cultural shift that has grown over the second half of the 20th century and into the present. The postmodern sensibility, with its enthusiasm for the unprecedented availability of virtually every type of music, has engendered numerous subcategories, and this dictionary includes entries on multiculturalism, minimalism, multimedia, free improvisation, and other postmodern genres and artists. The contemporary music scene thus embodies a uniquely broad spectrum of activity, which has grown and changed down to the present hour. With new talents emerging and different technologies developing as we move further into the 21st century, no one can predict what paths music will take next. All we can be certain of is that the inspiration and originality that make music live will continue to bring awe, delight, fascination, and beauty to the people who listen to it.

FROM MODERN TO MODERNIST Throughout the history of music, generations of composers have perceived themselves as modern in comparison to their predecessors. Johannes de Muris’s 1321 treatise Notitia artis musicae (aka Ars novae musicae, “The Art of New Music”) praises the “moderni musici.” 1 Almost 300 years later another theorist, Giovanni Maria Artusi, attacked the innovative madrigals of Clau1

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dio Monteverdi (without citing the composer’s name) in his 1600 publication titled Della imperfettione della moderna musica (“Of the Imperfection of Modern Music”). Hector Berlioz called his 1844 book Traité d’instrumentation et d’orchestration modernes (“Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration”). By the first decade of the 20th century, music was still modern, but it had also become modernist, making a radical break from long-standing traditions of tonal organization, melody, harmony, rhythm, and instrumentation. The development of modernist music can be traced in two paths that share a common starting point: Richard Wagner. In rejecting late- and post-Romantic devices that derived from German music in general and the operas of Wagner in particular, French composers Claude Debussy, Erik Satie, and Maurice Ravel developed a new sound that employed staticism, repetition, and subtlety, and which refrained from heavy philosophical or emotional content. Satie’s piano music drew on medieval influences (Ogives, 1886), employed irregular phrasing (Trois Gymnopédies, 1888; Trois Gnossiennes, 1890), and featured cabaret tunes (Trois morceaux en forme de poire, 1903). In 1887, Debussy was warned by the Académie des Beaux-Arts, “[B]eware of this vague impressionism.” 2 To his credit, he ignored their warnings, and with such classics as Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune (1894) for orchestra, the opera Pelléas et Mélisande (1901), and Images (1905) for piano, Debussy launched a new era in music, displacing drama and development with sensuous harmonies and tone colors while evoking subtle and nuanced moods and feelings. Ravel brought a melodic sensibility and a classicist’s concern for clarity and precision to such great works as Jeux d’eau (1901) for piano, String Quartet in F Major (1903), and Introduction and Allegro (1905) for harp and sextet. In these years, impressionist qualities also characterized the music of Frederick Delius and Charles T. Griffes and shaped the early works of Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Manuel de Falla, and many other modernists. The other pathway to modernism pursued the practices the French had avoided. The dissonance, ambiguous tonalities, and massive orchestral sonorities that characterized Wagnerian opera were taken further in the symphonies of Anton Bruckner and Gustav Mahler and the tone poems and operas of Richard Strauss. These composers outlined a tradition that culminated with Arnold Schoenberg’s epochal 1909 scores Erwartung and Five Orchestral Pieces. Schoenberg intensified the dramatic and emotional content of his predecessors’ music into the startling distortions of expressionism. Relinquishing the tonal center and its hierarchical organization of harmonic movement, he used dissonance freely and featured angular and fragmentary melodic lines with wide leaps and asymmetrical forms.

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Within the French sphere of influence, Russian-born Igor Stravinsky became the leading modernist composer with the polytonal and polyrhythmic music of his classic ballets L’Oiseau de feu (1910), Petrushka (1911), and Le sacre du printemps (1913). Despite the uproar that attended its premiere, Le sacre became one of the most influential of all 20th-century scores. The dance also attracted other innovative French composers. Ravel developed into a brilliant orchestrator with Ma Mère l’Oye (1911) and Daphnis et Chloé (1912). Satie’s Parade (1916), with its noises and ragtime dance, was structured in symmetrical time units rather than a foundation of harmonic movement. Darius Milhaud brought a novel approach to percussion and explored spatial and multicultural techniques in L’homme et son désir (1918) and Le boeuf sur la toit (1919). Delving further into atonal composition in the 1910s, Arnold Schoenberg produced a masterpiece with Pierrot lunaire (1912) for soprano and quintet. Following him into atonality were his pupils Alban Berg and Anton Webern, and the three came to be known collectively as the Second Viennese School. Berg caused a scandal when his Altenberg Lieder (1912) for voice and orchestra was premiered in 1913; Webern pursued extreme compression in his Five Pieces (1913) for orchestra. During these years, the short-lived ultramodernist movement of futurism took atonality into a different direction. Italian artist and composer Luigi Russolo, author of the 1913 manifesto L’arte dei rumori (“The Art of Noises”), designed and built different noisemaking machines and invented a graphic notation to score his octet Risveglio di una città (1914). Hungary’s Béla Bartók, essentially a tonal composer, struck a balance between tonality and atonality with his concept of “pantonality”: evoking the sensation of a key signature through repeated or sustained tones rather than tonal harmonic structures, and thus opening the music to any available pitch or sound. 3 Bartók had a foot in both impressionism and expressionism and made those sound worlds his own through his original use of folk-derived rhythms and melodies, creating such great works as String Quartets Nos. 1–6 (1909–1939), the opera Duke Bluebeard’s Castle (1911), the pantomime score The Miraculous Mandarin (1919), Piano Concertos Nos. 1–3 (1926–1945), Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta (1936), Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion (1937), and Concerto for Orchestra (1943). The link to folk music brought vitality and urgency to the tonal composition of English composer Ralph Vaughan Williams as well. It also kept him from imitating his teachers: He recalled Maurice Ravel “telling me that I was the only pupil who ‘n’ecrit pas de ma musique.’” 4 Folk music freed Vaughan Williams from post-Romantic rhetoric, and he became arguably the finest symphonist of the 20th century with nine individual and compelling symphonies spanning the years 1910 to 1957, which owe precious little to the influence of Johannes Brahms, Mahler, or Strauss.

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A few maverick composers during the 1900s and 1910s mostly bypassed both the French and the Viennese and came to dissonance, polyrhythm, and atonality on their own. The Russian Alexander Scriabin and the Americans Charles Ives and Henry Cowell were also groundbreakers in their use of overtones and densities and in the development of pleroma music, where specialized musical aggregates produce a singular resonance or meaning. Along with generating and reinforcing overtones through loudness, attack, and trills, Scriabin derived the six pitches of his “Chord of the Pleroma” (C, F-sharp, B-flat, E, A, D) from partials in the overtone series; this chord informs all his late music, most notably Piano Sonatas Nos. 6–10 (1911–1913). 5 Ives, a polytonal composer by the 1890s, increased his music’s activity into epic densities, quoting popular, sacred, and classical tunes in startling new aggregates with such works as Piano Sonatas Nos. 1 (1909) and 2 (1915), String Quartet No. 2 (1913), Three Places in New England (1914), and Symphony No. 4 (1916). Cowell created densities and resonances with his tone-cluster music for piano, such as Dynamic Motion (1916) and The Tides of Manaunaun (1917), and used ratios from the overtone series to derive the harmonies and near-unplayable rhythms of Two Rhythm-Harmony Quartets (1919). Interest in atonal and pleroma music continued to grow in the 1920s, especially in the United States. Edgard Varèse, who had emigrated from France in 1915, produced a series of dissonant crystalline scores in the 1920s, including Offrandes (1922), Intégrales (1925), and Arcana (1927), which featured winds and percussion in propulsive rhythms, densities, and sonorities. In 1931, Varèse composed an all-percussion score, Ionisation, and defined a new form of 20th-century ensemble music. Carl Ruggles imbued his dissonant and atonal music with a lyrical and visionary sensibility in such great scores as Angels (1921), Vox clamans in deserto (1923), Portals (1926), and Sun-Treader (1933). Dane Rudhyar, another French immigrant, explored resonant piano sounds and rhythmic patterns derived from speech in his atonal piano works, which include Pentagrams Nos. 1–4 (1924–1926), Three Paeans (1925–1927), and Granites (1929). Ruth Crawford’s nine Preludes for Piano (1925–1928) and Piano Study in Mixed Accents (1930) brought a new voice to the use of tone-clusters and dissonant counterpoint. Modernist music underwent a split over the 1920s with the emergence of neoclassicism, in which modernist harmonies and rhythms were adapted to classical and baroque forms. Anticipated in the 1900s by Ferruccio Busoni and in the 1910s by Sergey Prokofiev, Debussy, and Ravel, neoclassicism had its great champion in Stravinsky, with such major works as Oedipus Rex (1927) and Symphony of Psalms (1930). Popular with audiences, neoclassicism proved widely influential. Paul Hindemith celebrated the German baroque with his Kammermusik Nos. 1–7 (1922–1927); Manuel de Falla’s Harpsichord Concerto (1926) was steeped in the sound of Domenico Scarlat-

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ti. Neoclassicism offered a path for French and American composers, among them Francis Poulenc, Albert Roussel, Elliott Carter, Louise Talma, Roger Sessions, and Ross Lee Finney, who had come to regard impressionism as passé yet resisted atonality. In 1923, the year Stravinsky set his hand anew to sonata form in completing his Octet, Schoenberg finished the Piano Suite in which he made the first full use of his twelve-tone, or dodecaphonic, method for atonal composition. As its name implies, twelve-tone music enables all 12 tones of the chromatic scale to have equal importance, with no individual tone exerting a tonal pull or dominance. Schoenberg’s method involved patterning the 12 tones into a specific sequence, called the twelve-tone set, or row, which is heard forward, backward, and upside down (both forward and backward) in melodic, harmonic, and polyphonic expressions based on traditional development techniques such as transposition, augmentation, and diminution. This methodology had been anticipated in the 1910s and early 1920s by Scriabin, Berg, Josef Matthias Hauer, Arthur Lourié, Nikolai Roslavets, Bartók, and Ruggles, but Schoenberg became its primary exponent. Dodecaphony also greatly enhanced the works of certain of his pupils. For Webern, it brought a new precision and rigor in composing purely instrumental atonal music, which led to such masterpieces as his Symphony (1928), Concerto for Nine Instruments (1934), and Variations for Orchestra (1940); Berg, who had achieved a major success with his classic expressionist opera Wozzeck (1922), brought tonal qualities to several outstanding twelve-tone works, among them Lyrische Suite (1926) for string quartet and his Violin Concerto (1935). Having studied the scores of the impressionists and Stravinsky, Aaron Copland brought a distinctly American approach to polytonality and polyrhythm in his Symphony for Organ and Orchestra (1924), Piano Concerto (1926), and Dance Symphony (1929). Denounced right from the start as “ultramodern,” Copland’s music in fact resisted familiar schools—although he did employ twelve-tone techniques in his Piano Variations (1930) and neoclassical elements in Short Symphony (1933), two of his finest works. 6 Like Bartók and Vaughan Williams, Copland reached a new level of expression and artistry in his tonal composition through his use of folk music, with such classics as the ballet scores Billy the Kid (1938) and Appalachian Spring (1944). Also impacted by folk music were two other outstanding tonal composers of the era: the Russian Dmitry Shostakovich, whose major works include 15 symphonies (1925–1971) and 15 string quartets (1937–1974), and England’s Benjamin Britten, creator of such great vocal scores as Les Illuminations (1939), Serenade (1943), War Requiem (1962), and the operas Peter Grimes (1945), Billy Budd (1951), and Death in Venice (1973). Like Cop-

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land, they too shared an affinity for the blazing post-Romantic voice of Gustav Mahler, although neither Shostakovich nor Britten wrote music that was as free of post-Romantic rhetoric as Copland’s was. Copland, Crawford, John Cage, Ernst Krenek, Frank Martin, and Stefan Wolpe were among the composers who investigated the twelve-tone method during the 1930s. With his relocation to the United States in 1933, Schoenberg found a greater understanding and appreciation of his music, and he produced such major scores as his Violin Concerto (1936), String Quartet No. 4 (1936), Piano Concerto (1942), Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte (1942), and String Trio (1946). After World War II composer/conductor René Leibowitz helped revitalize European interest in twelve-tone music by teaching and performing works of the Second Viennese School. Leibowitz also coined the term serial for this music, after the series of pitches that constitute a specific set. Before the end of the 1940s, Milton Babbitt in America and Olivier Messiaen in France had extended the twelve-tone method of pitch organization to the organization of duration, dynamics, and timbre, in what came to be known as total serialism. Babbitt’s approach, based on Schoenberg’s music, resulted in such notable works as Composition for Four Instruments (1948) and All Set (1957) for jazz ensemble; he was influential not just for Americans such as Lejaren Hiller, Charles Wuorinen, and Peter Lieberson but also for England’s Manchester School composers, Peter Maxwell Davies and Harrison Birtwistle. Messiaen, although he had outlined total serialism in his Quatre études de rythme (1950) for piano, kept to his own impressionistinspired nondevelopmental music: a personal blend of ancient Greek and Hindu rhythms, Gregorian plainchant and church modes, birdsong, and the evocation of color, invariably expressive of religious awe and contemplation, as in his classic scores Quatuor pour la fin du Temps (1941), Vingt regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus (1944) for piano, the choral work Trois petites liturgies de la Présence Divine (1944), and Turangalîla-symphonie (1948). Two of Messiaen’s pupils, Karlheinz Stockhausen and Pierre Boulez, saw themselves in the serial tradition of Webern and championed total serialism. Stockhausen developed an extreme pointillism in his 1952 orchestral scores Spiel and Punkte; Boulez brought rigor, energy, and fresh sonorities to his landmark Le marteau sans maître (1955) for alto and six instruments. Other composers of totally serialized music in the 1950s include Jean Barraqué, Ernst Krenek, Bruno Maderna, Luciano Berio, and Luigi Nono. By then, it was neoclassicism’s turn to be regarded as passé, and many former exponents, including Stravinsky, Talma, Sessions, and Arthur Berger, began composing serial music. New ways of melding twelve-tone techniques with tonal methodologies were devised by Copland, Martin, Finney, Irving Fine, George Perle, Egon Wellesz, Luigi Dallapiccola, and Hans Werner Henze.

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Other major late modernists found their own paths into atonality. Stefan Wolpe coordinated his music’s chromatic circulation with its structural transformation in Enactments (1953) for three pianos, Symphony (1956), String Quartet (1969), and other outstanding scores. Elliott Carter assigned specific intervallic and tempo relationships to instruments and created dense works that featured multiple shifting tempi: String Quartet No. 2 (1959), Double Concerto (1961), and Concerto for Orchestra (1969). Conlon Nancarrow, restricting himself to the medium of the player piano, created a piano music of surrealistic speeds, articulations, and densities in his 51 Studies for Player Piano, composed from the late 1940s to 1992. Also interested in densities, Iannis Xenakis employed stochastic processes and related structures that he derived from higher mathematics in Metastasis (1955), Herma (1961), and Akrata (1964). Xenakis was one of many composers in the mid-1950s who used randomness to bring character into a totally chromatic music that had become increasingly formularized and constricting. Boulez, in his 1957 article “Alea,” decried the “purely mechanistic, automatic, fetishistic” conception that had dominated, and he suggested leaving certain parameters up to the performer—which Stockhausen had done in 1956 with Klavierstuck XI. 7 Other composers who started using aleatoric methods in the 1950s and 1960s include Berio, Lukas Foss, Witold Lutoslawski, Alberto Ginastera, and Jacob Druckman. That aleatoric music had to be invented is something of a vindication of the work of John Cage whose Buddhist-inspired path led him to make music without relying on his own tastes and memories. Rejecting the serial fixation on control, Cage used chance procedures to compose atonal music, employing random processes to select the musical materials for his breakthrough 1951 compositions Music of Changes for piano and Imaginary Landscape No. 4 for 12 radios. The latter piece perforce sounds different in every realization, which introduces the concept of indeterminate composition, where the composer cannot control how the music sounds. Cage’s 4'33" (1952) calls for no sound to be played for its entire four minutes and 33 seconds; its music is any and all sounds going on during that time. With Cage music was no longer a method for the manipulation of particularized sounds but, rather, a way of listening: When you listen attentively to a sound’s own special character, without introducing intellectual and emotional responses, you’re hearing music.

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FROM MODERNIST TO POSTMODERN—AND BEYOND Cage provided a necessary break from modernist definitions of composition, which were extensions of classical and romantic mind-sets, for all the shocking new liberties in modernist forms and content. Cage’s chance and indeterminate music represents an important turning point from modernism to postmodernism, in which modernist freedoms are extended to non-modernist materials and conceptualizations, and other composers around Cage quickened to his ideas. Morton Feldman utilized new methods of graphic notation in his five Projection scores (1950–1951) and developed indeterminate rhythms with free-duration works such as Piece for Four Pianos (1957). Earle Brown’s open-form music included graphic notation in his Folio series (1952–1954), proportional notation in Music for Cello and Piano (1955), and improvisation in Centering (1973) for violin and 10 instruments. Christian Wolff used cueing techniques in For Five or Ten Players (1962) and For One, Two or Three People (1964), and he wrote purely verbal instructions in his Prose Collection (1968–1971). Another essential innovator for the postmodern sensibility was Harry Partch, who abandoned most of the instruments of Western music along with their equal-tempered tuning system and built new instruments tuned to his own just-intonation-based system. Partch’s major compositions, which include Oedipus (1951), Revelation in the Courthouse Park (1960), and Delusion of the Fury (1966), were music-theater works with his instruments displayed onstage as sculptural objects, played by costumed musicians who sang and acted with the rest of the cast. The medium of electronic music was a game changer for postmodern music, offering not only new sounds but also a new sensibility of composition. “With electronics, the keyboard is no longer the standard of musical thought. We aren’t thinking just in terms of a gamut of pitches laid out linearly; we’re thinking of the world of sound,” noted Ben Johnston, who studied with both Partch and Cage. 8 Pierre Schaeffer and his Cinq études de bruit (1948) introduced a new idea of what constitutes music with musique concrète: tape music derived from prerecorded sounds. Magnetic tape recorders became generally available in the early 1950s and an array of major works arose internationally, among them Otto Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky’s Incantation for Tape Recording (1953), Hugh Le Caine’s Dripsody (1955), Xenakis’s Concret PH (1956) and Bohor (1962), Stockhausen’s Gesang der Jünglinge (1956) and Hymnen (1967), Toru Takemitsu’s Vocalism A - I (1956) and Water Music (1960), Varèse’s Poème électronique (1958), Luciano Berio’s Thema (Omaggio a Joyce) (1958) and Visage (1961), Richard Maxfield’s Cough Music (1961) and Radio Music (1961), and Luc Ferrari’s Hétérozygote (1964).

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Building on the tape-music facilities of the early 1950s, a number of music studios emerged internationally, which also pursued the electrical synthesis of sound, and an important body of electrically synthesized music emerged in the 1960s. Along with creating purely electronic music, composers such as Stockhausen, Babbitt, Wuorinen, Mario Davidovsky, and Morton Subotnick also wrote electro-acoustic pieces that combined live musicians with electronic sounds on tape. Systems for the real-time performance of electronic music were devised by Stockhausen, Robert Ashley, Pauline Oliveros, Charlemagne Palestine, David Tudor, Salvatore Martirano, Jerry Hunt, and others. Synthesizers entered the marketplace at the end of the 1960s, bringing the studio’s electronic palette with them, and electronic sound eventually became part of almost every young composer’s education and vocabulary. Economical, ubiquitous, and responsive, computers soon became the essential medium for synthesizing sound; they enabled Charles Dodge to synthesize speech in the 1970s and became playable instruments in real time with Laurie Spiegel’s Music Mouse program in the 1980s. Computers also brought new possibilities to the creation of electro-acoustic instruments, with such composer/improvisers as Pauline Oliveros and her expanded accordion and trombonist George Lewis in his Voyager performances. The postmodern need for better ways to appropriate, deconstruct, and recontextualize sounds, awakened in tape music, found its perfect instrument with sampling technology, a wedding of synthesizers and computers, which became generally available in the early 1980s. Samplers displaced tape as the medium for recording and transforming fragments of sound, and produced notable works by The Residents, Frank Zappa, John Oswald, Bob Ostertag, and many others. Electronics have also been a frequent factor in multimedia music, with film, video, lighting, projections, and computer-generated effects—visual and aural—transforming the musical experience. They have proven especially useful when theatrical elements are also involved, as in the operas of Robert Ashley, the sound and light environments of La Monte Young and Marian Zazeela, or works by Oliveros, Mauricio Kagel, Meredith Monk, and Laurie Anderson. A different deconstruction of the listening experience is offered by spatial music. In assigning the physical placement of musicians, such composers as Henry Brant, Stockhausen, Oliveros, György Kurtág, Thea Musgrave, George Crumb, and Lucia Dlugoszewski redefined the relationship between performer and listener, creating new forms of drama and ritual and enjoying a heightened clarity of sound. Language itself is deconstructed in text-sound music, on tape in works by Takemitsu, Berio, Charles Amirkhanian, and Ruth Anderson, and in purely vocal scores by Cage, Oliveros, Henri Pousseur, and Beth Anderson.

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Developments in recording technology over the second half of the 20th century heightened the postmodern sensibility by making available a seemingly endless spectrum of musical expression. World music came to shape the sound of later 20th-century music, from such multicultural composers as Henry Cowell and Lou Harrison to notable innovators outside the field of concert composition, such as jazz leader Sun Ra and his Arkestra, or the legendary rock band The Beatles—both of whom also worked with dissonance, atonality, densities, and noise instrumental and electronic—further blurring the boundaries between genres. The most popular and successful postmodern development has been minimalist music—or more precisely, one specific type of musical minimalism: pulse-driven repeated-pattern music, which had roots in the energy and drive of jazz and rock. The trend was launched by In C (1964) for large ensemble by Terry Riley, who became an important improviser on electronic-keyboards tuned in just intonation with the LPs Shri Camel (1978) and The Descending Moonshine Dervishes (1982). Philip Glass defined his own sound with an amplified ensemble of two electric organs, woodwinds and voice in such landmark works as Music with Changing Parts (1970), Music in Twelve Parts (1974), and the non-narrative opera Einstein on the Beach (1975). Also performing with his own ensemble, Steve Reich hit his stride with such acclaimed scores as Drumming (1971), Music for Eighteen Musicians (1976), and Tehillim (1981) for four female voices and orchestra. Other notable works in this style came from Julius Eastman, Louis Andriessen, John Adams, and Meredith Monk. Minimalist composers who used repeated patterns without a constant beat, however, had a tougher time finding an audience. Improvising vocalist and pianist La Monte Young used repeated patterns in his pleroma and drone music, launching two ongoing minimalist classics in 1964 with The Tortoise, His Dreams and Journeys for voices, various instruments, and sine waves, and The Well-Tuned Piano for piano retuned in just intonation. By the 1970s, Morton Feldman was traditionally notating his sound world of quiet and unpulsed pitch patterns that repeat and subtly change with such great works as the vocal scores Rothko Chapel (1971) and Neither (1977) and the orchestral pieces Coptic Light (1985) and For Samuel Beckett (1987). Young and Feldman proved every bit as daunting for audiences as the earlier generation of modernists had been in their day—especially when they turned to expanded time scales and created works lasting several hours. So did most other forms of minimalist music, regardless of scale. Gradual-process music slows down and amplifies the transformation of a sound, as in works by Charlemagne Palestine, Frederic Rzewski, and Alvin Lucier. Singular-event music focuses on an individual action, long or short, and was favored by such Fluxus composers as Young, George Maciunas, George Brecht, and Alison Knowles. Pauline Oliveros explored consciousness in her

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Sonic Meditations I–XII (1971) and XIII–XXV (1973). Another minimalist form that achieved popularity was ambient music—anticipated by Satie in the 1920s—which seeks to complement ambient sound, not displace it. Brian Eno coined the term with his landmark LP Music for Airports (1978) and started an art-rock subgenre that includes music by John Zorn and Fred Frith. All these subgroups of minimalist music can be considered nondramatic, insofar as they create coherence without contrast or development. From this perspective, minimalism arises with the chance and indeterminate works of John Cage. In modernist serial music, each tone is as important as all the others are by virtue of the unique place that it occupies in the composition’s overall structure. In Cage’s postmodern music, each sound, whether a tone or a noise, is as important as all the others are in and of itself, because listening to it is worth doing, not because of any relationship that could be drawn between its frequency or duration or dynamic level or timbre or moment of appearance and those of any other sounds in the piece. Similarly, the long shadow of Harry Partch can be seen in two other important fields of music making in the late-20th century: alternate tuning systems and instrument building. The two have frequently overlapped, as Partch was not the only composer who had to design and/or build the instruments that could play his tunings: Hans Barth, Alois Hába, Julián Carrillo, and Percy Grainger all pursued microtonal systems on new instruments. But Partch also blazed a trail for composers who tune in just intonation, following the intervals of the overtone series; Young, Riley, Oliveros, Lou Harrison, James Tenney, and Ben Johnston are among the many who have retuned their instruments in just systems. A different approach to the octave is to subdivide the half-tone into such gradations as third-, quarter-, sixth-, and eighth-tones, heard in the microtonal scores of John Foulds, Ivan Wyschnegradsky, Giacinto Scelsi, György Ligeti, Gérard Grisey, Horatiu Radulescu, and others. Mauricio Kagel called for homemade instruments in Acustica (1970), and Tan Dun has written for ceramic and paper instruments. More common is the designing and/or building of new instruments by the composer/musicians who play them, such as Lucia Dlugoszewski, Moondog, Glenn Branca, Ellen Fullman, Fred Frith, and Elliott Sharp. This postmodern attitude to new instruments also includes the appropriation of non-instruments, with such groups as Music for Homemade Instruments, making instruments from trash and found objects, or the Vienna Vegetable Orchestra. The deconstruction of traditional instruments can take the form of retuning, as with the just-intonation composers mentioned earlier, or extended performance techniques, as in works by Dlugoszewski, Krzysztof Penderecki, George Crumb, and Helmut Lachenmann.

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Instrument building, non-instruments, new tunings, and extended performance techniques all became important factors in free improvisation, which featured polyrhythm, dissonance, atonality, noise, and densities. The genre arose in the United States and Europe during the late 1960s, drawing on the free-jazz composer/musicians Ornette Coleman, Cecil Taylor, and Sun Ra, as well as the amplification and intensity of rock and the simultaneities and noise of such composers as Varèse and Cage. This postmodern approach to improvisation, which embraces multimedia, multiculturalism, electronic music, and electro-acoustic instruments, has engaged such important composer/ musicians as reed player John Zorn, guitarists Fred Frith and Elliott Sharp, harpist Anne LeBaron, and percussionist Susie Ibarra. There are of course modernist anticipations and examples of postmodern techniques, just as there are classical, Romantic, and post-Romantic anticipations and examples of modernist techniques. Several early modernist composers have distinctly postmodern qualities—most notably Satie, Ives, Bartók, Cowell, and William Russell—just as certain 19th-century composers, such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Wagner, and Bruckner, were capable of startling modernist breakthroughs. By the same token, several 20th-century composers started out in modernist idioms only to gravitate into postmodern composition, including Cage, Harrison, Berio, Stockhausen, Alan Hovhaness, George Rochberg, Dika Newlin, and Pierre Henry.

CONTEMPORARY MUSIC AND PERSONAL MUSIC In looking beyond modernist and traditional music, postmodernism has embraced popular music—a development that was anticipated by Satie’s use of pop materials for non-pop purposes during the 1910s and 1920s, and taken further in the jazz-influenced concert works of Milhaud, Poulenc, Copland, Russell, George Antheil, Kurt Weill, George Gershwin, and others. What made vocalist/composer Robert Ashley postmodern was that he used the sounds of pop, jazz, and rock without relying on the modernist compositional mind-set that he summed up as, “You write a piece of music and then you give it to somebody and they give it to somebody else and finally it gets played.” 9 Ashley sidestepped the music publishers, opera houses, and other performing institutions and created intimate, non-dramatic multimedia operas, rich in improvisation and simultaneities, always new in every realization: Perfect Lives (1977–1980), Atalanta (Acts of God) (1982–1987), Now Eleanor’s Idea (1985–1994), Dust (1998), Celestial Excursions (2003), Concrete (2006), and Crash (2013–2014).

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Ashley followed the path of composers who performed their own music, and in 1980 he credited John Cage and David Tudor as “just amazing pioneers in inventing the idea of a personal music. That change is a huge one, it’s an amazing change in point of view. [. . .] It has caused a crossover of popular music and so-called concert music, which is going to change the audience for new music entirely.” 10 If postmodern music making as Ashley described it is indeed the key to expanding the audience for new music, it would represent a valuable healing to a century-old rift between audiences and composers. Stravinsky’s Le sacre du printemps, although its Paris premiere provoked a near riot in 1913, became a staple of the repertory. Other types of modern music, however, have retained their disagreeability. Varèse’s Déserts (1954) for 14 winds, piano, five percussionists, and two channels of magnetic tape had its premiere at Le Théatre de Champs-Élysées in Paris, where Stravinsky was met with such hostility four decades earlier, and it too provoked a scandal: “Murmurs at first, then, crescendo, waves of vociferous protest mingled with wavering applause, baritones and tenors hurling shouts of ‘That’s enough,’ ‘Shame, shame,’ etc., ladylike cluckings.” 11 But Varèse’s masterpiece—dissonant and atonal, with interludes of electronic music—has remained at the fringe of the repertory, along with the rest of his works. Much of the music surveyed in this dictionary has made itself less accessible to listeners, insofar as its materials can be disagreeable or contradictory; some music has been so novel and original as to render itself virtually unrecognizable. And almost none of it has had any real impact on the consciousness of the general public, which largely prefers entertainment to art and has turned to music by pop and rock composer/musicians. Yet the majority of people who listen to music, no matter how disinterested any of them might be in classical music, still recognize the names of Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Frédéric Chopin, Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner, Johannes Brahms, and Pytor Tchaikovsky as composers. The only names in this book certain to be likewise identified are those of Igor Stravinsky and Aaron Copland. The few others who would evoke such recognition—Scott Joplin, George Gershwin, Duke Ellington, Leonard Bernstein, The Beatles—all gained renown in popular music. The growth of personal music has already transformed the audience for new music as Ashley envisioned, being responsible for some of the most vital and important music making of the last 50 years, starting with the works of Ashley, Oliveros, and Young. Subsequent generations of composer/musicians include several major figures who brought a range of expression to their changing involvements with pop, jazz, blues, rock, and world music. Composer and improvising saxophonist Anthony Braxton has produced more than 350 compositions, all fundamentally interrelated with re-combinable

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parts; they include the solos of his 1968 double-LP For Alto, Composition No. 82 (1978) for four orchestras, and his Trillium series of operas (1984– ). In his instrumental compositions, electronic music, and piano improvisations “Blue” Gene Tyranny has evoked emotion and explored spirit while remaining non-dramatic and non-representational; among his major works are Harvey Milk (Portrait) (1978), The Intermediary (1982), Country Boy Country Dog (1994), The Somewhere Songs (1988–2001), George Fox Searches (2010), and Solving Scriabin’s Chord (Love, Consider, Imagine) (2016). Fred Frith, as the improvising guitarist of Guitar Solos (1974), Live in Japan (1984), and To Sail, to Sail (2008), has redefined the instrument’s sound; his notable compositions include the multicultural albums Gravity (1980) and Speechless (1981), Lelekovice (1990) for string quartet, and the Pablo Neruda settings Pacifica (1998). Anne LeBaron also uses extended performance techniques as an improvising harpist and has composed such important scores as Lamentation/Invocation (1984) for baritone and three instruments; the theatrical works Concerto for Active Frogs (1975) for voices, instruments, and tape and Hsing (2002) for harp; the operas The E & O Line (1991), Croak (The Last Frog) (1996), and Wet (2005); and her innovative hyperopera Crescent City (2012). Saxophonist John Zorn, one of the leading free improvisers, has composed works for improvising musicians (Archery, 1979; Cobra, 1984) and outstanding studio pieces (Elegy, 1991; Kristallnacht, 1995; Six Litanies for Heliogabalus, 2007; Interzone, 2010); among his major concert scores are The Dead Man (1990) for string quartet and the opera Rituals (1998) for mezzo-soprano and 10 instruments. Glenn Branca adapted minimalist techniques to ensembles of electric guitars, creating a visceral, high-volume pleroma music with 11 guitar symphonies: Nos. 1–6 (1981–1988), 8 (1992), 10 (1994), 12 (1998), 13 (2001), and 16 (2015); equally dense and hallucinatory are his instrumental Symphonies Nos. 7 (1989), 9 (1993), 11 (1998), and 14 (2008). Symphony No. 15 (2010) used guitars along with other instruments. The Residents have created a unique surrealist sound world of dissonance, noise, synthesizers, samplers, and vocal and instrumental distortions; they also built instruments with new tunings for Six Things to a Cycle (1975) and Eskimo (1979). They dissected pop consumerism in The Third Reich ‘N Roll (1976) and The King & Eye (1989), class warfare in Mark of the Mole (1981) and The Tunes of Two Cities (1982), and the huckstering of religion in God in Three Persons (1988). They also brought their vision onstage with such live shows as Wormwood (1998) and The Bunny Boy (2008). These and other composer/musicians have found their own vital ways through the contemporary expansion of possibilities, which has changed composition and improvisation and reshaped both new music and pop music.

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They gained enough of an audience to permit their music to continue and grow without influence or compromise, and that is all the public any creative person really wants or needs.

POSTSCRIPT When I wrote this dictionary between 2008 and 2010, I worked at such white-hot speed that I was able to ignore a doubt that had arisen; in preparing this expansion and revision in 2018, however, the issue is unavoidable. Had I written such a dictionary 100 years ago, in 1918, examining 19thand early 20th-century music, I would of course have been discussing composers born in the 1860s and 1870s. Several masters from those years were dead by 1918: Mahler, Scriabin, Joplin, Debussy. And I would also have been concerned with the music of Delius, Strauss, Satie, Carl Nielsen, Busoni, Vaughan Williams, Schoenberg, Ravel, and Falla. I might even have been aware of Ives! And if I wasn’t, I would at least have been aware of major works from Bartók, Stravinsky, Grainger, Webern, Berg, and Griffes, all born in the 1880s. There were even young upstarts from the 1890s, like Milhaud, Prokofiev, and Cowell, who had achieved real breakthroughs by 1918. Regardless of how old and out of it I may be as I write this, the fact remains that there is no comparable activity from the generations of the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s for me to represent in this dictionary. There are of course individual and talented creative figures of those generations, who are included in this book. In fact, I could compile three volumes of books with nothing but composers born in those years—the closed circuit of educational and performance institutions ensures that. But they have not produced movements or aesthetic transformations that generate essential works of art. The innovations have been more technological than musical. The reality is that the creative energy of people from those generations has largely been drawn into rock and pop and film music, rather than into what we would still term classical music. Which is not to say that the rock and pop and film music we have gotten is better music than that made by composers who kept to the tradition; but the generational sense of interest and vitality and opportunity, aesthetic and financial, clearly has shifted. In 1980, John Cage predicted this would happen: “I think we’re going in a multiplicity of directions. If I performed any function at all, it’s one that would have been performed in any case: to take us out of the notion of the mainstream of music, and into a situation that could be likened to a delta or

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field or ocean, that there are just countless possibilities.” 12 This dictionary’s Postmodernism entry concludes with a reference to that insight, calling it “the quintessential postmodern situation.” Note that one-third of the entries from the 1960s through the 1990s are creative performance groups that formed during those years: ONCE Group, Fluxus, The Beatles, AMM, MEV, Sonic Arts Union, Scratch Orchestra, Portsmouth Sinfonia, The Residents, The Hub, and Rough Assemblage. This proliferation of composing and performing associations is a defining compositional trend of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. William Duckworth’s Cathedral Project, begun in 1997, bypassed geography and relied on the internet to form its collaborating ensembles. That approach will only become more sophisticated and fruitful in the coming years, if it is permitted to thrive.

NOTES 1. Don Michael Randel, The Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003), 59. 2. Léon Vallas, Claude Debussy: His Life and Works (New York: Dover, 1973), 42. 3. Dane Rudhyar, The Magic of Tone and the Art of Music (Boulder, Col.: Shambhala, 1982), 103n. 4. Ralph Vaughan Williams, National Music and Other Essays (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 191. 5. Anatole Leikin, “From Paganism to Orthodoxy to Theosophy: Reflections of Other Worlds in the Piano Music of Rachmaninov and Scriabin,” in Voicing the Ineffable: Musical Representations of Religious Experience, ed. Siglind Bruhn (Hillsdale, N.Y.: Pendragon, 2002), 41. 6. Aaron Copland and Vivian Perlis, Copland: 1900 through 1942 (New York: St. Martin’s/Marek, 1984), 110. 7. Pierre Boulez, “Alea,” in Perspectives on Contemporary Music Theory, ed. Benjamin Boretz and Edward T. Cone (New York: Norton, 1972), 47. 8. Cole Gagne and Tracy Caras, Soundpieces: Interviews with American Composers (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1982), 262. 9. Gagne and Caras, 18. 10. Gagne and Caras, 19. 11. Fernand Ouellette, Edgard Varèse (New York: Orion, 1968), 185–86. 12. Gagne and Caras, 81.

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A ABRAHAMSEN, HANS (1952– ). Danish composer and musician. Hans Abrahamsen studied horn and composition at the Royal Danish Academy of Music; he also studied composition with Per Nørgård and György Ligeti. Abrahamsen rejected complicated modernist techniques in such early works as Symphony in C (1972) and the 1973 scores Flowersongs for three flutes, Universe Birds for 10 sopranos, and 10 Preludes for string quartet. The polyrhythms of Stratifications (1975) for orchestra and Winternacht (1978) for chamber ensemble brought a greater complexity to his music; surrealist and minimalist qualities inform Nacht und Trompeten (1981) for orchestra. The culmination was Abrahamsen’s 7 Studies (1984) for piano, after which he turned mostly to arranging such composers as Erik Satie, Maurice Ravel, and Carl Nielsen. His composition reasserted itself with three more Studies for piano in 1998. Among Abrahamsen’s notable 21st-century works are his Piano Concerto (2000); the microtonal scores Schnee (2008) for nine instruments and Wald (2009) for 15 players; String Quartets Nos. 3 (2008) and 4 (2012); let me tell you (2013) for soprano and orchestra; and Left, alone (2015), a concerto for piano left-hand and orchestra. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); POSTMODERNISM. ABRAMS, MUHAL RICHARD (1930–2017). American composer and musician. A multi-instrumentalist who was best known as a pianist, Muhal Richard Abrams was largely self-taught. He cofounded the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians, and his skill at playing both traditional and free jazz made Abrams a leader in creative African American music. His recordings include solo performances (Afrisong, 1975; Vision towards Essence, 2007) and large-ensemble works (Mama and Daddy, 1980; The Hearinga Suite, 1990); The Visibility of Thought (2001) featured Abrams on computer and synthesizer. Abrams also worked with such composer/ musicians as Leroy Jenkins, Anthony Braxton, Anne LeBaron, Roscoe Mitchell, and George Lewis. Among his compositions are Quintet (1982) for soprano, piano, harp, violin, and cello; Piano Duet #1 (1986); Saturation Blue (1986) for chamber orchestra; and the orchestral scores Transversion I, 17

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Op. 6 (1991), Tomorrow’s Song, as Yesterday Sings Today (1999), and Mergertone (2007). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; SCHILLINGER, JOSEPH (1895–1943); TONE-CLUSTER. ACOUSMATIC MUSIC. Pierre Schaeffer’s work in tape music and electronic music led him to coin the term acousmatic in his book Traité des objets musicaux (1966), to characterize music in which sounds are heard but their cause is unseen because they were created to be heard over a loudspeaker. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MUSIQUE CONCRÈTE. ADAMS, JOHN (1947– ). American composer, musician, and educator. John Adams’s teachers at Harvard University included Roger Sessions and Leon Kirchner; he has taught at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music. Using a minimalist-influenced style, Adams composed such notable works as Phrygian Gates (1977) for piano, Shaker Loops (1978) for string septet or string orchestra, Harmonium (1981) for chorus and orchestra, John’s Book of Alleged Dances (1994) for string quartet and prerecorded soundtrack, and the orchestral scores Grand Pianola Music (1982), Harmonielehre (1985), and Slonimsky’s Earbox (1995). Adams scored The Cabinet of Dr. Ramirez (1991) and other films, and he plays synthesizers and samplers on his album Hoodoo Zephyr (1993). Adams is especially admired for his operas, which include Nixon in China (1987), The Death of Klinghoffer (1991), Doctor Atomic (2005), and Girls of the Golden West (2017), as well as his oratorios El Niño (1999) and The Gospel according to the Other Mary (2012). Among his major recent works are My Father Knew Charles Ives (2003) for orchestra, String Quartets Nos. 1 (2008) and 2 (2014), and Saxophone Concerto (2013). A frequent conductor of 20th-century music, Adams is also the author of The John Adams Reader (2006) and Hallelujah Junction (2008). See also CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; IVES, CHARLES (1874–1954); KRONOS QUARTET; METRIC MODULATION; POSTMODERNISM; SLONIMSKY, NICOLAS (1894–1995). ADAMS, JOHN LUTHER (1953– ). American composer and educator. John Luther Adams studied with James Tenney and Leonard Stein at the California Institute of the Arts. In 1978, he relocated to Alaska, and he has frequently evoked its landscape and sounds in minimalist works that rely on imaginative sonorities, atmosphere, and stillness. Adams’s music includes Night Peace (1976) for antiphonal mixed chorus, soprano, harp, and percussion; Strange Birds Passing (1983) for flute choir; and the orchestral scores The Far Country of Sleep (1988), In the White Silence (1998), and The Light

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That Fills the World (2000). He has also composed percussion-ensemble works (Strange and Sacred Noise, 1997; . . . and bells remembered . . ., 2005; Inuksuit, 2009) and scores for mixed chamber ensembles (In a Treeless Place, Only Snow, 1999; The Farthest Place, 2001; The Light Within, 2007). In 2010, Adams composed an electroacoustic version of The Light Within for orchestra and tape. His notable recent works include the trilogy Become River (2010) for chamber orchestra, Become Ocean (2013) for orchestra, and Become Desert (2017) for orchestra and mixed chorus. The creator of a permanent sound installation in Fairbanks’ Museum of the North, Adams is also the author of Winter Music (2004) and The Place Where You Go to Listen (2009). He has taught at Harvard University, the Oberlin Conservatory, Bennington College, and the University of Alaska. See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; POSTMODERNISM. ADÈS, THOMAS (1971– ). English composer and musician. Thomas Adès studied piano in chamber music with György Kurtág in Hungary and attended King’s College, Cambridge University. Active as pianist and conductor, Adès made his mark as a composer with the operas Powder Her Face (1995), the William Shakespeare adaptation The Tempest (2003), and The Exterminating Angel (2015), from the Luis Buñuel film. Adès’s other notable works include Darkness Visible (1992) for piano; Arcadiana (1994) for string quartet; Piano Quintet (2000); Violin Concerto (2005); the orchestral scores Asyla (1997), Tevot (2007), and Polaris (2010); and his film music for Colette (2018). See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); MODERNISM; SURREALISM. ALEATORY. The term aleatory has its origin in a 1957 article by Pierre Boulez titled “Alea,” the Latin word for dice. His polemical essay dismissed the chance music of John Cage (without mentioning his name), accusing it of poverty of compositional invention. Yet Boulez also sought to bring spontaneity into the rigidly formulated total serialism that he had embraced. He proposed an approach in which an otherwise strictly composed piece could leave certain parameters to the discretion of the performer, such as the sequencing of events or the selection of specific pitches or tempi, and thus introduce newness without obliging composer, musician, and listener to abandon their memories and tastes, which Cage saw as the true value of chance and indeterminacy. Notable open-form precedents for aleatory in earlier modernist music include Percy Grainger’s Random Round (1915), Otto Luening’s Trio for Flute, Violin, and Soprano (1923), Henry Cowell’s elastic-form scores of the 1930s, and the free-rhythm music Alan Hovhaness developed in the 1940s. Unlike these innovations, however, aleatory was taken up internation-

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ally—Boulez was one of many composers in the mid-1950s who felt stifled by the inflexibility of their own serial methods. By the time he began using aleatoric techniques in his Troisième sonate (1957) and Pli Selon Pli (1958), Boulez had been beaten to the punch by two 1956 works; Karlheinz Stockhausen’s Klavierstuck XI utilized randomness, and Iannis Xenakis’s Pithoprakhta introduced stochastic music. The idea of aleatory spread quickly and was used by many, including Karel Husa, Lukas Foss, Luciano Berio, Ernst Krenek, Witold Lutoslawski, Bruno Maderna, Alberto Ginastera, Jacob Druckman, Bo Nilsson, Barbara Kolb, Mel Powell, and George Russell. ALTERNATE TUNING SYSTEMS. By the mid-19th century, the standard tuning system in Western music was equal temperament, which divides the octave into 12 more or less equivalent intervals known as semitones. These intervals define the 12 tones of the chromatic scale and permit a work to be transposed into any key without losing the intervallic relationships that make the music identifiable to the ear. Although any conceivable division of the octave is available, two traditions of alternate tuning systems emerged in the 20th century: microtonal music splits the semitone into smaller divisions, such as quarter-tones; just intonation discards equal-tempered tunings and uses instead the intervals that are produced naturally as overtones in the harmonic series. AMACHER, MARYANNE (1938–2009). American composer, musician, and educator. Maryanne Amacher studied piano at the Philadelphia Conservatory of Music and composition with George Rochberg at the University of Pennsylvania; she also studied privately with Karlheinz Stockhausen and taught at Bard College from 2000 to 2009. Amacher’s electronic music includes Remainder (1976) and TEO! A Four-Part Sonic Sculpture (2008); her album Sound Characters (1999) creates unique acoustic phenomena audible only through loudspeakers, not headphones. She also contributed environmental recordings for John Cage’s Lecture on the Weather (1975) and created Close Up (1978) as an accompaniment to his Empty Words (1974). Amacher is best known for her series of site-specific sound installations, which include “City Links” Nos. 1–21 (1967–1979), uniting distant locations over telephone lines, and “Music for Sound-Joined Rooms” (1980–2002), utilizing a building’s architectural features to craft sonic, visual, and spatial effects. See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC.

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AMBIENT MUSIC. The notion of music that tints and complements ambient sound, rather than obliterating it, emerged with Erik Satie, whose Musique d’ameublement of the early 1920s gave musicians fragmentary phrases to perform in public areas. Satie’s innovation, however, failed to attract immediate successors. Only John Cage was more willing to efface himself than Satie had been: Cage’s landmark tacet score 4'33" (1952) had audiences listening to the ambient sounds of the performance space. But as minimalism entered the musical mainstream, other composers began building upon Satie’s approach. Karlheinz Stockhausen was ahead of the curve with his lengthy and meditative Fresco (1969) for four orchestra groups; so was Wendy Carlos with her electronic-music double-LP Sonic Seasonings (1972). The breakthrough came with Brian Eno, who coined the term ambient music for his classic LP Music for Airports (1978), which used subtly changing phrases as a calming and contemplative background sound that could be listened to or ignored. Harold Budd joined Eno for The Plateaux of Mirror (1980), and this genre soon took on a life of its own, attracting such art-rock composer/musicians as John Zorn, Fred Frith, Klaus Schulze, Robert Fripp, and Jean-Michel Jarre. See also POSTMODERNISM. AMIRKHANIAN, CHARLES (1945– ). American composer and musician. Charles Amirkhanian was music director of KPFA/Berkeley from 1969 until 1992, when he cofounded Other Minds and began directing its music festivals. His text-sound compositions include tape music derived from speech, such as If In Is (1971), Just (1972), Heavy Aspirations (1973), and the pieces on the albums Lexical Music (1980) and Mental Radio (1985). He combined instruments and ambient sound in Walking Tune (1987), with sampled sounds played by Amirkhanian on Synclavier, Pas de voix (1987), and Politics as Usual (1988). Loudspeakers (1990) utilizes the recorded voice of Morton Feldman. Among Amirkhanian’s electroacoustic compositions are His Anxious Hours (1987) for chamber ensemble and tape and Ripping the Lamp (2007) for violin and tape. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997); POSTMODERNISM. AMM. The free improvisation ensemble AMM was formed in London in 1965 by jazz musicians Lou Gare (tenor saxophone), Eddie Prévost (percussion), and Keith Rowe (electric guitar); they were soon joined by Cornelius Cardew (piano, cello). AMM turned to live electronic music, using Rowe’s guitar, transistor radios, contact microphones, and other devices. Their electroacoustic performances defined the group, which has performed internationally. Cardew left AMM in 1972; others who have played with AMM include Lawrence Sheaff, Christopher Hobbs, John Tilbury, and Christian Wolff. Notable recordings include AMMMusic 1966 (1967), The Crypt 12th

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June 1968 (1969), To Hear and Back Again (1973), Generative Themes (1983), The Nameless Uncarved Block (1991), Laminal (1994), Fine (2001), and Sounding Music (2010); Apogee (2005) features AMM performing with MEV. See also POSTMODERNISM. AMRAM, DAVID (1930– ). American composer and musician. David Amram studied at the Oberlin Conservatory and the Manhattan School of Music, where he studied French horn with Gunther Schuller. Amram played with the National Symphony Orchestra and the bands of jazz musicians Dizzy Gillespie, Lionel Hampton, and Charles Mingus. He remained active in jazz, performing with Jack Kerouac’s poetry readings in 1957 as well as fronting his own groups. A conductor and multi-instrumentalist, Amram also studied and performed world music. He blended jazz and multiculturalism with classical techniques in Triple Concerto (1970) for wind, brass, and jazz quintets and orchestra and Ode to Lord Buckley (1981) for alto saxophone and orchestra; jazz also informs Shakespearean Concerto (1959) for small orchestra, the quintet Conversations (1988), and Giants of the Night (2002) for flute and orchestra, among other scores. Amram’s devotion to Native American music defines his trio Native American Portraits (1976), American Dance Suite (1986) for chamber orchestra, and Kokopelli (1995) for orchestra. His operas are the one-act holocaust drama The Final Ingredient (1965) and the adaptation of William Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night (1968); his film scores include Pull My Daisy (1959), Splendor in the Grass (1961), and The Manchurian Candidate (1962). Amram is the author of the memoirs Vibrations (1968), Offbeat: Collaborating with Kerouac (2002), and Upbeat: Nine Lives of a Musical Cat (2008). His notable recent works include This Land, Symphonic Variations on a Song by Woody Guthrie (2007) for orchestra, the piano concerto Three Songs (2009), and Three Lost Loves (2016) for alto saxophone, violin, and piano. See also POSTMODERNISM. ANALOG NOTATION. See PROPORTIONAL NOTATION. ANDERSON, BETH (1950– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Beth Anderson studied with John Cage, Robert Ashley, Terry Riley, and Larry Austin. She has taught piano at New York University and the Greenwich House Music School. Among her early postmodern compositions are graphic scores (Tower of Power for church organ and tape, 1973; Music for Charlemagne Palestine for string quartet, 1973), music theater (Queen Christina, 1973; Joan, 1974; Zen Piece, 1979), text-sound pieces (If I Were a Poet, 1975; Twelve Bar Blues, 1976; John Cage, 1979), and multimedia works (Music for Myself, 1973; Morning View and Maiden Spring, 1978). By the 1980s, she was composing in a neoromantic idiom, employ-

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ing cutups and collages of newly composed materials in her Swale series, which includes the string quartets Pennyroyal Swale (1985) and June Swale (2001); Brass Swale (1988) for brass quintet; Guitar Swale (1993) for two guitars; Minnesota Swale (1995) for chamber orchestra; Rhode Island Swale (1996) for piano or harpsichord; Mourning Dove Swale (2002) for string orchestra; and Jasmine Swale (2005) for string trio. Notable recent works include Dream Song (2009) for chorus and Angel Songs (2011) for voice and piano. See also CHATHAM, RHYS (1952– ); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; PALESTINE, CHARLEMAGNE (1947– ). ANDERSON, LAURIE (1947– ). American composer and musician. Laurie Anderson featured music with the characterizations and commentaries of her performance art, as in the 1977 pieces New York Social Life and Time to Go (for Diego). Her work reached epic length with the popular United States (1979–1983), a multimedia piece featuring tape, projections, and electronics that altered her voice and her violin playing. Also a filmmaker (Home of the Brave, 1986; Heart of a Dog, 2015), Anderson has composed electroacoustic music for orchestra (Born, Never Asked, 1980; It’s Cold Outside, 1981) and has worked with such composer/musicians as Brian Eno, George Lewis, John Zorn, “Blue” Gene Tyranny, and Peter Gordon. Among her art-rock albums are Strange Angels (1989) and Bright Red (1994). Her recent music includes the performance pieces Songs and Stories from Moby Dick (1999), The End of the Moon (2004), and Delusion (2010); the dance score Figure a Sea (2015); and Landfall (2018), her collaboration with the Kronos Quartet. She has also created such sound installations as Handphone Table (1978), Whirlwind (1996), and Lou Reed Drones (2016), utilizing the guitars and amps of her husband Lou Reed after his death. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; FILM MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. ANDERSON, RUTH (1928– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Ruth Anderson studied flute with John Wummer and Jean-Pierre Rampal, composition with Nadia Boulanger and Darius Milhaud, and electronic music with Vladimir Ussachevsky and Pril Smiley. She taught at Hunter College (1966–1989) where she became founding director of the Electronic Music Studio in 1968. Her tape music includes Dump (1970) and SUM (State of the Union Message) (1973, rev. 1997); I come out of your sleep (1979, rev, 1997) is a text-sound work based on spoken vowel sounds. Anderson utilized electronically synthesized sound in Points (1974) and Centering (1979); the latter, a multimedia piece for four observers and a dancer, employs interactive biofeedback technology, as does her sound installation Time and Tempo (1984). Her lifetime companion is Annea Lockwood. See also POSTMODERNISM.

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ANDRIESSEN, LOUIS (1939– ). Dutch composer, musician, and educator. Louis Andriessen studied with his father, composer Hendrik Andriessen; with Kees van Baarren at the Royal Conservatory in the Hague (1957–1962); and with Luciano Berio (1962–1964). He has taught at the Royal Conservatory since 1974; his students include Michel van der Aa, Emily Doolittle, and Missy Mazzoli. Andriessen was a founder and pianist of Orkest de Volharding (1972– ) and Hoketus (1976–1986), ensembles named after his compositions. His approach to minimalism employs driving rhythms and colorful orchestrations, sometimes massing or opposing like voices; repeated patterns are utilized within a larger formal structure that can reflect social or spiritual concerns. His major works include De Volharding (1972) for three saxophones, three trumpets, three trombones, and piano; Hoketus (1977) for two amplified ensembles; and De Snelheid (1983, rev. 1984) for three amplified ensembles. Female voices are featured in De Staadt (1976), De Tijd (1981), and TAO (1996). Andriessen has scored films (The Family, 1973; Time, 1983; The New Math(s), 2000, cocomposed with van der Aa) and composed music-theater works (George Sand, 1980; Inanna, 2003) and operas (Writing to Vermeer, 1998; La Commedia, 2008; Theatre of the World, 2015) as well as orchestral scores (De Opening, 2005; Mysteriën, 2013). Among Andriessen’s notable smaller-scale works are Symfonie voor losse snaren (1978) for 12 string instruments, retuned to provide a full spectrum of pitches on open strings; Hymn to the Memory of Darius Milhaud (1978) for small orchestra; Hout (1991) for tenor saxophone, marimba, guitar, and piano; Fanfare, om te beginnen (2001) for six groups of French horns; and Monument to Graettinger (2011) for jazz band. See also ALTERNATE TUNING SYSTEMS; ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); GRAETTINGER, ROBERT F. (1923–1957); MILHAUD, DARIUS (1892–1974); PLEROMA; POSTMODERNISM; UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). ANHALT, ISTVÁN (1919–2012). Hungarian-born Canadian composer, musician, and educator. István Anhalt studied composition with Zoltán Kodály at the Budapest Academy of Music (1937–1941). In 1942, he was drafted into a forced-labor unit for Jews in the Hungarian army but escaped in 1944 and went into hiding. After the war, he went to Paris and, in 1946, studied composition with Nadia Boulanger and piano with Soulima Stravinsky. He relocated to Canada in 1948 and became a Canadian citizen in 1955. Anhalt taught at McGill University (1948–1971), where he founded the Electronic Music Studio in 1964, and at Queen’s University (1971–1984). His early atonal compositions, such as his Piano Trio (1953), led to his use of serial methods with Fantasia (1954) for piano. After completing his Symphony (1958), Anhalt turned to electronic music, creating Electronic Compositions Nos. 1–4 (1959–1962). He combined synthesized sound on tape

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with orchestra in Symphony of Modules (1967); mixed chorus in Cento (1967); soprano and chamber ensemble in Foci (1969); and the opera La Tourangelle (1975). Anhalt’s interest in speech and unusual vocal techniques led him to write the book Alternative Voices (1984). After Thisness (1985) for mezzo-soprano and piano and the opera Winthrop (1986), he returned to purely instrumental composition with the orchestral scores Simulacrum (1987), SparkskrapS (1987), and Sonance-Resonance (Welche Töne?) (1989). His notable later works include Doors . . . Shadows (Glenn Gould in Memory) (1992) for string quartet, the operas Traces (Tikkun) (1994) and Millenial Mall (Lady Diotima’s Walk) (1999), and the orchestral works Twilight Fire (Baucis’ and Philemon’s Feast) (2001), The Tents of Abraham (2003), the timber of those times ( . . . a theogony . . .) (2005), and Four Portraits from Memory (2006). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; MODERNISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. ANTHEIL, GEORGE (1900–1959). American composer and musician. George Antheil studied with Constantine von Sternberg and Ernest Bloch. He left the United States in 1922 and performed in Europe, creating scandales with his percussive and dissonant piano music: Sonata No. 2, “Airplane” (1922), Sonata sauvage (1923), Sonatina: Death of the Machines (1923). The pianist doubles on drums in Sonata No. 2 for Violin and Piano with Drums (1923), which quotes pop and salon music of the day. Antheil’s Piano Concerto No. 1 (1922) and String Quartet No. 1 (1924) were also modernist works, and jazz informed his Symphony No. 1 (1920), Jazz Sonata (1922) for piano, and Jazz Symphony (1925, rev. 1955) which was premiered in 1927 by the W. C. Handy Orchestra. Antheil settled in Paris in 1923, and his music was promoted by Ezra Pound. Ballet pour instruments mécaniques et percussion (1925, rev. 1952) was Antheil’s greatest provocation: The ensemble for the 1926 Paris premiere included eight pianos, a player piano, four xylophones, glockenspiel, gong, cymbal, triangle, wood block, various drums, two electric bells, and electric fans doctored with strips of leather that slapped a thin board to create the sounds of small and large airplane propellers. The resulting din, punctuated with extended oases of silence, elicited praise and shock; but when Ballet mécanique premiered in America in 1927—with extra pianists and a real propeller—it was met with disdain. The Frankfurt production of Antheil’s opera Transatlantic (1928) was also a failure, and he returned to the United States in 1933, the year he completed his surrealist series of piano preludes, La Femme 100 Têtes after Max Ernst. Antheil’s later music was neoromantic: Symphonies Nos. 2–6 (1938–1947), Violin Concerto (1946), Piano So-

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natas Nos. 3–5 (1947–1950). He also composed numerous film scores and wrote an autobiography, Bad Boy of Music (1945). See also BECKER, JOHN J. (1886–1961); BRANT, HENRY (1913–2008); MINIMALISM. ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ). English musician and educator. Irvine Arditti studied violin at the Royal Academy of Music and founded the Arditti Quartet in 1974. He joined the London Symphony Orchestra in 1976 and became its co-concertmaster two years later, but he left to focus on his string quartet and his career as a soloist. Arditti has premiered numerous works written for him as solo violinist with ensembles large and small, including Iannis Xenakis’s Dox-Orkh (1991), Brian Ferneyhough’s Terrain (1992), Jonathan Harvey’s Scena (1992), and Roger Reynolds’s Aspiration (2005). The Arditti Quartet, equally devoted to modern and postmodern music, has given world premieres of works by hundreds of composers; along with those cited earlier in this entry, they include Hans Abrahamsen, Thomas Adès, Louis Andriessen, Harrison Birtwistle, Benjamin Britten, John Cage, Elliott Carter, Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina, Mauricio Kagel, Jo Kondo, György Kurtág, Helmut Lachenmann, György Ligeti, Bruno Maderna, Wolfgang Rihm, Rebecca Saunders, Giacinto Scelsi, and Karlheinz Stockhausen. Arditti has taught at Darmstadt, the Eastman School of Music, and other institutions; he is the coauthor of The Techniques of Violin Playing (2013). AREL, BÜLENT (1919–1990). Turkish-born American composer, musician, and educator. Bülent Arel studied piano and composition at the Ankara Conservatory; his music in Turkey included three symphonies (1949–1952) and La Danse (1952) for piano and orchestra. He also investigated electroacoustic music with his Music for String Quartet and Oscillator (1957), later revised as Music for String Quartet and Tape (1960). Arel relocated to the United States in 1959 and became a U.S. citizen in 1979. He created Electronic Music No. 1 (1960), Stereo Electronic Music Nos. 1 (1961) and 2 (1970), and Mimiana I–III (1968–1973) at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center where he also assisted Edgard Varèse. In Music for a Sacred Service (1961), Arel blended tape music and synthesized sound. He started electronic music programs and taught at Yale University (1961–1970) and the State University of New York at Stony Brook (1971–1989); his students include Daria Semegen and Anne LeBaron. Arel and Daria Semegen cocomposed the 1971 score for the film Out of Into, from which they derived the piece Trill Study (1971). Among his other notable pieces are the twelve-tone work For Violin and Piano (1966), Fantasy and

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Dance for Five Viols and Tape (1973), and the electronic dance score Rounding (1985). See also MODERNISM; SYNTHESIZER; ZAPPA, FRANK (1940–1993). ASHLEY, ROBERT (1930–2014). American composer, musician, and educator. Ashley’s innovations in music theater, opera, and electroacoustic music make him one of the most important postmodern composers in American music. Born in Ann Arbor, Michigan, Robert Ashley trained as a pianist. He graduated with a B.Mus. from the University of Michigan in 1952 and attended the Manhattan School of Music, receiving his M.Mus. in 1954; he also studied privately with Wallingford Riegger. During these years, Ashley lost interest in playing jazz and concert music, feeling that they had no relation to his everyday experience of life. He returned to the University of Michigan and studied composition with Ross Lee Finney, Roberto Gerhard, and Leslie Bassett (1957–1960). He also utilized the Speech Research Laboratories there to study psycho-acoustics and cultural speech patterns— areas that would inform most of his later music. Ashley formed the Cooperative Studio for Electronic Music (1958–1966) with composer Gordon Mumma, gathering equipment for tape and electronic music in real-time performance. He had been performing his Piano Sonata since the mid-1950s, but in 1959, he stopped trying to notate his jazzderived piano playing. He organized the ONCE Group in 1960, bringing together his first wife Mary Ashley, a visual and performance artist; light sculptor Milton Cohen; Mumma; Roger Reynolds; George Cacioppo; Donald Scavarda; and other like-minded creative people. Their series of ONCE Festival performances (1961–1969) became a national showcase for new and experimental music. Seeking to write down different techniques for achieving the spontaneity of jazz performance, Ashley used graphic notation for several scores in the early 1960s, including Maneuvers for Small Hands (1961) for piano and Trios (White on White) (1963) for various instruments. The four in memoriam . . . pieces (1963) employed a range of performers and were each subtitled with a traditional genre; the fourth, KIT CARSON, was scored for eight-part ensemble and was Ashley’s first designated opera. Perhaps most admired and notorious was The Wolfman (1964) for amplified voice and tape. Ashley created multimedia music theater with the ONCE Group such as Combination Wedding and Funeral (1964) and Orange Dessert (1965); with Mary Ashley, he cocomposed The Lecture Series (1964) and Night Train (1966). His second opera was That Morning Thing (1967) for solo voices, women’s chorus, dancers, and tapes, from which Ashley derived She Was a Visitor (1967) for speaker and chorus. The Sonic Arts Union, a composers’ collective he cofounded in 1966 with Mumma, Alvin Lucier, and David Behrman, performed in the United States and Europe for a decade, present-

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ing such works as his electronic music theater piece Purposeful Lady Slow Afternoon (1968) and Fancy Free, or It’s There (1970) for male speaker and four cassette-recorder operators. In 1972, Ashley collaborated with “Blue” Gene Tyranny in creating the film music for Phil Makanna’s Shoot the Whale and with electronic designer Paul DeMarinis in setting the John Barton Wolgamot text for In Sara, Mencken, Christ and Beethoven There Were Men and Women. Serving as director of the Center for Contemporary Music at Mills College from 1969 to 1981, Ashley discouraged students from writing scores for other musicians; he instead had them playing their own music. The results confirmed his belief in a personal music, realized without mediation, which would further the intermingling of popular and concert music. Ashley proved his point with a masterpiece: the epochal Perfect Lives, completed in 1980, a video opera for television consisting of seven 30-minute episodes. He had performed versions of the different episodes since 1977, and he would continue into 1983, changing the pieces with every realization and evoking new spontaneities. In 1976, Ashley produced and directed Music with Roots in the Aether, seven video portraits of composers and their music: himself, Mumma, Lucier, Behrman, Philip Glass, Pauline Oliveros, and Terry Riley. Ashley’s 1979 release Automatic Writing for voices and electronic sounds was a surrealistic excursion into involuntary speech. Perfect Lives was followed by the opera Atalanta (Acts of God), realized in 1982–1987, which yielded the television opera Atalanta Strategy (1984). Now Eleanor’s Idea, the third part of a trilogy with Perfect Lives and Atalanta, is itself a tetralogy consisting of Improvement (Don Leaves Linda) (1985), el/Aficionado (1987), Now Eleanor’s Idea (1993), and Foreign Experiences (1994). Musicians who have performed in Ashley’s operas include Tyranny, Peter Gordon, Thomas Buckner, and Joan La Barbara. With a minimalist disdain for drama, Ashley typically wrote texts of monologues for the characters of his operas, although he did set a libretto by Maria Irene Fornes for the opera Balseros (1997), commissioned by the Florida Grand Opera. He followed with two operas that reflect on mortality, Dust (1998) and Celestial Excursions (2003). Among his later instrumental compositions are Basic 10 (1988) for snare drum or other percussion instruments, Outcome Inevitable (1991) for chamber orchestra, Van Cao’s Meditation (1992) for piano, and Berceuse (2011) for violin and piano. Ashley’s final vocal works were Hidden Similarities (2005) for voices and eight instruments, World War III Just the Highlights (2010) for solo voice and chorus, and the operas Concrete (2006), Crash (2013–2014), Quicksand (2011–2015). See also ANDERSON, BETH (1950– ); GANN, KYLE

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(1955– ); INDETERMINACY; KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); MULTICULTURALISM; PAYNE, MAGGI (1945– ); SUBLETTE, NED (1951– ); SYNTHESIZER; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. ATONALITY. The second half of the 19th century saw a relaxation of the traditionally strict reliance on a tonal center to anchor and define a score and its harmonic movement, due in large part to the pronounced chromaticism of Richard Wagner’s operas, most notably Tristan und Isolde (1859) and Parsifal (1882). Franz Liszt’s Bagatelle sans tonalité (1885) for piano is perhaps the most extreme and prophetic work of that time. Claude Debussy, Gustav Mahler, Charles Ives, and Alexander Scriabin all pushed against the limits of tonal composition in the first decade of the 20th century, and by 1909, Arnold Schoenberg was composing without tonality in such works as Erwartung. When his modernist music was called atonal, however, Schoenberg resisted the label as a misnomer, describing a music without tones. He preferred the term pantonal: an equal importance of all the pitches, as opposed to the pecking orders of tonal organization. But the term atonal stuck as a designation for music that is not tonal. Schoenberg developed his twelve-tone method in the early 1920s, and this technique was embraced by many composers over the decades; it also impacted the music of independent atonal chromatic composers such as Elliott Carter, Stefan Wolpe, Miriam Gideon, and Ralph Shapey. Other methods for avoiding tonality include chance and indeterminate procedures, as with John Cage and his followers; the development of new sounds with tape music, electronic music, and electroacoustic music; and the use of density and noise, as in the music of Conlon Nancarrow, Iannis Xenakis, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Sun Ra, or the free improvisers. See also ANHALT, ISTVÁN (1919–2012); BABBITT, MILTON (1916–2011); BARRAQUÉ, JEAN (1928–1973); BARTÓK, BÉLA (1881–1945); BECKER, JOHN J. (1886–1961); BERG, ALBAN (1885–1935); BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003); BEYER, JOHANNA M. (1888–1944); BIRTWISTLE, HARRISON (SIR) (1934– ); BISCARDI, CHESTER (1948– ); BOULEZ, PIERRE (1925–2016); BRAND, MAX (1896–1980); BRAXTON, ANTHONY (1945– ); BROWN, EARLE (1926–2002); CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981); CARRILLO, JULIÁN (1875–1965); CERHA, FRIEDRICH (1926– ); COLEMAN, ORNETTE (1930–2015); COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965); CRAWFORD SEEGER, RUTH (1901–1953); DAHL, INGOLF (1912–1970); DALLAPICCOLA, LUIGI (1904–1975); DAVIDOVSKY, MARIO (1934– ); DAVIES, PETER MAXWELL (SIR) (1934–2016); DISSONANCE; DLUGOSZEWSKI, LUCIA (1934–2000); DRUCKMAN, JACOB (1928–1996); EISLER, HANNS (1898–1962); ELLINGTON, DUKE (1899–1974); EXPRESSIONISM; FELDMAN, MORTON (1926–1987); FERNEYHOUGH, BRIAN (1943– ); FERRARI, LUC

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(1929–2005); FILM MUSIC; FINE, VIVIAN (1913–2000); FINNEY, ROSS LEE (1906–1997); FORMALISM; FOSS, LUKAS (1922–2009); FREE JAZZ; GERHARD, ROBERTO (1896–1970); GOEHR, ALEXANDER (1932– ); HAUER, JOSEF MATTHIAS (1883–1959); HELPS, ROBERT (1928–2001); HENRY, PIERRE (1927–2017); HILLER, LEJAREN (1924–1994); HUNT, JERRY (1943–1993); JOHNSON, TOM (1939– ); JOLIVET, ANDRÉ (1905–1974); KIRCHNER, LEON (1919–2009); KOLB, BARBARA (1939– ); KONDO, JO (1947– ); KOSUGI, TAKEHISA (1938–2018); KRENEK, ERNST (1900–1991); LEBARON, ANNE (1953– ); LEÓN, TANIA (1943– ); LIEBERSON, PETER (1946–2011); LIGETI, GYÖRGY (1923–2006); LOURIÉ, ARTHUR (1892–1966); LUCIER, ALVIN (1931– ); LUENING, OTTO (1900–1996); LUTOSLAWSKI, WITOLD (1913–1994); MADERNA, BRUNO (1920–1973); MAMLOK, URSULA (1923–2016); MARTIN, FRANK (1890–1974); MAW, NICHOLAS (1935–2009); MIMAROGLU, ILHAN (1926–2012); NEOCLASSICISM; NILSSON, BO (1937–2018); NONO, LUIGI (1924–1990); NØRGÅRD, PER (1932– ); OPERA; PERLE, GEORGE (1915–2009); POSTMODERNISM; POUSSEUR, HENRI (1929–2009); POWELL, MEL (1923–1998); REYNOLDS, ROGER (1934– ); RIEGGER, WALLINGFORD (1885–1961); ROCHBERG, GEORGE (1918–2005); ROSLAVETS, NIKOLAI (1881–1944); RUDHYAR, DANE (1895–1985); RUGGLES, CARL (1876–1971); SCHAEFFER, PIERRE (1910–1995); SCHNABEL, ARTUR (1882–1951); SCHULLER, GUNTHER (1925–2015); SESSIONS, ROGER (1896–1985); SKALKOTTAS, NIKOS (1904–1949); SOMERS, HARRY (1925–1999); STRAVINSKY, IGOR (1882–1971); SUBOTNICK, MORTON (1933– ); TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ); TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TAL, JOSEF (1910–2008); TALMA, LOUISE (1906–1996); TAYLOR, CECIL (1929–2018); TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006); TUDOR, DAVID (1926–1996); TÜÜR, ERKKI-SVEN (1959– ); USSACHEVSKY, VLADIMIR (1911–1990); VARÈSE, EDGARD (1883–1965); WEBER, BEN (1916–1979); WEBERN, ANTON (1883–1945); WOLFF, CHRISTIAN (1934– ); WUORINEN, CHARLES (1938– ); ZIMMERMANN, BERND ALOIS (1918–1970); ZORN, JOHN (1953– ). AURIC, GEORGES. See GROUPE DES SIX. AUSTIN, LARRY (1930–2018). American composer, musician, and educator. Larry Austin studied with Darius Milhaud, Violet Archer, and Andrew Imbrie; he taught at the University of North Texas (1978–1996) and other institutions, and he is the coauthor of Learning to Compose (1989). Founder and conductor of the New Music Ensemble (1963–1968), Austin also founded and edited the new-music journal Source (1967–1973). His post-

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modern composition frequently utilized randomness and indeterminacy, and Austin first gained renown with such compositions as Improvisations for Orchestra and Jazz Soloists (1961) and Changes (1965) for trombone and tape. Among his multimedia works are Bass (1966), Tableaux vivants (1973, rev. 1981), and Catalogo Voce (1979); his electronic music includes Phoenix (1974), *Stars (1982), and Djuro’s Tree (1997); John Explains (2007) utilizes the recorded voice of John Cage. Austin’s recent electroacoustic scores have combined computer with violin (Redux, 2007), piano (ReduxTwo, 2008), and solo, duo, quartet, or octet of clarinets (ReduxThree, 2011). See also ANDERSON, BETH (1950– ); CHANCE MUSIC; IVES, CHARLES (1874–1954); KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ).

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B BABBITT, MILTON (1916–2011). American composer and educator. Milton Babbitt studied with Marion Bauer at New York University in 1934 and began private studies with Roger Sessions the following year. He later joined Sessions on the faculty at Princeton (1938–1984) and taught at Juilliard (1971–2008); his students include Lejaren Hiller, Peter Lieberson, Jonathan Harvey, Richard Maxfield, Frederic Rzewski, Richard Teitelbaum, and Harrison Birtwistle. An essential figure in late modernist composition, Babbitt originated the techniques of total serialism, extending Arnold Schoenberg’s twelve-tone method of pitch organization to rhythm, dynamics, and timbre in Three Compositions for Piano (1947), Composition for Four Instruments (1948), Composition for 12 Instruments (1948), Composition for Viola and Piano (1950), All Set (1957) for jazz ensemble, and such vocal scores as The Widow’s Lament in Springtime (1950), Du (1953), and Two Sonnets (1955). Babbitt was codirector of the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, which he cofounded in 1958, and he consulted in the creation of its RCA Mark II synthesizer. Prizing electronic music for its precise articulation of highly complex rhythms, he created Composition for Synthesizer (1961) and Ensembles (1964). He also combined electronic sounds with soprano in Vision and Prayer (1961), Philomel (1964), and the text-sound piece Phenomena (1974); string orchestra in Correspondences (1967); piano in Reflections (1975); violin and small orchestra in Concerti (1976); and saxophone in Images (1979). Although the rigors of Babbitt’s music made large-ensemble performances infrequent, he composed the orchestral pieces Relata I (1965), Relata II (1968), Piano Concertos Nos. 1 (1985) and 2 (1998), Transfigured Notes (1986) for string orchestra, and Concerti for Orchestra (2004). More frequently he wrote for chamber groups: Four Play (1984) for clarinet, violin, cello, and piano; Counterparts (1992) for brass quintet; Quartet (1995) for piano and strings; Quintet for clarinet and strings (1996); Swan Song No. 1 (2003) for six instruments; and six string quartets (1948–1993). His other major works for voice include An Elizabethan Sextette (1979) for six-part 33

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women’s chorus, Three Cultivated Choruses (1982) for four-part chorus, Four Cavalier Settings (1991) for tenor and guitar, and Autobiography of the Eye (2004) for soprano and cello. See also ATONALITY; DISSONANCE; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POLYRHYTHM; SCHULLER, GUNTHER (1925–2015); SERIALISM; SOLLBERGER, HARVEY (1938– ); WEISBERG, ARTHUR (1931–2009); WUORINEN, CHARLES (1938– ); ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). BADINGS, HENK (1907–1987). Javanese-born Dutch composer, musician, and educator. Henk Badings studied with Willem Pijper and won acclaim with his Cello Concerto No. 1 (1930) and Symphony No. 3 (1934). In 1956, he founded an electronic music studio in Eindhoven where he used computers and produced such notable pieces as Genese (1958), Die Frau von Andros (1960), and Toccata (1964), as well as electronic music for the films Yantra (1957) by James Whitney and Freud (1962) by John Huston. Badings also brought electronics into opera: Orestes (1954) for radio, which features musique concrète; Salto Mortale (1959), with an entirely electronic score; and Martin Korda D.P. (1960), combining electronics with orchestra. His other electroacoustic works include Capriccio for Violin and Two Soundtracks (1959), Piano Concertino (1967), and St. Mark Passion (1971) for male voices, orchestra, and tape. Badings developed an alternate tuning system of 31 tones to the octave, heard in his electronic music; his 1954 “little sound pieces” for acoustic 31tone organ, Reeks van kleine klankstukken and Suite van kleine klankstukken; and such chamber works as String Quartet No. 4 (1966), which employs difference and resultant tones, and Sonata No. 3 for Two Violins (1967). Badings was prolific, and his music includes 15 symphonies (1930–1983), four violin concertos (1928–1947), Piano Concertos Nos. 1 (1940) and 2 (1955), Organ Concertos Nos. 1 (1952) and 2 (1966), Missa Antiphonica (1987) for double choir, and nine cantatas (1936–1987) for soloists, chorus, and orchestra. He taught at the Rotterdam Conservatory, the Conservatory of The Hague, and other institutions, and he wrote the books Contemporary Dutch Music (1936), Tonality Problems in New Music (1951), and About 31Tone Tuning (1978). See also JUST INTONATION; MICROTONALITY; MODERNISM; PLEROMA. BARBER, SAMUEL (1910–1981). American composer and musician. Samuel Barber studied with Rosario Scalero at the Curtis Institute of Music. A baritone and pianist, he composed neoromantic music with his own lyrical sound, beginning with such major works of the 1930s as Dover Beach (1931) for voice and string quartet, Overture to The School for Scandal (1932) for orchestra, and his classic Adagio for Strings (1936). Barber’s later

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music could be more dissonant, as in the ballet score Medea (1947) and Symphony No. 2 (1950); his Piano Sonata (1948) and Nocturne (1959) for piano explored twelve-tone techniques. Barber was also expert at writing for voice, with orchestra in Knoxville: Summer of 1915 (1947) and with piano in Hermit Songs (1953). His notable later works include Prayers of Kierkegaard (1954) for soprano, mixed chorus, and orchestra; the operas Vanessa (1958), with a libretto by Barber’s lifelong companion Gian Carlo Menotti, and Antony and Cleopatra (1966); Piano Concerto (1962); and Third Essay for Orchestra (1978). See also MODERNISM. BARRAQUÉ, JEAN (1928–1973). French composer, musician, and critic. Jean Barraqué studied piano with Francette Sirgue and composition with Jean Langlais; from 1948 to 1951, he attended Olivier Messiaen’s analysis classes at the Paris Conservatoire. A dynamic personal approach to the serial treatment of pitch and rhythm characterizes his small modernist output, starting with Barraqué’s Piano Sonata (1952), first recorded by Yvonne Loriod; Etude (1953), a work of musique concrète, created at Pierre Schaeffer’s Groupe de recherches de musique concrète; and the Friedrich Nietzsche setting Séquence (1955) for soprano and chamber ensemble. Barraqué set excerpts from Hermann Broch’s 1944 novel The Death of Virgil in Le temps restitué (1957, orchestrated 1968) for soprano, mixed chorus, and orchestra; he combined Broch with his own texts in his final vocal works: . . . au-délà du hasard (1959) for three female voices and four instrumental groups and Chant après chant (1966) for soprano, piano, and percussion sextet. His Concerto (1968) for clarinet, vibraphone, and six instrumental trios was his first purely instrumental work since his Piano Sonata, and it was the last composition Barraqué was able to complete. His critical writings include the 1962 book Debussy, which caused him to be sued for defaming Erik Satie, and he was sentenced to pay damages to Satie’s heir in 1972. The following year Barraqué died at age 45 in a Paris hospital, a few days after undergoing brain surgery. See also ATONALITY; DEBUSSY, CLAUDE (1862–1918); TAPE MUSIC; TOTAL SERIALISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. BARRETT, NATASHA (1972– ). English composer. Natasha Barrett studied at City University, London; in 2000, she settled in Norway. Her acousmatic music is derived from human, natural, and/or environmental sound in such works as Viva La Selva! (1999) and Angels and Devils (2002); the spatial use of electronic music informs Prince Prospero’s Party (2002) and Exploratio invisibilis (2003). Barrett utilizes computers to blend live electronics with musicians in such works as Diabolus (1999) for soprano and percussion; Symbiosis (2002) for cello; and Deconstructing Dowland (2009) for guitar, which quotes John Dowland. In A Collector’s Chest (2013) for

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guitar, percussion, soprano and alto saxophones, double bass, accordion, and spatialized electronic sound, Barrett calls for guided improvisation. Among her sound installations are Rain Forest Cycle (2000), Microclimates III–VI (2007, also a concert work), and the interactive OSTTS (2012, rev. 2014). Barrett’s spatial approach to electronic sound characterizes her recent works both acousmatic (Hidden Values, 2012; A Soundwalk through Shanghai, 2014; Involuntary Expression, 2017) and electroacoustic (Allure and Hoodwink for piano, violin, and computer, 2014; Sagittarius A* for violin and computer, 2017). See also CHANCE MUSIC; ECOMUSICOLOGY; POSTMODERNISM. BARTH, HANS (1897–1956). German-born American composer, musician, educator, and theorist. Hans Barth studied at the Leipzig Conservatory as a child and settled in the United States with his family in 1907, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1912. A concert pianist, he taught at the Mannes School and the Jacksonville College of Music and served as director of the Yonkers Institute of Musical Art and New York’s National School for Musical Culture. Inspired by Ferruccio Busoni, Barth explored microtonality; with funding from Charles Ives, he and George Weitz of the Chickering Piano Company designed and built a quarter-tone piano that Barth used in his Piano Concerto (1928), Piano Sonatas Nos. 1 (1929) and 2 (1932), Concerto No. 2 for Quarter-Tone Piano and Quarter-Tone Strings (1930), Quintet (1930) with strings, and Ten Etudes for Quarter-Tone Piano and Orchestra (1944). His microtonal music also includes the chamber opera Miragia (1928) and Suite (1930) for quarter-tone strings, brass, and kettledrums. Among Barth’s other compositions are his Pantomime Symphony (1937), Drama Symphony (1940), and Prince of Peace Symphony (1940). See also ALTERNATE TUNING SYSTEMS; GIDEON, MIRIAM (1906–1996); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; MODERNISM. BARTÓK, BÉLA (1881–1945). Hungarian-born American composer, musician, and educator. One of the crucial modernists of the first half of the 20th century, Bartók transmuted folk music into radical new harmonies, rhythms, and timbres. Born in the village of Nagyszentmiklós in Hungary (today Sînnicolau Mare, Romania), Béla Viktor János Bartók received piano lessons from his mother at age five and was composing by age nine. In 1899, he began studying at the Budapest Academy of Music with István Tomán (piano) and János Koessler (composition). Bartók’s first scores showed the impress of Ludwig van Beethoven and Johannes Brahms; in the early 1900s, he was also drawn to the works of Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner, and Richard Strauss. The seismic shift in his composition occurred when he heard the folk music of Slovakia in 1904. For the rest of his life, Bartók studied,

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transcribed, and arranged what he referred to respectfully as peasant music, becoming one of the great ethnomusicologists of his day in researching the folk music of Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia, as well as Turkish and Arabic music. Bartók cocomposed Twenty Hungarian Folksongs (1906) with his friend Zoltán Kodály, another folk-music enthusiast, and the following year he was appointed to the piano staff of the academy, where he taught until 1934. He also encountered the music of Claude Debussy then, and the qualities of Hungarian folk music that he heard in Debussy’s harmonies and melodies prompted Bartók to turn away from Germanic models in his music. Impressionism and folk music are reflected in the unusual motivic structures, lively rhythms, and polytonal passages of Bartók’s first major works: Violin Concerto No. 1 (1908), 14 Bagatelles for piano (1908), String Quartet No. 1 (1909), Two Pictures for orchestra (1910). His music elaborated into fierce dissonances and dark expressionist shadings with three great theater works: the one-act opera Duke Bluebeard’s Castle (1911), the ballet The Wooden Prince (1916), and the pantomime The Miraculous Mandarin (1919). He also relied less upon the use of a home key in his String Quartet No. 2 (1917) and such piano scores as Allegro Barbaro (1911) and Suite (1916). Utilizing drones and reiterated tones, Bartók would establish tonal emphases or levels, creating the sensation of a key while avoiding its harmonic limitations. This use of a centralizing tone to maintain musical character, which Bartók called pantonality, opened his musical sensibility to any available pitch or sound. His Sonatas Nos. 1 (1921) and 2 (1922) for violin and piano were unusually chromatic and dense, with affinities to the atonal and twelve-tone music of Arnold Schoenberg. After a 1923 encounter with the tone-cluster piano music of Henry Cowell, Bartók’s use of densities and polyrhythmic complexity became even more extreme in his Piano Sonata (1926), Piano Concerto No. 1 (1926), and String Quartets Nos. 3 (1927) and 4 (1928). “Musique nocturnes,” the fifth movement of Out of Doors (1926) for piano, gave a name to the atmospheric “night music” passages he developed during the 1920s. Impressionism and expressionism overlap in these mysterious sound worlds, rich with the unusual timbres of extended performance techniques and tiny enigmatic gestures suggestive of nocturnal nature. Bartók’s international reputation spread during the 1930s, thanks to his concertizing and the performances of such major scores as Cantata Profana for soloists, chorus, and orchestra (1930); Piano Concerto No. 2 (1933); Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta (1936); Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion (1937); Contrasts for clarinet, violin, and piano (1938); Violin Concerto No. 2 (1938); and String Quartets Nos. 5 (1935) and 6 (1939).

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But by the end of the 1930s, the Hungarian government was preparing to join the Axis nations, and Bartók, an unwavering opponent of fascism, decided to leave his homeland. He immigrated to the United States, arriving in 1940. Residing chiefly in New York, Bartók maintained a precarious existence, performing occasionally (often with his second wife, pianist Ditta Pásztory) and cataloging folk-music collections for Columbia University, where he received an honorary doctorate in 1940. He was plagued by ill health throughout his life, and his physical condition deteriorated drastically during his last years in America. Yet Bartók rallied from depression and illness to produce three of his finest scores: Concerto for Orchestra (1943), Sonata for Solo Violin (1944), and Piano Concerto No. 3 (1945). He became a U.S. citizen in 1945 but by then had developed leukemia, and he died that year in a New York hospital at age 64, leaving his Viola Concerto unfinished. Composer Tibor Serly, a Kodály pupil and friend of Bartók’s, prepared a performing version of the concerto in 1949; other versions have come from violist Csaba Erdélyi (1992) and from Peter Bartók (the composer’s son) and Nelson Dellamaggiore (1995). See also BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003); BITONALITY; CRUMB, GEORGE (1929– ); FELDMAN, MORTON (1926–1987); FORMALISM; GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ); KOLISCH, RUDOLF (1896–1978); KURTÁG, GYÖRGY (1926– ); MILHAUD, DARIUS (1892–1974); MULTICULTURALISM; ORNSTEIN, LEO (ca. 1892–2002); POUND, EZRA (1885–1972); QUARTER-TONE MUSIC; SMIT, LEO (1921–1999); SPATIAL MUSIC; THORVALDSDOTTIR, ANNA (1977– ); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ). BAUER, MARION (1882–1955). American composer, musician, educator, and critic. Pianist Marion Bauer studied with Nadia Boulanger and taught at New York University (1926–1951), Juilliard, and other institutions; her students include Milton Babbitt and Miriam Gideon. Bauer developed an impressionist sensibility in From the New Hampshire Woods (1922–1923) for piano, Four Poems (1924) for voice and piano, and A Lament on an African Theme (1927) for orchestra; her more aggressively modernist scores include Turbulence (1924) for piano, String Quartet (1925), Four Piano Pieces (1930), and To Losers (1932) for voice and piano. Sun Splendor (1926) for two pianos found success in her 1947 orchestration; so did more conservative works such as Symphonic Suite for Strings (1940), American Youth Concerto (1942) for piano and orchestra, Symphony No. 1 (1950), and Prelude and Fugue for Flute and Strings (1951). Her piano pieces Patterns (1946) and Four Moods (1950–1954) employ twelve-tone techniques. The author of Twentieth Century Music (1933, rev. 1947) and other books, Bauer also wrote criticism for Modern Music, the Evening Mail, and the Musical Leader.

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BAX, ARNOLD (SIR) (1883–1953). English composer and musician. Arnold Bax studied composition and piano at London’s Royal Academy of Music. He first gained attention with such works for voice and piano as A Celtic Song Cycle (1904) and “The White Peace” (1906). Blending postRomantic and impressionist qualities with Irish, Russian, and German folk song, Bax found his greatest success with orchestral music: The Garden of Fand (1913, orch. 1916), November Woods (1917), Tintagel (1917, orch. 1919), Summer Music (1917, orch. 1921, rev. 1932), and seven symphonies (1922–1939). He was knighted in 1937 and served as master of the King’s Musick (1942–1952). Bax’s later works include his Violin Concerto (1938), A Legend (1944) for orchestra, Piano Trio (1945), and the score of David Lean’s film Oliver Twist (1948). See also MODERNISM. THE BEATLES. English composers and musicians. Arguably the greatest band in the history of rock music, The Beatles also became the most commercially successful composers of 20th-century avant-garde music, creating innovative records that were internationally celebrated and bringing postmodern techniques into rock. The band was a unique convergence of talent, with three major artists in singers/multi-instrumentalists/composers John Lennon (1940–1980), Paul McCartney (1942– ), and George Harrison (1943–2001), who began playing together in 1958. They were joined by drummer Ringo Starr (1940– ) in 1962 and released their first album the following year. Working with producer George Martin, they began to exploit some of the new possibilities in processing and transforming vocal and instrumental tracks. Revolver (1966) featured remarkable tape-music effects for Lennon’s “Tomorrow Never Knows”; Harrison’s guitar is also heard backwards there and on Lennon’s “I’m Only Sleeping.” McCartney’s “Eleanor Rigby” had a string quartet accompanying the voices. Harrison introduced a multicultural dimension, playing sitar on “Love You To” and employing Indian techniques in “Taxman” and “I Want to Tell You.” Indian elements also define Harrison’s “Within You without You” on Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967)—which included the face of Karlheinz Stockhausen on its cover. Lennon utilized startling instrumental densities in “A Day in the Life” and tape collages in “Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite,” qualities he also explored in “All You Need Is Love” and “I Am the Walrus” on Magical Mystery Tour (1967). His “Revolution 9” on the double-LP The Beatles (1968, aka The White Album) was a work of pure musique concrète. Abbey Road (1969), The Beatles’ final album, used segues, edits, and reprises to weave Lennon and McCartney’s songs into a suite. It also featured one of the first synthesizers available, used on McCartney’s “Maxwell’s Silver Hammer,” Harrison’s “Here Comes the Sun,” and Lennon’s “I Want You (She’s So Heavy).” Lennon pursued the tape experiments of “Revolution 9” with Yoko Ono on their LP Two Virgins (1968).

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Harrison released the synthesizer album Electronic Sound (1969). McCartney collaborated with composer/arranger Carl Davis on Liverpool Oratorio (1991) for soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra. For her “Hyper Beatles” series, pianist Aki Takahashi commissioned arrangements of Beatles songs from an array of composers, including John Cage, James Tenney, Frederic Rzewski, Peter Garland, Bunita Marcus, Yuji Takahashi, Alvin Curran, Tan Dun, Terry Riley, Christian Wolff, Pauline Oliveros, Per Nørgård, Toru Takemitsu, Alvin Lucier, Lois V Vierk, and Barbara Monk Feldman. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; FILM MUSIC; SURREALISM. BECKER, JOHN J. (1886–1961). American composer, musician, and educator. John Joseph Becker graduated from Cincinnati Krueger Conservatory in 1905 and received his doctorate from the Wisconsin Conservatory in 1923; he also taught at the Kidd-Key Conservatory of North Texas (1906–1914) and the University of Notre Dame (1917–1928). His early music featured impressionist techniques, and Becker was drawn toward modernism in the late 1920s. His positive review of Ezra Pound’s book on George Antheil led to a correspondence with Pound and Becker’s setting of Pound’s translations of Li Po, 2 Poems of Departure (1928). Meeting Henry Cowell in 1928 encouraged Becker’s modernist interests, and his Symphonia Brevis (1929, rev. 1933) for orchestra and Concerto Arabesque (1930) for piano and chamber orchestra featured dissonant atonal counterpoint, inspired by 16th-century polyphony. Becker was then chairing the Department of Fine Arts at St. Thomas College in St. Paul, Minnesota (1929–1933), where he founded a chamber orchestra that he led in music by Cowell, Charles Ives, Carl Ruggles, Wallingford Riegger, and himself. Becker called for dancers in the scores Dance Figure (1932) for voice and orchestra and Abongo (1933) for large percussion ensemble. His search for a new music drama resulted in the multimedia work A Marriage with Space (1935) for orchestra, dancers, actors, colors, and lights, from which he derived his Symphony No 4, “Dramatic Scenes” (1938). He also extracted an orchestral suite from his one-act dance play When the Willow Nods (1939). Privilege and Privation (1940) was a one-act opera with chamber orchestra. Becker’s other important compositions of the 1930s include Missa Symphonica (1933) for male voices, Concerto for Horn and Orchestra (1933), Psalms of Love (1935) for soprano or tenor and piano, and his series of Soundpieces chamber works, launched with Soundpiece for Piano and String Quartet (1933). Soundpiece No. 2 for string quartet and No. 3 for violin and piano followed in 1936; No. 4 for string quartet and No. 5 for piano, in 1937. Becker was director of the Federal Music Project in Minnesota (1935–1941); taught at Barat College (1943–1957) and Chicago Musical College (1949–1953); and wrote film music for Julius Caesar (1950). His composition became more infrequent in his last years, but it includes such notable

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works as his Violin Concerto (1948), At Dieppe (1959) for voice and piano, and his final Soundpieces: No. 6 (1942) for flute and clarinet, No. 7 (1949) for two pianos, and No. 8 (1959) for string quartet. BEHRMAN, DAVID (1937– ). Austrian-born American composer, musician, and educator. Born in Salzburg of American parents, David Behrman was raised in New York City where he studied composition with Wallingford Riegger; he also studied at Columbia University and with Walter Piston at Harvard University, Karlheinz Stockhausen in Darmstadt, and Henri Pousseur in Brussels. Behrman learned the basics of electronic music from Gordon Mumma and David Tudor. A composer/musician for the Merce Cunningham Dance Company, Behrman has also taught at Mills College, Rutgers, and Bard College, among other institutions. His early electroacoustic works for chamber ensemble and tape, Track (1965) and . . . for nearly an hour . . . (1968), include sounds of urban and natural environments. Behrman was a cofounder of the Sonic Arts Union (1966–1976) and performed internationally with Mumma, Robert Ashley, and Alvin Lucier, playing such live electronic works as Wave Trains (1967) and Runthrough (1970). He also performed with the League of Automatic Music Composers from 1978 to 1980. Behrman began using synthesizers with interactive computers in Figure in a Clearing (1977), combining it with a cello. Interspecies Smalltalk (1984) used a computer with violin; Leapday Night (1986), with trumpets; and Navigation and Astronomy (1990), with koto. My Dear Siegfried (2003) combined a sampler and computer with its vocalists and instrumentalists. His notable recent works include Freeze Dip (2011) for instruments and electronics and How We Got Here (2014) for orchestra. Among Behrman’s sound installations are In Thin Air (1997) and Pen Light & View Finder (2002); with George Lewis, he created Algorithmes et kalimba (1986) and A Map of the Known World (1987). See also CAGE, JOHN (1912–1992); ECOMUSICOLOGY; THE HUB; KOSUGI, TAKEHISA (1938–2018); MULTICULTURALISM; ONCE GROUP; POSTMODERNISM. BERBERIAN, CATHY (1925–1983). American composer, musician, and educator. Mezzo-soprano Cathy Berberian studied at Columbia University and the Milan Conservatory and became an important performer of modern and postmodern music. She was married (1950–1965) to Luciano Berio, and for her he composed Circles (1960), Folk Songs (1964), Sequenza III (1966), and Recital I (for Cathy) (1972). Both Berio and Bruno Maderna created tape music from recordings of her voice. Other composers who wrote music for Berberian include Darius Milhaud, Igor Stravinsky, Hans Werner Henze, Sylvano Bussotti, Henri Pousseur, Harry Somers, William Walton, and John Cage. Berberian composed the graphic score

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Stripsody (1966) for solo voice, utilizing sound-effects words from comic strips, and Morsicat(h)y (1969) for piano right hand, derived from Morse code; she taught at Vancouver University and Cologne’s Rheinische Musikschule. She died in Rome of a heart attack at age 57. See also EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; ONCE GROUP; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. BERG, ALBAN (1885–1935). Austrian composer. An essential early modernist and one of the first great exponents of twelve-tone composition, Berg developed new ways of joining tonal and atonal techniques and created a body of work that ranged from searing expressionism to the lyrical and Romantic. Alban Maria Johannes Berg was born into a well-off family in Vienna and began teaching himself music in 1900. That same year his father died, which left the family in hard financial straits. Accepting Berg as a private student in 1904, Arnold Schoenberg waived his fee. Studying with Schoenberg proved invaluable to Berg, as it did for his friend and fellow pupil Anton Webern, and the trio’s related activities eventually led to their being known as the “Second Viennese School.” Berg’s first works with opus numbers were composed in 1909, an accomplished Piano Sonata in a post-Romantic idiom and the more expressionistic Vier Lieder for voice and piano. After creating an ambiguously tonal String Quartet (1910), Berg stepped away from tonality in his Fünf Orchesterlieder nach Ansichtskartentexten von Peter Altenberg (1912) for voice and orchestra. When Schoenberg conducted the Vienna premiere of two of the Altenberg Lieder in 1913, there was bedlam in the audience, and the performance had to be stopped. That year Berg composed a miniaturist chamber piece, Vier Stücke for clarinet and piano. In this atonal score, which utilized toneclusters, Berg left behind the themes and motives of the Altenberg Lieder and worked instead with small motivic cells. With his Drei Orchesterstücke (1914), he anticipated aspects of the twelve-tone method that Schoenberg would introduce a decade later. Berg began writing an opera based on Georg Büchner’s play Woyzeck in 1914, but he halted his work on the libretto and music to serve in the Austrian Army (1915–1918) during World War I. Berg’s opera, titled Wozzeck, was completed in 1922 and premiered in Berlin in 1925, where it generated scandal and controversy; but the power of the music and the intensity of the drama brought Wozzeck international attention, and other European opera houses soon were staging it. Combining an array of vocal styles—operatic singing, Schoenbergian Sprechstimme, lines that are spoken in rhythmic synchronization with the music—Wozzeck became the classic expressionist opera and a fixture in the repertory. Berg’s dissonant and atonal score made real Büchner’s hallucinatory account of a lowly soldier who murders his unfaithful lover. Berg also completed the Chamber Concerto for piano, violin, and 13 wind instruments in 1925. His

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natural warmth and expressivity adapted readily to procedures from Schoenberg’s new method of twelve-tone organization, and his score included quarter-tones for the violin. Berg’s first fully twelve-tone piece was the 1925 song “Schliesse mir die Augen beide” for voice and piano, with a text that he had previously set in the late 1900s. Berg taught private composition students in the 1920s and 1930s, among them Ross Lee Finney and Theodor Adorno. During these years, his music melded tonal techniques with Schoenberg’s method and achieved a haunting and personal voice, exemplified by one of his greatest works, the Lyrische Suite (1926) for string quartet. The piece has autobiographical content as well: Berg encoded a confessional program of an illicit love affair within his composition, which he detailed in an annotated score (discovered in 1976 by composer and Berg scholar George Perle). Berg began his second opera, Lulu, in 1928, writing the libretto from two plays by Frank Wedekind, Erdgeist and Büsche der Pandora, in which a woman brings destruction to everyone who loves and desires her. Berg stopped work on Lulu to compose Der Wein (1929), a concert aria for soprano and orchestra, which set poetry by Charles Baudelaire. He incorporated jazz and the tango into this twelvetone work and inflected Lulu with traditional strains as well. Berg extracted the Lulu Suite for soprano and orchestra from his work-inprogress in 1934, but the following year he set Lulu aside once again, the instrumentation of its last act not yet finished, to compose a masterpiece: the elegiac Violin Concerto (1935), dedicated by Berg to the memory of 18-yearold Manon Gropius, whose mother had previously been married to Gustav Mahler, a composer whom Berg adored and whose music informed his own. The Violin Concerto, which includes a quotation from the chorale of Johann Sebastian Bach’s Cantata No. 60, became Berg’s most popular orchestral score. It was also his last: a few months later Berg died in Vienna at age 50, having developed blood poisoning from an abscess. The full Lulu was premiered in Paris in 1979 with a performing version of Act Three prepared by Friedrich Cerha. See also COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965); KOLISCH, RUDOLF (1896–1978); NEOCLASSICISM; SCELSI, GIACINTO (1905–1988); TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ). BERG, CHRISTOPHER (1949– ). American composer and musician. Christopher Berg studied piano with Robert Helps at the Manhattan School of Music and has championed the music of Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji. Among Berg’s compositions are Mass (1979) for soprano, mixed chorus, and orchestra; Tango Meditation (1986) for piano; Many Rooms (1992) for piano; We Have Heard the Chimes at Midnight (2004) for orchestra; and the opera Cymbeline (2007). His tuneful songs include Songs on Poems of Frank O’Hara (1985–1988) for medium voice and piano; Five “Russian” Lyrics (1994) for baritone and piano trio; L’intelligence et la musicalité chez les

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animaux (1996) for soprano, baritone, and piano, which sets texts by Erik Satie; Two Oscar Wilde Sonnets (1999) for voice and piano; and Lincoln Letters (2006) for tenor, baritone, and piano. Berg also scored the film Exorcising Annie (2014). See also POSTMODERNISM. BERGER, ARTHUR (1912–2003). American composer, musician, educator, and critic. Arthur Berger studied with Walter Piston, Nadia Boulanger, and Darius Milhaud. A neoclassicist with his Quartet for Winds (1941) and Serenade concertante (1944, rev. 1951) for orchestra, Berger adopted twelve-tone methods to that idiom in Chamber Music for 13 Players (1956) and String Quartet (1958). His other notable modernist works include Polyphony (1956) for orchestra; Septet (1966); Trio (1972) for guitar, violin, and prepared piano; Perspectives II (1985) for orchestra; and the quintet Diptych: Collages 1 & 2 (1990, rev. 1995). Berger and Bernard Herrmann became the founding editors of the Musical Mercury in 1934; Berger also wrote music criticism for the New York Herald Tribune and other publications, and in 1962, he cofounded Perspectives of New Music. The author of Aaron Copland (1963) and Reflections of an American Composer (2002), Berger taught at Brandeis University (1953–1980) and other institutions; his students include Charles Dodge, William Flanagan, and Alvin Lucier. See also COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990). BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003). Italian composer, musician, and educator. With a sure lyrical gift and a memorable feeling for texture and color, Berio synthesized different ideas and methodologies and became one of Europe’s most important late 20th-century composers. Born into a family of musicians in Oneglia (now Imperia), Italy, Luciano Berio attended the Milan Conservatory (1946–1950) and studied with composers G. F. Ghedini and G. C. Paribeni and conductor Carlo Maria Giulini. He married singer Cathy Berberian in 1950, and her unique talents informed many of his best vocal works, even after their marriage ended in 1965. Berio’s early music, such as Magnificat (1948) for two sopranos, mixed chorus, and orchestra and Due Pezzi (1951) for violin and piano or orchestra, showed the impact of such modernists as Béla Bartók, Igor Stravinsky, and Paul Hindemith. More original was the expressive instrumental color of El Mar la Mar (1952) for soprano, mezzo-soprano, piccolo, two clarinets, accordion, harp, cello, and double bass, which used folk elements and serial procedures. Continuing to investigate serialism, Berio studied with Luigi Dallapiccola at Tanglewood in 1952 and attended the Darmstadt Summer School for New Music the following year. Berio’s Cinque Variazioni (1953, rev. 1966) for piano was a serial work, and Nones (1954) for orchestra was totally serialized.

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Berio began creating tape music with Ritratto di città (1954), a collaboration with Bruno Maderna. In 1955, the two founded the Studio di Fonologia Musicale of the Italian Radio, with Berio as director until 1959. There he created the tape pieces Mutazioni (1955), Perspectives (1957), Thema (Omaggio a Joyce) (1958), Momenti (1960), and Visage (1961). Thema and Visage used Berberian’s voice as their initial sound source. Serenata 1 (1957) for flute and 14 instruments introduced spatial ideas into Berio’s music, and Allelujah (1956) for orchestra, which featured toneclusters, was reworked into Allelujah II (1958) for five orchestral groups and two conductors. Différences (1959) combined five musicians with a tape of their prerecorded playing. Sequenza (1958) for flute, which used proportional notation, led Berio to a lifelong series of solos, from Sequenza II (1963) for harp to Sequenza XIV (2002) for cello; these also begat the Chemins pieces, starting with Chemins I (1965) for harp and orchestra, after Sequenza II, and ending with Récit (1996, aka Chemins VII) for alto saxophone, an ensemble of 12 saxophones, and percussion, developed from Sequenza IXb (1981) for alto saxophone. With Tempi concertati (1959) for flute, violin, and small orchestra, Berio combined improvisation with strictly organized material. The seven orchestral sections and five pieces for solo voice of Epiphanie (1963, rev. 1965) can be performed in one of 10 different sequences. The aleatoric Sincronie (1964) for string quartet permits the players to select certain pitches. Berio also reasserted his love of folk music in 1964, completing his set of arrangements Folk Songs for mezzo-soprano and seven instruments (or orchestra, 1972). His other vocal music explored the relationship between phonetics and musical structures: Circles (1960) for female voice, harp, and two percussionists; Sequenza III (1966) for female voice; O King (1967) for mezzosoprano and five instruments; and the theatrical Recital I (for Cathy) (1972) for mezzo-soprano and 17 instruments. Passagio (1962) for soprano, two mixed choruses, and orchestra distributed one chorus among the audience. Laborintus II (1965), a theatrical piece for three female voices, speaker, 17 instruments, mixed chorus, and tape, referred to (but did not quote) such composers as Claudio Monteverdi and Stravinsky. Quotation defined one of Berio’s greatest works, Sinfonia (1968) for eight amplified voices and orchestra: Section II is an expanded version of O King, and Section III intercuts the third movement of Gustav Mahler’s Symphony No. 2 with an array of other quotations, from Johann Sebastian Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven to Maurice Ravel, Charles Ives, and Karlheinz Stockhausen. During these years, Berio taught at Tanglewood (1960), Mills College (1962, 1963–1964), and Juilliard (1965–1971). His students include Steve Reich, Louis Andriessen, Vinko Globokar, and Robert Moran. He founded the Juilliard Ensemble in 1967 and directed the Institut de Re-

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cherche et de Coordination Acoustique/Musique’s electroacoustic section (1974–1980). A conductor since the 1950s, Berio was artistic director of the Israel Chamber Orchestra (1975), Accademia Filarmonica Romana (1975–1976), Orchestra Regionale Toscana (1982–2003), and Maggio Musicale Fiorentino (1984–2003). Berio’s music-theater work Opera, completed in 1977, was essentially his first opera, and from it he derived such works as the theatrical Melodrama (1970) for voice and septet and E vó (1972), a Sicilian lullaby for soprano and chamber orchestra, which used quarter-tones. His operas La vera storia (1981) and Un re in ascolto (1983) were collaborations with writer Italo Calvino; Outis (1996) and Cronaca del luogo (1998) featured live electronics. Other notable later works include Voci (Folk Songs II) (1984) for viola and two instrumental groups and Naturale (1985) for viola, percussion, and recorded voice, both of which used Sicilian folk music; Rendering (1990) for orchestra, which used Franz Schubert’s sketches for his unfinished Symphony No. 10; Sequenza XIII (1995, aka Chanson) for accordion; Korót (1998) for eight cellos; and Stanze (2003) for baritone, three male choruses, and orchestra, his last work. Berio died of cancer of the spine in Rome at age 77. See also ATONALITY; CHANCE MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; ONCE GROUP; POSTMODERNISM; RASMUSSEN, KARL AAGE (1947– ); TEXT-SOUND MUSIC; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. BERNSTEIN, LEONARD (1918–1990). American composer, musician, and educator. Leonard Bernstein took piano lessons in his youth and studied with Walter Piston and Edward Burlingame Hill at Harvard University. He also studied at the Curtis Institute with Isabella Vengerova (piano), Fritz Reiner (conducting), and Randall Thompson (orchestration); at Tanglewood, he studied with conductor Serge Koussevitzky. Bernstein became assistant conductor with the New York Philharmonic in 1943 and later its music director (1958–1969), establishing himself as one of the great conductors of the era. Bernstein’s notable compositions begin with his Symphony No. 1, “Jeremiah” (1942) for orchestra and mezzo-soprano and the ballet scores Fancy Free (1944) and Facsimile (1946), which featured jazz elements. Jazz also informed Bernstein’s Symphony No. 2, “The Age of Anxiety” (1949, rev. 1965) for piano and orchestra, Prelude, Fugue, and Riffs (1949) for clarinet and jazz ensemble, the one-act opera Trouble in Tahiti (1951), and his score for the 1954 film On the Waterfront. Bernstein was equally active in popular music during these years, scoring the hit musicals On the Town (1944), Wonderful Town (1953), Candide (1956), and West Side Story (1957). Although his music was tonal and tuneful, Bernstein also made use of modernist techniques, employing twelve-tone methods in such works as Fancy Free, Candide, the ballet score The Dybbuk (1974), and Arias and

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Barcarolles (1988), a song cycle for mezzo-soprano, baritone, and piano four-hands or strings and percussion. Among his later compositions are Symphony No. 3, “Kaddish” (1963, rev. 1977) for speaker, soprano, mixed chorus, boys’ choir, and orchestra; Chichester Psalms (1965) for mixed or male chorus, boy soprano, and orchestra; the rock- and pop-inspired multimedia Mass: A Theater Piece for Singers, Players, and Dancers (1971); Songfest (1977) for six vocalists and orchestra; the three-act opera A Quiet Place (1984), which includes Trouble in Tahiti; and Jubilee Games (1986), revised in 1989 as Concerto for Orchestra with a baritone solo (live or on prerecorded tape). The author of The Joy of Music (1959), The Infinite Variety of Music (1966), and Findings (1982), Bernstein taught at Tanglewood (1942–1990) where his students included Halim El-Dabh; he also presented the celebrated series of Young People’s Concerts (1958–1972). BEYER, JOHANNA M. (1888–1944). German-born American composer, musician, and educator. Born in Leipzig, Johanna Magdalena Beyer completed her conservatory studies in Germany and settled in New York in 1923, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1930. She received her teacher’s certificate from the Mannes College of Music in 1928 and studied composition with modernists Henry Cowell, Dane Rudhyar, Ruth Crawford, and Charles Seeger. Supporting herself as a piano teacher and an accompanist, Beyer began producing dissonant and atonal scores in the 1930s, which were distinguished by her polyrhythmic imagination; an original use of sliding tones, sustained tones, and tone-clusters; and her sly sense of humor. Beyer composed for winds with her Suites for Clarinet 1 and 1b (1932), Suite for Clarinet and Bassoon (1933), and Quintet for Woodwinds (1933). Her vocal music includes Three Songs (1933) for soprano, piano, and percussion; Ballad of the Star-Eater (1934) and Three Songs (1934), both for soprano and clarinet; and The Robin in the Rain (1935), for soprano, women’s chorus, and piano (or soprano and mixed chorus). Beyer also wrote impressive piano works (Gebrauchs-Musik, 1934; Clusters, aka New York Waltzes, 1936), percussion-ensemble scores (Percussion Suite, 1933; Percussion, 1935), and her remarkable String Quartets Nos. 1 (1934) and 2 (1936). During Cowell’s imprisonment (1936–1940), Beyer looked after his New Music Quarterly publications and served as his secretary, agent, and advocate. She composed for mixed chorus (The Federal Music Project, 1936; The Composers’ Forum-Laboratory, 1937; The People, Yes, 1937; The MainDeep, 1937) and for orchestra (Symphonic Suite, 1937; CYRNAB, 1937; Symphonic Opus 3, 1939; Symphonic Movement I, 1939; Symphonic Opus 5, 1940), and she remained devoted to the percussion ensemble with her 1939 scores March, Waltz, Three Movements, and Percussion, Opus 14. Her chamber music continued to rely on winds, with Sonata for Clarinet and Piano (1936), Movement for Woodwinds (1938), Suite for Oboe and Bas-

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soon (1939), and Six Pieces for Oboe and Piano (1939). She also wrote Movement for Double Bass and Piano (1936); Movement for Two Pianos (1936); Suite for Violin and Piano (1937); Movement (1938, aka Dance for Strings) for violin, viola, cello, and double bass; and her undated String Quartet IV. Beyer’s political-themed opera Status Quo may never have been completed, but she did derive from it two 1938 scores: Dance for orchestra and the forward-looking Music of the Spheres for three electrical instruments or strings with lion’s roar and triangle. That year she was diagnosed as having ALS, the debilitating disease that would take her life at age 55. Her final works were Symphonic Movement II (1941); the percussion-ensemble scores Strive (1941) and Horizons (1942); and the tonal Sonatina in C (1943) for piano. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC. BIRTWISTLE, HARRISON (SIR) (1934– ). English composer and educator. Harrison Birtwistle studied with Richard Hall at the Royal Manchester College of Music (1952–1955) where he was first exposed to serial techniques; he also investigated the music of Igor Stravinsky and Olivier Messiaen during these years, and he studied with Milton Babbitt in 1966. Birtwistle and his fellow students Peter Maxwell Davies and Alexander Goehr came to represent what was called the “Manchester School” of atonal modernism. Birtwistle was admired for his Refrains and Choruses (1957) for wind quintet; Monody for Corpus Christi (1959) for soprano, flute, horn, and violin; and Entractes (1962) for flute, viola, and harp. A devotion to the cultural history of England characterizes Narration (1963) for chorus and his operas Punch and Judy (1967), Down by the Greenwood Side (1969), and Gawain (1991, rev. 1994, 1999). Birtwistle’s fascination with ancient Greece also informed his vocal music, with Entractes and Sappho Fragments (1962) for soprano and instruments, . . . agm . . . (1979) for mixed chorus and three instrumental ensembles, and the operas The Mask of Orpheus (1983) and The Minotaur (2007). Opera became a specialty for Birtwistle: Yan Tan Tethera (1984), The Second Mrs. Kong (1994), The Last Supper (2000), and The Io Passion (2003). His important scores for orchestra include The Triumph of Time (1972), Earth Dances (1986), Exody (1997), The Shadow of Night (2001), Violin Concerto (2010), and Responses: Sweet Disorder and the Carefully Careless (2014) for piano and orchestra; among his chamber-ensemble pieces are Tragoedia (1965), Silbury Air (1977), Secret Theatre (1984), Ritual Fragment (1990), and Cantus Iambeus (2005). Birtwistle has taught at King’s College London and the Royal Academy of Music in London; his students include Ashley Fure. He was knighted in 1988. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); FILM MUSIC; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC.

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BISCARDI, CHESTER (1948– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Chester Biscardi studied at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and at Yale University where his teachers included Krzysztof Penderecki and Toru Takemitsu. He has taught at Sarah Lawrence College since 1977. Biscardi composed in an atonal idiom in At the Still Point (1977) for orchestra; twelve-tone techniques informed Trasumanar (1980) for 12 percussionists and piano. Tonal and melodic materials informed his Piano Concerto (1983) and the chamber opera Tight-Rope (1985), and such lyrical works as Resisting Stillness (1996) for two guitars and Modern Love Songs (2002) for voice and piano. A skilled pianist, Biscardi has written compellingly for the instrument with Mestiere (1979), Piano Sonata (1986, rev. 1987), Companion Piece (for Morton Feldman) (1991), and In Time’s Unfolding (2000). Other notable recent works include Recognition (2004, rev. 2007) for piano, violin, and string orchestra; Sailors & Dreamers (2010) for voice and piano; the quintet Footfalls (after Beckett) (2012); and Photo | Pier | Moonlight (2015, rev. 2016) for violin duo. See also FELDMAN, MORTON (1926–1987); MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); MODERNISM; NEOROMANTICISM. BITONALITY. Bitonal music involves the simultaneous use of two different key signatures. This form of polytonality can be heard in such early modernist works as Charles Ives’s Variations on “America” (1892) and Psalm 67 (1898) and Béla Bartók’s 14 Bagatelles (1908). Igor Stravinsky brought international attention to this dissonant technique with his ballet scores Petrushka (1911) and Le sacre du printemps (1913). Other examples of bitonal composition include Sergey Prokofiev’s Sarcasms (1914), Erik Satie’s Sports et divertissements (1914), Aaron Copland’s Music for the Theatre (1925), Nicolas Slonimsky’s Studies in Black and White (1928), Gustav Holst’s Double Concerto (1929), Silvestre Revueltas’s Cuauhnáhuac (1930) and Colorines (1933), and Duke Ellington’s “Main Stem” (1942). BLITZSTEIN, MARC (1905–1964). American composer and musician. A talented concert pianist by his teens, Marc Blitzstein turned to composition and studied with Rosario Scalero at the Curtis Institute. He relocated to Paris in 1926 to study with Nadia Boulanger, but a few months later, he left her and went to Berlin to study with Arnold Schoenberg in 1927—whom he also left some months later. Back in the United States, Blitzstein began composing tonal modernist scores such as Piano Sonata (1927), Percussion Music for the Piano (1929), and Piano Concerto (1931). Involved with leftwing politics by the mid-1930s, he stepped away from modernism and composed more accessible songs with progressive social content. Blitzstein had a

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keen ear for the rhythms of American speech, and his efforts rapidly coalesced into the musical play The Cradle Will Rock (1936), a classic cry of defiance from Depression-era America. He also wrote the book and lyrics for this biting satire, in which he delivered a passionate pro-labor message. Blitzstein wrote the texts for almost all his music-theater works. He followed The Cradle Will Rock with an opera, the political-themed No for an Answer (1940), and the Airborne Symphony (1946), a rousing flag-waver for narrator, soloists, chorus, and orchestra; his wartime film music also sought to boost morale. Blitzstein adapted Lillian Hellman’s play The Little Foxes for his most admired opera, Regina (1949), and he found success in the early 1950s writing a popular English translation of Bertolt Brecht’s lyrics for Kurt Weill’s The Threepenny Opera. But his Faustian opera Reuben, Reuben (1955) fared badly; also unsuccessful were the music and lyrics for Juno (1959), a musical based on Sean O’Casey’s Juno and the Paycock. While he was on a working vacation in Martinique early in 1964, three men robbed the 58-year-old Blitzstein and beat him to death. Leonard J. Lehrman utilized the composer’s sketches and notes to complete two operas that Blitzstein left unfinished: Idiots First (1973), a one-act adaptation of the Bernard Malamud story, and a full-length original, Sacco and Vanzetti (2003). BLOCH, ERNEST (1880–1959). Swiss-born American composer, musician, and educator. Ernest Bloch studied in Geneva and Brussels and came to the United States in 1916; he became a U.S. citizen in 1924. A violinist and conductor, Bloch taught at several American institutions and founded the Cleveland Institute of Music in 1920; among his students are Roger Sessions, George Antheil, and Leon Kirchner. Best known for such Jewishthemed works as Trois poèmes juifs (1913) for chamber orchestra, Israel (1916) for five voices and orchestra, Schelomo (1916) for cello and orchestra, and Sacred Service (1933) for baritone, mixed chorus, and orchestra, he also composed the neoclassical scores Concerto Grosso No. 1 (1925) for strings with piano obbligato, Violin Concerto (1938), and String Quartet No. 2 (1945). Bloch’s other notable works include Piano Quintet No. 1 (1923), which included quarter-tones, and America (1926) for mixed chorus and orchestra. See also MODERNISM. BOLCOM, WILLIAM (1938– ). American composer, musician, and educator. William Bolcom studied with Darius Milhaud and Olivier Messiaen in Paris and taught at the University of Michigan (1973–2008). Bolcom’s music is frequently eclectic: His massive oratorio Songs of Innocence and Experience (1956–1981) uses Romantic, modern, rock, and pop musical styles. His other notable works include 12 New Etudes (1977–1986) for piano; Gospel Preludes (1979–1984) for organ; the operas McTeague

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(1992), A View from the Bridge (1999), and A Wedding (2004); 11 string quartets (1950–2002); four violin sonatas (1956–1994); nine symphonies (1957–2012); and numerous cabaret songs and piano rags. An accomplished pianist, Bolcom has also recorded works by Milhaud, George Gershwin, Scott Joplin, and others. See also POSTMODERNISM. BOULANGER, LILI (1893–1918). French composer and musician. Daughter of composer Ernest Boulanger and sister of Nadia Boulanger, Lili Boulanger was a singer and organist. She studied composition with Paul Vidal at the Paris Conservatoire and sat in on Gabriel Fauré’s composition classes; she also studied privately with Georges Caussade. Among her early noteworthy scores are Nocturne (1911) for violin and piano and the cantata Faust et Hélène (1913). Impressionism informs such works as Cortège (1914) for violin and piano, Clairières dans le ciel (1914) for high voice and piano, and her orchestral scores D’un matin de printemps (1917) and D’un soir triste (1918). Most admired are Boulanger’s religious works: Psalm 24 (1916) for tenor, mixed chorus, brass, timpani, harp, and organ; Psalm 129 (1916) for baritone, mixed chorus, and orchestra; Psalm 130 (1917) for contralto, tenor, chorus, orchestra, and organ; Vieille prière bouddhique (1917) for tenor, mixed chorus, and orchestra; and Pie Jesu (1918) for mezzo-soprano, string quartet, harp, and organ, her final composition. Afflicted by ill health all her life, she succumbed to intestinal tuberculosis at age 24. See also MODERNISM. BOULANGER, NADIA (1887–1979). French composer, musician, and educator. Daughter of composer Ernest Boulanger and sister of Lili Boulanger, Nadia Boulanger studied organ with Louis Vierne and composition with Gabriel Fauré and Charles-Marie Widor at the Paris Conservatoire. Boulanger performed regularly as an organist and conductor, and she composed such skillful works as the 1918 scores Vers la vie nouvelle for piano and Lux aeterna for mezzo-soprano, string quartet, harp, and organ; but she devoted herself mostly to teaching and was an influential champion of Igor Stravinsky and neoclassicism. Boulanger taught in France and the United States and instructed several generations of composers, among them Marion Bauer, Mildred Couper, Walter Piston, Virgil Thomson, Roy Harris, Aaron Copland, Marc Blitzstein, Alejandro Caturla, Louise Talma, Ross Lee Finney, Elliott Carter, Paul Bowles, Ingolf Dahl, Peggy Glanville-Hicks, Arthur Berger, Irving Fine, David Diamond, István Anhalt, Karel Husa, Pierre Henry, Thea Musgrave, Ruth Anderson, Nicholas Maw, Philip Glass, Tomasz Sikorski, and Yvar Mikhashoff. See also KIRKPATRICK, JOHN (1905–1991); MODERNISM.

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BOULEZ, PIERRE (1925–2016). French composer and musician. Among the most influential and respected of Europe’s later modernist composers, Pierre Boulez extended serial methods, introduced the concept of aleatory, and composed vocal, instrumental, and electroacoustic music that is as attractive and original in sonority as it is rigorous in design. Born in the town of Montbrison, Boulez entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1943. His teachers included Olivier Messiaen who revealed to him the music of Claude Debussy and Igor Stravinsky. After quitting the academic atmosphere of the Conservatoire in 1945, Boulez began independent studies with René Leibowitz who exposed him to the twelve-tone music of Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern. The serial method liberated Boulez as a composer, providing him with a structure for his own unusual sonorities and demanding polyrhythms, and he would become one of its most ardent and persuasive exponents. In 1946, he created a pair of notable chamber scores, Sonatine for flute and piano and Première sonate for piano, which were dissonant works, quick and aggressive, filled with wide leaps and biting attacks. That same year he also produced his first version of Le visage nuptial, a setting of surrealist poet René Char for soprano, piano, percussion, and two ondes martenots. Boulez played this electronic-music instrument with Jean-Louis Barrault’s theater company when he was its music director (1946–1957); the ondes martenot enabled him to use quarter-tones in Le visage, but these passages were eliminated in 1951 when he revised the score as a cantata for soprano, alto, women’s chorus, and orchestra. The savagery of Boulez’s Première sonate was taken further in Deuxième sonate, completed in 1948. This percussive piece was even more severe in its serial organization, and Boulez transferred that rigor, although with a more restrained sound, to string quartet with Livre pour quatour, completed in 1949. He also set another Char text for Le soleil des eaux, which he composed in 1950 for three solo voices and chamber ensemble; like Le visage nuptial, it too was revised and expanded in a 1958 version for three soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra (which was revised again in 1965). Boulez turned to total serialism in Polyphonie X (1951) for 18 instruments and in his first efforts at musique concrète, Deux Études (1952), created at Pierre Schaeffer’s Groupe de recherches de musique concrète. He conceived Structures for two pianos as a massive series that would investigate all aspects of serial composition. Structures, Premier Livre was completed in 1951 and performed by Boulez and Messiaen the following year. Boulez set Char once again with Le marteau sans maître (1955), scored for alto and six instruments. This landmark piece was performed internationally and made Boulez one of Europe’s most admired composers. Afterward, however, he came to regard total serialism as restrictive, and Polyphonie X and Deux Études were withdrawn.

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In the 1957 article “Alea,” Boulez decried the loss of spontaneity in serial music and proposed different performance freedoms, with the musicians selecting specific aspects of pitch, tempo, and the continuity of material. This aleatoric approach characterized two major works of his, Troisième sonate (1957) for piano and Pli Selon Pli (1958, rev. 1962, 1989) for soprano and orchestra, both of which can be performed in whole or in part. The latter, a setting of poet Stephane Mallarmé, includes three Improvisation sections. Neither work was ever formally completed; Boulez regarded them as works in progress, an open-ended attitude reflected in his penchant for revising his earlier music. In 1953, Boulez founded the Domaine Musical concert series of 20thcentury music, and its performances provided his training as a conductor. He was invited to conduct other orchestras in the late 1950s, and by the 1970s, he was music director of the BBC Symphony Orchestra (1971–1975) and New York Philharmonic (1971–1977), entering the front rank of international conductors—a preeminence he maintained the rest of his life. Although his composition became more sporadic as conducting gained ascendancy, his 1960s and 1970s works include Structures, Deuxième Livre (1961) for two pianos, Éclat (1965) for 15 instruments, cummings ist der dichter (1970, rev. 1986) for 16 solo voices and chamber orchestra, and Rituel in memoriam Bruno Maderna (1975) for orchestra. With a special interest in microtonal and electroacoustic music, Boulez founded the Institut de Recherche et de Coordination Acoustique/Musique in Paris in 1976, along with its contemporary-music group Ensemble InterContemporain. Boulez’s composition broke new ground with Répons (1981) for six soloists and chamber orchestra with computer sounds and live electronics; . . . explosante-fixe . . . (1993) for flute with live electronics, two flutes, and chamber orchestra; and Anthemes II (1997) for violin and electronics. His other notable late compositions include Dérive 2 (1988, rev. 2002, 2006) for 11 instruments; Anthemes (1991) for solo violin; Incises (1994, rev. 2001) for piano; Sur Incises (1998) for three pianos, three harps, and three percussionists; and une page d’éphéméride (2005) for piano. He died at his home in Germany at age 90. See also ATONALITY; CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981); CHANCE MUSIC; DEGAETANI, JAN (1933–1989); DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000); KAGEL, MAURICIO (1931–2008); LORIOD, YVONNE (1924–2010); MADERNA, BRUNO (1920–1973); TAPE MUSIC; TUDOR, DAVID (1926–1996); ZAPPA, FRANK (1940–1993). BOWLES, PAUL (1910–1999). American composer, musician, and critic. Paul Bowles took piano lessons as a boy and studied composition with Aaron Copland in 1930; in the early 1930s, he also took intermittent lessons with Nadia Boulanger, Virgil Thomson, Roger Sessions, and Israel Citko-

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witz. Bowles’s early music includes the piano scores Aria, Chorale, and Rondo (1930) and Tamanar (1931); Sonata for Oboe and Clarinet (1931); Scenes d’Anabase (1932) for tenor, oboe, and piano; and Cantata “par le Detroit” (1933) for soprano, four male voices, and harmonium. Averse to development, climaxes, and other familiar devices of European music, Bowles was drawn to shorter forms that explored psychological nuance. He turned to composing theater music, beginning with Orson Welles’s productions of Horse Eats Hat and Dr. Faustus in 1936 and Too Much Johnson in 1938. He also composed some film music but found his greatest success in the theater, scoring Tennessee Williams’s plays The Glass Menagerie (1944) and Summer and Smoke (1948). Using neoclassical techniques, Bowles produced a suite of Mexican dances, Mediodía (1937) for 11 instruments; the 1938 works Music for a Farce for clarinet, trumpet, piano, and percussion and Romantic Suite for six winds and strings, piano, and percussion; The Wind Remains (1943), a zarzuela with his own libretto, based on a play by Federico García Lorca; Sonata for Two Pianos (1947); and Concerto for Two Pianos, Winds, and Percussion (1947, arranged in 1949 for two pianos and orchestra). Bowles wrote music criticism for the New York Herald Tribune from 1942 to 1946, and in 1947, he permanently relocated to Morocco. After the 1949 publication of his first novel, The Sheltering Sky, writing prose largely displaced his interest in composition. Bowles’s later music includes Night Waltz (1949) for two pianos; A Picnic Cantata (1953) for four female voices, two pianos, and percussion; Yerma (1958), an opera from the play by Lorca; and music for Williams’s plays Sweet Bird of Youth (1959) and The Milk Train Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore (1962). Late innovations came with his music for the theater in Morocco: The Bacchae (1969) employed Moroccan instruments; Hippolytus (1992) and Salome (1993) utilized a synthesizer. See also COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965); MODERNISM; MULTICULTURALISM. BRANCA, GLENN (1948–2018). American composer and musician. An autodidact, Glenn Branca had his formative musical experience playing in Theoretical Girls, the band he formed with Jeffrey Lohn in 1977. He started his own band, the Static, the following year, pursuing the rich sounds he was hearing in the densities and loudness of the electric guitars. When his ideas became too austere and complex for the rock-band format, he developed an ensemble of electric guitars, playing with drummer Stefan Wischerth, to perform his compositions. A series of landmark works began in 1979 with (Instrumental) for Six Guitars, The Spectacular Commodity, Dissonance, and Lesson No. 1. Melding hard rock with the techniques of minimalist compos-

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ers Steve Reich and Philip Glass, Branca created a visceral, high-volume sound unique to rock and new music, where the interaction of amplified partials generated a hallucinatory range of acoustic phenomena. This music had its own emotional life, too, from hammer-blow attacks to states of ecstasy, and Branca pushed the limits still further with three major pieces: The Ascension (1980), Symphony No. 1 (Tonal Plexus) (1981), and Indeterminate Activity of Resultant Masses (1981). The last title acknowledges that he could not always predict or control the new sounds his music was making, which gave the work an indeterminate quality. Seeking greater precision he used alternate tuning systems in Symphony No. 2 (The Peak of the Sacred) (1982) and built tiers of mallet guitars to work with a greater number of open strings. Branca’s understanding of this music was illuminated by Dane Rudhyar’s book The Magic of Tone and the Art of Music (1982), which introduced him to the harmonic series and clarified the concept of pleroma music. For Symphony No. 3 (Gloria) (1983), which he dedicated to Rudhyar, Branca designed keyboard instruments that plucked their strings like harpsichords (and one that employed rotating leather wheels to rub the strings). Pick-ups amplified the partials from these vibrating strings tuned to the first 127 intervals of the harmonic series. These instruments were also used in Symphony No. 4 (Physics) (1983). Electric guitars were featured in Symphony No. 5 (Describing Planes of an Expanding Hypersphere) (1984), along with the six-foot-long Harmonics Guitar. In 1986, Branca used refretted guitars in Chords and untempered steel-wire guitars in Hollywood Pentagon. That same year he composed string-orchestra music for the film The Belly of an Architect (1987). With the guitars, keyboards, and drums of Symphony No. 6 (Angel Choirs at the Gates of Hell) (1987, rev. 1988 as Devil Choirs at the Gates of Heaven), Branca reached a new level of expression; he then turned to the orchestra for his Symphony No. 7 (1989), a five-movement work from which he derived the independent pieces Shivering Air, Freeform, and Harmonic Series Chords. Employing tunings developed from the harmonic series, Branca made an orchestra sound as hallucinatory as his guitar music, and his composition continued along both tracks. His other orchestral works include the dance score The World Upside Down (1990), Symphonies Nos. 9 (l’eve future) (1993) and 11 (The Netherlands) (1998), and Symphony No. 14 (The Harmonic Series) (2008). His later guitar symphonies are the paired Nos. 8 (1992) and 10 (1994) (The Mysteries); No. 12 (Tonal Sexus) (1998); and Nos. 13 (Hallucination City) (2001) and 16 (Orgasm) (2015), both for 100 guitars. With the 12 musicians of Symphony No. 15 (Running through the World Like an Open Razor) (2010, aka Music for Strange Orchestra), he combined guitars and other instruments. He died in London of throat cancer

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at age 69. See also CHATHAM, RHYS (1952– ); DISSONANCE; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; JUST INTONATION; POSTMODERNISM; SUBLETTE, NED (1951– ); TONE-CLUSTER. BRAND, MAX (1896–1980). Austrian-born American composer. A student of Franz Schreker and Alois Hába, Max Brand composed Nachtmusik (1922) for chamber orchestra and the pantomime score Tragödietta (1926) early in his career. Inspired by futurism, his opera Maschinist Hopkins (1929) blended 19th-century conventions with machinery, jazz, and atonality. Brand fled the Nazis in 1937; living in Brazil, he befriended Heitor Villa-Lobos, the dedicatee of Brand’s Peca para flauto and piano (1940). Brand settled in New York in 1940 and became a U.S. citizen in 1946. He composed the oratorio The Gate (1945) and The Wonderful One-Hoss-Shay (1950) for orchestra, but an interest in electronic music led him to build his own private studio in the 1950s, where he produced such works as Jungle Drums (1959), Notturno Basileiro (1960), The Astronauts (1962), and Stormy Sea (1963). Brand had Robert Moog adapt the design of the Trautonium into a new synthesizer, completed in 1968 as the Moogtonium, with which Brand created Triptych (1970), Ilian 4 (1974), and other works. He returned to Austria in 1975. See also MODERNISM. BRANT, HENRY (1913–2008). Canadian-born American composer, musician, and educator. Born in Montreal of American parents, Henry Brant studied privately with George Antheil, Aaron Copland, and Wallingford Riegger, and at Juilliard with Rubin Goldmark. A maverick from his youth, Brant devised a conceptual harmonic approach that he called oblique harmony with Variations (1930) for four instruments and Two Sarabandes (1931) for piano. He massed like voices in Angels and Devils (1931, rev. 1956, 1979) for solo flute and flute orchestra, and used non-instruments in Music for a Five and Dime (1932) for clarinet, piano, and kitchen hardware. Humor became a Brant trademark, as in his 1938 scores The Marx Brothers for tin whistle and chamber ensemble and Whoopee in D Major for orchestra. Jazz was featured in Statements in Jazz (1945) and Jazz Clarinet Concerto (1946), both for clarinet and dance band. Brant’s polytonal and polyrhythmic music grew denser with Millennium I (1950) for eight trumpets, chimes, and glockenspiel and Origins (1952) for 18 percussionists. Seeking a clearer separation of polyphony, he built upon the innovations of Charles Ives’s The Unanswered Question (1908): keeping the musicians physically separated and abandoning strict rhythmic coordination. Beginning with Antiphony One (1953, rev. 1968) for five orchestral groups and Millennium II (1954) for soprano, brass, and percussion, spatial music became Brant’s passion, from such chamber works as Joquin (1958)

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for piccolo and six instruments, Prevailing Winds (1974) for wind quintet, and Lombard Street (1983) for organ and four percussionists, to the largeensemble scores Sixty (1973) for three bands, Plowshares & Swords (1995) for 74 solo musicians, and Ice Field (2001) for more than 100 players. Spatial music led Brant to pleroma composition, with densities of like voices in Orbits (1979) for 80 trombones, organ, and soprano, which also included quarter-tone passages; Flight over a Global Map (1989) for 52 trumpets, three percussionists, and piano; Rosewood (1989) for 50 or more guitars; and Jericho (1996) for jazz drummer and four quartets of trumpeters. His multimedia spatial music includes Grand Universal Circus (1956) and Violin Concerto with Lights (1961). Brant’s ensembles would also include new instruments built by Gunnar Schonbeck and others. Brant’s three-hour Bran(d)t aan de Amstel (1984) filled the canals of Amsterdam with boatloads of musicians—100 flutes and four jazz drummers— and also used three brass bands, three mixed choruses, four church carillons, and four street organs. 500: Hidden Hemisphere (1992) combined a Caribbean steel-drum band with three concert bands. Other multicultural spatial scores by Brant include Meteor Farm (1982), with Javanese gamelan, West African drumming ensemble, Western and South Indian vocalists, big-band ensemble, symphony orchestra, and mixed chorus, and Dormant Craters (1995) for gamelan and steel-drum band. A skilled and sought-after arranger and orchestrator of film music, Brant completed A Concord Symphony, his orchestration of Ives’s Piano Sonata No. 2, in 1994. He also performed as a regular conductor of his own music and taught at Columbia University, Juilliard, and Bennington College; his students include Teo Macero, Joan Tower, Robert Macht, Pril Smiley, and James Tenney. See also BRUCE, NEELY (1944– ); COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965); ECOMUSICOLOGY; FINE, VIVIAN (1913–2000); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; PARTCH, HARRY (1901–1974); POSTMODERNISM; THEATRICAL MUSIC. BRAXTON, ANTHONY (1945– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Anthony Braxton played clarinet and saxophone in bands in his late teens and joined the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians in 1966. He recorded two breakthrough LPs in 1968: Three Compositions of New Jazz, ensemble works that highlighted his commitment to multi-instrumentalism, and For Alto, which expanded the vocabulary of solo alto saxophone. These records also formed a basis for his use of open-form composition, systematic improvisation, and extended performance techniques. Braxton has given each of his pieces three types of titles: a composition number representing the work’s chronological sequence; a graphic image that offers a structural overview; and an alternative hieroglyphic-type code indicative of deeper philosophical and spiritual content. Braxton’s dissonant and sometimes atonal music embraces the Western classical tradition, mod-

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ernist and postmodern innovations, and the heritage of 20th-century creative African American music, bringing together free jazz and avant-garde composition, including the use of graphic notation. Braxton investigated pleroma music in Composition No. 19 (1971) for 100 tubas, Composition No. 82 (1978) for four orchestras, and Composition No. 103 (1983) for seven trumpets. His multimedia works include Composition No. 96 (1980) for orchestra and four slide projectors and Composition No. 125 (1986) for tuba, light show, and constructed environment. Performing internationally since the early 1970s, Braxton has played with such notable composer/musicians as Leroy Jenkins, Roscoe Mitchell, Muhal Richard Abrams, Alvin Lucier, Gordon Mumma, Joëlle Léandre, Anthony Davis, Frederic Rzewski, Richard Teitelbaum, Bob Ostertag, George Lewis, Cecil Taylor, John Zorn, Anne LeBaron, and Fred Frith. He has also given multicultural performances with creative musicians from Japan and India. Braxton’s compositions, which now number more than 350, are fundamentally interrelated, and musicians are free to combine parts from various compositions to create new versions of his music. His Trillium series, begun in 1984, encompasses 36 autonomous one-act operas and permits the interconnection of each act in any combination; realizations include Trillium R: Shala Fears the Poor (1996, aka Composition No. 162) and Trillium J (2016, aka Composition No. 380). The author of two multivolume books on music, Tri-axium Writings (1985) and Composition Notes (1988), Braxton has also taught at Mills College (1985–1990) and Wesleyan University (1990–2013). See also FREE IMPROVISATION; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); POLYRHYTHM. BRECHT, GEORGE. See FLUXUS. BRIDGE, FRANK (1879–1941). English composer and musician. Frank Bridge studied at the Royal College of Music (1899–1903) with Sir Charles Villiers Stanford. His early works, such as String Quartet No. 1 (1906) and Dance Rhapsody (1908) for orchestra, were in a late-Romantic idiom. Bridge was a conductor in the 1910s, and his interest in the music of the French impressionists informed his orchestral compositions The Sea (1912) and Summer (1914). In the 1920s and 1930s, he was also drawn to the music of the Viennese expressionists, and several of his works show these varied influences: Piano Sonata (1925), Enter Spring (1927) for orchestra, Oration (1930) for cello and orchestra, Phantasm (1931) for piano and orchestra, and String Quartets Nos. 3 (1926) and 4 (1937). See also BRITTEN, BENJAMIN (1913–1976); MODERNISM.

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BRITTEN, BENJAMIN (1913–1976). English composer and musician. A tonal composer especially admired for his lyricism, sense of atmosphere, and dramatic sensibility, Britten became England’s most important composer in the years after the death of Ralph Vaughan Williams. Born in Lowestoft, Suffolk, Edward Benjamin Britten began formal piano lessons at age seven. He had composed songs, string quartets, and piano sonatas when he began studying privately with Frank Bridge at age 14. He then attended the Royal College of Music (1930–1933) and studied with John Ireland. Britten attracted favor early with A Boy Was Born (1933) for mixed chorus and boys’ choir and Simple Symphony (1934), derived from his juvenilia of the 1920s; Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge (1937) for orchestra enjoyed even greater success. Among his film scores with poet-turned-screenwriter W. H. Auden are Night Mail (1936) and God’s Chillun (1938). In 1937, Britten was introduced to the singer Peter Pears who became his lifelong companion. Britten wrote several outstanding song cycles for Pears’s nuanced tenor, starting with Les Illuminations (1939), a setting of Rimbaud with string orchestra, and Seven Sonnets of Michelangelo (1940) for voice and piano. His other important scores from this time include the Piano Concerto (1938, rev. 1945), Violin Concerto (1939), and Sinfonia da Requiem (1940) for orchestra. In 1941, Britten and Colin McPhee recorded McPhee’s two-piano transcription Balinese Ceremonial Music; Britten also composed his String Quartet No. 1 and the comic operetta Paul Bunyan to a text by Auden. During the war years, Britten produced A Ceremony of Carols (1942) for treble voices and harp and his classic Serenade (1943) for tenor, French horn, and string orchestra, which set an array of English poetry. The year 1945 saw his String Quartet No. 2 and the ever-popular The Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra; most important, he completed his first opera, the tragic Peter Grimes. It was performed internationally, as were the Four Sea Interludes (1945) for orchestra derived from it, and made Britten’s reputation. Two more operas quickly followed, the stylized drama The Rape of Lucretia (1946) and the comic Albert Herring (1947). Britten settled in Aldeburgh in 1947, and the following year he and Pears launched an annual festival of concerts and operas there, which has continued to the present. Britten ended the decade with two notable works for soloists, chorus, and orchestra, Saint Nicholas (1948) and Spring Symphony (1949). Both Paul Bunyan and Peter Grimes had used elements of gamelan music, and after a trip to Bali in 1955, Britten evoked its sound with his multicultural ballet score The Prince of the Pagodas (1956). His other large-scale works of the 1950s include two major operas from American texts—Herman Melville’s Billy Budd (1951) and Henry James’s The Turn of the Screw (1954). Britten also crafted intimate works in these years, such as Lachrymae (1950) for viola and piano, Six Metamorphoses after Ovid (1951) for solo

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oboe, and Songs from the Chinese (1957) for tenor and guitar. The popular miracle play Noye’s Fludde (1958), scored for adults’ and children’s voices, children’s chorus, chamber ensemble, and children’s orchestra, was one of the finest of Britten’s many scores featuring boys’ voices. He composed two important choral works in 1959—Cantata Academica for soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra and Missa Brevis for treble voices and organ—and a masterpiece in 1962: War Requiem for soprano, tenor, baritone, mixed chorus, boys’ choir, orchestra, chamber orchestra, and organ. Britten’s more traditional opera of Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1960) was followed by three unusual chamber operas intended as church parables, for all-male casts with no conductor: Curlew River (1964), based on the Japanese Noh play Sumidagawa, and two settings from the Bible, The Burning Fiery Furnace (1966) and The Prodigal Son (1968). Britten’s friendship with cellist Mstislav Rostropovich in these years resulted in several major scores: Sonata (1961) for cello and piano, Symphony for Cello and Orchestra (1963), and three Suites (1964–1971) for solo cello. Made a member of the Order of Merit in 1965, he accepted a peerage in 1976, becoming Baron Britten of Aldeburgh. His music reached a new level of expressivity in the 1970s with the operas Owen Wingrave (1970) and Death in Venice (1973), both of which evoked the gamelan. Britten’s final works were Phaedra (1975) for mezzo-soprano and small orchestra and String Quartet No. 3 (1975). Plagued by a congenitally weak heart, he finally succumbed in his Aldeburgh home at age 63. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; MAHLER, GUSTAV (1860–1911); MODERNISM. BROWN, EARLE (1926–2002). American composer, musician, and educator. Earle Brown studied Joseph Schillinger’s techniques of composition and orchestration with Kenneth McKillop and composition with Roslyn Brogue Henning. He wrote twelve-tone music with Three Pieces for Piano (1951) and Music for Violin, Cello, and Piano (1952) but was drawn to John Cage’s ideas and joined Cage’s circle along with Morton Feldman, Christian Wolff, and David Tudor. Brown wrote music of indeterminate length and instrumentation with the graphic scores of his Folio series (1952–1954), which included the landmark works December 1952 and Four Systems. Twenty-Five Pages (1953) for one to 25 pianos also used an open form, its unbound pages playable in any order or inversion. To notate duration more precisely in Music for Cello and Piano (1955), Brown used horizontal lines proportional in length to durations of time; proportional notation also characterized Four More (1956) for one or more pianos. With Available Forms I (1961), Brown began composing open-form orchestral scores; Available Forms II (1962) was for 98 instruments and two conductors. He exercised greater control over pitch assignment in Corrobor-

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ee (1964) for two or three pianos and his String Quartet (1965), using proportional notation in both. Modules I and II (1966) for two conductors and orchestra used simpler chordal structures; Time Spans (1972) for orchestra restricted itself to a single chord. In these works, the conductor decides what is played; in Centering (1973) for violin and 10 instruments, the soloist also improvises. Sounder Rounds (1983) for orchestra and Tracking Pierrot (1992) for chamber ensemble blended closed and open forms. His other open-form scores were Sign Sounds (1972) for chamber ensemble, in proportional notation; the graphic scores Folio II (1970–1982); and the chamberensemble pieces Tracer (1985) and Oh, K (1992). Brown also conducted his music and taught in the United States and Europe. See also ATONALITY; CHANCE MUSIC; KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); MADERNA, BRUNO (1920–1973); MINIMALISM; POSTMODERNISM; SOUND INSTALLATION; SULTAN, GRETE (1906–2005); TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ); ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). BRUBECK, DAVE (1920–2012). American composer and musician. Born into a musical family, Dave Brubeck was playing piano in jazz bands by his college years and was a bandleader soon after. After studying with Darius Milhaud and touring the Middle East as a jazz musician, he found success with the unusual time signatures of his jazz LP Time Out (1959), produced by Teo Macero. Brubeck also composed classical scores employing his jazz combo along with an orchestra: Brandenburg Gate: Revisited (1961), Elementals (1963), the oratorio The Light in the Wilderness (1968), the cantata Truth Is Fallen (1971), and the mass setting To Hope! A Celebration (1996). Other notable works of Brubeck’s include The Gates of Justice (1969) and La Fiesta de la Posada (1975), both for soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra; the LP Quiet as the Moon (1991), featuring his covers of Vince Guaraldi; Hold Fast to Dreams (1998) for mixed chorus, children’s chorus, piano, and optional jazz quartet; and the John Steinbeck opera Cannery Row (2006). See also POSTMODERNISM. BRUCE, NEELY (1944– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Neely Bruce studied at the University of Alabama and with Ben Johnston at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; he has taught at Wesleyan University and other institutions. As pianist and conductor, Bruce has championed American music and such composers as Anthony Philip Heinrich, Arthur Farwell, Charles Ives, John Cage, and Henry Brant. Among Bruce’s indeterminate works are “Memories of you . . .” (1969, cocomposed with William Duckworth) and Poem (1981) for speaker. He has composed music for theater and films as well as the operas Americana; or, A New Tale of the Genii (1985), Hansel and Gretel (1998, rev. 2002), and

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Flora (2011), his expansion of an 18th-century English ballad opera. His other vocal works include five one-act operas (1965–2005); Stanzas for Three (1984) for soprano, tenor, baritone, and piano; the electroacoustic Eight Ghosts (1989) for four singers and four SPX 90 digital multi-effects units; Emily’s Flowers (1992) for mixed chorus; and The Bill of Rights: Ten Amendments in Eight Motets (2005) for mixed chorus. Among Bruce’s other notable works are the electronic dance score Vistas (1988); Trio for Bands (1995) for three rock bands; Leon’s Invention for voice and five instruments, all doubling on theremins; Homage to Luigi (1998) for six pianos, superimposing the last five piano sonatas of Ludwig van Beethoven; Geographical Preludes (1998–2001) for piano; and the outdoor spatial work CONVERGENCE (2000) for multiple bands, multiple choruses, two orchestras, jazz ensemble, multiple organs, fife and drum corps, bagpipers, bells, and multiple percussion ensembles. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; QUOTATION; THEREMIN, LEON (1896–1993). BRYARS, GAVIN (1943– ). English composer, musician, and educator. Gavin Bryars played jazz bass in the early 1960s and performed with free improvisers Tony Oxley (drums) and Derek Bailey (guitar) as the Joseph Holbrooke Trio; in 1968, he worked with John Cage in the United States. Back in England he worked with Cornelius Cardew; he also taught at Portsmouth Polytechnic, where he cofounded the Portsmouth Sinfonia in 1970, and at Leicester Polytechnic (1986–1994), where he founded the music department. Bryars composed notable indeterminate works, such as The Sinking of the Titanic (1969), which can also be a sound installation, and the minimalist classic Jesus’ Blood Never Failed Me Yet (1971, rev. 1993) for tape and ensemble. He has led the Gavin Bryars Ensemble since its founding in 1981. Along with film music, his later works include the operas Medea (1982, rev. 1984), Doctor Ox’s Experiment (1997), G (2001), and Marilyn Forever (2013); String Quartets Nos. 1–3 (1985–1998); the dance score Biped (1999) for quintet and tape; Violin Concerto (2000); and sets of Madrigals (1998–2015) for vocal ensembles. Among Bryars’s recordings are the 1993 version of Jesus’ Blood Never Failed Me Yet, featuring singer Tom Waits, and the Joseph Holbrooke Trio reunion The Moat Recordings (2006); he formed his own label, GB Records, in 2000. See also ENO, BRIAN (1948– ); POSTMODERNISM; TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ); ZORN, JOHN (1953– ). BUCKNER, THOMAS (1941– ). American musician. A specialist in postmodern and improvised music, baritone Thomas Buckner has sung in numerous operas of Robert Ashley and collaborated with such composer/ musicians as Roscoe Mitchell, Christian Wolff, Leroy Jenkins, Joëlle

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Léandre, Bun-Ching Lam, Annea Lockwood, “Blue” Gene Tyranny, and Phill Niblock. Buckner founded the new-music recording labels 1750 Arch Records and Mutable Music, and he has curated the World Music Institute’s “Interpretations” concerts since 1989. BUDD, HAROLD (1936– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Having drummed for free jazz saxophonist Albert Ayler while in the army, Harold Budd studied at the University of Southern California. Budd was a minimalist by the 1960s, and his drone piece The Oak of the Golden Dreams (1970) employed a synthesizer. However, Budd was soon exploring neoromantic qualities with the chamber works of his LP The Pavilion of Dreams (1978), scored for harp, percussion, piano, saxophone, and voices. Collaborating with his Dreams producer Brian Eno on The Plateaux of Mirror (1980) and The Pearl (1984), Budd became a founder of ambient music. His later works include Glyph (1995) with Hector Zazou, Avalon Sutra / As Long as I Can Hold My Breath (2004), and the string quartets of Bandits of Stature (2012). He scored the film Doorkeep (2017) and has collaborated with such pop musicians as Andy Partridge, Cocteau Twins, and Jah Wobble. Budd taught at the California Institute of the Arts (1970–1976); his students include Peter Garland. See also POSTMODERNISM. BUHLIG, RICHARD (1880–1952). American musician and educator. After studying with Theodor Leschetizky in Vienna, pianist Richard Buhlig was in Berlin in the early 1900s, where he worked with pianist/composers Artur Schnabel and Ferruccio Busoni (whose Fantasia Contrappuntistica is dedicated to Buhlig). A champion of Arnold Schoenberg, Buhlig prepared his students, among them John Cage, Leonard Stein, and Leon Kirchner, for their own studies with Schoenberg; Buhlig’s other students include Henry Cowell and Grete Sultan. His concert career ended when Buhlig suffered a disabling accident in 1946. See also MODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. BUSONI, FERRUCCIO (1866–1924). Italian composer, musician, and educator. A piano prodigy, Ferruccio Busoni began concertizing at age seven. He studied composition with W. A. Mayer-Rémy and performed internationally while still a teenager, becoming one of the great virtuosi of all time. Busoni’s development as a composer was slow, although he played his first compositions at age nine and published his Op. 1, Ave Maria for voice and piano, in 1878. He did not shake off the influence of Johannes Brahms until his Violin Sonata No. 2 (1898), which quoted Johann Sebastian Bach. Anticipating the neoclassical movement of the 1920s, Busoni composed the classically inspired Concerto (1904) for piano and orchestra with male chorus;

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Turandot (1905), an orchestral suite he developed into an opera in 1917; Berceuse Elégiaque (1909) for orchestra; and Fantasia Contrappuntistica (1910) for piano, an expansion on Bach’s Die Kunst der Fuge. Busoni’s forward-looking treatise Entwurf einer neuen Ästhetik der Tonkunst (1907, rev. 1916) discussed microtonal tunings and electronic music. His music never strayed into these realms, but it did become more modernist in its chromaticism and tonal ambiguity, reaching an extreme with Sonatina seconda (1912) for piano and Nocturne symphonique (1913) for orchestra. Busoni’s interest in Native American music is reflected in his Indianische Fantasie (1914) for piano and orchestra, Indianisches Tagebuch (1915) for piano, and Gesang vom Reigen der Geister (1915) for orchestra. Busoni had lived in Berlin since 1894, but World War I compelled him to relocate to Switzerland in 1915. There he completed the one-act comic opera Arlecchino in 1916, and he began scoring his full-length dramatic opera Doktor Faust, which featured polytonal counterpoint and harmonies based on fourths. He derived Sarabande and Cortege (1919) for orchestra from Doktor Faust and was still working on the score when he returned to Berlin in 1920. It was unfinished when Busoni died from a kidney infection four years later, at age 58; Philipp Jarnach completed the score in 1926. Busoni taught mostly piano, but he also instructed such composition students as Jarnach, Stefan Wolpe, Kurt Weill, Percy Grainger, and Otto Luening. See also BARTH, HANS (1897–1956); BUHLIG, RICHARD (1880–1952); DALLAPICCOLA, LUIGI (1904–1975); FELDMAN, MORTON (1926–1987); MULTICULTURALISM; STEUERMANN, EDWARD (1892–1964); TELHARMONIUM; VARÈSE, EDGARD (1883–1965). BUSSOTTI, SYLVANO (1931– ). Italian composer, musician, and educator. Sylvano Bussotti studied with Luigi Dallapiccola at the Florence Conservatory and later taught at the Milan Conservatory. He used graphic notation and extended performance techniques in numerous scores, such as Five Piano Pieces for David Tudor (1959), Coeur pour batteur (1959) for solo percussionist, Siciliano (1962) for 12 male voices, and the absurdist chamber opera La passion selon Sade (1966), in which he performed with Cathy Berberian. Bussotti’s other notable works include Due Voci (1958) for soprano, ondes martenot, and orchestra; the ballet scores Raramente (1970), Phaidra/Heliogabalus (1980), and Ermafrodito (1999); the operas Loranzaccio (1972), Nottetempo (1976), La Racine (1981), Phedre (1988), Tieste la tragedia (1993), and Izumi Shikibu (2006); I semi di Gramsci (1971) for string quartet and orchestra; the orchestral series Il catalogo è questo (1976–1981); Fogli d’album (1984) for piano; Lingue Ignote (1994) for bass voice and septet; Variazione Russolo (2007) for piano and intonarumori; and Quattro Pianoforti (2011) for four pianos. See also FILM MUSIC;

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FUTURISM; LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001); MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); POSTMODERNISM; TUDOR, DAVID (1926–1996); UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). BUTTERWORTH, GEORGE (1885–1916). English composer, educator, and critic. George Butterworth studied with Thomas Dunhill at Eton and Sir Charles Hubert Parry at the Royal College of Music, but he found his true music education collecting folk songs with Ralph Vaughan Williams and Gustav Holst; he also notated folk dancing. Folk music invigorated Butterworth’s feeling for nature in A Shropshire Lad (1912) for string orchestra and his orchestral scores Two English Idylls (1911) and The Banks of Green Willow (1913). Equally admired are his settings of A. E. Housman for voice and piano, Six Songs from “A Shropshire Lad” (1911) and Bredon Hill and Other Songs (1912), as well as his 1912 cycles Folk Songs from Sussex and Love Blows as the Wind Blows (which also exists in versions for voice and string quartet or orchestra). Butterworth wrote criticism for the London Times and taught at Radley College, but with the outbreak of World War I in 1914, he enlisted in the British army. Butterworth, age 31, was killed by a sniper at Pozieres. His body was never recovered. See also MODERNISM. BYRON, MICHAEL (1953– ). American composer and musician. Michael Byron studied trumpet with Mario Guarneri and composition at the California Institute of the Arts with James Tenney and Richard Teitelbaum; Lou Harrison was also an important example. Byron’s early music included minimalist pieces such as Marimbas (1975, rev. 2005) for four marimbas, the open form A Living Room at the Bottom of a Lake (1977) for mixed instruments, and Tidal (1981) for two pianos, string quartet, contrabass, and synthesizer. He also published and edited the three volumes of Pieces (1973–1977), with scores by contemporary composers. Byron’s later music explores greater rhythmic complexity and richer modal and contrapuntal techniques. Among his notable works are Music of Nights without Moon or Pearl (1998) for two pianos, string quartet, contrabass, and synthesizer; Evaporated Pleasure (2001) for piano four-hands; Awakening at the Inn of the Birds (2001) for string quartet; the piano scores Dreamers of Pearl (2005), Devotion to Peace (2008), and Book of Horizons (2009); The Celebration (2012) for voice, piano, and string quartet; and In the Village of Hope (2013) for harp. See also CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); POSTMODERNISM.

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C CACIOPPO, GEORGE (1927–1984). American composer, musician, and educator. George Cacioppo studied with Ross Lee Finney and Roberto Gerhard at the University of Michigan, where he later taught composition; he also studied with Leon Kirchner at Tanglewood. Cacioppo was a cofounder of the ONCE Group and participated in their annual series of concerts in the 1960s. Expressionist qualities inform his String Trio (1960). Extended performance techniques are featured in Cacioppo’s Bestiary I: Eingang (1961) for soprano, five percussionists, celeste, and piano; Two Worlds (1962) for soprano and septet, an open form work in which the performers determine durations; and Advance of the Fungi (1964) for male chorus, winds, and percussion. Pianopieces (1962), which include the indeterminate Cassiopeia, are scored in graphic notation. Other important works by Cacioppo from the ONCE era are Moves upon Silence (1962) for six percussionists; MOD3 (1963) for flute, percussion, and double bass; Time on Time in Miracles (1964) for chamber ensemble; and Holy Ghost Vacuum or America Faints (1966) for electric organ, which he also performed. Struggles with ill health and depression limited Cacioppo’s composition; he died of complications from Crohn’s disease at age 57 in Ann Arbor. See also ASHLEY, ROBERT (1930–2014); POSTMODERNISM. CAGE, JOHN (1912–1992). American composer, musician, and educator. The most influential composer in the second half of the 20th century, Cage was a crucial figure in launching the postmodern era through his use of chance, indeterminacy, minimalism, improvisation, theater, noise, and experimentation. John Milton Cage Jr. was born in Los Angeles, took piano lessons as a boy, and briefly attended Pomona College (1929–1930). Drawn to modernist music, he studied independently with Richard Buhlig, Henry Cowell, Adolph Weiss, and Arnold Schoenberg. His Sonata for Clarinet (1933) and Metamorphosis (1938) for piano were twelve-tone scores; however, rhythm became a greater concern, and Cage turned to percussion music: Quartet (1935), Trio (1936), and First Construction (in Metal) (1939), a sextet. 67

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In 1938, Cage met the dancer and future choreographer Merce Cunningham who would become his lifetime companion. (Cage also served as administrative and musical director of the Merce Cunningham Dance Company, 1953–1992.) With Imaginary Landscape No. 1 (1939) for records of constant and variable frequency, large Chinese cymbal, and muted piano, Cage began employing a structure of rhythmic relationships. Living Room Music (1940) for percussion and speech quartet had the musicians playing household objects, furniture, or sections of the room’s architecture. Cage and Lou Harrison gave a series of percussion-ensemble concerts (1939–1941) and collaborated on a quartet, Double Music (1941). Among Cage’s other percussion works are the quartets Third Construction (1941) and Credo in Us (1942), the latter including a piano and radio or phonograph. The exterior of the piano became a percussion instrument in The Wonderful Widow of Eighteen Springs (1942) for voice and closed piano. With Bacchanale (1940), Cage developed the prepared piano, which involved inserting objects between the strings, such as a screw or some weather stripping, to alter the instrument’s pitch and timbre and create a percussionorchestra sound. Other prepared-piano works followed—Tossed as It Is Untroubled (Meditation) (1943), The Perilous Night (1944), Music for Marcel Duchamp (1947)—culminating in Cage’s classic Sonatas and Interludes (1948). This music utilized a rhythmic system based on groups of measures having a square root, so that the small parts had the same relation to each unit as the units had to the whole. Other works with this system include Suite for Toy Piano (1948), String Quartet in Four Parts (1950), and Six Melodies (1950) for violin and piano. A student of Zen Buddhism since the late 1940s, Cage developed a compositional methodology to bypass his tastes and memories and let sounds be themselves. In 1951, he used chance operations to make choices within the rhythmic structures of four groundbreaking scores, starting with the octet Sixteen Dances. His Concerto for Prepared Piano and Orchestra introduced the coin-tossing method used in consulting the ancient Chinese oracle the I Ching, which Cage would employ for the rest of his life. He tossed coins to assign pitch, tempo, dynamics, duration, silences, and overlappings in the landmark Music of Changes for piano, which also used tone-clusters, stringpiano techniques, and noise such as slamming the keyboard lid. Cage further removed himself from his music with Imaginary Landscape No. 4 (March No. 2), scored for 12 radios. Imaginary Landscape No. 4 had a fixed form, as did Cage’s other chancebased pieces; but its music sounds different in every performance, and so it was also his entry into indeterminate composition. Indeterminacy led Cage to his most radical work, the epochal 4'33" (1952), a score entirely tacet—no sound is performed in its four-minute-and-33-second duration. The music of 4'33" consists of whatever sounds are audible during the performance. Cage

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had defined music not as a method for manipulating specialized sounds, but as a mode of listening: Listen to a sound for its own unique character, without reacting intellectually and emotionally, and you will hear music. Cage’s ideas drew other creative people to him, including Morton Feldman, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff, and pianist David Tudor, with whom he gave numerous concerts. He organized one of the first Happenings in 1952 and explored theatrical music with Water Music (1952) for piano and the multimedia Water Walk (1959). He employed graphic notation in a series of solo pieces that included 59-1/2" (1953) for a string player and 34'46.776" (1954) for a pianist, and he explored indeterminacy with Speech (1955) for five radios and news-reader and Radio Music (1956) for one to eight radios. Winter Music (1957) was scored as 20 unnumbered pages of keyboard aggregates, to be played in whole or part by one to 20 pianists. A similar approach characterized Concert for Piano and Orchestra (1958) and Atlas Eclipticalis (1961) for one to 86 players. Musicians translate graphic symbols to define the sound’s parameters in Cartridge Music (1960), performed with phonograph cartridges, and in Variations I (1958) and II (1961) for any number of players and any sound-producing means. Cage was teaching by then, privately and at such institutions as the New School for Social Research (1956–1960); his students include Wolff, Richard Maxfield, Toshi Ichiyanagi, Dick Higgins, Ben Johnston, Beth Anderson, Yoko Ono, and Horatiu Radulescu. His writings were collected in Silence (1961) and A Year from Monday (1967). Cage’s indeterminate music was further disseminated with the 1959 double-LP Indeterminacy, performed by Cage and Tudor; it was theatrical with Theatre Piece (1960) for one to eight players; and it became a multimedia sound environment with Cage’s collaboration with Lejaren Hiller, HPSCHD (1968) for one to seven harpsichords and one to 51 tapes, created with computers. Cage created and performed text-sound music derived from the writings of Henry David Thoreau with Empty Words (1974). He combined indeterminacy with improvisation in Child of Tree (Improvisation IA) (1975) and Branches (Improvisation IB) (1976), scored for amplified plant materials: a perishable instrumentation that always requires new techniques. Score (40 Drawings by Thoreau) and 23 Parts (1974) for any instruments and/or voices is a graphic work that includes a tape of dawn at Stony Point, New York, made by David Behrman. Cage traced star maps for the sequencing of aggregates in Etudes Australes (1975) for piano, composed for Grete Sultan, and Freeman Etudes (1980–1989) for violin, composed for Paul Zukofsky. In 1986, he performed at Coney Island with Sun Ra. Other notable later works by Cage include the multicultural Apartment House 1776 (1976) for any number of musicians, which can be played with or without Renga (1976) for orchestra; Haikai (1984) for flute and zoomoozophone; Postcard from Heaven (1983) for one to 20 harps; Europeras I/II (1987), operas made

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entirely of quotations, which superimposed the vocal and orchestral music—and costuming, staging, and lighting—of European opera; The Beatles 1962–1970 (1990) for piano and tape, recombining fragments of Beatles songs; and Sixty-Eight (1992) for orchestra, which uses only 15 pitches. Cage died of a stroke in a New York hospital at age 79. See also ALEATORY; AMACHER, MARYANNE (1938–2009); AMBIENT MUSIC; ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); ATONALITY; AUSTIN, LARRY (1930–2018); BERBERIAN, CATHY (1925–1983); BRUCE, NEELY (1944– ); BRYARS, GAVIN (1943– ); CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981); CURRAN, ALVIN (1938– ); DISSONANCE; DUCKWORTH, WILLIAM (1943–2012); EASTMAN, JULIUS (1940–1990); ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; ENO, BRIAN (1948– ); FILM MUSIC; FLUXUS; FREE DURATION; FREE IMPROVISATION; GANN, KYLE (1955– ); GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); LA BARBARA, JOAN (1947– ); LÉANDRE, JOËLLE (1951– ); MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997); NYMAN, MICHAEL (1944– ); ONCE GROUP; PACCIONE, PAUL (1952– ); PAIK, NAM JUNE (1932–2006); POLYRHYTHM; ROUGH ASSEMBLAGE; SCRATCH ORCHESTRA; SKEMPTON, HOWARD (1947– ); SOUND SCULPTURE; STOCHASTIC MUSIC; SUBLETTE, NED (1951– ); SURREALISM; TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ); TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006); TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ); YOUNG, LA MONTE (1935– ). CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ). American musician and educator. Sarah Cahill studied piano with Sharon Mann. A specialist in modern and contemporary music, with a devotion to the American experimental tradition and postmodern American music, Cahill teaches at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music. Composers who have written scores for her include Pauline Oliveros, Annea Lockwood, Maggi Payne, John Adams, Meredith Monk, Julia Wolfe, Ursula Mamlok, Frederic Rzewski, Peter Garland, Mary Jane Leach, Yoko Ono, “Blue” Gene Tyranny, and The Residents. As a duo pianist with Joseph Kubera, she has premiered works by Terry Riley and Michael Byron. CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981). English composer, musician, and educator. Cornelius Cardew studied piano, cello, and composition at the Royal Academy of Music in London (1953–1957); he later studied with Goffredo Petrassi and taught at Maidstone College of Art and Morley College of Art. Cardew worked as an assistant to Karlheinz Stockhausen

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(1958–1960) and collaborated in the composition of Stockhausen’s Carré (1960); he also participated in the premieres of Refrain (1959) and PlusMinus (1963). Another important figure for Cardew was John Cage, whose ideas of chance music and indeterminacy impacted Cardew’s Two Books of Study for Pianists (1958). In the 1960s, Cardew was performing his own music as well as works by Cage, Pierre Boulez, Morton Feldman, Christian Wolff, La Monte Young, Terry Riley, and others. His postmodern composition employed performance freedoms in February Pieces (1959–1961) for piano, Autumn ’60 for orchestra, Octet ’61 for Jasper Johns, and First Movement for String Quartet (1961). Graphic notation was used in Solo with Accompaniment (1964) for variable performers and the piano scores Memories of You (1964) and Three Winter Potatoes (1965). Especially notable was the 193-page graphic score Treatise (1967) for unspecified performer(s), often realized in multimedia performances. Cardew wrote purely verbal scores as well: The Tiger’s Mind (1967) used guided improvisation, and Schooltime Special (1968) was a series of questions and options for the performer. The Great Learning (1968–1971) for voices and sound-producing objects was a free-duration setting of texts by Confucius, which also permitted choices in pitch materials. With Howard Skempton and Michael Parsons, Cardew cofounded the Scratch Orchestra in 1969 to explore both improvisation and composition, working with musicians and nonmusicians who had performed in The Great Learning. He also played with the electroacoustic free improvisation group AMM from 1965 until 1972. By then, Cardew had embraced revolutionary Maoist thought. He renounced his former compositions and activities and published the 1972 tracts “John Cage: Ghost or Monster?” and “Stockhausen Serves Imperialism.” Devoting himself to the production and distribution of music that served the needs of the revolutionary political movement, Cardew turned to folk music and workers’ tunes. His late piano scores include Piano Album (1973), Thälmann Variations (1974), Vietnam Sonata (1976), and Boolavogue (1981) for two pianos; among his songs are “Bethanien Song” (1974) and “Resistance Blues” (1976). At age 45, Cardew was killed by a hit-and-run driver in London. See also ATONALITY; BRYARS, GAVIN (1943– ); ENO, BRIAN (1948– ); GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ). CARLOS, WENDY (1939– ). American composer and musician. Born Walter Carlos, she studied with Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening at Columbia University. Carlos had a popular hit with the album Switched-On Bach (1968), featuring her synthesizer arrangements of the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. As a composer of electronic music, her first major work was the double-LP Sonic Seasonings (1972), which anticipated ambient mu-

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sic. Carlos transitioned to female in 1972 and began releasing albums as Wendy Carlos with Switched-On Brandenburgs (1979). Her later music includes Digital Moonscapes (1984), with a synthesized orchestra, and the 1986 works Beauty in the Beast and Land of the Midnight Sun, which featured alternate tuning systems. Her 1992 remastering Switched-On Bach 2000 also utilized the temperaments of Bach’s time. Her musical drama Tales of Heaven and Hell (1998) combines orchestra and voices with synthesizers. Carlos composed electronic film music for Stanley Kubrick’s A Clockwork Orange (1971) and The Shining (1980) as well as the science fiction tales TRON (1982) and Woundings (1998). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. CARPENTER, JOHN ALDEN (1876–1951). American composer and musician. John Alden Carpenter studied piano and theory with William Seeboeck and published Twilight Revery (1894) and other piano scores as a teenager. He composed his Piano Sonata (1897) while a senior at Harvard University where he studied with John Knowles Paine; he also studied with Sir Edward Elgar and Bernhard Ziehn. Carpenter found success with the tuneful Adventures in a Perambulator (1914, rev. 1941) for orchestra and Concertino for Piano and Orchestra (1915, rev. 1947), which have impressionist qualities. French influences also inform his song cycles for voice and piano, Gitanjali (1913) and Water Colors (1918). Spanish strains color his piano works Tango Américain (1920), Diversions (1923), and Danza (1935); jazz inspires his dance scores Krazy Kat: A Jazz Pantomime (1921) and Skyscrapers (1926). Other notable works by Carpenter include Symphonies Nos. 1 (1917, rev. 1940) and 2 (1942), Song of Faith (1932) for mixed chorus and orchestra, Sea Drift (1933) for orchestra, Piano Quintet (1934), and The Seven Ages (1945) for orchestra. See also MODERNISM. CARRILLO, JULIÁN (1875–1965). Mexican composer, musician, educator, and theorist. Julián Carrillo studied violin and composition at the National Conservatory in Mexico City and the Royal Conservatory in Leipzig; he later taught at the National Conservatory and formed and conducted its symphony orchestra. Although Carrillo was investigating microtonality by 1895, such early compositions as his String Sextet (1900) and Symphony No. 1 (1901) were traditional. He relocated to New York in 1914 and there outlined his “Thirteenth Sound” ideas for composing with intervals smaller than the semitone. Returning to Mexico in 1918, Carrillo resumed teaching and began conducting the Orquesta Sinfónica de México. His first microtonal works called for instruments tuned in quarter-, eighth-, and 16th-tones: Preludio a Colón (1925) for soprano and five instruments, the sextet Sonata casi fantasía (1926), and Concertino (1927) for microtonal sextet and orchestra.

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His music was championed by conductor Leopold Stokowski and eventually gained international attention. In 1930, Carrillo formed the all-microtonal ensemble Sonido 13 Orquesta Sinfónica and composed his Fantasia Sonido 13 for it. Along with such modernist scores as Sonata (1931) for guitar in quartertones; Horizontes (1947) for violin, cello, harp, and orchestra in quarter-, eighth-, and 16th-tones; and Concertino (1948) for third-tone piano and orchestra, Carrillo also wrote non-microtonal works such as the polytonal 8 de septiembre (1930) for piano and orchestra and the atonal Symphony No. 3 (1940). He patented 15 pianos metamorfoseadores in 1940, each piano tuned in a different microtonal interval in a range up to 16th-tones. The first, tuned in third-tones, was built in 1949; all 15 were constructed by 1958. Among Carrillo’s notable later works are Balbuecos (1958) for 16th-tone piano and orchestra, Six Sonatas (1959) for cello in quarter-tones, and Mass (1962) for male voices in quarter-tones. He was also the author of several books, including Pláticas musicales (1923), Génesis de la Revolución musical del Sonido 13 (1940), Leyes de metamorfosis musicales (1949), and Sonido 13: Recorrido histórico (1962). See also INSTRUMENT BUILDING; WYSCHNEGRADSKY, IVAN (1893–1979). CARTER, ELLIOTT (1908–2012). American composer, educator, and critic. Carter developed new rhythmic approaches to dissonant atonal composition and became one of America’s most respected composers. Born in New York City, Elliott Cook Carter Jr. studied piano as a teenager and attended Horace Mann School; there he discovered the music of Charles Ives, from whom he received encouragement. At Harvard University (1926–1932), Carter’s teachers included Walter Piston and Gustav Holst. He then went to France, attending l’École Normale de Musique (1932–1935) and studying privately with Nadia Boulanger. Returning to New York in 1936, he wrote reviews for Modern Music magazine (1937–1946). Carter kept to a tonal and neoclassical idiom in his early works To Music (1937) for mixed chorus, the ballet score Pocahontas (1939), Symphony No. 1 (1942, rev. 1954), and Holiday Overture (1944, rev. 1961) for orchestra. Polyrhythms and multiple tempi inform Carter’s Piano Sonata (1946) and Sonata for Cello and Piano (1948); in the latter, he developed his method of metric modulation, changing tempi after the manner of harmonic modulation. Carter’s music became more aggressively modernist and attained a new stature and individuality with the atonal String Quartet No. 1 (1950). A series of classics followed: Variations for Orchestra (1955); String Quartet No. 2 (1959); Double Concerto (1961) for harpsichord, piano, and two chamber orchestras; Piano Concerto (1965); and Concerto for Orchestra (1969). In these pieces, Carter avoided serial techniques and instead defined individual

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instruments or subgroups of instruments with specific intervallic and tempo materials, creating dense and exciting works in which instrumental speeds are sometimes changing continuously. In the 1970s, Carter produced such noteworthy pieces as String Quartet No. 3 (1971), Brass Quintet (1974), Duo for Violin and Piano (1975), A Symphony of Three Orchestras (1977), and his first vocal works since the 1940s, A Mirror on Which to Dwell (1976) for soprano and chamber orchestra and Syringa (1979) for mezzo-soprano, bass, and chamber orchestra. His approach to density and simultaneities gradually became thinner and more relaxed with such important scores as Night Fantasies (1980) for piano, the sextet Triple Duo (1982), Penthode (1985) for five groups of four instruments, String Quartets Nos. 4 (1986) and 5 (1995), the orchestral trilogy Symphonia: Sum fluxae pretium spei (1993–1996), and Clarinet Concerto (1996). Carter completed his first opera at the age of 90: the 45-minute What Next? (1998) is a comic account of the aftermath of an automobile accident, with a surreal libretto by Paul Griffiths. Carter’s notable late compositions include the Cello Concerto (2000), Horn Concerto (2006), and Flute Concerto (2008); the orchestral scores Boston Concerto (2002) and Soundings (2005); Sound Fields (2007) for string orchestra; two series of solo scores, Figment (1994–2011) and Retracing (2002–2011); the chamber works Oboe Quartet (2001), Clarinet Quintet (2007), and Double Trio (2011) for six players; and The American Sublime (2011) for baritone and chamber orchestra. He taught at Columbia University, Yale University, Cornell University, the Peabody Conservatory, Tanglewood, and Juilliard; his students include Alvin Curran and Ellen Taaffe Zwilich. Carter died at his home in New York at age 103. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); DEGAETANI, JAN (1933–1989); NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997); OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); SOLLBERGER, HARVEY (1938– ); WEISBERG, ARTHUR (1931–2009); ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). CATURLA, ALEJANDRO (1906–1940). Cuban composer and musician. Alejandro García Caturla studied music as a child in his native Remedios, playing piano and violin. He studied law at the University of Havana (1922–1927) and was appointed a municipal judge; in those years, he also studied music with Pedro Sanjuán, performed as a singer, and played both orchestral music and jazz. In 1928, he studied in Paris with Nadia Boulanger. In Cuba, he founded the Orquesta de Conciertos de Caibarién in 1932, which he conducted. Caturla’s composition drew upon Cuban, Spanish, and African musical genres, blended with his own polytonal sensibility. His notable works include the orchestral scores Tres danzas cubanas (1927), Dos poemas afrocubanos (1929), Yamba-O (1931), and Suite (1937); Bembé, for piano, brass, woodwinds, and percussion (1929) or for percussion alone

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(1930); the ballet score Olilé (1930); Primera suite cubana (1931) for winds and piano; and Berceuse campesina (1939) for piano. He was serving as a municipal judge when he was shot to death in Remedios by a criminal who was awaiting sentencing. Caturla was 34 years old. See also MODERNISM; MULTICULTURALISM. CERHA, FRIEDRICH (1926– ). Austrian composer, musician, and educator. Friedrich Cerha studied violin and composition at the Academy of Music and Dramatic Arts in Vienna (1946–1950); he later taught there, at Darmstadt, and at the Conservatory of Music in Vienna. In 1958, Cerha cofounded the new-music ensemble “die reihe,” which he directed and conducted until 1983. Taking an individual approach to serial composition, tonality, and chance music, he has produced such notable works as Spiegel (1960–1961), a cycle of seven scores for orchestra and tape, which also exists in a multimedia version; the music-theater piece Netzwerk (1967, rev. 1980); and the operas Baal (1980), Der Rattenfänger (1986), and Der Riese vom Steinfeld (1999). Cerha’s later music includes String Quartets Nos. 1–4 (1989–2001), Langegger Nachtmusik III (1991) for orchestra, Impulse (1993) for orchestra, Violin Concerto (2004), Percussion Concerto (2008), and Zwei Szenen (2011) for seven vocalists. See also ATONALITY; BERG, ALBAN (1885–1935); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; TWELVETONE MUSIC. CHAMBERS, WENDY MAE (1953– ). American composer and musician. Wendy Mae Chambers studied piano at Barnard College, where her teachers included Charles Wuorinen, and composition at the State University of New York at Stony Brook. She has created multimedia pieces (Music for Choreographed Rowboats for 24 musicians in rowboats, 1979; Ten Grand for 10 pianos and laser lights, 1983), multicultural music (One World Percussion for Tibetan horn and 50 percussionists, 1981), spatial music (Symphony of the Universe for chorus, horn, organ, jazz band, tape, and 100 timpani, 1989), and pleroma works (Pluck for 30 harps, 1984; Marimba! for 26 marimbas, 1985; A Mass for Massed Trombones for 77 trombones, 1993). Her music for solo instruments includes Suite for Toy Piano (1983), Blues (1995) for cello, Mandala (1997) for clarinet, and Antarctica Suite (1999) for piano. Chambers also performs on toy piano and Car Horn Organ, a keyboard instrument she built, which plays 25 car horns and is powered by a carbattery charger. Her notable recent works include her percussion-ensemble scores Twelve Squared (1994), Mandala in Funk (2004), Night of the Shooting Stars (2005), and Orbit (2008); For the Birds (2011) for toy piano and clay warbler water whistles; and Kun (2012) for 64 baby grand toy pianos. See also INSTRUMENT BUILDING; POSTMODERNISM.

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CHANCE MUSIC. Any music that employs chance or randomness, whether in compositional decisions or performance freedoms, can be referred to as chance music. Early modernist examples of this approach include Henry Cowell’s elastic-form works and the free-rhythm scores of Alan Hovhaness. John Cage became the leading voice for composing with chance techniques, starting with such 1951 scores as Music of Changes for piano and Imaginary Landscape No. 4 (March No. 2) for 12 radios. As Cage’s postmodern music moved further into indeterminacy, other composers developed different techniques for combining chance operations with strictly organized material, such as the stochastic music of Iannis Xenakis or Pierre Boulez’s approach of aleatory. Although improvised music is not chance music, composers who have written scores calling for improvisation—including Cowell, Cage, Xenakis, Boulez, Luciano Berio, Earle Brown, Henri Pousseur, Larry Austin, Pauline Oliveros, Vinko Globokar, Malcolm Goldstein, Cornelius Cardew, Julius Eastman, William Duckworth, “Blue” Gene Tyranny, Daria Semegen, George Lewis, John Zorn, and Natasha Barrett—can also be regarded as exploring a form of chance music, melding the predetermined with the unknown. See also ATONALITY; CERHA, FRIEDRICH (1926– ); COMPUTER MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; GRAPHIC NOTATION; MINIMALISM; OPEN FORM; OPERA; SKEMPTON, HOWARD (1947– ); VIVIER, CLAUDE (1948–1983); WOLFF, CHRISTIAN (1934– ). CHATHAM, RHYS (1952– ). American composer and musician. Guitarist and trumpet player Rhys Chatham studied with Morton Subotnick, Terry Riley, and La Monte Young. A minimalist with such works as Two Gongs (1971) and Still Sound in Motion (1973) for two trombones, he first adopted the energy of rock to create pleroma music with Guitar Trio (1977) for multiple electric guitars tuned in just intonation, and followed with Drastic Classicism (1981), Guitar Ring (1982), and Die Dönnergötter (1985). An Angel Moves Too Fast to See (1989) and A Secret Rose (2008) called for 100 guitars; A Crimson Grail Moves Too Fast to See (2005), for 400. Chatham’s notable works for other instruments include For Brass (1982) for brass octet and drums, The Last World (1985) for soprano and tape, and Symphony No. 4 (1995) for orchestra. Chatham also has performed with such composer/ musicians as Glenn Branca, Peter Gordon, Arthur Russell, Beth Anderson, Tony Conrad, Ned Sublette, and Charlemagne Palestine. He composed music for the films L’harmonie (2013) and Soy Nero (2016). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; LA BARBARA, JOAN (1947– ); POSTMODERNISM.

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CHÁVEZ, CARLOS (1899–1978). Mexican composer, musician, and educator. Carlos Chávez studied piano with Manuel Ponce and Pedro Luis Ogazón; otherwise, he was mostly self-taught. His Piano Sonata No. 2 (1919), like much of his early music, used Romantic and impressionist techniques. But Chávez was drawn to indigenous Indian music and Aztec lore and created the ballet scores El fuego nuevo (1921) and Los cuatro soles (1925). Traveling in Europe in 1922 and 1923, he was impressed by modernist approaches to dissonance and polyrhythm, which inform his piano scores Seven Pieces (1923–1930), Sonatina (1924), and Piano Sonata No. 3 (1928). Chávez accompanied violinist Silvestre Revueltas in recitals in the mid-1920s, and his extended stay in New York (1926–1928) resulted in firm friendships with several major composers, including Aaron Copland, Edgard Varèse, and Henry Cowell; with the latter two, Chávez founded the Pan-American Association of Composers (1928–1934). His other important 1920s works include Tres Exágonos (1924) for voice and piano or chamber ensemble, Energía (1925) for nine instruments, and the ballet score HP (1927, aka Horsepower). Regarded as Mexico’s most important composer, Chávez was appointed by the government to direct both the Conservatorio Nacionál in Mexico City (1928–1934) and the Orquesta Sinfónica de México (1928–1949). His use of Indian and mestizo (Spanish Indian) techniques became more accessible with Sonata for Four Horns (1929) and Sinfonía de Antígona (1934). Llamadas (sinfonía proletaria) (1934) for orchestra and mixed chorus was his music for the masses, but Chávez found his most enduring success with Sinfonía India (1935), a celebration of Indian music. Xochipilli Macuilxochitl (1940) was scored for traditional Indian instruments. An international sound characterized Toccata for Percussion Instruments (1942) and the dance score Hija de Colquide (1944); his Violin Concerto (1950) and Symphony No. 5 (1953) showed affinities with neoclassicism. Director of the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes (1947–1952), Chávez also taught at Tanglewood and the University of Buffalo; he wrote the books Toward a New Music: Music and Electricity (1937) and Musical Thought (1961). Chávez’s later works include the opera Panfilo and Lauretta (1956, aka Love Propitiated; The Visitors), Symphonies Nos. 3–6 (1951–1961), and Trombone Concerto (1976). See also MULTICULTURALISM. CHIN, UNSUK (1961– ). South Korean composer and musician. Pianist Unsuk Chin studied composition with Sukhi Kang at Seoul National University and György Ligeti in Hamburg; she settled in Berlin in 1988. Drawing from spectral music, Balinese gamelan, and medieval music, Chin has explored color and sonority in such compositions as Spektra (1985) for three cellos; Die Troerinnen (1986, rev. 1990) for three female voices, female chorus, and orchestra; Gradus ad infinitum (1989) for tape; Piano Etudes

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Nos. 1–6 (1995–2003); and Miroirs des temps (1999, rev. 2001) for four voices and orchestra. Her electroacoustic music includes ParaMetaString (1996) for string quartet and tape and Xi (1998) for ensemble and electronics. Among her notable recent works are Double Concerto (2002); Cantatrix Sopranica (2005) for two sopranos, countertenor, and ensemble; the opera Alice in Wonderland (2007); Su (2009) for sheng and orchestra; Le silence des sirènes (2014) for soprano and orchestra; and Le chant des enfants des étoiles (2016) for children’s choir, mixed chorus, organ, and orchestra. See also MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM. CHOU WEN-CHUNG (1923– ). Chinese-born American composer and educator. Chou Wen-chung played Chinese and Western instruments as a boy. He studied violin at the Shanghai Music School and attended Guangxi University and the National University of Chongqing. Chou came to the United States in 1946 and became a U.S. citizen in 1958. He studied with Nicolas Slonimsky at the New England Conservatory of Music and with Bohuslav Martinu in New York; in 1949, he met Edgard Varèse and became his student and assistant. Chou also studied with Otto Luening at Columbia University (1952–1954) and assisted Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky in their tape music studio. Working with Chinese melodic materials, Chou first attracted attention with his orchestral scores Landscapes (1949), All in the Spring Wind (1953), and And the Fallen Petals (1956). His Variable Modes concept of composition, blending Chinese traditions of Taoist thought and qin music with Western techniques and microtonal tunings, emerged with Metaphors (1961) for wind orchestra, and Chou has followed this approach in a series of important works, which includes Riding the Wind (1964) for wind orchestra; Pien (1966) for chamber ensemble; the dance score Beijing in the Mist (1986) for acoustic and electric instruments; Echoes from the Gorge (1989) for percussion quartet; and Cello Concerto (1992). His notable recent music includes String Quartets Nos. 1 “Clouds” (1997) and 2 “Streams” (2003); Twilight Colors (2007) for wind trio and string trio; and Eternal Pine (2008) and Ode to Eternal Pine (2009) for Korean instruments. Chou taught at Columbia University (1964–1991) and established the Center for U.S.–China Arts Exchange (1978– ); his students include William Hellermann, Joan Tower, Charles Dodge, Anne LeBaron, Tan Dun, James Tenney, and Johnny Reinhard. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; MULTICULTURALISM; SOLLBERGER, HARVEY (1938– ). COLEMAN, ORNETTE (1930–2015). American composer and musician. One of the most innovative and influential figures in creative African American music, Ornette Coleman taught himself to play saxophone and

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read music by his early teens and soon was performing professionally. He played alto and led small ensembles in his own works on the albums Something Else!!!! (1958), Tomorrow Is the Question (1958), and The Shape of Jazz to Come (1959). Coleman broke new ground with his free treatment of melody, his disregard for familiar harmonic progressions and a fixed tonal center, and his use of dissonance and polyrhythm. His music met with controversy at first, but Coleman’s expressive blues roots and the power and beauty of such pieces as “Rejoicing” (1958) and “Lonely Woman” (1959) could not be denied. His sound refined into a celebrated quartet with Don Cherry (trumpet), Charlie Haden (bass), and Billy Higgins or Ed Blackwell (drums) on the albums Change of the Century (1959), This Is Our Music (1960), and To Whom Who Keeps a Record (1960). The culmination was the epochal Free Jazz (1960), an octet with Eric Dolphy (bass clarinet), Freddie Hubbard (trumpet), and Scott LaFaro (bass) performing an extended free group improvisation, a jazz first. Over the 1960s, along with touring internationally and performing on trumpet and violin as well as saxophone, Coleman developed a free jazz approach that he termed harmolodics: an equality in melody, harmony, and rhythm, which enabled multiple players to solo simultaneously on similar melodic material by modulating into different keys. He also brought harmolodic composition to other genres, such as the woodwind quintet Sounds and Forms (1965), the 1967 string quartets Saints and Soldiers and Space Flight, and Skies of America (1972) for his quartet and symphony orchestra. Electronic music by Emmanuel Ghent was featured in Coleman’s Man on the Moon (1969). Traveling through Morocco and Nigeria in the early 1970s, Coleman performed with local musicians, and he recorded the multicultural LP Dancing in Your Head (1976) with the Master Musicians of Jajouka. Other notable musicians who have performed with Coleman include Gunther Schuller, Yoko Ono, Leroy Jenkins, Sussan Deyhim, Bill Evans, Pharoah Sanders, and Coleman’s son Denardo. Adapting rock and funk to his music, Coleman formed the harmolodic ensemble Prime Time in 1975, usually featuring pairs of electric guitarists, electric bassists, and drummers, as in the recordings Opening the Caravan of Dreams (1983) and In All Languages (1987). His film music includes Naked Lunch (1991); among his notable later CDs are the 1994 “Sound Museum” albums Hidden Man and Three Women, Tone Dialing (1995), and Sound Grammar (2006). Coleman died of cardiac arrest in New York at age 85. See also ATONALITY; FREE IMPROVISATION; GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ); MIMAROGLU, ILHAN (1926–2012); POSTMODERNISM; ZORN, JOHN (1953– ).

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COMPUTER MUSIC. This entry focuses on the use of computers to generate compositional material and to synthesize sound; separate entries deal with the use of computers in electroacoustic music and the sampling of preexisting sound. The mid-1950s saw the rise of the computer as a tool for composition. Iannis Xenakis used a computer to devise the complex glissandi of Metastasis (1954); he also relied upon computer calculations to employ stochastic procedures compositionally in Pithoprakhta (1956). Lejaren Hiller, collaborating with Leonard Isaacson, completed his String Quartet No. 4, “Illiac Suite,” in 1957, with the ILLIAC I computer at the University of Illinois as a third cocomposer. The piece describes a growing sophistication in composition programming across its four movements, from monody to simple fourpart counterpoint in the first to stochastic music in the fourth. HPSCHD (1968), Hiller’s collaboration with John Cage, required a program that recreated the I Ching-based process of random selection ordinarily employed by Cage in his chance music. In 1957, Max Mathews, a researcher at Bell Labs, first demonstrated the use of a computer in synthesizing sound through a digital-to-analog converter that changed the binary digital information of the computer into analogous electrical output heard through loudspeakers. James Tenney utilized Mathews’s digital-synthesis program to produce several groundbreaking works, among them Analog #1: Noise Study (1961) and Ergodos II (1964). Using an IBM computer at UCLA, Gerald Strang produced his Compusitions (1963–1972). With the Bell Labs computers, Jean-Claude Risset synthesized the sound of a trumpet and Charles Dodge synthesized speech; Laurie Spiegel created The Expanding Universe (1975) there, and in the 1980s, she devised her Music Mouse program for the performance of real-time computer music. The electronic protocol MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface), developed in the early 1980s, enabled synthesizers, computers, and samplers to communicate and synchronize with each other, and musicians could play an array of different instruments from one keyboard. Over the 1980s, most composers of electronic music stepped away from older synthesizer technology and turned to using computers. See also ABRAMS, MUHAL RICHARD (1930–2017); ACOUSMATIC MUSIC; ANDERSON, LAURIE (1947– ); AUSTIN, LARRY (1930–2018); BADINGS, HENK (1907–1987); BARRETT, NATASHA (1972– ); BEHRMAN, DAVID (1937– ); BOULEZ, PIERRE (1925–2016); CURRAN, ALVIN (1938– ); DUCKWORTH, WILLIAM (1943–2012); ECOMUSICOLOGY; ENO, BRIAN (1948– ); FERRARI, LUC (1929–2005); GANN, KYLE (1955– ); HARVEY, JONATHAN (1939–2012); HENRY, PIERRE (1927–2017); HOPE, CAT (1966– ); THE HUB; HUNT, JERRY (1943–1993); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; LA BARBARA, JOAN (1947– ); LE CAINE, HUGH (1914–1977); LEÓN, TANIA (1943– ); LEWIS, GEORGE (1952– ); MAR-

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TIRANO, SALVATORE (1927–1995); MEV; MIMAROGLU, ILHAN (1926–2012); MODERNISM; MUMMA, GORDON (1935– ); MURAIL, TRISTAN (1947– ); NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997); NEWLIN, DIKA (1923–2006); NIBLOCK, PHILL (1933– ); OSTERTAG, BOB (1957– ); OSWALD, JOHN (1953– ); PAYNE, MAGGI (1945– ); POSTMODERNISM; POWELL, MEL (1923–1998); REYNOLDS, ROGER (1934– ); SCOTT, RAYMOND (1908–1994); SHEA, DAVID (1965– ); SHIELDS, ALICE (1943– ); SONIFICATION; SUBOTNICK, MORTON (1933– ); SURREALISM; TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ); TAPE MUSIC; TEITELBAUM, RICHARD (1939– ); TEXT-SOUND MUSIC; TONE, YASUNAO (1935– ); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ); USSACHEVSKY, VLADIMIR (1911–1990); VAN DER AA, MICHEL (1970– ); YOUNG, LA MONTE (1935– ); YUASA, JOJI (1929– ); ZORN, JOHN (1953– ); ZUBEL, AGATA (1978– ). CONRAD, TONY (1940–2016). American composer and musician. As a teenager, Tony Conrad was retuning his violin in just intonation. He played La Monte Young’s minimalist music, including The Tortoise, His Dreams and Journeys (1964) with Young, Terry Jennings, Angus MacLise, Marian Zazeela, and John Cale. He composed and performed his own drone music, some of which featured new instruments that he devised; recordings include Outside the Dream Syndicate (1973) with the German band Faust, Slapping Pythagoras (1995), Early Minimalism, Vol. 1 (1997), Joan of Arc (2006), Dreamweapon III (2011), and Ten Years on the Infinite Plain (2017). He also created a series of recorded piano improvisations, Music and the Mind of the World (1976–1982). Conrad withdrew from music for many years and turned to experimental cinema (The Flicker, 1965; Straight and Narrow, 1970; Film Feedback, 1974); he also created the soundtrack for Jack Smith’s classic film Flaming Creatures (1963). Conrad later resumed performing on amplified violin with prerecorded drones. He also played with Pauline Oliveros, Charlemagne Palestine, Rhys Chatham, Laurie Spiegel, and other composer/musicians. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; PLEROMA; POSTMODERNISM; RILEY, TERRY (1935– ). COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990). American composer, musician, and educator. One of the 20th century’s greatest composers, Aaron Copland created a distinctly American sound, combining rhythmic vitality and a lyrical voice in a body of work that ranged from astringent modernism to expressive tonality with elements of folk and popular music. Born in Brooklyn, Copland was taught piano by his mother and sister and studied with Leonard Wolfson (1913–1917). Already writing music, he studied theory and composition with

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Rubin Goldmark (1917–1921); on his own, he investigated the works of Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, and Alexander Scriabin. Dissonant harmonies and complex rhythms, along with jazz qualities, informed Copland’s early piano works Humoristic Scherzo (1920, aka The Cat and the Mouse) and Three Moods (1921). In 1921, he began studying in France, at first briefly with Paul Vidal in Fontainebleau, then in private lessons with Nadia Boulanger in Paris (1921–1924). She became the formative musical experience of his life, providing him with an expert technique and exposing him to the music of Gustav Mahler and Igor Stravinsky, which opened doors for Copland’s own expressivity and polyrhythmic invention. For Boulanger’s classes, he produced the Four Motets (1921) for mixed chorus, Passacaglia (1922) for piano, and As It Fell upon a Day (1923) for soprano, flute, and clarinet. At her urging, he composed the ghoulish ballet score Grohg (1925), delving deeper into polytonality and polyrhythms, and utilizing jazz qualities and quartertone passages. Grohg went unperformed, and Copland derived from it the Cortège macabre (1925) and Dance Symphony (1929). Boulanger brought Copland to conductor Serge Koussevitsky who commissioned a work for organ and orchestra. After returning to the United States in 1924, he composed the Symphony for Organ and Orchestra (arranged for orchestra alone as First Symphony, 1928). Other major scores followed: Music for the Theatre (1925) for small orchestra and Piano Concerto (1926), both jazz inspired; the dramatic Symphonic Ode (1929, rev. 1955); Vitebsk (1928) for piano, violin, and cello, which used a RussianJewish folk theme and quarter-tones; and the epigrammatic Statements (1935) for orchestra. Copland produced a masterpiece with the Piano Variations (1930, orchestrated 1957), a stripped-down work that utilized techniques from Arnold Schoenberg’s twelve-tone method. He also explored neoclassical elements in Short Symphony (1933, aka Symphony No. 2; arranged as Sextet for clarinet, piano, and string quartet, 1937). In these years, he also taught private composition students such as Henry Brant and Paul Bowles. Copland had a popular success with El Salón México (1936), a vibrant collage of Mexican folk music, and he produced more works of greater accessibility. The high-school opera The Second Hurricane (1937) marked his first use of American folk music, a sound that permeated the brilliant ballet score Billy the Kid (1938). Copland also composed memorable film scores for adaptations of John Steinbeck (Of Mice and Men, 1939; The Red Pony, 1948), Thornton Wilder (Our Town, 1940), and Henry James (The Heiress, 1949). In 1940, Serge Koussevitzky founded the Berkshire Music Center at Tanglewood and brought in Copland to teach. He remained head of the composition department until 1964; his students included Alberto Ginas-

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tera, Ned Rorem, William Flanagan, Richard Maxfield, Jacob Druckman, Toshi Ichiyanagi, Halim El-Dabh, Mario Davidovsky, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Thea Musgrave, and Alvin Lucier. Copland entered an extraordinary period of productivity in the 1940s, composing such major works as Quiet City (1940) for English horn, trumpet, and strings; Piano Sonata (1941); Lincoln Portrait (1942) for narrator and orchestra; Danzón Cubano (1942) for two pianos (orchestrated 1946); and two ballet scores, Rodeo (1942) and Appalachian Spring (1944). The latter, arguably Copland’s masterpiece, was originally scored for 13 instruments and found its greatest success as a 1945 orchestral suite. His postwar output was equally impressive: Third Symphony (1946), into which he incorporated his classic Fanfare for the Common Man (1942) for brass and percussion; In the Beginning (1947) for mezzo-soprano and mixed chorus, a setting from the Book of Genesis; Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra (with harp and piano) (1948), commissioned by Benny Goodman; and Four Piano Blues (1948). Some of Copland’s finest vocal music was composed in the early 1950s, starting with his songs for medium voice and piano, Twelve Poems of Emily Dickinson (1950) and the folk-song arrangements Old American Songs I (1950) and II (1952), and culminating in an opera, The Tender Land (1954). He also renewed his interest in serial techniques in the 1950s with the Piano Quartet (1950), which melded tonal and twelve-tone methods. That approach defined his Piano Fantasy (1957) and the orchestral pieces Connotations (1962) and Inscape (1967), which rank among his greatest scores. Other important works in these years include the ballet score Dance Panels (1959, rev. 1962); Nonet for three violins, three violas, and three cellos; and Music for a Great City (1964) for orchestra. From the mid-1950s until the early 1980s, Copland enjoyed an international career as a conductor. Although specializing in his own music, he also performed American masters such as Charles Ives, Carl Ruggles, and Edgard Varèse; such contemporaries as George Gershwin, Roy Harris, and Virgil Thomson; and important younger composers, including Iannis Xenakis, Morton Feldman, and Toru Takemitsu. Copland’s ability to compose receded over the 1960s, and his last pieces were from the early 1970s, most notably Duo for Flute and Piano (1971) and Night Thoughts (Homage to Ives) (1972) for piano. At age 90, Copland contracted pneumonia and died of respiratory failure in a hospital in North Tarrytown, New York. See also BERGER, ARTHUR (1912–2003); BITONALITY; CHÁVEZ, CARLOS (1899–1978); FINE, VIVIAN (1913–2000); GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; KIRKPATRICK, JOHN (1905–1991); NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997); SMIT, LEO (1921–1999).

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CORIGLIANO, JOHN (1938– ). American composer, musician, and educator. John Corigliano studied with Otto Luening at Columbia University and at the Manhattan School of Music; he has taught at Juilliard and Lehman College. A tuneful neoromantic composer, Corigliano has written such notable works as Violin Sonata (1964); the oratorio A Dylan Thomas Trilogy (1976, rev. 1999); Clarinet Concerto (1977); Symphonies Nos. 1–3 (1988–2004); the opera The Ghosts of Versailles (1991); String Quartet (1995); Chiaroscuro (1997) for two pianos tuned a quarter-tone apart; Conjurer (2008) for percussion and string orchestra; and the 2017 scores for baritone and piano Rhymes for the Irreverent and no comet ever scratched the sky. He also scored the films Altered States (1980), from which he derived the 1981 orchestral suite Three Hallucinations; Revolution (1985); and Le violon rouge (1998), which resulted in his four-movement Violin Concerto (2003). See also MODERNISM. CORNER, PHILIP (1933– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Philip Corner studied piano with Fritz Jahoda at the City College of New York and with Dorothy Taubman; he also studied composition with Henry Cowell and Otto Luening at Columbia University, as well as analysis with Olivier Messiaen at the Paris Conservatory. Corner has taught at Rutgers University (1972–1992) and other institutions; he relocated to Italy in 1992. A cofounder of both the Tone Roads Chamber Ensemble (1963–1970) and Gamelan Son of Lion (1976– ), he was also part of the Fluxus group with such works as Piano Activities (1962). Corner has composed many indeterminate works of variable instrumentation, often scored verbally and/or in graphic notation, such as Passionate Expanse of the Law (1959), Lovely Music (1961–1962), attempting whiteness (1964), more than 400 pieces in his Gamelan series (1972–1989), Just Another 12-Tone Piece (1995), When They Pull the Plug (2002), and One Note More Than Once (2005). His film music includes The Birdbreeder (2009). See also GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ); HIGGINS, DICK (1938–1998); KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); MINIMALISM; POSTMODERNISM; SOUND SCULPTURE. COUPER, MILDRED (1887–1974). Argentine-born American composer, musician, and educator. Born in Buenos Aires of English parents, Mildred Couper was educated in Germany, Italy, and France where she studied piano with Moritz Moszkowski and composition with Nadia Boulanger. In 1915, she relocated to the United States and taught piano at the Mannes College of Music before settling in California in 1927; she also taught at the Music Academy of the West and the Cate School. Couper wrote numerous scores in traditional tunings, including the dance-opera And on Earth Peace (1930); Gitanesca (1949) for violin and two pianos; and Fantasy (1953) for cello and

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piano. But she remains most well known for her works written for two pianos tuned a quarter-tone apart: Xanadu (1930), Dirge (ca. 1936), and Rumba (ca. 1951). See also MICROTONALITY; MODERNISM. COURVOISIER, SYLVIE (1968– ). Swiss composer and musician. Pianist Sylvie Courvoisier settled in New York City in 1998, where she studied composition with Daniel Oei. Her works include Balbutiements (1995) for soprano and vocal quartet and Concerto for Electric Guitar and Chamber Orchestra (1999). As a composer and an improviser, she has recorded solo (Signs and Epigrams, 2007) and with her trio (Double Windsor, 2014) and quintet (Lonelyville, 2006). Since 2010, she has worked as a pianist and composer with flamenco dancer Israel Galvan’s project La Curva. Courvoisier has performed with such composer/musicians as her husband Mark Feldman, John Zorn, Fred Frith, Joëlle Léandre, Tony Oxley, and Evan Parker; in 2000, she formed the improvising trio Mephista with Susie Ibarra and Ikue Mori (Black Narcissus, 2002; Entomological Reflections, 2004). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; POSTMODERNISM. COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965). American composer, musician, and educator. An essential pioneer of experimental modernism and multiculturalism, Henry Dixon Cowell was born in Menlo Park, California, and took violin lessons as a child. After studying piano for around a year, the 16-yearold Cowell composed Adventures in Harmony (1913), in which blocks of keys are played with the entire hand or the forearm. He began studying with composer Charles Seeger in 1915 and learned harmony and counterpoint with others. Cowell found further encouragement from Leo Ornstein’s piano music, and the densities of Adventures in Harmony were extended in Dynamic Motion (1916), Antinomy (1917), The Tides of Manaunaun (1917), and other innovative piano scores. He investigated the harmonic series and used overtone ratios to derive harmonies and complex rhythms that then defied performance. Seeger urged him to systematize and document his work, and in 1919, Cowell completed his Two Rhythm-Harmony Quartets, using new notation techniques, and a treatise explaining his new rhythms and polyharmony, which introduced the term tone-cluster for piano densities. This influential text was published in 1930 as New Musical Resources, but the Two Rhythm-Harmony Quartets remained in manuscript until 1975. In the 1920s, Cowell produced more tone-cluster piano works, such as The Voice of Lir (1920), The Trumpet of Angus Og (1924), and Tiger (1929). Ensemble (1924) for string quintet and three Native American thundersticks was an early indication of his interest in the music of other cultures; it also featured graphic notation and required improvisation. Cowell developed

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what he termed the string piano–plucking, rubbing, and strumming the strings inside the piano—in Aeolian Harp (1923), The Sword of Oblivion (1924), and The Banshee (1925). He showcased these extended performance techniques in The Irish Suite (1928), a concerto for string piano with small orchestra. Similarly, he composed his Piano Concerto (1929) as a tour de force in tone-cluster music. Cowell then stepped away from both techniques, having largely exhausted their usefulness for himself. Cowell became an ardent champion of progressive music with his New Music Society concerts (1925–1936), the scores published by New Music Quarterly (1927–1958), and a series of New Music Quarterly Recordings (1934–1949). With Edgard Varèse and Carlos Chávez, Cowell cofounded the Pan-American Association of Composers (1928–1934); he also taught at the New School for Social Research (1930–1936). An aid to composers internationally, he was especially helpful to Americans native and adopted, including Seeger, Ornstein, Varèse, Charles Ives, Carl Ruggles, John J. Becker, Wallingford Riegger, Dane Rudhyar, William Russell, Paul Bowles, Ruth Crawford, Gerald Strang, Nicolas Slonimsky, Henry Brant, and Harry Partch. Cowell also played his piano music nationwide and made five acclaimed European concert tours between 1923 and 1932; he performed in the Soviet Union in 1929, the first American composer to be invited. Béla Bartók and Alban Berg expressed to Cowell their interest in using tone-clusters. In 1932, Arnold Schoenberg invited Cowell to play for his master classes in Berlin, and Anton Webern conducted Cowell’s Sinfonietta (1928) in Vienna. In Berlin, Cowell also studied the music of Java, Bali, South India, and other countries. Cowell’s major works of the early 1930s include his study in dissonant counterpoint, Polyphonica (1930) for 12 instruments or small orchestra; Rhythmicana (1931), an orchestral concerto for Leon Theremin’s electronic-music instrument the rhythmicon (which was tuned to the overtone series and could play complex polyrhythms); the dance score Atlantis (1931); and Ostinato Pianissimo for percussion ensemble (1934). Mosaic Quartet (1935, aka String Quartet No. 3) was one of Cowell’s elastic-form scores, allowing players to alternate the sequence of movements and change phrase lengths. Cowell’s use of dissonance and atonal structures waned in these years, and tonal methods assumed more importance in Mosaic Quartet and United Quartet (1936, aka String Quartet No. 4). In May 1936, Cowell was arrested in California and charged with having had sexual relations with a 17-year-old boy. He pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 15 years in San Quentin; while there he taught music to prisoners, organized performing ensembles, and composed more than 50 pieces, including Vocalise (1937) and Toccanta (1938), both featuring wordless voice, and the 1939 percussion-ensemble scores Pulse and Return. Cowell’s

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good behavior and the efforts of his supporters won his parole in June 1940. He married the ethnomusicologist Sidney Hawkins Robertson the following year and received a full and unconditional pardon from the governor in 1942. Cowell resumed teaching at the New School for Social Research (1940–1965) and later taught at Columbia University (1949–1965). He composed prolifically but kept to traditional tonal structures and mostly avoided his earlier experimentalism. Instead, world music informed his composition: Variations for Orchestra (1956, rev. 1959), which featured Indonesian gamelan; Persian Set (1957), with Western and Middle Eastern instruments; Homage to Iran for violin and piano (1957); Ongaku for orchestra (1957); Symphony No. 13, “Madras” (1958), with Indian percussion ensemble; and Koto Concertos Nos. 1 (1962) and 2 (1965). Cowell’s love of percussion also flourished, with the “Madras” Symphony, Percussion Concerto (1959), and Symphony No. 14 (1960), featuring 64 percussion instruments. When he died at age 68 in Shady, New York, Cowell had composed roughly 1,000 scores, including Symphonies Nos. 1–21 (1916–1965) and Hymn and Fuguing Tune Nos. 1–18 (1943–1964) for various instruments. Among his students were John Cage, Lou Harrison, George Gershwin, Johanna M. Beyer, Dick Higgins, Philip Corner, and Burt Bacharach. See also ALEATORY; BUHLIG, RICHARD (1880–1952); CHANCE MUSIC; FINE, VIVIAN (1913–2000); FUTURISM; GRAETTINGER, ROBERT F. (1923–1957); INDETERMINACY; JUST INTONATION; KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997); PLEROMA; SULTAN, GRETE (1906–2005); SURREALISM. CRAFT, ROBERT (1923–2015). American musician and critic. Robert Craft received his B.A. from Juilliard and studied conducting with Pierre Monteux at Tanglewood. Best known for his connection with Igor Stravinsky over the last 24 years of the composer’s life, Craft led numerous concerts and released many recordings of Stravinsky’s music; he also made important recordings of the works of other major modernist composers including Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, and Edgard Varèse. The author of several books written either with or about Stravinsky, Craft also published such collections of his criticism as Prejudices in Disguise (1974), Current Convictions (1977), Small Craft Advisories (1989), and A Moment of Existence (1996). CRAWFORD, RUTH. See CRAWFORD SEEGER, RUTH (1901–1953). CRAWFORD SEEGER, RUTH (1901–1953). American composer, musician, and educator. A skilled pianist by her teens, Ruth Crawford taught piano throughout her life. She studied at the American Conservatory in Chi-

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cago (1921–1924) and composed the dissonant Kaleidoscopic Changes on an Original Theme, Ending with a Fugue (1924) for piano; she also explored the music of Alexander Scriabin and composed two Preludes for piano. In 1925, three more Preludes were written, which included tone-clusters; the same year she became friends with Dane Rudhyar and Henry Cowell who championed her music. Crawford turned to chamber music with the 1926 scores Sonata for Violin and Piano and Music for Small Orchestra. She composed four more Preludes in 1928, making a set of nine, and wrote the Suite No. 1 (1928, rev. 1929) for five winds and piano and Five Songs to Poems by Carl Sandburg (1929) for contralto and piano. Crawford began studying with Charles Seeger late in 1929 and adopted his notions of dissonant counterpoint to her atonal composition with four chamber pieces she called the Diaphonic Suites (1930–1931) and her remarkable Piano Study in Mixed Accents (1930). Crawford’s masterpiece, String Quartet 1931, employed certain twelve-tone procedures and a contrapuntal treatment of dynamics. She also wrote Three Chants for Women’s Chorus (1930), using texts of phoneme and vowel sounds, and Three Songs to Poems by Carl Sandburg for Contralto, Oboe, Piano, and Percussion with Optional Orchestral Ostinati for Strings and Winds (1932). Crawford and Seeger married in 1932, and she joined him in radical left-wing politics, leaving modernism behind with her Two Ricercare (1932) for mezzo-soprano and piano, “Sacco, Vanzetti” and “Chinaman, Laundryman.” In the mid-1930s, Crawford turned to the study and documentation of American folk song. She made hundreds of transcriptions of field recordings for the anthology Our Singing Country (1941) and composed more than 100 piano accompaniments for her transcriptions, published as Folk Song U.S.A. (1947). The audience-friendly Rissolty, Rossolty (1939) for orchestra was her only original composition in the years she devoted to ethnomusicology. Crawford returned to her own composition in 1952 with the Suite for Wind Quintet but fell ill with intestinal cancer and died the following year in Chevy Chase, Maryland, at age 52. Her students include Johanna M. Beyer and Vivian Fine. See also OLIVEROS, PAULINE (1932–2016); TEXTSOUND MUSIC. CRUMB, GEORGE (1929– ). American composer, musician, and educator. George Crumb studied composition with Ross Lee Finney at the University of Michigan and Boris Blacher at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik; he later taught at the University of Pennsylvania (1965–1997). Crumb’s early works, such as Sonata (1955) for solo cello and Variazioni (1959) for orchestra, showed the influences of Paul Hindemith and Béla Bartók. With Five Pieces for Piano (1962), he began to develop his mature style, employing a greater pointillism and compression along with an evocative and original approach to timbre. Night Music I (1963) for soprano, piano/celesta, and

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percussion was his first setting of Spanish poet Federico García Lorca; it also utilized extended performance techniques, including string piano, which would characterize his music. Crumb continued to set Lorca with Madrigals, Books I–IV (1965–1969) for soprano and instruments; Songs, Drones, and Refrains of Death (1968) for baritone, electric guitar, electric contrabass, electric piano, electric harpsichord, and percussion; and Night of the Four Moons (1969) for mezzosoprano, alto flute/piccolo, banjo, electric cello, and percussion. Other major works from these years are Eleven Echoes of Autumn, 1965 (1966) for alto flute, clarinet, violin, and piano and the spatial Echoes of Time and the River (1967) for orchestra. His score writing became increasingly idiosyncratic, with graphic notation, elaborate visual designs, and poetic performance notations. Crumb’s breakthrough year was 1970, with two classics: Black Angels for electric string quartet and Ancient Voices of Children, another Lorca setting, for soprano, boy soprano, oboe, mandolin, harp, electric piano, toy piano, and percussion. The musicians wear masks in the 1971 works Vox Balanae for electric flute, electric cello, and electric piano and Lux Aeterna for soprano, bass flute, sitar, and percussion. Theatrical qualities also enhance Makrokosmos, Volumes I and II (1972–1973) for amplified piano. Crumb’s notable later works include Star Child (1977) for soprano, children’s voices, and orchestra; Pastoral Drone (1982) for organ; A Haunted Landscape (1984) for orchestra; Easter Dawning (1991) for carillon; Mundus Canis (1998) for guitar and percussion; American Songbook, Volumes I–VII (2001–2010) for male and female voices, percussion quartet, and amplified piano; and Spanish Songbook, Volumes I–III (2009–2012) for male and female voices, guitar, percussion, and amplified piano. See also DEGAETANI, JAN (1933–1989); DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; IMPRESSIONISM; POSTMODERNISM; TAN DUN (1957– ); TONE-CLUSTER; WEISBERG, ARTHUR (1931–2009). CURRAN, ALVIN (1938– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Alvin Curran studied composition with Ron Nelson at Brown University and with Mel Powell and Elliott Carter at Yale University; he taught at Rome’s Accademia Nazionale di Arte Drammatica (1975–1980) and at Mills College (1991–2006). Curran was a cofounder of MEV in 1966, vocalizing and playing brass and live electronic music, and he has remained a core member along with Frederic Rzewski and Richard Teitelbaum, performing on synthesizer, MIDI keyboard, sampler, and computer. He began releasing electroacoustic solo albums with Songs and Views from the Magnetic Garden (1974), blending the sounds of nature with electronics, instruments, and voices. Maritime Rites (1985), a series of environmental concerts for radio, combines maritime sounds with recordings of improvising soloists, including

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Steve Lacy, Pauline Oliveros, George Lewis, Joëlle Léandre, Malcolm Goldstein, and John Cage. Curran’s notable compositions include the pianos scores For Cornelius (1982, rev. 1990) and the series Inner Cities 1–14 (1993–2010); the string quartets VSTO (1993) and VSTO version 2.5 (2009); Theme Park (1995) for solo percussionist; Three Flukes (1999) for flute trio; and Symphony 1.1 (2012) for orchestra. Among his sound installations are Black Flag (1994) and The Twentieth Century (1996); Beams and Nora Sonora were 2005 concert-installations for large numbers of musicians. He has scored Omaggio a William Blake (1972), Effetto Puglia (1988), and other films. Curran’s recent albums include Endangered Species (2009) and Shofar Rags (2013). See also THE BEATLES; ECOMUSICOLOGY; FREE IMPROVISATION; THE HUB; MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); POSTMODERNISM.

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D DAHL, INGOLF (1912–1970). German-born American composer, musician, and educator. Born Walther Ingolf Marcus in Hamburg, Ingolf Dahl studied piano and music theory with Edith Weiss-Mann and was concertizing and composing as a teenager. He studied at the Hochschule für Musik in Cologne (1931–1932) with Philipp Jarnach and the Zurich Conservatory (1932–1933); he also studied with Nadia Boulanger in the United States in 1935. Dahl taught at the University of Southern California (1945–1970); his students include Michael Tilson Thomas. He immigrated to the United States in 1939 and became a U.S. citizen in 1943, settling in Los Angeles where he worked with both Igor Stravinsky and Arnold Schoenberg. In his early works—Suite (1935) for piano, Allegro and Arioso (1942) for wind quintet—Dahl explored atonality and polyrhythms. Jazz influences and neoclassical techniques inform his Music for Brass Instruments (1944) for brass quintet; Concerto a Tre (1948) for clarinet, violin, and cello; and Concerto for Alto Saxophone and Wind Orchestra (1949, rev. 1953). Dahl combined tonal and serial procedures in Sonata Seria (1953) for piano, The Tower of Saint Barbara (1955) for orchestra, and Sinfonietta (1961) for concert band; his twelve-tone music became more strict in such late pieces as A Cycle of Sonnets (1968) for baritone and piano and Five Duets for Clarinets (1970). See also MODERNISM. DALLAPICCOLA, LUIGI (1904–1975). Italian composer, musician, and educator. Luigi Dallapiccola was born in Pisino, Istria, and studied at the Florence Conservatory (1923–1931). After graduating, he joined the faculty as a piano teacher and continued to teach there until he retired in 1967; he also taught at the Instituto Tarcuato di Tella in Buenos Aires and at Tanglewood; his students include Luciano Berio, Sylvano Bussotti, Frederic Rzewski, Salvatore Martirano, Halim El-Dabh, and Richard Maxfield. Inspired by the neoclassicism of Ferruccio Busoni, Dallapiccola used 17th-century forms in Tre Studi (1932) for soprano and chamber orchestra, Partita (1933) for orchestra, and Divertimento in Quattro Esercizi (1934) for soprano and five instruments; his choral work Cori di Michelangelo Buonar91

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roti il Giovane (1935) drew from the madrigals of Renaissance Italy. Protesting Benito Mussolini’s dictatorship, he composed Canti di prigioni (1940) for mixed chorus, two pianos, two harps, and percussion. Dallapiccola began using twelve-tone techniques in Cinque frammenti di Saffo (1942) for voice and chamber ensemble, but in 1943, he was forced to flee Florence and go into hiding until the liberation of Italy in 1944. In his mature music, Dallapiccola found new ways of melding dodecaphony with tonal and modal techniques. Canti di prigioni became part of a monumental trilogy decrying oppression and enslavement, with the one-act opera Il prigioniero (1948), his best-known work, and Canti di liberazione (1955) for mixed chorus and orchestra. Among Dallapiccola’s later notable works are the oratorio Job (1950), Quaderno musicale di Annalibera (1952) for piano, and the 1954 orchestral scores Variazioni and Piccola musica notturna. His last vocal works include Preghiere (1962) for baritone and chamber orchestra, the opera Ulisse (1967), Sicut umbra (1970) for mezzosoprano and 12 instruments, and Commiato (1972) for soprano and chamber ensemble. See also ATONALITY; MODERNISM; NONO, LUIGI (1924–1990); SESSIONS, ROGER (1896–1985). DAVIDOVSKY, MARIO (1934– ). Argentine-born American composer and educator. In his native Argentina, Mario Davidovsky studied composition with Guillermo Graetzer, Teodoro Fuchs, Erwin Leuchter, and Ernesto Epstein. His early compositions adapted certain organizational techniques of serialism to his own totally chromatic and atonal music: String Quartet No. 1 (1954), Concertino for Percussion and String Orchestra (1954), Noneto (1956). Davidovsky studied with Aaron Copland at Tanglewood and, two years later, relocated to the United States and settled in New York, where he studied with Otto Luening at Columbia University. Using the RCA Mark II synthesizer at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, he began composing electronic music with Contrastes No. 1 (1960) for string orchestra and electronic sounds and Electronic Studies Nos. 1–3 (1961–1965). Davidovsky also instructed such composers as Ross Lee Finney, Tan Dun, and Anne LeBaron in electronic composition; he has taught at Columbia University, Harvard University, and other institutions. Davidovsky’s Synchronisms No. 1 (1963) for flute and electronic sounds launched a landmark series of electroacoustic scores that established his reputation. Electronic sounds are heard with flute, clarinet, violin, and cello in Synchronisms No. 2 (1964), cello in No. 3 (1965), male or mixed chorus in No. 4 (1967), percussion ensemble in No. 5 (1969), piano in No. 6 (1970), orchestra in No. 7 (1973), and wind quintet in No. 8 (1974). His instrumental and vocal scores during these years include Inflexions (1965) for chamber ensemble, Transientes (1972) for orchestra, Scenes from “Shir-Ha-Shirim” (1975) for four voices and chamber orchestra, and Pennplay (1978) for 16

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instruments. Davidovsky was also director of the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center (1981–1994), yet he employed electronic sounds only in his later Synchronisms: No. 9 (1988) with violin, No. 10 (1992) with guitar, No. 11 (2005) with contrabass, and No. 12 (2006) with clarinet. Other notable later works by Davidovsky include Consorts (1980) for symphonic band, Shulamit’s Dream (1993) for soprano and orchestra, Cantione Sine Textu (2001) for soprano and chamber ensemble, Piano Septet (2007), and the octet Divertimento for 8 “Ambiguous Symmetries” (2015). See also MODERNISM; SOLLBERGER, HARVEY (1938– ); TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. DAVIES, PETER MAXWELL (SIR) (1934–2016). English composer, musician, and educator. Peter Maxwell Davies studied at the Royal Manchester College of Music with Richard Hall (1952–1957) and investigated serialism and atonal modernism with fellow students Harrison Birtwistle and Alexander Goehr, which led to their being known as the “Manchester School.” Davies also studied with Goffredo Petrassi in Rome (1957–1959) and Roger Sessions and Earl Kim (1962–1964) in the United States, and taught at the Royal Academy of Music, among other institutions. He was knighted in 1987. Davies’s Prolation (1958) for orchestra was totally serialized, but he found his own voice with a freer atonal style in the theatrical monodrama Revelation and Fall (1966, rev. 1980) for soprano and instrumental ensemble. Davies and Birtwistle cofounded the new-music group the Pierrot Players in 1967, which became the Fires of London (1970–1987) and performed internationally, led by Davies. His music for the group includes the score for Ken Russell’s film The Devils (1971) and Davies’s theatrical works Eight Songs for a Mad King (1969), Vesalii Icones (1969), Miss Donnithorne’s Maggot (1974), The Martyrdom of St. Magnus (1976), Le Jongleur de Notre Dame (1978), and The Lighthouse (1979). His other important compositions in these years include Stone Litany (1973) for mezzo-soprano and orchestra and the ballet score Salome (1978). Davies also drew upon music of the Renaissance, in techniques and in quotation and arrangements—St. Thomas Wake (1969) for orchestra is a foxtrot on a pavan by John Bull. His many works for young people include the cantata The Peat Cutters (1985), Six Songs for St. Andrew’s (1988) for voices and instruments, Shepherds of Hoy (1993) for voices and piano, and Six Sanday Tunes (2001) for violins. Davies’s more than 300 scores include Symphonies Nos. 1–10 (1976–2014), Stratchlyde Concertos Nos. 1–10 (1987–1996), and the operas Taverner (1970), Resurrection (1987), The Doctor of Myddfai (1995), and Kommilitonen! (Young Blood!) (2010). His notable later works include Veni Creator Spiritus (2002) for flute and bass clarinet; Angelus (2003) for mixed chorus; A Sad Paven for These Distracted

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Tymes (2004) for string quartet; Das Rauschende der farbe (2006) for orchestra; and Stormwatch, Stormfall (2011) for horn, piano, and violin. Davies died of leukemia at his home in Scotland’s Orkney Islands at age 81. See also DEGAETANI, JAN (1933–1989); DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000); EASTMAN, JULIUS (1940–1990); GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; TWELVETONE MUSIC. DAVIS, ANTHONY (1951– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Anthony Davis studied at Wesleyan University and Yale University; he has taught at Yale, Harvard University, Cornell University, and the University of California at San Diego. A successful jazz composer and pianist, Davis has performed as a soloist and with his ensemble Episteme, as well as with such composer/musicians as Anthony Braxton, Leroy Jenkins, George Lewis, and Richard Teitelbaum. Jazz techniques have informed his classical composition, which includes the orchestral works Still Waters (1982), Notes from the Underground (1988), and Esu Variations (1995); Map (1988) for violin and orchestra; the piano scores Middle Passage (1983) and Goddess Variations (1999); Restless Mourning (2002) for mixed chorus, chamber ensemble, and live electronics; You Have the Right to Remain Silent (2007) for clarinet/alto clarinet, synthesizer/sampler, and orchestra; and Amistad Symphony (2009) for mezzo-soprano and orchestra. His study of gamelan music is reflected in such works as the octet Wayang II (1982); Wayang V (1984) for piano and orchestra; and Wayang VI (1986) for two pianos. Davis is especially admired for his operas: X—the Life and Times of Malcolm X (1986), Under the Double Moon (1989), Tania (1992), Amistad (1997), Wakonda’s Dream (2007), Lilith (2009), Lear on the 2nd Floor (2013), and Five (2016). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MULTICULTURALISM; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); POSTMODERNISM. DE GLI (DEGLI) ANTONI, MARK. See ROUGH ASSEMBLAGE. DEBUSSY, CLAUDE (1862–1918). French composer, musician, and critic. One of the crucial figures in the development of 20th-century music, Debussy revolutionized composition with his novel approach to form and staticism, and he became a focal point for the impressionist movement. AchilleClaude Debussy was born in St.-Germain-en-Laye, not far west of Paris, and as a child, he showed great talent at the piano. He entered the Paris Conservatoire at age 10 and studied piano with Antoine Marmontel and composition with Ernest Guiraud. His music was admired, and L’enfant prodigue (1884), a cantata for three voices and orchestra, was awarded the Prix de Rome. More original was Debussy’s La damoiselle élue (1888) for soprano, mezzosoprano, women’s chorus, and orchestra, and it earned him an academic

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warning against what were seen as tendencies toward impressionism—a term first applied to the French painters of the 1870s, who had rejected Romanticism and academicism in favor of subtler and more sensual colors and textures. Debussy was a major composer of songs for voice and piano in the 1880s and 1890s, setting Paul Verlaine (Ariettes, 1888; Trois mélodies, 1891; Fêtes galantes, 1892), Charles Baudelaire (Cinq poèmes, 1889), and Pierre Louys (Chansons de Bilitis, 1897). An enthusiasm for the music of Richard Wagner was excited by Debussy’s pilgrimages to Bayreuth in 1888 and 1889, but by the mid-1890s, he had turned away from Wagner to follow his own path. He drew ideas from numerous sources, including the works of Modest Mussorgsky, with their modal writing, unusual scales, and asymmetrical rhythms and forms. The music of a Javanese gamelan ensemble at the Grande Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1889 also greatly impressed him—as it did his friend Erik Satie, whose lively mind and anti-Teutonic attitude further encouraged Debussy. With his orchestral score Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune (1894), Debussy synthesized his musical attractions and aversions into a sound that was free from the shadow of Wagner and from the techniques of the French academy. Ignoring traditional methods of development through contrast, Debussy created a static atmosphere of subtle effects and emotions, rich in sensuous harmonies and orchestral color. The score was quickly labeled impressionist, and that painterly quality was even more pronounced in Debussy’s Nocturnes (1899) for orchestra and wordless female chorus. His second great breakthrough came in opera with Pelléas et Mélisande (1901), a setting of Maurice Maeterlinck’s play. Debussy bypassed the genre’s conventions and downplayed drama, becoming as revolutionary for the opera house as he had been for the concert hall. Avoiding vocal pyrotechnics and favoring a restrained and hushed orchestration, Pelléas et Mélisande soon found its audience and has remained in the repertory. The 1900s saw perhaps the most popular of all Debussy’s orchestral music: La Mer (1905), an evocative pictorial score in the spirit of his Nocturnes. This decade also marked a third breakthrough in Debussy’s composition, with a series of major works for piano: Estampes (1903), L’isle joyeuse (1904), Images, first series (1905) and second series (1907), and Children’s Corner (1908). Inspired by the singing tone of Frédéric Chopin, he embraced an anti-percussive piano sound and demanded innovative techniques in fingering and pedal, as well as a more acute ear for sonority. (Although a skilled pianist, Debussy concertized infrequently and did not premiere his own works.) He also wrote music criticism for the magazine La Revue blanche (1901), the newspaper Gil Blas (1903), and the magazines Musica (1906–1911) and SIM (1912–1914).

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Debussy deplored the impressionist pigeonhole, yet he had plainly defined a new compositional sensibility that liberated numerous composers during the first decades of the 20th century—some of whom he befriended, among them Maurice Ravel, Edgard Varèse, Igor Stravinsky, and Manuel de Falla. Internationally famous by the 1910s, Debussy produced his final great piano works with Douze préludes, first book (1910) and second book (1913), Six epigraphes antiques (1914) for piano four-hands, and En blanc et noir (1915) for two pianos. He wrote notable music for voice and piano with Trois ballades de François Villon (1910) and Trois poèmes de Stéphane Mallarmé (1913), and he completed three major orchestral scores: Le martyre de SaintSébastien (1911), Images (1912), and the more hard-edged and dissonant Jeux (1912). In these years, Debussy also composed his first important chamber-music scores since his String Quartet of 1893, starting with Première rapsodie (1910) for clarinet and piano and Syrinx (1912) for solo flute. With his Sonata for Cello and Piano (1915), Sonata for Flute, Viola, and Harp (1915), and Sonata for Violin and Piano (1917), he attempted to rethink classical forms and anticipated neoclassicism. All three were written as part of a projected cycle of six chamber scores, which was never realized. Debussy died of colon cancer at age 55 in Paris. See also ATONALITY; BARRAQUÉ, JEAN (1928–1973); BARTÓK, BÉLA (1881–1945); BOULEZ, PIERRE (1925–2016); COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); DELIUS, FREDERICK (1862–1934); LOURIÉ, ARTHUR (1892–1966); MESSIAEN, OLIVIER (1908–1992); MILHAUD, DARIUS (1892–1974); MODERNISM; MOMPOU, FEDERICO (1893–1987); MULTICULTURALISM; ORNSTEIN, LEO (ca. 1892–2002); SZYMANOWSKI, KAROL (1882–1937); TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TONE-CLUSTER. DEGAETANI, JAN (1933–1989). American musician and educator. Mezzo-soprano Jan DeGaetani studied at Juilliard and became a leading interpreter of modern and contemporary music, premiering works written for her by such composers as Elliott Carter, William Schuman, Pierre Boulez, Jacob Druckman, George Crumb, and Peter Maxwell Davies. She was also professor of voice at the Eastman School of Music (1973–1989). She died in Rochester, New York, of leukemia at age 56. DEL TREDICI, DAVID (1937– ). American composer, musician, and educator. A concert pianist as a teenager, David Del Tredici studied piano privately with Bernhard Abramowitsch; composition with Seymour Shifrin at the University of California at Berkeley; piano with Robert Helps and composition with Roger Sessions at Princeton University; and composition at Tanglewood with Iannis Xenakis. Del Tredici has taught at Harvard Univer-

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sity, Boston University, and the City College of New York. His early music used twelve-tone methods, as in two James Joyce settings for soprano, I Hear an Army (1964) with string quartet and Syzygy (1966) with horn and orchestra. Turning to neoromantic techniques, he wrote several settings of Lewis Carroll for amplified soprano and orchestra, which include An Alice Symphony (1969, rev. 1976), Final Alice (1975), and In Memory of a Summer Day (1980). He has also composed such gay-themed scores as his music for John Kelly’s Brother (1997); My Favorite Penis Poems (1998, rev. 2002) for soprano, baritone, and piano; Gay Life (2001) for amplified baritone and orchestra; Queer Hosannas (2007) for male chorus and piano four-hands; and Bullycide (2013) for piano and string quintet. Among Del Tredici’s other notable works are the Lewis Carroll opera Dum Dee Tweedle (1990); Dracula (1999) for amplified soprano and orchestra; String Quartets Nos. 1 (2003) and 2 (2010); and The Last Rose of Summer (2018) for baritone and chamber ensemble. See also POSTMODERNISM. DELIUS, FREDERICK (1862–1934). English composer. An original composer who developed his own impressionistic voice, Delius is beloved for his single-minded devotion to beauty and nature. Born to a family of wealthy wool merchants in Bradford, Yorkshire, Fritz Theodore Albert Delius studied violin and piano. After two years of college, he worked for a while in the family business but gave it up and relocated to Florida in 1884, intending to grow oranges. Although Delius did run a plantation there, his greatest experiences were musical, and the evocative harmonies and melodies in the songs of the African Americans who worked the fields made a deep impression on him. Another breakthrough came to him there in his friendship with composer/ musician Thomas F. Ward; after studying with Ward, Delius had a sufficient education to get a job teaching music in Virginia in 1885. He then returned to Europe and entered the Leipzig Conservatory (1886–1888); his teachers included Carl Reinecke, but Delius realized that none of his studies there was as useful to him as Ward’s had been. With that experience in mind, he composed his first notable score, Florida Suite (1887, rev. 1889). He visited Paris in 1888 and decided to live there, and by the 1890s, his mature style began emerging in his orchestral music, with a more vital sense of nature and locale, be it the English countryside of Over the Hills and Far Away (1897), the American South in his Piano Concerto (1897, rev. 1906), or his beloved France in Paris (1899). Along with American music, Delius drew upon such varied sources as Frédéric Chopin, Richard Wagner, Edvard Grieg, and the impressionist works of Claude Debussy in developing his own rhapsodic music of lush chromatic harmonies and rich orchestrations.

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Delius wrote his first opera, libretto and music, with the fairy-tale romance Irmelin (1892). He also wrote and scored The Magic Fountain (1895, rev. 1898) but turned to a libretto by C. F. Keary for Koanga (1897, rev. 1898); both operas were tragic dramas of interracial love set in the New World, with Delius drawing upon music that he had known in Florida. Neither Irmelin nor The Magic Fountain would be staged until many years after his death, but the Voodoo-themed Koanga found an audience in Germany and was premiered in Elberfeld in 1904. Even though Delius had settled in Grez-sur-Loing, near Fontainebleau, in 1897 and anglicized his first name to Frederick in 1902, his music was taken up by the Germans, and his finest opera, A Village Romeo and Juliet (1901, rev. 1906), was premiered in Berlin in 1907. With a libretto by Delius after Gottfried Keller’s novella, A Village Romeo and Juliet placed its doomed lovers in a pastoral landscape epitomized by the popular orchestral interlude, “The Walk to the Paradise Garden.” Delius also found success in Germany with several major works for mixed chorus and orchestra: Appalachia (1903), subtitled “Variations on an Old Slave Song,” which returned to the sounds of 1880s Florida; Sea Drift (1904), with baritone soloist, a setting of Walt Whitman; A Mass of Life (1905), perhaps his greatest choral work, with soprano, contralto, tenor, and baritone soloists, to texts by Friedrich Nietzsche; and the Ernest Dowson setting Songs of Sunset (1907), with soprano and baritone soloists. The late 1900s saw two memorable short tone poems for orchestra, Brigg Fair (1907) and In a Summer Garden (1908, rev. 1912). Delius then spent more than two years writing the libretto and music for his last opera, the austere Romantic drama Fennimore and Gerda (1911), after which he returned to his compact lyrical form of the previous decade, modifying it for smaller orchestra with the classics Summer Night on the River (1911) and On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring (1912). Similar qualities arose in his more ambitious The Song of the High Hills (1912) for orchestra and wordless mixed chorus. German support for Delius’s music ceased with World War I—Fennimore and Gerda waited until 1919 for its premiere in Frankfurt—but he continued composing on a large scale with his Double Concerto (1915) for violin, cello, and orchestra; Requiem (1916) for soprano, baritone, chorus, and orchestra; Violin Concerto (1916); and such orchestral scores as North Country Sketches (1914) and Eventyr (1917). His chamber music of the time includes Sonata No. 1 for Violin and Piano (1914) and String Quartet (1917). Delius’s composition then became increasingly sporadic as his health deteriorated. He was able to complete such efforts as A Song before Sunrise (1918) for orchestra, Cello Concerto (1921), and the 1923 scores Sonata No. 2 for Violin and Piano and theater music for Hassan, but by 1925, Delius had fallen silent, stricken with paralysis and blindness by neurosyphilis.

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In 1928, he accepted an offer from English musician Eric Fenby (1906–1997) to join him in France and serve as his amanuensis. Together they produced the last of Delius’s compositions, including A Song of Summer (1929), Sonata No. 3 for Violin and Piano (1930), Caprice and Elegy (1930) for cello and chamber orchestra, and two more settings of Whitman: Songs of Farewell (1930) for mixed chorus and orchestra and Idyll for soprano, baritone, and orchestra (1932). Delius died in Grez-sur-Loing at age 72. See also MODERNISM; PEARS, PETER (SIR) (1910–1986); WARLOCK, PETER (1894–1930). DENISOV, EDISON (1929–1996). Siberian-born Russian composer, musician, and educator. With the encouragement of Dmitry Shostakovich, Edison Denisov studied piano and composition at the Moscow Conservatory (1951–1956); he later taught there. He used serial techniques in The Sun of the Incas (1964) for soprano and chamber ensemble, Sonata for Alto Saxophone and Piano (1970), Five Etudes (1983) for solo bassoon, and Wind Octet (1991). Crescendo e diminuendo (1965) for harpsichord and 12 strings featured graphic notation and performance freedoms; Birds Singing (1969) was a tape piece he created at the Moscow Electronic Music Studio. His other notable works include Peinture (1970) for orchestra; Requiem (1980) for soprano, tenor, mixed chorus, and orchestra; the opera L’écume des jours (1981); Symphony (1987); and Chamber Symphony No. 2 (1994). He also composed numerous film scores. In a holdover of Soviet anxiety regarding modernism and formalism, Denisov was for many years denounced by the Russian press, prevented from teaching composition, and forbidden to travel to performances of his music in Europe. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); ELECTRONIC MUSIC. DEYHIM, SUSSAN (1956– ). Iranian composer and musician. A dancer in Iran, Sussan Deyhim joined Maurice Béjart’s Ballet of the XX Century in 1976, but she left dancing after a few years and settled in New York in 1980, where she focused on music. A dramatic multicultural vocalist who uses extended performance techniques, she collaborated with composer/keyboard player Richard Horowitz in creating and starring in the multimedia opera Azax/Attra (1981). Deyhim’s other electroacoustic music with Horowitz includes the albums Desert Equations (1986), Majoun (1996), and Logic of the Birds (2008); such film scores as Les amants de Mogador (2002), Logic of the Birds (2002, which Deyhim starred in and directed), and Tobruk (2008); and the multimedia work The House Is Black Media Project (2018). Deyhim has also performed with other composer/musicians such as Ornette Coleman and Elliott Sharp. Among her notable solo recordings are Madman of God: Divine Love Songs of the Persian Sufi Masters (2000) and City

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of Leaves (2011). She is the composer and performer of Lost Exit (2001) for voice and chamber ensemble; Soliloquy (2008) and Possessed (2008) are Deyhim’s music and sound design for the video installations of Shirin Neshat. See also FREE IMPROVISATION; POSTMODERNISM. DIAMOND, DAVID (1915–2005). American composer, musician, and educator. David Diamond studied violin and composition at the Eastman School of Music; he also studied composition with Roger Sessions at New York’s Dalcroze Institute and with Nadia Boulanger in France. He taught at Juilliard (1973–1997) and other institutions; his students include William Flanagan. A neoromantic composer with such admired early works as Psalms (1937) for orchestra and Rounds (1944) for strings, Diamond developed his melodic gifts in more dissonant and tonally ambiguous scores: Quintet (1950) for clarinet and strings, The World of Paul Klee (1957) for orchestra, The Fall (1970) for voice and piano, the opera The Noblest Game (1975), and Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra (1996). His other notable works include 11 symphonies (1940–1991), 10 string quartets (1940–1968), and three violin concertos (1937–1976). Among his film scores are Strange Victory (1948) and Anna Lucasta (1949). See also MODERNISM. DISSONANCE. Categories of dissonance and consonance can be traced back to the ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras of Samos. Virtually every culture has drawn some distinctions between consonant combinations of tones, experienced as gentle and soothing, and dissonant harmonies, regarded as harsh or grating. The flowering of Romanticism during the 1830s gave rise to a radical extension of music’s harmonic vocabulary, with composers utilizing seventh, ninth, and 11th chords that had hitherto been mostly avoided. Some found these tonal combinations discordant and objectionable, but audiences soon embraced the music of such innovators as Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, and Franz Liszt. The operas of Richard Wagner used increasingly chromatic harmonies, paving the way for a more provocative treatment of dissonance by such composers as Anton Bruckner, Richard Strauss, and Gustav Mahler. Working in this modernist tradition, Arnold Schoenberg regarded dissonance as a more remote form of consonance and developed a music with no tonal bias. With his 1909 atonal scores Erwartung and Five Orchestral Pieces, Schoenberg emancipated dissonance and made available all harmonic combinations. His pupils Alban Berg and Anton Webern followed his approach and, by the mid-1920s, were also using his twelve-tone method for composing dissonant atonal music.

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Other composers of the 1900s and 1910s, such as Charles Ives, Alexander Scriabin, Béla Bartók, Igor Stravinsky, Sergey Prokofiev, Darius Milhaud, Dane Rudhyar, and Henry Cowell, were less interested in—or in some cases, fundamentally opposed to—late- and post-Romantic German music, yet they too felt the need for a harmonic language that was more expressive and relevant to their experience. Some were inspired by folk music and/or French impressionism, but they all followed their own paths into dissonance. By the 1920s, this shift in harmonic sensibility had taken root; whether the music was tonal, bitonal, polytonal, or atonal, composers such as Carl Ruggles, Edgard Varèse, Paul Hindemith, Aaron Copland, and Ruth Crawford were using dissonant harmonies as a natural feature of their musical expression. Neoclassicism and neoromanticism developed methods of adapting modernist dissonance to earlier forms, and dissonance of course characterizes the later modernist composers of twelve-tone music, such as Roger Sessions, Milton Babbitt, Pierre Boulez, and Karlheinz Stockhausen, as well as such freely atonal composers as Stefan Wolpe and Elliott Carter. Dissonance has remained a familiar aspect of postmodern harmonic practice, defining not just the chance and indeterminate music of John Cage and his followers but other essential forms of music making, including such free jazz masters as Sun Ra, Cecil Taylor, and Ornette Coleman; Fred Frith, John Zorn, and other free improvisers; and the rock-inspired music of Glenn Branca and The Residents. See also ANTHEIL, GEORGE (1900–1959); BARBER, SAMUEL (1910–1981); BECKER, JOHN J. (1886–1961); BEYER, JOHANNA M. (1888–1944); BRAXTON, ANTHONY (1945– ); CHÁVEZ, CARLOS (1899–1978); DEBUSSY, CLAUDE (1862–1918); DIAMOND, DAVID (1915–2005); EASTMAN, JULIUS (1940–1990); ELLINGTON, DUKE (1899–1974); EXPRESSIONISM; FILM MUSIC; FINE, VIVIAN (1913–2000); FINZI, GERALD (1901–1956); FORMALISM; GIDEON, MIRIAM (1906–1996); GÓRECKI, HENRYK (1933–2010); GRAETTINGER, ROBERT F. (1923–1957); HENZE, HANS WERNER (1926–2012); HOLST, GUSTAV (1874–1934); JANÁČEK, LEOŠ (1854–1928); KRENEK, ERNST (1900–1991); MONK, MEREDITH (1942– ); MOSOLOV, ALEXANDER (1900–1973); ORNSTEIN, LEO (ca. 1892–2002); PANTONALITY; POULENC, FRANCIS (1889–1963); REVUELTAS, SILVESTRE (1899–1940); RIEGGER, WALLINGFORD (1885–1961); SATIE, ERIK (1866–1925); SEEGER, CHARLES (1886–1979); SHAPEY, RALPH (1921–2002); SHOSTAKOVICH, DMITRY (1906–1975); SMIT, LEOPOLD “LEO” (1900–1943); STRANG, GERALD (1908–1983); TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006); TONE-CLUSTER; VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, RALPH (1872–1958); WELLESZ, EGON (1885–1974); XENAKIS, IANNIS (1922–2001); YUN, ISANG (1917–1995); ZAPPA, FRANK (1940–1993).

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DLUGOSZEWSKI, LUCIA (1934–2000). American composer and musician. Lucia Dlugoszewski studied piano and composition at the Detroit Conservatory of Music, and in 1949, she premiered Moving Space Theater Piece for Everyday Sounds in Detroit, which consisted of the sounds of daily, socalled unmusical activities. She relocated to New York City in 1952 and gave a similar concert, Everyday Sounds for e. e. cummings with Transparencies. She also studied piano with Grete Sultan and composition with Felix Salzer and Edgard Varèse. In 1952, she began playing piano for choreographer Erick Hawkins and soon was composing scores for Hawkins, whom she later married. The novel sonorities of Dlugoszewski’s atonal scores can be traced back to the extended performance techniques she developed in the early 1950s for what she termed the timbre piano: playing the piano strings with percussion mallets, brushes, and other objects in such pieces as Archaic Timbre Piano Music (1957) and Five Radiant Grounds (1961), both of which Hawkins choreographed; Swift Music (1965) for two timbre pianos; and Dazzle on a Knife’s Edge (1966) for timbre piano and orchestra. She designed more than 100 new percussion instruments in the late 1950s and used them as the sole instrumentation of Suchness Concert (1960), Geography of Noon (1964), and Radical Quidditas for an Unborn Baby (1991). Dlugoszewski also scored such notable films as Marie Menken’s Visual Variations on Noguchi (1945) and Jonas Mekas’s Guns of the Trees (1961). Dlugoszewski produced many of her finest and best-known music in the early 1970s, some of which were choreographed by Hawkins: The Suchness of Nine Concerts (1970) for clarinet, violin, two percussion, and timbre piano; Tender Theatre Flight Nageire (1971, rev. 1978), a spatial work for brass sextet and percussion; and Densities: Nova, Corona, Clear Core (1972) for brass quintet. Her major works written for the concert hall include Space Is a Diamond (1970) for solo trumpet, Fire Fragile Flight (1974) for 17 instruments, and Abyss and Caress (1975) for trumpet and chamber orchestra. Among her notable later scores are Four Attention Spans (1988) for piano and orchestra or chamber ensemble, Disparate Stairway Radical Other (1995) for string quartet, and Exacerbated Subtlety Concert (Why Does a Woman Love a Man?) (1997, rev. 2000) for timbre piano. See also INSTRUMENT BUILDING; POSTMODERNISM; STRING PIANO. DODECAPHONY. Greek for “twelve-tone,” dodecaphony is an alternative name for Arnold Schoenberg’s method of twelve-tone composition. See also SERIALISM.

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DODGE, CHARLES (1942– ). American composer and educator. Charles Dodge studied with Richard Hervig at the University of Iowa; with Darius Milhaud at Aspen; with Gunther Schuller and Arthur Berger at Tanglewood; and with Jack Beeson, Otto Luening, and Chou Wen-chung at Columbia University. Dodge’s early scores were instrumental, such as Folia (1965) for chamber orchestra and Rota (1966) for orchestra. But he also studied electronic music with Vladimir Ussachevsky at Columbia University and computer music with Godfrey Winham at Princeton University, and in 1970, Dodge completed his first works for computer-synthesized sound: Changes and Earth’s Magnetic Field, the latter a sonification of our planet’s magnetic activity. His real breakthrough came two years later when he synthesized the human voice in Speech Songs, settings of the poetry of Mark Strand. Dodge’s speech-synthesis music became increasingly sophisticated and imaginative with The Story of Our Lives (1974) and In Celebration (1975), two other Strand settings, and Cascando (1978), from Samuel Beckett’s radio play. Any Resemblance Is Purely Coincidental (1980) has a pianist performing with a synthesized voice derived from an early recording of Enrico Caruso singing an aria. Other works by Dodge also combine electronic sound on tape with live musicians: trumpet in Extensions (1973); soprano in The Waves (1984); mixed chorus in Roundelay (1985); viola in Viola Elegy (1987); and violin in Four Etudes (1994). Dodge’s Violin Variations (2009) combines violin with a computer. His later works strictly for computer-synthesized sound include Profile (1984), Song without Words (1986), and Fades, Dissolves, Fizzles (1996). Among Dodge’s later instrumental scores are Distribution, Redistribution (1983) for clarinet, violin, and piano and The One and the Other (1993) for chamber orchestra. He taught at Columbia University (1970–1980), Brooklyn College (1980–1995), and Dartmouth College (1995–2009), among other institutions. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; SOLLBERGER, HARVEY (1938– ); SURREALISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. DOOLITTLE, EMILY (1972– ). Canadian composer, musician, and educator. Emily Doolittle studied composition and oboe at Dalhousie University; she also studied at the Koninklijk Conservatorium with Louis Andriessen and at Indiana University and Princeton University. She has taught at Cornish College of the Arts and the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland. Doolittle has a special interest in the relationship between animal calls and music, with such pieces as Night Black Bird Song (1999) for two flutes and three percussionists; Music for Magpies (2003) for viola da gamba with quarter-tone frets; Social Sounds from Whales at Night (2007) for soprano or solo instrument and tape; Songs of Seals (2011) for narrator, children’s choir, and septet; and Seven Duos for Birds or Strings (2012) for violin and viola.

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Ecomusicology also informs Sapling (2014) for violin and orchestra, the chamber opera Jan Tait and the Bear (2016), Field Guide (2017) for string trio, and Woodwings (2018) for wind quintet. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MICROTONALITY; POSTMODERNISM. DRUCKMAN, JACOB (1928–1996). American composer and educator. Jacob Druckman studied with Peter Mennin and Vincent Persichetti at Juilliard; with Aaron Copland at Tanglewood; and with Tony Aubin at l’École Normale de Musique in Paris. His early music was mostly serial: Four Madrigals (1958) for mixed chorus; the Psalm settings Dark upon the Harp (1962) for mezzo-soprano, brass quintet, and percussion; String Quartet No. 2 (1966). Exposure to electronic music led Druckman to a more Romantic approach, emphasizing drama, surprise, and new sonorities in his atonal and electronic works. His Animus series combined live musicians and tape: trombone in Animus I (1966), mezzo-soprano and percussion in Animus II (1968), and clarinet in Animus III (1969). The last work also had theatrical qualities, and Druckman’s Valentine (1969) for contrabass was even more of a theater piece. Incenters (1968, rev. 1972) for trumpet, horn, trombone, and chamber group and Windows (1972) for orchestra used proportional notation and gave the players aleatoric freedoms in creating densities. He also scored and acted in the film Traîté du rossignol (1971). Druckman quoted Modest Mussorgsky in Incenters and pursued quotation in Delize Contente, che l’alme beate (1973) for woodwind quintet and electronic tape; Lamia (1975) for soprano and orchestra; Animus IV (1977) for tenor, six instruments, and electronic tape; and the orchestral scores Mirage (1976), Aureole (1979), and Prism (1980). He brought neoromantic qualities to his String Quartet No. 3 (1981), the oratorio Vox Humana (1983), Come Round (1992) for six players, and Counterpoise (1994) for soprano and orchestra. Druckman taught at Juilliard (1956–1972) and Yale University (1976–1996); his students include Laurie Spiegel and David Lang. See also DEGAETANI, JAN (1933–1989); DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MADERNA, BRUNO (1920–1973); MODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. DRUMMOND, DEAN (1949–2013). American composer and musician. Dean Drummond studied at the University of Southern California and with Leonard Stein at the California Institute of the Arts. In 1966, he began working as a musician for Harry Partch, and he played in the premiere of Delusion of the Fury and other works. Drummond formed the ensemble Newband in 1976 and pursued alternate tuning systems and instrument building. Among his microtonal percussion instruments is the zoomoozophone, built in 1978 using aluminum tubes, for which he composed such

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pieces as Columbus (1980) for flute and zoomoozophone; Then or Never (1984) for flute, viola, bass, and three zoomoozophone players; and Incredible Time (to Live and Die) (1988) for flute, synthesizer, and three zoomoozophone players with additional percussion. Drummond combined his own instruments with Partch instruments and synthesizers in Dance of the Seven Veils (1992) and the theatrical Congressional Record (1999). At Montclair State University, Drummond was director of the Harry Partch Institute from 1999 until his death from multiple myeloma at age 64. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. DUCKWORTH, WILLIAM (1943–2012). American composer, musician, and educator. William Duckworth played piano, attended East Carolina University, and studied composition with Ben Johnston at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Duckworth taught at Bucknell University from 1973 to 2011. Especially admired among his many compositions are the minimalist scores Time Curve Preludes (1977–1978) for piano and Southern Harmony (1981) for mixed chorus. 31 Days (1986) for alto saxophone includes graphic notation and calls for improvisation. In Their Song (1991) for voice and piano, Duckworth set texts he created using chance procedures. His other notable works include the indeterminate “Memories of you . . .” (1969, cocomposed with Neely Bruce); the piano scores Walden Variations (1971), Tango Voices (1984), and Imaginary Dances (1985–1988); Simple Songs about Sex and War (1984) for voice and piano; and Mysterious Numbers (1996) for chamber orchestra. Working with media artist and programmer Nora Farrell (1966–2017), whom he later married, Duckworth began the Cathedral Project in 1997, a collaborative work for the internet involving live performances and interactive electronics. Musicians worldwide have been able to perform together as part of the Cathedral Band; participants have included “Blue” Gene Tyranny and Stuart Dempster. Duckworth and Farrell also created the iPod opera iOrpheus, staged in Australia in 2007. The author of Talking Music (1995), 20/20 (1999), and Virtual Music (2005), Duckworth also coedited John Cage at Seventy-Five (1989) and Sound and Light: La Monte Young and Marian Zazeela (1996). See also CAGE, JOHN (1912–1992); COMPUTER MUSIC; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); POSTMODERNISM; YOUNG, LA MONTE (1935– ); ZAZEELA, MARIAN (1940– ). DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000). American musician and educator. Clarinetist Richard Dufallo studied clarinet, composition, and conducting at the American Conservatory of Music in Chicago; at the University of California at Los Angeles he studied with Lukas Foss and became a member of Foss’s Improvisation Chamber Ensemble in 1957. In the 1960s, Dufallo also

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studied conducting with William Steinberg in New York and Pierre Boulez in Basel. He led the premieres of numerous works by major contemporary composers, including Iannis Xenakis, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Krzysztof Penderecki, George Crumb, Luigi Nono, Jacob Druckman, and Peter Maxwell Davies. Dufallo taught at UCLA and the State University of New York at Buffalo; he is the author of the book Trackings (1989). See also FREE IMPROVISATION; MODERNISM; POSTMODERNISM. DUREY, LOUIS. See GROUPE DES SIX.

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E EASTMAN, JULIUS (1940–1990). American composer, musician, and educator. Julius Eastman studied piano and composition at the Curtis Institute and Ithaca College; he taught at the University at Buffalo (1970–1975). Also a gifted singer skilled in extended performance techniques, he premiered Peter Maxwell Davies’s Eight Songs for a Mad King (1969), Frederic Rzewski’s Struggle (1974), and Pauline Oliveros’s Crow Two (1975), and he sang works by Hans Werner Henze, R. Murray Schafer, Barbara Kolb, John Cage, and Meredith Monk. Eastman called for improvisation in his minimalist compositions using repeated patterns, such as the octet Stay on It (1973), with a savvy use of pop music, and If You’re So Smart, Why Aren’t You Rich? (1977) for chamber orchestra, which fixated on the chromatic scale. In both, unexpected dissonances and glissandi and sustained tones serve to blur the repeated phrases. Eastman devised a mechanism for ringing sleigh bells to provide a pulse for his Femenine (1974) for chamber ensemble. His other early scores include Piano Pieces I–IV (1968), Comp I (1971) for solo flute, Wood in Time (1972) for eight metronomes and dancers, and 440 (1973) for voice, violin, viola, and double bass. Eastman also composed the multimedia works The Moon’s Silent Modulation (1970) for dancers, vocalists, and chamber ensemble and Mumbaphilia (1972) for solo performer and dancers. Eastman excelled as an improvising pianist and vocalist, and he used improvisation in three scores for unspecified instruments, which also employed some graphic notation: Crazy Nigger (1978), Evil Nigger (1979), and Gay Guerrilla (1979). In 1980, all three were performed in realizations for four pianos, and the following year Eastman massed like voices for another major pleroma score, The Holy Presence of Joan D’Arc for 10 cellos; he also composed and performed a solo vocal Prelude for it. Among his last scores are Symphony No. II (1983) for orchestra, the three-movement piano sonata Piano 2 (1986), and Our Father (1989) for two men’s voices. His 1988 creation of the title role in David Avidor and Nicole V. Gagné’s opera Agamemnon (1992) and his appearance on Peter Gordon’s album Leningrad Xpress (1990) are believed to be his final recorded performances. 107

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Eastman entered an eclipse in his last years, professionally and personally, and was often homeless. He died of cardiac arrest in a Buffalo hospital at age 49. See also CHANCE MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); POSTMODERNISM; RUSSELL, ARTHUR (1951–1992). ECOMUSICOLOGY. A reflection of increasing environmental concerns over the 20th century, ecomusicology points to the study of intersections between music, nature, and culture, including music concerned with relationships between humans and nonhumans, sustainable musical practice (instrument building and the carbon footprint of music and musicians), and acoustic ecology. The term gained currency early in the 21st century, after a spectrum of 20th-century musical activity. Electronic music was a fertile medium for evoking and reinventing the sound of natural environments, with works by such composers as Toru Takemitsu, Luc Ferrari, Hildegard Westerkamp, Annea Lockwood, Alvin Curran, Brian Eno, Maggi Payne, and Natasha Barrett. In 1969, R. Murray Schafer launched the World Soundscape Project (after 1993, World Forum for Acoustic Ecology). Composers as different as Alan Hovhaness, Einojuhani Rautavaara, John Cage, Philip Perkins, David Behrman, Susie Ibarra, Jonathan Harvey, John Oswald, Tan Dun, Malcolm Goldstein, and David Shea have created electroacoustic works combining musicians with environmental and/or animal sounds. Compositions by Schafer, Henry Brant, and Daniel Ott, as well as solo and group improvisations of Pauline Oliveros, were created to engage the sonic possibilities of specific locations. Other ecomusicological approaches include sound installations by Max Neuhaus and Maryanne Amacher; the environmental-themed works of Peter Sculthorpe, Karel Husa, John Luther Adams, and Anne LeBaron; and the use of animal sounds in the music of Alice Shields, Laurie Spiegel, and Emily Doolittle. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; SAMPLING; TAPE MUSIC. EICHHEIM, HENRY (1870–1942). American composer and musician. Henry Eichheim attended Chicago Musical College, played violin for the Boston Symphony Orchestra (1890–1912), and conducted the Winchester Orchestra (1913–1917). In Gleanings from Buddha Fields (1906) for piano, he expressed a multicultural interest, and between the mid-1910s and the mid-1930s, Eichheim made five trips to Asia, visiting Japan, Korea, China, Bali, Thailand, Burma, and India to study the music and collect instruments. Oriental Impressions (1918–1922) for piano combined impressionist methods with techniques from Asian music; orchestrating this suite in 1922, Eichheim called for an array of exotic percussion, Burmese, Chinese, and Japanese. Malay Mosaic (1924) was scored for flute, oboe, English horn, piano,

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harp, and strings; the orchestral works Java (1929) and Bali (1933) featured gamelan instruments. Eichheim’s dance scores include the pantomime A Burmese Pwé (1926), The Moon, My Shadow, and I (1926) with soprano and female chorus, and The Rivals (1927). See also MODERNISM. EISLER, HANNS (1898–1962). German composer, musician, and educator. Hanns Eisler studied at the New Vienna Conservatory and privately with Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern. He adopted the twelve-tone method with Palmström (1924) for voice and five instruments, Zeitungsausschnitte (1926) for voice and piano, Kleine Sinfonie (1932), and other modernist scores; but he also composed works with left-wing political content, including protest songs (“Der rotte Wedding,” 1929; “Lied des Kampfbundes,” 1932) and choral music (“Auf den Strassen zu singen,” 1928; “Der Streickbrecher,” 1929). He began a lengthy collaboration with poet Bertolt Brecht, composing songs (“Solidaritätslied,” 1931; “Einheitsfrontlied,” 1934), musical plays (Die Massnahme, 1930; Die Mutter, 1931), and such concert works as Gegen den Krieg (1936) for mixed chorus; Hollywood Songbook (1947) for voice and piano; Die Teppichweber von Kujan-Bulak (1957) for soprano and orchestra; and the Lenin Requiem (1937) and Deutsche Symphonie (1935–1958), both for soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra. Relocating to the United States in 1938, Eisler taught at the New School for Social Research and composed more twelve-tone music: String Quartet (1938), the quintet Fourteen Ways to Describe Rain (1941), Piano Sonata No. 3 (1943). His Chamber Symphony (1940) featured a Novachord synthesizer and electric piano. With Theodor Adorno, Eisler wrote the book Composing for the Films (1944); among his film scores are Fritz Lang’s Hangmen Also Die! (1943) and Alain Resnais’s Nuit et brouillard (1955). American anti-Communist politicking resulted in Eisler’s deportation in 1948. He taught at the Deutsche Hochschule für Musik in East Berlin and composed the East German national anthem in 1949, as well as GoetheRhapsodie (1949) for soprano and orchestra and Ernste Gesänge (1962) for baritone and string orchestra. See also ATONALITY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; SPRECHSTIMME. ELASTIC FORM. Anticipating aleatory, the early modernist composer Henry Cowell developed what he termed elastic-form music in the mid1930s. Cowell had written dance scores and was aware of the changing needs of choreographers as they develop a new work. Elastic form permitted a wide range of freedoms such as expanding and contracting melodic phrases and sentences; rearranging and repeating sections as block units; and altering instrumentation and overall duration. Cowell’s elastic-form works include Mosaic Quartet (1935, aka String Quartet No. 3), Sound Form No. 1 (1937)

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for five players, the 1939 piano scores Ritournelle and Amerind Suite, and 26 Simultaneous Mosaics (1963) for five players. See also CHANCE MUSIC; INDETERMINACY; OPEN FORM. EL-DABH, HALIM (1921–2017). Egyptian-born American composer, musician, and educator. Halim El-Dabh studied piano and Western music at the Szulc Conservatory in Cairo. His early music includes Ta’abir al-Zaar (1944, aka Wire Recorder Piece), which anticipated tape music, and Aria for Strings (1949). El-Dabh’s It Is Dark and Damp on the Front (1949) for piano led Aaron Copland to invite El-Dabh to study with him at Tanglewood. After coming to America in 1950, he studied with Copland, Irving Fine, Luigi Dallapiccola, and Leonard Bernstein at Tanglewood and with Ernst Krenek at the University of New Mexico. El-Dabh became a U.S. citizen in 1961 and taught at Kent State University (1969–1991) and other institutions. An ethnomusicologist and a scholar of African music, he devised a notational system for the derabucca, a ceramic Egyptian drum featured in his 1965 solo Sonic No. 7; he was also the soloist who premiered his Fantasia-Tahmeel (1959) for derabucca and string orchestra. At the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, he created such works as the electronic drama Leiyla Visitations (1961). El-Dabh’s other music includes the dance scores Clytemnestra (1958) and Lucifer (1975); the opera Flies (1971), about the 1970 shootings at Kent State; Surrr-Rah (2000) for piano and orchestra; the theremin solo Conversations with Theremin (2005); and Symphony for One Thousand Drums (2006), scored partially in graphic notation. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; MULTICULTURALISM. ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC. Although one can still find references to tape music as “electroacoustic music”—regarding the tape as an electrical manipulation of natural sound—common usage has designated as electroacoustic any music that combines electronic technology with natural sound, be it environmental, mechanical, vocal, or instrumental. The first significant breakthroughs came in the 1920s and 1930s, with the invention of the theremin, ondes martenot, Trautonium, rhythmicon, and other electronic-music instruments, which were used with traditional instruments by such modernist composers as Edgard Varèse, Darius Milhaud, Arthur Honegger, Joseph Schillinger, Paul Hindemith, Henry Cowell, André Jolivet, and Olivier Messiaen. John Cage’s Imaginary Landscape No. 1 (1939) used records of constant and variable frequency, anticipating Pierre Schaeffer’s initial musique concrète pieces of 1948. Further developments in tape music led composers to combine tape and musicians, as with Schaeffer and Pierre Henry’s opera Orphée 53 (1953), Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening’s Rhapsodic

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Variations (1954), and Varèse’s classic Déserts (1954). Electrically synthesized sound was also heard with live performers, either played on magnetic tape, as in Mario Davidovsky’s Synchronisms series (1963–2006), or else created live by such innovators as Cage, David Tudor, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Max Neuhaus, the AMM and MEV groups, and Robert Ashley with the ONCE Group and the Sonic Arts Union. The simplest electronic alteration of sound is amplification; at extremes, it transforms familiar timbres, as with Cage’s Music for Amplified Toy Pianos (1960), and reveals the imperceptible, such as the amplified brain waves that resonate percussion instruments in Alvin Lucier’s Music for Solo Performer (1965). Increasingly sophisticated electronic modification and processing of sound emerged with technological developments in the 1960s and 1970s. Stockhausen’s Mixtur (1964, rev. 1967) separated the orchestra into woodwinds, brass, plucked strings, and bowed strings, and fed the sound of each group into its own ring modulator where a musician played sine-wave tones on an oscillator, transforming the group’s sound as it played. Pauline Oliveros’s Accordion (1966) for amplified accordion with tape-delay systems led to her innovative compositions and improvisations with the expanded accordion, using digital delay systems and custom performance controls. Morton Subotnick’s ghost-score pieces, such as Passages of the Beast (1978) and An Arsenal of Defense (1982), had the musicians’ live sound modified into electronic sound and played back on tape into the performance. The 1970s saw computer-music technology entering electroacoustic music with such works as Gordon Mumma’s Conspiracy 8 (1970), Laurie Spiegel’s Waves (1975), and Roger Reynolds’s “. . . the serpent-snapping eye” (1979), and computers soon came to dominate the field, just as they did with electronic music. For his 1982 recording The Intermediary, “Blue” Gene Tyranny alternated his improvised piano performance with its computer-generated electronic reinventions. George Lewis’s Voyager (1988) had an interactive computer with a virtual orchestra, which responded to live improvisers in real time. Subotnick’s A Desert Flowers (1989) gave the orchestra’s conductor a computer-modified baton to control the electronics. Other composers who have used computers in performance with instruments include Pierre Boulez, David Behrman, Larry Austin, Yasunao Tone, Richard Teitelbaum, Tania León, Phill Niblock, Alvin Curran, Joan La Barbara, Jean-Claude Risset, Yuji Takahashi, Alice Shields, Laurie Anderson, Kyle Gann, Michel van der Aa, Natasha Barrett, and Agata Zubel. See also ABRAMS, MUHAL RICHARD (1930–2017); ACOUSMATIC MUSIC; ADAMS, JOHN (1947– ); ADAMS, JOHN LUTHER (1953– ); AMACHER, MARYANNE (1938–2009); AMIRKHANIAN, CHARLES (1945– ); ANDERSON, BETH (1950– ); ANHALT, ISTVÁN (1919–2012); AREL, BÜLENT (1919–1990); ATONALITY; BABBITT, MILTON (1916–2011); BADINGS, HENK (1907–1987); BERIO, LUCIA-

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NO (1925–2003); BEYER, JOHANNA M. (1888–1944); BRUCE, NEELY (1944– ); CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981); CARLOS, WENDY (1939– ); CERHA, FRIEDRICH (1926– ); CHATHAM, RHYS (1952– ); CHIN, UNSUK (1961– ); CHOU WEN-CHUNG (1923– ); CONRAD, TONY (1940–2016); COURVOISIER, SYLVIE (1968– ); CRUMB, GEORGE (1929– ); DAVIS, ANTHONY (1951– ); DEYHIM, SUSSAN (1956– ); DODGE, CHARLES (1942– ); DOOLITTLE, EMILY (1972– ); DRUCKMAN, JACOB (1928–1996); DRUMMOND, DEAN (1949–2013); DUCKWORTH, WILLIAM (1943–2012); ECOMUSICOLOGY; EISLER, HANNS (1898–1962); ENO, BRIAN (1948– ); FERNEYHOUGH, BRIAN (1943– ); FERRARI, LUC (1929–2005); FILM MUSIC; FINNEY, ROSS LEE (1906–1997); FLYNT, HENRY (1940– ); FREE IMPROVISATION; FRITH, FRED (1949– ); FURE, ASHLEY (1982– ); GABURO, KENNETH (1926–1993); GALÁS, DIAMANDA (1955– ); GERHARD, ROBERTO (1896–1970); GLASS, PHILIP (1937– ); GLOBOKAR, VINKO (1934– ); GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ); GORDON, MICHAEL (1956– ); GOSFIELD, ANNIE (1960– ); GRISEY, GÉRARD (1946–1998); HARVEY, JONATHAN (1939–2012); HELLERMANN, WILLIAM (1939–2017); HOPE, CAT (1966– ); IBARRA, SUSIE (1970– ); ICHIYANAGI, TOSHI (1933– ); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; ITO, TEIJI (1935–1982); JENNINGS, TERRY (1940–1981); JOLAS, BETSY (1926– ); KANCHELI, GIYA (1935– ); KIRCHNER, LEON (1919–2009); KOLB, BARBARA (1939– ); KONDO, JO (1947– );KOSUGI, TAKEHISA (1938–2018); KRENEK, ERNST (1900–1991); LAM BUN-CHING (1954– ); LAUTEN, ELODIE (1950–2014); LEACH, MARY JANE (1949– ); LEBARON, ANNE (1953– ); LIEBERSON, PETER (1946–2011); LOCKWOOD, ANNEA (1939– ); LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001); MACERO, TEO (1925–2008); MACHT, ROBERT (1958– ); MAGER, JÖRG (1880–1939); MARTIRANO, SALVATORE (1927–1995); MAXFIELD, RICHARD (1927–1969); MAZZOLI, MISSY (1980– ); MIMAROGLU, ILHAN (1926–2012); MONK, MEREDITH (1942– ); MUNDRY, ISABEL (1963– ); MURAIL, TRISTAN (1947– ); MUSGRAVE, THEA (1928– ); NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997); NILSSON, BO (1937–2018); NONO, LUIGI (1924–1990); NØRGÅRD, PER (1932– ); OSTERTAG, BOB (1957– ); OSWALD, JOHN (1953– ); OTT, DANIEL (1960–); PAYNE, MAGGI (1945– ); PERKINS, PHILIP (1951– ); POUSSEUR, HENRI (1929–2009); POWELL, MEL (1923–1998); RAUTAVAARA, EINOJUHANI (1928–2016); REICH, STEVE (1936– ); RILEY, TERRY (1935– ); RUSSELL, WILLIAM (1905–1992); RYLAN, JESSICA (1974– ); SALLINEN, AULIS (1935– ); SAUNDERS, REBECCA (1967– ); SCHAFER, R. MURRAY (1933– ); SCULTHORPE, PETER (1929–2014); SEMEGEN, DARIA (1946– ); SHAPEY, RALPH (1921–2002); SHEA, DAVID (1965– ); SIKORSKI, TOMASZ (1939–1988); SOLLBERGER, HARVEY

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(1938– ); SOMERS, HARRY (1925–1999); STRAUSS, RICHARD (1864–1949); SUN RA (1914–1993); SURREALISM; SYNTHESIZER; TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TAL, JOSEF (1910–2008); TAN DUN (1957– ); TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006); TEXT-SOUND MUSIC; THORVALDSDOTTIR, ANNA (1977– ); TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ); VIVIER, CLAUDE (1948–1983); WESTERKAMP, HILDEGARD (1946– ); XENAKIS, IANNIS (1922–2001); YOUNG, LA MONTE (1935– ); YUASA, JOJI (1929– ); ZAPPA, FRANK (1940–1993); ZIMMERMANN, BERND ALOIS (1918–1970); ZORN, JOHN (1953– ). ELECTRONIC MUSIC. This entry focuses on the electrical synthesis of sound prior to the advent of computers; separate entries deal with the different types of electroacoustic music, tape music, and computer music. The vast field of electronic music has roots well into the 19th century. American inventor Elisha Gray played his two-octave polyphonic Musical Telegraph in 1874, using a keyboard to sound single-tone telegraph transmitters. In 1899, English electrical engineer and inventor William Duddell harnessed the whine of carbon-arc streetlamps for his Singing Arc, a monophonic keyboard instrument with circuitry that altered the sound’s pitch. From 1900 to 1906 American musician Thaddeus Cahill built three versions of the telharmonium, a polyphonic electric keyboard instrument that used spinning alternators to produce tuned sine-wave tones. The telharmonium failed to catch on, but Cahill’s design was eventually vindicated by the success of the electronic Hammond organ, developed in the late 1920s, which also used rotating wheel elements to generate sound. The vacuum tube, invented in 1906, permitted the creation of electronic sound without moving mechanical parts, launching a new era of electronic instruments. Russian scientist Leon Theremin patented the theremin in 1921. This instrument employed a heterodyning, or beat-frequency, method for generating electronic sound: Two pitches, nearly equal in frequency, are created by radio-frequency oscillators set above the range of human hearing; together they produce an audible difference tone, or beat frequency, which is played by adjusting its pitch and amplitude. Composers who wrote for the theremin include Joseph Schillinger, Percy Grainger, and Bohuslav Martinu. Other monophonic heterodyning instruments followed in the 1920s, including the Sphaerophon of German musician Jörg Mager and the ondes martenot of French musician Maurice Martenot; the latter was used in scores by Olivier Messiaen, André Jolivet, Darius Milhaud, Arthur Honegger, Pierre Boulez, and others. German engineer Friedrich Trautwein replaced beat-frequency with a neon-tube oscillator and produced a more unusual timbre with his Trautonium, utilized by Paul Hindemith and Richard Strauss. Despite these composers’ efforts, none of these instruments enjoyed more than a limited success at best.

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Edgard Varèse took on a prophetic role in the 1930s, envisioning electronic music as a profoundly new sonic terrain that would redefine what was possible in the articulation of time, pitch, timbre, and density. The electrical synthesis of sound began to offer such a gateway by the late 1950s, with the birth of the first major electronic-music studios. Most of these facilities had started out as tape-music studios; an exception was the West-Deutscher Rundfunk (WDR), the radio network in Cologne. Working with the electronic instrument the melochord, composers Herbert Eimert and Robert Beyer and physicist Werner Meyer-Eppler began creating what they called elektronischen Musik. After it was broadcast by the WDR in 1951, they formed a studio to pursue the electrical synthesis of sound; Karlheinz Stockhausen became a permanent collaborator in 1953 and later served as artistic director and artistic consultant. Other composers who worked at the WDR studio include Ernst Krenek, György Ligeti, Bo Nilsson, and Mauricio Kagel. Tokyo’s NHK broadcasting system established an electronic-music studio in 1955, and that year Toshiro Mayuzumi produced the first electrically synthesized music in Japan. Henk Badings founded a Dutch studio in 1956. The Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center was founded in 1958, joining together as directors Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening, with their tape-music facilities at Columbia University in New York City, and Milton Babbitt and Roger Sessions, with the RCA Mark II synthesizer at Princeton University in New Jersey; the many composers who worked at the center include Varèse, Ruth Anderson, István Anhalt, Bülent Arel, Luciano Berio, Wendy Carlos, Mario Davidovsky, Charles Dodge, Jacob Druckman, Halim El-Dabh, Ross Lee Finney, Malcolm Goldstein, William Hellermann, Ilhan Mimaroglu, Mel Powell, Daria Semegen, Alice Shields, Tomasz Sikorski, Pril Smiley, Harvey Sollberger, and Charles Wuorinen. That same year of 1958, the Paris tape-music studio Groupe de recherches de musique concrète became the Groupe de recherches musicales (GRM), broadening its focus to include electrically synthesized sound; Henri Pousseur founded the Studio de musique électronique in Brussels; and Josef Tal received a UNESCO research fellowship to tour several electronic-music studios, after which he founded the Israel Center for Electronic Music in Jerusalem. Also in 1958, Russian engineer Yevgeny Murzin established the Moscow Electronic Music Studio, under the auspices of the Scriabin Museum. Although primarily a tape-music center, by 1966 the studio boasted the only electronic instrument then available in the Soviet Union: Murzin’s ANS Synthesizer—ANS being the initials of Alexander Nikolayevich Scriabin, a musical visionary and inspiration for the new electronic age. With the ANS, Murzin reversed the photo-optic sound-recording techniques of film: Rather than obtain a visible image of a sound wave, it synthesized sound from sound waves drawn by the composer. The first examples of Soviet electronic music

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were produced with the ANS by such composers as Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina, Alfred Schnittke, and Alexander Nemtin. But the Soviet authorities, still wrestling with concerns over modernism and formalism, closed the studio in 1975; not until 1987 was Mikhail Chekalin able to inaugurate its successor. The year 1958 also saw independent electronic composers: Pierre Henry established the Apsone-Cabasse Studio, the first privately owned electronicmusic studio in France, and Robert Ashley and Gordon Mumma launched the Cooperative Studio for Electronic Music in Michigan, which formed the basis for the electronic music theater works presented by the ONCE Group and the Sonic Arts Union. Richard Maxfield built his own equipment for electrical sound synthesis and gave the first American classes in the creation of electronic music in 1959 at the New School for Social Research. By the end of the 1950s, Raymond Scott and Max Brand were already creating music in their own private studios. Other composer/musicians in the 1960s played electronic music in real time, from the oscillators of Pauline Oliveros and Charlemagne Palestine to the electronic systems developed by David Tudor, Salvatore Martirano, Jerry Hunt, Angus MacLise, and the AMM and MEV ensembles. With the marketing of synthesizers in 1969, real-time performance of electronic music became generally available. By then, electronic music was gaining greater popularity, helped along by Carlos’s transcriptions of Johann Sebastian Bach; Morton Subotnick LPs such as Silver Apples of the Moon (1967) and Touch (1969); and the synthesizer performances of Sun Ra. Computers, which had been used to generate electronic sound since the late 1950s, developed rapidly over the 1970s, and by the 1980s, they had largely supplanted most other forms of electronic music. See also ACOUSMATIC MUSIC; AMACHER, MARYANNE (1938–2009); AMBIENT MUSIC; AMIRKHANIAN, CHARLES (1945– ); ATONALITY; AUSTIN, LARRY (1930–2018); BARRETT, NATASHA (1972– ); THE BEATLES; BEHRMAN, DAVID (1937– ); BRUCE, NEELY (1944– ); BUSONI, FERRUCCIO (1866–1924); CAGE, JOHN (1912–1992); COLEMAN, ORNETTE (1930–2015); COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965); CURRAN, ALVIN (1938– ); ECOMUSICOLOGY; ENO, BRIAN (1948– ); FERRARI, LUC (1929–2005); FILM MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; FREE JAZZ; FURE, ASHLEY (1982– ); GABURO, KENNETH (1926–1993); GANN, KYLE (1955– ); GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; GRISEY, GÉRARD (1946–1998); HARVEY, JONATHAN (1939–2012); HERRMANN, BERNARD (1911–1975); THE HUB; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; KIRCHNER, LEON (1919–2009); KOSUGI, TAKEHISA (1938–2018); KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); LAUTEN, ELODIE (1950–2014); LE CAINE, HUGH (1914–1977); LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001); LUCIER, ALVIN (1931– ); MACERO, TEO (1925–2008); MAZZOLI, MISSY (1980– ); MICROTO-

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NALITY; MUNDRY, ISABEL (1963– ); MURAIL, TRISTAN (1947– ); MUSGRAVE, THEA (1928– ); MUSIQUE CONCRÈTE; NEWLIN, DIKA (1923–2006); NIBLOCK, PHILL (1933– ); NØRGÅRD, PER (1932– ); OPERA; OSTERTAG, BOB (1957– ); OSWALD, JOHN (1953– ); PAYNE, MAGGI (1945– ); RADIGUE, ÉLIANE (1932– ); REYNOLDS, ROGER (1934– ); RISSET, JEAN-CLAUDE (1938–2016); RYLAN, JESSICA (1974– ); SAMPLING; SCHAEFFER, PIERRE (1910–1995); SCHAFER, R. MURRAY (1933– ); SHEA, DAVID (1965– ); SONIFICATION; SOUND INSTALLATION; SPATIAL MUSIC; SPIEGEL, LAURIE (1945– ); STRANG, GERALD (1908–1983); SURREALISM; TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ); TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TEITELBAUM, RICHARD (1939– ); TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006); THEREMIN, LEON (1896–1993); THORVALDSDOTTIR, ANNA (1977– ); TILSON THOMAS, MICHAEL (1944– ); TONE, YASUNAO (1935– ); TWELVE-TONE MUSIC; TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ); VAN DER AA, MICHEL (1970– ); VIVIER, CLAUDE (1948–1983); XENAKIS, IANNIS (1922–2001); YOUNG, LA MONTE (1935– ); YUASA, JOJI (1929– ); ZIMMERMANN, BERND ALOIS (1918–1970); ZORN, JOHN (1953– ); ZUBEL, AGATA (1978– ). ELLINGTON, DUKE (1899–1974). American composer and musician. The preeminent figure in jazz, Edward Kennedy Ellington, better known as “Duke,” was one of America’s most prolific and influential composers, winning international renown as an arranger, big-band leader, and pianist. He began piano lessons at age seven and by 1918 had organized his first band. Ellington produced an array of classic songs in the 1920s and 1930s, both instrumental (“Black and Tan Fantasy,” 1927; “Creole Love Call,” 1927; “The Mooche,” 1928) and vocal (“Mood Indigo,” 1930; “It Don’t Mean a Thing [If It Ain’t Got That Swing],” 1932; “Sophisticated Lady,” 1933). He was adopting Latin American elements in his music by the 1930s, and he started employing longer forms with such works as Creole Rhapsody (1931) and Reminiscing in Tempo (1935). These pieces led to his ambitious suites celebrating African American life: Black, Brown, and Beige (1943), New World A-Comin’ (1945), The Liberian Suite (1947), and Harlem (1950). Ellington’s collaborations with composer/arranger/musician Billy Strayhorn (1915–1967) resulted in numerous songs and two-piano works, as well as Deep South Suite (1946), Such Sweet Thunder (1957, aka Shakespearean Suite), The Queen’s Suite (1959), the multicultural Far East Suite (1966), and arrangements of Pyotr Tchaikovsky (Nutcracker Suite, 1960) and Edvard Grieg (Peer Gynt Suite, 1961). Their multimedia works Jump for Joy (1950), A Drum Is a Woman (1956), and My People (1963) depicted the

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struggles of African Americans and called for narration and dancers. Ellington’s film scores include Anatomy of a Murder (1959) and Paris Blues (1961). Ellington’s modernist harmonic sensibility incorporated impressionist qualities, dissonance, and bitonality. Anticipating free jazz, he employed freely atonal harmonies and a free, non-pulsed rhythmic/metric design in “The Clothed Woman” (1947), which also mixed styles with unexpected ragtime features. Also notable is Ellington’s series of sacred-music concerts, combining gospel and jazz: Concert of Sacred Music (1965), Second Sacred Concert (1968), and the third Concert of Sacred Music (1973). His other major later works include Latin American Suite (1968), New Orleans Suite (1970), the ballet score The River (1970), The Afro-Eurasian Eclipse (1971), and Toga Brava Suite (1973). Ellington completed an autobiography, Music Is My Mistress (1973), but his opera Queenie Pie was left unfinished at the time of his death from cancer in New York at age 75. His son Mercer Ellington led the Duke Ellington Orchestra until his death in 1996, after which Mercer’s son Paul Ellington took over; he remained its leader until 2010, when he passed the baton to pianist Tommy James. See also MIMAROGLU, ILHAN (1926–2012); MOONDOG (1916–1999); SCHULLER, GUNTHER (1925–2015); SMITH, HALE (1925–2009); SUN RA (1914–1993); TAYLOR, CECIL (1929–2018). ENO, BRIAN (1948– ). English composer and musician. An art student at Winchester Art College, Brian Eno joined the Portsmouth Sinfonia in 1970 and performed on clarinet. The following year he was a vocalist with the Scratch Orchestra in a recording of Cornelius Cardew’s The Great Learning. He also performed with the band Roxy Music (1971–1973), playing synthesizer and operating tape-music effects. Eno created tape loops for his albums with guitarist Robert Fripp, No Pussyfooting (1973) and Evening Star (1975), and he produced two Portsmouth Sinfonia LPs. His own successful rock albums include Taking Tiger Mountain (by Strategy) (1974) and Another Green World (1975). He founded Obscure Records (1975–1978) to release new music, from pieces by Gavin Bryars, John Cage, and Michael Nyman to Eno’s Discreet Music (1975), a minimalist work using synthesizer and tape-delay system. Discreet Music led to Eno’s classic album Music for Airports (1978), which combined synthesizers with electronically processed voices and instruments. He coined the term ambient music to describe his use of quiet and subtle phrases and textures to create a calm background sound for other sounds and activities, a music that could be ignored or enjoyed as one chose. Ambient music became an enduring art-rock genre, fueled in part by Eno’s subsequent ambient releases such as The Plateaux of Mirror (1980), created

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with Harold Budd, and On Land (1982), which used environmental sound. His ambient CD Reflection (2017) also has a constantly changing version available as an app. Eno has scored numerous films, including Derek Jarman’s Sebastiane (1976), Jubilee (1978), and Glitterbug (1994); his other innovative film music has appeared on the recordings Music for Films (1978) and his collaborations with Roger Eno and Daniel Lanois, Apollo: Atmospheres and Soundtracks (1983) and More Music for Films (2004). He has also created numerous video and sound installations, their music released in such CDs as Lightness: Music for the Marble Palace (1997), Compact Forest Proposal (2001), and 77 Million (2006). His other music includes an instrumental album, The Shutov Assembly (1992); minimalist electronics in Neroli (1993); the synthesized bell tones of January 07003 | Bell Studies for the Clock of the Long Now (2003); and the solo album The Ship (2015). Eno has produced albums by Laurie Anderson, David Bowie, U2, Devo, and the Talking Heads, and he has worked with many composer/musicians, among them Fred Frith, Terry Riley, Jon Hassell, David Byrne, and John Cale. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. EXPRESSIONISM. The term expressionism was originally used to designate a modernist movement in German painting, which arose in the late 1900s and early 1910s and soon transformed German music, poetry, theater, and cinema as well. Such artists as Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Oskar Kokoschka, and Egon Schiele were articulating subjective and unconscious feelings and imagery that had usually been kept hidden: darkness, irrationality, fear, ugliness, confusion, and hallucination. They heightened reality to extreme emotional pitches and severe distortions, with an intense and frequently symbolic use of color, all in opposition to traditional definitions of beauty and form. Expressionist painting had its forerunners in the 1880s and 1890s, such as James Ensor and Edvard Munch, and there were late 19th-century anticipations of expressionist music as well, starting with two dark and strippeddown piano pieces composed in 1881 by Franz Liszt, Unstern! Sinistre, disastro and Trübe Wolken (aka Nuages gris). Expressionist qualities are more pronounced in the unresolved dissonances and nightmarish scherzo of Anton Bruckner’s Symphony No. 9, which was left unfinished at his death in 1896. Grotesquery and dissonance were also used to dramatic effect in the music of Richard Strauss (Ein Heldenleben, 1898; Salome, 1905; Elektra, 1908) and Gustav Mahler (Symphony No. 2, 1894; Symphony No. 6, 1904; Symphony No. 7, 1905). But it was Arnold Schoenberg who launched expressionism as a distinct musical movement with his 1909 monodrama for soprano and orchestra, Erwartung, in which a woman wanders in the woods

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at night and comes upon the corpse of her unfaithful lover. Schoenberg’s dissonant and atonal music, with its wide leaps and shrill cries in both voice and instruments, defied traditional standards of ugliness and irrationality as definitively as expressionist painting had. (Kokoschka and Schiele also painted portraits of Schoenberg, who was an accomplished painter himself.) Béla Bartók brought expressionist qualities to such notable scores as Duke Bluebeard’s Castle (1911), String Quartet No. 2 (1917), and The Miraculous Mandarin (1919); so did Egon Wellesz with Vorfrühling (1912) for orchestra. Schoenberg’s development of twelve-tone organizational techniques in the early 1920s enabled him to work more methodically in an atonal idiom, lessening the need for heightened emotional displays. After completing the era’s definitive expressionist opera Wozzeck (1922), Alban Berg also wrote twelve-tone music. Other composers who had taken up expressionism by then include Paul Hindemith, Ernst Krenek, and Kurt Weill, but over the 1920s, they turned to neoclassicism and Gebrauchsmusik. Expressionist qualities also characterize such later atonal composers as Miriam Gideon, Leon Kirchner, Robert Helps, and Wolfgang Rihm. See also BRIDGE, FRANK (1879–1941); CACIOPPO, GEORGE (1927–1984); GALÁS, DIAMANDA (1955– ); SPRECHSTIMME; THORVALDSDOTTIR, ANNA (1977– ); WEBERN, ANTON (1883–1945). EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES. Twentieth-century music gave rise to innovative performance techniques that provided new sounds and articulations and redefined expressive possibilities for instruments and the voice. The pioneer in this approach is Henry Cowell, whose tone-cluster piano music of the 1910s and 1920s required him to develop his own techniques; so did his string-piano music, playing the strings with his hands and household objects. Béla Bartók, especially in his string quartets, called for unusual string sonorities and a percussive pizzicato, with the string snapping against the fingerboard. Carlos Salzedo created an array of new performance methods for the harp in the 1920s, and Edgard Varèse found a way to be percussive with a flute’s keys in the solo Densité 21.5 (1936). Lucia Dlugoszewski expanded the string piano into what she called the timbre piano, introduced in her theater music and dance scores of 1952 and 1953; she also developed new techniques for playing string and brass instruments. Producing multiphonics with traditionally monophonic wind instruments is another important innovation, employed by Iannis Xenakis, Lukas Foss, Donald Scavarda, and Toru Takemitsu, to name a few. Other composers who have written for extended performance techniques include István Anhalt, Karel Husa, Mel Powell, Harry Somers, George Cacioppo, George Crumb, Mauricio Kagel, Sylvano Bussotti, Krzysztof Penderecki, Helmut Lachenmann, Vinko Globokar, William Hellermann, Horatiu Radulescu, and Daria Semegen. Free jazz masters, such as Cecil

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Taylor, Anthony Braxton, George Lewis, and Sun Ra and his Arkestra musicians, have developed new ways to play their instruments; so have many composer/musicians involved in free improvisation, including Fred Frith, John Zorn, Anne LeBaron, Annie Gosfield, Frances-Marie Uitti, and Elliott Sharp. Such vocalists as Cathy Berberian, Julius Eastman, Joan La Barbara, Sussan Deyhim, Diamanda Galás, David Shea, and Agata Zubel have demonstrated an array of techniques, ranging from multiphonics to circular-breathing techniques for long sustained tones. David Hykes’s Harmonic Choir employs overtone singing. See also INSTRUMENT BUILDING.

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F FALLA, MANUEL DE (1876–1946). Spanish composer and musician. One of Spain’s greatest composers, Falla brought impressionist and neoclassical techniques to his lyrical nationalism, captivating audiences internationally. Manuel Maria de Falla y Matheu was born in Cádiz and studied piano with Alejandro Odero and harmony and counterpoint with Enrico Broca; at the Madrid Conservatory, he studied piano with José Tragó. Falla’s interest in the music of Andalusia was encouraged by the nationalist composer Felipe Pedrell, with whom he studied privately in the early 1900s. Falla was then composing for Spain’s popular music theater, the zarzuela, but with little success. He decided to compose an opera, La vida breve (1905), depicting the landscape and people of Andalusia; the score won praise but remained unperformed and unpublished. Falla’s Cuatro piezas españolas (1906) for piano, more in the impressionist style, premiered in Paris in 1907. Eager to partake of the city’s lively music scene, he used the opportunity to relocate there, and in Paris, he was befriended by Paul Dukas, Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, and Isaac Albéniz. Trois Mélodies (1909) for voice and piano, to French texts by Théophile Gautier, was composed and premiered there, with Falla as pianist. After he revised La vida breve, it was staged to great acclaim in 1913, first in Nice and then at the Opéra Comique in Paris. But with the start of World War I, Falla returned to Madrid to premiere his Siete canciones populares españolas (1915) for voice and piano, which transforms folk songs from different regions of Spain. The nationalist strain in his music flourished back in Madrid, and Falla found success with two great Andalusian-themed works: the gypsy drama El amor brujo (1915), a ballet for orchestra and mezzo-soprano, and his score for the farcical pantomime El corregidor y la moliñera (1917), which in 1919 became Falla’s beloved ballet El sombrero de tres picos. Impressionist qualities characterize Falla’s other classic from this period, Noches en los jardines de España (1915) for piano and orchestra. After moving to Granada in 1920, Falla composed the puppet opera El retablo de Maese Pedro (1922), based on a story from Cervantes’s Don Quixote and scored for three voices 121

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and a chamber ensemble that included xylophone, lute-harp, and harpsichord. Psyché (1924), an impressionist work, set a brief French text for mezzo-soprano, flute, harp, and string trio. Having worked with the harpsichordist Wanda Landowska in leading the premiere of El retablo de Maese Pedro, Falla composed for her his greatest work of the 1920s: the glittering Concerto (1926) for harpsichord, flute, oboe, clarinet, violin, and cello, which melds 15th-century Castilian folk song and the techniques of Domenico Scarlatti with neoclassical techniques inspired by Igor Stravinsky’s music. After the Concerto, Falla completed only a few pieces. In 1927, he composed Soneto a Córdoba de Luis de Góngora for soprano and harp or piano, and music for El gran teatro del mundo, an auto sacramental by Pedro Calderón de la Barca. For a Chopin Festival in 1933, he set the Catalan poet Jacinto Verdaguer to the Andantino of Frédéric Chopin’s Ballade No. 2 and created Balada de Mallorca for mixed chorus. The orchestral score Homenajes (1938) was pieced together by Falla over the 1930s. He orchestrated his Hommage pour le tombeau de Paul Dukas (1935) for piano and earlier Homenaje “Le tombeau de Claude Debussy” (1920) for guitar, combined them with his orchestral Fanfare sobre el nombre de E. F. Arbós (1934— Arbos conducted the premiere of Noches en los jardines de España), and added a new short piece for orchestra, Pedrelliana, dedicated to Felipe Pedrell. Yet Falla was not inactive in the last decades of his life. Starting in 1926, he worked on Atlántida, a vast scenic cantata for soloists, chorus, and orchestra, with a text he adapted from L’Atlántida, Verdaguer’s epic account of Atlantis. In poor health by the start of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, Falla went into seclusion until the war ended three years later. He then relocated to Argentina, conducting the 1939 premiere of Homenajes in Buenos Aires shortly after his arrival. It was his last public appearance; after leading two more concerts in the studios of Radio El Mundo in 1942, he retired from performance. Falla made his final home near the village of Alta Garcia and died there of a heart attack at age 69. The score of Atlántida was completed in 1961 (rev. 1976) by his former pupil Ernesto Halffter, and the four-hour work premiered at La Scala the following year. See also LORIOD, YVONNE (1924–2010); MODERNISM; POLYTONALITY. FARWELL, ARTHUR (1872–1952). American composer, musician, educator, and critic. Arthur Farwell studied composition in Boston with George Chadwick and in Germany with Engelbert Humperdinck and Hans Pfitzner. He founded the Wa-Wan Press (1901–1912), which championed American composers, and wrote criticism (1909–1914) for Musical America. Farwell taught at Michigan State University and other institutions; his students include Roy Harris. Having transcribed Native American music for piano with

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American Indian Melodies (1901), Farwell drew upon it for such works as Impressions of the Wa-Wan Ceremony of the Omahas (1905) for piano, Three Indian Songs (1908) for voice and piano, and The Hako (1922) for string quartet. His arrangements Folk Songs of the West and South (1905) for voice and piano used African American and Spanish Californian music. Farwell’s other notable works include The Gods of the Mountain (1916) for orchestra, Piano Quintet (1937), Polytonal Studies (1940–1952) for piano, the opera Cartoon (1948), and Piano Sonata (1949). See also BRUCE, NEELY (1944– ); MODERNISM; MULTICULTURALISM; POLYTONALITY. FELDMAN, MORTON (1926–1987). American composer, musician, and educator. One of the major composers of the 20th century, Feldman was an essential figure in indeterminate and minimalist music, inventing new notation techniques and employing greater extremes of quietness and scale. Born in Brooklyn, Morton Feldman began studying piano at age 12 with Vera Maurina-Press who introduced him to the works of Alexander Scriabin and Ferruccio Busoni; as a teenager, he studied composition with Wallingford Riegger and Stefan Wolpe. In his early 20s, he was keen for the music of Béla Bartók and Anton Webern, and in 1950, Feldman met and befriended John Cage. He introduced pianist David Tudor to Cage and soon became friends with others in Cage’s circle, forming a special bond with Christian Wolff and Earle Brown. Feldman’s composition was also stimulated by the abstract-expressionist painters, such as his friends Willem de Kooning and Philip Guston, who used paint as paint and not as a representation of an object or idea or emotion. He also scored the films Jackson Pollock 51 (1951) and Willem de Kooning, the Painter (1966). Seeking to avoid the rhetoric of composition and let sounds be themselves, Feldman’s music in the 1950s and 1960s was usually brief, quiet, and slow, its delicate pitches projected into space without gelling into a system or statement. At first he relied upon greater performance freedoms to create this sound. His five Projection scores (1950–1951) and four Intersection scores (1951–1953), written for a range of instruments, introduced a graphic notation that permitted musicians certain choices in pitch and rhythm. A later example of this method is The King of Denmark (1964) for percussion, where Feldman defined pitch in only three gradations of low, middle, and high, serving as the vertical axis, and designated time at the horizontal axis, in broad increments of one box equaling MM 66–92. The amount of sounds to be played during a time value is indicated by a number in a box (Arabic for sequential sounds, Roman for simultaneities). A letter in a box specifies either a type of instrument, such as S for skin and B for bell-like, or a gesture, such as R for roll. The many empty boxes denote silence.

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Free-duration music was another innovation of Feldman’s, an indeterminate technique of notating fixed pitches but leaving their time values open, with tempo defined either by a specified metronome range or simply as Slow. In his 1957 scores Piece for Four Pianos and Two Pianos, the musicians play from the same part, producing quiet, shimmering mobile-like aggregates with no clear beginnings and endings. The five Durations pieces (1960–1961) were all composed for small chamber groups and featured greater complexity, with individual parts for each musician. Feldman sometimes notated the sequencing of pitches in free duration, as in De Kooning (1963) for horn, percussion, piano, violin, and cello, where each sound enters as the preceding one fades. During these years, Feldman also continued to compose in standard notation, as with Extensions 1 (1952) for violin and piano and Structures (1962) for orchestra. An occasional performer of his own works, he grew increasingly skillful at writing down the kind of non-relational pitch activities that his indeterminate music had created, and he hit his stride with such major pieces as his four The Viola in My Life scores (1970–1971) and Rothko Chapel (1971) for mixed chorus, celesta, percussion, and viola. He also began teaching at the State University of New York at Buffalo in 1972; his students include Bernadette Speach, Tom Johnson, Bunita Marcus, Kyle Gann, Elliott Sharp, and Barbara Monk. From the early 1970s onward, Feldman worked exclusively in traditional notation. Engaging what he saw as the paradox between repetition and change, his music used repeated materials with modest alterations of meter or phrasing, which redefine the listener’s sense of what’s being repeated. In reducing his compositional tools, Feldman intensified his focus on the challenge of scale, and by the late 1970s, he was composing lengthy works devoid of preconceived structures or familiar development techniques; instead, he let procedures for sustaining continuity reveal themselves to him through his concentration on his materials. Feldman also recognized how the recording industry inhibited composers by encouraging them to operate within lengths amenable to the 20 minutes of one side of an LP, and he decided to create single-movement works that resisted such commodification. As the pieces grew even longer, he saw them as also being resistant to performance itself—from which he took further satisfaction. This search for purity of expression led to an array of major works in the last years of Feldman’s life. Many employ a more familiar scale, such as his opera for soprano and orchestra Neither (1977), For Aaron Copland (1981) for solo violin, and the orchestral scores The Turfan Fragments (1980), Coptic Light (1985), and For Samuel Beckett (1987). He also treated scale more aggressively—circa 75 minutes in String Quartet (1979), For John Cage (1982) for violin and piano, and For Bunita Marcus (1985) for piano. Other works defied all conventions: For Christian Wolff (1986) for flute and piano

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takes about three and a half hours; the trio For Philip Guston (1984) for flutes, percussion, and piano/celesta, over four; String Quartet II (1983), around six. Ailing with pancreatic cancer, Feldman married Barbara Monk in June of 1987; three months later he died in a Buffalo hospital at age 61. See also AMIRKHANIAN, CHARLES (1945– ); ATONALITY; BISCARDI, CHESTER (1948– ); CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981); COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); LA BARBARA, JOAN (1947– ); ONCE GROUP; PACCIONE, PAUL (1952– ); POSTMODERNISM; SKEMPTON, HOWARD (1947– ); SULTAN, GRETE (1906–2005); TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ); TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ); ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). FERNEYHOUGH, BRIAN (1943– ). English composer and educator. Brian Ferneyhough studied at the Birmingham School of Music, the Royal Academy of Music, the Amsterdam Conservatory, and the Basle Academy; he has taught at the Freiburg Musikhochschule, Stanford University, Institut de Recherche et de Coordination Acoustique/Musique, and other institutions. Drawing on total serialism, he developed his own approach to atonal composition, with a penchant for microtones and glissandi. Ferneyhough’s works include Transit (1975) for six amplified voices and chamber orchestra; Unity Capsule (1976) for flute; Lemma-Icon-Epigram (1981) for piano; Terrain (1992) for violin and wind ensemble; Allgebrah (1996) for oboe and nine strings; the opera Shadowtime (2004); Plötzlichkeit (2006) for soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, and orchestra; Renvoi/Shards (2008) for quarter-tone guitar and quarter-tone vibraphone; and Schatten aus Wasser und Stein (2013) for quarter-tone oboe and string quartet. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FURE, ASHLEY (1982– ); MODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. FERRARI, LUC (1929–2005). French composer, musician, and educator. Trained in piano, Luc Ferrari studied composition with Arthur Honegger and Olivier Messiaen; he later taught internationally. After such early atonal works as Antisonate (1953) for piano and Piano Quartet (1954), Ferrari turned to musique concrète with his three Études concrètes (1958) and Visage V (1959). His tape music grew to incorporate environmental and ambient sound, often with narrative qualities, as in Hétérozygote (1964), Presque rien No. 1 (1970), Petite symphonie intuitive pour un paysage de printemps (1974), Presque rien No. 2 (1977), Chantal (1978), Presque rien avec filles (1989), Presque rien No. 4 (1998), Far West News (1999), and Les anecdotiques (2002). Among his electronic film scores are Dernier matin d’Edgar Allan Poe (1964) and Chronopolis (1982). Ferrari has written such purely instrumental scores as Symphonie inachevée (1966) for orchestra and two

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conductors; Société II (1967) for piano, three percussionists, and 16 instruments; and Enrée (1979) for 15 instruments. His notable electroacoustic scores include Cellule 75 (1975) for piano, percussion, and tape; Et si tout entière maintenant (1987), a tape piece that reworks Ferrari’s music for voice and orchestra; Madame de Shanghai (1996) for three flutes and digitally stored sounds; and Après presque rien (2004) for 14 instruments and two samplers. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. FILM MUSIC. Modernist musical innovations have a long history in the scoring of motion pictures. Electronic music begins appearing on film soundtracks in the 1930s, with the ondes martenot heard in electroacoustic scores by Arthur Honegger (L’Idée, 1932; Rapt, 1934; Crime et châtiment, 1935; Marthe Richard au service de la France, 1937; Un seul amour, 1943) and Jacques Ibert (Golgotha, 1935). Franz Waxman used a theremin for Fritz Lang’s Liliom (1934); the instrument made its mark in Hollywood with Miklos Rózsa’s scores for two 1945 films, Billy Wilder’s The Lost Weekend and Alfred Hitchcock’s Spellbound. Edgard Varèse’s first tape-music piece was heard in Around and about Joan Miró (1955). Other composers of electronic music for films included Louis and Bebe Barron (Forbidden Planet, 1955), Pierre Henry (Le cirque de Calder, 1961), and Henk Badings (Freud, 1962). Using the Mixtur-Trautonium, an extension of the Trautonium, Remi Gassmann and Oskar Sala created electronic effects for Hitchcock’s The Birds (1963), consulting with composer Bernard Herrmann. The growth of synthesizer technology resulted in electronic film scores by such composers as Wendy Carlos (A Clockwork Orange, 1971; The Shining, 1980; TRON, 1982), Eduard Artmiev (Solaris, 1972; Stalker, 1979), Giorgio Moroder (Midnight Express, 1978; Scarface, 1983) and Vangelis (Chariots of Fire, 1981; Blade Runner, 1982). Although Arnold Schoenberg never composed film music—his Begleitungsmusik zu einer Lichtspielszene (1930) was not created for a specific film—some of his pupils did employ twelve-tone methods in scoring films, such as Hanns Eisler (Regen, 1929, scored 1940) and Leonard Rosenman (The Cobweb, 1955); another Schoenberg pupil, David Raksin, used atonal and polytonal techniques in his scores for Laura (1944) and Force of Evil (1948). Other composers who used serial organization composing for films include Ernest Gold (On the Beach, 1959), Rózsa (King of Kings, 1961), Benjamin Frankel (The Curse of the Werewolf, 1961), Jerry Goldsmith (Freud, 1962), Johnny Mandel (Point Blank, 1967), and David Shire (The Taking of Pelham One Two Three, 1974). Noise, dissonance, and atonality also inform memorable film music by Toru Takemitsu (Woman in the Dunes, 1964), Peter Maxwell Davies (The Devils, 1971), and Harrison Birtwistle (The Offence, 1973).

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Certain filmmakers have used preexisting music rather than a new score: Erik Satie in Orson Welles’s The Immortal Story (1968); Gustav Mahler in Luchino Visconti’s Death in Venice (1971); Sergey Prokofiev in Woody Allen’s Love and Death (1975); Aaron Copland in Spike Lee’s He Got Game (1998); György Ligeti in Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), The Shining (1980), and Eyes Wide Shut (1999); and Hildegard Westerkamp in Gus Van Sant’s Elephant (2003) and Last Days (2005). By the same token, many composers transformed their film scores into concert works, such as Prokofiev (Lieutenant Kizhe, 1934; Alexander Nevsky, 1939), Virgil Thomson (“The Plow That Broke the Plains” Suite, 1936; “The River” Suite, 1937; “Louisiana Story” Suite, 1948), Copland (Our Town, 1940; Music for Movies, 1942; The Red Pony, 1948; Music for a Great City, 1964), John Cage (Music for Marcel Duchamp, 1947), Ralph Vaughan Williams (Symphony No. 7, 1952), Harry Partch (Daphne of the Dunes, 1967), and Philip Glass (String Quartet No. 3 [Mishima], 1985). Postmodern musical trends have also been reflected in film scoring, with minimalist composers of film scores such as Glass (Koyaanisqatsi, 1982; Bent, 1997; The Hours, 2002), Steve Reich (Oh Dem Watermelons, 1965; The Dying Gaul, 2005), Terry Riley (Lifespan, 1976; No Man’s Land, 1985), Brian Eno (Sebastiane, 1976; Glitterbug, 1994), and Michael Nyman (The Piano, 1993; Man on Wire, 2008). Most notable is the array of postmodern composers who have made and scored their own films; they include The Beatles (Magical Mystery Tour, 1967), Mauricio Kagel (Ludwig Van, 1969; Phonophonie, 1979), Frank Zappa (200 Motels, 1971), Sun Ra (Space Is the Place, 1974), Meredith Monk (Ellis Island, 1982; Book of Days, 1989), The Residents (Whatever Happened to Vileness Fats?, 1984), Laurie Anderson (Home of the Brave, 1986), Sylvano Bussotti (Biennale Apollo, 1990), Sussan Deyhim (Logic of the Birds, 2002), Phill Niblock (The Movement of People Working, 2003), and Susie Ibarra (The Cotabato Sessions, 2014). See also ADAMS, JOHN (1947– ); ADÈS, THOMAS (1971– ); AMRAM, DAVID (1930– ); ANDRIESSEN, LOUIS (1939– ); ANTHEIL, GEORGE (1900–1959); AREL, BÜLENT (1919–1990); ASHLEY, ROBERT (1930–2014); BAX, ARNOLD (SIR) (1883–1953); BECKER, JOHN J. (1886–1961); BERG, CHRISTOPHER (1949– ); BERNSTEIN, LEONARD (1918–1990); BLITZSTEIN, MARC (1905–1964); BOWLES, PAUL (1910–1999); BRANCA, GLENN (1948–2018); BRANT, HENRY (1913–2008); BRITTEN, BENJAMIN (1913–1976); BRUCE, NEELY (1944– ); BRYARS, GAVIN (1943– ); BUDD, HAROLD (1936– ); CHATHAM, RHYS (1952– ); COLEMAN, ORNETTE (1930–2015); CONRAD, TONY (1940–2016); CORIGLIANO, JOHN (1938– ); CORNER, PHILIP (1933– ); CURRAN, ALVIN (1938– ); DENISOV, EDISON (1929–1996); DIAMOND, DAVID (1915–2005); DLUGOSZEWSKI, LUCIA (1934–2000); DRUCKMAN, JACOB (1928–1996); ELLINGTON,

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DUKE (1899–1974); FELDMAN, MORTON (1926–1987); FERRARI, LUC (1929–2005); FLANAGAN, WILLIAM (1923–1969); FOULDS, JOHN (1880–1939); FRITH, FRED (1949– ); GERHARD, ROBERTO (1896–1970); GERSHWIN, GEORGE (1898–1937); GINASTERA, ALBERTO (1916–1983); GOEHR, ALEXANDER (1932– ); GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ); GORDON, MICHAEL (1956– ); GORDON, PETER (1951– ); GÓRECKI, HENRYK (1933–2010); GOULD, MORTON (1913–1996); GROUPE DES SIX; GUBAIDULINA, SOFIA (1931– ); HAHN, REYNALDO (1874–1947); HARRISON, LOU (1917–2003); HENZE, HANS WERNER (1926–2012); HILLER, LEJAREN (1924–1994); HOLST, GUSTAV (1874–1934); HOPE, CAT (1966– ); HOVHANESS, ALAN (1911–2000); HYKES, DAVID (1953– ); ICHIYANAGI, TOSHI (1933– ); IRELAND, JOHN (1879–1962); ITO, TEIJI (1935–1982); JOLAS, BETSY (1926– ); JOLIVET, ANDRÉ (1905–1974); KANCHELI, GIYA (1935– ); KHACHATURIAN, ARAM (1903–1978); KODÁLY, ZOLTÁN (1882–1967); KONDO, JO (1947– ); KORNGOLD, ERICH WOLFGANG (1897–1957); KOSUGI, TAKEHISA (1938–2018); KURTÁG, GYÖRGY (1926– ); LA BARBARA, JOAN (1947– ); LANG, DAVID (1957– ); LÉANDRE, JOËLLE (1951– ); LIEBERSON, PETER (1946–2011); LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001); LUTOSLAWSKI, WITOLD (1913–1994); MACERO, TEO (1925–2008); MacLISE, ANGUS (1938–1979); MADERNA, BRUNO (1920–1973); MAW, NICHOLAS (1935–2009); MAYUZUMI, TOSHIRO (1929–1997); MAZZOLI, MISSY (1980– ); McPHEE, COLIN (1901–1964); MILHAUD, DARIUS (1892–1974); MORAN, ROBERT (1937– ); MOSOLOV, ALEXANDER (1900–1973); MUMMA, GORDON (1935– ); NEUHAUS, MAX (1939–2009); NILSSON, BO (1937–2018); NONO, LUIGI (1924–1990); NØRGÅRD, PER (1932– ); OLIVEROS, PAULINE (1932–2016); ONO, YOKO (1933– ); PALESTINE, CHARLEMAGNE (1947– ); PÄRT, ARVO (1935– ); PENDERECKI, KRZYSZTOF (1933– ); PERKINS, PHILIP (1951– ); POULENC, FRANCIS (1889–1963); POUSSEUR, HENRI (1929–2009); POWELL, MEL (1923–1998); RADIGUE, ÉLIANE (1932– ); REVUELTAS, SILVESTRE (1899–1940); RIHM, WOLFGANG (1952– ); RISSET, JEAN-CLAUDE (1938–2016); ROUGH ASSEMBLAGE; RUDERS, POUL (1949– ); RZEWSKI, FREDERIC (1938– ); SALLINEN, AULIS (1935– ); SCAVARDA, DONALD (1928– ); SCHNITTKE, ALFRED (1934–1998); SCOTT, RAYMOND (1908–1994); SCULTHORPE, PETER (1929–2014); SEMEGEN, DARIA (1946– ); SHARP, ELLIOTT (1951– ); SHEA, DAVID (1965– ); SHIELDS, ALICE (1943– ); SHOSTAKOVICH, DMITRY (1906–1975); SKEMPTON, HOWARD (1947– ); SMILEY, PRIL (1943– ); SMIT, LEOPOLD “LEO” (1900–1943); SOMERS, HARRY (1925–1999); SPIEGEL, LAURIE (1945– ); STILL, WILLIAM GRANT (1895–1978); STOCKHAUSEN, KARLHEINZ (1928–2007); SUBOT-

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NICK, MORTON (1933– ); TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ); TAN DUN (1957– ); TEITELBAUM, RICHARD (1939– ); THEATRICAL MUSIC; THORVALDSDOTTIR, ANNA (1977– ); TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ); TOCH, ERNST (1887–1964); TONE, YASUNAO (1935– ); TÜÜR, ERKKI-SVEN (1959– ); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ); USSACHEVSKY, VLADIMIR (1911–1990); VAN DER AA, MICHEL (1970– ); VIERK, LOIS V (1951– ); VILLA-LOBOS, HEITOR (1887–1959); WALTON, WILLIAM (SIR) (1902–1983); WEBER, BEN (1916–1979); WEILL, KURT (1900–1950); WOLFE, JULIA (1958– ); XENAKIS, IANNIS (1922–2001); YUASA, JOJI (1929– ); ZORN, JOHN (1953– ). FINE, IRVING (1914–1962). American composer, musician, and educator. Irving Fine studied piano with Frances L. Grover, conducting with Serge Koussevitzky, and composition with Edward Burlingame Hill, Walter Piston, and Nadia Boulanger. He received his B.A. and M.A. from Harvard University and later taught there and at Tanglewood and Brandeis University; his students include Halim El-Dabh. Fine’s notable early works were neoclassical: The Choral New Yorker (1944) for mixed chorus and piano, Violin Sonata (1946), Music for Piano (1947), Toccata concertante (1947) for orchestra. His lyrical sensibility adapted well to twelve-tone procedures, which he blended with tonal techniques in his String Quartet (1952), Mutability (1952) for mezzo-soprano and piano, Serious Song (1955) for string orchestra, Fantasia for String Trio (1956), and Symphony (1962). Fine died in a Boston hospital at age 47 after suffering a heart attack. See also MODERNISM; SMIT, LEO (1921–1999). FINE, VIVIAN (1913–2000). American composer, musician, and educator. Vivian Fine studied piano with Djana Lavorie-Herz and Abby Whiteside and composition with Ruth Crawford and Roger Sessions. She taught at Bennington College (1964–1987) and other institutions; her students include Pril Smiley. Fine concertized as a pianist and premiered works by such modernists as Charles Ives, Aaron Copland, Henry Cowell, Henry Brant, and Dane Rudhyar, along with her own music. Her early scores, such as Four Polyphonic Pieces for Piano (1931) and Four Songs (1933) for contralto and strings, explored dissonant counterpoint and atonality. Suite in E Flat (1940) for piano and Concertante (1944) for piano and orchestra were tonal, and Fine matured into her own blend of tonal and atonal composition. Her notable later works include String Quartet (1957); the dance score Alcestis (1960); Dreamscape (1964) for percussion ensemble, three flutes, cello, piano, and lawnmower; The Nightingale (1976) for mezzo-soprano who also

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plays percussion; Gertrude and Virginia (1981) for soprano, mezzo-soprano, and quintet; Drama for Orchestra (1982); and the chamber operas The Women in the Garden (1978) and Memoirs of Uliana (1994). FINNEY, ROSS LEE (1906–1997). American composer, musician, and educator. An accomplished cellist, guitarist, and folk singer, Ross Lee Finney received his B.A. from Carlton College in Northfield, Minnesota, and studied with Nadia Boulanger in France (1927–1928), Edward Burlingame Hill at Harvard University (1928–1929), Alban Berg in Vienna (1931–1932), and Roger Sessions in the United States (1935). Finney taught at Smith College (1929–1948) and the University of Michigan (1949–1973); his students include Robert Ashley, Gordon Mumma, George Crumb, George Cacioppo, Donald Scavarda, Roger Reynolds, and Philip Krumm. Finney’s early music was neoclassical, with recurring themes of Americana and folk music: Violin Concerto No. 1 (1933, rev. 1952); Symphony No. 1 (“Communiqué 1943”) (1942); Pilgrim Psalms (1945) for soloists, chorus, and orchestra; Piano Sonata No. 4, “Christmastime 1945” (1945); Poor Richard (1946) for voice and piano. Finney’s composition became increasingly chromatic in the late 1940s, and in his String Quartet No. 6 in E (1950) he used twelve-tone organization. Yet he retained his essential melodic and harmonic profile, developing an approach he called pitch polarity, a tonality outside the triadic system of harmony, in some of his best music in the 1950s: Violin Sonata No. 2 (1951), Chromatic Fantasy in E (1957) for cello, String Quintet (1958), Symphony No. 2 (1959). In 1962, Finney studied electronic music with Mario Davidovsky at the ColumbiaPrinceton Electronic Music Center, and featured it in two works that same year: Three Pieces for Strings, Winds, Percussion, and Tape Recorder and Still Are New Worlds for narrator, chorus, orchestra, and tape. His twelvetone technique was at its most rigorous in such scores as Three Studies in Fours for percussion orchestra (1965), Concerto for Percussion and Orchestra (1965), and Five Fantasies (1967) for organ. With Summer in Valley City (1969) for concert band, Finney launched a series of major works that explored the nature and experience of memory. His use of pitch polarity within serial organization accommodated popular and folk quotations, along with unusual rhythms and effects scored in proportional notation, in Two Acts for Three Players (1970) for clarinet, piano, and percussion; Landscapes Remembered (1971) for chamber orchestra; Spaces (1971) for orchestra; Variations on a Memory (1975) for chamber orchestra; Skating on the Sheyenne (1978) for band; Narrative in Retrospect (1984) for piano; and Narrative in Two Movements (1987) for cello and small orchestra. For choreographer Erick Hawkins, Finney produced the scores Heyoka (1981) and The Joshua Tree (1984). He completed his first opera in 1984: Weep Torn Land, from his own libretto. Finney also wrote the

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books The Game of Harmony (1947), Analysis and the Creative Process (1958), and Profile of a Lifetime: A Musical Autobiography (1992), as well as the text for a second opera, the comedy Computer Marriage—left incomplete when he died at his home in Carmel, California, at age 90. See also ATONALITY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; KIRKPATRICK, JOHN (1905–1991); MODERNISM. FINZI, GERALD (1901–1956). English composer, musician, and educator. Gerald Finzi studied with Ernest Farrar in Yorkshire, Edward Bairstow at York Minster, and R. O. Morris in London. He taught at the Royal Academy of Music (1930–1933), through the support of Ralph Vaughan Williams; he also founded and led the Newbury String Players (1940–1956). A lyrical tonal composer with an elegiac sensibility, Finzi is especially admired for his vocal music, which includes settings of Thomas Hardy (By Footpath and Stile for baritone and string quartet, 1922; A Young Man’s Exhortation for tenor and piano, 1929; Earth and Air and Rain for baritone and piano, 1936; Before and after Summer for baritone and piano, 1949); Dies natalis (1939) for soprano or tenor and string orchestra; and such large-scale works for mixed chorus and orchestra as For St. Cecelia (1947) with tenor soloist, Magnificat (1952, orchestrated 1956), and In terra pax (1954, rev. 1956) with soprano and baritone soloists. His other notable works include A Severn Rhapsody (1923) for chamber orchestra, Five Bagatelles (1941) for clarinet and piano, Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra (1949), and the more dissonant scores Prelude and Fugue (1938) for string trio; Intimations of Immortality (1950) for tenor, mixed chorus and orchestra; and Cello Concerto (1955). Finzi died in Oxford at age 55 due to complications from Hodgkin’s disease. See also MODERNISM. FLANAGAN, WILLIAM (1923–1969). American composer and critic. William Flanagan studied composition with Burrill Phillips and Bernard Rogers at the Eastman School of Music; with Aaron Copland, Arthur Honegger, and Arthur Berger at Tanglewood; and with David Diamond in New York. He wrote music criticism for the New York Herald Tribune from 1957 to 1960. Flanagan’s melodic and lyric gifts distinguish his vocal works, which include the Herman Melville settings Time’s Long Ago! (1951) for voice and piano and the one-act opera Bartleby (1957); The Weeping Pleiades (1953) for voice, flute, clarinet, violin, cello, and piano; The Lady of Tearful Regret (1958) for soprano, baritone, and septet; and Another August (1967) for soprano and orchestra. They also inform his instrumental works: Divertimento (1947) for string quartet, Chaconne (1948) for violin and piano, Piano Sonata (1950), and the orchestral scores A Concert Ode (1951), A Concert Overture (1959), Notations (1960), and Narrative (1964). Flanagan

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also scored documentary films and provided theater music for plays by Edward Albee; but his opera Ice Age to an Albee libretto, commissioned in 1963, was left unfinished. Flanagan took his own life at age 46. See also MODERNISM; NEOROMANTICISM. FLUXUS. Drawing on conceptual art, humor, theatricality, indeterminacy, minimalism, and multimedia, Fluxus was a loosely organized group of artists and composers who knew each other in New York during the late 1950s and early 1960s. The momentum for the group arose from such new creative activities as the Happenings of Jim Dine, Jackson Mac Low’s poetry, John Cage’s classes at the New School, and the AG Gallery concerts of George Maciunas (1931–1978), who organized the first Fluxus event in 1961. He also coined the term Fluxus, from the Latin for “to flow,” and wrote the Fluxus manifesto in 1963, calling for a purge of commercialized and abstract art, the emergence of art that can be grasped by everyone, and a fusion of cultural, social, and political revolution. Fluxus began finding a wider audience with a concert in Wiesbaden, Germany, in September 1962; other international and American performances followed. George Brecht (1926–2008), who had studied with Cage, became a central figure in Fluxus, with event scores such as Three Telephone Events (1961), which had a ringing telephone that was left to ring, hung up on, and answered; his Drip Music (1962) listened to water dripping into an empty vessel. This love of everyday things informed other Fluxus works that appropriated non-instruments, such as Alison Knowles’s Make a Salad (1962) and Music by Alison (1964). Fluxus concerts also made non-instrumental use of instruments. Maciunas’s 12 Piano Compositions for Nam June Paik (1962) called for the piano to be moved in and out, waxed, and polished; La Monte Young’s Piano Piece for David Tudor #1 (1960) gave the piano a bale of hay and a bucket of water. Other composers who were part of Fluxus include Richard Maxfield (Concert Suite from the Ballet Dromenon, 1961), Yasunao Tone (Geodesy for Piano, 1962), James Tenney (“Chamber Music,” 1964; Maximusic, 1965), Toshi Ichiyanagi (Music for Piano 1–7, 1959–1961), Yoko Ono (Cut Piece, 1964), Philip Krumm (Patterns, 1962), Nam June Paik (Composition for Poor Man, 1961), Takehisa Kosugi (Organic Music, 1962), Philip Corner (4th Finale, 1964), and Dick Higgins (Danger Musics, 1961–1963). Its most influential concerts occurred in the 1960s, but Fluxus has remained a vital art movement, holding meetings and events on the 10-year anniversaries of the Wiesbaden concert, in 1972, 1982, 1992, 2002, and 2012. See also GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; POSTMODERNISM; TUDOR, DAVID (1926–1996).

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FLYNT, HENRY (1940– ). American composer and musician. Known primarily as a philosopher, mathematician, and artist, Henry Flynt coined the term concept art and led an anti-art movement. He also studied violin and initially composed indeterminate scores but became more interested in regional music. He performed with La Monte Young, the Velvet Underground, and others in the 1960s, and he studied raga singing with Pandit Pran Nath in the 1970s. Drawing on ethnic, rock, experimental, electroacoustic, and minimalist techniques, Flynt’s music from these years has been released in such recordings as Graduation (2001), Raga Electric (2002), Back Porch Hillbilly Blues, vols. 1 and 2 (2003), I Don’t Wanna (2004), Henry Flynt & Nova’Billy (2007), Glissando No. 1 (2011), and You Are My Everlovin’ (2017); later performances can be heard in the four-volume series New American Ethnic Music (2002–2007). See also MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM. FORMALISM. Formalism defines any approach that adheres strictly to pre-established external forms; this entry, however, focuses on the use of this term in the Soviet Union during the 20th century. By the early 1930s, the careers of such Russian composers as Nikolai Roslavets and Alexander Mosolov had been derailed due to the widespread belief that modernism was counterrevolutionary. Hostility against modernism worsened in 1936 after Soviet leader Joseph Stalin walked out on Dmitry Shostakovich’s opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk, outraged by its sexual content and dissonant music. Stalin then decreed that Soviet opera should be traditional and folk song based in its music, impart ideologically correct socialist content in its libretto, and provide a happy and optimistic ending. As socialist realism, Stalin’s values defined not just opera but all other music and art, cinema, theater, literature, and dance during his reign. Accessibility was fundamental, and alienating devices of atonality or dissonance were denounced as formalist—in other words, placing structural or experimental considerations above the principles of socialist realism. The works of Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, Paul Hindemith, and Béla Bartók disappeared from Soviet concert halls and radio, and domestic composers, especially experimentalists such as Georgi Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov who worked with quarter-tones and Jörg Mager’s Kurbelsphärophon, had to adopt the new agenda. That conformity was a matter of life and death in a police state where denunciations and disappearances had become commonplace. Cultural purity was less of a concern during World War II, but there was another round of housecleaning in 1948 and Shostakovich, Sergey Prokofiev, Aram Khachaturian, and Nikolai Myaskovsky, the Soviet Union’s “Big Four” composers, were called before the Central Committee of the Communist Party, along with others. All were accused of formalism, which had come to mean antiso-

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cialist and pro-Western tendencies; all admitted their failure and promised to do better. Also pressured in the 1940s and 1950s were non-Russian composers within the Soviet sphere of influence, such as Witold Lutoslawski, Alois Hába, and György Ligeti. A thaw began only after Stalin’s death in 1953, yet repression lingered throughout most of the Soviet government’s existence, with the closing of the Moscow Electronic Music Studio from 1975 until 1987, and the harassment of such composers as Edison Denisov. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; FUTURISM; USTVOLSKAYA, GALINA (1919–2006). FOSS, LUKAS (1922–2009). German-born American composer, musician, and educator. A pianist and composer from childhood, Lukas Foss came to the United States in 1937. He attended the Curtis Institute (1937–1940), studying composition with Randall Thompson and Rosario Scalero and conducting with Fritz Reiner; he also studied conducting with Serge Koussevitzky at Tanglewood and composition with Paul Hindemith at Tanglewood and Yale University. Foss later taught at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA; 1953–1963), among other institutions; his students include Richard Dufallo, Barbara Kolb, and Alvin Lucier. He was pianist with the Boston Symphony Orchestra (1944–1950) and music director and conductor of the Buffalo Philharmonic (1963–1970), Brooklyn Philharmonic (1971–1990), Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra (1972–1976), and Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra (1980–1986). Foss’s early music was tonal and melodic, with neoromantic and neoclassical elements in The Prairie (1944), a cantata for soloists, chorus, and orchestra; Song of Songs (1946) for voice and orchestra; and the two-act opera The Jumping Frog of Calaveras County (1949). He won admirers with A Parable of Death (1952) for narrator, tenor, mixed chorus, and orchestra or chamber orchestra and the three-act fantasy opera Griffelkin (1955), but Foss’s music changed after he formed the Improvisation Chamber Ensemble at UCLA in 1957. The search for spontaneity transformed his composition, and he produced two important atonal scores, Time Cycle (1960, rev. 1961) for soprano and orchestra or chamber group and Echoi (1963) for clarinet, cello, piano, and percussion (the lineup of the Improvisation Chamber Ensemble). Despites its serial influences, Echoi also featured performance freedoms, and Foss further developed this aleatoric approach in Fragments of Archilichos (1965) for chorus and chamber ensemble and the theatrical Paradigm (1968) for percussionist, electric guitar, and three other instruments capable of sustaining a sound. He employed quotation in Baroque Variations (1967) for orchestra, multiphonics in Cave of the Winds (1972) for wind quintet, game techniques in MAP (1973) for any four players, and minimalism in String Quartet No. 3 (1975). His later works include Elegy for Anne Frank

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(1989) for narrator, piano, and orchestra, Piano Concerto for the Left Hand (1993), and Symphonic Fantasy (2002) for orchestra. See also EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; FREE IMPROVISATION; MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); MODERNISM; ONCE GROUP. FOULDS, JOHN (1880–1939). English composer and musician. John Foulds came from a family of musicians and was largely self-taught. He joined the Hallé Orchestra as a cellist in 1900, by which time he had already begun experimenting with microtonality in his composition. Quarter-tones appear in such early works as The Waters of Babylon (ca. 1905), later incorporated into his suite Aquarelles (ca. 1914) for string quartet, and in Mirage (1910) for orchestra. He also explored ancient Greek modes in the piano suite Hellas (1915). Foulds achieved popular success with his lighter pieces, such as the many arrangements of his Keltic Lament (1911), but he also won respect for A World Requiem (1921) for soloists, mixed chorus, boys choir, orchestra, and organ, his requiem to all the dead of World War I, which set liturgical, British, and Hindu texts. Foulds married the Irish violinist, singer, and ethnomusicologist Maud MacCarthy in 1915, and her expertise in Indian music informed the rhythmic and modal structures of his Gandharva-music (1926) for piano. By the mid1920s he had also completed the first two movements of his unfinished Lyra Celtica, a concerto for wordless contralto and orchestra, which featured microtonal pitches for the voice. Foulds’s socialist politics, Theosophical mysticism, and fascination with the East tended to isolate him from English society, and he moved to Paris in 1927. There he completed seven of his projected series of piano pieces Essays in the Modes (1927), which employed scales derived from the 72 South Indian ragas. Those scores led to his piano concerto Dynamic Triptych (1929), which included Indian modes, quartertone passages, and instances of silence. Foulds’s attempt at composing the Sanskrit opera Avatara was abandoned, but he derived from it the remarkable Three Mantras (1930) for orchestra and wordless women’s chorus. Foulds returned to London in 1930 and composed a variety of ethnicthemed orchestral works, including Keltic Overture (1931), Fantasie of Negro Spirituals (1932), and Chinese Suite (1935), as well as his Quartetto intimo (1932) for string quartet, which used quarter-tones. He also scored John Grierson’s documentary film On the Fishing Banks of Skye (1935). After publishing his study of modernist musical innovations, Music To-day (1934), he relocated to India in 1935 and served as director of European Music at All-India Radio. Foulds founded the Indo-European Orchestra in 1938 but died of cholera the following year in Calcutta at age 58. See also MULTICULTURALISM.

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FREE DURATION. Free duration is an indeterminate compositional method developed by Morton Feldman and introduced in Piece for Four Pianos (1957), in which pitches are precisely notated but their time values are left open. Other postmodern composers who have used free duration include Cornelius Cardew (The Great Learning, 1968–1971), John Cage (Etudes Australes, 1975), and Bernadette Speach (Les ondes pour quatre, 1988); Christian Wolff has pauses in free duration in his trio Flutist (with percussionists) (2003). See also OPEN FORM. FREE IMPROVISATION. Free improvisation arose in the United States and Europe during the 1960s and early 1970s, drawing upon the innovations of free jazz composer/musicians Ornette Coleman, Cecil Taylor, and Sun Ra; the amplification and energy of rock music; and the use of simultaneities and noise by such composers as Edgard Varèse and John Cage. This postmodern approach to improvisation embraces more than dissonance, atonality, and polyrhythmic independence within an ensemble. Extended performance techniques have been the norm for many, with Fred Frith playing his guitar by laying it flat on a table and working the strings with a variety of implements, or John Zorn performing on pieces of his clarinet or attaching game calls to the mouthpiece of his saxophone. Instrument building also loomed large, with guitarists Frith and Elliott Sharp and harpist Zeena Parkins performing on homemade instruments. Percussionists David Moss, Fast Forward, and Charles K. Noyes would play found objects as well as traditional percussion instruments. Multicultural performances are also frequent, especially with such skilled performers as Filipina American percussionist Susie Ibarra, Iranian singer Sussan Deyhim, and Korean kayagum player Sang-Won Park. Electroacoustic and electronic music are essential, too, from the performances of the AMM and MEV ensembles to the synthesizers of Jessica Rylan, the turntables of Christian Marclay, and the use of sampling by Bob Ostertag, David Shea, and David Weinstein; musicians who also perform with electronics include trombonist George Lewis and percussionist Ikue Mori. By the 1980s, free improvisation had become a vital international trend. Its many notable performers include guitarists Derek Bailey, Eugene Chadbourne, Arto Lindsay, Henry Kaiser, and René Lussier; saxophone players Anthony Braxton, John Oswald, Ned Rothenberg, and Lol Coxhill; percussionists Chris Cutler, Roger Turner, David Van Teighem, Bobby Previte, Tony Oxley, Evelyn Glennie, David Moss, and Greg Bendian; vocalists Julius Eastman, Phil Minton, Shelley Hirsch, and Mike Patton; keyboard players John Tilbury, Sylvie Courvoisier, Annie Gosfield, Bernadette Speach, Richard Teitelbaum, Marilyn Crispell, and Anthony Coleman; cellists Frances-Marie Uitti and Tom Cora; violinists Malcolm Goldstein, Takehisa Kosugi, Polly Bradfield, Jon Rose, and Mark Feldman; harpists

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Anne LeBaron and Carol Emanuel; accordionists Pauline Oliveros and Guy Kluscevek; double-bass players Gavin Bryars and Joëlle Léandre; and cornetist Butch Morris who has also devised new methods for leading groups of improving musicians. See also CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981); CHANCE MUSIC; CURRAN, ALVIN (1938– ); DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000); FOSS, LUKAS (1922–2009); GLOBOKAR, VINKO (1934– ); THE HUB; JENKINS, LEROY (1932–2007); LAUTEN, ELODIE (1950–2014); RZEWSKI, FREDERIC (1938– ); SCRATCH ORCHESTRA; SOUND SCULPTURE; SURREALISM; TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ); TEXT-SOUND MUSIC; WOLFF, CHRISTIAN (1934– ). FREE JAZZ. Modernist approaches to harmony, rhythm, and tonal ambiguity were emerging in jazz by the mid-20th century, with such 1947 works as Duke Ellington’s “The Clothed Woman” and Robert F. Graettinger’s Thermopylae. More aggressive treatments of atonality, dissonance, polytonality, and polyrhythm were heard in the 1950s, with the first recordings of Cecil Taylor and Ornette Coleman. This sensibility in creative African American music became widely known as free jazz after Coleman’s groundbreaking 1960 album of the same name, with its free group improvisation. Sun Ra embraced electronic music and noise in his performances, keyboard and Arkestral. The Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians, a composer/musician collective founded in Chicago in 1965, pursued these innovations and provided opportunities for such artists as Muhal Richard Abrams, Anthony Braxton, Leroy Jenkins, Roscoe Mitchell, and George Lewis. See also BUDD, HAROLD (1936– ); EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; FREE IMPROVISATION; LÉANDRE, JOËLLE (1951– ); ONCE GROUP; PLEROMA; STRING PIANO; SYNTHESIZER; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. FREE RHYTHM. The term free rhythm was used by composer Alan Hovhaness to describe an open-form technique he developed in his 1944 score Lousadzak for piano and string orchestra. Hovhaness wrote passages of repeated patterns for strings, assigning pitches and rhythms but having each musician play at his or her own tempo, independent of the others. Free rhythm introduced a chance element that enabled Hovhaness to create gusts and clouds of sound in numerous compositions, including such major works as Symphony No. 6, “Celestial Gate” (1959), and Symphony No. 19, “Vishnu” (1966). See also ALEATORY; MODERNISM; PLEROMA. FRITH, FRED (1949– ). English composer, musician, and educator. Jeremy Webster Frith, known since childhood as Fred, came from a musical family and was taking violin lessons at age five. Devoted to the guitar by his teens,

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Frith founded the radical rock-band collective Henry Cow with Tim Hodgkinson in 1968, when both were at Cambridge University. The band’s impressive series of recordings started with Leg End (1973) and Unrest (1974). The group compositions and free improvisations of Henry Cow were an essential education for Frith, and after the band’s dissolution in 1978, he performed with and composed songs and instrumentals for the band Art Bears: Hopes & Fears (1979), Winter Songs (1980), and The World as It Is Today (1981). These recordings brought new melodic possibilities to Frith’s unusual meters and polyrhythms and enlivened his multicultural interests, which became more vivid and distinctive in Frith’s three classic solo albums: Gravity (1980), Speechless (1981), and Cheap at Half the Price (1983). As an improvising guitarist, Frith had been employing extended performance techniques since the early 1970s, extracting an incredible range of sound for his album Guitar Solos (1974). By the early 1980s, he was performing with the electric guitar flat on a table, so he could play its strings with a violin bow or coiled springs or drumsticks or scarves or chains— techniques documented in his double album Live in Japan (1984). Frith also built homemade instruments: slabs of wood with a pick-up, bridge, and wire strings stretched on metal screws, which were essentially electric guitars although his techniques with them came closer to those of a percussionist than a guitarist. The 1980s also saw performances by Frith’s bands Massacre and the two-person Skeleton Crew with Tom Cora. He has offered his own take on ambient music in the band Death Ambient with Ikue Mori (drum machine) and Kato Hideki (bass). Frith has performed internationally for decades, from solos to large groups such as Derek Bailey’s Company and Eugene Chadbourne’s 2000 Statues. Among the composer/musicians he has played with are John Zorn, The Residents, Brian Eno, Anthony Braxton, Susie Ibarra, George Lewis, Bob Ostertag, Joëlle Léandre, Richard Teitelbaum, Roscoe Mitchell, Sylvie Courvoisier, John Oswald, Annie Gosfield, Gordon Mumma, Anne LeBaron, and Pauline Oliveros. After creating the dance scores Jigsaw (1986) and The Technology of Tears (1987), Frith began composing pieces for the Rova Saxophone Quartet in 1987, such as Song & Dance. Scores for other performers followed, including The As Usual Dance towards the Other Flight to What Is Not (1989) for four electric guitars; Lelikovice (1991) for string quartet; Pacifica (1994) for voice and chamber orchestra; the graphic scores Stone, Brick, Glass, Wood, Wire (1985–1995) for any number of players; and the spatial work Impur (1996) for 100 musicians. His film music includes The Top of His Head (1989), Before Sunrise (1995), Rage (2009), and two documentaries about artist Andy Goldsworthy, Rivers and Tides (2001) and Leaning into the Wind (2017). Since 1999, Frith has taught at Mills College; among his notable recent compositions are Landing (2001) for choir, Flamenco singer, cello, saxophone, and samples; The Right Angel (2003) for electric guitar

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and orchestra; Episodes (2007, rev. 2015) for baroque ensemble; What Happens (2015) for percussion quartet and prepared piano; and Coulda Woulda Shoulda (2016) for solo viola. Frith’s recent recordings include the sologuitar albums Clearing (2001) and To Sail, to Sail (2008); the songs of Prints (2002); the chamber-music collections Eleventh Hour (2005) and Back to Life (2008); and the dance pieces of the 2015 albums Field Days and Propaganda. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; INDETERMINACY; POSTMODERNISM. FULLMAN, ELLEN (1957– ). American composer and musician. In 1981, Ellen Fullman began to develop her Long String Instrument as a sound installation using dozens of wires, 50 or more feet long, tuned in just intonation and played with rosin-coated fingers. She has toured internationally performing on the Long String Instrument, for which she has also created her own notation. Fullman’s recordings include Suspended Music (1997) with Pauline Oliveros and the Deep Listening Band, Staggered Stasis (2004), Change of Direction (2009), and Through Glass Panes (2011). See also INSTRUMENT BUILDING; POSTMODERNISM. FURE, ASHLEY (1982– ). American composer and educator. Ashley Fure studied composition at the Oberlin Conservatory and Harvard University; she also studied privately with Harrison Birtwistle, Brian Ferneyhough, and Helmut Lachenmann, among others. Fure has taught at Dartmouth College since 2015. She has combined electronics with soloists (soprano in Steamed, 2005; cello in Wire & Wool, 2009), large ensembles (Blush, 2007; Albatross, 2014), and orchestra (Bound to the Bow, 2016). Her instrumental music includes Drips of Hiss (2006) for string quartet, Cyan (2009) for orchestra, Soma (2012) for sextet, and Feed Forward (2015) for large ensemble. Fure is also admired for such sound installations as Tripwire (2011) and Veer (2012). Her multimedia opera The Force of Things: An Opera for Objects (2017) is an immersive theater work from which she derived the 2016 electroacoustic vocal pieces Etudes from the Anthropocene and Shiver Lung. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. FUTURISM. This modernist aesthetic movement began in Italy in the late 1900s, its first manifesto appearing from poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in 1909. Inspired by machinery and mechanical processes, futurism sought to express a greater dynamic energy and was taken up in painting by Umberto Boccioni (1882–1916) and Luigi Russolo (1885–1947), among others; they wrote their own manifesto the following year and soon found advocates in architecture and cinema. In 1912, Francesco Balilla Pratella (1880–1955)

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published his Manifesto of Futurist Musicians, calling for an end to conservatories, music critics, and competitions, and demanding a music freed of all past influences. After Pratella premiered his Musica Futurista for orchestra in 1913, Russolo responded by writing Pratella a letter that outlined his own vision of bruitismo, a new music made from noise. Published that year as the manifesto L’arte dei rumori (The Art of Noises), it extolled noise and machinery, rejected the use of traditional instruments, and urged the development of new instruments to play sounds from what Russolo defined as the six types or families of noises: bangs, hisses, murmurs, sounds produced by friction, sounds produced by striking, and human and animal cries. With the artist Ugo Piatti, Russolo designed and built his intonarumori (noise-intoners): wooden boxes with megaphones, containing electro-mechanical machinery for producing a type of sound. His keyboard instrument the rumorarmonio also produced microtonal tunings. Russolo invented graphic notation for Risveglio di una città (1914), a score for eight different types of noise-making machines; some of these intonarumori were also used by Pratella in his opera L’aviatore Dro (1914). Russolo performed his music in Italy and England, attracting the interest of Igor Stravinsky, Sergey Prokofiev, and Maurice Ravel, and persuading Erik Satie to incorporate mechanical sounds in Parade (1916). Edgard Varèse, despite his friendship with Russolo, rejected futurism in a 1917 article. He regarded its music as a mere replication of the superficial abrasiveness of everyday sounds and advocated new instruments of greater timbral and rhythmic sophistication. In the United States, Henry Cowell experimented with futurist ideas in his piano scores Resumé (1914) and Dynamic Motion (1916); he was also very interested in the piano music of Leo Ornstein, which the press had labeled futurist. But in the 1920s, Cowell’s music developed along multiple lines while Ornstein’s became more conservative. Arthur Lourié signed the 1914 Russian futurist manifesto “We and the West,” and futurist qualities informed his work as well as music by Alexander Mosolov and other Russian composers—who would be condemned as formalists and officially silenced by Soviet antimodernism. Western interest in futurist music faded by the 1930s, due at least in part to the objections that Varèse had raised. In their later years, Russolo retired from music and Pratella turned away from futurism. Postmodern composers who used Russolo’s intonarumori include Sylvano Bussotti, Joan La Barbara, and Pauline Oliveros. See also BRAND, MAX (1896–1980); HENRY, PIERRE (1927–2017); INSTRUMENT BUILDING.

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G GABURO, KENNETH (1926–1993). American composer, musician, and educator. Kenneth Gaburo played jazz piano and studied at the Eastman School of Music, with Goffredo Petrassi at the Accademia di Santa Cecilia in Rome, and at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; he later taught there and at the University of California at San Diego, among other institutions, and his students include James Tenney, Paul Paccione, Peter Gordon, and Ned Sublette. Gaburo’s early music, such as Line Studies (1957) for flute, clarinet, viola, and trombone, used twelve-tone methods. But his study of linguistics led him to develop what he termed compositional linguistics, employing the components of language as musical elements. This approach is reflected in such text-sound vocal works as Psalm (1965) for mixed chorus, Never 1 (1967) for four groups of male voices, Maledetto (1968) for seven virtuoso speakers, and the minimalist The Flow of (u) (1974) for three voices; it also informs his multimedia pieces In the Can (1970), My, My, What a Wonderful Fall (1975), and Ringings (1976). Gaburo’s 10 Antiphony scores (1958–1991) combine voices and/or instruments with tape. He built a monochord to provide sounds for his tape music tribute to Harry Partch, For Harry (1966); he also directed a German production of Partch’s The Bewitched in 1980. Gaburo’s other notable tape pieces from 1964–1965 also employ electrically synthesized sound: Lemon Drops, Fat Millie’s Lament, The Wasting of Lucrecetzia, and Dante’s Joynte. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; POSTMODERNISM; SYNTHESIZER. GALÁS, DIAMANDA (1955– ). American composer and musician. Pianist and vocalist Diamanda Galás studied at the University of California at San Diego. Her singing employs extended vocal techniques and has drawn upon opera, expressionism, her Greek heritage, jazz, blues, and gospel. Galás achieved international renown with such electroacoustic vocal pieces as Wild Women with Steak Knives (1981), Tragouthia Apo to Aima Exoun Fonos (1981), and Panoptikon (1983). Her rage and grief at the HIV/AIDS pandemic define her trilogy Masque of the Red Death (1988) and the live 141

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recordings Plague Mass (1991) and Vena Cava (1993). Galás’s notable later releases include Schrei X (1996), Malediction and Prayer (1998), Defixiones, Will and Testament (2003), and the covers of La Serpenta Canta (2003), Guilty Guilty Guilty (2008), and All the Way (2017). See also EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM; SYNTHESIZER. GANN, KYLE (1955– ). American composer, musician, educator, and critic. Kyle Gann studied composition with Morton Feldman and Ben Johnston; he has taught at Columbia University, Brooklyn College, Bucknell University, and Bard College. Gann has composed such just-intonation works as Ghost Town (1994) for synthesizer and computer tape; the quintet The Day Revisited (2005); and the 17 pieces of Hyperchromatica (2015–2017) for three retuned, computer-run pianos. Composer of the score for John Sanborn’s video The Planets (2011), Gann also wrote music criticism for the Village Voice (1986–2005), collected in Music Downtown (2006), and is the author of The Music of Conlon Nancarrow (1995), American Music in the Twentieth Century (1997), No Such Thing as Silence: John Cage’s 4'33" (2010), Robert Ashley (2012), and Charles Ives’s Concord: Essays after a Sonata (2017). See also ALTERNATE TUNING SYSTEMS; ASHLEY, ROBERT (1930–2014); CAGE, JOHN (1912–1992); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; FILM MUSIC; IVES, CHARLES (1874–1954); MICROTONALITY; NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997); POSTMODERNISM. GARLAND, PETER (1952– ). American composer, musician, and critic. Peter Garland studied with James Tenney and Harold Budd at the California Institute of the Arts. As editor and publisher of Soundings Press (1971–1991), he released editions of Soundings on such composers as Tenney, Lou Harrison, and Conlon Nancarrow, as well as collections of his own essays, Americas (1982) and In Search of Silvestre Revueltas (1991). A melodic postmodern composer, Garland’s music is mostly multicultural, with minimalist qualities shaping pop, Native American, Latin American, and Asian music: Three Songs of Mad Coyote (1973) for percussion ensemble; Dreaming of Immortality in a Thatched Cottage (1977) for three voices, harpsichord, and six percussionists; Matachin Dances (1980) for two violins and gourd rattles; The Roque Dalton Songs (1988) for tenor and chamber ensemble; Love Songs (1994) for violin, piano, marimbula, and maracas; and the piano scores After the Wars (2008) and The Birthday Party (2014). See also THE BEATLES; CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); REVUELTAS, SILVESTRE (1899–1940); TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ).

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GEBRAUCHSMUSIK. Originating in Germany during the early 1920s, the term Gebrauchsmusik can be translated as “music for use,” “utilitarian music,” “workaday music,” and “music for everyday life.” Gebrauchsmusik renounced art for art’s sake and embraced a socially conscious intention to compose music that is readily available—attractive, interesting, even performable—for all people, not just musicians. A key figure in its dissemination was Paul Hindemith whose numerous Gebrauchsmusiken scores include Schulwerk für Instrumental-Zusammenspiel (1927) and Sing- und Spielmusik (1928). Other German composers of the era, such as Hanns Eisler, Kurt Weill, and Stefan Wolpe, had also written aggressively modernist music in their early works and then reconsidered their relationship to society and set out to produce music for everyone. Many modernist composers contributed individual Gebrauchsmusik scores, appreciating its values and intrigued by the challenge of achieving simplicity despite having been trained to prize complexity. Writing music to be performed by children, as in Hindemith’s Wir bauen eine Stadt (1930) or the educational works of Zoltán Kodály and Carl Orff, is a quintessential Gebrauchsmusik approach. Others who produced such scores include Aaron Copland (The Second Hurricane, 1936), Béla Bartók (Mikrokosmos, 1939), Karel Husa (Musique d’amateurs, 1953), and Benjamin Britten (Noye’s Fludde, 1958). Later examples include scores for young musicians by Harry Somers and Peter Maxwell Davies, as well as Morton Subotnick’s musicmaking website for children, www.creatingmusic.com. Beyond pedagogical concerns, however, the composition of Gebrauchsmusik came to be regarded as old hat by the 1950s, with the ascendancy of serialism, indeterminacy, and electronic music. Nevertheless, this approach speaks to a perennial concern for many creative artists in balancing aesthetic and social considerations. Certain postmodern works, despite their intellectual aspects, can thus be regarded as having Gebrauchsmusik qualities, as with many pieces by the Fluxus composers, which were activities for nonmusicians; the performances of the Scratch Orchestra or the Portsmouth Sinfonia; or the game pieces of John Zorn. Other examples include such scores as R. Murray Schafer’s Statement in Blue (1964), Christian Wolff’s Prose Collection (1968–1971), Cornelius Cardew’s The Great Learning (1968–1971), Howard Skempton’s Drum No. 1 (1969), and Pauline Oliveros’s Sonic Meditations I–XII (1971) and XIII–XXV (1973). See also EXPRESSIONISM. GERHARD, ROBERTO (1896–1970). Spanish-born English composer, musician, and educator. The son of a Swiss-German father and French mother, Roberto Gerhard was a Swiss citizen from birth. In Barcelona, he studied piano with Enrique Granados and composition with Felipe Pedrell; in the 1920s, he studied with Arnold Schoenberg in Vienna and Berlin, and Gerh-

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ard’s Concertino for Strings (1927) and Wind Quintet (1928) employed the twelve-tone method. Returning to Barcelona, he taught at the Ecola Normal de la Generalitat and composed such works as the cantata L’alta naixenca del rei en Jaume (1932) and the ballet score Ariel (1934), but in 1939, Gerhard fled the civil war in Spain and settled in England, becoming a British citizen in 1960. In England, he drew upon Spanish folk music in his symphony “Homenaje a Pedrell” (1941), the ballet score Don Quixote (1941, rev. 1949), and the comic opera The Duenna (1949). The Duenna also used twelve-tone techniques, and that method characterized later modernist scores of Gerhard’s, including Symphonies Nos. 1 (1951) and 2 (1959, rev. 1968 as Metamorphosis) and the Albert Camus adaptation The Plague (1964), a cantata for narrator, mixed chorus, and orchestra. Gerhard was a leader in English tape music with such works as Audiomobiles I–IV (1958–1959), and he featured tape in Symphony No. 3, “Collages” (1960). Among Gerhard’s other notable works are his Violin Concerto (1945), String Quartets Nos. 1 (1955) and 2 (1962), Chaconne for Solo Violin (1959), Concerto for Orchestra (1965), Epithalamion (1966) for orchestra, and Symphony No. 4, “New York” (1967). He also composed for films in England and taught at the University of Michigan, Tanglewood, and other institutions; Gerhard’s students include George Cacioppo, Robert Ashley, Donald Scavarda, and Roger Reynolds. See also ATONALITY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC. GERSHWIN, GEORGE (1898–1937). American composer and musician. George Gershwin studied piano with Charles Hambitzer and composition with Rubin Goldmark, Joseph Schillinger, Henry Cowell, and Wallingford Riegger. His music ran along two parallel tracks. As a songwriter and composer of musicals, Gershwin’s success was meteoric. His lively rhythms and imaginative melodies established him as a master with such shows as La! La! Lucille (1919), Lady, Be Good! (1924), Oh, Kay! (1926), Girl Crazy (1927), Strike Up the Band (1930), Of Thee I Sing (1931), and Let Them Eat Cake (1933); he also wrote songs for the films Delicious (1931) and A Damsel in Distress (1937). Gershwin composed concert music as well, starting with his String Quartet (1919) and the one-act opera Blue Monday (1923, aka 135th Street). His success in the concert hall soon rivaled that of his Broadway hits, with the classic Rhapsody in Blue (1924) for solo piano or piano and orchestra. The work showcased Gershwin’s virtuoso technique and brought an exciting jazz sensibility to new audiences. Other successful pieces followed: Concerto in F (1925) for piano and orchestra, Three Preludes (1926) for piano, An American in Paris (1928) for orchestra. In 1932, Gershwin arranged 18 of his songs for solo piano in George Gershwin’s Song Book and composed a rumba for orchestra, Cuban Overture, featuring Latin percussion. The opera Porgy and Bess (1935), one

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of his greatest works, drew on blues and jazz to depict the lives of poor African Americans. Coolly received at first, Porgy and Bess went on to international acclaim. Gershwin was at the height of his powers when he died from a brain tumor at age 38 in Hollywood. See also BOLCOM, WILLIAM (1938– ); COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); MODERNISM; MULTICULTURALISM; THE RESIDENTS. GIDEON, MIRIAM (1906–1996). American composer, musician, and educator. Miriam Gideon’s teachers included Lazare Saminsky, Hans Barth, Marion Bauer, and Roger Sessions. A pianist and organist, she attended Boston University and Columbia University and taught at the Manhattan School of Music (1967–1991), Brooklyn College, and other institutions. Gideon blended tonal and expressionist techniques, composing dissonant and freely atonal music: The Hound of Heaven (1945) for medium voice, oboe, and string trio; String Quartet (1946); Symfonia Brevis (1953); Mixco (1957) for voice and piano; Of Shadows Numberless (1966) for piano; Rhymes from the Hill (1968) for mezzo-soprano, clarinet, marimba, and cello; Nocturnes (1975) for soprano, flute, violin, cello, oboe, and vibraphone; Wing’d Hour (1983) for tenor and orchestra. Her multicultural scores include Fantasy on a Javanese Motive (1948) for cello and piano, the chamber opera Fortunato (1956), and the quartet Fantasy on Irish Folk Motives (1975). Among her Jewish-themed works are Sacred Service for Sabbath Morning (1970) for tenor, baritone, mixed chorus, organ, and six instruments and Shirat Miriam L’Shabbat (1974) for cantor/tenor, mixed chorus, and organ. See also MODERNISM. GINASTERA, ALBERTO (1916–1983). Argentine composer, musician, and educator. Alberto Ginastera studied piano and composition at the Conservatorio Nacional in Buenos Aires; he also studied with Aaron Copland at Tanglewood. Ginastera taught at several institutions; in 1948, he founded the Conservatorio de Musicá y Arte Escenico in Buenos Aires. Among his early nationalist works are Impresiones de la Puna (1934) for flute and string quartet; the ballet scores Panambí (1937) and Estancia (1941); and Pampeana No. 3 (1954) for orchestra. He also scored numerous films in Argentina. Ginastera moved away from folkloristic materials with Piano Sonata No. 1 (1952), using polytonal and serial procedures. Aleatoric and microtonal passages inform the opera Don Rodrigo (1964) and Cantata Bomarzo (1964) for narrator, baritone, and orchestra. His other notable modernist works include Variaciones concertantes (1953) for chamber orchestra; Cantata para América Mágica (1960) for dramatic soprano and percussion orchestra; Piano Concerto No. 1 (1961); the operas Bomarzo (1967) and Beatrix Cenci

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(1971); and Popul Vuh (1983) for orchestra. In 1971, Ginastera left Argentina’s military regime and settled in Switzerland where he spent the rest of his life. See also TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. GLANVILLE-HICKS, PEGGY (1912–1990). Australian-born American composer, musician, and critic. Peggy Glanville-Hicks studied composition with Fritz Hart at Melbourne’s Albert Street Conservatorium; at the Royal College of Music in London, she studied composition with Ralph Vaughan Williams, conducting with Malcolm Sargent, and piano with Arthur Benjamin. She also studied composition with Egon Wellesz in Vienna and Nadia Boulanger in Paris. Glanville-Hicks settled in the United States in 1941, became a U.S. citizen in 1948, and wrote criticism for the New York Herald Tribune (1948–1958). Her early works, such as Choral Suite (1937) for female voices, oboe, and string orchestra and the quartet Concertino da Camera (1946), had neoclassical qualities, and her major scores were multicultural: Sonata for Harp (1950), Letters from Morocco (1952) for tenor and chamber orchestra, Etruscan Concerto (1954) for piano and chamber orchestra, Pre-Columbian Prelude and Presto for Ancient American Instruments (1957), and the operas The Transposed Heads (1953), Nausicaa (1960), and Sappho (1963). Glanville-Hicks relocated to Greece in 1959 and, in 1966, underwent brain surgery in New York; she survived but lost her ability to compose, and in 1976 she returned to Australia. See also MODERNISM. GLASS, PHILIP (1937– ). American composer and musician. Philip Glass studied at Juilliard with Vincent Persichetti and William Bergsma and privately with Darius Milhaud, Nadia Boulanger, and Indian drummer Allah Rakha. His early music was modernist and often employed twelve-tone techniques. When Indian sitar player Ravi Shankar scored the film Chappaqua (1966), Glass worked on the music’s notation, arrangement, and performance. The additive rhythmic structures of Indian music led him to a minimalist composition based on repeated patterns with restrictive pitch relations, invariably with a constant pulse and a static dynamic range. 600 Lines (1967) was composed for an ensemble of two electric organs, woodwinds and voice, and this arrangement became the basis of his own sound with such breakthrough works as Music in Fifths (1969), Music with Changing Parts (1970), the four-hour Music in Twelve Parts (1974), and Dance Nos. 1–5 (1979). With the epochal Einstein on the Beach (1975), a nonnarrative opera created with director Robert Wilson, Glass’s reputation was secured. Glass has toured internationally, performing as soloist on piano or organ and playing electric organ with his ensemble. A prolific composer, he has written more than 20 operas, including Satyagraha (1979), Akhnaten (1983), The Making of the Representative of Planet 8 (1986), Hydrogen Jukebox

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(1990), The Voyage (1992), a trilogy adapting Jean Cocteau (Orphée, 1993; La belle et la bête, 1994; Les enfants terribles, 1996), Waiting for the Barbarians (2005), and The Perfect American (2013). He also composed chamber operas adapting Franz Kafka (In the Penal Colony, 2000; The Trial, 2014); reunited with Wilson for the CIVIL warS—Rome (1983) and the CIVIL warS—Cologne (1984); and collaborated with composer Robert Moran on The Juniper Tree (1984). Glass has scored numerous films, including Mishima (1984), Bent (1997), Kundun (1997), and Godfrey Reggio’s trilogy Koyaanisqatsi (1982), Powaqqatsi (1988), and Naqoyqatsi (2002); he also created a score for Tod Browning’s Dracula (1931). His other works include String Quartets Nos. 1–8 (1966–2018); Violin Concertos Nos. 1 (1987) and 2 (2009); Piano Concertos Nos. 1 (2000), 2 (2004), and 3 (2017); Cello Concertos Nos. 1 (2001) and 2 (2012); and Symphonies Nos. 1–11 (1992–2017). Glass is also the author of Music by Philip Glass (1987) and Words without Music (2016). See also ASHLEY, ROBERT (1930–2014); BRANCA, GLENN (1948–2018); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; KRONOS QUARTET; LA BARBARA, JOAN (1947– ); MOONDOG (1916–1999); MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM; ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). GLOBOKAR, VINKO (1934– ). French-born Slovene composer, musician, and educator. Vinko Globokar studied trombone at the Conservatoire National Supérieur de Paris and composition with René Leibowitz and Luciano Berio. He taught trombone and composition in Cologne and cofounded the free improvisation quartet New Phonic Art in 1969. Globokar has premiered trombone works by Leibowitz, Berio, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Henri Pousseur, Toru Takemitsu, and Mauricio Kagel, and he has conducted orchestras internationally. Extended performance techniques and improvisation characterize his trombone playing as well as such compositions as Discours II (1968) for five trombones and Ausstrahlungen (1971) for oboe and chamber ensemble. Globokar has explored the relationship between instruments and voice in Voie (1966) for narrator, three choruses, and orchestra; Concerto Grosso (1975) for five instruments, chorus, and orchestra; the multimedia Introspection d’un tubiste (1983) for tuba, electronics, and tape; and the opera L’armonia drammatica (1990). Among his recent works are the theatrical Kaktus unter Strom (1999) for oboe, horn, bass, live electronics, and tape; Les chemins de la liberté (2004) for orchestra without conductor; Damdaj (2009) for nine improvising musicians; and Radiographie d’un roman (2010) for seven vocal soloists, accordion, percussion, mixed chorus, 30 instrumentalists, and live electronics. See also CHANCE MUSIC; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; UITTI, FRANCESMARIE (1946– ).

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GOEHR, ALEXANDER (1932– ). German-born English composer and educator. Alexander Goehr studied at the Royal Manchester College of Music with Richard Hall (1952–1955). Fellow students Harrison Birtwistle, Peter Maxwell Davies, and Goehr shared an interest in serialism and atonal modernism, which led to their being known as the “Manchester School.” Goehr also studied with Olivier Messiaen in Paris and taught at Leeds University, Yale University, and at Cambridge; his students include Daria Semegen. His Piano Sonata (1952) and The Deluge (1958) for two voices and octet were strict in the use of serial techniques, but Goehr later turned to juxtaposing serial, tonal, and modal techniques in Symphonies Nos. 1–4 (1963–1987); the operas Arden Must Die (1966), Behold the Sun (1984), and Arianna (1995); Piano Concerto (1972); String Quartet No. 3 (1976); the cantata The Death of Moses (1992); Marching to Carcassonne (2002) for piano and chamber orchestra; Broken Lute (2006) for solo violin; and When Adam Fell (2011) for orchestra. His film music includes the miniseries Die Bertinis (1988). See also TAN DUN (1957– ); TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Malcolm Goldstein studied with Otto Luening at Columbia University and studied violin with Antonio Miranda. He has taught at Dartmouth College, the New School, the New England Conservatory of Music, and other institutions. With Philip Corner and James Tenney, he cofounded the Tone Roads Chamber Ensemble (1963–1970). Goldstein has performed internationally as an improvising violinist; among his notable recordings are Soundings (1980), Vision Soundings (1985), Live at Fire in the Valley (1997), and Full Circle Sounding (2015). He has also recorded works by Tenney, Corner, John Cage, Christian Wolff, Pauline Oliveros, and Ornette Coleman. Goldstein has composed structured improvisations for large ensembles, such as A Breaking of Vessels, Becoming Song (1981); The Seasons: Vermont (1982), which includes tape; Configurations in Darkness (1995), based on folk song transcriptions by Béla Bartók; and the spatial piece In Search of Tone Roads No. 2 (2013). For his environmental sound piece Résonances de la fontaine (2012), Goldstein and other musicians recorded their surroundings. His electronic music includes It Seemed to Me (1963) and Sheep Meadow (1966). The author of Sounding the Full Circle: Concerning Music Improvisation and Other Related Matters (1988), Goldstein has also edited scores of Charles Ives and composed music for films by Daïchi Saïto. See also CHANCE MUSIC; CURRAN, ALVIN (1938– ); ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; POSTMODERNISM.

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GORDON, MICHAEL (1956– ). American composer and musician. Michael Gordon studied with Martin Bresnick at the Yale School of Music. He cofounded the music collective Bang on a Can in 1987 with his wife Julia Wolfe and David Lang; the three also cocomposed the operas The Carbon Copy Building (1995), Lost Objects (2001), Shelter (2005), and Water (2008). Gordon’s postmodern music has drawn on minimalism and rock; among his multimedia works with video are Van Gogh Video Opera (1991) and Weather (1997) for string orchestra. Other scores range from chamber pieces (Thou Shalt!/Thou Shalt Not!, 1983; I Buried Paul, 1996) to large ensemble works (Yo Shakespeare, 1992; Trance, 1995). He formed the Michael Gordon Philharmonic in 1983, renamed the Michael Gordon Band in 2000, and collaborated with filmmaker Bill Morrison on Decasia (2001), Gotham (2004), and Dystopia (2008). His notable recent works include Light Is Calling (2004) for amplified violin and audio playback, All Vows (2006, rev. 2014) for solo cello, Amplified (2015) for guitar quartet, and the spatial piece Natural History (2016) for mixed chorus, Native American drum group, and 30 instruments. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FILM MUSIC; MULTICULTURALISM. GORDON, PETER (1951– ). American composer and musician. Saxophonist Peter Gordon studied composition with Kenneth Gaburo and Roger Reynolds at the University of California at San Diego and with Robert Ashley and Terry Riley at Mills College. He formed the Love of Life Orchestra in 1977, playing his own and others’ music. Among Gordon’s tuneful postmodern works are the dance score Secret Pastures (1984), the multimedia piece The Return of the Native (1988), and the operas The Strange Life of Ivan Osokin (1994) and The Society Architect Ponders the Golden Gate Bridge (2000). He has also scored films and performed with such composer/ musicians as Ashley, Laurie Anderson, Rhys Chatham, Julius Eastman, “Blue” Gene Tyranny, Ned Sublette, and Arthur Russell. His albums include Star Jaws (1977), Brooklyn (1987), Leningrad Xpress (1990), Quartet (1995), Love of Life Orchestra (2010), and Symphony 5 (2015). GÓRECKI, HENRYK (1933–2010). Polish composer, musician, and educator. Henryk Górecki studied at the State Higher School of Music in Katowice and later taught there. Eptafium (1958) for mixed chorus and instruments was a spatial score, and the dissonant Symphony No. 1 (1959) and Scontri (1960) for orchestra employed serial techniques; however, Górecki found his own voice drawing on Polish folk, medieval, and Renaissance music in such popular modal scores as Symphony No. 3 (1976) for soprano and orchestra; Lerchenmusik (1986) for clarinet, cello, and piano; Already It Is Dusk (1988) for string quartet; Concerto-Cantata (1992) for flute and orchestra; Lobge-

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sang (2000) for chorus and glockenspiel; and The Song of Rodziny Katynskie (2004) for chorus. His film music includes Wit (2001). See also KRONOS QUARTET; MODERNISM. GOSFIELD, ANNIE (1960– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Annie Gosfield studied composition at the University of Southern California and North Texas State University. Her notable works include the quintet The Manufacture of Tangled Ivory (1994, rev. 1995); Blue Serge (1996) for sampling keyboard; the microtonal Four Roses (1997) for cello and detuned piano; Lightheaded and Heavyhearted (2002) for string quartet; The Harmony of the Body-Machine (2003) for cello and electronics; A Sideways Glance from an Electric Eye (2006) for a virtual version of Leon Theremin’s rhythmicon; Phantom Shakedown (2012) for piano and electronics; and the opera War of the Worlds (2017). Skilled at extended performance techniques, Gosfield has improvised on piano and sampler with John Zorn, Fred Frith, and others. The founder of the Annie Gosfield Ensemble, she has also taught at Mills College and Princeton. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; POSTMODERNISM. GOULD, MORTON (1913–1996). American composer and musician. Morton Gould studied piano with Abby Whiteside and composition with Vincent Jones. A composer for radio and films in the 1940s, Gould also wrote for musical theater (Billion Dollar Baby, 1945; Arms and the Girl, 1950) and concertized as a conductor. A feeling for Americana, pop, and jazz characterizes many of his classical compositions, including the orchestral works Spirituals for Orchestra (1941), American Salute (1943), Fall River Legend (1947), and Tap Dance Concerto (1952); his Jekyll and Hyde Variations (1956) also explores twelve-tone techniques. Gould’s notable later works include American Ballads (1976) for orchestra, Holocaust: Suite (1978) for orchestra, Suite for Cello and Piano (1981), and Stringmusic (1993) for string orchestra. See also MODERNISM. GRAETTINGER, ROBERT F. (1923–1957). American composer and musician. Robert Frederick Graettinger played alto saxophone in bands while in high school and studied composition at the Westlake School of Music in Los Angeles; he also studied with composer/arranger Russell Garcia. In 1941, the teenage Graettinger approached bandleader Stan Kenton with some of his arrangements, and Kenton encouraged him to get more experience playing in bands. Graettinger then performed and arranged for Benny Carter, Vido Musso, Alvino Rey, and Bobby Sherwood; when he returned to Kenton six years later, Kenton started performing his Thermopylae (1947).

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Graettinger had taken the most controversial qualities of Kenton’s music—loudness, dissonance, lack of tunefulness, absence of familiar swing rhythms—and pushed them to new extremes. Encouraged by Kenton, he composed pieces too startling for the band’s conventional sets; instead, they were performed and recorded by Kenton’s “Innovations in Modern Music” orchestra, which included a string section. Graettinger’s notable works for the ensemble include the three-movement City of Glass (1947, rev. 1951), Incident in Jazz (1949), House of Strings (1950), and the six-part suite This Modern World (1953). Graettinger composed in fields or layers of harmony, rhythm, and sonority. He would create his scores on graph paper, reproduce that music in a conventionally notated score, and then tailor the parts to the individual qualities of Kenton’s musicians. The result was a razor-sharp big-band music that sounded more like Edgard Varèse or Henry Cowell than anything heard in the popular music of postwar America. Graettinger pursued more formal modernist composition after the dissolution of the “Innovations” orchestra, but he completed only three movements of his Suite for String Trio and Wind Quartet (1957) before his death from lung cancer at age 33 in Los Angeles. See also ANDRIESSEN, LOUIS (1939– ); FREE JAZZ; GRAPHIC NOTATION; POSTMODERNISM; SCHULLER, GUNTHER (1925–2015). GRAINGER, PERCY (1882–1961). Australian-born American composer, musician, and educator. A piano prodigy, Percy Aldridge Grainger was concertizing at age 12. He studied at Hoch’s Konservatorium in Frankfurt-amMain and relocated to England in 1901. In 1903, he studied with Ferruccio Busoni in Berlin. Along with performing internationally, Grainger also studied and collected folk song in Great Britain; his many arrangements produced his most popular scores, such as Molly on the Shore (1907) and Country Gardens (1918)—although he later dismissed them as uncharacteristic of his work. Since boyhood Grainger believed in a modernist tonal freedom he called Free Music, embracing nonharmonic simultaneities, sliding tones, polyrhythms, and non-pulsed events. By 1899, he was investigating beatless music and unusual meters from the rhythms of speech. Some of these qualities can be heard in Hill Song No. 1 (1902) for 21 winds and The Warriors (1916) for orchestra and three pianos. He anticipated aleatoric procedures in Random Round for voices and instruments (1915) and string piano and tone-clusters in In a Nutshell Suite (1914–1916) for piano. Grainger relocated to the United States in 1914 and became a U.S. citizen in 1918. He taught at Chicago Musical College (1919–1928) and studied the folk music of Denmark, which led to his impressive Danish Folk-Song Suite (1928, rev. 1941) for orchestra. Regarding electronic music as an ideal medium for Free Music, Grainger used graphic notation to compose for

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multiple theremins: Free Music Nos. 1 and 2 (1936) and Beatless Music (1937). Wind and band music was also an important feature of his composition, such as the notable folk-song arrangement Lincolnshire Posy (1937). Devoting more time to Free Music in his last years, Grainger worked with scientist Burnett Cross in the early 1950s. They built the Oscillator-Playing Tone-Tool, which adapted a Morse-code practice oscillator; the Butterfly piano, tuned microtonally in sixth-tones to simulate glissandi; and the ReedBox Tone-Tool, which used harmonium reeds tuned in eighth-tones and could play gliding chords accurately. Eight valve oscillators and amplifiers were used in his Hills and Dales, or Kangaroo Pouch, machine, which was left unfinished at the time of Grainger’s death from cancer in White Plains, New York, at age 78. See also HERRMANN, BERNARD (1911–1975); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; MULTICULTURALISM; PEARS, PETER (SIR) (1910–1986). GRAPHIC NOTATION. The first 20th-century score to dispense with traditional representations of pitch and rhythm and instead use graphics is believed to be Luigi Russolo’s futurist work Risveglio di una città (1914), written for eight different types of noise-making machines. Among American modernist composers, Henry Cowell was once again ahead of the curve when he devised alternative notation systems and other graphics for such pieces as Two Rhythm-Harmony Quartets (1919), Ensemble (1924), The Banshee (1925), and Tiger (1929). Percy Grainger used graphic notation for his 1936 theremin scores Free Music Nos. 1 and 2. An actual tradition of writing scores without standard notation, however, did not arise until the 1950s. The most basic form of graphic notation is a literal graph, typically with the vertical and horizontal axes indicating pitch and time, respectively. Morton Feldman introduced this technique with his series of Projection scores (1950–1951), and it proved useful to other postmodern composers involved with randomness, chance, and indeterminacy, such as John Cage (26'1.1499" for a String Player, 1955) and Earle Brown (Folio series, 1952–1954). Clearly an idea was in the air in the early 1950s. Robert F. Graettinger, whose innovative music was performed by bandleader Stan Kenton, used graph paper to layer harmonies, rhythms, and sonorities, and then translated the result into traditional notation for his scores and parts. Iannis Xenakis did likewise working on the score of Metastasis (1954), in a compositional method that would also be used by György Ligeti. Brown’s graphic score December 1952 from his Folio series is a field of vertical and horizontal lines of varying weights and lengths—his most extreme open-form work, although he still retained the relationship of verticalpitch and horizontal-time from traditional notation. So did most others who utilized graphic notation, such as Krzysztof Penderecki (Polymorphia,

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1961), Roger Reynolds (The Emperor of Ice Cream, 1962, rev. 1974), Robert Moran (Interiors, 1964), and Christian Wolff (Edges, 1968). Graphic notation that dispenses with pitch/time coordinates can require more explanatory comments in the score, but the music—both on the page and in performance—can be inspired: Cage’s Cartridge Music (1960) and Variations II (1961), Sylvano Bussotti’s Siciliano (1962), Toru Takemitsu’s Corona for Pianists (1962), George Cacioppo’s Cassiopeia (1962), Robert Ashley’s in memoriam . . . series (1963), Karlheinz Stockhausen’s Plus-Minus (1963), Cornelius Cardew’s Treatise (1967), Anthony Braxton’s Composition 76 (1977), Pauline Oliveros’s Portraits (1987), Halim El-Dabh’s The Dog Gone Deaf (2006). See also ALEATORY; ANDERSON, BETH (1950– ); BERBERIAN, CATHY (1925–1983); CORNER, PHILIP (1933– ); CRUMB, GEORGE (1929– ); DENISOV, EDISON (1929–1996); DUCKWORTH, WILLIAM (1943–2012); FRITH, FRED (1949– ); HELLERMANN, WILLIAM (1939–2017); HOPE, CAT (1966– ); ICHIYANAGI, TOSHI (1933– ); KAGEL, MAURICIO (1931–2008); KONDO, JO (1947– ); KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); MADERNA, BRUNO (1920–1973); PROPORTIONAL NOTATION; RAUTAVAARA, EINOJUHANI (1928–2016); RZEWSKI, FREDERIC (1938– ); SCAVARDA, DONALD (1928– ); SCHAFER, R. MURRAY (1933– ); SOMERS, HARRY (1925–1999); TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ); YOUNG, LA MONTE (1935– ). GRIFFES, CHARLES T. (1884–1920). American composer, musician, and educator. Charles Tomlinson Griffes studied composition with Philippe Bartholomé Rüfer and Engelbert Humperdinck in Berlin in 1903 and taught at the Hackley School in Tarrytown, New York (1907–1919). He brought an individual and lyrical voice to his impressionist idiom, and he is most admired for the piano works Three Tone-Pictures (1915), Fantasy Pieces (1915), Roman Sketches (1916), and Sonata (1919). Along with performing his piano music, he also gained recognition composing for orchestra: the glittering tone poem The Pleasure-Dome of Kubla Khan (1917), Poem (1918) for flute and orchestra, and The White Peacock (1919), a popular orchestration of one of his Roman Sketches. Griffes’s multicultural music includes the dance score Sho-Jo (1917; orchestrated, 1919) composed for Japanese mime artist Michio Ito; Four Poems of Ancient China and Japan (1917) for medium voice and piano; and Three Javanese Melodies (1919) for high voice and piano, with Javanese texts. He also explored Native American music in Two Sketches for String Quartet Based on Indian Themes (1919). Among his vocal works are Tone Images (1915) for mezzo-soprano and piano, Three Poems (1916) for high

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voice and piano, and Three Poems by Fiona Macleod (1918) for high voice and piano or orchestra. Griffes was 35 years old when he died in New York City of complications from influenza. See also MODERNISM. GRISEY, GÉRARD (1946–1998). French composer, musician, and educator. A virtuoso accordionist as a teenager, Gérard Grisey composed his Passacaille (1966) for accordion as part of his entrance examination into Olivier Messiaen’s composition class at the Paris Conservatoire; Grisey also studied at Darmstadt with Karlheinz Stockhausen, György Ligeti, and Iannis Xenakis. He subsequently taught at both institutions and at the University of California at Berkeley. Grisey’s early modernist compositions include the spatial score Mégalithes (1969) for 15 brass players; other works were serial, but his studies of acoustics led him to spectral music, in which the acoustic properties of a sound (its spectra) are explored, along with the nature of perception. Grisey’s early spectral works include Dérives (1974) for small ensemble and large orchestra and Partiels (1975) for 18 musicians. His spectral music could also be microtonal, and quarter-tones are used in Modulations (1976) for chamber orchestra. Both Partiels and Modulations are included in Grisey’s cycle of six scores from solo to orchestral, Les espaces acoustiques (1985). Grisey and his fellow spectralists Tristan Murail, Roger Tessier, and Michaël Lévinas cofounded the music collective/ensemble L’Itinéraire in 1973, with a special devotion to electroacoustic music. But despite his Jour, contre-jour (1978) for electric organ, 13 musicians, and four-channel tape, Grisey mostly worked with acoustic sound. He came to resist the spectralist label after moving beyond that approach with Talea (1986) for five instruments. His microtonal composition, however, continued with such works as L’icône paradoxale (1994) for two female voices and orchestra divided into two groups; the sextet Vortex Temporum (1996), based on a quotation from Maurice Ravel’s Daphnis et Chloé; and Quatre chants pour franchir le seuil (1998) for soprano and 15 instruments. Grisey died in Paris of a ruptured aneurysm at age 52. See also ALTERNATE TUNING SYSTEMS; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC; VIVIER, CLAUDE (1948–1983). GROUPE DES SIX. Also known as Les Six, the Groupe des Six was declared by critic Henri Collet in a 1920 article about a concert of the previous year, which had included works by Darius Milhaud and Louis Durey (1888–1979). Collet lumped the two together with Francis Poulenc, Arthur Honegger, Germaine Tailleferre (1892–1983), and Georges Auric (1899–1983), seeing in these young modernist composers a new spirit comparable to that of the Russian Five of the 19th century. All six composers had

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in fact turned away from impressionism and were seeking a different path; another common denominator was their enthusiasm for Erik Satie’s use of music-hall tunes, and for Igor Stravinsky’s polytonal and polyrhythymic music. The poet Jean Cocteau was another unifying factor, articulating and promoting their values. Cocteau also supplied the show for Milhaud’s Le boeuf sur la toit (1919) and the libretto for Honegger’s opera Antigone (1927). Poulenc set Cocteau’s poetry in Cocardes (1919), and Auric scored all of Cocteau’s films, from Le sang d’un poète (1930) to Le testament d’Orphée (1960). The six had indeed been friends since the late 1910s, but their music took them in different directions during the 1920s. Milhaud and Honegger were then at their creative peaks and produced some of their greatest works. Their later decades were a period of decline for both, whereas the music of Poulenc, especially for voice, got better and better, in songs of pop-tune wit and charm as well as in profound expressions of faith. Durey did not care for Cocteau, and he was the only one of the six who did not contribute music to the 1921 production of Cocteau’s Les mariés de la Tour Eiffel, which brought an unofficial end to the informal group. Durey’s works include Carillons et neige (1918) for piano four-hands, the opera L’Occasion (1923), and the cantata La longue marche (1949) as well as film scores. Neoclassicism strongly impacted Tailleferre in such works as the dance score Le marchand d’oiseaux (1923), Piano Concerto No. 1 (1923), and Concertino for Harp and Orchestra (1927); among her later works are the comic opera Zoulaina (1931), the dance scores Paris-Magie (1948) and Parisiana (1953), Concerto for Two Guitars and Orchestra (ca. 1964), and numerous film scores. Auric found his greatest success in films, composing well over 100 scores between 1930 and 1970, with such standouts as À nous la liberté (1931), Dead of Night (1945), Moulin Rouge (1952), Roman Holiday (1953), Le salaire de la peur (1953), Lola Montès (1955), and Therese and Isabelle (1968). See also SMIT, LEOPOLD “LEO” (1900–1943). GUBAIDULINA, SOFIA (1931– ). Tartar-born Russian composer and musician. Sofia Gubaidulina studied at the Kazan Conservatory and the Moscow Conservatory; in 1992, she relocated to Germany. A composer of film scores who was an early voice in Soviet electronic music with Vivente–NonVivente (1970), she also improvises on folk instruments with her ensemble Astraea. Quarter-tone tunings were featured in Gubaidulina’s multimedia String Quartet No. 4 (1994), which also employed lighting and a prerecorded quartet; Music for Flute, Strings, and Percussion (1994); and In the Shadow of the Tree (1998) for koto, bass koto, zheng, and orchestra. Religious themes are explored in Offertorium (1980, rev. 1982, 1986) for violin and orchestra; Seven Words (1982) for cello, bayan, and string orchestra; and Johannes Passion (2000) and Johannes Ostern (2001), both for soloists, mixed chorus,

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organ, and orchestra. Gubaidulina’s other major works include Concordanza (1971) for chamber orchestra; Concerto for Bassoon and Low Strings (1975); The Unasked Answer (1988) for three orchestras; Zeitgestalten (1994) for orchestra; Viola Concerto (1996); Feast during a Plague (2005) for orchestra; Glorious Percussion (2008) for five solo percussionists and orchestra; and Pilgrims (2015) for violin, double bass, piano, and two percussionists. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); MODERNISM; MULTICULTURALISM.

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H HÁBA, ALOIS (1893–1973). Czech composer, musician, educator, and theorist. Alois Hába’s studies at the Prague Conservatory were interrupted by World War I; after serving in the Austrian army, he studied composition with Franz Schreker. Hába composed the two-piano Suite in the Quarter-Tone System in 1918; his first published quarter-tone composition was String Quartet No. 2 (1920). He outlined his theories of microtonality in the tract Harmonické základy ctvrttónové soustavy (1922, Harmonic Foundations of the Quarter-Tone System) and the book Neue Harmonielehre (1925). Collaborating with Ivan Wyschnegradsky, he designed a quarter-tone piano; Hába also commissioned a sixth-tone harmonium and quarter-tone trumpets and clarinets. Among Hába’s quarter-tone scores are 10 Piano Fantasies (1923–1926); the opera Matka (1929); two Guitar Suites (1943, 1947); Violin Suite (1962); and String Quartets Nos. 3 (1922), 4 (1922), 6 (1957), 12 (1960), and 14 (1963). He used sixth-tone tunings in Six Pieces (1935) for harmonium or string quartet; Duo (1937) for two violins; Suite (1955) for violin or cello; and String Quartets Nos. 5 (1923), 10 (1952), and 11 (1958). String Quartet No. 16 (1967) is tuned in fifth-tones. Hába taught at the Prague Conservatory (1924–1951); his students include Max Brand. But Hába’s teaching and performance of microtonal music were suppressed during the Nazi occupation and the subsequent years of Soviet control over Czechoslovakia. See also ALTERNATE TUNING SYSTEMS; FORMALISM; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; MODERNISM. HAHN, REYNALDO (1874–1947). Venezuelan-born French composer, musician, and critic. Reynaldo Hahn was a child when his family relocated to Paris; he became a French citizen in 1909. At the Paris Conservatoire, his teachers included Jules Massenet. Hahn was a conductor and a singer and pianist who performed his own songs, which include the cycles 20 mélodies, première recueil (1888–1896), Chansons grises (1891–1892), Études latines (1900), Venezia (1901), Five Little Songs (1915), and 20 mélodies, deuxième recueil (1893–1921). He composed the operas L’île du rêve (1891), La Carmélite (1902), Nausicaa (1916), La Colombe de Bouddha (1921), and the 157

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William Shakespeare adaptation Le marchand de Venise (1935), as well as such popular operettas as Ciboulette (1923) and Mozart (1925), which included quotations from Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Hahn also scored the musical film Sapho (1934). His notable piano music includes Portraits de peintres (1894), Premières valses (1898), Le rossignol éperdu, poèmes (1899–1910), Sonatine (1907), Thème varié sur le nom Haydn (1910), and Deux etudes (1927); also his 1915 works for two pianos, Pur bercer un convalescent and Le ruban dénoué. He composed the ballet scores La fête chez Thérèse (1908) and Le Dieu bleu (1912), as well as other instrumental pieces such as Le bal de Béatrice d’Este (1905) for orchestra, Piano Quintet (1921), Sonata for Violin and Piano (1926), Violin Concerto (1928), and Piano Concerto (1930). He wrote music criticism for La Presse, La Flèche, Femina, Le Figaro, and other journals, and he published the books Du chant (1920), La grande Sarah, souvenirs (1930), and Notes, journal d’un musicien (1933). See also MODERNISM. HANNAN, JOE (1953– ). American composer and musician. Pianist Joe Hannan studied composition with James Tenney and Gordon Mumma at the University of California at Santa Cruz. Frequently combining pop and traditional techniques with a sharp sense of humor, Hannan’s compositions include Elegy/Chaconne (1988) for viola, tenor saxophone, and piano; Variations on a Theme of Bill Conti (1990) for piano; Fly in Milk (1992, aka Villon Songs) for mezzo-soprano, baritone, viola, harp, and tenor saxophone; two short operas on the lives of saints, Christina the Astonishing (1994) and Dwyn: Patron Saint of Lovers and Sick Cattle (1996); and Mihrab (2001) for chamber orchestra (revised for cello, percussion, and piano, 2009). See also POSTMODERNISM. HANSON, HOWARD (1896–1981). American composer, musician, and educator. Howard Hanson studied at Northwestern University and served as director of the Eastman School of Music (1924–1964); his students include Vladimir Ussachevsky, Peter Mennin, Jack Beeson, and Robert Ward. Among his tonal neoromantic compositions are Symphonies Nos. 1–7 (1923–1977), the opera Merry Mount (1934) and its orchestral Suite (1938), Piano Concerto (1948), and scores for chorus and orchestra, including The Lament for Beowulf (1925), The Cherubic Hymn (1949), and Song of Democracy (1957). Active as a conductor, Hanson championed American music; he is the author of Harmonic Materials of Modern Music (1960). See also MODERNISM. HARDIN, LOUIS. See MOONDOG (1916–1999).

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HARRIS, ROY (1898–1979). American composer, musician, and educator. Roy Harris played piano and clarinet and attended the University of California at Berkeley; he studied composition with Arthur Bliss, Arthur Farwell, and Nadia Boulanger. A tuneful composer with an ear for American folk music and polytonal harmonies, Harris composed several notable works: Concerto for Piano, Clarinet, and String Quartet (1926, rev. 1928), Piano Sonata (1928), Symphony 1933, When Johnny Comes Marching Home (1934) for orchestra, Piano Quintet (1936), String Quartet No. 3 (1937), and his greatest success, Symphony No. 3 (1938). Among his important later scores are Violin Concerto (1949), Symphony No. 7 (1952, rev. 1955), and Epilogue to Profiles in Courage—JFK (1964) for orchestra. Harris taught at numerous institutions, including Mills College, Cornell University, Juilliard, and Indiana University; his students include William Schuman and Vincent Persichetti. See also COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); KIRKPATRICK, JOHN (1905–1991); MODERNISM. HARRISON, LOU (1917–2003). American composer, musician, educator, and critic. Lou Harrison took piano and violin lessons as a boy and studied privately with Henry Cowell. He started composing percussion music with France 1917–Spain 1937 (1937, rev. 1968) for string quartet and two percussionists and Fifth Simfony (1939) for percussion quartet. Harrison and John Cage gave percussion-ensemble concerts from 1939 to 1941, premiering Harrison’s scores Canticle No. 1 (1940), Song of Quetzecoatl (1941), and Simfony No. 13 (1941), as well as his collaboration with Cage, Double Music (1941). Harrison studied with Arnold Schoenberg in 1943 and began composing twelve-tone music that year with his Suite for Piano. Relocating to New York, he wrote criticism for the New York Herald Tribune (1944–1947), studied with Virgil Thomson, and composed such important modernist works as First Suite for Strings (1948, rev. 1995), Seven Pastorales (1951) for chamber orchestra, and the opera Rapunzel (1953, rev. 1996). Harrison returned to California in 1954 and settled in Aptos. He began composing the works that would make him a leading figure in postmodern music, with his 1955 scores in just intonation, Strict Songs (rev. 1992) for eight baritones and orchestra and Simfony in Free Style, which used specially constructed plastic flutes along with viols, harps, tack piano, and trombones. In 1961, he attended a conference in Tokyo, his first trip to Asia; others would follow, with Harrison studying the music of different Eastern cultures and reinventing his own composition. Asian music began informing his work with Concerto in Slendro (1961, rev. 1972) for violin, two tack pianos, celesta, and percussion. Pacifika Rondo (1963), Avalokiteshvara (1964), and Music for Violin and Various Instruments, European, Asian, and African (1967, rev. 1969) were multicultural scores that combined Eastern and

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Western instruments. Harrison and his longtime partner William Colvig (1917–2000) constructed their American gamelan, first used in two major pieces: the gay-themed puppet opera Young Caesar (1971) and the Buddhist choral work La Koro Sutro (1972). He also scored the James Broughton films Nuptiae (1971), Devotions (1983, in which Harrison also appears), and Scattered Remains (1988). Harrison studied gamelan with the master Javanese composer and musician Pak Chokro and with Daniel Schmidt and Jody Diamond, gaining expertise in Javanese, Sundanese, Cirebonese, and Balinese gamelan styles. Some of Harrison’s gamelan scores include Western instruments, most notably French horn in Main Bersama-sama (1978), baritone and male chorus in Scenes from Cavafy (1980), violin and cello in Double Concerto (1981), and soprano saxophone in A Cornish Lancaran (1986). He also composed numerous pieces purely in gamelan instrumentation, such as Buburan Robert (1976, rev. 1981), Gending Dennis (1982), Lagu Victoria (1983), and Landrang in Honor of Pak Daliyo (1986). Harrison’s other notable later works include Piano Concerto (1985), a standard opera version of Young Caesar (1988), Fourth Symphony (1990, rev. 1995) and the dance score Rhymes with Silver (1996). The author of Lou Harrison’s Music Primer (1971), he also taught at Black Mountain College, Mills College, and other institutions. Harrison died of a heart attack at age 85 in Lafayette, Indiana, while traveling to Ohio State University for a retrospective of his work. See also BYRON, MICHAEL (1953– ); GARLAND, PETER (1952– ); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; IVES, CHARLES (1874–1954); SURREALISM; TONECLUSTER. HARVEY, JONATHAN (1939–2012). English composer, musician, and educator. Jonathan Harvey studied at St. Johns Cambridge and with Milton Babbitt at Princeton University. He was a cellist in the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra and taught at Southampton University, Sussex University, and Stanford University. Harvey explored spectral music in Mortuos Plango, Vivos Voco (1980) for tape. His computer music includes other tape works (Ritual Melodies, 1990; Mythic Figures, 2001) and such electroacoustic pieces as Madonna of Winter and Spring (1986) for orchestra and synthesizers; Soleil Noir/Chitra (1995) for chamber ensemble; Mothers Don’t Cry (2000) for soloists, female voices, and orchestra; String Quartet No. 4 (2003) with live electronics; Bird Concerto with Pianosong (2001) for piano and chamber orchestra with live electronics, which includes a sampler to bring birdsong into the music; and the opera Wagner Dream (2006). Harvey’s nonelectronic scores include the orchestral works Persephone Dream (1972) and Inner Light 3 (1975); String Quartets Nos. 1–3 (1977–1995); Cello Concerto (1990); Scena (1992) for violin and nine musicians; the operas Passion and Resurrection (1981) and Inquest of Love (1992); Messages (2007) for

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mixed chorus and orchestra; and 80 Breaths for Tokyo (2010) for orchestra. He is the author of The Music of Stockhausen (1975) and the 1999 books In Quest of Spirit and Music and Inspiration. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; STOCKHAUSEN, KARLHEINZ (1928–2007); UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). HAUER, JOSEF MATTHIAS (1883–1959). Austrian composer, musician, and theorist. Instructed in music by his father, Josef Matthius Hauer began composing highly chromatic works with such scores as Apokalyptische Phantasie (1913) for chamber orchestra. He developed his own approach to atonality and twelve-tone organization in Nomos (1919) for piano. In the 1920s, Hauer began working with the 44 pairs of complementary hexachords, which he termed tropes. Hauer detailed his ideas in the books Vom Wesen des Musikalischen (1920), Deutung des Melos (1923), Vom Melos zur Pauke (1925), and Zwölftontechnik (1926). His other compositions include Hölderlin Lieder (1922) for voice and piano, Violin Concerto (1928), the cantata Der Menschen Weg (1934), and Zwölftönespiel I (1940) for orchestra. See also MODERNISM. HELLERMANN, WILLIAM (1939–2017). American composer, musician, and educator. William Hellermann studied at Columbia University with Chou Wen-chung, Otto Luening, and Vladimir Ussachevsky; he also studied privately with Stefan Wolpe. Hellermann taught at Columbia University and other institutions. At the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, he created tape music (Ariel, 1967; Ek-Stasis I, 1968) and electroacoustic works (Ek-Stasis II for timpani, amplified piano, and tape, 1970; Passages 13—the Fire for trumpet and tape, 1971). He composed indeterminate scores such as Round and About (1970) for any two or more instruments and At Sea (1976) for piano, and he took a witty approach to graphic notation with To Brush Up On (1976) and his other Visible Music pieces. Hellermann coined the term Sound Art for his sound sculptures, such as Drip (1977) and Morning Music (Staff of Life) (1981); he also created multimedia works (Part Sequences I for an Open Space for four musicians, four actors, four dancers, and four sets, 1972; A Change of Key for synthesizer, tape, slides, and sculpture, 1984). He explored extended performance techniques in demanding minimalist scores for solo instruments: Tremble (1978) for guitar, Three Weeks in Cincinnati in December (1979) for flute, Tremble II (1981) for double-bass, and The Violin between Us (1981) for violin. His music theater includes adaptations of Edgar Allan Poe (Extraordinary Histories, 1982) and Gertrude Stein (Three Sisters Who Are Not Sisters, 1984; Blood on the Dining Room Floor, 1991). A classical guitarist, Heller-

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mann cofounded the DownTown Ensemble in 1983, for which he composed the trio Ancient Virtues (Part II) (1987) and the quintet Post/Pone (1990), among other scores. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. HELPS, ROBERT (1928–2001). American composer, musician, and educator. Robert Helps studied piano with Abby Whiteside and composition with Roger Sessions. Striking his own balance between atonal expressionism and a neoromantic lyricism, Helps won acclaim for his Symphony No. 1 (1955); among his later orchestral works are Cortège (1960), Piano Concertos Nos. 1 (1969) and 2 (1973), and Symphony No. 2 (1999). A concert pianist who championed contemporary music, Helps is especially admired for his piano scores, which include Fantasy (1952), Three Etudes (1956), Recollections (1959), Quartet (1971), Trois hommages (1972), Music for Left Hand (1975), Shall We Dance (1994) and Two Postcards (2000). His other notable modernist works include Piano Trios Nos. 1 (1957) and 2 (1996), Nocturne (1960) for string quartet, Gossamer Noons (1974) for soprano and orchestra, and Piano Quartet (1998). Helps taught at Princeton University (1972–1978), the University of South Florida in Tampa (1980–2001), and other institutions; his students include David Del Tredici and Christopher Berg. HENRY, PIERRE (1927–2017). French composer and musician. Pierre Henry studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Olivier Messiaen, Nadia Boulanger, and percussionist Félix Passeronne. Drawn to Pierre Schaeffer’s musique concrète, Henry gained access to the equipment at the Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française radio network and collaborated with Schaeffer to create the landmark Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950). In 1951, they established the first tape-music studio, Groupe de recherches de musique concrète. Along with his solo pieces Concerto des ambiguïtés (1950) and Voile d’Orphée (1953), Henry pursued other collaborations with Schaeffer, including the electroacoustic opera Orphée 53 (1953) for tape, harpsichord, and female voice. Henry left the Groupe in 1958 and established the Apsone-Cabasse Studio (aka Studio Apsome). There he worked with electrically synthesized sound as well and created the dance scores Le Voyage (1963), Variations pour une porte et un soupir (1964), and Messe pour le temps present (1967), which includes the rock-inspired “Psyche Rock.” Henry’s film music includes Jean Painlevé’s Les amours de la pieuvre (1967) and a 1993 score for Dziga Vertoz’s 1929 classic Man with a Movie Camera. Among his other important electronic-music compositions are Messe de Liverpool (1967), Apocalypse de Jean (1968), and Intérieur/Extérieur (1997). Mise en musique du Corticalart (1971) was a multimedia work that converted brain waves into audio

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and visual materials. He incorporated live performance in Dieu (1978) and his tribute to futurist composer and painter Luigi Russolo, Futuriste (1980); he quoted the music of Ludwig van Beethoven in Dixième symphonie (1979). Henry’s labyrinthe ! (2003) also employed spatial distribution. Other notable late electronic works by Henry include Miroirs du temps (2008) and Envol (2010). See also ATONALITY; COMPUTER MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; RADIGUE, ÉLIANE (1932– ). HENZE, HANS WERNER (1926–2012). German composer, musician, and educator. Hans Werner Henze began studying at the Braunschweig Staatsmusikschule in 1942 but, in 1944, was conscripted into the German army; eventually he became a prisoner of war. After the war, he studied with Wolfgang Fortner at the Heidelberg Church Music Institute. Henze began composing twelve-tone music in the late 1940s and studied the method with René Leibowitz; his works from this period include Violin Concerto No. 1 (1948) and Symphony No. 2 (1949). He became artistic director and conductor of the Weisbaden Hessische Staatstheater in 1950 but, in 1953, relocated permanently to Italy. Henze’s serial music incorporated tonal procedures in the lyric drama Boulevard Solitude (1951), which used French music-hall tunes and American jazz, and the pop-inflected ballet score Undine (1956); popular music also shaped his opera König Hirsch (1955, rev. 1962), the ballet score Maratona di Danza (1956), and Nachtstücke und Arien (1957) for soprano and orchestra. Henze found success in opera with Elegie für junge Liebende (1961, rev. 1987), Der junge Lord (1964), and Die Bassariden (1965, rev. 1992). His film music includes Alain Resnais’s Muriel (1963) and Volker Schlöndorff’s Un amour de Swann (1984). Henze’s revolutionary socialist beliefs informed his music-theater piece El Cimarrón (1970), the stage cantata Streik bei Mannesmann (1973), and the opera We Come to the River (1976). Along with the dissonant and modernistic qualities of Henze’s music, as in Essay on Pigs (1968) for voice and orchestra, Heliogabalus imperator (1972) for orchestra, and Tristan (1974) for piano and orchestra, he also had a neoromantic side that found its voice in his operas The English Cat (1983), Das verratene Meer (1990), and Phaedra (2007), as well as in his last works for mixed chorus and orchestra, Elogium Musicum (2008) and An den Wind (2011). It also informs such instrumental scores as Symphony No. 7 (1984); Requiem (1993) for piano, trumpet, and chamber orchestra; and Sebastian im Traum (2004) for orchestra. Henze’s prolific output includes 10 symphonies (1948–2000), five string quartets (1947–1977), and three violin concertos (1948–1996). He taught at the Salzburg Mozarteum (1962–1967), Cologne’s Staatliche Hochschule für Musik (1980–1991), and Tanglewood (1983, 1988–1996), and he wrote the books Musik und Politik (1976, rev. 1984) and

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Reiselieder mit böhmischen Quinten (1996). See also BERBERIAN, CATHY (1925–1983); EASTMAN, JULIUS (1940–1990); LANG, DAVID (1957– ); TAN DUN (1957– ). HERRMANN, BERNARD (1911–1975). American composer and musician. At New York University (NYU), Bernard Herrmann studied composition with Philip James and conducting with Albert Stoessel; he also studied with Stoessel at Juilliard, where his composition teacher was Bernard Wagenaar. Herrmann later returned to NYU to study composition with Percy Grainger. In 1934, Herrmann and Arthur Berger founded The Musical Mercury. A respected conductor, Herrmann also composed such works as the cantata Moby Dick (1938), Symphony (1941), the opera Wuthering Heights (1951), and Souvenirs de voyage (1967) for clarinet and string quartet. Herrmann is most prized for his expressive and inventive film scores, which include the classics Citizen Kane (1941), The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), Vertigo (1958), North by Northwest (1959), Psycho (1960), Jason and the Argonauts (1963), and Taxi Driver (1976). He also consulted on the electronic-music effects created for Alfred Hitchcock’s The Birds (1963). See also IVES, CHARLES (1874–1954); MODERNISM; THEREMIN. HESELTINE, PHILIP. See WARLOCK, PETER (1894–1930). HIGGINS, DICK (1938–1998). English-born American composer. Born in England to American parents, Dick Higgins was raised in Massachusetts and attended Yale University, Columbia University, and the New School for Social Research where he studied with John Cage and Henry Cowell. As part of the Fluxus group, Higgins produced such conceptual scores as Danger Musics (1961–1963) and Music for Stringed Instruments (1964). The Thousand Symphonies (1968) calls for a police officer to fire a submachine gun at music paper and for musicians to derive symphonies from the results; Philip Corner realized the piece in 1968 at Douglass College—with the help of a South Brunswick police officer, filmed by Alison Knowles, who was married to Higgins (1960–1970, 1984–1998). The LP Poems and Metapoems (2017) features Higgins’s poetry and his text-sound music on tape. Mostly active as a writer and visual artist, Higgins also founded Something Else Press (1963–1974). See also POSTMODERNISM. HILLER, LEJAREN (1924–1994). American composer and educator. Lejaren Hiller studied at Princeton with Milton Babbitt and Roger Sessions and received his M.Mus. from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1958, where he founded the Experimental Music Studio and served as its director (1958–1968). Hiller also taught at the State University of New

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York at Buffalo (1968–1989); his students include Elliott Sharp, Bernadette Speach, and James Tenney. He became a leader in computer music with his String Quartet No. 4, “Illiac Suite” (1957, cocomposed with Leonard Isaacson), which made the first significant use of a computer to generate composition. Hiller developed the composition programs of Computer Cantata (1963, cocomposed with Robert Baker) for soprano, chamber ensemble, and tape, using stochastic procedures for music and text. Those procedures also shaped his series Algorithms I (1968), II (1972, cocomposed with Ravi Kumra), and III (1984) for nine instruments and tape; each work has four versions, showing the progressive complexity of the computer program used in their composition. A lively and original thinker, Hiller worked in numerous styles and genres. He wrote serial music with Twelve-Tone Variations (1954) for piano and String Quartet No. 5 (1962), the latter composed in quarter-tones; he also used microtonal tunings in Seven Electronic Studies (1963) for two-channel tape. Hiller scored the film Time of the Heathen (1962) and composed theatrical pieces: A Triptych for Hieronymus (1966) for actors, dancers, projections, tape, and orchestra; An Avalanche for Pitchman, Prima Donna, Player Piano, Percussionist, and Pre-recorded Playback (1968). Collaborating with John Cage he created HPSCHD (1968), a multimedia work for one to seven harpsichords and one to 51 tapes. He also utilized randomness in String Quartet No. 6 (1972) and A Portfolio for Diverse Performers and Tape (1974), scored for up to 10 performers of any sort and eight channels of tape. Hiller wrote tonal scores with String Quartet No. 3 (1953), Symphony No. 2 (1960), and Violin Sonata No. 3 (1970); Americana such as Jesse James (1950) for vocal quartet and piano and Five Appalachian Ballads (1958) for voice and guitar or harpsichord; and the multicultural works Diabelskie Skrzypce (1978) for stringed instrument and harpsichord and An Apotheosis for Archaeopterix (1979) for piccolo and berimbau. His other works include six piano sonatas (1946–1972), seven string quartets (1949–1979), and three symphonies (1953–1987). He coauthored Experimental Music (1959) and wrote Informationstheorie und Computermusik (1964). Hiller died of Alzheimer’s disease in Buffalo, New York, at age 69. See also ATONALITY; INDETERMINACY; POSTMODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. HINDEMITH, PAUL (1895–1963). German-born American composer, musician, and educator. Born in Hanau, Paul Hindemith began playing violin as a child and studied at the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt (1908–1917). After making a splash in a dissonant, expressionist idiom with the one-act operas Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen (1919), Das Nusch-Nuschi (1920), and Sancta Susanna (1921), he turned to a pre-classical neoclassicism, using German baroque forms with modernist harmonies and rhythms in Kammermusik Nos. 1–7 (1922–1927), mostly for soloist and chamber ensembles. He

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also composed two major song cycles in those years, Die junge Magd (1922) for alto and six instruments and Das Marienleben (1923, rev. 1948) for soprano and piano, as well as his String Quartet No. 3 (1921), the dance score Der Dämon (1922), and the opera Cardillac (1926, rev. 1952). Hindemith had an experimental streak, and in 1926, he created Rondo and Toccata for mechanical piano by punching holes directly into the piano roll. Anticipating musique concrète, he manipulated phonograph records on variable-speed turntables to create the recording Grammophonplatteneigene Stücke (1930). He taught himself to play the Trautonium, an electronicmusic keyboard instrument, and composed Des kleinen Elektromusikers Lieblinge (1930) for three Trautoniums, Konzertstück (1931) for Trautonium and string orchestra, and the solo Langsames Stück und Rondo (1935). He also acted in and scored Hans Richter’s film Vormittagsspuk (1928). Hindemith taught at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik (1927–1939), and his progressive approach to music education became an international model: In 1935, the Turkish government commissioned him to organize Turkey’s musical activities and instruction. A leading exponent of Gebrauchsmusik, he produced numerous didactic pieces for amateur musicians, including Sing- und Spielmusik (1928) and Wir bauen eine Stadt (1930), a musical game for children. In the 1930s and 1940s, Hindemith wrote a series of sonatas for all the major instruments in the orchestra. Later in life, however, when others used the term to pigeonhole him, he distanced himself from Gebrauchsmusik. In 1934, Hindemith completed the opera Mathis Der Maler and derived from it one of his most successful scores, the symphony Mathis Der Maler. He followed with two great concertos for viola, Der Schwanendreher (1935) with small orchestra and Trauermusik (1936) with string orchestra, premiering both as soloist; he also conducted the premieres of his Symphonische Tänze (1937) for orchestra and the ballet score Nobilissimma Visione (1938). Hindemith’s music was banned by the Nazis, and in 1938, he left Germany. After a stay in Switzerland, he moved to the United States in 1940, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1946. He taught principally at Yale University (1940–1955). Hindemith composed some of his best and most popular scores during his years in the United States: Theme with Four Variations (According to the Four Temperaments) (1940) for piano and string orchestra, Cello Concerto (1941), Ludus tonalis (1942) for piano, Symphonic Metamorphosis on Themes by C. M. von Weber (1943) for orchestra, and his requiem setting of Walt Whitman, When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d (1946) for mezzo-soprano, baritone, mixed chorus, and orchestra. Relocating to Zürich in 1953, he began performing more as a conductor, and he toured with the Vienna Symphony Orchestra in 1956. Among his last compositions are Pittsburgh Symphony (1959), the one-act opera The Long Christmas Dinner (1961), and Organ Concerto (1963). His students include Josef Tal, Mel

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Powell, Lukas Foss and master Trautonium player Oskar Sala. After suffering a series of strokes, Hindemith died in a Frankfurt hospital at age 68. See also BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003); CRUMB, GEORGE (1929– ); FORMALISM; POUND, EZRA (1885–1972); SMIT, LEO (1921–1999); TAPE MUSIC. HOLST, GUSTAV (1874–1934). English composer, musician, and educator. Gustav Holst studied at London’s Royal College of Music and researched English folk music with Ralph Vaughan Williams and George Butterworth in the 1900s. Best known for his dazzling orchestral suite The Planets (1916), Holst also composed such multicultural works as Choral Hymns from the Rig Veda (1908–1910) for chorus and orchestra and the orchestral scores Beni Mora Suite (1910) and Japanese Suite (1915). He used bitonality in Double Concerto (1929) for two violins and orchestra, new sonorities in Hammersmith (1930) for band or orchestra, and dissonance in A Choral Fantasia (1930) for soprano, chorus, organ, and orchestra. Other works include The Hymn of Jesus (1917) for chorus and orchestra, First Choral Symphony (1924), and Egdon Heath (1927) for orchestra. Among his eight operas are Savitri (1908) and The Perfect Fool (1922); his one film score was for The Bells (1931). An instrumentalist and conductor, Holst also taught at several English institutions and Harvard University; his students include Elliott Carter. Holst died in London of complications from surgery at age 59. See also MODERNISM. HONEGGER, ARTHUR (1892–1955). French composer and educator. Arthur Honegger attended the Conservatory of Zürich (1909–1911) and the Paris Conservatoire (1911–1918), where his teachers included Charles-Marie Widor and Vincent d’Indy. He befriended fellow student Darius Milhaud there, and in the early 1920s, both were among the modernist French composers known as the Groupe des Six. Honegger, however, was the most austere, serious, and Germanic of Les Six, with the biblical oratorio Le roi David (1921); the tone poem Pacific 2.3.1 (1923) for orchestra, an age-ofsteel depiction of a locomotive; the jazz-inflected Concertino (1924) for piano and orchestra; and the opera Antigone (1927), with libretto by Jean Cocteau. Honegger also wrote music for the classic Abel Gance films La Roue (1923) and Napoléon (1927). Some of his 1930s film music featured the ondes martenot, an electronic-music instrument, which he also used in the dramatic oratorio Jeanne d’Arc au bûcher (1935). His later works include the opera L’Aiglon (1937, cocomposed with Jacques Ibert), String Quartets Nos. 2 (1935) and 3 (1937), and Symphonies Nos. 1–5 (1930–1950). Honegger also taught at l’École Normale de Musique in Paris; his students include

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Ned Rorem, Karel Husa, Luc Ferrari, William Flanagan, and Iannis Xenakis. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001). HOPE, CAT (1966– ). Australian composer, musician, and educator. Cat Hope studied at the University of Western Australia and RMIT University; she has taught at the Western Australia Academy of Performing Arts and Monash University. A flutist, vocalist, and bass player, Hope is artistic director of the new-music ensemble Decibel, founded in 2009. Working in graphic notation, she has written such instrumental scores as Stella Degradation (2012) for viola, clarinet, cello, timpani, and piano; Moments of Disappearance (2013) for orchestra with additional percussion and electric guitar; and The End of Abe Sada (2014) for string orchestra or three sustaining instruments. Her electroacoustic music includes Black Eels (2012) for two turntables, snare, two flutes, piano, and guitar; Wall Drawing (2014) for string quartet and theremin; and Kaps Freed (2017) for piano and electronics. Bravo Compound (2015) calls for an ensemble of laptop computers. Among her film scores is The Making of the Moment of Disappearance (2014), which Hope also directed. Her sound installations include Pickpocket (2005) and Amp Stack (2011). See also POSTMODERNISM; RADIGUE, ÉLIANE (1932– ). HOVHANESS, ALAN (1911–2000). American composer and musician. Alan Vaness Chakmakjian composed and took piano lessons as a child, and he studied with Frederick Converse at the New England Conservatory of Music (1932–1934). Calling himself Alan Hovhaness, he briefly attended Tanglewood in 1942 and studied with Bohuslav Martinu, but he left to research the music of his ancestral Armenia. He destroyed most of his scores of the 1930s, keeping only certain successful pieces such as his Cello Concerto (1936). Inspired by the music of Yenovk Der Hagopian and Komitas Vartabed, he made Armenian music the basis of his work with such notable scores as Armenian Rhapsody No. 1 (1944) for percussion and strings, Lousadzak (1944) for piano and strings, and Khaldis (1951) for four trumpets (or any multiple thereof), piano, and percussion. Lousadzak introduced free-rhythm passages in his music: repeated note patterns played simultaneously but at different tempi. Other unusual techniques in Hovhaness’s composition include drones, rapid repeated figurations, multiple glissandi, and the massing of like voices. Yet his music has always been popular and accessible, thanks to his Armenian-inspired longlined melodies, as in Symphony No. 2, “Mysterious Mountain” (1955), and Symphony No. 6, “Celestial Gate” (1959). An important transitional figure from modernist methods to an increasingly postmodern approach, Hovha-

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ness studied Asian musical traditions in the late 1950s and early 1960s, mainly the orchestral music of T’ang Dynasty China, Korean Ah-ak, Japanese gagaku, and the music of North and South India. Numerous multicultural scores resulted, including Nagooran (1960) for South Indian orchestra, Fantasy on Japanese Wood Prints (Hanga Genso) (1964) for xylophone and orchestra, and Mountains and Rivers without End (1968) for 10 players. Hovhaness was a mystic and a visionary, and those qualities define such major compositions as his Magnificat (1958) for soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra; Symphony No. 19, “Vishnu” (1966); Fra Angelico (1967) for orchestra; And God Created Great Whales (1970) for orchestra with tape of whale sounds; Spirit of Ink (1970) for three flutes; O Lord Bless Thy Mountains (1974) for two pianos tuned a quarter-tone apart; and Symphony No. 50, “Mount St. Helens” (1982). A regular performer of his own music as pianist and conductor, Hovhaness was also an extremely prolific composer and left close to 500 works, including seven operas (1946–1978) and 67 symphonies (1936–1992); his film music includes Willard Maas and Ben Moore’s Narcissus (1958). See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; PLEROMA; SULTAN, GRETE (1906–2005). THE HUB. American composers Tim Perkis and John Bischoff formed the League of Automatic Music Composers (1978–1983) along with Jim Horton, Rich Gold, and David Behrman, a band/collective for live electronic music, using computers and electronics of their own devising. In 1986, Perkis and Bischoff formed The Hub, a similarly purposed group with Chris Brown, Scot Gresham-Lancaster, Phil Stone, and Mark Trayle; among their notable recordings are The Hub (1989), Wreckin’ Ball (1994), and Boundary Layer (2008). Composer/musicians who have collaborated with The Hub include Alvin Curran and Ramon Sender. See also FREE IMPROVISATION; POSTMODERNISM. HUNT, JERRY (1943–1993). American composer and musician. Jerry Hunt studied piano and composition at the University of North Texas. He first used electronics in his composition with Helix 3 (1963) for variable instrumentation. Hunt devised interactive systems to produce real-time electronic music such as Haramand Plane: Continuous (1972) for electronic information processing systems and Cantegral Segment 16 (1976) for voice with interactive adaptive electronic system and generalized delay processors. But the obscure technical titles and dry and complex descriptions that he gave his pieces belie their eccentricity. By the late 1970s, Hunt’s lifelong fascination with the occult led to theatrical and ceremonial solo performances of Transphalba (1978), Lattice (1979), and Phalba (Stream) (1979). His stylized movements and sometimes manic activity would trigger music

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through unpredictably responsive sensors linked to computers and synthesizers. Often evoking John Dee, the late 16th-century English astrologer and mathematician, Hunt gave shamanistic performances that featured percussion, vocalizations, whistling, and handmade props such as dolls, rattles, bells, and wands. Birome (ZONE): Cube (1983) was an installation system with interactive video-audio system and adaptive control systems; Transphalba (ROTA): Monopole (1984), a system performance using electronic storage and adaptive control with video and audio-scan detection interface. Hunt also composed for piano (Cantegral Segment 13, 1975; Trapani (stream) a:, 1990) and created the electronic Song Drapes (1992) for performance artist Karen Finley in “The Hunt/Finley Report” (1993). His later works include Fluud (1985), a system of translation derivatives with various instrument and control system implementations, and CANA (Bed): Overlay (1992), a composite interactive installation. Suffering from emphysema and lung cancer, Hunt took his own life at age 49. See also ATONALITY; INDETERMINACY; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); MULTIMEDIA; POSTMODERNISM. HUSA, KAREL (1921–2016). Czech-born American composer, musician, and educator. Karel Husa studied at the Prague Conservatory (1941–1945); with Arthur Honegger at l’École Normale de Musique in Paris (1946–1951); and privately with Nadia Boulanger (composition) and André Cluytens (conducting). Husa won attention with such early works as String Quartets Nos. 1 (1948) and 2 (1953); Divertimento for String Orchestra (1949); and his Gebrauchsmusik score Musique d’amateurs (1953) for oboe, trumpet, percussion, and strings. He came to the United States in 1954 and became a U.S. citizen in 1959; he taught at Cornell University (1954–1992) and Ithaca College (1967–1986) and had an active international career as a conductor. Husa composed two major scores for concert band: the defiant Music for Prague 1968 (1969, also for orchestra), which includes aleatoric procedures, microtonality, and bird song; and Apotheosis of This Earth (1970; for mixed chorus and orchestra, 1972), denouncing environmental and social destruction. Among his other notable works are the twelve-tone Mosaïques (1961) for orchestra; String Quartets Nos. 3 (1968) and 4 (1989), employing extended performance techniques; the ballet score The Trojan Women (1980) and Reflections (1983) for orchestra, which utilize quartertones; Concerto for Orchestra (1986); Trumpet Concerto (1987); Cello Concerto (1988); Violin Concerto (1993); Celebración (1997) for orchestra; and Cheetah (2006) for wind ensemble. See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; MODERNISM.

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HYKES, DAVID (1953– ). American composer and musician. David Hykes studied at Antioch College and Columbia University, as well as with North Indian raga singer Sheila Dhar and Tibetan master Thuksey Rinpoche. Adopting Central Asian throat-singing methods, he founded David Hykes and the Harmonic Choir in 1975, devoted to ensemble overtone singing. Among the notable albums of his music are Hearing Solar Winds (1982), Harmonic Meetings (1986), True to the Times (1993), Earth to the Unknown Power (1996), Harmonic Meditations (2005), Harmonic Worlds (2007), and Harmonic Mantra (2010). His film music includes Dark Samurai (2014). See also EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; JUST INTONATION; MULTICULTURALISM; PLEROMA; POSTMODERNISM.

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I IBARRA, SUSIE (1970– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Susie Ibarra attended the Mannes College of Music and studied drum set with jazz musicians Buster Smith of Sun Ra’s Arkestra and Milford Graves. She studied Philippine kulintang with Danongan Kalanduyan and the Kalanduyan family, and she has taught at Bennington College and other American institutions. An accomplished percussionist and improviser, Ibarra often uses Philippine kulintang gong music and Southeast Asian gong music in her multicultural performances and compositions. She formed Electric Kulintang, combining her gong playing with the electronics of her husband, composer/percussionist Roberto Rodriguez; together with visual artist Makoto Fujimura and the interaction design of Shankari Murali, they created Digital Sanctuaries, a modular music app walk that remaps cities with sanctuaries of music. Ibarra has also played with such composer/musicians as Pauline Oliveros, John Zorn, Joëlle Léandre, and Fred Frith. In 2000, she formed the improvising trio Mephista with Sylvie Courvoisier and Ikue Mori. Her compositions include Fractals (2000) for drum; Dancesteps (2007) for piano; Pintados Dream (2007, aka The Painted’s Dream), a multimedia concerto for drums, visual art, and orchestra; A Translation of Silk (2009) for spoken English, Vietnamese soprano, and violin; and Circadian Rhythms (2013) for 80 percussionists and surround soundscape of animal and bird recordings. She also wrote, produced, and scored the documentary film The Cotabato Sessions (2014) about Danongan Kalanduyan. Her album Perception (2018) features works for her DreamTime Ensemble. See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; POSTMODERNISM. IBERT, JACQUES (1890–1962). French composer, musician, and educator. Jacques Ibert learned piano from his mother and entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1911; his teachers included Gabriel Fauré and Paul Vidal. Ibert served as director of the French Academy in Rome from 1937 to 1940 and from 1945 to 1960. Blending impressionist and neoclassical techniques, 173

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Ibert’s music includes Histoires (1921) for piano, String Quartet (1942), and the orchestral scores La Ballade de la Geôle de Reading (1920), Escales (1922, aka Ports of Call), Concerto for Cello and Wind Orchestra (1925), the witty Divertissement (1930), Flute Concerto (1932), and Louisville Concert (1953). Among his operas are Angélique (1926) and L’Aiglon (1937, cocomposed with Arthur Honegger). Ibert also scored such notable films as G. W. Pabst’s Don Quichotte (1933); Julien Duvivier’s Golgotha (1935), in which he used a pair of ondes martenots; and Orson Welles’s Macbeth (1948). See also MODERNISM. ICHIYANAGI, TOSHI (1933– ). Japanese composer and musician. In Japan, Toshi Ichiyanagi studied composition with Kishio Hirao and piano with Chieko Hara; he came to the United States in 1954 and studied composition with Aaron Copland and John Cage and piano with Beveridge Webster; he was also married (1956–1963) to Yoko Ono. Ichiyanagi used graphic notation in Music for Electric Metronome (1960) and Appearance (1963) for amplified organ, brass instrument, string instrument, and electronics. He returned to Japan in 1961 and wrote such instructional scores as the 1962 pieces Sapporo and Distance for Fluxus performances. Ichiyanagi’s tape music includes Music for Tinguely (1963) and Appearance (1967). In Extended Voices (1966), he utilized a Moog synthesizer and live electronics to alter the sound of choral voices. Among Ichiyanagi’s multicultural scores are Engen (1982, rev. 1986) for koto and orchestra, Ten, Zui, Ho, Gyaku (1988) for shakuhachi and ondes martenot, and Cosmos Ceremony (1993) for ryuteki, sho, and orchestra. His other notable works include the operas The Last Will of Fire (1995), Momo (1995, rev. 1998), and Hikari (2002); four string quartets (1964–1999); six piano concertos (1981–2016); and nine symphonies (1986–2015); he has also scored several experimental films by Toshio Matsumoto. Ichiyanagi is the author of An Ancient Resonance in Contemporary Music (2007). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MUMMA, GORDON (1935– ); POSTMODERNISM; TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ); TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ); ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). IMPRESSIONISM. The term impressionism derives from art criticism: Claude Monet’s painting Impression, soleil levant (1872) met with critical disdain, and by the late 1870s, his work and that of Edgar Degas, Camille Pissarro, Edouard Manet, and Auguste Renoir was widely labeled impressionist. What these artists had in common was their avoidance of the common Romantic rhetoric and academic devices, along with an original and sensual treatment of light, color, and texture. They also sought to evoke subtle emotional and spiritual states in their stylized depictions of people, objects, and above all nature.

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Impressionist qualities emerge in Franz Liszt’s piano music of the time, most notably Weihnachtsbaum (1876, aka L’arbre de Noël) and the glittering Les jeux d’eaux à la Villa d’Este (1877). Despite an 1887 warning from the Académie des Beaux-Arts about his impressionist tendencies, the young Claude Debussy turned away from the excesses of Richard Wagner and the familiar academicism of Vincent d’Indy and composed a series of classic works, including Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune (1894) for orchestra and the opera Pelléas et Mélisande (1901). Debussy’s music epitomized impressionism in its sensual harmonies and tone colors, as well as its rejection of drama and development, in favor of a static atmosphere and nuanced evocations of moods and feelings. The impressionist label stuck to Debussy, who eventually came to hate it; it also was used in some circles to describe other original French composers, such as Erik Satie, Maurice Ravel, and Lili Boulanger, despite their considerable musical differences, as well as English composer Frederick Delius, whose more rhapsodic and elegiac music defined an impressionist sound of his own, and American Charles T. Griffes, who had his own individual lyrical voice. As acclaim for Debussy and Ravel spread internationally over the 1900s and 1910s, younger composers embraced this alternative to German Romanticism; for Manuel de Falla, Béla Bartók, Igor Stravinsky, Marion Bauer, Karol Szymanowski, Wallingford Riegger, John J. Becker, Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji, Dane Rudhyar, and Carlos Chávez, impressionism opened doors into their own individual modernist voices. By the late 1920s, with the interest in neoclassicism and the music of the Groupe des Six, impressionism came to be regarded as out of style. Nevertheless, its values have continued to inform a wide range of music. Generations of composers have reflected the impressionist devotion to color and staticism, among them Albert Roussel, Henry Eichheim, John Alden Carpenter, John Ireland, Frank Bridge, Zoltán Kodály, Arnold Bax, Heitor Villa-Lobos, Jacques Ibert, Federico Mompou, Olivier Messiaen, George Crumb, Toru Takemitsu, La Monte Young, Joan Tower, Barbara Kolb, and Anna Thorvaldsdottir. See also DISSONANCE; ELLINGTON, DUKE (1899–1974); NIELSEN, CARL (1865–1931); SEEGER, CHARLES (1886–1979); SMIT, LEOPOLD “LEO” (1900–1943). INDETERMINACY. With his 1951 compositions Sixteen Dances, Concerto for Prepared Piano and Orchestra, and Music of Changes, John Cage began composing with chance procedures, choosing his musical materials through a random process and setting them into a preexisting structure of rhythmic relationships. Cage wanted to compose beyond the limitations of his own memories and tastes, and when Henry Cowell pointed out that those pieces had all used musical sounds Cage had selected, Cage then wrote Imaginary Landscape No. 4 (March No. 2) (1951), which retained his com-

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positional method but was scored for 12 radios, with two players per radio, adjusting the wavelength and volume knobs to different positions predetermined by chance. Unlike its predecessors, this piece always sounds different in every performance, and thus Cage’s music entered indeterminacy: the creation of musical situations where the composer has no control over the sounds that are produced. Some of Cage’s other notable indeterminate compositions include the tacet score 4'33" (1952), Winter Music (1957), Atlas Eclipticalis (1961), and Variations I–VIII (1958–1978). For the double-LP Indeterminacy (1959), Cage as reciter performed independently of David Tudor who chose his own continuity from Cage’s piano music and tape music. Composers who were friendly with Cage began using indeterminacy as well, starting with Earle Brown and his Folio series (1952–1954). In 1957, Christian Wolff composed Duo for Pianists I, in which the performers determine varying degrees of what they actually play, and Morton Feldman composed Piece for Four Pianos, where the duration of pitches was left open to the musicians. The operas of Robert Ashley and the Expanded Accordion music of Pauline Oliveros joined indeterminacy with improvisation. Other composers who have created forms of indeterminate music include Mel Powell, Lejaren Hiller, George Cacioppo, Richard Maxfield, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Henri Pousseur, Larry Austin, Toru Takemitsu, Philip Corner, James Tenney, Alison Knowles, La Monte Young, Cornelius Cardew, Robert Moran, Yuji Takahashi, William Hellermann, Terry Jennings, Henry Flynt, Philip Krumm, Gavin Bryars, Jerry Hunt, William Duckworth, Neely Bruce, “Blue” Gene Tyranny, Daria Semegen, Glenn Branca, and Fred Frith. See also ALEATORY; ATONALITY; DISSONANCE; ELASTIC FORM; FLUXUS; FREE DURATION; GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; GRAPHIC NOTATION; MINIMALISM; OPEN FORM; OPERA; POSTMODERNISM; THEATRICAL MUSIC. INSTRUMENT BUILDING. The instrument-building spirit motivates a good deal of postmodern music making, insofar as it informs the appropriation of non-instruments for performance and the deconstruction of familiar instruments through alternate tuning systems, extended performance techniques, and/or the incorporation of electronic systems in electroacoustic music. Electronic music and computer music draw on this sensibility, too, with composers creating new hardware and software; it is also a major factor in sound sculpture and sound installations. In the tradition of 20th-century composer/musicians becoming inventor/ builders in order to realize a sound world otherwise unavailable, one of the earliest exemplars is Luigi Russolo, a futurist who constructed intonarumori (noise-intoners) to perform his noise-music piece Risveglio di una città (1914). Other modernist composers who employed microtonality, such as

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Julián Carrillo, Ivan Wyschnegradsky, Alois Hába, Hans Barth, and Percy Grainger, also designed and built instruments so they could hear and play the new tunings. But the person who saw instrument building as more than just a means to an end was the landmark postmodern composer Harry Partch. From 1930 until his death in 1974, Partch built and played his own instruments, chiefly string and percussion, which he tuned in just intonation. He designed them to serve onstage as sculptural/dramatic presences in his music theater, and they have survived their maker: Originals and replicas continue to be used, not only for his music but also in new works by such composers as Anne LeBaron, Julia Wolfe, and John Zorn. In the 1950s, Moondog was performing on and recording the percussion instruments he built, and Lucia Dlugoszewski began playing the more than 100 percussion instruments she designed (built for her by sculptor Ralph Dorazio). Lou Harrison’s puppet opera Young Caesar (1971) introduced the American gamelan made by William Colvig and Harrison. Other specialized built-instrument ensembles arose in the 1970s. The Glass Orchestra, founded in Toronto in 1977, performs on glass instruments. Skip LaPlante and Carole Weber founded the American composers’ collective Music for Homemade Instruments during the mid-1970s; they invent, build, compose for, and play instruments made from trash and found objects. The Vienna Vegetable Orchestra, launched in 1998, performs on instruments made of fresh vegetables. Former Partch assistant Dean Drummond built the zoomoozophone in 1978; John Cage and Joan La Barbara also composed for this microtonal percussion instrument. Mauricio Kagel used homemade instruments in Acustica (1970); so did The Residents in Eskimo (1979). Ellen Fullman began developing her Long String Instrument in 1981. Glenn Branca devised mallet guitars for his Symphony No. 2 (1982) and designed keyboard instruments for his Symphonies Nos. 3 and 4 in 1983. Homemade instruments held a special interest for such free improvisers as Fred Frith and Elliott Sharp. Galina Ustvolskaya had a chipboard cube built for use as a percussion instrument. Elodie Lauten performed on her electroacoustic lyre the Trine. Tan Dun had potter Ragnar Naess construct more than 50 ceramic percussion, wind, and string instruments for Tan’s Nine Songs (1989) and Soundshape (1990). Robert Macht and Henry Brant composed for the new instruments built by Gunnar Schonbeck. R. Murray Schafer called for specially constructed instruments for his Patria 5: The Crown of Ariadne (1991). Krzysztof Penderecki designed tubaphones, a low-tuned percussion instrument, for his Symphony No. 7 (1996). Alison Knowles has created paper instruments; Barry Ransom, Susan Rawcliffe, and Ward Hartenstein have designed, built, and played ceramic instruments; and Darrell De Vore has constructed wind and percussion instruments from bamboo. Cheryl Leo-

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nard builds her instruments from found natural materials. Other notable instrument-building composer/musicians include Bart Hopkin, Ken Butler, and Tom Nunn. See also CHAMBERS, WENDY MAE (1953– ); CONRAD, TONY (1940–2016); ECOMUSICOLOGY; GABURO, KENNETH (1926–1993); HUNT, JERRY (1943–1993); ITO, TEIJI (1935–1982); JOHNSON, TOM (1939– ); LE CAINE, HUGH (1914–1977); MAGER, JÖRG (1880–1939); MITCHELL, ROSCOE (1940– ); NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997); ONDES MARTENOT; OPERA; RYLAN, JESSICA (1974– ); SCOTT, RAYMOND (1908–1994); SUN RA (1914–1993); THEATRICAL MUSIC; THEREMIN, LEON (1896–1993); UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). IRELAND, JOHN (1879–1962). English composer, musician, and educator. John Ireland studied at the Royal College of Music with Sir Charles Villiers Stanford. He taught there from 1920 to 1939; his students include Benjamin Britten. Ireland was also organist and choirmaster at St. Luke’s Chelsea. His notable early scores include Sea Fever (1913) for voice and piano, The Holy Boy (1915) in numerous arrangements, and Violin Sonata No. 2 (1917). Inspired by Igor Stravinsky and the French impressionists, he brought rhythmic vitality and complex harmonies to his music’s sonorities, and evoked the English landscape in London Pieces (1920) for piano and the orchestral scores The Forgotten Rite (1918) and Mai-Dun (1921). Ireland went on to compose such major works as his Piano Concerto (1930), A London Overture (1936) for orchestra, Concertino Pastorale (1939) for string orchestra, and Fantasy Sonata (1943) for clarinet and piano; he also scored his first film in 1946. Ireland retired from composition in the late 1940s. See also MODERNISM. ITO, TEIJI (1935–1982). Japanese-born American composer and musician. Teiji Ito left Japan at age six and came to New York with his family. He was mostly self-taught as a composer and a performer on numerous instruments (Eastern, Middle Eastern, African, and Western); he also studied Haitian secular and ceremonial drumming. Blending traditional Japanese theater music with avant-garde techniques, he would overdub himself performing on an array of instruments to create memorable scores for theater (King Ubu, 1961) and for such innovative filmmakers as his wife Maya Deren (Meshes in the Afternoon, 1943, scored 1952; Meditation on Violence, 1949; The Very Eye of Night, 1958), Marie Menken (Dwightiana, 1959; Bagatelle for Willard Maas, 1961; Arabesque for Kenneth Anger, 1961; Moonplay, 1962), Charles Boultenhouse (Dionysus, 1963), and Willard Maas (Orgia, 1967). Ito’s other compositions include Tenno (1964), combining electronics and turntable with his multicultural instruments; the dance score Watermill (1971); Quet-

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zalcoatl (1980), which features singers from the Sioux Nation; and Axis Mundi (1982), a theater score employing homemade instruments. Ito died at age 47 of a heart attack in Haiti. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FILM MUSIC; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; POSTMODERNISM. IVES, CHARLES (1874–1954). American composer and musician. This forward-looking modernist, neglected in his day, has come to be recognized as one of America’s greatest composers, celebrated for his original approach to dissonance, atonality and polytonality, polyrhythm, extreme densities, and the quotation of popular, sacred, and classical tunes, which made his music unique and instantly identifiable. Born in Danbury, Connecticut, Charles Edward Ives was serving regularly as a church organist by age 14. Some of his early compositions reflect the attitudes of his father George Ives (1845–1894), a professional musician with an experimental streak, who explored microtonality and bitonality. The provocative and funny Variations on “America” (1892) for organ by the teenage Charles included polytonal passages. Song for Harvest Season (1894) for voice and three brass instruments was completely polytonal, with each musician in a different key. Psalm 67 (1898) for male and female voices was mostly bitonal. Ives entered Yale University in 1894 and studied with Horatio Parker. In the idiom of Johannes Brahms and Antonin Dvorák, he produced two tuneful 1898 scores, String Quartet No. 1 and Symphony No. 1, but after graduating he followed his father’s example and chose a business career over the life of a professional musician. He started the Ives & Myrick Agency with Julian Myrick in 1909 and flourished in the insurance industry. During these years, Ives composed his radical works at home in the evenings and on weekends, largely isolated from other modernist developments in Europe and America. The music of rural Connecticut was celebrated in his Symphonies Nos. 2 (1902) and 3 (1904). Ives looked ahead to spatial music, combining unsynchronized groups of musicians in his 1908 scores for chamber orchestra The Unanswered Question and Central Park in the Dark. His early Studies for piano (1907–1922) and Piano Sonata No. 1 (1909) featured some of the most dense and dissonant music Ives had yet composed. He pursued that sound as far as he could during the 1910s, with a rich expressive spirit and nostalgic affection for his New England roots, producing his most important and celebrated works: String Quartet No. 2 (1913), Holidays Symphony (1913), four sonatas for violin and piano (1914–1917), Piano Sonata No. 2 (1915), Symphony No. 4 (1916), and the orchestral scores Set for Theater Orchestra (1911), Robert Browning Overture (1914), Three Places in New England (1914), and Orchestral Set No. 2 (1919). They are his most extreme music as well and feature unprecedented densities, often thick with quotations. His most ambitious work, however, was left a series of fragments: the multi-orchestral Universe Symphony, composed

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mostly in 1915, which included a lengthy movement for percussion ensemble. After Ives’s death, the Universe Symphony was performed in realizations by Larry Austin (1993) and Johnny Reinhard (1996). Ives suffered a severe heart attack at age 43 in 1918 and never fully recovered; his composing came to an end by the mid-1920s. One of his last works was the innovative Three Quarter-Tone Pieces (1924) for two pianos. In 1922, Ives self-published 114 Songs, making available the many songs for voice and piano he had composed in the last 30 years. He also self-published “Essays before a Sonata” in 1920, which described the Transcendentalist themes in his Piano Sonata No. 2 (subtitled “Concord, Mass., 1840–60”), as well as authoring other essays on music and politics. Thanks to his business success, Ives was also able to help finance the publication of Henry Cowell’s New Music Quarterly scores as well as the construction of Hans Barth’s quarter-tone piano and Leon Theremin’s rhythmicon. Performances of his music were few when Ives was composing, but by 1927, Cowell had discovered his music and begun championing Ives. Other composer/conductors who led Ives’s scores in the 1930s and 1940s include John J. Becker, Nicolas Slonimsky, Anton Webern, Bernard Herrmann, and Lou Harrison. Aaron Copland was the pianist when baritone Hubert Linscott performed Ives’s songs in 1932. With John Kirkpatrick’s 1939 premiere of the “Concord” Sonata, the appreciation of Ives’s music grew steadily, and his Symphony No. 3 received the Pulitzer Prize after its 1946 premiere by Harrison. At the time of his death in New York at age 79, Ives had witnessed the beginning of the ascent of his reputation. By the 1960s, he had become for many the quintessential American composer, beloved as much for his avant-garde innovations as for his Yankee fervor, his humor, and the depth of his emotion. More than 50 years later, his stature is more secure than ever. See also ADAMS, JOHN (1947– ); BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003); BRANT, HENRY (1913–2008); BRUCE, NEELY (1944– ); CARTER, ELLIOTT (1908–2012); FINE, VIVIAN (1913–2000); GANN, KYLE (1955– ); GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ); PLEROMA; RUDHYAR, DANE (1895–1985); RUGGLES, CARL (1876–1971); TONECLUSTER; TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ).

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J JANÁČEK, LEOŠ (1854–1928). Czechoslovakian composer, musician, educator, critic, and theorist. Born in Hukvaldy, Moravia, Leoš Janáček spent most of his life in Brno and studied music with Pavel Krízkovsky; he also attended the Prague Organ School. He founded the Brno Organ School in 1881, where he was director until 1920, and the review-based journal Hudební listy in 1884, which published his criticism. His first major scores were the operas Sárka (1888, rev. 1918, 1925) and Pocátek Románu (1891). Janáček began collecting folk songs in 1888 and, by the early 1890s, was notating the rhythmic and melodic contours of everyday Czech speech. This research led him to the speech-melodies that transformed his vocal music, starting with the opera Jenufa (1903, rev. 1907): a powerful drama of infanticide, which became an international success after being performed in Prague and Vienna in 1916. Janáček’s important works during the 1910s include Pohádka (1910) for cello and piano; In the Mists (1912) for piano; The Diary of One Who Vanished (1916) for alto, tenor, women’s chorus, and piano; the opera The Excursions of Mr. Broucek (1917); and Taras Bulba (1918) for orchestra. Speech-melody encouraged the use of declamatory vocal lines in his operas, with the orchestra creating melody and drama. Janáček’s harmonic sense became more dissonant in the operas Kátya Kabanová (1921), The Cunning Little Vixen (1923), The Makropulos Affair (1925), and From the House of the Dead (1928), as well as in his classic Glagolitic Mass (1926) for soloists, mixed chorus, orchestra, and organ. His other notable later works include Concertino for Piano and Chamber Orchestra (1925), Sinfonietta (1926) for orchestra, and String Quartets Nos. 1 (1925) and 2 (1928). See also MODERNISM. JARNACH, PHILIPP (1892–1982). French-born German composer, musician, educator, and critic. At the Paris Conservatory Philipp Jarnach studied piano with Edouard Risler and harmony with Albert Lavignac. He met Ferruccio Busoni in Zurich in 1915, studied with him, and became his assistant; after the composer’s death, he completed Busoni’s opera Doktor Faust in 181

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1926. Jarnach taught at the Zurich Conservatory (1915–1921), Cologne Conservatory (1927–1949), and Hamburg Conservatory (1949–1970); his students include Kurt Weill, Otto Luening, Nikos Skalkottas, Ingolf Dahl, Bernd Alois Zimmermann, and Donald Scavarda. Music critic for the Berliner Börsen-Kurier from 1922 to 1927, Jarnach became a German citizen in 1931. His compositions include Sonatas Nos. 1 (1913) and 2 (1922) for Solo Violin, Sonatina for Flute and Piano (1919), String Quartets Nos. 1 (1920) and 2 (1924), Sinfonia Brevis (1923), Three Pieces for Piano (1924), Sonatine, Romancero I (1925) for piano, Morgenklangspiel, Romancero II (1925) for orchestra, Concert Piece, Romancero III (1928) for organ, Musik mit Mozart (1935) for orchestra, Sinfonietta for Strings (1936), and Musik zum Gedächtnis der Einsamen (1952) for string quartet or string orchestra. See also MODERNISM. JENKINS, LEROY (1932–2007). American composer, musician, and educator. Violinist Leroy Jenkins taught at schools in Mobile and Chicago in the 1960s. A member of the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians, he worked with such notable composer/musicians as Anthony Braxton, Ornette Coleman, Cecil Taylor, Muhal Richard Abrams, Anne LeBaron, Anthony Davis, Richard Teitelbaum, “Blue” Gene Tyranny, and George Lewis. Among his recordings are For Players Only (1975) for the Jazz Composer’s Orchestra, Lifelong Ambitions (1981) with Abrams, Solo (1998), and the multicultural The Art of Improvisation (2006). Jenkins also drew upon creative African American music in such compositions as Wonder Lust (1988) for saxophone, violin, and chamber orchestra; Off-Duty Dryad (1990) for string quintet and dancer; the dance opera The Mother of Three Sons (1990); Dream of Dreams of Home (1991) for voice, flute, and viola; the cantata The Negro Burial Ground (1996); and the multimedia opera The Three Willies (2001). See also FREE IMPROVISATION; FREE JAZZ; POSTMODERNISM; SHARP, ELLIOTT (1951– ). JENNINGS, TERRY (1940–1981). American composer and musician. Terry Jennings attended the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music and Art; he studied composition with Robert Erickson at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music and with Leonard Stein at the California Institute of the Arts. In the late 1950s, he also studied composition with La Monte Young, and by 1960, Jennings too was composing minimalist music with long sustained tones: String Quartet, Piano Piece for Christine Jennings, Piece for Cello and Saxophone. As an improviser on alto saxophone and piano, Jennings played with Young on piano and Dennis Johnson on Japanese hichiriki in the early 1960s, developing a repetitive modal drone style. Jennings also participated in two pioneering electroacoustic works, Richard Maxfield’s

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Wind for Terry Jennings (1960) and the first performances of Young’s The Tortoise, His Dreams and Journeys (1964) with Young, Tony Conrad, Angus MacLise, Marian Zazeela, and John Cale. Jennings composed a pair of indeterminate piano works of extended duration, Winter Trees (1965) and Winter Sun (1966), in which the pianist selects the material to be repeated. His later music, such as The Seasons (1975) for voice and piano, was neoromantic. See also KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); ONCE GROUP; PALESTINE, CHARLEMAGNE (1947– ); POSTMODERNISM; TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ). JOHNSON, DENNIS (1938– ). American composer and musician. While a student at the University of California at Los Angeles during the late 1950s, Dennis Johnson became friends with La Monte Young and began composing minimalist pieces with long sustained tones. The Second Machine (1959) utilized only the four pitches of one of the “Dream Chords” from Young’s The Four Dreams of China (The Harmonic Versions) (1962); Avalanche #1, a Concert Drama (1960), included a tape of Young’s Trio for Strings (1958). Johnson’s November (1959) for piano, a repetitive diatonic work, could last up to six hours. Din (1960) for large ensemble was a spatial piece, distributing the musicians among the audience. In the early 1960s, Johnson was improvising on Japanese hichiriki and piano along with Young on piano and Terry Jennings on alto saxophone, in a repetitive modal drone style. He wrote 109 Bar Tune (1961), a series of chord changes for the trio, as well as conceptual pieces, but not long after, Johnson gave up music. See also MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM. JOHNSON, TOM (1939– ). American composer, musician, and critic. Tom Johnson studied music at Yale University and composition privately with Morton Feldman. He composed numerous important minimalist scores, frequently combining simple forms and limited scales with logical and mathematical techniques—an approach described in his book Self-Similar Melodies (1996). Johnson’s notable early works include An Hour for Piano (1971), The Four-Note Opera (1972), Failing: A Very Difficult Piece for Solo String Bass (1975), and Nine Bells (1979). The author of Other Harmony: Beyond Tonal and Atonal (2014), Johnson was new-music critic for the Village Voice (1972–1982); his writings were collected in the book Voice of New Music (1989). Among his later compositions are Rational Melodies (1982) for any melodic instrument(s); Riemannoper (1988) for baritone, tenor, prima donna, prima donna assoluta, and piano; Bonhoeffer Oratorium (1992) for soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra; Canon for Six Guitars (1998); the Tilework series of solos (2002–2005); and the text-sound Tick

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Tock Rhythms (2012) for mixed chorus. Galileo (2001) is both a composition and the percussion instrument Johnson created to play it. See also ATONALITY; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; POSTMODERNISM. JOHNSTON, BEN (1926– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Ben Johnston studied at the Cincinnati Conservatory of Music and worked at Harry Partch’s California studio in 1950 and 1951, playing and recording Partch’s music and absorbing the principles of just intonation; he also collaborated with Partch on theater music for Wilford Leach’s play The Wooden Bird. Johnston studied with Darius Milhaud at Mills College and taught at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1951–1984); his students include William Duckworth, Neely Bruce, and Kyle Gann. He met John Cage at Illinois and assisted with the tape editing of Cage’s Williams Mix in 1952; he also studied with Cage in 1959. Microtonality was featured in Johnston’s Five Fragments (1960) for alto, oboe, bassoon, and cello and A Sea Dirge (1962) for mezzo-soprano, flute, oboe, and violin. String Quartet No. 2 (1964) used serial procedures with a 53-note-to-the-octave tuning system. He retuned a piano for his Sonata for Microtonal Piano (1965) and brought just intonation to the orchestra with Quintet for Groups (1966). Among Johnston’s major works of the 1970s are the vampire-themed opera Carmilla (1970); String Quartets Nos. 4 (1973) and 5 (1979), just-intonation variations on the hymns “Amazing Grace” and “Lonesome Valley,” respectively; and Suite for Microtonal Piano (1978). Especially admired for his 10 string quartets (1959–1995), of which only the first is in equal temperament, Johnston has become a leader in extended just intonation with such later scores as Sonnets of Desolation (1980) for eight voices; String Quartet No. 9 (1987); Calamity Jane to Her Daughter (1989) for soprano, violin, keyboard, organ, and drum set; Sextet (1990); String Quartet No. 10 (1995); and Octet (2000). See also ALTERNATE TUNING SYSTEMS; POSTMODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. JOLAS, BETSY (1926– ). French composer, musician, and educator. Born in Paris, Betsy Jolas came to the United States in 1940 and studied composition with Paul Boepple, piano with Helen Schnabel, and organ with Carl Weinrich. She returned to France in 1946 and studied with Darius Milhaud and Olivier Messiaen at the Paris Conservatoire; she later taught there and at Mills College, Tanglewood, and other institutions. Avoiding systems, Jolas has explored color and texture in Quatuor II (1964) for coloratura soprano and string trio, J.D.E. (1966) for chamber ensemble, Musique d’hiver (1971) for organ and chamber orchestra, Stances (1978) for piano and orchestra, and the operas Le pavillon au bord de la rivière (1975), Le Cyclope (1986), and Schliemann (1993). D’un opera de poupée en sept musiques (1982) featured

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an ondes martenot in its ensemble. Her notable later works include Quoth the Raven (1993) for clarinet and piano; Sonate à 8 (1998) for eight cellos; Motet IV (2002) for soprano and quintet; and the orchestral scores B Day (2006), the one-minute Just a Minute (2007), and A Little Summer Suite (2015). Jolas also scored the film Aimée (1981); her writings on music are collected in Molto Espressivo (1999). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; LÉANDRE, JOËLLE (1951– ); MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); MODERNISM. JOLIVET, ANDRÉ (1905–1974). French composer, musician, and educator. André Jolivet studied cello at Notre Dame de Clignancourt and composition with Paul Le Flem and Edgard Varèse. He performed internationally as a conductor and taught at the Paris Conservatoire (1966–1971); his students include Jean-Claude Risset. At first drawn to atonal and twelve-tone structures in such pieces as Trois Temps No. 1 (1930) for piano and String Quartet (1931, rev. 1934), Jolivet became more interested in ritualistic and incantorial music after a trip to North Africa, and he brought primitivist and mystical strains into such modernist scores as Mana (1933) for piano and the North African–inspired Cinq incantations (1936) for flute. Jolivet also wrote several works for ondes martenot: with piano in Trois poèmes (1935), within the orchestras of Danse incantatoire (1936) and Suite delphique (1943), and showcased in an orchestral Concerto (1947). Among Jolivet’s other notable works are the one-act opera buffa Dolores (1942); Concertino (1948) for trumpet, strings, and piano; Hopi Snake Dance (1948) for two pianos; Symphonies Nos. 1–3 (1953–1964); Cello Concertos Nos. 1 (1962) and 2 (1966); the oratorio La vérité de Jeanne (1956); Mandala (1969) for organ; and YinYang (1973) for 11 strings. His film music includes Le vrai coupable (1951). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001); MULTICULTURALISM. JOPLIN, SCOTT (1868–1917). American composer and musician. Scott Joplin played piano as a boy and by age 20 was traveling the country as an itinerant musician. He performed the minstrel songs and cakewalks with a popular syncopated approach to rhythm then called ragged time. As ragtime, this music made a hit with the public in the late 1890s, and Joplin’s tunefulness, charm, and expressivity made his music famous with such classics as Maple Leaf Rag (1899) and The Entertainer (1902). He composed memorable works in other genres too, including the march (Combination March, 1896), waltz (Bethena, 1905), and tango (Solace, 1909); but it was in ragtime that he became a master, producing hit after hit, among them The Cascades (1904), Gladiolus Rag (1907), Fig Leaf Rag (1908), and Wall Street Rag (1909), a work that featured tone-clusters.

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Joplin wrote a dance score, The Ragtime Dance (1899), a tableau for singing narrator, piano, and dancers, and orchestrated several of his rags for the anthology The Red Back Book (ca. 1906). He also composed two operas: the one-act A Guest of Honor (1903) and the three-act Treemonisha (1911). He used bolder and more original harmonies in his final masterpieces Scott Joplin’s New Rag (1912) and Magnetic Rag (1914), but by then the public’s interest in ragtime was fading. Joplin financed a 1915 concert performance of Treemonisha, and its failure broke him, materially and spiritually. The following year he announced that he was working on a music comedy drama called If and a symphony, but by then he was no longer able to compose. His mental condition deteriorated, and Joplin died in a New York hospital at age 49. Treemonisha, orchestrated by Gunther Schuller, was staged in 1975. See also BOLCOM, WILLIAM (1938– ); MODERNISM. JUST INTONATION. Just intonation is an alternate tuning system derived from the intervals of the overtone series, or harmonic series. When any pitch, or fundamental, is sounded, there occurs naturally a specific sequence of less audible pitches, known as partial tones, or overtones or harmonics, in an ascending series of intervals (and, theoretically at least, an equivalent descending series). The frequency of each higher partial is equal to the frequency of the fundamental times the number of that partial in the overtone series. When middle C is the fundamental (the first partial), it vibrates at a rate of 256 beats per second and produces a second partial with a frequency of 512 beats, which is a C one octave higher in equal temperament. The third partial has a frequency of 768 beats (= 3 x 256), which is a G above the second C, an interval of a perfect fifth; the fourth partial has 1,024 beats, which is another C. Four more partials follow, the last of which has a frequency of 2,048 beats, or yet another C; then eight partials to the next highest C, followed by 16, 32, and 64. The partials extend and on and on, into intervals too minute for the human ear to discriminate. Lou Harrison, Ben Johnston, Terry Riley, James Tenney, Tony Conrad, and Pauline Oliveros have used traditional instruments in just tunings. Harry Partch, the great champion of just intonation, devoted himself to designing and building instruments tuned to a just system. Other composers who followed him out of equal temperament were drawn to the aural phenomena that just intonation makes available: The pitches reinforce and strengthen the natural resonance of their higher partials and generate prominent overtone activity unavailable in equal-tempered music. The pleroma music of La Monte Young, Rhys Chatham, and Glenn Branca has involved working with amplified densities of pitches tuned to the ratios of higher just-intonation octaves. See also BADINGS, HENK (1907–1987); COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965); FULLMAN, ELLEN (1957– ); GANN, KYLE (1955– ); HYKES, DAVID (1953– ); INSTRUMENT BUILDING;

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LUCIER, ALVIN (1931– ); MOONDOG (1916–1999); POLYHARMONY; REINHARD, JOHNNY (1956– ); SCRIABIN, ALEXANDER (1872–1915); SPECTRAL MUSIC; STOCKHAUSEN, KARLHEINZ (1928–2007).

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K KAGEL, MAURICIO (1931–2008). Argentine composer and musician. Born in Buenos Aires of German and Russian parents, Mauricio Kagel studied singing and piano; he studied philosophy and literature at the University of Buenos Aires. He began composing with such works as Palimpsestos (1950) for mixed chorus, Sexteto de cuerdas (1953, rev. 1957) for strings, and Four Pieces for Piano (1954), and with the encouragement of Pierre Boulez, Kagel relocated to Germany in 1957 and settled in Cologne; he became a citizen in the early 1980s. Settling in Cologne, he created Transición I (1960) at the West-Deutscher Rundfunk (WDR) Electronic Music Studio. Language was the sound source of Anagrama (1957–1958) for four voices, speaking choir, and chamber ensemble, which used innovative vocal techniques. Building on Anagrama’s dramatic qualities, Kagel became one of Europe’s leading composers of theatrical music. At the WDR Electronic Music Studio, he created electronic music with Transición I (1958); musicians perform with recordings of themselves in Transicion II (1958) for piano, percussion, and two tape recorders, which used extended performance techniques with string piano. A lecture sinks into unintelligibility in Sur scène (1960) for singer, speaker, mime, three instrumentalists, and tape. Sonant (1960/. . .) (1960) for guitar, harp, double bass, and membranophones is a graphic score with texts for the musicians to speak. In the 1960s, Kagel began teaching in Europe and the United States; his students include Anne LeBaron and Horatiu Radulescu. The deconstructing of performance norms brought a surrealistic quality to Kagel’s postmodern music. Match (1964) has two competing cellists with a percussionist referee, in a reproduction of music Kagel had heard in a recurring dream. He composed precise scores for imprecise instruments, compelling audiences to consider how the music was being played. Invented and esoteric instruments were used with non-instruments in Der Schall (1968). Acustica (1970) featured homemade instruments, as did 1898 (1973, rev. 1996), in which children’s choruses sing out of tune. Exotica (1972) had Western musicians performing pseudo-world music on non-Western instruments. Players imitated old blues recordings in Blue’s Blue (1979). Kagel’s 189

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song-opera Aus Deutschland (1979) set texts used by Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, and Johannes Brahms; Quodlibet (1988) for female voice and orchestra used 15th-century French chanson lyrics. Among Kagel’s later works are Liturgien (1990) for solo voices, double choir, and large orchestra; Entführung im Konzertsaal (1999) for an abducted orchestra; Broken Chords (2001) for large orchestra; and a farce for ensemble, Divertimento (2006). Kagel also created numerous radio plays, including Guten Morgen! (1971) and Rrrrrrr . . . (1982), and he was a prolific filmmaker, deriving from his music theater such films and videos as Antithese (1965), Hallelujah (1968), Ludwig Van (1969), and Phonophonie (1979). See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); GLOBOKAR, VINKO (1934– ); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; MULTICULTURALISM; MULTIMEDIA; ONCE GROUP; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC; TUDOR, DAVID (1926–1996); ZORN, JOHN (1953– ). KANCHELI, GIYA (1935– ). Georgian composer, musician, and educator. Giya Kancheli studied piano and composition at the Georgian State Conservatory at Tbilisi and later taught there; in 1995, he settled in Belgium. A prolific composer of film music, Kancheli has employed extreme contrasts, particularly in dynamics, in such concert works as Symphonies Nos. 6 (1980) and 7 (1986). His other notable works include Symphonies Nos. 1–5 (1967–1977), the opera Music for the Living (1983), and Mourned by the Wind (1989) for viola or cello and orchestra. The four sections of Life without Christmas can be performed separately: Morning Prayers (1990) for alto flute, chamber orchestra, and tape; Midday Prayers (1991) for boy soprano, clarinet, and chamber orchestra; Evening Prayers (1991) for eight altos and chamber orchestra; and Night Prayers (1992) for string quartet and tape. Among Kancheli’s important later works are Diplipito (1997) for countertenor, cello, and chamber orchestra; the orchestral scores Rokwa (1999), Ergo (2000), and Warzone (2002); and Angels of Grief (2013) for girls’ chorus, violin, cello, and chamber orchestra. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM. KHACHATURIAN, ARAM (1903–1978). Armenian composer, musician, and educator. Aram Ilyich Khachaturian studied at the Moscow Conservatory with Reinhold Glière and Nikolai Myaskovsky; he later taught there. Also a conductor, he composed colorful neoromantic pieces with a special feeling for an array of Soviet folk music: Armenian, Georgian, Ukrainian, Russian, Turkmenian, and Irano-Azerbaijan. Among Khachaturian’s notable early works are his Piano Concerto (1936), Violin Concerto (1940), and the ballet score Gayaneh (1942), with its popular “Sabre Dance.” He also scored several Soviet films. But when his music was denounced as formalist in 1948,

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along with that of his fellow “Big Four” Soviet composers Myaskovsky, Sergey Prokofiev, and Dmitry Shostakovich, as well as many others, Khachaturian was compelled like the rest to acknowledge his errors and mend his ways. His later works include the ballet score Spartacus (1954) and the Concerto-Rhapsody for Cello and Orchestra (1963). See also MODERNISM; MULTICULTURALISM. KIRCHNER, LEON (1919–2009). American composer, musician, and educator. Leon Kirchner had studied piano since childhood; he studied composition with Richard Buhlig, Arnold Schoenberg, Ernest Bloch, and Roger Sessions. Kirchner taught at Mills College (1954–1961) and Harvard University (1961–1989); his students include Morton Subotnick, George Cacioppo, Donald Scavarda, and John Adams. Also active as a conductor, Kirchner composed chiefly in an expressionist-inspired atonal idiom, producing such notable early scores as Piano Sonata No. 1 (1948), String Quartets Nos. 1 (1949) and 2 (1958), Piano Concertos Nos. 1 (1953) and 2 (1963), and Piano Trio No. 1 (1954). Working at Subotnick’s electronic-music studio, he created tape music for his String Quartet No. 3 (1966) and the opera Lily (1977). Kirchner’s important later works include Music for Flute and Orchestra (1978); Music for Twelve (1985); For Violin Solo (1986) and For Violin Solo II (1988); Music for Cello and Orchestra (1992); Piano Trio No. 2 (1993); Of Things Exactly as They Are (1997) for soprano, baritone, mixed chorus, and orchestra; Piano Sonatas Nos. 2 (2003) and 3 (2006); String Quartet No. 4 (2006); and The Forbidden (2008) for orchestra. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM. KIRKPATRICK, JOHN (1905–1991). American musician and educator. Pianist John Kirkpatrick attended Princeton University and studied with Nadia Boulanger in France; his piano teachers included Camille Decreus, Isidore Philipp, and Louta Nouneberg. Devoted to American music, Kirkpatrick championed the piano scores of Aaron Copland, Roy Harris, Carl Ruggles, Ross Lee Finney, and other modernists, but he is most noted for his connection to the music of Charles Ives. Kirkpatrick’s 1939 premiere of Ives’s “Concord” Sonata was a turning point in the recognition of Ives; he eventually became the Curator of the Ives Collection at Yale University and prepared Ives’s Memos for publication in 1972. Kirkpatrick also taught at Yale, Monticello College, Mt. Holyoke College, and Cornell University. KNOWLES, ALISON (1933– ). American composer. Alison Knowles studied fine arts at the Pratt Institute. Her involvement with the Fluxus group resulted in her composing such event scores as Shuffle (1961), Make a Salad (1962), Shoes of Your Choice (1963), Music by Alison (1964), and Wounded

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Furniture (1965). Although primarily a visual artist and writer, Knowles has continued to produce indeterminate and conceptual music, including The Bean Garden (1976) and Loose Pages (1986– ). Among the paper instruments she has created are the Giant Bean Turner, Wrist Rubber, and Bamboo & Flax Accordion. She created the interactive sound sculpture/sound installation House of Dust (1968) and other installations such as Bean Garden (1971). Knowles was married to fellow Fluxus composer Dick Higgins (1960–1970, 1984–1998). See also INSTRUMENT BUILDING; POSTMODERNISM. KNUSSEN, OLIVER (1952–2018). Scottish composer and musician. Oliver Knussen studied privately with John Lambert and at Tanglewood with Gunther Schuller. Prodigious as composer and conductor, at age 15 he led the London Symphony Orchestra in the 1968 premiere of his partially twelve-tone Symphony No. 1. Knussen won acclaim for his Symphony No. 2 (1971) for soprano and small orchestra, nonet Ophelia Dances, Book 1 (1975), Cantata (1977) for oboe and string trio, Symphony No. 3 (1979), and his chamber-opera settings of Maurice Sendak, Where the Wild Things Are (1981, rev. 1983) and Higglety Pigglety Pop! (1990). His later works include Whitman Settings (1991–1992) for soprano and piano or orchestra; the octet Songs without Voices (1992); Requiem: Songs for Sue (2006) for soprano and chamber ensemble; Ophelia’s Last Dance (2010) for piano; and O Hototogisu! (2017) for soprano, flute, and large ensemble. See also MODERNISM. KODÁLY, ZOLTÁN (1882–1967). Hungarian composer, musician, and educator. Zoltán Kodály studied at the Budapest Academy of Music and with Charles-Marie Widor in Paris. He began investigating folk music in 1905 with Béla Bartók; they also cocomposed Twenty Hungarian Folksongs (1906) for voice and piano. Kodály became an important ethnomusicologist, and his nationalist compositions blended folk, Romantic, impressionist, and neomedieval qualities. Among his major orchestral scores are the Suite from his opera Háry János (1926), Dances of Galánta (1933), Variations on a Hungarian Folk Song (1939, aka Peacock Variations), and Concerto for Orchestra (1940). Equally admired are three large works for mixed chorus: the oratorio Psalmus Hungaricus (1923), with tenor, boys’ choir ad lib, orchestra, and organ; Budavári Te Deum (1936), with soloists, orchestra, and organ; and Missa Brevis (1944), with soloists and organ or orchestra. Kodály’s other notable works include String Quartets Nos. 1 (1909) and 2 (1918), Duo for Violin and Cello (1914), and Sonata for Solo Cello (1915). He also wrote film music and taught composition and theory at the Budapest Academy (1907–1941), where he served as director; his students include István Anhalt. He is the author of Folk Music of Hungary (1960) and other

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writings; his Kodály Method for developing children’s musicality has been adopted internationally. See also GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; MODERNISM; ORNSTEIN, LEO (ca. 1892–2002). KOLB, BARBARA (1939– ). American composer and educator. Barbara Kolb studied with Arnold Franchetti at the Hartt College of Music of the University of Hartford, and with Gunther Schuller and Lukas Foss at Tanglewood; she has taught at Rhode Island College and other institutions. Inspired by impressionism, Kolb’s static yet colorful music has utilized aleatoric and serial techniques along with other atonal structures. Among her orchestral compositions are Soundings (1978), All in Good Time (1993), and The Web Spinner (2004). Kolb’s other notable works include Three Place Settings for narrator and four musicians (1968), Trobar Clus for chamber orchestra (1970), Related Characters for trumpet and piano (1980), Extremes (1989) for flute and cello, Voyants for piano and chamber orchestra (1991), All in Good Time (1994) for orchestra, and Sidebars for bassoon and piano (2004). Kolb has combined tape with piano in Solitaire (1971); two pianos in Spring River Flowers Moon Night (1975); and chamber orchestra in Millefoglie (1985). See also EASTMAN, JULIUS (1940–1990); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM. KOLISCH, RUDOLF (1896–1978). Austrian-born American musician and educator. At the Vienna Academy of Music, Rudolf Kolisch studied violin with Otakar Sevcík, musicology with Guido Adler, and composition with Fritz Schreker. Kolisch formed the Vienna Quartet in 1922, which became the Kolisch Quartet in 1929; the group premiered works by Arnold Schoenberg (who married Kolisch’s sister Gertrud in 1924), Alban Berg, Anton Webern, Béla Bartók, and other important modernists. They relocated to the United States in 1935 and disbanded in 1944. Kolisch taught at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and led the Pro Arte Quartet from 1944 to 1967; he then taught at the New England Conservatory of Music until his death at age 82. KONDO, JO (1947– ). Japanese composer and educator. Jo Kondo studied composition at the Tokyo University of the arts; he has taught at Ochanomizu University, Showa University of Music, Dartington International Summer School, and other institutions. A linear composer who avoids melodic or motivic development, Kondo won acclaim with such early works as the electroacoustic Breeze (1970) for nine players, which used graphic notation; his film music for Toshio Matsumoto’s Phantom (1975); the tape music Riverrun (1977); and When Wind Blew (1979) for small orchestra. Founder and director of the performance group Musica Practica Ensemble

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(1980–1991), Kondo has also written for traditional Japanese instruments: Dance(s) (1984) for two sho and u; Jo-ka (1986) for gagaku orchestra and Buddhist choir; In Autumn (2014) for two kotos. Kondo has massed like voices in Under the Umbrella (1976) for five percussionists playing 25 untuned cowbells and a gong; Still Life (1981) for eight violins; Frontier (1991) for three clarinets and five-part clarinet choir; Sleeping Venice (1995) for mandolin orchestra; and Pamphonos (2004) for flute choir. His refined sense of instrumental color characterizes such works as A Shape of Time (1980) for piano and orchestra; Res sonorae (1987) for oboe, viola, and 12 instruments; Hypsotony (1989) for string quartet; the orchestral scores In the Woods (1989), To the Headland (1995), and Mulberry (1998); Aesculus (1992) for sextet; A Rock and a Bird (1992) for wind orchestra; and his one-act opera Hagoromo (1994). His notable recent music includes Snow’s Falling (2001) for mixed chorus and piano; DandelionClock-Work (2008) for two pianos tuned a quarter-tone apart and optional ensemble; Causes and Effects (2014) for ondes martenot, viola, and piano; and Caccia (2016) for toy piano. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); ATONALITY; PLEROMA; POSTMODERNISM; TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ). KORNGOLD, ERICH WOLFGANG (1897–1957). Moravian-born American composer, musician, and educator. Erich Wolfgang Korngold was prodigious, playing piano and composing in an advanced post-Romantic idiom from childhood. He studied with Alexander von Zemlinsky and, in 1909, published his ballet-pantomime score Der Schneemann and Piano Sonata No. 1. He was praised by Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss; Artur Schnabel premiered Korngold’s Piano Sonata No. 2 (1910). He composed a Sinfonietta (1913) for orchestra, the one-act operas Der Ring des Polykrates (1914) and Violanta (1915), and String Quartet No. 1 (1923). His greatest success was the three-act opera Die tote Stadt (1920), but Das Wunder der Heliane (1927) failed to find an audience. Active as a professor at the Vienna Academy of Music and as a conductor, Korngold also composed his jazzinflected Baby Serenade (1929) for orchestra, Piano Sonata No. 3 (1931), and String Quartet No. 2 (1933). In 1934, he went to Hollywood to arrange Felix Mendelssohn’s music for Max Reinhardt’s film of William Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream. He began composing film music the following year and settled in the United States in 1938, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1943. Korngold’s notable later works are the opera Die Kathrin (1937), Violin Concerto (1939, rev. 1945), String Quartet No. 3 (1945), Cello Concerto (1946), Symphonic Serenade (1948), the operetta Die stumme Serenade (1950), and Symphony in F sharp (1952). See also MODERNISM.

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KOSUGI, TAKEHISA (1938–2018). Japanese composer and musician. Takehisa Kosugi studied musicology at the Tokyo University of Arts. Seeking new forms of improvisation, he cofounded Group Ongaku (1958–1963) and Taj Mahal Travellers (1969–1975) and performed as an improvising violinist with electronics: Catch-Wave (1975), Violin Improvisations (1990), Violin Solo 1980 (1998), Catch-Wave ’97 (2008). Kosugi scored the film Kuzu (1962); with the Fluxus group, he produced such event scores as Organic Music (1962), South Nos. 1–3 (1962–1965), Theatre Music (1963), and Anima 7 (1964). Among his multimedia pieces are South No. 8 (1979) and 75 Letters and Improvisation (1987). Music director of the Merce Cunningham Dance Company from 1995 until its disbanding in 2012, Kosugi created such live electronic-music works as S.E. Wave/E.W. Song (1976), Cycles (1981), Spacings (1984), Transfigurations (1993), and Wave Code A–Z (1997). David Behrman composed his electroacoustic Interspecies Smalltalk (1984) for Kosugi’s violin; other composer/musicians Kosugi performed with include David Tudor, Yuji Takahashi, Christian Wolff, and Steve Lacy. He also created such sound installations as Islands (1991) and Illuminated Summer (1996). See also ATONALITY; FREE IMPROVISATION; MINIMALISM; POSTMODERNISM; TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ). KOTIK, PETR (1942– ). Czechoslovakian-born American composer and musician. Flutist and conductor Petr Kotik studied music at the Prague Conservatory and the Vienna Academy of Music; he settled in the United States in 1969 and became a U.S. citizen in 1977. Kotik founded the S.E.M. Ensemble in 1970, specializing in new music. His compositions include Spontano (1964) for piano and 10 instruments; the open-form vocal works Many Many Women (1978) and Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking (1982), lengthy minimalist settings of Gertrude Stein and Buckminster Fuller, respectively; the orchestral scores Quiescent Form (1996) and Music in Two Movements (2003); String Quartets Nos. 1 (2009) and 2 (2012); and the opera Master-Pieces (2015). See also KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); POSTMODERNISM. KRENEK, ERNST (1900–1991). Austrian-born American composer, musician, and educator. Ernst Krenek, a child prodigy as composer and pianist, studied at the Vienna Musikhochschule and conducted opera in Germany. A modernist with his dissonant String Quartet No. 1 (1921), atonal Symphony No. 2 (1922), and expressionist opera Orpheus und Eurydike (1923), Krenek was also drawn to neoclassicism and composed the popular jazzinflected opera Jonny spielt auf (1926). He turned to neoromanticism in the opera Leben des Orest (1929); Reisebuch aus den österreichischen Alpen (1929) for medium voice and piano; and String Quartet No. 5 (1930). Krenek

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then embraced twelve-tone music with the opera Karl V (1933, rev. 1954), String Quartet No. 6 (1936), Lamentatio Jeremiae prophetae (1942) for mixed chorus, and Piano Sonata No. 3 (1943, rev. 1960). Sestina (1957) for soprano and octet and Quaestio temporis (1959) for orchestra were totally serialized. Krenek settled in the United States in 1938, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1945. He taught at Vassar College and Hamline University and other institutions; his students include George Perle, Halim El-Dabh, Richard Maxfield, Ursula Mamlok, and Henry Mancini. Krenek also wrote the books Music Here and Now (1939), Exploring Music (1966), and Horizons Circled (1974). He combined electronic music with voices in Spiritus intelligentiae, Sanctus (1956), orchestra in Exercises of a Late Hour (1967), and organ in Orga-Nastro (1971). Aleatoric techniques informed Fibonacci Mobile (1964) for string quartet and piano four-hands and the orchestral scores From Three Make Seven (1961, rev. 1968) and Horizon Circled (1967). His later scores include the autobiographical Spätlese (1972) for baritone and piano, String Quartet No. 8 (1981), and the oratorio Opus sine nomine (1988). A prolific composer, Krenek wrote seven piano sonatas (1919–1988), eight string quartets (1921–1981), five symphonies (1921–1949), 19 operas (1923–1969), and four piano concertos (1923–1950). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC. KRONOS QUARTET. Formed in 1973 by violinist David Harrington, the Kronos Quartet has featured second violinist John Sherba and violist Hank Dutt since 1978; cellist Joan Jeanrenaud played with the group from 1978 to 1999 and was replaced by Jennifer Culp (1999–2005), Jeffrey Zeigler (2005–2013), and Sunny Yang (since 2013). Committed to modern and postmodern music, the Kronos Quartet has premiered works by such composers as Terry Riley, Henryk Górecki, La Monte Young, John Zorn, Philip Glass, Laurie Anderson, John Adams, Steve Reich, Tan Dun, John Oswald, Elliott Sharp, Bob Ostertag, and Missy Mazzoli. The Kronos Quartet has also led master classes and other educational programs internationally. KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ). American composer and musician. As a teenager, Philip Krumm played piano and gave concerts in 1960 and 1961 in Texas with Robert Sheff (who would later compose and perform as “Blue” Gene Tyranny), performing music by himself, Sheff, Philip Corner, John Cage, La Monte Young, and others. Krumm studied with Ross Lee Finney at the University of Michigan and with Karlheinz Stockhausen at the University of California at Davis. He performed with George Brecht and Terry Jennings in Yoko Ono’s 1961 New York concert and with Jerry Hunt in

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1963; a 1962 Fluxus concert included Krumm’s Patterns (1962) for string quartet. With the ONCE Group, Krumm premiered Paragenesis (1959) for two violins and piano; the study in polyrhythm Music for Clocks (1962) for chamber ensemble, an open form score employing graphic notation; the theatrical piece May 1962 (1963); and Concerto (1964) for soloist and ensemble. Among his other 1962 works are the indeterminate Formations and the quotation piece Exciting Moments in the Life of G. F. Handel. His work for electronic instruments includes Sound Machine (1966), Farewell to LA (1975), and No Time at All (1989). Krumm’s Banshee Fantasia (1997), a tribute to Henry Cowell, calls for tone-clusters and string-piano techniques. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ). American musician and educator. Joseph Kubera studied piano with Leo Smit (1921–1999) at the State University of New York at Buffalo; he also studied with Earle Brown at the Peabody Conservatory and taught at the San Francisco Conservatory. Kubera is a longtime member of Petr Kotik’s S.E.M. Ensemble and has an active career as a soloist specializing in postmodern music. A champion of John Cage and Julius Eastman, he has also worked closely with Morton Feldman, Robert Ashley, and La Monte Young. Kubera has premiered works written for him by Larry Austin, Michael Byron, Alvin Lucier, Roscoe Mitchell, and “Blue” Gene Tyranny. As a duo pianist with Sarah Cahill, Kubera has premiered works by Byron and Terry Riley. KURTÁG, GYÖRGY (1926– ). Hungarian composer, musician, and educator. György Kurtág studied at the Budapest Academy of Music and in Paris with Olivier Messiaen and Darius Milhaud. Kurtág taught at the Budapest Academy (1967–1993); his piano students include Thomas Adès, Zoltán Kocsis, and András Schiff. He scored the film Egy régi villamos (1961). Melding the rhythmic vigor of Béla Bartók with the sparseness and compression of Anton Webern, Kurtág composed such notable works as his String Quartet (1959), The Sayings of Péter Bornemisza (1968) for soprano and piano, Messages of the Late R. V. Troussova (1980) for soprano and chamber ensemble, Kafka-Fragmente (1987) for soprano and violin, and the spatial scores . . . quasi una fantasia . . . (1988) for piano and chamber ensemble, Grabstein für Stephan (1989) for guitar and instrumental groups, and Double Concerto (1990). Kurtág left Hungary in 1993 and settled in Berlin. His later compositions include the orchestral scores Stele (1994) and Messages (1996); . . . pas à pas—nulle part . . . (1997) for baritone, string trio, and percussion; Six moments musicaux (2005) for string quartet; Brefs messages (2010) for nine instruments; and his first opera, the Samuel Beck-

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ett adaptation Fin de partie (2018). See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); MODERNISM; NONO, LUIGI (1924–1990); UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ).

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L LA BARBARA, JOAN (1947– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Joan La Barbara studied voice with Helen Boatwright, Phyllis Curtin, and Marian Szekely-Fresch, and she has taught at several American institutions and the Hochschule der Kunst in Berlin. A virtuoso singer with a command of extended performance techniques, La Barbara has premiered works by Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Robert Ashley, John Cage, Morton Feldman, Rhys Chatham, and her husband Morton Subotnick. Her compositions are mostly electroacoustic, such as Shadow Song (1979) for voice and multi-track tape; The Solar Wind III (1984) for amplified voice and orchestra; the opera Events in (the) Elsewhere (1990); A Different Train (1996) for four voices, percussion, and tape; Der Wassergeister (2006) for voice, violin, sampled sounds, computer, and surround sound; and The Wanderlusting of Joseph C. (2017) for two sopranos, baritone, and chamber ensemble, including synthesizer. Among her other works are Silent Scroll (1982) for voice, cello or double bass, flute, zoomoozophone, and cup gongs; Calligraphy II/Shadows (1995) for voice and Chinese instruments; Flash! (2005) for solo violin; Striations (2009) for voice with megaphone and intonarumori; and A Murmuration for Chibok (2016) for treble choir. Her film music includes Welcome to This House (2015). See also FUTURISM; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM; WEISBERG, ARTHUR (1931–2009). LACHENMANN, HELMUT (1935– ). German composer, musician, and educator. Helmut Lachenmann studied piano with Jürgen Uhde and composition with Johann Nepomuk David and Luigi Nono. He has taught at several German institutions; his students include Ashley Fure. Exploring delicate and unusual sonorities through extended performance techniques, Lachenmann has used novel methods of playing string instruments in such works as Pression (1969) for solo cello and String Quartet No. 2 (1989). The piano lid is fanned to produce waves of sound in Zwei Gefühle (1992) for two speakers and chamber ensemble. His other notable music includes the music-theater piece Das Mädchen mit den Schwefelhölzern (1996, rev. 1999); the piano 199

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scores Guero (1970, rev. 1988) and Serynade (1998, rev. 2000); and the orchestral works Fassade (1973), Tableau (1988), Schreiben (2003), and My Melodies (2018) for eight French horns and orchestra. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); MODERNISM. LAM BUN-CHING (1954– ). Chinese composer, musician, and educator. Macau-born Lam Bun-Ching studied piano at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and composition with Roger Reynolds and Pauline Oliveros. She has performed internationally as pianist and conductor and taught at the Cornish College of the Arts in Seattle (1981–1986) and other institutions. Lam wrote for Chinese instruments in Impetus (1987) and combined them with Western instruments in Omni Hakkei (2000), Atlas (2004, also with Middle Eastern instruments), and her scores for pipa and orchestra, Sudden Thunder (1994) and Song of the Pipa (2001). Chinese instruments are also featured with voices in Walking Walking Keep Walking (1991), The Journey (2002), Bolts of Melody (2003), and her operas The Child God (1993) and Wenji (2001). Among Lam’s other multicultural scores are Yangguan Sandie (1984) for American gamelan, Three Haikei (After Basho) (2003) for recorder and koto, and Three Songs of Shide (2013) for shakuhachi and kugo. Her music for Western instruments includes After Spring (1983) for two pianos; . . . Like Water (1991) for violin/viola, piano, and percussion; the orchestral scores Lang Tao Sha (1981, with solo violin) and Saudades de Macau I (1989) and II (2005); and electroacoustic music (Similla/Dissimilla for trombone and electric violin, 1990; Qin 2000 for violin, bassoon, electric guitar, piano/synthesizer, and electronic mallets and drums, 1994). Lam’s notable recent works include Ruinas de S. Paulo (2015) for string ensemble; Canzoniere CXXVI (2014) for baritone, flute, and theorbo; and Like Rain (2017) for pipa and string quartet. See also BUCKNER, THOMAS (1941– ); POSTMODERNISM. LANG, DAVID (1957– ). American composer and musician. David Lang studied with Jacob Druckman, Roger Reynolds, Morton Subotnick, Hans Werner Henze, and Martin Bresnick. He cofounded the music collective Bang on a Can in 1987 with postmodern composers Julia Wolfe and Michael Gordon; the three also cocomposed the operas The Carbon Copy Building (1995), Lost Objects (2001), Shelter (2005), and Water (2008). Lang’s works frequently combine minimalist and rock techniques. Among his notable compositions are are you experienced? (1987) for large ensemble; the passing measures (1998) for orchestra; the music-theater piece the difficulty of crossing a field (2002) for five vocal soloists, small choir, and

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string quartet; and symphony for broken instruments (2017). Singers also play percussion in the little match girl passion (2007) and love fail (2012). His film music includes Wildlife (2018). LAUTEN, ELODIE (1950–2014). French-born American composer, musician, and educator. Born Genevieve Schecroun, she was the daughter of jazz pianist and drummer Errol Parker. She studied piano from age seven with Paris Conservatoire teachers and moved to the United States in 1972, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1984. Elodie Lauten studied electronic music, Western composition, and Indian classical music at New York University; she also studied privately with La Monte Young. Lauten recorded the rock EP Orchestre Modern (1980), singing and playing synthesizer, and was an improvising pianist as well as composer (Piano Works, 1983; Blue Rhythms, with electronics, 1987). Her electronic music is featured on the albums Tronik Involutions (1994) and Inscapes from Exile (1998). Lauten won acclaim for her minimalist approach to opera: The Death of Don Juan (1987, rev. 2005); Waking in New York (1999, rev. 2004, 2014), to a libretto by poet Allen Ginsberg; and OrfReo (2004) with baroque ensemble. She designed and performed on the Trine, an electroacoustic 21-string lyre offering an array of tunings (Music for the Trine, 1985–1988). Her other notable works include Concerto for Piano and Orchestral Memory (1984) for piano, trombone, string trio, and tape; Variations on the Orange Cycle (1995) for piano; Deus ex Machina Cycle (1995) for voice and baroque ensemble; and the orchestral works Symphony 2001 (2000) and Harmonic Protection Cycle (2003). Lauten taught at the New York City College of Technology from 2009 until her death from cancer at age 63. See also FREE IMPROVISATION; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; MICROTONALITY; MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM; RUSSELL, ARTHUR (1951–1992). LE CAINE, HUGH (1914–1977). Canadian composer and musician. An engineer and scientist who studied at Queen’s University, Hugh Le Caine began building electronic instruments in his home studio in the late 1940s, such as the Electronic Sackbut, the first voltage-controlled synthesizer. He moved his studio to the National Research Council of Canada (NRC) in 1954 and built more than 20 instruments; he also invented the Multi-track, on which he created tape music such as Dripsody (1955) and Invocation (1957). Ninety-Nine Generators (1956) was played on his Touch Sensitive Organ; Nocturne (1962), on his Conductive Keyboard; Music for Expo (1967), on his Serial Sound Structure Generator, which he had designed to create totally serialized electronic music. Le Caine’s Mobile: The Computer Laughed

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(Perpetual Motion) (1970) was for the NRC Computer Music System. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; MODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. LEACH, MARY JANE (1949– ). American composer and musician. Mary Jane Leach studied at Columbia University with Mark Zuckerman. Her pleroma composition deals with difference, combination, and interference tones. Leach massed like voices in 4BC (1984) for four bass clarinets, Four Play (1986, rev. 2007) for four violins, and Bare Bones (1989) for four trombones/ bass trombones. Other works combined soloists with eight taped versions of themselves: oboe in Xanthippe’s Rebuke (1993), countertenor in Tricky Pan (1995), cello in Bach’s Set (2007). Her music for women’s voices includes Ariadne’s Lament (1993) and The Great Goddess (2001). The Upper Room (1990) is a sound installation for synthesizer. Leach has performed Dido Remembered (2002) and Gulf War Syndrome (2006) for synthesizer and tape. Among her notable recent works are Dowland’s Tears (2011) for 10 flutes and O, My Sisters! (2015) for soprano, women’s chorus, and string quartet. See also CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. LEAGUE OF AUTOMATIC MUSIC COMPOSERS. See THE HUB. LÉANDRE, JOËLLE (1951– ). French composer, musician, and educator. Joëlle Léandre studied double bass at the Paris Conservatory. A virtuoso musician and improviser, she has released the solo recordings Sincerely (1985), Urban Bass (1991), Solo Bass—Live at Otis, Hiroshima (1999), Concerto Grosso (2005), and Solo (2011). She has performed with an array of improvisers, including George Lewis, Fred Frith, Susie Ibarra, Sylvie Courvoisier, Alvin Curran, John Zorn, Anthony Braxton, Richard Teitelbaum, Thomas Buckner, Derek Bailey, Phil Minton, and Steve Lacy. Among her compositions are the multimedia work Basse pour/contre (1980) for solo double bass with video; Cri (1992) for solo trombone; The Ugly Duckling (1999) for reciter, clarinet, viola, cello, double bass, and piano; Figures érotiques (2003) for two voices, trombone, double bass, guitar, and percussion; and Fragments (2008) for five musicians. Léandre has premiered works written for her by John Cage, Giacinto Scelsi, and Betsy Jolas. Her film music includes L’atelier de Boris (2004). The author of writings collected in Caraque (1993), Léandre has taught at Mills College and given master classes internationally. See also FREE IMPROVISATION; FREE JAZZ; POSTMODERNISM.

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LEBARON, ANNE (1953– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Anne LeBaron studied composition with Frederic Goossen at the University of Alabama; with Bülent Arel and Daria Semegen at State University of New York at Stony Brook; with György Ligeti and Mauricio Kagel in Germany; and with Jack Beeson, Chou Wen-chung, and Mario Davidovsky at Columbia University. She studied harp privately with Alice Chalifoux; as an improviser, she has developed extended performance techniques for the harp and has performed with numerous improvisers, including Anthony Braxton, Muhal Richard Abrams, Fred Frith, George Lewis, Lionel Hampton, Derek Bailey, Shelley Hirsch, Davey Williams, LaDonna Smith, and her Anne LeBaron Quintet. A leading postmodern composer, LeBaron has embraced a wide range of media and styles. Her music has readily combined tonal and atonal techniques; featured blues, jazz, classical, and world-music elements; and employed theatricality. A rich vein of humor can also arise, as in Concerto for Active Frogs (1975) for voices, three instruments, and tape. Her music for voice with instruments includes the solos Lamentation/Invocation (1984), inspired by Korean singing and employing long sustained tones; Dish (1990); the witty Gertrude Stein setting Is Money Money (2000); and the delicate effects of Breathtails (2011) for voice, string quartet, and shakuhachi. She has also written the choral scores Light Breaks Where No Sun Shines (1977) and Nightmare (1999), as well as music-theater pieces for soprano and chamber musicians such as Pope Joan (2000), Transfiguration (2003), and Sucktion (2008). Her operas, the blues-inspired The E & O Line (1991) and the ecological-themed Croak (The Last Frog) (1996) and Wet (2005), led LeBaron to what she terms hyperopera—an intensive, nonhierarchical collaboration across multiple disciplines—with Crescent City (2012), an apocalyptic tale employing video and six different visual-artist installations, which backed its singers with an 18-piece electroacoustic ensemble. LeBaron has composed for orchestra (Strange Attractors, 1987; Double Concerto for Harp and Chamber Orchestra, 1995; American Icons, 1996; Traces of Mississippi, 2000), chamber ensembles (The Sea and the Honeycomb, 1979; Noh Reflections, 1986; Devil in the Belfry, 1993), and solo musicians (After a Dammit to Hell for bassoon, 1982; Hsing for harp, 2002; Los Murmullos for piano, 2006). Southern Ephemera (1993) was scored for a consort of Harry Partch instruments. Among her tape-music works are Quadratura Circuli (1978) and Eurydice Is Dead (1983). She has combined tape with harp in Planxty Bowerbird (1982) and I Am an American . . . My Government Will Reward You (1988), electric harp and clarinet/bass clarinet in Bodice Ripper (1999), flute in Sachamama (1995), and contrabass in Inner Voice (2002). Her multimedia Way of Light (2006) for trumpet featured video. LeBaron’s notable recent works include The Silent Steppe Cantata (2011) for tenor, women’s chorus, and Kazakh instruments; Radiant Depth

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Unfolded (2015) for soprano, baritone, and piano; and Fissure (2017) for violin, piano, and tape. She has taught at the University of Pittsburgh, California Institute of the Arts, and other institutions. See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; FREE IMPROVISATION; MULTICULTURALISM; SURREALISM. LEIBOWITZ, RENÉ (1913–1972). Polish-born French composer, musician, and educator. René Leibowitz studied conducting with Pierre Monteux; despite his claims to the contrary, he never studied composition with Anton Webern or Arnold Schoenberg. But after World War II, Leibowitz did play an essential role in reigniting European interest in twelve-tone music. He conducted Schoenberg’s works and taught the method to such students as Pierre Boulez, Bernd Alois Zimmermann, Vinko Globokar, and Hans Werner Henze; he also wrote the books Schoenberg et son école (1947), Qu’est-ce que la musique de douze sons? (1948), Introduction à la musique de douze sons (1949), L’évolution de la musique de Bach à Schoenberg (1952), and Schoenberg (1969). Leibowitz coined the term serial, due to the use of a specific series of pitches arranged in a set, or row, in twelve-tone music. His many scores include nine string quartets (1940–1972); three operas (1953–1971); Humoresque (1957) for six percussionists; Art for Art’s Sake (1959) for jazz orchestra; Marijuana—variations non-sérieuses (1960) for violin, trombone, vibraphone, and piano; and A Prayer (1965) for mezzosoprano, men’s chorus, and orchestra. See also MODERNISM. LEÓN, TANIA (1943– ). Cuban-born American composer, musician, and educator. After receiving her musical education in Havana, Tania León relocated to the United States in 1967. She became a cofounder of the Dance Theater of Harlem and its first music director in 1969 and, by the 1970s, was performing internationally as a conductor. She has also taught at numerous institutions, including Brooklyn College and the City University of New York. León’s multicultural music has combined atonal materials with a Caribbean rhythmic sensibility. Among her orchestral scores are Batá (1985, rev. 1988), Carabalí (1991), Desde . . . (2001), and Ácana (2008). Her chamber music includes Elegia a Paul Robeson (1987) for violin, cello, and piano; Saóko (1997) for brass quintet; and the septet Toque (2006), as well as electroacoustic works such as Tau (1995) for electric oboe, electric bass, and electronic keyboards and Axon (2002) and Abanico (2007), both for violin and interactive computer. Other works include the ballet scores The Beloved (1972), Belé (1981), and Inura (2009); the opera Scourge of Hyacinths (1999); A Row of Buttons (2002) for female voices; Cuarteto No. 2 (2011) for string quartet; and One Mo’ Time (2016) for five instruments. See also OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); POSTMODERNISM.

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LES SIX. See GROUPE DES SIX. LEWIS, GEORGE (1952– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Also known as George E. Lewis, he studied composition with Muhal Richard Abrams and trombone with Dean Hay. A free jazz composer and improviser, Lewis has been a member of the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians (AACM) since 1971. He has used closed and open forms, extended performance techniques, and electronics and computers in his music, and he has worked with such composer/musicians as Abrams, Leroy Jenkins, Roscoe Mitchell, Alvin Curran, Joëlle Léandre, Laurie Anderson, Anthony Braxton, John Zorn, Richard Teitelbaum, Anne LeBaron, Phill Niblock, Anthony Davis, Frederic Rzewski, Fred Frith, Garrett List, and Steve Lacy. His electroacoustic music includes The Kim and I (1979) for trombone and computer; Voyager, conceived and programmed in 1986–1988, with an interactive computer creating a virtual orchestra that is responsive to an improviser in real time; and Virtual Discourse (1993), blending infrared-controlled virtual percussion with percussion quartet. Among Lewis’s instrumental works are Endless Shout (1994) for piano and Signifying Riffs (1998) for string quartet and percussion. He has released the recordings The George Lewis Solo Trombone Record (1976), Chicago Slow Dance (1977), and Homage to Charles Parker (1979). His large-ensemble compositions are heard on The Shadowgraph Series (2001); works for voice and instruments are collected on Changing with the Times (1993). Lewis has also created sound installations such as Kalimbascope (1985–1986), with interactive computer graphics; with David Behrman he created Algorithmes et kalimba (1986) and A Map of the Known World (1987). The author of A Power Stronger than Itself: The AACM and American Experimental Music (2008), Lewis has taught at Mills College, Columbia University, and other institutions. His recent works for improvising ensembles include Something Like Fred (2009), Pots (2012), and Impromptu (2012). See also CHANCE MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; MEV; POSTMODERNISM. LIEBERSON, PETER (1946–2011). American composer and educator. Son of Columbia Records head Goddard Lieberson and ballerina and reciter Vera Zorina, Peter Lieberson took informal lessons with Milton Babbitt and studied with Charles Wuorinen and Harvey Sollberger at Columbia University and Donald Martino at Brandeis University; he later taught at Harvard University. Lieberson used twelve-tone techniques in such early scores as Flute Variations (1971) for solo flute; Concerto for Four Groups of Instruments (1972); and Piano Fantasy (1975). In 1976, he stepped back from

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composition, devoting himself to Vajrayana Buddhism. Lieberson’s subsequent music embraced a greater range and deeper serenity, drawing tonal qualities into his atonal idiom: Tashi Quartet (1979) for clarinet, violin, cello, and piano; the 1980 film score for Charlie Chaplin: The Little Tramp; Piano Concerto No. 1 (1983); Bagatelles (1985) for piano; the orchestral scores Drala (1986) and World’s Turning (1991); Piano Variations (1995); the opera Ashoka’s Dream (1997); and Red Garuda (1999) for piano and orchestra. For his second wife, singer Lorraine Hunt (1954–2006), Lieberson composed Rilke Songs (2001) for mezzo-soprano and piano and Neruda Songs (2005) for mezzo-soprano and orchestra. His other notable later works include The Six Realms (2000) for amplified cello and orchestra; Piano Concerto No. 3 (2003); The World in Flower (2007) for mixed chorus with mezzo-soprano and baritone soloists and orchestra; Remembering Schumann (2009) for cello and piano; Songs of Love and Sorrow (2010) for baritone and orchestra; and Remembering JFK (An American Elegy) (2010) for narrator and orchestra, which quotes Johannes Brahms. Lieberson died at age 64 in Tel Aviv of complications due to lymphoma. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ). LIGETI, GYÖRGY (1923–2006). Hungarian-born Austrian composer and educator. György Ligeti studied at the Budapest Academy of Music (1945–1949) and taught there from 1950 to 1956. In Hungary, Ligeti composed in traditional and neoclassical idioms, except for the purely static Visiok for orchestra, written just months before the Hungarian Revolution in 1956—after which Ligeti fled the country, arriving in Vienna. In 1967, he became an Austrian citizen. At the West-Deutscher Rundfunk Electronic Music Studio in Cologne, he created electronic music (Glissandi, 1957) and tape music (Artikulation, 1958). His orchestral scores Apparitions (1960) and Atmosphères (1961) developed a static sound world of tone-clusters and complex polyphonic webs that he called micropolyphony. Ligeti also taught at Darmstadt (1959–1972) and other European institutions; his students include Gérard Grisey, Anne LeBaron, Hans Abrahamsen, Horatiu Radulescu, Richard Teitelbaum, and Unsuk Chin, and his son is composer/ percussionist Lukas Ligeti. Ligeti’s music grew increasingly radical with his 1962 works Volumina for organ, Poème symphonique for 100 metronomes, and the serio-comic Aventures and Nouvelles aventures for three singers and seven instrumentalists (performed in a scenic version in 1966). With his Requiem (1963) for soprano, mezzo-soprano, two mixed choirs, and orchestra, Ligeti moved away from tone-clusters and developed a new idiomatic sound that he pursued in Lux Aeterna (1966) for 16-part mixed chorus, Cello Concerto (1966), and Lontano (1967) for orchestra. Ligeti’s String Quartet No. 2 (1968) included microtonal tunings, as did Volumina and Requiem; Ramifications (1968)

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was scored for two string ensembles tuned a quarter-tone apart. His other notable orchestral scores include Melodien (1971), Double Concerto for Flute and Oboe (1972), and San Francisco Polyphony (1973); he also composed a satiric opera, Le grand macabre (1974, rev. 1996), which used collage. In the early 1980s, Ligeti’s composition left staticism for new polyrhythmic complexes with a harmonic approach neither tonal nor atonal, as in the Trio for Horn, Violin, and Piano (1982). In his Etudes for Piano, Books 1–3 (1985–2001), he superimposed rhythmic grids of varying densities. Despite failing health, Ligeti pursued these rhythmic complexes in his Piano Concerto (1986), Violin Concerto (1992), and Hamburgisches Konzert (1998, rev. 2002) for horn and chamber orchestra. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); FILM MUSIC; FORMALISM; GRAPHIC NOTATION; MODERNISM; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); PLEROMA. LOCKWOOD, ANNEA (1939– ). New Zealand–born American composer and educator. Annea Lockwood studied at the Royal College of Music in London and at Darmstadt; she settled in the United States in 1973 and taught at Hunter College and Vassar (1982–2001). Lockwood has explored unusual timbres in such works as The Glass Concert (1967) for amplified glass, Amazonia Dreaming (1987) for snare drum and voice, and Night and Fog (1987) for voice, percussion, and saxophone. These qualities also characterize her multicultural scores The Angle of Repose (1991) for baritone, alto flute, and khaeen and Thousand Year Dreaming (1990), also a multimedia piece, for four woodwinds, two brass, four didgeridoos, two conch-shell trumpets, percussion, voice, and slide projections. Lockwood’s tape music includes Tiger Balm (1970) and Thirst (2008). In World Rhythms (1978), she combined a tape of environmental sound with a percussionist; Duende (1997) is for voice and tape. Among Lockwood’s sound installations are A Sound Map of the Hudson River (1982) and A Sound Map of the Danube (2005). Her lifelong companion is Ruth Anderson. See also BUCKNER, THOMAS (1941– ); CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001). French musician and educator. Sister of Yvonne Loriod, Jeanne Loriod attended the Paris Conservatoire and, in 1947, took the first class given by musician/inventor Maurice Martenot with his electronic-music instrument the ondes martenot. She became the instrument’s acknowledged master and later taught as professor of ondes martenot at the Conservatoire; she also wrote the three-volume treatise Technique de l’onde electronique type martenot (1987). Loriod premiered works by Olivier Messiaen, Sylvano Bussotti, André Jolivet, Tristan Murail, and many others, and she revived scores by such composers as Arthur Honegger and

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Darius Milhaud. Maurice Jarre featured her playing in his music for the David Lean films Lawrence of Arabia (1962) and A Passage to India (1984). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM. LORIOD, YVONNE (1924–2010). French musician and educator. Sister of Jeanne Loriod, Yvonne Loriod studied piano with Lazare Lévy at the Paris Conservatoire and was in the first class taught by Olivier Messiaen after his repatriation to France in 1941. Loriod and Messiaen premiered his Visions de l’Amen for two pianos in 1943, and she went on to premiere all his piano works. She toured internationally with his music, and they were married in 1961. Loriod performed scores by other modernist composers and recorded works by Maurice Ravel, Manuel de Falla, Igor Stravinsky, Pierre Boulez, and Jean Barraqué; she also taught at the Badische Musikhochschule in Karlsruhe. LOURIÉ, ARTHUR (1892–1966). Russian composer and musician. Arthur Sergeyevich Lur’yé studied piano with Maria Barinova and composition with Alexander Glazunov at the St. Petersburg Conservatory (1909–1913) and experimented with microtonality as early as 1910. Inspired by futurism, Claude Debussy, and Alexander Scriabin, his modernist piano music anticipated twelve-tone methodology in Synthèses (1914); Masques (1913) and Formes en l’air (1915) employed notational innovations. Also notable are his Greek Songs after Sappho (1914) for voice and piano and String Quartet No. 1 (1915). He left Russia in 1922 and, two years later, settled in Paris where he worked with Igor Stravinsky. Lourié brought a modal approach to neoclassicism in such works as Concerto Spirituale (1929) for mixed chorus, piano, and orchestra; Symphonies Nos. 1, “Sinfonia Dialectica” (1930) and 2, “Kórmtchaïa” (1939); and the opera-ballet Le festin pendant la peste (1931). Fleeing the Nazi occupation, he relocated to the United States in 1941 and settled in New York, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1947. His later works include Little Gidding (1948) for tenor and instrumental ensemble; the opera The Blackamoor of Peter the Great (1949–1961); and Sibylla Dicit (1964) for women’s voices, four instruments, and cymbals. Lourié is also the author of Sergei Koussevitzky and His Epoch (1931) and Profanation et sanctification du temps—journal musical: Saint-Pétersbourg, Paris, New York, 1910–1960 (1966). See also ATONALITY. LUCIER, ALVIN (1931– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Alvin Lucier studied at Yale University, Tanglewood, and Brandeis University; his teachers included Aaron Copland, Lukas Foss, and Arthur Berger. His early music, such as Arioso and Allegro (1955) for piano, was neoclassical, but his mature works have been minimalist and experimental.

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Action Music for Piano (1962) notated the player’s physical gestures. Music for Solo Performer (1965) used amplified brain waves to resonate percussion instruments. In 1966, Lucier cofounded the Sonic Arts Union, a multimedia electronic-music group, with Robert Ashley, Gordon Mumma, and David Behrman. Lucier’s Vespers (1967) explored the acoustic character of the performance space with echo-location devices; in I Am Sitting in a Room (1970) for voice and tape, a speech is simultaneously played back and recorded over and over, with the space acting as a filter for speech that gradually becomes pure sound. Chambers (1968) sounded the acoustic properties of thimbles, seashells, and other portable resonant environments. Music for Gamelan Instruments, Microphones, Amplifiers, and Loudspeakers (1994) treated the bonang instruments as resonating environments. In The Queen of the South (1972), Lucier used sound to generate visual imagery in strewn media such as sugar or iron filings. His other multimedia works include Intervals (1983) for chorus and sound-sensitive lights; Self-Portrait (1989) for flute and wind anemometer; and Heavier than Air (1999) for any number of players with carbon dioxide–filled balloons. Music on a Long Thin Wire (1977) was a sound installation with a resounding monochord. Among his later installations are Sferics (1981) and Music for Piano with Half-Closed Lid (1993). Beating effects are created in Crossings (1982) for small orchestra and slow-sweep pure-wave oscillator, with musicians playing against the oscillator’s changing frequency. Lucier also explored interference phenomena in other electroacoustic pieces combining musicians and oscillators, such as A Tribute to James Tenney (1986), Sol 432 (1993), and Ever Present (2002). Silver Streetcar for the Orchestra (1988) revealed the dense acoustic characteristics of an amplified triangle. His notable recent works include Sierpinski Lines (1994), composed for saxophonist Anthony Braxton and 12 strings; Skin, Meat, Bone (1994), a collaborative theater work with Robert Wilson; Diamonds (1999) for one, two, or three orchestras; Fan (2003) for four kotos; Slices (2007) for cello and orchestra; Coda Variations (2011) for sixvalve tuba in just intonation; and Step, Slide and Sustain (2014) for horn, cello, and piano. Lucier taught at Wesleyan University (1968–2011) and is the coauthor of Chambers (1980). See also ATONALITY; THE BEATLES; KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM; TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006); TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. LUENING, OTTO (1900–1996). American composer, musician, and educator. In the late 1910s, Otto Luening studied composition, flute, and conducting at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik in Munich and the Zurich Conservatory; he also studied privately with Ferruccio Busoni and Philipp Jarnach. Luening later taught at Columbia University (1944–1970), among other institutions, and was a cofounder of the Columbia-Princeton Electronic

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Music Center; his students include Wendy Carlos, Chou Wen-chung, John Corigliano, Philip Corner, Mario Davidovsky, Charles Dodge, Malcolm Goldstein, William Hellermann, Alice Shields, Harvey Sollberger, Joan Tower, and Charles Wuorinen. Luening showed a modernist bent with the polytonal and atonal passages in his Sextet (1918) and String Quartet No. 1 (1919). After returning to the United States, he composed his String Quartets Nos. 2 (1924) and 3 (1928), Two Symphonic Interludes (1935) for orchestra, and the opera Evangeline (1931, rev. 1948). Using his own open-form approach in the last movement of the Trio for Flute, Violin, and Soprano (1923), he notated only pitches and left phrasing, rhythmic, and dynamic decisions to the musicians. Drawn to the possibilities of tape music, Luening composed the 1952 pieces Fantasy in Space, Low Speed, and Invention in Twelve Tones, all using the flute as their sound source. In collaboration with Vladimir Ussachevsky, he created Incantation for Tape Recording (1953). Their Rhapsodic Variations (1954) was the first work to combine orchestra and tape; they also composed A Poem in Cycles and Bells for Tape Recorder and Orchestra (1954) and Concerted Piece for Tape Recorder and Orchestra (1960). Luening’s solo music united electronically synthesized sounds with violin in Gargoyles (1960) and orchestra in Synthesis (1962). His later instrumental works include Louisville Concerto (1951) for orchestra; Lyric Scene (1958) for flute and string orchestra; Trio for Three Flutists (1966); Elegy for the Lonesome Ones (1974) for orchestra; No Jerusalem But This (1982) for narrator, soloists, mixed chorus, and chamber orchestra; and Fantasia études (1994) for piano. He is the author of Modern Music (1943) and The Odyssey of an American Composer (1980). See also ALEATORY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC. LUTOSLAWSKI, WITOLD (1913–1994). Polish composer, musician, and educator. A pianist and violinist, Witold Lutoslawski studied at the Warsaw Conservatory. He composed film music and won acclaim for his Symphonic Variations (1938) for orchestra; but his Symphony No. 1 (1947), also neoclassical, was declared formalist and banned in Soviet-dominated Poland. Lutoslawski turned to Polish folk themes in his Concerto for Orchestra (1954), then went on to compose twelve-tone music with Five Songs (1957) for female voice and piano or chamber orchestra; Musique Funèbre (1958) for string orchestra was neither tonal nor serial. Lutoslawski first used aleatoric techniques in Jeux venitiens (1961) for chamber orchestra and featured them in his String Quartet (1964), Preludes and Fugue (1972) for 13 strings, and such orchestral works as Novelette (1979) and Symphony No. 3 (1983). His notable later works include Chain 3 (1986) for orchestra, Piano Concerto (1988), Interludium (1990) for orchestra, Chantefleurs et Chantefables (1990) for soprano and orchestra, and Symphony No. 4 (1992). Lutoslawski

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also taught at numerous institutions and performed internationally as a conductor; his students include Daria Semegen. See also ATONALITY; MODERNISM; PEARS, PETER (SIR) (1910–1986).

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M MACERO, TEO (1925–2008). American composer and musician. Attilio Joseph “Teo” Macero was already composing and playing tenor saxophone when he studied with Henry Brant at the Juilliard School (1948–1953). A founding member of Charles Mingus’s Jazz Composers Workshop, Macero worked chiefly in jazz as a composer, musician, and record producer; his albums include the 1959 classics Kind of Blue by Miles Davis and Time Out by Dave Brubeck. He was also involved with Gunther Schuller’s Third Stream blending of jazz and modernist innovations, and Macero’s Areas (1952) was a breakthrough spatial composition for five jazz ensembles. His microtonal One-Three Quarters (1967) called for chamber ensemble and two pianos tuned in quarter-tones. Macero’s friendship with Edgard Varèse prompted his use of electronic sound on Davis’s A Tribute to Jack Johnson (1970). Macero’s other notable classical compositions include Canzonas Nos. 1–3 (1953) for quintet, Moon Landing Novelty March (1969) for band, Kiko (1975) for violin and electric piano, and The Song of Solomon (1976) for quintet; he also scored numerous films. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. MACHT, ROBERT (1958– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Robert Macht studied composition with Henry Brant and acoustics with Gunnar Schonbeck at Bennington College; he also composed for the new instruments designed and built by Schonbeck. Macht studied gamelan in Java with Pak Walika in 1980 and founded the Robert Macht Gamelan Ensemble; he has taught gamelan at the Peabody Conservatory of Music and Towson College. His multicultural compositions include Kreasi Baru (1995) for gamelan and orchestra; Suite for Javanese Gamelan and Synthesizer (1998); Vishnu (1999) for coloratura soprano, gamelan percussion, and non-Western instruments; Waniugo (1999) for chamber orchestra, which melded Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach’s harmonies with African pop rhythms; Waterwalk: Surface and Depth (2000), a music-theater work for soprano and gamelan or-

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chestra; and Sonata Ghazal for Piano Trio and Hand Drum (2001). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; POSTMODERNISM; SYNTHESIZER. MACIUNAS, GEORGE. See FLUXUS. MacLISE, ANGUS (1938–1979). American composer and musician. An innovative multicultural hand-drummer, Angus MacLise performed with La Monte Young on sopranino saxophone in 1963 and 1964. Their repetitive modal improvisations, with drones played by Tony Conrad, Marian Zazeela, and John Cale, evolved into Young’s landmark minimalist work The Tortoise, His Dreams and Journeys (1964), and MacLise performed with Young’s Theater of Eternal Music throughout the 1960s. He also scored Ron Rice’s film Chumlum (1964), playing cembalo; was a cofounder of the rock band the Velvet Underground; created live electronic music for film screenings and multimedia shows in the mid-1960s; and performed drone music with his wife Hetty MacLise playing organ or tanpura. MacLise studied percussion traditions in the Middle East and South Asia in 1964–1965 and 1971–1976. He began performing his The Swayambhu Opera in Nepal in 1977. Two years later he died there of hypoglycemia at age 41. See also JENNINGS, TERRY (1940–1981); POSTMODERNISM. MADERNA, BRUNO (1920–1973). Italian-born German composer, musician, and educator. Bruno Maderna studied at the Rome Conservatory and Venice Conservatory. He wrote serial works such as his 1952 scores Improvvisazione No. 1 for orchestra and Musica su due dimensioni for flute, cymbal, and tape, as well as totally serialized music with Serenata No. 2 (1954, rev. 1956) for 11 instruments and String Quartet (1955). Maderna collaborated with Luciano Berio on Ritratto di città (1954) for tape, and in 1955, they founded the Studio di Fonologia Musicale where Maderna created Notturno (1956), Continuo (1957), and the text-sound piece Dimensioni II—Invenzione su una voce (1960), which used Cathy Berberian’s voice as its sound source. He explored tone-clusters and string-piano techniques in Honeyrêves (1961) for flute and piano and graphic notation in Oboe Concerto No. 1 (1962). He also scored several Italian films, including La morte ha fatto l’uovo (1968). Maderna taught at numerous European institutions including Darmstadt; his students include Richard Maxfield and Luigi Nono. Maderna relocated to Germany in 1963 and became a citizen. An internationally respected conductor, he led premieres of works by himself, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Earle Brown, Iannis Xenakis, Jacob Druckman, and many others. Maderna moved away from serialism in composing the unfinished music drama

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Hyperion (1964–1973) and the aleatoric Quadrivium (1969) for percussion quartet and four orchestral groups. His notable later works include Juilliard Serenade (1971) for chamber orchestra and tape and the opera Satyricon (1973). Maderna died of lung cancer in Darmstadt at age 53. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); ATONALITY; BOULEZ, PIERRE (1925–2016); MODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. MAGER, JÖRG (1880–1939). German musician. Interested in both microtonality and electronic music, Jörg Mager invented the Electrophon in the early 1920s, which used the heterodyning method to generate sound. This electronic instrument offered a continuous glissando, controlled by a handle, and was modified by Mager in 1923 as the Kurbelsphärophon, with two handles that freed it from the glissando, along with timbre and volume controls. Introduced in 1926, the Kurbelsphärophon was also used by Georgi Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov. In 1928, Mager completed his Klavitursphärophon, or Sphärophon, a monophonic keyboard instrument tuned in quarter-tones, which was featured in a 1931 production of Richard Wagner’s Parsifal at Bayreuth. Mager redesigned the Sphärophon as the polyphonic Partiturophon in 1935, and he completed his Kaleidophon shortly before his death. None of his instruments survived World War II. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FORMALISM; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; MODERNISM. MAHLER, GUSTAV (1860–1911). Bohemian-born Austrian composer and musician. Gustav Mahler entered the Vienna Conservatory in 1875; his teachers included Anton Bruckner. Mahler began conducting in Austria in 1880 and soon led orchestras in Prague, Leipzig, and Budapest. Inspired by Bruckner and Richard Wagner, Mahler composed his first important scores in these years: Das klagende Lied (1880, rev. 1894, 1898) for soprano, mezzo-soprano, tenor, mixed chorus, and orchestra; Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (1884) for voice and piano (orchestrated 1893); and Symphony No. 1 (1888). All are distinguished by Mahler’s gift for song and his expressive and imaginative orchestration, which gave resonance to his depictions of nature and his recurring themes of sorrow, loss, and death. Mahler’s music became more grandiose and unconventional during his years as music director of the Hamburg Opera (1891–1897). The lengthy, five-movement Symphony No. 2, “Resurrection” (1894), called for soprano, mezzo-soprano, mixed chorus, large orchestra, and organ, as well as the spatial treatment of a distant ensemble of trumpets and percussion. The lengthier six-movement Symphony No. 3 (1896) included mezzo-soprano, boys’ chorus, and women’s chorus. Mahler won international renown as artistic director of the Vienna Opera (1897–1907) and went on to conduct the

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New York Philharmonic (1907–1910). Performances of his music, however, were infrequent, even though his composition became more concise and less programmatic with Symphony No. 4 (1901), which included a soprano, and Symphony No. 5 (1903). A greater use of dissonance characterizes Symphony No. 6 (1904) and Symphony No. 7 (1905)—longer and more macabre scores that feature an expanded and innovative use of percussion. The joyous Symphony No. 8 (1906), which set the hymn “Veni, Creator Spiritus” and the final scene of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s Faust, was premiered by Mahler with a complement of 858 singers (eight soloists, two mixed choruses, boy’s chorus) and 171 instrumentalists (large orchestra and organ). Mortality became the focus of his last years with two classic scores, Das Lied von der Erde (1909) for mezzo-soprano or baritone, tenor, and orchestra, and Symphony No. 9 (1910). Mahler completed the sketch of his Symphony No. 10 but died in Vienna of bacterial endocarditis at age 50 before finishing the orchestration. Approaching expressionism in its anguished dissonance and amorphous tonality, the full work went unheard until Deryck Cooke’s performing version of the sketch was premiered in 1964. Mahler’s music deeply impacted his younger Viennese admirers Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, and Alban Berg and opened doors for other modernist 20th-century composers such as Aaron Copland, Dmitry Shostakovich, and Benjamin Britten. See also ATONALITY; BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003); FILM MUSIC; KORNGOLD, ERICH WOLFGANG (1897–1957); NEWLIN, DIKA (1923–2006); RASMUSSEN, KARL AAGE (1947– ); WEISS, ADOLPH (1891–1971). MAMLOK, URSULA (1923–2016). German-born American composer, musician, and educator. Ursula Meyer-Lewy studied piano and composition with Gustav Ernest in her native Berlin. Her family fled Nazi Germany in 1939 and settled in the United States the following year; she became a U.S. citizen in 1945. In the United States, her teachers included George Szell, Edward Steuermann, Roger Sessions, Stefan Wolpe, Ernst Krenek, and Ralph Shapey; she later taught at New York University, Temple University, Kingsborough Community College, and the Manhattan School of Music. In 1947, she married Dwight Mamlok, and in 2006, she returned to Berlin. Mamlok incorporated tonal structures in her personal approach to the twelvetone method, with such notable works as her String Quartets Nos. 1 (1962) and 2 (1998); Grasshoppers (1957) for piano or orchestra; Cantata Based on the First Psalm (1958) for mixed chorus and piano or organ; Sextet (1977); Panta Rhei (Time in Flux) (1981) for violin, cello, and piano; Das Andreas Garten (1987) for mezzo-soprano, flute, and harp; Girasol (1990) for six instruments; Constellations (1993) for orchestra; 2000 Notes (2000) for pia-

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no; Concerto for Oboe and Chamber Orchestra (2003); Kontraste (2010) for oboe and harp; and Breezes (2015) for five instruments. See also ATONALITY; CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); MODERNISM. MARCUS, BUNITA (1952– ). American composer and musician. Bunita Marcus studied composition with Morton Feldman; as a conductor and pianist, she has played her own music and Feldman’s. Two Pianos and Violin (1981) gave each instrument its own time unit. Music for Japan (1983) for flute, clarinet, harp, piano, and percussion avoided repetition; the sextet Adam and Eve (1987) used repetition effectively, as did the string quartet The Rugmaker (1986), with minor alterations to repeated motives after the method of Feldman. Julia (1989) for piano was based on the 1968 Beatles song. Marcus has composed multimedia works (Perhaps a Woman Would Know, 1976), theatrical music (Women’s Work, 1990), and tape music (Tape Piece, 1975; Ice Falling, 1990). Her 2007 series of music for two pianos includes Counter Points and Expedition; other notable recent works include Fanfare for Trumpet (2009), Leah’s Song (2011) for three electric guitars, Beige and Yellow (2011) for cornet and trumpet, and White Butterflies (2017) for trombone and orchestra. See also MINIMALISM; POSTMODERNISM. MARTIN, FRANK (1890–1974). Swiss composer, musician, and educator. Frank Martin studied piano and composition with Joseph Lauber and attended the University of Geneva. He later taught at the Geneva Conservatory of Music and the Cologne Conservatory; his students include Karlheinz Stockhausen. Martin also performed and recorded his music as pianist and conductor. His Piano Concerto No. 1 (1934), String Trio (1936), and Symphony (1937) were twelve-tone works; he started melding tonal and twelvetone methods with such scores as Le vin herbé (1941) for 12 solo voices, seven strings, and piano and Petite symphonie concertante (1945) for harp, harpsichord, piano, and two string orchestras. His music for the 1943 spectacle Ein Totentanz zu Basel, im Jahre 1943 called for boys’ choir, string orchestra, jazz ensemble, and Basle drums. Martin’s notable later works include Concerto for Seven Wind Instruments (1949); Violin Concerto (1951); the opera Der Sturm (1955), after William Shakespeare’s The Tempest; the oratorios Golgotha (1948) and Mystère de la Nativité (1960); String Quartet (1967); Maria-Triptychon (1968) for soprano, violin, and orchestra; Ballade (1972) for viola and wind orchestra; and Polyptyque (1973) for violin and two string orchestras. See also ATONALITY; MODERNISM; PEARS, PETER (SIR) (1910–1986).

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MARTINU, BOHUSLAV (1890–1959). Bohemian-born American composer, musician, and educator. Bohuslav Martinu studied at the Prague Conservatory and was a violinist with the Czech Philharmonic. He drew upon folk materials in such early works as the cantata Czech Rhapsody (1918) and, in 1923, relocated to France where he studied with Albert Roussel. Martinu used jazz elements in the ballet score La revue de cuisine (1927) and Jazz Suite (1928) for small orchestra and neoclassical techniques in Sinfonia concertante for two orchestras (1932) and Concerto Grosso for chamber orchestra (1937). He immigrated to the United States in 1940 and became a U.S. citizen in 1952. Martinu taught at Tanglewood and other institutions; his students include Chou Wen-chung, Alan Hovhaness, and Burt Bacharach. Notable later works by Martinu include Memorial to Lidice (1943) for orchestra; Fantasia (1944) for theremin, oboe, string quartet, and piano; and the oratorio The Epic of Gilgamesh (1955). A prolific composer, he also produced seven string quartets (1918–1947), five piano concertos (1925–1958), six symphonies (1942–1953), and 13 operas (1927–1959). See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; SURREALISM. MARTIRANO, SALVATORE (1927–1995). American composer, musician, and educator. Salvatore Martirano studied at Oberlin College and the Eastman School of Music, and with Luigi Dallapiccola at the Cherubini Conservatory in Florence; he taught at the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign (1963–1995). Martirano combined jazz and serialism in O, O, O, O, That Shakespeherian Rag (1959) for mixed chorus and chamber ensemble and Ballad (1966) for voice and septet. Composer of the tape works Buffet (1965) and Shoptalk (1974), Martirano created a theatrical-music classic with the multimedia L’s G.A. (1968) for gassed-masked politico, helium bomb, tape, and three 16 mm movie projectors. He built the electronic composing/performing system SAL-MAR Construction, on which he improvised; examples of its music can be heard on the album The SAL-MAR Construction (2014). Martirano also built the yahaSALmaMAC, which he used with violin in Sampler (1985) and with amplified flute in Phleu (1990). See also COMPUTER MUSIC; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. MAW, NICHOLAS (1935–2009). English composer and educator. Nicholas Maw studied with Sir Lennox Berkeley at London’s Royal Academy of Music and with Nadia Boulanger in France; he later taught at Yale University, Cambridge University, and other institutions. Maw wrote film music in the 1960s, and his concert works blended tonal and atonal techniques, as in Essay (1961) for organ and the theatrical Scenes and Arias for three female voices and orchestra (1962). Maw went on to compose such neoromantic

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scores as Life Studies for strings (1976), String Quartet No. 2 (1982), Odyssey for orchestra (1987), Violin Concerto (1993), and the operas One Man Show (1964), The Rising of the Moon (1970), and Sophie’s Choice (2002). See also MODERNISM. MAXFIELD, RICHARD (1927–1969). American composer and educator. Richard Maxfield studied in the United States with Roger Sessions, Milton Babbitt, and Aaron Copland, and in Europe with Ernst Krenek, Luigi Dallapiccola, and Bruno Maderna. Although his early instrumental music had been mostly serial, by the late 1950s Maxfield was attracted to ideas of indeterminate composition, which he encountered through Christian Wolff, David Tudor, and John Cage; he was also drawn to electronic music. In 1958, Maxfield studied with Cage at the New School for Social Research, and the following year he began teaching a course there in making music from electronically generated sound—quite likely the first such pedagogue in the United States. One of the first American composers to build his own equipment for the electrical synthesis of sound, Maxfield produced such landmark compositions as Sine Music (A Swarm of Butterflies Encountered over the Ocean) (1959), Trinity Piece (1960), Pastoral Symphony (1960), and Night Music (1961). A minimalist sensibility shaped the static sounds in his electronic music, and Maxfield also was involved with the Fluxus composers and their performances, which included his Concert Suite from the Ballet Dromenon (1961). Equally pioneering in tape music, he created an array of notable works, among them Amazing Grace (1960), Cough Music (1961), Radio Music (1961), Steam IV (1961), and Bacchanale (1963). His tape music typically combined deliberate methods of recording and processing sound with random selections in editing the results, and he often kept these works in fluid states, playing different versions in concerts. Maxfield broke new ground in electroacoustic music with Wind for Terry Jennings (1960), Piano Concert for David Tudor (1961), and Perspectives for La Monte Young (1962): He taped each of these composer/musicians performing and then electronically altered the tapes to create new music to accompany them in live performance. He created similar pieces for ensembles, such as Toy Symphony (1962). He left New York in 1966, taught at San Francisco State College until 1967, and relocated to Los Angeles in 1968. The following year Maxfield took his life there at age 42. See also JENNINGS, TERRY (1940–1981); POSTMODERNISM; SURREALISM; YOUNG, LA MONTE (1935– ).

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MAYUZUMI, TOSHIRO (1929–1997). Japanese composer. Toshiro Mayuzumi was an avant-garde composer in the 1950s, with such works as Tone Pleromas 55 (1955) for five saxophones, piano, and musical saw. A pioneer in electronic music, in 1955 he created Japan’s first tape music, X, Y, Z, and first electrically synthesized music, Shusaku I. Mayuzumi’s interest in Buddhism and the Japanese musical tradition led to a more conservative music, starting with Nirvana Symphony (1958); other Buddhist-themed works include Mandala Symphony (1960), Samsara (1962) for orchestra, and the cantata Geka (Pratidesana) (1963). The ballet score Bugaku (1962) had a Western orchestra re-create the sound of the eponymous Japanese court dance; Showa Tenpyo-raku (1970) was scored for gagaku ensemble. He composed music for the ballets Kabuki (1986) and M (1993) and two operas: the Yukio Mishima adaptation Kinkakuji (1976), which uses serial procedures, and Kojiki (1996), based on Japanese mythology. Mayuzumi also scored more than 100 films, including Kenji Mizoguchi’s Street of Shame (1956), Mikio Naruse’s When a Woman Ascends the Stairs (1960), Yasujiro Ozu’s The End of Summer (1961), and John Huston’s The Bible (1966) and Reflections in a Golden Eye (1967). See also MODERNISM; PLEROMA; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. MAZZOLI, MISSY (1980– ). American composer and musician. Missy Mazzoli studied at the Yale School of Music; with Louis Andriessen at the Royal Conservatory of the Hague; and at Boston University. She plays piano and sampler and synthesizer keyboards with her band Victoire, an all-female group she formed in 2008 to perform her music, and has released the albums Cathedral City (2010) and Vespers for a New Dark Age (2015). She has scored silent films by Alice Guy Blaché as well as contemporary films; among her operas are Songs from the Uproar: The Lives and Deaths of Isabelle Eberhardt (2012), Breaking the Waves (2016), and Proving Up (2018). Mazzoli’s instrumental works include Harp and Altar (2009) for string quartet and electronics; Holy Roller (2012) for orchestra; A Map of Laughter (2015) for piano; Ecstatic Science (2016) for flute, clarinet, trumpet, violin, viola, and cello; and Dark with Excessive Bright (2018) for double bass and string orchestra. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; KRONOS QUARTET; POSTMODERNISM. McPHEE, COLIN (1901–1964). Canadian composer, musician, educator, and critic. Colin McPhee studied piano and composition at the Peabody Conservatory and in Paris; he was also a private student of Edgard Varèse. McPhee used polytonal and polyrhythmic devices in the neoclassical Concerto for Piano, with Wind Octette Acc. (1928). He lived in Bali (1933–1938) and studied gamelan music, which characterized his classic multicultural

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score Tabu-Tabuhan (1936) for two pianos and orchestra; he also wrote the two-piano transcription Balinese Ceremonial Music (1938), which he recorded with Benjamin Britten in 1941, and used Balinese elements in his Symphony No. 2 (1957). His other notable works include Four Iroquois Dances (1944) for orchestra and Concerto for Wind Orchestra (1960). The author of A House in Bali (1947) and Music in Bali (1966), McPhee also composed film music and wrote criticism for Modern Music (1939–1945) and taught at the University of California at Los Angeles (1960–1964). See also MODERNISM. MENNIN, PETER (1923–1983). American composer, musician, and educator. Peter Mennin attended the Oberlin Conservatory (1939–1942) and the Eastman School of Music (1944–1947) where he studied composition with Howard Hanson; he also studied conducting with Serge Koussevitzky. Mennin began teaching composition at Juilliard in 1947 and served as its president from 1962 to 1983; he was also director of the Peabody Conservatory (1959–1963). His students include Jacob Druckman. Among Mennin’s compositions are Symphonies Nos. 1–9 (1941–1981), Concertato “Moby Dick” (1952) for orchestra, Piano Sonata (1963), and Reflections of Emily (1978) for treble voices, harp, piano, and percussion. See also MODERNISM. MENOTTI, GIAN CARLO (1911–2007). Italian composer, musician, and educator. Gian Carlo Menotti studied with Rosario Scalero at the Curtis Institute of Music, where he later taught. Although he also wrote instrumental scores, Menotti is best known as a prolific and popular composer of opera in the tradition of Giacomo Puccini, who wrote his own libretti and frequently staged the productions; his operas include The Medium (1946), The Consul (1950), Amahl and the Night Visitors (1951), The Saint of Bleecker Street (1954), La Loca (1979), and Goya (1986). Menotti also wrote the libretto for the opera Vanessa (1958) composed by Samuel Barber, Menotti’s lifetime companion. Menotti founded the Two Worlds music festival in Spoleto, and served as its director (1958–1999); he also led Spoleto Festival USA (1977–1993). See also MODERNISM. MESSIAEN, OLIVIER (1908–1992). French composer, musician, and educator. A unique and innovative composer who was also greatly influential as a teacher of modernist composition, Olivier Eugène Prosper Charles Messiaen was born in Avignon. By age eight, he had taught himself to play piano and was composing; he also discovered and embraced Catholicism around that age, and his music and his faith soon united and defined each other. Claude Debussy’s Pelléas et Mélisande profoundly impressed him at age

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10, and Messiaen entered the Paris Conservatoire the next year; his teachers included Marcel Dupré and Paul Dukas. He excelled there in all fields and, at age 22, became principal organist at La Sainte Trinité in Paris. Messiaen took an individual approach to tempo and modal harmony in his early works Le banquet céleste (1928) for organ, Préludes (1929) for piano, Les offrandes oubliées (1930) for orchestra, and Trois mélodies (1930) for soprano and piano. His tendency toward a static nondevelopmental music, inspired by impressionism, was further encouraged by his first encounter with the Balinese gamelan in 1931 and his studies of ancient Greek and Hindu rhythms. These different streams merged with Messiaen’s enthusiasm for Gregorian plainchant and church modes in his first major organ scores, L’Ascension (1934, also for orchestra), La Nativité du Seigneur (1935), and Les corps glorieux (1939), as well as in his songs for soprano and piano, Poèmes pour Mi (1936) and Chants de terre et de ciel (1938) (both using his own texts, as in all his later vocal music). Attracted to the electronic ondes martenot, he composed Fête des belles eaux (1937) for six of them, and the microtonal solo Deux monodies en quarts de ton (1938). Messiaen began studying birdsong in the 1930s, and the sound of birds characterized his later works. He experienced visual color associations when hearing or reading music, and the evocation of color also informed his composition. Just when his musical sensibility was crystallizing Messiaen was summoned into the French army, and in June 1940, he was captured by the Nazis. While confined in a POW camp in Germany, he composed a masterpiece: Quatuor pour la fin du Temps (1941) for clarinet, violin, cello, and piano. Messiaen also premiered it there in 1941, playing with three other prisoners for an audience of their fellow prisoners and their German captors. The next month he was repatriated to France and resumed his position as organist at La Sainte Trinité, which he held until his death. Messiaen also taught at the Paris Conservatoire (1941–1978); his students include Iannis Xenakis, Pierre Boulez, György Kurtág, Betsy Jolas, Pierre Henry, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Jean Barraqué, Luc Ferrari, Alexander Goehr, Philip Corner, William Bolcom, Horatiu Radulescu, Gérard Grisey, and Tristan Murail. With the lengthy Quatuor pour la fin du Temps, Messiaen pulled together the diverse qualities of his music, and over the 1940s the scale of his composition grew in a series of classic works. He premiered Visions de l’Amen (1943) for two pianos with his student Yvonne Loriod, who would premiere all Messiaen’s subsequent piano music; in 1961, the two were married. To Loriod, Messiaen entrusted the two-hour-plus Vingt regards sur l’EnfantJésus (1944) for piano. She was also featured in Trois petites liturgies de la Présence Divine (1944) for female voices, piano, ondes martenot, percussion, and strings and Turangalîla-symphonie (1948) for piano, ondes martenot, and orchestra.

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By the end of the decade, Messiaen was extending the techniques of serial organization from pitch to rhythm, timbre, and dynamics in his influential Quatre études de rythme (1950) for piano; he also composed the musique concrète piece Timbres-durées (1952), created at Pierre Schaeffer’s Groupe de recherches de musique concrète. More fundamental to his music of the 1950s, however, was birdsong. Along with the massive Catalogue d’oiseaux (1958) for piano, birdsong also shaped a series of shorter scores for piano and chamber orchestra: Réveil des oiseaux (1953), Oiseaux exotiques (1956), Sept haïkï (1962), and Couleurs de la cité céleste (1963). Messiaen’s other notable scores of the 1960s include Chronochromie (1960) for orchestra; Et exspecto resurrectionem mortuorum (1964) for winds, brass, and metallic percussion; and Méditations sur le mystère de la Sainte Trinité (1969) for organ. The pace of Messiaen’s composition slowed in the late 1960s. La transfiguration de Notre-Seigneur Jésus-Christ for mixed chorus, seven solo instruments, and orchestra was composed from 1965 to 1969; Des canyons aux étoiles . . . for piano and chamber orchestra, from 1971 to 1974; the epic opera Saint François d’Assise, from 1975 to 1983. After the vast Livre du Saint Sacrament (1984) for organ, Messiaen wrote shorter scores: Petites esquisses d’oiseaux (1985) for piano; Un vitrail et des oiseaux (1986) for piano and orchestra; La ville d’en-haut (1987) for 31 winds, piano, and percussion; Un sourire (1989) for orchestra; Pièce pour piano et quatuour à cordes (1991). From 1988 to 1992, he also composed Éclairs sur l’au-délà for orchestra, the last work Messiaen finished before his death in a Paris hospital at age 83. Loriod and George Benjamin completed the orchestration of his Concert à quatre (1994) for flute, oboe, cello, piano, and orchestra. See also BIRTWISTLE, HARRISON (SIR) (1934– ); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001); MULTICULTURALISM; POLYRHYTHM; QUARTER-TONE MUSIC; TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TAPE MUSIC; TONE-CLUSTER; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. METRIC MODULATION. Seeking a more smooth and efficient method of employing polyrhythms, Elliott Carter began modulating tempi in a stepby-step manner with his Sonata for Cello and Piano (1948), much as had been done with the modulation of key signatures. Employing metric modulation, Carter could compose with different tempi simultaneously, at constant speeds as well as accelerating and decelerating, as in his Concerto for Orchestra (1969). Other composers who have used this modernist technique include George Perle (Wind Quintet No. 3, 1967), Steve Reich (Vermont Counterpoint, 1982), Gunther Schuller (Diptych, 1964), and John Adams (Violin Concerto, 1993).

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MEV. Musica Elettronica Viva, better known as MEV, was founded in Rome in 1966 by Allan Bryant, Alvin Curran, Jon Phetteplace, Carol Plantamura, Frederic Rzewski, Richard Teitelbaum, and Ivan Vandor. Dedicated to playing composed and improvised electronic music, the group used everything from synthesizers and photocell devices to contact microphones and homemade circuitry. MEV has performed internationally, with Curran, Rzewski, and Teitelbaum as the core members; others who have performed with them include George Lewis, Garrett List, and Steve Lacy. Among MEV’s notable recordings are The Sound Pool (1969), Leave the City (1970), and MEV 40 (2008); Apogee (2005) features MEV performing with AMM. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; POSTMODERNISM. MICROTONALITY. Microtonality refers to the use of intervals smaller than the semitone of equal temperament. Ferruccio Busoni proposed sixthtones in Sketch of a New Aesthetic of Music (1907), but a more common approach has been quarter-tones. Its use in 19th-century Western composition was rare, but by the late 1890s, this alternate tuning system was being seriously investigated John Foulds in England and Julián Carrillo in Mexico. The 1910s and 1920s heard their early microtonal works and those of Alois Hába, Hans Barth, and Ivan Wyschnegradsky. Georgi Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov founded the Society for Quarter-Tone Music in Petrograd in 1923 and conducted concerts of microtonal music from 1925 to 1932, playing works by himself, Hába, and others. The desire to hear and perform microtonal tunings also led many of these modernist composers to design and/or build new instruments. In 1928, German electronic-music pioneer Jörg Mager created his Sphaerophon, a monophonic keyboard instrument, to play quarter-tones; that same year, French musician Maurice Martenot introduced his monophonic electronic instrument, the ondes martenot, in a performance that included quarter- and eighth-tones. See also ABRAHAMSEN, HANS (1952– ); BADINGS, HENK (1907–1987); BOULEZ, PIERRE (1925–2016); CHOU WEN-CHUNG (1923– ); COUPER, MILDRED (1887–1974); DOOLITTLE, EMILY (1972– ); FERNEYHOUGH, BRIAN (1943– ); FUTURISM; GANN, KYLE (1955– ); GINASTERA, ALBERTO (1916–1983); GOSFIELD, ANNIE (1960– ); GRAINGER, PERCY (1882–1961); GRISEY, GÉRARD (1946–1998); HILLER, LEJAREN (1924–1994); HUSA, KAREL (1921–2016); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; IVES, CHARLES (1874–1954); JOHNSTON, BEN (1926– ); LAUTEN, ELODIE (1950–2014); LIGETI, GYÖRGY (1923–2006); LOURIÉ, ARTHUR (1892–1966); MACERO, TEO (1925–2008); MESSIAEN, OLIVIER (1908–1992); NIBLOCK, PHILL (1933– ); PARTCH, HARRY (1901–1974); POUSSEUR, HENRI (1929–2009); POSTMODERNISM; RADULESCU, HORATIU (1942–2008); REINHARD, JOHNNY (1956– );

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SCELSI, GIACINTO (1905–1988); SCHAFER, R. MURRAY (1933– ); SCHNITTKE, ALFRED (1934–1998); STOCKHAUSEN, KARLHEINZ (1928–2007); STRANG, GERALD (1908–1983); TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006); TÜÜR, ERKKI-SVEN (1959– ); XENAKIS, IANNIS (1922–2001). MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993). American composer, musician, and educator. Yvar Mikhashoff studied piano and composition at the University of Houston and the University of Texas at Austin; he also studied with Nadia Boulanger and taught at the State University of New York at Buffalo. A pianist who specialized in modern and postmodern music, Mikhashoff premiered works written for him by such composers as Sylvano Bussotti, John Cage, Per Nørgård, Bernadette Speach, Alvin Curran, Chester Biscardi, Lukas Foss, Poul Ruders, Christian Wolff, Betsy Jolas, William Duckworth, Conlon Nancarrow, and “Blue” Gene Tyranny. He also made piano and instrumental arrangements of works by Nancarrow and others. His compositions include Viola Concerto (1968, rev. 1976), Pipes of Colchis (1973) for clarinet and piano, the quintet Twilight Dances (1986), and Elemental Figures (1987–1990) for piano. Mikhashoff died in Buffalo at age 52 of complications from AIDS. MILHAUD, DARIUS (1892–1974). French composer, musician, and educator. Darius Milhaud entered the Paris Conservatoire at age 17, where his teachers included Paul Dukas and Charles-Marie Widor; he also studied privately with Vincent d’Indy. He independently discovered modernism through the music of Claude Debussy, Béla Bartók, Erik Satie, Arnold Schoenberg, and Igor Stravinsky. Milhaud’s early polytonal music could be highly dissonant, as in Agamemnon (1913), Les Choéphores (1915), which featured extended passages for voices and percussion, and Les Euménides (1922), three opera-oratorios based on the Oresteia of Aeschylus, with libretti by poet Paul Claudel. In 1916, Claudel was appointed minister to Brazil, and Milhaud accompanied him as secretary in the French legation at Rio de Janeiro. This exposure to Brazilian music in 1917 and 1918 brought greater rhythmic invention to Milhaud’s music, reflected in Le boeuf sur la toit (1919) for chamber orchestra and Saudades do Brasil (1921) for piano or orchestra. In the early 1920s, Milhaud was known with other French composers of his generation as part of the Groupe des Six, but his was an individual voice. The polyrhythmic dance score L’homme et son désir (1918) for four voices and chamber orchestra anticipated spatial music by subdividing and relocating its players into six groups. American jazz informs La création du monde (1923) for chamber orchestra. Other important early works include six cham-

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ber symphonies (1917–1923), Trois rag-caprices for chamber orchestra (1922), and Cinq études (1921) and Le carnaval d’Aix (1926), both for piano and orchestra. His noteworthy 1930s music includes Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra (1930); Suite (1932) for ondes martenot and piano; La mort d’un tyran (1932) for mixed chorus, three winds, and percussion sextet; Scaramouche for two pianos (1937); and the neoclassical Fantaisie pastorale (1939) for piano and orchestra. Étude poétique (1954) for mezzo-soprano, two narrators, and orchestra included his musique concrète work La rivière endormie. Many of Milhaud’s vocal pieces explored his Jewish faith: Poèmes juifs (1916), Six chants populaires hébraîques (1925), Trois psaumes de David (1954), Cantata from Job (1965), Ani maamin (1972). Among his film scores are two 1933 classics, Luis Buñuel’s Land without Bread and Jean Renoir’s Madame Bovary; he also acted in Hans Richter’s films Vormittagsspuk (1928) and 8X8 (1957). Milhaud produced well over 400 scores by the time of his death in Geneva at age 81. His music includes 12 symphonies (1939–1962), 18 string quartets (1912–1950), five piano concertos (1933–1955), the operas Les malheurs d’Orphée (1924), Christopher Colomb (1928), Maximilien (1930), Bolivar (1943), David (1953), and La mère coupable (1965), and the opera-oratorio Saint-Louis, Roi de France (1972). A cellist and pianist, Milhaud was also a frequent conductor of his own music. He taught in France and the United States; among his pupils are Iannis Xenakis, Harry Somers, Arthur Berger, Philip Glass, Larry Austin, Joan Tower, Morton Subotnick, Ruth Anderson, Ben Johnston, Steve Reich, Betsy Jolas, William Bolcom, Charles Dodge, Robert Moran, György Kurtág, Dave Brubeck, Pete Rugolo, and Burt Bacharach. See also ANDRIESSEN, LOUIS (1939– ); BERBERIAN, CATHY (1925–1983); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; HONEGGER, ARTHUR (1892–1955); LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001); MULTICULTURALISM; ORNSTEIN, LEO (ca. 1892–2002); TAPE MUSIC; WEBERN, ANTON (1883–1945). MIMAROGLU, ILHAN (1926–2012). Turkish composer and musician. Ilhan Mimaroglu studied law in Turkey; he also played clarinet and composed such works as Pièces sentimentales (1957) for piano, blending tonal and atonal procedures. He came to the United States to study at Columbia University and settled in New York City in 1959. Working at the ColumbiaPrinceton Electronic Music Center, he was mentored by Vladimir Ussachevsky; he also studied with Edgard Varèse and Stefan Wolpe. Mimaroglu’s electronic music includes Le tombeau d’Edgar Poe (1964) for tape, Twelve Preludes for Magnetic Tape (1966–1967), Tract (1975) for magnetic tape, The Offering (1979), Immolation Scene (1983), and The Last Largo (1989). Among his later instrumental scores are Idols of Perversity (1974) for solo viola and string ensemble, Rosa (1978) for piano, and Monologue

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(1997) for clarinet and viola. His album Sing Me a Song of Songmy (1971) combined electromagnetic tape with a chorus, speakers, string orchestra, organ, and Freddie Hubbard’s jazz quartet. At Atlantic Records, Mimaroglu worked on albums by Duke Ellington and Ornette Coleman, and he produced Hubbard, Charles Mingus, Sonny Sharrock, the Modern Jazz Quartet, and others. He founded Finnadar Records (1975–1981), which focused on contemporary music, and www.mimaroglumusicsales.com, a wide-ranging website resource for recordings of tape, electronic, and computer music. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. MINIMALISM. There are no true prototypes for minimalism in modernist music, although France in the 1920s experienced a flurry of anticipations: the ambient Musique d’ameublement scores of 1920 and 1923 by Erik Satie; the silences of George Antheil’s Ballet mécanique (1925); Virgil Thomson’s drama-free settings of Gertrude Stein; Ezra Pound’s neomedieval settings of François Villon; Maurice Ravel’s Boléro (1928) and its hypnotic repetitions. Not until the second half of the 20th century did minimalism flourish, starting with La Monte Young’s epochal use of long sustained tones, most notably in his classic Trio for Strings (1958). Composer/musicians who worked with Young, such as Dennis Johnson and Terry Jennings, also started enlarging scale and limiting materials; Young’s use of drones in the early 1960s was taken up by Angus MacLise, Tony Conrad, and others. Several minimalist methodologies developed in parallel streams over the 1960s and 1970s. Most familiar is the use of repeated patterns, especially in such pulse-driven works as Terry Riley’s In C (1964), Philip Glass’s Music in Fifths (1969), and Steve Reich’s Drumming (1971), where the sustained activity becomes a static sound. Another approach is gradual-process music, magnifying the sound’s transformation, as in Charlemagne Palestine’s Holy 1 & Holy 2 (1967), Frederic Rzewski’s Les moutons de Panurge (1969), Alvin Lucier’s I Am Sitting in a Room (1970), and James Tenney’s Clang (1972). Minimalism also exalts the singular event, making something fleeting into the focus of attention, as with some of the Fluxus composers: Young called for the player to build a fire in his Composition 1960 No. 2; George Brecht had a flute disassembled and reassembled in Flute Solo (1962). By instructing the player to perform any action as slowly as possible, Takehisa Kosugi’s Anima 7 (1964) combined this aesthetic with gradual process. Reducing his materials drastically, Giacinto Scelsi composed Quattro pezzi su una nota sola (1959). Another minimalist device is to expand the scale of the music, as with Young, Johnson, Jennings, and Morton Feldman, who composed works lasting several hours.

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What all these approaches have in common is that they are essentially nondramatic: The music coheres without traditional or modernist techniques of contrast and development. Minimalism can thus be seen as originating with the chance music of John Cage, which banished drama by removing hierarchies of importance—all the sounds are equally important. That is why Cage’s music can be full of contrast, as in Etudes Australes (1975) or Europeras I/II (1987), yet remain nondramatic, because none of those changes express any narrative, either programmatic or structural. Associating with Cage helped free up Feldman, Earle Brown, and Christian Wolff to compose indeterminate scores with their own minimalist qualities. Feldman fully notated subtle alterations of non-pulsed repeated patterning in his later music such as the opera Neither (1977) and For Philip Guston (1984). Cage’s music and ideas invigorated the minimalist works of other important composers, including Young, Pauline Oliveros, and Robert Ashley. Nevertheless, minimalism also represents a reaction against indeterminacy—and serial organization and traditional tonality. In this postmodern approach, many composers sought a new drive and energy in their music, reflecting their varying experiences of jazz, blues, pop, and rock. Note, too, the multicultural strain in minimalism, with Riley, Young, Palestine, and Glass impacted by Indian music, and Reich by African drumming. Minimalist music has also encouraged such related developments as sound installations and sound sculpture. By the 1970s, minimalism had taken root in Western composition, and its principles have informed the music of generations of composers, including Lukas Foss, Dika Newlin, Kenneth Gaburo, Richard Maxfield, Peter Sculthorpe, Éliane Radigue, Philip Corner, Phill Niblock, Arvo Pärt, Harold Budd, Robert Moran, Louis Andriessen, Tom Johnson, Tomasz Sikorski, William Hellermann, Henry Flynt, Julius Eastman, Meredith Monk, Petr Kotik, Gavin Bryars, William Duckworth, John Tavener, Michael Nyman, Maggi Payne, John Adams, Howard Skempton, Brian Eno, Glenn Branca, Elodie Lauten, Arthur Russell, Lois V Vierk, Hans Abrahamsen, Bunita Marcus, Rhys Chatham, Peter Garland, Michael Byron, Barbara Monk Feldman, John Luther Adams, John Zorn, Michael Gordon, David Lang, Julia Wolfe, Erkki-Sven Tüür, Rough Assemblage, Rebecca Saunders, and Beata Moon. See also FILM MUSIC; SORABJI, KAIKHOSRU SHAPURJI (1892–1988). MITCHELL, ROSCOE (1940– ). American composer, musician, and educator. A multi-instrumentalist on woodwinds, Roscoe Mitchell is a leading exponent of free jazz and cofounder of the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians and the Art Ensemble of Chicago. Among his notable recordings are Congliptious (1968), Nonaah (1977), Snurdy McGurdy and Her Dancin’ Shoes (1980), Sound Songs (1997), Solo 3 (2004), and Bells for the South Side (2017). His compositions include Variations and Sketches

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from the Bamboo Terrace (1988) for chamber orchestra, Fallen Heroes (1998) for baritone and orchestra, The Bells of 59th Street (2000) for alto saxophone and gamelan, and Nonaah (2014) for orchestra. Mitchell has performed with such composer/musicians as Anthony Braxton, George Lewis, Muhal Richard Abrams, Fred Frith, Bob Ostertag, John Tilbury, and Pauline Oliveros. He has taught at the University of Wisconsin, the California Institute for the Arts, Mills College, and other institutions, and he has designed and played his own multicultural instrument, the Percussion Cage. See also BUCKNER, THOMAS (1941– ); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); POSTMODERNISM. MODERNISM. Every generation has regarded itself as modern in comparison to preceding generations, with examples dating back to the Renaissance of commentaries that refer to the modern music of their day. But in the early 20th century, a distinct movement that came to be called modernist transformed virtually every area of aesthetic expression, most notably art, literature, architecture, dance, and music. Modernist music developed along two parallel tracks. One approach expanded the German Romanticism of Richard Wagner, extending his chromaticism into new realms of dissonance and tonal ambiguity and amplifying the drama and emotion of Wagnerian opera to the extreme exaggerations of expressionism. Richard Strauss and Gustav Mahler were important precursors to this development, which came into its own with the music of Arnold Schoenberg. The other approach rejected Wagnerian excess. French composers Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, and Erik Satie sought to create a new music that relied upon staticism, repetition, and subtlety. Portentous philosophical content was avoided; emotional expression, if present at all, was nuanced and muted. Modernism was an international movement in music by the 1910s. Schoenberg, Alexander Scriabin, Charles Ives, Béla Bartók, Igor Stravinsky, Anton Webern, Alban Berg, Henry Cowell, Edgard Varèse, Dane Rudhyar, Carl Ruggles, and Ruth Crawford represented an extreme modernism in the 1910s and 1920s, often referred to as “ultramodernism,” which was highly dissonant and could be bitonal, polytonal, or atonal. Melodic lines became more angular and fragmentary, with wide leaps and asymmetrical designs. Rhythm gained a new complexity in the form of polyrhythm and polymeter. Unusual sonorities proliferated, and percussion became more prominent in both orchestration and pianism. In the 1920s and 1930s, some of these composers began employing more familiar tonal structures in their music, seeking to invigorate and redefine the past rather than escape it—an approach they shared with Manuel de Falla, Sergey Prokofiev, Paul Hindemith, Darius Milhaud, Aaron Copland, and Dmitry Shostakovich.

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Although the 1940s and 1950s saw a heightened interest in Schoenberg’s twelve-tone method of atonal composition, modernism was by then reaching a plateau, and a cultural shift into postmodernism was beginning. Anticipated by Satie and launched by the American innovators Harry Partch and John Cage, postmodernism built upon modernist freedoms while avoiding familiar modernist materials. Although such composers as Elliott Carter, Olivier Messiaen, Milton Babbitt, Conlon Nancarrow, Iannis Xenakis, Pierre Boulez, and Karlheinz Stockhausen continued to pursue modernism into the late 20th and early 21st centuries, in what has been called “high modernism,” they came to represent an aesthetic minority within the postmodern activity going on around them, typified by minimalist, multicultural, and pop-influenced new music. See also ABRAHAMSEN, HANS (1952– ); ADÈS, THOMAS (1971– ); ALEATORY; ANHALT, ISTVÁN (1919–2012); ANTHEIL, GEORGE (1900–1959); ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); AREL, BÜLENT (1919–1990); BADINGS, HENK (1907–1987); BARBER, SAMUEL (1910–1981); BARRAQUÉ, JEAN (1928–1973); BARTH, HANS (1897–1956); BAUER, MARION (1882–1955); BAX, ARNOLD (SIR) (1883–1953); BECKER, JOHN J. (1886–1961); BERGER, ARTHUR (1912–2003); BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003); BERNSTEIN, LEONARD (1918–1990); BEYER, JOHANNA M. (1888–1944); BIRTWISTLE, HARRISON (SIR) (1934– ); BISCARDI, CHESTER (1948– ); BLITZSTEIN, MARC (1905–1964); BLOCH, ERNEST (1880–1959); BOLCOM, WILLIAM (1938– ); BOULANGER, NADIA (1887–1979); BOWLES, PAUL (1910–1999); BRAND, MAX (1896–1980); BRAXTON, ANTHONY (1945– ); BRIDGE, FRANK (1879–1941); BRITTEN, BENJAMIN (1913–1976); BUHLIG, RICHARD (1880–1952); BUSONI, FERRUCCIO (1866–1924); BUTTERWORTH, GEORGE (1885–1916); CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); CARPENTER, JOHN ALDEN (1876–1951); CARRILLO, JULIÁN (1875–1965); CATURLA, ALEJANDRO (1906–1940); CERHA, FRIEDRICH (1926– ); CHANCE MUSIC; CHÁVEZ, CARLOS (1899–1978); CHOU WEN-CHUNG (1923– ); COMPUTER MUSIC; CORIGLIANO, JOHN (1938– ); COUPER, MILDRED (1887–1974); CRAFT, ROBERT (1923–2015); DAHL, INGOLF (1912–1970); DALLAPICCOLA, LUIGI (1904–1975); DAVIDOVSKY, MARIO (1934– ); DAVIES, PETER MAXWELL (SIR) (1934–2016); DEGAETANI, JAN (1933–1989); DELIUS, FREDERICK (1862–1934); DENISOV, EDISON (1929–1996); DIAMOND, DAVID (1915–2005); DRUCKMAN, JACOB (1928–1996); DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000); EICHHEIM, HENRY (1870–1942); EISLER, HANNS (1898–1962); ELASTIC FORM; EL-DABH, HALIM (1921–2017); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; ELLINGTON, DUKE (1899–1974); FARWELL, ARTHUR (1872–1952); FERNEYHOUGH, BRIAN (1943– ); FILM MUSIC; FINE, IRVING (1914–1962); FINE, VIVIAN (1913–2000);

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FINNEY, ROSS LEE (1906–1997); FINZI, GERALD (1901–1956); FLANAGAN, WILLIAM (1923–1969); FORMALISM; FOSS, LUKAS (1922–2009); FOULDS, JOHN (1880–1939); FREE JAZZ; FREE RHYTHM; FUTURISM; GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; GERHARD, ROBERTO (1896–1970); GERSHWIN, GEORGE (1898–1937); GIDEON, MIRIAM (1906–1996); GINASTERA, ALBERTO (1916–1983); GLANVILLEHICKS, PEGGY (1912–1990); GLASS, PHILIP (1937– ); GOEHR, ALEXANDER (1932– ); GÓRECKI, HENRYK (1933–2010); GOULD, MORTON (1913–1996); GRAETTINGER, ROBERT F. (1923–1957); GRAINGER, PERCY (1882–1961); GRAPHIC NOTATION; GRIFFES, CHARLES T. (1884–1920); GRISEY, GÉRARD (1946–1998); GROUPE DES SIX; GUBAIDULINA, SOFIA (1931– ); HÁBA, ALOIS (1893–1973); HAHN, REYNALDO (1874–1947); HANSON, HOWARD (1896–1981); HARRIS, ROY (1898–1979); HARVEY, JONATHAN (1939–2012); HAUER, JOSEF MATTHIAS (1883–1959); HELPS, ROBERT (1928–2001); HENZE, HANS WERNER (1926–2012); HERRMANN, BERNARD (1911–1975); HOLST, GUSTAV (1874–1934); HONEGGER, ARTHUR (1892–1955); HOVHANESS, ALAN (1911–2000); HUSA, KAREL (1921–2016); IBERT, JACQUES (1890–1962); IMPRESSIONISM; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; IRELAND, JOHN (1879–1962); JANÁČEK, LEOŠ (1854–1928); JARNACH, PHILIPP (1892–1982); JOLAS, BETSY (1926– ); JOLIVET, ANDRÉ (1905–1974); JOPLIN, SCOTT (1868–1917); KANCHELI, GIYA (1935– ); KHACHATURIAN, ARAM (1903–1978); KIRCHNER, LEON (1919–2009); KIRKPATRICK, JOHN (1905–1991); KNUSSEN, OLIVER (1952–2018); KODÁLY, ZOLTÁN (1882–1967); KOLB, BARBARA (1939– ); KOLISCH, RUDOLF (1896–1978); KORNGOLD, ERICH WOLFGANG (1897–1957); KRENEK, ERNST (1900–1991); KRONOS QUARTET; KURTÁG, GYÖRGY (1926– ); LACHENMANN, HELMUT (1935– ); LE CAINE, HUGH (1914–1977); LEIBOWITZ, RENÉ (1913–1972); LIEBERSON, PETER (1946–2011); LIGETI, GYÖRGY (1923–2006); LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001); LORIOD, YVONNE (1924–2010); LOURIÉ, ARTHUR (1892–1966); LUENING, OTTO (1900–1996); LUTOSLAWSKI, WITOLD (1913–1994); MACERO, TEO (1925–2008); MADERNA, BRUNO (1920–1973); MAGER, JÖRG (1880–1939); MAMLOK, URSULA (1923–2016); MARTIN, FRANK (1890–1974); MARTINU, BOHUSLAV (1890–1959); MAW, NICHOLAS (1935–2009); MAYUZUMI, TOSHIRO (1929–1997); McPHEE, COLIN (1901–1964); MENNIN, PETER (1923–1983); MENOTTI, GIAN CARLO (1911–2007); METRIC MODULATION; MICROTONALITY; MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); MOMPOU, FEDERICO (1893–1987); MOON, BEATA (1969– ); MOSOLOV, ALEXANDER (1900–1973); MULTIMEDIA; MURAIL, TRISTAN (1947– ); MUSGRAVE, THEA (1928– ); NEMTIN, ALEXANDER (1936–1999); NEOCLASSICISM; NEOROMANTI-

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CISM; NEWLIN, DIKA (1923–2006); NIELSEN, CARL (1865–1931); NILSSON, BO (1937–2018); NONO, LUIGI (1924–1990); NØRGÅRD, PER (1932– ); ONDES MARTENOT; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); ORFF, CARL (1895–1982); ORNSTEIN, LEO (ca. 1892–2002); OSWALD, JOHN (1953– ); PANTONALITY; PÄRT, ARVO (1935– ); PEARS, PETER (SIR) (1910–1986); PENDERECKI, KRZYSZTOF (1933– ); PERLE, GEORGE (1915–2009); PERSICHETTI, VINCENT (1915–1987); PISTON, WALTER (1894–1976); POLYHARMONY; POULENC, FRANCIS (1889–1963); POUND, EZRA (1885–1972); POWELL, MEL (1923–1998); PRICE, FLORENCE (1887–1953); QUARTER-TONE MUSIC; QUOTATION; RAUTAVAARA, EINOJUHANI (1928–2016); REVUELTAS, SILVESTRE (1899–1940); RIEGGER, WALLINGFORD (1885–1961); RIHM, WOLFGANG (1952– ); RISSET, JEAN-CLAUDE (1938–2016); ROCHBERG, GEORGE (1918–2005); ROLDÁN, AMADEO (1900–1939); ROREM, NED (1923– ); ROSLAVETS, NIKOLAI (1881–1944); ROUSSEL, ALBERT (1869–1937); RUDERS, POUL (1949– ); RUSSELL, GEORGE (1923–2009); RUSSELL, WILLIAM (1905–1992); SALLINEN, AULIS (1935– ); SALZEDO, CARLOS (1885–1961); SCHAEFFER, PIERRE (1910–1995); SCHILLINGER, JOSEPH (1895–1943); SCHNABEL, ARTUR (1882–1951); SCHNITTKE, ALFRED (1934–1998); SCHULLER, GUNTHER (1925–2015); SCHUMAN, WILLIAM (1910–1992); SCOTT, RAYMOND (1908–1994); SEEGER, CHARLES (1886–1979); SESSIONS, ROGER (1896–1985); SHAPEY, RALPH (1921–2002); SKALKOTTAS, NIKOS (1904–1949); SLONIMSKY, NICOLAS (1894–1995); SMILEY, PRIL (1943– ); SMIT, LEO (1921–1999); SMIT, LEOPOLD “LEO” (1900–1943); SMITH, HALE (1925–2009); SOLLBERGER, HARVEY (1938– ); SORABJI, KAIKHOSRU SHAPURJI (1892–1988); SPATIAL MUSIC; SPECTRAL MUSIC; SPRECHSTIMME; STEIN, LEONARD (1916–2004); STEUERMANN, EDWARD (1892–1964); STILL, WILLIAM GRANT (1895–1978); STOCHASTIC MUSIC; STRANG, GERALD (1908–1983); STRING PIANO; SULTAN, GRETE (1906–2005); SURREALISM; SZYMANOWSKI, KAROL (1882–1937); TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ); TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TAL, JOSEF (1910–2008); TALMA, LOUISE (1906–1996); TAN DUN (1957– ); TAYLOR, CECIL (1929–2018); TEXT-SOUND MUSIC; THOMSON, VIRGIL (1896–1989); TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ); TIPPETT, MICHAEL (SIR) (1905–1998); TOCH, ERNST (1887–1964); TONE-CLUSTER; TOTAL SERIALISM; TOWER, JOAN; TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ); USSACHEVSKY, VLADIMIR (1911–1990); USTVOLSKAYA, GALINA (1919–2006); VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, RALPH (1872–1958); VILLA-LOBOS, HEITOR (1887–1959); VIVIER, CLAUDE (1948–1983); WALTON, WILLIAM (SIR) (1902–1983); WARLOCK, PETER (1894–1930); WEBER, BEN (1916–1979); WEILL, KURT (1900–1950); WEIR, JUDITH

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(1954– ); WEISBERG, ARTHUR (1931–2009); WEISS, ADOLPH (1891–1971); WELLESZ, EGON (1885–1974); WOLPE, STEFAN (1902–1972); WUORINEN, CHARLES (1938– ); WYSCHNEGRADSKY, IVAN (1893–1979); YARDUMIAN, RICHARD (1917–1985); YUN, ISANG (1917–1995); ZIMMERMANN, BERND ALOIS (1918–1970); ZUBEL, AGATA (1978– ); ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017); ZWILICH, ELLEN TAAFFE (1939– ). MOMPOU, FEDERICO (1893–1987). Catalan composer and musician. Federico Mompou studied piano at the Conservatorio del Liceo in his native Barcelona. In 1911, he continued his studies in Paris where he was exposed to the music of Claude Debussy and Erik Satie. In his piano composition, Mompou’s devotion to Catalan folk music blended with impressionist techniques, in a more stripped-down, emotionally nuanced approach that often discarded time signatures and bar lines. He produced a series of major piano scores, including Impresiones intimas (1911–1914), Scènes d’enfants (1915–1918), Suburbis (1916–1917), Cants mágìcs (1917–1919), Charmes (1920–1921), Fêtes lointaines (1920–1921), 12 Canciónes y danzas (1921–1962), Paisajes (1942–1960), and Música callada (1959–1967). Mompou resided in Paris from 1921 until 1941, when he returned to Barcelona. His guitar music includes Suite Compostelana (1962) and Canción y danza No. 13 (1972); among his vocal works are songs for voice and piano, such as Combat del somni (1942–1948), and Improperios (1963) for chorus and orchestra. See also MODERNISM. MONK, BARBARA. See MONK FELDMAN, BARBARA (1953– ). MONK, MEREDITH (1942– ). American composer and musician. Meredith Monk graduated from Sarah Lawrence College in 1964, where she first developed her own unique blend of composition, singing, choreography, and theater. Her music-theater piece 16 Millimeter Earrings (1966) included film; later works have also utilized video. Juice (1969) was performed in installments at three different locations. By then, Monk was also working regularly as a solo artist, focusing on her singing and releasing such recordings as Key (1970) and Our Lady of Late (1974). Her minimalist modal music has a fondness for ostinati, dissonance, and polytonal inflections. The 1970s and 1980s saw international performances of her operas, large-scale theater works such as Vessel: An Opera Epic (1971), Education of the Girlchild (1972), Quarry (1976), Recent Ruins (1979), Specimen Days (1981), and The Games (1983), a collaboration with Ping Chong.

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In 1978, she formed her performance group Meredith Monk & Vocal Ensemble, composing for them Dolmen Music (1979) for six voices, piano, violin, cello, and percussion. Also a filmmaker, Monk has written, directed, and scored Ellis Island (1982) and Book of Days (1989). The operas Magic Frequencies (1998) and Mercy (2001) were scored for six voices, two keyboards, percussion, violin, and theremin; other notable later operas are Atlas (1991), The Politics of Quiet (1996), The Impermanence Project (2004), Songs of Ascension (2008), and On Behalf of Nature (2013). Monk’s instrumental music includes the two-piano scores Parlour Games (1988) and Phantom Waltz (1990); the piano solo Steppe Music (1997); the 1999 solos Trumpet Study #1 and Clarinet Study #1; the orchestral scores Possible Sky (2003) and Realm Variations (2012); and Stringsongs (2004) for string quartet. Among her other recent works are Eclipse Variations (2000) for four voices, esraj, and sampler; the sound installation Eclipse Variations (2002); and WEAVE (2010) for two voices, chorus, and chamber orchestra. See also CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); EASTMAN, JULIUS (1940–1990); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FILM MUSIC; MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM. MONK FELDMAN, BARBARA (1953– ). Canadian composer and educator. Barbara Monk studied with Bengt Hambraeus at McGill University and with Morton Feldman at the University of Buffalo; she and Feldman were married in 1987, the last year of his life. She brings a sensitive ear for sustained tones and subtle patterns of color to such minimalist chamber works as Trio (1984) for violin, cello, and piano; The Immutable Silence (1998) for septet; and Landscape near La Pocatière, Quebec (2007) for cello and percussion. Her setting of Homer, Infinite Other (1992) for two sopranos, mixed chorus, and seven instruments is also a multimedia piece for which Stan Brakhage created his hand-painted film Three Homerics (1993). Her works for soloist include Movement for Solo Viola (1979), The I and Thou (1988) for piano, The Gentlest Chord (1991) for mezzo-soprano, Glockenspiel (2004) for glockenspiel, and The Loons of Black Sturgeon Lake (2004) for flute. Among her notable recent works are the opera Pyramus and Thisbe (2010) and Poems by Gerard Manley Hopkins (2014) for mixed chorus. She has lectured and taught in Germany, Canada, and the United States. See also THE BEATLES; POSTMODERNISM. MOON, BEATA (1969– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Beata Moon studied piano at Juilliard and is self-taught as a composer. She has incorporated elements of modernism, minimalism, jazz, and pop in such notable works as Mary (1996) for soprano, piano, violin, and drum; Moonpaths (1998) for clarinet, violin, and piano; Illusions (2000) for marim-

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ba; The Beatitudes (2003) for baritone and piano; Wind Quintet (2004); Piano Sonata (2006); Locomotion (2008) for double bass and piano; Metamorphosis (2012) for piano; and Beginnings (2013) for orchestra. A teaching artist at New York’s Lincoln Center Institute, she founded the all-female Beata Moon Ensemble in 2002, which performs music composed by women. See also POSTMODERNISM. MOONDOG (1916–1999). American composer and musician. Louis Hardin lost his eyesight at age 16 when a dynamite cap exploded in his face, and he started his musical training at the Iowa School for the Blind; he also studied with Burnet Tuthill at the Memphis Conservatory of Music. Hardin came to New York in 1943 and befriended conductor Artur Rodzinski who let him attend rehearsals with the New York Philharmonic. By the late 1940s, Hardin had adopted the name Moondog and was a familiar presence on the streets of Manhattan, wearing Viking regalia. His lodgings, both in the city and upstate, were intermittent, and he lived mostly on the street for the next three decades. During the 1950s, he supported himself as a street musician, often playing instruments that he had built: trimbas (triangular drums), yukh (a suspended log struck with rubber mallets), oo (a triangular stringed instrument struck with a clave). He would type out his compositions in Braille and have them transcribed into conventional notation. Moondog’s music relied upon unusual meters and intricate and rigorous canonic procedures, while featuring refined and evocative melodies. He also recorded the urban sounds around him and would incorporate them into his music. On his trio of notable LPs for Prestige (Moondog, 1956; More Moondog, 1957; The Story of Moondog, 1957), he frequently played all the instruments. Equally impressive were his Columbia albums, Moondog (1969) and Moondog 2 (1971), in which he led groups of musicians and singers. During these years, he received support and encouragement from such composer/musicians as Duke Ellington, Igor Stravinsky, Steve Reich, and Philip Glass. Moondog went to Germany for a concert of his music in 1974 and was invited to live with Ilona Goebel and her family in Oer-Erkenshwick. She became an indispensable part of his life, serving as manager, assistant, and publisher of his scores, poetry, and essays through her company Managarm. His music flourished in Europe in his last years, and the overtone series became more important to his composition; he also released several impressive CDs, including H’Art Songs (1989) and Elpmas (1991). A prolific composer, Moondog’s opus list numbers 898 compositions, most of which are still being cataloged and dated; many have yet to be translated from the original Braille. His works include at least 80 symphonies, 70 songs, and 50 works for saxophone ensemble. See also INSTRUMENT BUILDING; JUST INTONATION; POSTMODERNISM.

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MORAN, ROBERT (1937– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Robert Moran studied with Hans Apostel in Vienna and with Luciano Berio and Darius Milhaud at Mills College. He taught at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music and directed the San Francisco New Music Ensemble. Moran’s early postmodern compositions include the graphic scores Interiors (1964) for variable ensemble and L’après-midi du Dracoula (1966) for any sound-producing instruments. He has also created city-wide works: 39 Minutes for 39 Autos (1969), Hallelujah (1971), Pachelbel Promenade (1975), and From the Market to Asylum (1982). Minimalism informs such works of Moran’s as Ten Miles High over Albania (1983) for eight harps; the opera The Juniper Tree (1984), which Moran cocomposed with Philip Glass; and Open Veins (1986) for amplified violin and variable ensemble. Also notable are Moran’s Music for Gamelan (1978) and his scores for chorus and instruments Requiem: Chant du cygne (1989), Winni Ille Pu (1994), Night Passage (1994), Stimmen des letzten Siegels (2000), Gitanjali (2001), and Trinity Requiem (2010, rev. 2012). Along with his 1990 operas Desert of Roses and From the Towers of the Moon, Moran has also composed a series of mini-operas setting Gertrude Stein such as The World Is Round (2013). His other recent works include Eclipse (2013) for 17 solo strings, Fantasia Furiosa (2014) for four instruments, and his score for the film Arena (2014). See also INDETERMINACY; MULTICULTURALISM. MOSOLOV, ALEXANDER (1900–1973). Russian composer and musician. Pianist Alexander Mosolov studied composition at the Moscow Conservatory with Nikolai Myaskovsky and privately with Reinhold Glière. Drawing on the later works of Alexander Scriabin as well as futurist ideas, Mosolov used registral extremes, driving ostinati, and harsh dissonances in such notable works as Piano Sonatas Nos. 2 (1924) and 5 (1925), String Quartet No. 1 (1926), Piano Concerto No. 1 (1927), Turkmenian Nights (1928) for piano, and Zavod (1928, aka Iron Foundry) for orchestra, which was played internationally. But Mosolov’s modernist music was denounced as antirevolutionary by the Russian Union of Proletarian Musicians, and he fell into disfavor with the regime of Joseph Stalin. By the early 1930s, Mosolov’s works were no longer published or performed in the Soviet Union, and in 1937, he was arrested and sentenced to a Gulag. The efforts of Glière, Myaskovsky, and others secured Mosolov’s release the following year. His later works, which include a few film scores and such compositions as his Cello Concerto (1946), Song-Symphony (1950), and Symphony No. 5 (1960), were traditional pieces that reflected his folk-song expeditions into Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and other regions in the 1930s and 1940s. See also FORMALISM.

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MULTICULTURALISM. The conviction that the music of other cultures is available for use in one’s own music can be traced back at least as far as the mid-19th-century American composer and pianist Louis Moreau Gottschalk. The European assimilation of non-European music took longer—in 1889, performances of Javanese gamelan in Paris revealed new possibilities to the young composers Claude Debussy and Erik Satie. In the first decades of the 20th century, Béla Bartók’s composition drew upon his research into the folk music of not just his native Hungary but also Slovakia, Romania, Turkey, and the Middle East. Other composers born in the 19th century, who were drawn to music outside the European tradition, include Ferruccio Busoni, Albert Roussel, Henry Eichheim, Arthur Farwell, Gustav Holst, John Foulds, Charles T. Griffes, Heitor Villa-Lobos, Adolph Weiss, Darius Milhaud, Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji, Dane Rudhyar, Henry Cowell, and Carlos Chávez. Note that, when Cowell was studying and teaching world music in the early 1930s, his composition became less aggressively modernist; at the same time, George Gershwin, William Russell, and others were being impacted by the Latin American music that they were hearing in popular venues. Multicultural composition is essentially postmodern, involving the appropriation, deconstruction, and recontextualization of another culture’s music, and it was not fully articulated in the West until the second half of the 20th century. By the late 1950s and early 1960s, major composers such as Cowell, Alan Hovhaness, Harry Partch, and Lou Harrison were using Eastern instruments and techniques in their scores. Harrison, perhaps the 20th century’s greatest advocate of multicultural music, also embraced the gamelan and helped stimulate international enthusiasm for it. Others who composed for gamelan include James Tenney, Henry Brant, Pauline Oliveros, Robert Moran, Alvin Lucier, Roscoe Mitchell, Michael Nyman, and Robert Macht. Several American minimalist composer/musicians also have multicultural roots: Steve Reich studied African drumming, and Philip Glass, La Monte Young, Charlemagne Palestine, and Terry Riley turned to Indian music. Compositions specifically about multiculturalism include Karlheinz Stockhausen’s Hymnen (1967) and John Cage’s Apartment House 1776 (1976). This approach has also informed creative African American music in the work of Duke Ellington, Sun Ra, Ornette Coleman, Anthony Braxton, Leroy Jenkins, Anthony Davis, and others. Some first-generation Americans have explored their own heritage in multicultural works, from Aaron Copland’s Vitebsk (1928) and the Armenian-themed scores of Hovhaness and Richard Yardumian to music by Diamanda Galás and Susie Ibarra. Multiculturalism has impacted the music of generations of composers, among them Colin McPhee, Aram Khachaturian, André Jolivet, Alejandro Caturla, Miriam Gideon, Olivier Messiaen, Paul Bowles, Peggy

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Glanville-Hicks, Benjamin Britten, Isang Yun, Halim El-Dabh, Iannis Xenakis, Chou Wen-chung, Lejaren Hiller, Peter Sculthorpe, Joji Yuasa, Robert Ashley, David Amram, Toru Takemitsu, Sofia Gubaidulina, Mauricio Kagel, Toshi Ichiyanagi, Morton Subotnick, Teiji Ito, David Behrman, Dennis Johnson, Yuji Takahashi, Annea Lockwood, Richard Teitelbaum, Henry Flynt, Meredith Monk, Alice Shields, John Tavener, Tania León, Joan La Barbara, Tristan Murail, Bernadette Speach, Fred Frith, Elodie Lauten, Ned Sublette, Lois V Vierk, Peter Garland, David Hykes, John Zorn, Anne LeBaron, Wendy Mae Chambers, Bun-Ching Lam, Michael Gordon, Sussan Deyhim, Tan Dun, Unsuk Chin, and The Beatles. See also FREE IMPROVISATION; GRAINGER, PERCY (1882–1961). MULTIMEDIA. Had Alexander Scriabin lived and been able to realize his visionary Mysterium, he would have presided over the first major multimedia composition, combining instrumentalists and vocalists with dancers and actors as well as specialized treatments of color, texture, and scent. John J. Becker composed pioneering multimedia music in A Marriage with Space (1935) for orchestra, dancers, actors, and manipulated colors and lights— which has yet to be performed. In the first half of the 20th century, few modernists dared to follow the path that Scriabin and Becker had envisioned. In 1951, Toru Takemitsu and Joji Yuasa were among the cofounders of Japan’s Experimental Workshop, established to perform multimedia pieces, and by the 1960s, multimedia music was enjoying a vital period internationally. Robert Ashley’s involvement with the ONCE Group, and later the Sonic Arts Union, brought theater, dance, and film into his composition; in Ashley’s operas Perfect Lives (1980) and Atalanta (Acts of God) (1982–1987), video played an essential role. Another important postmodern composer who turned to multimedia music was La Monte Young in his collaborations with visual designer Marian Zazeela; her slide projections and lighting effects (and later, sculpted mobiles) became an integral facet of Young’s music. Lejaren Hiller and John Cage created HPSCHD (1968) for one to seven harpsichords and one to 51 tapes, which premiered in 1969 using film and slide projections. Generations of composers have employed multimedia techniques, including Nicolas Slonimsky, Duke Ellington, Henry Brant, Sun Ra, Richard Yardumian, Leonard Bernstein, Iannis Xenakis, Dika Newlin, Friedrich Cerha, Pierre Henry, Henri Pousseur, Kenneth Gaburo, David Tudor, Salvatore Martirano, Donald Scavarda, Ruth Anderson, Larry Austin, Alvin Lucier, Mauricio Kagel, Sofia Gubaidulina, Pauline Oliveros, Leroy Jenkins, R. Murray Schafer, Morton Subotnick, Phill Niblock, Vinko Globokar, Roger Reynolds, Gordon Mumma, Yasunao Tone, Steve Reich, Takehisa Kosugi, Annea Lock-

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wood, William Hellermann, Julius Eastman, Jerry Hunt, Anthony Braxton, Maggi Payne, Laurie Spiegel, Tristan Murail, Laurie Anderson, Bernadette Speach, Beth Anderson, Joëlle Léandre, Peter Gordon, Bunita Marcus, Barbara Monk Feldman, Anne LeBaron, Wendy Mae Chambers, Michael Gordon, Tan Dun, Sussan Deyhim, Bob Ostertag, The Residents, Rebecca Saunders, Michel van der Aa, Susie Ibarra, Anna Thorvaldsdottir, and Ashley Fure. See also CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981); FLUXUS; MacLISE, ANGUS (1938–1979); THEATRICAL MUSIC. MUMMA, GORDON (1935– ). American composer, musician, and educator. A pianist and horn player, Gordon Mumma studied with Ross Lee Finney at the University of Michigan. Mumma formed the Cooperative Studio for Electronic Music with Robert Ashley in 1958, and they cofounded the ONCE Group in 1960; in 1966, they cofounded the Sonic Arts Union, a multimedia electronic-music group, with David Behrman and Alvin Lucier. Mumma was also a composer/musician for the Merce Cunningham Dance Company (1966–1974). He combined instruments with tape music in his 12-instrument Sinfonia (1960) and the duet Meanwhile, a Twopiece (1961) and used tape to score the Donald Scavarda film Greys (1963). Mumma has designed and built his own electronic circuitry, and his approach to electroacoustic music came to specialize in live electronics. A cybersonic console is used with piano four-hands in Medium Size Monograph (1963); bandoneon or three chromatic harmonicas in Mesa (1966); and solo modified horn in Hornpipe (1967). An accelerometer controls the electronics in Ambivex (1972) for cornet. The tape piece Cybersonic Cantilevers (1973) utilizes sound materials contributed by visitors to Mumma’s soundcapturing installation. A digital computer was combined with a variable group of live performers in Conspiracy 8 (1970), a collaboration with Stephen Smoliar; Than Particle (1985) was for percussionist and computerpercussionist. His notable later works include the piano scores Graftings (1996) and Sixpac Sonatas (1985–1997). Mumma has also collaborated with such composer/musicians as David Tudor, Anthony Braxton, Fred Frith, Pauline Oliveros, Toshi Ichiyanagi, Frederic Rzewski, and Christian Wolff. He has taught at Mills College, the University of Victoria, and the University of California at Santa Cruz, among other institutions; his students include Joe Hannan. See also POSTMODERNISM; SOUND INSTALLATION. MUNDRY, ISABEL (1963– ). German composer and educator. In Berlin, Isabel Mundry studied at the Hochschule der Künste and learned electronic music at the Studio of the Technische Universitat; she also studied in Frank-

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furt with Hans Zender. Admired for such early works as Le silence—Tystnaden (1993) for orchestra, No One (1995) for string quartet, and Spiegel Bilder (1997) for clarinet and accordion, Mundry hit her stride with a series of spatial compositions: Gesichter (1997) for soprano, speaker, two percussionists, and live electronics; Flugsand (1998, rev. 2002) for orchestra; Geträumte Räume (1999) for four trumpets; Traces des moments (2000) for clarinet, accordion, and string trio; Ferne Nähe (2001) for string quartet and orchestra; Gefalteter Augenblick (2002) for orchestra; and the theatrical Dufay Arrangements (2004) for chamber orchestra. In 2005, she premiered her music-theater works Ein Atemzung—die Odyssee and Das Mädchen aus der Fremde. Among Mundry’s notable recent scores are Liaison (2007, rev. 2009) for clarinet, violin, cello, and piano; Non-Places, ein Klavierkonzert (2012) for piano and orchestra; the three-part orchestral work Motions // der doppelte Blick I–III (2014–2015); and Im Fall (2017) for mezzo-soprano and chamber orchestra. Mundry has taught at the Frankfurt Conservatory, the Zurich University of the Arts, and other institutions. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. MURAIL, TRISTAN (1947– ). French composer and educator. Tristan Murail studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Olivier Messiaen; in 1973, he cofounded the electroacoustic-music ensemble/collective L’Itineraire. He has taught composition at the Institut de Recherche et de Coordination Acoustique/Musique, Columbia University, and other institutions. A leading figure in spectral music with such compositions as Mémoires/Erosion (1976) for French horn and nine instruments and Gondwana (1980) for orchestra, Murail adapted computer music to spectral analysis and synthesis in Désintégrations (1982) for 17 instruments and electronics. He has also written for ondes martenot, sextet (March 2,5, 1976), duet (March 2,5, 1971), and solo (La conquête de l’Antarctique, 1982); Les courants de l’espace (1979) combines the ondes with synthesizer and small orchestra. The multicultural L’esprit des dunes (1994) combines electronics with Mongolian overtone singing and traditional Tibetan instruments. His recent works include Terre d’ombre (2004) for orchestra and electronics; Liber Fulguralis (2008) for ensemble, electronics, and video; Travel Notes (2015) for two pianos and two percussionists; and Sogni, ombre et fumi (2016) for string quartet. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; GRISEY, GÉRARD (1946–1998); LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001); MODERNISM; MULTIMEDIA; VIVIER, CLAUDE (1948–1983). MUSGRAVE, THEA (1928– ). Scottish composer, musician, and educator. Thea Musgrave studied with Hans Gal at the University of Edinburgh, Nadia Boulanger at the Paris Conservatoire, and Aaron Copland at Tanglewood.

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She settled in the United States in 1972 and taught at the University of California at Santa Barbara (1970–1978) and Queens College, City University of New York (1987–2002). As pianist and conductor, Musgrave has performed her works internationally. She wrote twelve-tone music with such scores as Triptych (1959) for tenor and orchestra, Colloquy (1960) for violin and piano, and Sinfonia (1963) for orchestra, but she went on to develop her own lyrical chromatic style with a greater feeling for melody, as in her opera The Decision (1965). Theatrical effects frequently inform Musgrave’s music. Instrumental insurrections arise in the Concerto for Orchestra (1967); the viola section stands for the soloist in the Viola Concerto (1973); and different chamberorchestra soloists compete in Points of View (2007). Other works have programmatic qualities, such as The Seasons (1988) for orchestra, Autumn Sonata (1993) for bass clarinet and orchestra, and Turbulent Landscapes (2003) for orchestra. Musgrave’s ballet score Beauty and the Beast (1969) included tape music that she created with Daphne Oram. Echoes through Time (1988) for five soloists, five speakers, three dancers, women’s chorus, spoken chorus, and orchestra has an optional prologue and epilogue of electronic music. Her other electroacoustic works include From One to Another I (1970) for viola and tape, Orfeo I (1975) for flute and tape, and Narcissus (1987) for clarinet and digital delay system. Musgrave has utilized spatial resources in such works as Clarinet Concerto (1969), with the soloist moving through the orchestra and leading subgroups, and Horn Concerto (1971), in which she positioned the orchestra’s horns around the hall. She found success in opera with The Voice of Ariadne (1973), Mary, Queen of Scots (1977), A Christmas Carol (1979), Harriet, the Woman Called Moses (1984), Simón Bolívar (1992), and Pontalba (2003). Her later compositions include the spatial work Phoenix Rising (1997) for orchestra; Three Women (1998) for soprano, narrator, and orchestra; the theatrical choral piece Voices of Power and Protest (2006); Turbulent Landscapes (2003) for orchestra; and Night Windows (2016) for oboe and 15 strings. See also MODERNISM. MUSIQUE CONCRÈTE. French composer Pierre Schaeffer coined the term musique concrète in 1948 to indicate music created with prerecorded sounds, in which he heard a unique concreteness that instrumental and vocal sound lacked. He inaugurated the medium with Étude aux chemins de fer (1948) and collaborated with Pierre Henry on the first major musique concrète work, Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950). In 1951, they established the first tape-music studio, the Groupe de recherches de musique concrète. With further developments in tape music, the term musique concrète came to connote music made from natural sounds on tape, as distinct from electrically synthesized sound. Notable composers of musique

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concrète include Karlheinz Stockhausen, Pierre Boulez, Edgard Varèse, Iannis Xenakis, Olivier Messiaen, Toru Takemitsu, Luc Ferrari, Henk Badings, Darius Milhaud, Jean Barraqué, Jean-Claude Risset, and Laurie Spiegel. See also ACOUSMATIC MUSIC; THE BEATLES; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; HINDEMITH, PAUL (1895–1963); OPERA.

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N NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997). American-born Mexican composer. One of the most original 20th-century composers, Nancarrow articulated new polyrhythms, tempo relationships, and densities in his Studies for Player Piano. Born in Texarkana, Arkansas, Samuel Conlon Nancarrow studied trumpet but was mostly self-taught as a composer; his earliest surviving piece is the lively Sarabande and Scherzo (1930) for oboe, bassoon, and piano. Nancarrow played jazz trumpet in the early 1930s, and after a semester at the Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music, he was in Boston by 1934, studying with Roger Sessions and finding encouragement from Nicolas Slonimsky and Walter Piston. Nancarrow completed his Toccata for violin and piano and his Prelude and Blues, both for piano, in 1935; but his fast tempi and jazz-inspired rhythms were so demanding that the pieces were arranged for piano four-hands when premiered in 1939. Nancarrow went to Spain in 1937 to fight with the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, and the following year Slonimsky published the Toccata, Prelude, and Blues in a New Music Edition. Aaron Copland praised these scores in Modern Music and got Nancarrow to write for the magazine after he returned from Spain in 1939. But when the government refused to issue Nancarrow a passport because of his Communist affiliations, he left the United States and settled in Mexico City in 1940; he became a Mexican citizen in 1955. Most of Nancarrow’s modernist music in the early 1940s had jazz and blues strains: Septet (1940); Three 2-Part Studies (ca. 1940) for piano; Sonatina (1941) for piano; Trio No. 1 (1942) for clarinet, bassoon, and piano; Piece for Small Orchestra No. 1 (1943); String Quartet No. 1 (1945). But his tempi and rhythms became even more challenging, and performances were few and unsatisfactory. Seeking to explore further extremes in rhythm and tempo, Nancarrow followed Henry Cowell’s suggestion in his book New Musical Resources, that rhythms too complex for a human to play could easily be cut onto a player-piano roll. Nancarrow tried to build a percussion machine after the principle of a player piano, using a pneumatic device to

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read holes on a paper roll and operate beaters that struck drumheads and wood blocks. But it never worked properly, so he went to New York in 1947 and bought a player piano and a roll-punching machine. In 1951, New Music Edition published Nancarrow’s Rhythm Study No. 1 for Player Piano. By then, he was working on other Studies (“Rhythm” was dropped from the titles), in a series that became his exclusive focus for decades. Although meticulous in numbering (and sometimes renumbering) the Studies, Nancarrow disregarded their dates. Research indicates that Studies Nos. 1–30 were created from the late 1940s to the late 1950s; Nancarrow then stopped composing and turned to creating legible scores of his Studies for about five years, after which his music resumed, with Studies Nos. 31–41 from 1965 to 1978 and Studies Nos. 42–50 in the 1980s. Nancarrow’s fondness for Boogie-Woogie and Spanish guitars are reflected in early Studies; later Studies are more single-minded, especially those employing canonic procedures. Study No. 21, “Canon X,” has a slow pattern of bass notes that constantly accelerates, played against the same material in an extremely fast treble voicing that continuously slows down. Study No. 24 has three voices playing against each other at tempo ratios of 14 against 15 against 16. Study No. 33 used irrational numbers for its tempi, playing the square root of 2 against 2. Nancarrow’s music was promoted by Elliott Carter and John Cage in the 1950s and 1960s, and it was championed by younger composers in the 1970s, such as Peter Garland, James Tenney, Roger Reynolds, and Charles Amirkhanian. The Studies were eventually heard and appreciated worldwide, and Nancarrow toured the United States and Europe in the 1980s. Pianists such as Yvar Mikhashoff began performing certain Studies, and Studies were arranged by Mikhashoff and others in versions for piano fourhands or for chamber ensembles. The composer and inventor Trimpin digitalized the Studies into MIDI-information, so a computer could drive his vorsetzer, a device placed on a piano keyboard, which plays the Studies “live.” Nancarrow began accepting instrumental commissions with ¿Tango? (1984) for piano, String Quartet No. 3 (1988; a Second Quartet was never completed), and Three Canons for Ursula (1989) for piano. Study No. 50 (1988) was his player-piano arrangement of Piece for Small Orchestra No. 2 (1986). Study for Orchestra (1991), adapted from Study No. 49, was originally envisioned as a concerto for player piano and orchestra; it included a computer-driven Disklavier for player-piano tempi and effects. Despite suffering a stroke in 1990, Nancarrow completed Para Yoko (1991) for his wife Yoko Sugiura—his only non-Study composition for player piano—and Study No. 51 (1992). Trio No. 2 (1991) for oboe, bassoon, and piano used the instrumentation of the Sarabande and Scherzo he had composed as a teenager. Three Movements for Chamber Orchestra (1993)

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was an arrangement made by Nancarrow and his assistant Carlos Sandoval, using material from abandoned piano rolls. His final composition was Contraption No. 1 (1993), written for Trimpin’s Contraption IPP. Study No. 52 for Player Piano was left unfinished when Nancarrow died at his home in Mexico City at age 84. See also ATONALITY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; GANN, KYLE (1955– ); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); PLEROMA; SURREALISM. NEMTIN, ALEXANDER (1936–1999). Russian composer and musician. Alexander Nemtin was composing and playing piano as a child, and he studied at the Moscow Conservatory. In the 1960s, he used the ANS Synthesizer at the Moscow Electronic Music Studio to realize Johann Sebastian Bach’s C Major Chorale Prelude and to create Tears and Forecasts. Nemtin spent more than 25 years completing a three-hour realization of Alexander Scriabin’s The Prefatory Act (1996); he also orchestrated Scriabin’s piano music for the ballet score Nuances (1975). Nemtin’s other music includes Japanese Songs (1964) for tenor and five instruments, Symphony No. 2, “War and Peace” (1974), and Three Poems (1987) for piano. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; SYNTHESIZER. NEOCLASSICISM. Rejecting Romanticism’s dramatic and personalized expression, many modernist composers practiced a new devotion to classical principles and techniques, writing for smaller groups of performers and employing classical and baroque forms. Ferruccio Busoni began articulating this new classicism with his orchestral scores Turandot (1905) and Berceuse Elégiaque (1909) and his Fantasia Contrappuntistica (1910) for piano. Claude Debussy turned to classical forms in his last compositions, the three chamber Sonatas (1915–1917). In 1917, Sergey Prokofiev composed his Symphony No. 1, a structurally classical work with modernist harmonies and rhythms, and Maurice Ravel completed his piano score Le tombeau de Couperin, which reinvigorated 18th-century dance forms. Both Prokofiev and Ravel moved on to other devices, and Busoni died in 1924; when neoclassicism ignited in the 1920s, its leader was Igor Stravinsky, with such scores as his Octet (1923), Piano Concerto (1924), and Oedipus Rex (1927). Paul Hindemith was another important figure, evoking the great German baroque composers with his Kammermusik series (1922–1927). But it was Stravinsky’s articulation of a new impersonality and precision that proved most directly helpful to the French composers who had defined their music outside of impressionism, such as Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, and their fellow composers known as the Groupe des Six; it aided Spaniard Manuel de Falla as well. The influential teacher Nadia Boulanger embraced Stravinskian neoclassicism, and it informed the early works of many

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of her pupils, including Aaron Copland, Virgil Thomson, Louise Talma, Ross Lee Finney, Walter Piston, Irving Fine, Elliott Carter, Ingolf Dahl, Peggy Glanville-Hicks, and Arthur Berger. With the twelve-tone music of Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, and Anton Webern attracting attention during the 1930s, neoclassicism was championed as the modernist option for composers who rejected atonality. Opposing camps formed in support of either Schoenberg or Stravinsky, just as earlier generations had felt obliged to choose between Richard Wagner and Giuseppe Verdi, or Johannes Brahms and Anton Bruckner. Such obligations are unreal from an inclusive postmodern perspective, but neoclassicism is not postmodern; it is modernist classicism, the use of classical disciplines to give form to modernist dissonance and polyrhythm. Stravinsky enjoyed great success, both material and artistic, with a series of major neoclassical scores, including Symphony of Psalms (1930), Violin Concerto (1931), Symphony in C (1940), and Symphony in Three Movements (1945). Far more audience friendly than twelve-tone music could ever be, neoclassicism became internationally popular and accommodated such different composers as Roger Sessions, Paul Bowles, Dmitry Shostakovich, Arthur Lourié, Witold Lutoslawski, Ernest Bloch, Luigi Dallapiccola, Albert Roussel, Colin McPhee, and Bohuslav Martinu. But the 1940s saw a greater appreciation of twelve-tone music, stimulated by Schoenberg’s residence in the United States and the postwar fascination with the music of Webern. By the 1950s, Dallapiccola, Sessions, Finney, Talma, Berger, Fine, Dahl, Lutoslawski, and Stravinsky were composing twelvetone music. Exclusively neoclassical composition largely faded with the postmodern willingness to combine modernist and traditional methods along with other techniques. See also CHÁVEZ, CARLOS (1899–1978); EXPRESSIONISM; FOSS, LUKAS (1922–2009); IBERT, JACQUES (1890–1962); KRENEK, ERNST (1900–1991); LIGETI, GYÖRGY (1923–2006); LUCIER, ALVIN (1931– ); NEOROMANTICISM; POWELL, MEL (1923–1998); RAUTAVAARA, EINOJUHANI (1928–2016); SCHAFER, R. MURRAY (1933– ); SMIT, LEOPOLD “LEO” (1900–1943); WEISS, ADOLPH (1891–1971); ZIMMERMANN, BERND ALOIS (1918–1970). NEOROMANTICISM. Nineteenth-century Romanticism celebrated the appeal to emotion, the relaxation of classical forms, the use of programmatic and literary ideas, and the appetite for beauty and fantasy—all of which were rejected by modernist composers in the early 20th century. But the 1930s and 1940s saw a reconsideration of Romanticism, which followed the lead of neoclassicism and brought a modernist sensibility to Romantic materials, as in the music of Egon Wellesz, Florence Price, Heitor Villa-Lobos, Carl Orff, Howard Hanson, Virgil Thomson, George Antheil, Ernst Krenek,

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William Walton, Aram Khachaturian, Samuel Barber, and David Diamond. Many neoromantic works, however, tended to feature dissonance and polyrhythm less aggressively than a lot of neoclassical music did. Baroque and classical forms gave piquant contrast to modernist materials; the formal freedoms and nuanced melodic lines of Romanticism tended to be obscured by advanced harmonies and rhythms. Neoromanticism had a revival in the 1980s as the New Romanticism, with such composers as George Rochberg, Hans Werner Henze, Jacob Druckman, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Krzysztof Penderecki, Nicholas Maw, Aulis Sallinen, David Del Tredici, Bo Nilsson, Beth Anderson, and Wolfgang Rihm. See also BISCARDI, CHESTER (1948– ); BUDD, HAROLD (1936– ); CORIGLIANO, JOHN (1938– ); FLANAGAN, WILLIAM (1923–1969); FOSS, LUKAS (1922–2009); HELPS, ROBERT (1928–2001); JENNINGS, TERRY (1940–1981); SMIT, LEO (1921–1999); USSACHEVSKY, VLADIMIR (1911–1990). NEUHAUS, MAX (1939–2009). American composer and musician. Percussionist Max Neuhaus studied at the Manhattan School of Music and specialized in performing contemporary works, often using his own electroacoustic instruments. He won renown as the creator of site-specific sound installations, a term that Neuhaus coined. Public Supply I (1966) in New York joined radio and telephone systems for an interactive aural space of 300 square miles. The weather-sensitive Walkthrough (1973–1977) brought shifting sonic zones to a Brooklyn subway entrance. River Grove (1988) used the sound of Roaring Fork River in Aspen. The indoor Intersection I (1999) in Venice created interpenetrating diagonals of sound. Times Square was installed in a Manhattan traffic island in 1977; it ran until 1992 and was reinstated in 2002. Other ongoing works include Three “Similar” Rooms (installed 1990 in Turin); Suspended Sound Line (1999, Bern); Auracle (2004, www.auracle.org); and Sound Figure (2008, Houston). Neuhaus also created a collage soundtrack for Phill Niblock’s film portrait Max (1968). See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; ONCE GROUP; POSTMODERNISM. NEWLIN, DIKA (1923–2006). American composer, musician, and educator. A child prodigy, Dika Newlin studied piano with Rudolf Serkin and Artur Schnabel and composition with Arnold Schoenberg and Roger Sessions. She employed twelve-tone techniques in her 1948 scores Chamber Symphony and Piano Trio; from the 1960s onward, she also explored electronic music, multimedia, computer music, and minimalism. Newlin remained active as a punk rock performance artist, playwright, and actress in her 70s and 80s; her albums include Ageless Icon: The Greatest Hits of Dika Newlin (2004). Newlin taught at Drew University (1952–1965) and Virginia

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Commonwealth University (1978–2004), among other institutions. The author of Bruckner, Mahler, Schoenberg (1947, rev. 1978) and Schoenberg Remembered (1980), she also edited and translated Schoenberg’s Style and Idea (1950). See also MAHLER, GUSTAV (1860–1911); MODERNISM; POSTMODERNISM. NIBLOCK, PHILL (1933– ). American composer. Phill Niblock’s electroacoustic music has explored textures and densities in minimalist compositions since his early tape pieces, in which he recorded instrumental tones and layered multiple tracks into electronically processed microtonal drones, as in A Trombone Piece (1978, rev. 1994) and Held Tones (1982, rev. 1994) for flute. Working with computers, Niblock generates microtones directly for such pieces as Wintergreen (1990) for computer-controlled synthesizers, Five More String Quartets (1991) for string quartet, Hurdy Hurry (1999) for hurdy gurdy, Organ (2007) for church organ, and A Cage of Stars (2012) for electric harp. His works are often multimedia events utilizing film, video, and slides; he has also scored his own nonnarrative films, compiled in the video The Movement of People Working (2003), and made films documenting such composer/musicians as Sun Ra (The Magic Sun, 1968) and Arthur Russell (Terrace of Unintelligibility, 1985). Niblock joined the Experimental Intermedia Foundation in 1968 and has served as its director since 1985. See also BUCKNER, THOMAS (1941– ); ELECTRONIC MUSIC; LEWIS, GEORGE (1952– ); NEUHAUS, MAX (1939–2009); PLEROMA; POSTMODERNISM. NIELSEN, CARL (1865–1931). Danish composer and musician. Carl Nielsen studied with Niels Gade at the Copenhagen Conservatory of Music. The conductor of the Royal Theater (1908–1914), Nielsen was also head of the Copenhagen Music Society (1915–1927). His post-Romantic music offers an original approach to tonality, progressing into distant areas from the work’s key signature in Symphonies Nos. 5 (1922) and 6, “Sinfonia semplice” (1925); the former also featured polytonal passages. Nielsen’s timbral and rhythmic imagination was lively, too, and his innovations anticipate spatial music: Symphony No. 3, “Sinfonia espansiva” (1911), seated a baritone and soprano in the orchestra, singing wordlessly and blending with the instruments; Symphony No. 4, “The Inextinguishable” (1916), climaxes with a battle between two timpanists at opposite sides of the stage. Nielsen’s other notable orchestral works include his Symphonies Nos. 1 (1892) and 2, “The Four Temperaments” (1902), the majestic Helios Overture (1903), the impressionist-inspired Pan and Syrinx (1918), Flute Concerto (1926), and Clarinet Concerto (1928). See also ABRAHAMSEN, HANS (1952– ); MODERNISM.

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NILSSON, BO (1937–2018). Swedish composer and musician. As a boy, Bo Nilsson learned piano from his father; he was basically self-taught as a composer. Nilsson won attention with his early atonal music: Frequenzen (1955) for piccolo, flute, vibraphone, xylophone, electric guitar, double bass, and two percussionists; Zwei Stücke (1955) for flute, bass clarinet, piano, and four percussionists; the aleatoric Zwanzig Gruppen (1958) for wind trio; Quantitäten (1958) for piano; the cantata cycle Brief an Gösta Oswald (1958–1959) for soprano, alto, women’s chorus, and orchestra; and Drei Szenen (1961) for chamber orchestra. At the West-Deutscher Rundfunk, he composed Audiogramme (1957), electronic music created with Gottfried Michael Koenig. Entrée (1963) for orchestra with expanded percussion and tape introduced a neoromantic quality that Nilsson pursued with Rendezvous (1968) for piano; A Spirit’s Whisper in Swedenborg’s Gazebo (1970, rev. 1997) for soprano, synthesizer/piano, strings, and tape; Fatumeh Nazm—Madonna (1973) for reciter, soprano, orchestra, and rock band; and Flöten aus der Einsamkeit (1976) for soprano and nonet. His notable later music includes Wendepunkt (1981) for brass and live electronics; Endepunkt (1985) for brass quintet; Arctic Romance (1995) for piano; Kaleidoskop (1997) for flute, vibraphone, and chamber ensemble; and Arctic Air (2001) for orchestra. Nilsson scored films and composed and performed jazz, rock, and pop music; he also wrote the autobiographies Spaderboken (1966) and Missilen, eller Livet i en Mössa. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM. NONO, LUIGI (1924–1990). Italian composer, musician, and educator. Luigi Nono studied with Gian Francesco Malipiero at the Venice Conservatory (1943–1945) and with Bruno Maderna and Hermann Scherchen after the war. A conductor of many of his own works, Nono also taught at numerous institutions; his students include Helmut Lachenmann and Richard Teitelbaum. He began composing serial music with Variazioni canoniche sulla serie dell’op. 41 di Arnold Schoenberg (1950) for orchestra and the octet Polifonica—Monodia—Ritmica (1951). Nono’s totally serialized music grew more dramatic with Incontri (1955) for 24 instruments and Diario polacco ’58 (1959) for orchestra with 16 percussionists, and in works for chorus and instruments: Epitaffio per Federico García Lorca (1953), La victoire de Guernica (1954), Il canto sospeso (1956), La terra e la compagna (1958), and Cori di Didone (1958). This music won Nono international recognition and culminated with the opera Intolleranza 1960 (1961), from which he derived an orchestral Suite in 1969. Intolleranza 1960 included radical left-wing political content, a cause Nono championed in his music and activism.

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Nono created tape music with Omaggio a Emilio Vedova (1960) and used tape in La fabbrica illuminata (1964) for female voices; Y entonces comprendió (1970) for six female voices and chorus; Coma una ola de fuerza y luz (1972) for soprano, piano, and orchestra; the opera Al gran sole carico d’amore (1974); and . . . sofferte onde sereme . . . (1976) for piano. Nono began combining musicians and live electronics with the percussion-ensemble piece Con Luigi Dallapiccola (1979). His later electroacoustic works include Omaggio a György Kurtág (1983, rev. 1986) for contralto, flute, clarinet, and bass tuba; Guai ai gelidi mostri (1983) for two contraltos and six instruments; the opera Prometeo (1985); Post-prae-ludium No. 1 per Donau (1987) for tuba; and Post-prae-ludium No. 3 “BAAB-ARR” (1988) for piccolo. He also scored Un hombre de éxito (1986) and other films. See also ATONALITY; DALLAPICCOLA, LUIGI (1904–1975); DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000); KURTÁG, GYÖRGY (1926– ); MODERNISM; SCHOENBERG, ARNOLD (1874–1951); TWELVE-TONE MUSIC; UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). NØRGÅRD, PER (1932– ). Danish composer. Per Nørgård studied composition with Vagn Holmboe at the Royal Danish Academy of Music and won acclaim for such early scores as Constellations (1958) for 12 solo strings. Nørgård developed a personal approach to twelve-tone procedures, avoiding atonality and mirroring fractal theory and infinitely expanding sets, articulated in his Voyage into the Golden Screen (1968) and Symphony No. 2 (1970). Nørgård’s electronic music includes The Enchanted Forest (1969) and the eight-hour, 52-movement Kalendermusik (1970). In Expanding Space (1985), he combined synthesizer, piano, and natural sounds on tape. A prolific composer, Nørgård is widely admired for his 10 string quartets (1952–2005) and eight symphonies (1955–2012). Among his operas are The Labyrinth (1963), Gilgamesh (1972), Siddhartha (1979), and The Divine Circus (1986). Other notable works of Nørgård’s include his film score for Babette’s Feast (1987) and the concertos Remembering Child (1986) for viola and orchestra, Helle Nacht (1986) for violin and orchestra, and Concerto in Due Tempi (1995) for piano and orchestra. See also ABRAHAMSEN, HANS (1952– ); THE BEATLES; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); MODERNISM; UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). NYMAN, MICHAEL (1944– ). English composer, musician, and critic. Michael Nyman studied at the Royal Academy of Music and at King’s College, London. The author of Experimental Music (1974), Nyman also wrote criticism for such publications as the Spectator. He was a member of the Portsmouth Sinfonia and the Scratch Orchestra, and in 1976, he founded

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the Campiello Band, which later became the Michael Nyman Band. Among the instrumental works by this prolific minimalist composer are 12 symphonies (2012–2014), five string quartets (1985–2011), Time’s Up (1983) for gamelan, For John Cage (1992) for brass ensemble, two violin concertos (2003–2007), and Melody Waves (2005) for Chinese instruments. Admired for such operas as The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat (1986), Facing Goya (2000), Man and Boy: Dada (2003), and Love Counts (2005), Nyman has also composed numerous film scores, including A Zed & Two Naughts (1985), The Piano (1993), Gattaca (1997), Man on Wire (2008), and McQueen (2018). See also CAGE, JOHN (1912–1992); ENO, BRIAN (1948– ); MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM.

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O OLIVEROS, PAULINE (1932–2016). American composer, musician, and educator. One of the most influential postmodern composers and improvisers, Oliveros was a leader in electroacoustic improvisation; the real-time performance of electronic music; the composition of indeterminate, minimalist, theatrical, multimedia, and ceremonial music; and the musical use of meditation techniques. Born in Houston, Texas, Pauline Oliveros played piano, French horn, and accordion as a child. An accordion major at the University of Texas (1949–1952), where she studied composition with Paul Koepke, she received her B.A. in composition from San Francisco State College (1954–1957) and studied with Robert Erickson at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music (1957–1960). In 1957, Oliveros began giving improvised performances (mostly on French horn) with Terry Riley (piano) and Loren Rush (string bass and koto); she used serial techniques in her compositions Concert Piece for accordion and Three Songs for soprano and piano. But she moved away from those methods and began incorporating drones and superimposing different tempi in Variations for Sextet (1960) and Trio for Flute, Piano, and Page Turner (1961), her last traditionally notated score. Along with Ramon Sender, Oliveros formed Sonics in 1960, a center for tape and electronic music, which was then part of the San Francisco Conservatory of Music. Sonics grew into the San Francisco Tape Music Center by 1962, with the participation of Morton Subotnick, and was later relocated to Mills College with Oliveros as its first director (1966–1967); she then taught electronic music and experimental studies at the University of California at San Diego (1967–1981). Oliveros also taught at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and Mills College; her students include Bun-Ching Lam, Paul Paccione, and Ned Sublette. Sound Patterns (1961) for mixed chorus evoked electronic densities and textures through performance freedoms and novel vocal effects. Improvisation was featured in Outline (1963) for flute, percussion, and string bass and Fifteen for an Ensemble of Performers (1964); theatrical elements were developed in such scores as Pieces of Eight (1964) for nine instruments, Duo 253

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for Bandoneon and Accordion with Possible Mynah Bird Obligato, Seesaw Version (1965), and Theater Piece for Trombone Player (1966). She incorporated film and tape into her 1965 works A Theater Piece for 15 actors, George Washington Slept Here for amplified violin, and Light Piece for David Tudor for electronically modified piano. During these years, Oliveros also devised methods for real-time improvised electronic music and produced such classic works as Bye Bye Butterfly (1965) and I of IV (1966). Her use of tape-delay systems in these works was adapted to other instruments in 1966 with Accordion for amplified accordion and Hallo for electronically modified piano, violins, voice, actor, lights, and dancers. Oliveros’s exploration of different aspects of consciousness and meditation in the late 1960s informed her groundbreaking minimalist works Meditation on the Points of the Compass (1970), Sonic Meditations I–XII (1971) and XIII–XXV (1973), and Sonic Images (1972). Written for specialized and nonspecialized musicians, these pieces also involve audience participation. In the 1970s, she refined her theatrical compositions into a memorable series of elaborate ceremonial pieces, which often put the audience to work as well: Phantom Fathom (II) (1972), A Ceremony of Sounds (1974), Crow Two—a Ceremonial Opera (1975), Rose Moon (1977), The Yellow River Map (1977), Crow’s Nest (The Tuning Meditation) (1979). Oliveros also developed methods for improvised performances by large ensembles in To Valerie Solanas and Marilyn Monroe in Recognition of Their Desperation (1970) for orchestra, chorus, organ, electronics, and lights; Willowbrook Generations and Reflections (1976) for mixed winds, brasses, and voices (20 or more) or chorus alone; and Tashi Gomang (1981) for orchestra. In the 1970s, Oliveros further developed what she called the “expanded accordion,” modifying the instrument with multiple delays and custom performance controls. She created several notable electroacoustic works for the expanded accordion, with voice (Horse Sings from Cloud, 1975; Rattlesnake Mountain, 1982), and without (Crone Music, 1989), as well as The Wanderer (1982) for accordion ensemble and percussion. Oliveros won international renown as an improviser on the expanded accordion, especially after she formed the Deep Listening Band with Stuart Dempster (trombone) and Panaiotis (voice and electronic processing) in 1988; by then, her accordion had been retuned in just intonation. She also played with such composer/musicians as Cecil Taylor, Susie Ibarra, Gordon Mumma, David Tudor, Ellen Fullman, John Tilbury, Roscoe Mitchell, Tony Conrad, and Fred Frith. Oliveros’s film scores include Bent Time (1983) and Sluts & Goddesses Video Workshop (1992). She formed the Pauline Oliveros Foundation in 1985 (later the Deep Listening Institute Ltd.) to foster creativity in artists of all ages and abilities. As its president, she performed music and led classes, workshops, and retreats. Oliveros’s notable later works include Gathering Together (1983) for piano

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eight-hands; Lion’s Eye (1985) for Javanese gamelan and sampler; Portraits (1987) for solo or any ensemble, which is a mandala in graphic notation; Dream Horse Spiel (1988) for voices and sound effects; Njinga the Queen King (1993), a play with music and pageantry; Four Meditations for Orchestra (1997); Sound Patterns and Tropes (2001) for chorus and percussion; Ringing for Healing: For All Victims of Violence All over the World (2004) for bells; Waking the Noise Intoners (Intonarumori) (2009) for 16 players; the site-specific Tower Ring (2011) for gong, chorus, instruments, and the Ann Hamilton Tower in California; and her piano scores for Sarah Cahill, Quintuplets Play Pen: Homage to Ruth Crawford (2001), The Gender of Now (2005), A New Indigo Peace (2009), and Redwood Shrine (2014). See also ASHLEY, ROBERT (1930–2014); THE BEATLES; CHANCE MUSIC; CRAWFORD SEEGER, RUTH (1901–1953); CURRAN, ALVIN (1938– ); EASTMAN, JULIUS (1940–1990); ECOMUSICOLOGY; FREE IMPROVISATION; FUTURISM; GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ); MULTICULTURALISM; ONCE GROUP; PARTCH, HARRY (1901–1974); PLEROMA; SONIC ARTS UNION; SPATIAL MUSIC; SURREALISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC; TWELVETONE MUSIC; UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). ONCE GROUP. The legendary ONCE Group, organized by composer Robert Ashley in 1960, brought together an array of creative talent in Ann Arbor, Michigan: his wife Mary Ashley, who was both a visual and performance artist; Milton Cohen, who sculpted in light; filmmaker George Manupelli; architects Harold Borkin and Joseph Wehrer; poet Jackie Mumma; performer Anne Wehrer; and composers Gordon Mumma, Roger Reynolds, George Cacioppo, Donald Scavarda, Philip Krumm, and Robert Sheff, later to be known as “Blue” Gene Tyranny, who arrived in Ann Arbor in 1962 and became involved as well. The first ONCE Festival occurred in 1961 and became an annual event throughout the 1960s. Many innovative composer/musicians were featured as guests, including La Monte Young, Terry Jennings, Alvin Lucier, Pauline Oliveros, Christian Wolff, Morton Feldman, John Cage, David Tudor, Luciano Berio, Cathy Berberian, David Behrman, Mauricio Kagel, Max Neuhaus, Lukas Foss, and free jazz composer/musician Eric Dolphy. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; MULTIMEDIA; POSTMODERNISM. ONDES MARTENOT. The ondes martenot (literally, “Martenot waves”) is a monophonic electronic-music instrument invented by French musician Maurice Martenot (1898–1980), which utilizes the heterodyning method to produce sound. Pitch is controlled over a seven-octave range by a lateralmoving finger ring, played with the right hand; Martenot later added a key-

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board with keys responsive to vibrato. At the left hand are filtering keys for timbral variation and a pressure-sensitive key that controls volume. Martenot debuted the ondes martenot in 1928 when he premiered Dimitri Levidis’s Symphonic Poem, an orchestral concerto for the instrument, which featured its microtonal capabilities. The ondes martenot was used in compositions by such modernists as Darius Milhaud, André Jolivet, Jacques Ibert, Arthur Honegger, and Pierre Boulez (who also performed on it). Olivier Messiaen assured the instrument’s survival with two of his greatest works: Trois petites liturgies de la Présence Divine (1944) and Turangalîla-symphonie (1948). Others who have composed for ondes martenot include Ivan Wyschnegradsky, Giacinto Scelsi, Betsy Jolas, Jo Kondo, Sylvano Bussotti, Toshi Ichiyanagi, Jean-Claude Risset, Tristan Murail, and Claude Vivier. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FILM MUSIC; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; LORIOD, JEANNE (1928–2001); TRAUTONIUM. ONO, YOKO (1933– ). Japanese-born American composer and musician. Yoko Ono studied at Sarah Lawrence College and sat in on John Cage’s classes at the New School for Social Research. She was married (1956–1963) to Toshi Ichiyanagi and began creating conceptual pieces, often with the Fluxus group, such as the 1964 works Cut Piece and Hide-and-Seek Piece; with John Lennon, whom she also married (1969–1980), Ono created the tape-music album Two Virgins (1968). Ono’s film scores include Fly (1970), which she codirected with Lennon. A singer whose performances include noise and shrieking, Ono made her name in rock music with such recordings as Approximately Infinite Universe (1972), Season of Glass (1981), and Open Your Box (2007). Her other notable compositions include the tape piece Georgia Stone (1987, rev. 1993) and Toning (2009) for piano. See also THE BEATLES; CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); COLEMAN, ORNETTE (1930–2015); KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); POSTMODERNISM. OPEN FORM. A compositional approach that employs chance, indeterminate, and/or improvisational techniques so that the same score can sound different in every performance. See also ALEATORY; ELASTIC FORM; FREE DURATION; FREE RHYTHM; GRAPHIC NOTATION. OPERA. Opera entered a new era with Claude Debussy’s Pelléas et Mélisande (1901), which eschewed the grand drama and familiar musical materials and gestures of 19th-century opera in favor of intimacy and subtlety; a similar quality also defined Frederick Delius’s A Village Romeo and Juliet (1901). Drama and dissonance were intensified in the modernist operas of Richard Strauss (Salome, 1905; Elektra, 1908), Béla Bartók (Duke Bluebeard’s Castle, 1911), Darius Milhaud (Les Choéphores, 1915), Paul

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Hindemith (Das Nusch-Nuschi, 1920), Ferruccio Busoni (Doktor Faust, 1926), and Leoš Janáček (From the House of the Dead, 1928). Futurist opera—Francesco Balilla Pratella’s L’aviatore Dro (1914), Max Brand’s Maschinist Hopkins (1929)—never broke through, but atonal opera did enter the repertory with Alban Berg’s Wozzeck (1922). Arnold Schoenberg’s twelve-tone method was used in Schoenberg’s Moses und Aron (1932), Ernst Krenek’s Karl V (1933), Berg’s Lulu (1935, completed 1979), and such later operas as Luigi Dallapiccola’s Il prigioniero (1948), Lou Harrison’s Rapunzel (1953, rev. 1996), Louise Talma’s The Alcestiad (1958), Roger Sessions’s Montezuma (1962), Bernd Alois Zimmermann’s Die Soldaten (1965), and Toshiro Mayuzumi’s Kinkakuji (1976). Henk Badings brought electronic music into opera with his Salto Mortale (1959) and Martin Korda D.P. (1960). An openness to other musical genres also characterizes 20th-century opera, although America’s master ragtime composer Scott Joplin failed to find an audience for his operas A Guest of Honor (1903) and Treemonisha (1911). Maurice Ravel used ragtime in L’enfant et les sortilèges (1925), and Virgil Thomson quoted the hymns and folk tunes of his youth in Missouri in Four Saints in Three Acts (1928). Jazz elements entered opera with Krenek’s Jonny spielt auf (1926), George Antheil’s Transatlantic (1928), Bohuslav Martinu’s Les larmes du couteau (1928), Kurt Weill’s Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny (1930), and George Gershwin’s Porgy and Bess (1935). Another innovation was to scale down opera and restrict it to a few singers and instruments, in staged or semi-staged performances. The results range from the puppet operas of Erik Satie (Geneviève de Brabant, 1900) and Manuel de Falla (El Retablo de Maese Pedro, 1922) to Ezra Pound’s neomedieval Le Testament (1933) and Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Henry’s musique concrète opera, Orphée 53 (1953). In Karlheinz Stockhausen’s monumental seven-opera cycle Licht (1978–2003), each opera is composed of numerous works for varying forces, which can also be performed individually. More traditional forms of tonal opera of course remained a constant throughout the 20th century, most notably from Benjamin Britten, whose major works include Peter Grimes (1945), Billy Budd (1951), The Turn of the Screw (1954), A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1960), and Death in Venice (1973). Among the many composers who produced important tonal operas are Strauss (Der Rosenkavalier, 1910; Die Frau ohne Schatten, 1917), Ralph Vaughan Williams (Sir John in Love, 1928; Riders to the Sea, 1932; The Pilgrim’s Progress, 1951), Sergey Prokofiev (The Love for Three Oranges, 1919; War and Peace, 1943, rev. 1952), Francis Poulenc (Les mamelles de Tirésias, 1944; Les dialogues des carmélites, 1955; La voix humaine, 1958),

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Gian Carlo Menotti (The Medium, 1946; Amahl and the Night Visitors, 1951), and Michael Tippett (The Midsummer Marriage, 1952; The Knot Garden, 1970). The most drastic changes to opera came with the postmodern composers. Collaborating with director Robert Wilson on the lengthy minimalist opera Einstein on the Beach (1975), Philip Glass dispensed with traditional singing and instrumentation almost entirely. Robert Ashley used non-operatic vocals, video, improvisation, and electroacoustic music in such multimedia works as Perfect Lives (1977–1980) and Atalanta (Acts of God) (1982–1987). Meredith Monk largely eschewed electronics and emphasized choreography in Education of the Girlchild (1972), The Games (1983), and Atlas (1991). Other notable composers of minimalist opera include Morton Feldman (Neither, 1977), Michael Nyman (The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat, 1986), John Adams (Nixon in China, 1987), and Louis Andriessen (La Commedia, 2008). Among postmodern operas calling for reduced forces are John Zorn’s Rituals (1998) and Anne LeBaron’s Pope Joan (2000) and Transfiguration (2003). Other postmodern innovations have further redefined opera. Anthony Braxton’s Trillium series (1984– ) consists of 36 one-act operas that can be interconnected in any combination. John Cage deconstructed opera with Europeras I/II (1987), using chance procedures to collage the music of European opera. LeBaron’s innovative approach of hyperopera, a holistic, nonhierarchical process where multiple disciplines collaborate intensively, was launched with Crescent City (2012), an apocalyptic tale employing video and numerous art installations. Technological advancements have been incorporated in the new multimedia operas of Michel van der Aa and Ashley Fure. See also ADÈS, THOMAS (1971– ); AMRAM, DAVID (1930– ); ANHALT, ISTVÁN (1919–2012); BARBER, SAMUEL (1910–1981); BARTH, HANS (1897–1956); BECKER, JOHN J. (1886–1961); BERG, CHRISTOPHER (1949– ); BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003); BERNSTEIN, LEONARD (1918–1990); BEYER, JOHANNA M. (1888–1944); BIRTWISTLE, HARRISON (SIR) (1934– ); BISCARDI, CHESTER (1948– ); BLITZSTEIN, MARC (1905–1964); BOLCOM, WILLIAM (1938– ); BOWLES, PAUL (1910–1999); BRUBECK, DAVE (1920–2012); BRUCE, NEELY (1944– ); BRYARS, GAVIN (1943– ); BUCKNER, THOMAS (1941– ); BUSSOTTI, SYLVANO (1931– ); CARTER, ELLIOTT (1908–2012); CERHA, FRIEDRICH (1926– ); CHÁVEZ, CARLOS (1899–1978); CHIN, UNSUK (1961– ); COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); CORIGLIANO, JOHN (1938– ); COUPER, MILDRED (1887–1974); DAVIES, PETER MAXWELL (SIR) (1934–2016); DAVIS, ANTHONY (1951– ); DEL TREDICI, DAVID (1937– ); DENISOV, EDISON (1929–1996); DEYHIM, SUSSAN (1956– ); DIAMOND, DAVID (1915–2005); DOOLITTLE, EMILY (1972– ); DUCKWORTH, WILLIAM (1943–2012); EASTMAN, JU-

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LIUS (1940–1990); EL-DABH, HALIM (1921–2017); ELLINGTON, DUKE (1899–1974); EXPRESSIONISM; FARWELL, ARTHUR (1872–1952); FERNEYHOUGH, BRIAN (1943– ); FINE, VIVIAN (1913–2000); FINNEY, ROSS LEE (1906–1997); FLANAGAN, WILLIAM (1923–1969); FORMALISM; FOSS, LUKAS (1922–2009); FOULDS, JOHN (1880–1939); GALÁS, DIAMANDA (1955– ); GERHARD, ROBERTO (1896–1970); GIDEON, MIRIAM (1906–1996); GINASTERA, ALBERTO (1916–1983); GLANVILLE-HICKS, PEGGY (1912–1990); GLOBOKAR, VINKO (1934– ); GOEHR, ALEXANDER (1932– ); GORDON, MICHAEL (1956– ); GORDON, PETER (1951– ); GOSFIELD, ANNIE (1960– ); GROUPE DES SIX; HÁBA, ALOIS (1893–1973); HAHN, REYNALDO (1874–1947); HANNAN, JOE (1953– ); HANSON, HOWARD (1896–1981); HARVEY, JONATHAN (1939–2012); HENZE, HANS WERNER (1926–2012); HERRMANN, BERNARD (1911–1975); HOLST, GUSTAV (1874–1934); HONEGGER, ARTHUR (1892–1955); HOVHANESS, ALAN (1911–2000); IBERT, JACQUES (1890–1962); ICHIYANAGI, TOSHI (1933– ); IMPRESSIONISM; INDETERMINACY; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; JARNACH, PHILIPP (1892–1982); JENKINS, LEROY (1932–2007); JOHNSTON, BEN (1926– ); JOLAS, BETSY (1926– ); JOLIVET, ANDRÉ (1905–1974); KAGEL, MAURICIO (1931–2008); KANCHELI, GIYA (1935– ); KIRCHNER, LEON (1919–2009); KNUSSEN, OLIVER (1952–2018); KODÁLY, ZOLTÁN (1882–1967); KONDO, JO (1947– ); KORNGOLD, ERICH WOLFGANG (1897–1957); KOTIK, PETR (1942– ); KURTÁG, GYÖRGY (1926– ); LA BARBARA, JOAN (1947– ); LAM BUN-CHING (1954– ); LANG, DAVID (1957– ); LAUTEN, ELODIE (1950–2014); LEIBOWITZ, RENÉ (1913–1972); LEÓN, TANIA (1943– ); LIEBERSON, PETER (1946–2011); LIGETI, GYÖRGY (1923–2006); LOURIÉ, ARTHUR (1892–1966); LUENING, OTTO (1900–1996); MADERNA, BRUNO (1920–1973); MARTIN, FRANK (1890–1974); MAW, NICHOLAS (1935–2009); MAZZOLI, MISSY (1980– ); MESSIAEN, OLIVIER (1908–1992); MONK FELDMAN, BARBARA (1953– ); MORAN, ROBERT (1937– ); MUSGRAVE, THEA (1928– ); NONO, LUIGI (1924–1990); NØRGÅRD, PER (1932– ); ORFF, CARL (1895–1982); PACCIONE, PAUL (1952– ); PEARS, PETER (SIR) (1910–1986); PENDERECKI, KRZYSZTOF (1933– ); RASMUSSEN, KARL AAGE (1947– ); RAUTAVAARA, EINOJUHANI (1928–2016); REICH, STEVE (1936– ); RIEGGER, WALLINGFORD (1885–1961); RIHM, WOLFGANG (1952– ); ROCHBERG, GEORGE (1918–2005); ROREM, NED (1923– ); ROUSSEL, ALBERT (1869–1937); RUDERS, POUL (1949– ); RUGGLES, CARL (1876–1971); SALLINEN, AULIS (1935– ); SCHNITTKE, ALFRED (1934–1998); SCHULLER, GUNTHER (1925–2015); SCHUMAN, WILLIAM (1910–1992); SCULTHORPE, PETER (1929–2014); SHARP, ELLIOTT

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(1951– ); SHIELDS, ALICE (1943– ); SHOSTAKOVICH, DMITRY (1906–1975); SMIT, LEO (1921–1999); SOMERS, HARRY (1925–1999); SPRECHSTIMME; STILL, WILLIAM GRANT (1895–1978); STRAVINSKY, IGOR (1882–1971); SURREALISM; SZYMANOWSKI, KAROL (1882–1937); TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TAL, JOSEF (1910–2008); TAN DUN (1957– ); TAVENER, JOHN (SIR) (1944–2013); TEITELBAUM, RICHARD (1939– ); THORVALDSDOTTIR, ANNA (1977– ); TOCH, ERNST (1887–1964); TÜÜR, ERKKI-SVEN (1959– ); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ); VARÈSE, EDGARD (1883–1965); VILLA-LOBOS, HEITOR (1887–1959); VIVIER, CLAUDE (1948–1983); WALTON, WILLIAM (SIR) (1902–1983); WEIR, JUDITH (1954– ); WELLESZ, EGON (1885–1974); WOLFE, JULIA (1958– ); WOLPE, STEFAN (1902–1972); WUORINEN, CHARLES (1938– ); YUN, ISANG (1917–1995); ZUBEL, AGATA (1978– ). OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ). American musician and educator. Ursula Oppens first learned piano from her mother and later studied at Juilliard. Specializing in modern and postmodern music, she has premiered numerous piano works from such composers as Elliott Carter, Conlon Nancarrow, Peter Lieberson, Alvin Curran, Anthony Davis, György Ligeti, Richard Teitelbaum, Joan Tower, Tania León, Christian Wolff, Frederic Rzewski, Anthony Braxton, and Lois V Vierk. She also cofounded the contemporary-music ensemble Speculum Musicae in 1971 and has taught at Northwestern University, Brooklyn College, Mannes College, and other institutions. ORFF, CARL (1895–1982). German composer, musician, and educator. Carl Orff studied at the Akademie der Tonkunst in Munich, performed as a conductor, and founded the Güntherschule in 1924, where he developed his innovative Schulwerk music-education program. A tuneful neoromantic, Orff is best known for his cantatas Carmina Burana (1936), Catulli Carmina (1942), and Tronfo di Afrodite (1951) and the operas Der Mond (1938, rev. 1941), Die Kluge (1942), Antigonae (1949), Oedipus der Tyrann (1959), Prometheus (1966), and De Temporum Fine Comoedia (1972, rev. 1979). See also GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; MODERNISM. ORNSTEIN, LEO (ca. 1892–2002). Russian-born American composer, musician, and educator. A piano prodigy, the young Leo Ornstein studied with Alexander Glazunov at the St. Petersburg Conservatory; but his family fled Russia’s anti-Semitic violence and immigrated with him to the United States, settling in New York in 1907. Ornstein continued his studies at the Institute of Musical Art (now Juilliard). He was concertizing by 1911, and in

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1913–1914, he composed radical piano works with themes in dissonant clumps of two or three keys: Wild Men’s Dance (aka Danse sauvage), Three Moods, Suicide in an Airplane. His other innovative scores of the 1910s include Sonata for Violin and Piano (1915) and The Corpse (1918) for soprano and piano. Ornstein toured internationally, performing his own music— dubbed futurist by others—as well as works by such composers as Claude Debussy, Alexander Scriabin, Béla Bartók, Zoltán Kodály, Maurice Ravel, Darius Milhaud, and Arnold Schoenberg. Ornstein’s composition became more conservative with his Piano Concerto (1920) and Piano Quintet (1927). By then, he was burned out as a performer, and eventually he left the stage permanently. In Philadelphia, he taught at the Academy of Music; he and his wife Pauline C. Mallet-Prevost also founded the Ornstein School of Music there (1935–1958). Late in life, Ornstein produced such noteworthy scores as his String Quartet No. 3 (1976) and Piano Sonatas Nos. 6 (1981), 7 (1988), and 8 (1990). See also COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965); MODERNISM; TONE-CLUSTER. OSTERTAG, BOB (1957– ). American composer, musician, and educator. By the end of the 1970s, Bob Ostertag was sampling before there were samplers, utilizing tape recorders as a composer and improviser. He has worked with such composer/musicians as Anthony Braxton, Fred Frith, John Zorn, Roscoe Mitchell, Phil Minton, and Shelley Hirsch. He combined his own electronic instruments and synthesizers with samplers and digital editing in his music, as a soloist (Like a Melody, No Bitterness, 1997), with his ensemble Say No More (Say No More Project, 2002), and in his compositions Sooner or Later (1991), All the Rage (1992) for string quartet and tape, and the multimedia pieces Hunting Crows (1997) and Yugoslavia (1999). His other postmodern works include Dear Prime Minister (1999) for voices and Desert Boy on a Stick (2001) for cello, slides, and spoken word; among his albums are Burns Like Fire (1993), Fear No Love (1995), Pantychrist (1999), A Book of Hours (2013), and Wish You Were Here (2016). Ostertag teaches at the University of California at Davis and is the author of Creative Life (2009) and other books. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; KRONOS QUARTET. OSWALD, JOHN (1953– ). Canadian composer and musician. John Oswald’s teachers included R. Murray Schafer at Simon Fraser University and Richard Teitelbaum and James Tenney at York University. In 1978, he and Andrew Timar launched the Canadian avant-garde music magazine Musicworks. As an improvising saxophonist, Oswald has performed with Fred Frith, Henry Kaiser, Roger Turner, and others. As a postmodern

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composer, he has created electronic music that takes quotation into what he called “plunderphonics”: working with altered but not unrecognizable fragments of other recordings of pop, rock, jazz, and traditional and modern concert music. Oswald’s witty and imaginative use of sampling includes the recordings Plunderphonics EP (1988), Grayfolded (1994), Plexure (1994), 69plunderphonics96 (2000), and Preplexure (2010). Aparenthesi (2000–2003), in studio and concert versions, avoids plunderphonics and combines piano with electronic and recorded environmental sound. Spectre (2000), which he composed for the Kronos Quartet and tape, was also performed by 1,000 string instruments in Toronto in 2015. I’d Love to Turn (2014) is a quotation-rich score for orchestra. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; SURREALISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. OTT, DANIEL (1960–). Swiss composer, musician, and educator. Daniel Ott studied piano in Switzerland and worked in theater there and in Paris and London. He also studied at the Folkwang University, Essen, and the Freiburg University of Music. Ott has taught at the Berlin University of the Arts and the Academy of the Arts Berlin. Among his staged compositions are Skizze 7-1/2 Bruchstücke (1991) for bass clarinet, string trio, and percussion; 17-1/2 (1995) for 17 musicians; Ojota I (1997) for five pairs of shoes; Ojota II (1998) and III (1999) for female voice and instruments; and Abréviations (2004) for two voices. His music theater includes Jammermusik (1993), Ojota IV (2000), and Paulinenbrücke (2008). Ott has also composed spatial music: 22/3 (1999) for 11 musicians; 7/8/9 (2001) for 13 musicians; 18/11 (2001) for 23 musicians; 26/5–2/4 (2004) for 19 musicians; and 9/5 (2013) for 14 musicians. He is acclaimed for his landscape compositions, such as landschaft.29/7 (2007), Le Rocher du Bock (2016), and Ausflug ins Gebirge (2017)—lengthy works that typically involve a large array of performers. Other landscape compositions call for live electronics as well: Blick Richtung Süden (2009), Klangexpedition (2010), Stadt.Land.Tram (2015), SampuognSchlag 9 (2016), and Mittelland ist abgebrannt (2017). Ott’s other works include Relief.Schichten.Nachts (2007) for three brass bands; querströmung 2 (2011) for percussion and tape; and STADTHAUS I–III (2017) for orchestra and electronics. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; THEATRICAL MUSIC.

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P PACCIONE, PAUL (1952– ). American composer and educator. Paul Paccione studied at the Mannes College of Music, the University of California at San Diego, and the University of Iowa; he also studied with Harley Gaber, Pauline Oliveros, Ralph Shapey, and Kenneth Gaburo. Paccione has taught at Western Illinois University since 1984. Drawing on traditions from such diverse composers as Igor Stravinsky, Anton Webern, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Morton Feldman, and John Cage, Paccione developed his own lyrical voice and contrapuntal invention in such works as the wordless Forms in Change (1982) for soprano and chamber ensemble; Stations—to Morton Feldman (1987) for piano; L’Aura Amara (1991) for soprano, clarinet, and violin; Planxty Cage (1993) for piano; and Small, Still Voices (1993) for oboe and string quartet. His tape music includes . . . Like Spring (1988) for prerecorded and overdubbed flutes and electronics and Three Motets: Arabesques (1999) for four prerecorded clarinets. Among Paccione’s notable recent works are A Page for Will (2002) for piano; Five Songs from Christina Rossetti (2003) for tenor, clarinet, cello, and piano; Envoi: Cello Concerto (2006); Inscape: Three Choral Settings from Gerard Manley Hopkins (2007) for mixed chorus; the Gertrude Stein opera The World Is Round (2014); and Sea and Sky (2018) for mixed chorus and orchestra. See also POSTMODERNISM. PAIK, NAM JUNE (1932–2006). Korean-born American composer. Nam June Paik studied at the University of Tokyo, the University of Munich, and the Freiburg Conservatory; at Darmstadt, he met Karlheinz Stockhausen and John Cage. Paik’s Hommage à John Cage (1959) combined performance art and tape. His provocative conceptual pieces with the Fluxus group include the Danger Music series (1961–1963) and One for Violin Solo (1964). He settled in New York in 1964 and created pioneering art with television sets and with video. His Opéra Sextronique (1967) with cellist Charlotte Moorman resulted in her arrest for indecent exposure at its New

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York premiere. Paik is best known for his video-based art; among his sound installations are Megatron Matrix (1995) and Modulation in Sync (2000). See also POSTMODERNISM. PALESTINE, CHARLEMAGNE (1947– ). American composer and musician. Charlemagne Palestine created tape music such as Holy 1 & Holy 2 (1967) and used sine-tone generators in Negative Sound Study (1969) to produce pure sound waves as electronic drones that he then gradually altered, adding or filtering overtones and white noise. He also built a machine of oscillators and filters on which he performed drones. But what made him a legend in the minimalist scene by the early 1970s was the ecstatic endurance-art quality of his lengthy performances on piano or organ (or more rarely, tubular bells or carillon), aggressively hammering chords or strumming the keys to generate overtone activity. But he was also a student of the North Indian master singer Pandit Pran Nath, and Palestine would sustain a vocal drone while walking or running throughout his performance space, or sing a slow continuing crescendo as he threw himself against the walls and floor. His film Four Motion Studies (1974) captures his singing while riding four different rides at Coney Island. Palestine composed Birth of a Sonority (1977) for string orchestra, but by the mid-1970s, he had turned away from what he regarded as the commercializing of minimalist music. He eventually relocated to Europe and stopped performing and composing. Over the 1980s, he began reintroducing his music, and now he performs mostly in Europe. His CD releases include such reissues as his 1974 recordings Strumming Music and Four Manifestations on Six Elements as well as recent performances, such as Godbear (1998), From Etudes to Cataclysms (2008), and Nothing to Tell, Only Listen (2015). Palestine has also performed with such composer/musicians as Terry Jennings, Tony Conrad, and Rhys Chatham. See also ANDERSON, BETH (1950– ); ELECTRONIC MUSIC; MULTICULTURALISM; PLEROMA; POSTMODERNISM; TONE-CLUSTER. PANTONALITY. This term has been used with two different meanings. Arnold Schoenberg thought that his music should be described as pantonal—the 12 tones of the chromatic scale being equally important and available, with no single tone dominating—rather than atonal, which suggested a music devoid of tones. Béla Bartók used pantonality to define his music’s evocation of a key signature through repeated or sustained tones, while in fact avoiding tonal structures and thereby remaining free to utilize any and all pitches or sounds. Hence confusion still surrounds the term, with some

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sources insisting that it is a synonym for atonality, and others using it to designate music that shifts in and out of specific key centers but is not atonal. See also DISSONANCE; MODERNISM; YUN, ISANG (1917–1995). PÄRT, ARVO (1935– ). Estonian-born Austrian composer, musician, and educator. Arvo Pärt studied at the Tallinn Conservatory where he later taught. He employed serial methods in such orchestral pieces as Nekrolog (1960) and Perpetuum Mobile (1966) but found his own voice with a stripped-down, quasi-minimalist music, launched with Fratres (1977) for chamber ensemble of early or modern instruments; Tabula Rasa for two violins (or violin and viola), string orchestra, and prepared piano; and Spiegel im Spiegel (1978) for violin and piano (subsequently arranged for other solo instruments and piano). Pärt immigrated to Austria in 1980, became a citizen, and settled in Germany the following year. A prolific composer of film music, Pärt has concentrated in his concert music chiefly on religiousthemed works, most notably for mixed chorus, solo (Magnificat, 1989; Tribute to Caesar, 1997; Morning Star, 2007; And I Heard a Voice, 2017), with organ (The Beatitudes, 1990; Salve Regina, 2002), and with orchestra (Cecilia, vergine romana, 2000, rev. 2002; In principio, 2003). His other instrumental works include four symphonies (1963–2008), Für Alina (1976) for piano, La Sindone (2005, rev. 2013) for orchestra, and Missa brevis (2009) for 12 cellos. See also MODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. PARTCH, HARRY (1901–1974). American composer and musician. The breakthrough figure in the fields of just intonation and instrument building, Harry Partch also played an essential role in postmodern music, deconstructing and reinventing Western musical techniques. Born in Oakland, California, and raised mostly in Arizona and New Mexico, Partch studied briefly at the School of Music, University of Southern California, in 1920 and 1922, and he composed a symphonic poem in 1924. The following year he began investigating just intonation and wrote a string quartet in that alternate tuning system, for which he built new violin and viola fingerboards. In 1930, Partch destroyed all his scores and hired an instrument maker to construct his Adapted Viola. Requiring an extra-long fingerboard, it was played like a cello and tuned to a scale that divided the octave into 37 tones, for which Partch devised his own notation system. (He would further develop that notation in later years, as his tunings and instruments changed.) Weary of the unintelligible melismatic singing that had dominated Western composition, Partch created a vocal music that truly projected the words being sung, starting with a series of songs to the poetry of Li Po. During the early 1930s, he also gave lecture-recitals of what he termed “corporeal” (as opposed to abstract) music, and he sang and accompanied himself on the

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Adapted Viola. He built a reed organ he called the Ptolemy Organ in 1933, tuned to a 39-note-to-the-octave scale, and his first Adapted Guitar in 1934. Later that year he met the Irish poet and playwright W. B. Yeats, demonstrated his music, and received permission to adapt Yeats’s translation of Sophocles’s Oedipus Tyrannos. Funding, however, proved so difficult that, by 1935, Partch abandoned his efforts. He became a hobo and worked at federal camps—a life chronicled in a journal published in 1991 as Bitter Music. He found employment again in 1936 and resumed building just-intonation instruments, completing his 72-string Kithara in 1938. Using a scale of 43 tones to the octave, Partch modified a harmonium into his first Chromelodeon in 1941. That same year he composed Barstow, a setting of hitchhiker graffiti for Adapted Guitar and voice, and hopped freight trains to travel to Chicago. Partch described that journey in U.S. Highball (1943) for Adapted Guitar, Kithara, Chromelodeon, and voices, and revised Barstow for a similar ensemble. His lecture-recitals in the early 1940s attracted research support at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and Partch relocated there in 1944. He built the 44-string Harmonic Canon, demonstrated in his Two Studies on Ancient Greek Scales (1946), and his first percussion instrument, the wood-block Diamond Marimba in 1946. The University of Wisconsin Press also published Partch’s Genesis of a Music in 1949, but by then, he was in a new studio in Gualala, California, composing, building instruments, and making recordings. Partch built two of his most memorable percussion instruments in 1950: the Cloud Chamber Bowls, using suspended sections of 12-gallon Pyrex carboys, and the Spoils of War, combining wood, metal, bamboo, gourd, and Pyrex percussion; he also constructed two more wooden marimbas, the Bass Marimba and the Marimba Eroica, in 1950 and 1951, respectively. All the Partch instruments were designed as objects of sculptural beauty, and in his music theater, the instruments were always onstage, played by costumed musicians who would also sing and perform with the other players. That phase of his music began in 1952 when Partch premiered Oedipus at Mills College; he also established a studio there but left the following year. At a new facility in Sausalito, he composed the dance score Plectra and Percussion Dances (1953), for which he built his Surrogate Kithra. Partch revised Barstow again in 1954 and U.S. Highball the following year; he also built his first bamboo marimba, the Boo, in 1955 and completed his music-theater work The Bewitched as well as a chamber piece, Ulysses at the Edge. Partch relocated to Illinois in 1956 and premiered The Bewitched at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign the following year. He followed with Revelation in the Courthouse Park (1960), his adaptation of Euripides’s The Bacchae, and Water! Water! (1961). Partch then left Illinois for a new studio in Petaluma, California, where in 1963 he built the percussion instruments the Zymo-Xyl, using woodblocks, empty wine and liquor bottles, and

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automobile hubcaps, and the Mazda Marimba, made of light globes. After composing And on the Seventh Day Petals Fell in Petaluma (1964), he left Petaluma and worked in various California studios for the rest of the decade. Partch constructed his Gourd Tree in 1964 with Chinese temple bells bolted to gourds, and his grand Quadrangularis Reversum, incorporating five wooden marimbas, in 1965. His last and greatest music-theater piece—Delusion of the Fury (1966), an adaptation of Japanese and African folk tales— premiered in 1969 at the University of California at Los Angeles. His music for the film Windsong (1958) became his dance score Daphne of the Dunes in 1967. His final composition, The Dreamer That Remains, was written in 1972 and featured in a documentary on Partch of the same title. The revised and expanded edition of Genesis of a Music was published in 1974, a few months before Partch’s death from a heart attack in San Diego at age 73. Composer/musicians who worked with Partch at different occasions over the years include Henry Brant, Ben Johnston, Pauline Oliveros, James Tenney, and Dean Drummond. In recent years, Partch’s instruments have been featured in scores by Anne LeBaron, John Zorn, and Julia Wolfe. See also COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965); GABURO, KENNETH (1926–1993); MICROTONALITY; MULTICULTURALISM; THE RESIDENTS. PAYNE, MAGGI (1945– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Maggi Payne studied flute at Northwestern University and the University of Illinois, as well as electronic music and recording media at Mills College where her teachers included Robert Ashley. Among Payne’s flute scores are Inflections (1968) and HUM (1973); Scirocco (1983) combines flute with digital delay and tape; and Aeolian Confluence (1993) uses sampled flute. Her minimalist tape piece Crystal (1986) processed the sounds of flute, speech, sonifications, and synthesizers. Environmental sound is processed in her trilogy Airwaves (realities) (1987), Liquid Metal (1994), and Apparent Horizon (1999)—multimedia works that feature video, as do her 2008 pieces Liquid Amber, Cloud Fields, and Effervescence. Payne’s Desertscapes (1991) is a spatial score for two female choirs. Her later instrumental works include Suspended Time (2000) for orchestra and the solo flute scores Of All (2003), Reflections (2003), and fff (2006). Among Payne’s notable recent electronic works are Brass Mirrors (2004), Arctic Winds (2007), Surface Tension (2010), and Black Ice (2013). She has also created the sound installations Fountain (1999) and Santa Fe (2006). Payne has taught at Mills College since 1972; she has been codirector of Mills’ Center for Contemporary Music since 1992. See also CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); COMPUTER MUSIC; ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM.

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PEARS, PETER (SIR) (1910–1986). English musician and educator. Tenor Peter Pears studied at Oxford and the Royal College of Music, and in 1937, he met Benjamin Britten who became his lifetime companion. Britten composed numerous outstanding concert works for Pears’s voice, including Les Illuminations (1939), Seven Sonnets of Michelangelo (1940), Serenade (1943), and War Requiem (1962); his operas also have many notable roles composed specifically for Pears, such as the title role in Peter Grimes (1945), Captain Vere in Billy Budd (1951), the Madwoman in Curlew River (1964), and Aschenbach in Death in Venice (1973). Pears performed music by other important 20th-century modernist composers as well, and he recorded works by Frederick Delius, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Igor Stravinsky, William Walton, Frank Martin, Michael Tippett, Witold Lutoslawski, and Percy Grainger. He taught at the Britten-Pears School for Advanced Musical Studies and was knighted in 1978. PENDERECKI, KRZYSZTOF (1933– ). Polish composer, musician, and educator. Krzysztof Penderecki played violin and piano from his youth and attended the Cracow Academy of Music where he later served as principal (1972–1978); he also taught at Yale University (1973–1978) and developed an active career as a conductor. A sensitive orchestral colorist, Penderecki utilized graphic notation, extended performance techniques, glissandi, densities, tone-clusters, and quarter-tones in his gripping and expressive works. He achieved international recognition with two 1960 scores, Anaklasis for strings and percussion and Threnos, aka Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima, for 52 strings. His other important works from this era are Dimensions of Time and Silence (1959, rev. 1961), combining mixed chorus singing phonemes with string orchestra and percussion; Polymorphia (1961) for 48 strings; and Fluorescences (1962) for orchestra. His tape music includes Psalm (1961), Death Brigade (1963), and Ekecheiria (1972). Penderecki has composed numerous large-scale liturgical scores for soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra: St. Luke Passion (1966), Dies Irae (1967), Utrenja I (1970), Utrenja II (1971), Magnificat (1974), Te Deum (1980), Polish Requiem (1984, rev. 1993, 2005), and Credo (1998). Also noteworthy are his operas The Devils of Loudon (1969), Paradise Lost (1976, rev. 1978), Die schwarze Maske (1986), and Ubu Rex (1991) and his eight symphonies (1973–2007). His film scores include Wojciech Has’s The Saragossa Manuscript (1965) and Alain Resnais’s Je t’aime, je t’aime (1968). Penderecki had a neoromantic phase in the 1970s and 1980s, with such pieces as the Violin Concerto No. 1 (1977, rev. 1988) and Cello Concerto No. 2 (1982). His later works move between Romanticism and modernism: Violin Concerto No. 2 (1995), Concerto grosso (2001) for three cellos and orchestra; Piano Concerto, “Resurrection” (2002, rev. 2007); and Concerto for Horn and Orchestra

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(2008). See also BISCARDI, CHESTER (1948– ); DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; PLEROMA; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. PERKINS, PHILIP (1951– ). American composer and musician. The cofounder of the label Fun Music, Philip Perkins has made expressive use of environmental sound and location recordings, often with synthesizers and instruments. His notable postmodern works include Neighborhood with a Sky (1982), King of the World (1984), Drive Time (1985), Virgo Ramayana (1994), At the Other End of the Day (2005), The Department of Strange Weather (2011), and It Gets the Corners (2016); in his Shapiro Songs (1989), he combined voice and tape. A composer of film music, Perkins has also collaborated with “Blue” Gene Tyranny and The Residents. See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC. PERLE, GEORGE (1915–2009). American composer, musician, educator, and theorist. George Perle studied with Ernst Krenek and at New York University. Blending atonal, twelve-tone, and tonal techniques, his modernist music includes Wind Quintet Nos. 1–4 (1959–1984); the piano works Six Etudes (1976), Six New Etudes (1984), and Phantasyplay (1995); Thirteen Dickinson Songs (1978) for voice and piano; Serenade No. 3 (1983) for piano and chamber ensemble; Piano Concertos Nos. 1 (1990) and 2 (1992); the orchestral scores Sinfonietta (1987), Sinfonietta II (1990), and Transcendental Modulations (1993); and the sextets Critical Moments (1996) and Critical Moments 2 (2001). The author of Serial Composition and Atonality (1962, 6th ed., 1991), Twelve-Tone Tonality (1977, rev. 1996), The Operas of Alban Berg (1980–1985), and The Listening Composer (1990), Perle taught at Columbia University, Queens College, and other institutions. See also BERG, ALBAN (1885–1935); METRIC MODULATION; SOLLBERGER, HARVEY (1938– ). PERSICHETTI, VINCENT (1915–1987). American composer, musician, and educator. Vincent Persichetti entered the Combs Conservatory of Music at age six, graduated in 1935, and taught there until 1941; he also studied conducting with Fritz Reiner at the Curtis Institute (1938–1939), piano with Olga Samaroff at the Philadelphia Conservatory (1941–1945), and composition with Roy Harris. Persichetti’s music includes 15 Serenades for various instruments (1929–1985), 12 piano sonatas (1939–1981), three string quartets (1939–1959), nine symphonies (1942–1971), 10 harpsichord sonatas (1951–1987), six choral Cantatas (1963–1983), and 25 Parables for various instruments (1965–1986). Persichetti taught composition at the Philadelphia Conservatory (1941–1962) and at Juilliard (1947–1987); his students include

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Jacob Druckman, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and Laurie Spiegel. He is the coauthor of William Schuman (1954) and the author of Twentieth-Century Harmony (1961). See also MODERNISM; SCHUMAN, WILLIAM (1910–1992). PISTON, WALTER (1894–1976). American composer, musician, and educator. Walter Piston studied with Nadia Boulanger and Paul Dukas, and he taught at Harvard (1926–1960); his students include Elliott Carter, Leonard Bernstein, Irving Fine, David Behrman, Frederic Rzewski, and Arthur Berger. Piston’s textbooks Principles of Harmonic Analysis (1933), Harmony (1941), Counterpoint (1947), and Orchestration (1955) have been widely used for decades. A neoclassical composer with a lyrical voice, Piston is especially admired for his Concerto for Orchestra (1933), the ballet score The Incredible Flutist (1938), Symphony No. 3 (1947), and Three New England Sketches (1959) for orchestra. Twelve-tone and tonal techniques are blended in his Chromatic Fantasy on the Name of BACH (1940) for organ and such later scores as Symphony No. 8 (1965) and Variations for Cello and Orchestra (1966). Piston’s other works include Symphonies Nos. 1–7 (1937–1960) and String Quartets Nos. 1–5 (1933–1962). See also MODERNISM; NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997). PLEROMA. From the Greek word for fullness or completeness, the word pleroma came to mean within Gnostic Christianity both the spiritual universe of the Creator and the totality of that divine power. Its application to 20thcentury music can be traced to Alexander Scriabin who was familiar with Gnosticism. His classic Prométhée—le poème du feu (1910) was built upon a six-tone chord that he referred to as the Chord of the Pleroma: C, F-sharp, Bflat, E, A, D. (Only after Scriabin’s death did it come to be called in English the Mystic Chord.) Such music is intended not only to describe the movement toward transcendent revelation but to energize and actualize that experience as well. Dane Rudhyar defined a pleroma in his book The Magic of Tone and the Art of Music as a specialized musical aggregate in which different relationships interpenetrate to produce a singular resonance or meaning. The densities in Charles Ives’s music make him one of the first and greatest pleroma composers; so is Henry Cowell, with his tone-cluster and string-piano works. Later modernist examples include Alan Hovhaness’s music scored in free rhythm, the densities of Conlon Nancarrow’s Studies for Player Piano, and the composers who employed slowly shifting densities, such as Iannis Xenakis, György Ligeti, and Krzysztof Penderecki. Scriabin had selected the pitches of the Chord of the Pleroma from higher partials in the overtone series, and postmodern composers who create dense fields of over-

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tones and resultant tones, such as La Monte Young, Charlemagne Palestine, Rhys Chatham, Glenn Branca, David Hykes, and Mary Jane Leach, are creating pleromas. This quality can also define music that masses like voices, in small groups (Toshiro Mayuzumi’s Tone Pleromas 55, 1955; Hovhaness’s Spirit of Ink, 1970; Julius Eastman’s Gay Guerrilla, 1979; Lois V Vierk’s Simoom, 1986) or large (Anthony Braxton’s Composition No. 19, 1971; Henry Brant’s Orbits, 1979; Horatiu Radulescu’s Byzantine Prayer, 1980; Pauline Oliveros’s The Wanderer, 1982; Wendy Mae Chambers’s A Mass for Massed Trombones, 1993; Louis Andriessen’s Fanfare, om te beginnen, 2001). Free jazz can be pleromatic, too, as in the piano and ensemble music of Cecil Taylor and Sun Ra. The densities generated by rock- and noise-influenced composer/musicians, such as guitarist Rudolph Grey, percussionist Z’ev, and such bands as Borbetomagus and Psychic TV, are forms of pleroma music as well. See also BADINGS, HENK (1907–1987); CONRAD, TONY (1940–2016); JUST INTONATION; KONDO, JO (1947– ); NIBLOCK, PHILL (1933– ); THORVALDSDOTTIR, ANNA (1977– ); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ). POLYHARMONY. In his book New Musical Resources, Henry Cowell described the use of polyharmony as a succession of polychords: chords in which certain overtones and/or undertones of each pitch are also sounded. Polyharmony permitted more tones to be introduced within the harmonic vocabulary while avoiding over-complexity, insofar as they could be grouped within the harmony into related units. Cowell composed polyharmonic music with his Two Rhythm-Harmony Quartets (1919), but the music was of such rhythmic complexity that it was not performed until 1964. See also JUST INTONATION; MODERNISM; SPECTRAL MUSIC. POLYMETER. See POLYRHYTHM. POLYRHYTHM. The simultaneous use of two or more different rhythmic patterns that conflict, insofar as their accents fail to coincide. The piling up of different rhythms typifies many of the greatest works of Charles Ives, such as The Unanswered Question (1908), Piano Sonatas Nos. 1 (1909) and 2 (1915), String Quartet No. 2 (1913), Three Places in New England (1914), and Symphony No. 4 (1916). While avoiding the extreme densities of Ives’s music, other composers also compounded rhythms with new daring in these years, most notably Alexander Scriabin, Igor Stravinsky, and Béla Bartók. Henry Cowell’s Two Rhythm-Harmony Quartets (1919) went unplayed and unpublished, but his fascination with complex polyrhythms also led him to compose Rhythmicana (1931), a concerto with a machine as soloist: the rhythmicon, built by Leon Theremin.

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These modernist composers were also using polymeters, another device usually associated with polyrhythmic music, in which the time signature in a score can change from bar to bar—a necessity in the totally serialized music of such later composers as Milton Babbitt and Pierre Boulez, which organized durations as well as pitch. Others who took polyrhythmic music into new directions include Amadeo Roldán, William Russell, Elliott Carter, Olivier Messiaen, John Cage, Conlon Nancarrow, Henry Brant, and György Ligeti, as well as innovative figures in creative African American music such as Sun Ra, Cecil Taylor, George Russell, Ornette Coleman, and Anthony Braxton. See also ABRAHAMSEN, HANS (1952– ); BEYER, JOHANNA M. (1888–1944); CHÁVEZ, CARLOS (1899–1978); COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); DAHL, INGOLF (1912–1970); FREE IMPROVISATION; FREE JAZZ; FRITH, FRED (1949– ); GRAINGER, PERCY (1882–1961); KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); McPHEE, COLIN (1901–1964); METRIC MODULATION; MILHAUD, DARIUS (1892–1974); NEOCLASSICISM; NEOROMANTICISM; POSTMODERNISM; SORABJI, KAIKHOSRU SHAPURJI (1892–1988); STRANG, GERALD (1908–1983); ZIMMERMANN, BERND ALOIS (1918–1970). POLYTONALITY. The simultaneous use of two or more different key signatures. Examples occur at the end of the 19th century, with the more daring scores of the young Charles Ives, most notably Song for Harvest Season (1894); his music of the 1900s and 1910s delved even more deeply into simultaneities and densities. Béla Bartók began incorporating polytonality in his music with such works as Violin Concerto No. 1 (1908) and String Quartet No. 1 (1909). This dissonant modernist device became more frequent in the teens, after the success of Igor Stravinsky’s Petrushka (1911), and found a major exponent in Darius Milhaud. Other notable composers of polytonal music in the 1910s and 1920s include Erik Satie, Carl Nielsen, Ferruccio Busoni, Manuel de Falla, Karol Szymanowski, Heitor Villa-Lobos, Francis Poulenc, Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji, Dane Rudhyar, Roy Harris, Aaron Copland, Otto Luening, Colin McPhee, Alejandro Caturla, and Dmitry Shostakovich. See also BITONALITY; BRANT, HENRY (1913–2008); CARRILLO, JULIÁN (1875–1965); FARWELL, ARTHUR (1872–1952); FILM MUSIC; FREE JAZZ; GINASTERA, ALBERTO (1916–1983); GROUPE DES SIX; MONK, MEREDITH (1942– ). PORTSMOUTH SINFONIA. The Portsmouth Sinfonia was founded collectively in 1970 by Gavin Bryars, conductor John Farley, and art students from Portsmouth Polytechnic. Their aim was to perform orchestral standards even though all their members were either nonmusicians or else unskilled on their instrument. The resulting deconstructions of the repertory’s warhorses

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were full of surprises and humor; they also invited music lovers to reassess their understanding of that music. The group soon attracted more players, including Brian Eno and Michael Nyman, and released the albums Portsmouth Sinfonia Plays the Popular Classics (1973) and Hallelujah! (1974), both produced by Eno. The LP 20 Classic Rock Classics, sending up orchestral versions of rock music, was released in 1979, the Portsmouth Sinfonia’s final year. See also GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; POSTMODERNISM. POSTMODERNISM. Postmodernism is a reaction to and critique of modernism. By finding beauty in atonality, dissonance, and polyrhythm, modernist music revealed the arbitrary nature of traditional tonality, harmony, and rhythm; postmodern music turns modernism’s x-ray upon itself and explores modernist freedoms without relying on modernist conceptualizations of form or genre. Modernism shattered traditional music into individualized styles and methods; postmodernism develops techniques to appropriate, deconstruct, and recontextualize what is available in today’s unprecedented range of musical expression. That spectrum of music goes beyond traditional and modernist—the materials of jazz, blues, rock, and other popular-music forms are also used, either transformed or in quotation, only without pursuing the conventions of their native forms and genres, as Erik Satie had anticipated in the 1910s and 1920s. A multicultural interest in world music is another factor. All these elements proved essential for La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Philip Glass, and Steve Reich, whose minimalist music is a postmodern response to the limitations of traditionalism and modernism. Spatial music, exemplified by the works of Henry Brant, can be seen as a further critique that redefines the relationship between performer and listener and enables different kinds of music to be performed simultaneously. Postmodernism also redefines earlier work. John Cage took Satie literally and had Vexations performed 840 times. John Zorn studied Carl Stalling’s cartoon scores. The Portsmouth Sinfonia and the Scratch Orchestra performed classical works they did not know how to play. The Residents’ covers of 1960s pop tunes in The Third Reich ‘N Roll (1976) and Elvis Presley in The King & Eye (1989) were scathing accounts of American consumerism. With computer and sampling technology, as in the music of John Oswald and David Shea, composers have the ideal equipment for borrowing and reinventing other recorded sounds. Along with its tradition of instrument building, stretching from the pioneering works of Harry Partch to pieces by Glenn Branca, Tan Dun, and many others, postmodern music also deconstructs traditional instruments. One method is the use of alternate tuning systems, championed by Partch and used in works by Lou Harrison, Pauline Oliveros, James Tenney, and Ben Johnston, among others. There are also extended performance tech-

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niques, such as Lucia Dlugoszewski’s timbre piano or the dismantled instruments played by Zorn and George Lewis. Another approach is the appropriation of non-instruments for performance, as in the percussion-ensemble pieces of William Russell, Cage, and Harrison and the music of Partch, Z’ev, and such free improvisers as Charles K. Noyes and Fast Forward. Certain Fluxus composers focused on the non-instrumental character of the sounds they made: George Brecht’s Comb Music (1962, aka Comb Event) plucked the teeth of a comb; Alison Knowles’s Music by Alison (1964) listened to fabric being waved. Everyday objects can also have their sounds altered through amplification, from free improviser Eugene Chadbourne playing a rake to John Cage’s use of plant materials in Branches (Improvisation IB) (1976). Note Cage’s subtitle—playing such unfamiliar “instruments” requires an improviser’s spontaneity and openness. Improvisation with appropriated and/or deconstructed instruments has been essential to the work of such outstanding postmodern composer/musicians as Young, Oliveros, Riley, Lewis, Zorn, Robert Ashley, Anne LeBaron, “Blue” Gene Tyranny, Fred Frith, Anthony Braxton, Susie Ibarra, Elliott Sharp, David Tudor, Jerry Hunt, and Laurie Spiegel. Postmodernism views the options of music as encompassing the entire world of sound. The full spectrum of noise is explored in a way that the futurist composers dreamed of but never realized, with a thriving international scene of performing live electronic noise music. Tuning offers the infinity of microtonalities, not just the pitches of equal temperament; also available is any instrument that anyone has ever played or could ever build or adapt, not just the complement of the orchestra. Language is deconstructed in text-sound music. In multimedia works, other art forms are assimilated into the music. This fundamental shift in 20th-century Western musical thought had two highly influential originators: Partch, who built instruments that were tuned to his own system, and Cage, whose indeterminate music stripped his materials of their cultural baggage. Although both men began changing the game in the 1930s, each hit his stride in the 1950s: Partch with his music theater and Cage in adopting chance and indeterminacy. By the 1960s, with the breakthrough music of Sun Ra and The Beatles, jazz and rock experienced redefinitions as far-reaching as those affecting the classical world. In each case, these very different composers provided an attitude as well as a methodology for making music beyond the notion of a mainstream, into a delta or ocean of innumerable possibilities—the quintessential postmodern situation. See also ABRAHAMSEN, HANS (1952– ); ABRAMS, MUHAL RICHARD (1930–2017); ADAMS, JOHN (1947– ); ADAMS, JOHN LUTHER (1953– ); AMACHER, MARYANNE (1938–2009); AMBIENT MUSIC; AMIRKHANIAN, CHARLES (1945– ); AMM; AMRAM, DAVID (1930– ); ANDERSON, BETH (1950– ); ANDERSON, LAURIE

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(1947– ); ANDERSON, RUTH (1928– ); ANDRIESSEN, LOUIS (1939– ); ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); AUSTIN, LARRY (1930–2018); BARRETT, NATASHA (1972– ); BEHRMAN, DAVID (1937– ); BERBERIAN, CATHY (1925–1983); BERG, CHRISTOPHER (1949– ); BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003); BOLCOM, WILLIAM (1938– ); BROWN, EARLE (1926–2002); BRUBECK, DAVE (1920–2012); BRUCE, NEELY (1944– ); BRYARS, GAVIN (1943– ); BUCKNER, THOMAS (1941– ); BUDD, HAROLD (1936– ); BUSSOTTI, SYLVANO (1931– ); BYRON, MICHAEL (1953– ); CACIOPPO, GEORGE (1927–1984); CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981); CARLOS, WENDY (1939– ); CHAMBERS, WENDY MAE (1953– ); CHATHAM, RHYS (1952– ); CHIN, UNSUK (1961– ); COLEMAN, ORNETTE (1930–2015); CONRAD, TONY (1940–2016); CORNER, PHILIP (1933– ); COURVOISIER, SYLVIE (1968– ); CRUMB, GEORGE (1929– ); CURRAN, ALVIN (1938– ); DAVIS, ANTHONY (1951– ); DEL TREDICI, DAVID (1937– ); DEYHIM, SUSSAN (1956– ); DODGE, CHARLES (1942– ); DOOLITTLE, EMILY (1972– ); DRUMMOND, DEAN (1949–2013); DUCKWORTH, WILLIAM (1943–2012); DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000); EASTMAN, JULIUS (1940–1990); ECOMUSICOLOGY; ENO, BRIAN (1948– ); FELDMAN, MORTON (1926–1987); FERRARI, LUC (1929–2005); FILM MUSIC; FLYNT, HENRY (1940– ); FREE DURATION; FULLMAN, ELLEN (1957– ); FURE, ASHLEY (1982– ); GABURO, KENNETH (1926–1993); GALÁS, DIAMANDA (1955– ); GANN, KYLE (1955– ); GARLAND, PETER (1952– ); GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; GLOBOKAR, VINKO (1934– ); GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ); GORDON, MICHAEL (1956– ); GORDON, PETER (1951– ); GOSFIELD, ANNIE (1960– ); GRAETTINGER, ROBERT F. (1923–1957); HANNAN, JOE (1953– ); HELLERMANN, WILLIAM (1939–2017); HENRY, PIERRE (1927–2017); HIGGINS, DICK (1938–1998); HILLER, LEJAREN (1924–1994); HOPE, CAT (1966– ); HOVHANESS, ALAN (1911–2000); THE HUB; HYKES, DAVID (1953– ); ICHIYANAGI, TOSHI (1933– ); ITO, TEIJI (1935–1982); JENKINS, LEROY (1932–2007); JENNINGS, TERRY (1940–1981); JOHNSON, DENNIS (1938– ); JOHNSON, TOM (1939– ); JOHNSTON, BEN (1926– ); KAGEL, MAURICIO (1931–2008); KONDO, JO (1947– ); KOSUGI, TAKEHISA (1938–2018); KOTIK, PETR (1942– ); KRONOS QUARTET; KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); LA BARBARA, JOAN (1947– ); LAM BUN-CHING (1954– ); LANG, DAVID (1957– ); LAUTEN, ELODIE (1950–2014); LEACH, MARY JANE (1949– ); LÉANDRE, JOËLLE (1951– ); LEÓN, TANIA (1943– ); LOCKWOOD, ANNEA (1939– ); LUCIER, ALVIN (1931– ); MACERO, TEO (1925–2008); MACHT, ROBERT (1958– ); MacLISE, ANGUS (1938–1979); MARCUS, BUNITA (1952– ); MARTIRANO, SALVATORE (1927–1995); MAXFIELD, RICHARD (1927–1969);

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MAZZOLI, MISSY (1980– ); MEV; MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); MIMAROGLU, ILHAN (1926–2012); MITCHELL, ROSCOE (1940– ); MONK, MEREDITH (1942– ); MONK FELDMAN, BARBARA (1953– ); MOON, BEATA (1969– ); MOONDOG (1916–1999); MORAN, ROBERT (1937– ); MUMMA, GORDON (1935– ); MUNDRY, ISABEL (1963– ); NEOCLASSICISM; NEUHAUS, MAX (1939–2009); NEWLIN, DIKA (1923–2006); NIBLOCK, PHILL (1933– ); NYMAN, MICHAEL (1944– ); ONCE GROUP; ONO, YOKO (1933– ); OPERA; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); OSTERTAG, BOB (1957– ); OTT, DANIEL (1960–); PACCIONE, PAUL (1952– ); PAIK, NAM JUNE (1932–2006); PALESTINE, CHARLEMAGNE (1947– ); PAYNE, MAGGI (1945– ); PERKINS, PHILIP (1951– ); POUSSEUR, HENRI (1929–2009); RADIGUE, ÉLIANE (1932– ); RADULESCU, HORATIU (1942–2008); RASMUSSEN, KARL AAGE (1947– ); REINHARD, JOHNNY (1956– ); REYNOLDS, ROGER (1934– ); ROCHBERG, GEORGE (1918–2005); ROUGH ASSEMBLAGE; RUSSELL, ARTHUR (1951–1992); RYLAN, JESSICA (1974– ); RZEWSKI, FREDERIC (1938– ); SAUNDERS, REBECCA (1967– ); SCAVARDA, DONALD (1928– ); SCELSI, GIACINTO (1905–1988); SCHAFER, R. MURRAY (1933– ); SCULTHORPE, PETER (1929–2014); SEMEGEN, DARIA (1946– ); SHIELDS, ALICE (1943– ); SIKORSKI, TOMASZ (1939–1988); SKEMPTON, HOWARD (1947– ); SOMERS, HARRY (1925–1999); SONIC ARTS UNION; SOUND INSTALLATION; SOUND SCULPTURE; SPEACH, BERNADETTE (1948– ); STOCHASTIC MUSIC; SUBLETTE, NED (1951– ); SUBOTNICK, MORTON (1933– ); SULTAN, GRETE (1906–2005); SURREALISM; TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ); TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ); TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TAVENER, JOHN (SIR) (1944–2013); TEITELBAUM, RICHARD (1939– ); THEATRICAL MUSIC; THORVALDSDOTTIR, ANNA (1977– ); TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ); TONE, YASUNAO (1935– ); TÜÜR, ERKKISVEN (1959– ); TWELVE-TONE MUSIC; UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ); VAN DER AA, MICHEL (1970– ); VARÈSE, EDGARD (1883–1965); VIERK, LOIS V (1951– ); WESTERKAMP, HILDEGARD (1946– ); WOLFE, JULIA (1958– ); WOLFF, CHRISTIAN (1934– ); YUASA, JOJI (1929– ); ZAPPA, FRANK (1940–1993); ZAZEELA, MARIAN (1940– ); ZUBEL, AGATA (1978– ); ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). POULENC, FRANCIS (1889–1963). French composer and musician. Francis Poulenc studied piano with Ricardo Viñes in the 1910s and composition with Charles Koechlin in the 1920s. A sense of humor distinguished Poulenc’s early works such as Rapsodie nègre (1917) for baritone and seven instruments, Sonata for Two Clarinets (1918, rev. 1945), and Trois mouvements perpétuels (1918, rev. 1962) for piano. In the early 1920s, Poulenc was known as a member of the Groupe des Six, but he went on to attract atten-

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tion for such neoclassical pieces as the dance score Les Biches (1923), Aubade (1929) for piano and 18 instruments, Sextet (1932, rev. 1940) for piano and winds, and Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra (1932). Humor and lightness also defined his songs for voice and piano, a genre in which he excelled: Le Bestiaire (1919), Poèmes de Ronsard (1925), Quatre poèmes de Guillaume Apollinaire (1931), Tel jour, telle nuit (1937), Banalités (1940), Chansons villageoises (1942), Caligrammes (1948). Poulenc also performed internationally as pianist, principally in recitals of his songs. Although Poulenc’s modernist music was inflected with polytonal and other dissonant procedures, he was a tonal composer whose melodic gifts were best served by a familiar harmonic vocabulary. Religious music became important to him in the 1930s, with Litanies à la Vierge noire (1936) for women’s or boys’ chorus and organ and two scores for mixed chorus: the Mass in G (1937) and Quatre motets pour un temps de pénitence (1939). Poulenc’s opera Les mamelles de Tirésias (1944) was surrealistic and comic, but a greater seriousness characterized his Concerto for Organ, Strings, and Percussion (1938), Sinfonietta (1947) for orchestra, and Piano Concerto (1949). Among his later religious pieces are Figure humaine (1943) for double mixed chorus and two works for soprano, mixed chorus, and orchestra: Stabat Mater (1950) and Gloria (1958). One of Poulenc’s finest scores, the opera Les dialogues des carmélites (1955), was also religious themed. His other notable vocal works are the one-act one-voice opera La voix humaine (1958) and the songs of Parisiana (1954), Le travail du peintre (1956), and La courte paille (1960). His film music includes Le voyage en Amérique (1951). Poulenc’s last instrumental scores were his Flute Sonata (1957), Elégie (1957) for horn and piano, Clarinet Sonata (1962), and Oboe Sonata (1962). POUND, EZRA (1885–1972). American composer and critic. One of the great poets and translators of his era, Ezra Pound was an autodidact in music. He began publishing music criticism in England in 1908, and as “William Atheling,” he wrote for the New Age (1917–1921), a London weekly. Pound relocated to Paris in 1920, where he connected with two American musicians: violinist Olga Rudge and composer George Antheil. Pound composed several solo-violin scores for Rudge, including Sujet (1923) and Fiddle Music (1924). In Antheil’s music, Pound discerned innovative techniques of rhythmic organization, and he published his study Antheil and the Treatise on Harmony in 1924. Pound’s approach to rhythm and prosody was showcased in Le Testament, settings of the 15th-century French poet François Villon as a one-act opera for tenor, bass-baritone, violin, harpsichord, two trombones, kettledrums, and cornet de dessus, a medieval horn. Excerpts were performed privately in

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Paris in 1926, and its final version of 1933 called for nine or more singers and 10 to 12 instruments. This neomedieval opera anticipated minimalist attitudes toward drama and singing; so did Cavalcanti, also completed in 1933, which set the 13th-century Italian poets Guido Cavalcanti and Sordello da Goito as a three-act opera for tenor, bass-baritone, three sopranos, flute, English horn, bassoon, trombone, violin, cello, contrabass, and percussion. Pound sketched a third opera, Collis O Heliconii, in 1932 but left these settings of Catullus and Sappho unfinished. Pound moved to Italy in 1924, and in Rapallo, he produced a series of concerts from 1933 to 1939, featuring works by such modernists as Béla Bartók, Igor Stravinsky, and Paul Hindemith—composers whom he also promoted in the newspaper Il Mare. World War II ended his musical activities, and in 1945, Pound was taken prisoner by American authorities, charged with treason for having made wartime radio broadcasts in support of the Axis. Brought back to the United States, he was declared psychologically unfit to stand trial and placed in a mental hospital. Upon his discharge in 1958, all charges against him were dropped, and Pound returned to Italy. He continued to work at his poetry despite failing health and died in Venice two days after his 87th birthday. See also BECKER, JOHN J. (1886–1961); SCHAFER, R. MURRAY (1933– ); ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). POUSSEUR, HENRI (1929–2009). Belgian composer and educator. Henri Pousseur attended the Liège Conservatoire, where he later taught and served as director; his students include David Behrman. He used an Anton Webern–derived serial technique in Trois chants sacrés (1951) for soprano and string trio and the microtonal Prospection (1953) for three pianos tuned in sixth-tones. His Quintet (1955) was totally serialized, but Exercices (1956) for piano was freely atonal. Pousseur began composing electronic music with Séismogrammes (1954); Scambi (1957), an open-form work, was created exclusively from white noise. In 1958, he founded the Studio de musique électronique in Brussels. Rimes (1958) was a spatial piece combining three orchestral groups with magnetic tape; Pousseur’s other tape music includes the dance score Électre (1960) and Trois visages de Liège (1961). The textsound piece Phonèmes pour Cathy (1966) for solo mezzo-soprano was created for Cathy Berberian. Among his music-theater works are Votre Faust (1961–1968) and Leçons d’enfer (1990–1991); he also scored documentary films by director Emile Degelin. Pousseur’s innovations covered a spectrum of musical expression. He devised the improvisation systems of Mnémosyne II (1969) and Icare apprenti (1970). He cofounded the Centre de recherches et de formation musicales de Wallonie in Liège in 1970, devoted to electronic and multimedia music; it was renamed Centre Henri Pousseur in 2010. His electroacoustic Crosses of Crossed Colors (1970) featured amplified female voice, two to five pianos,

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two tape recorders, two turntables, and two radios. Racine 19e de 8/4 (1976) was for solo cello tuned in 19th-tones. Les îles déchaînées (1980), a collaboration with his son Denis, called for jazz septet, four synthesizers, and orchestra. The author of Fragments théoriques I (1970), Musiques croisées (1997), and other books, Pousseur also founded the review Marsyas in Paris in 1987 and taught at Darmstadt, the Basel Conservatory, the State University of New York at Buffalo, and other institutions. His later works include Figure et ombres (1988), of indeterminate instrumentation and duration; Suite du massacre des innocents (1997) for large wind orchestra and unison chorus ad lib; and the three-and-a-half-hour electronic suite Seize paysages planétaires (2000), from which he derived the sound installation Un jour du monde en 280 minutes (2002) and the multimedia Voix et vues planétaires (2004). He died in Brussels of bronchial pneumonia at age 79. See also CHANCE MUSIC; GLOBOKAR, VINKO (1934– ); POSTMODERNISM. POWELL, MEL (1923–1998). American composer, musician, and educator. Mel Powell studied piano with Nadia Reisenberg; he began playing jazz as a teenager and worked with such composer/musicians as Raymond Scott, Earl Hines, Benny Goodman, Glenn Miller, and Django Reinhardt; he also studied with Joseph Schillinger. At Yale University (1948–1952), Powell studied with Paul Hindemith. He later taught at Yale, Queens College, and the California Institute for the Arts, among other institutions; his students include Lois V Vierk, Alvin Curran, and Richard Teitelbaum. Powell also composed film music in the late 1940s and early 1950s, but he chose to focus on the concert hall, combining neoclassical and serial techniques in his Piano Trio (1954) and Divertimento (1955) for wind quintet. Filigree Setting (1959) for string quartet was totally serialized and had extended performance techniques, as did Haiku (1961) for soprano and piano. Events (1963) was a text-sound work that blended tape music and electronically synthesized sound; the Immobiles series (1967–1969) used tape with an indeterminate number of musicians and offered performance freedoms. Powell’s later works include Strand Settings: Darker (1983) for soprano and tape; Duplicates (1987) for two pianos and orchestra; the electronic-music composition Computer Prelude (1988); Sonatina for Flute Alone (1995), and Seven Miniatures, Women Poets of China (1998) for mezzo-soprano and harp. See also ALEATORY; ATONALITY; COMPUTER MUSIC; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. PRATELLA, FRANCESCO BALILLA. See FUTURISM.

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PRICE, FLORENCE (1887–1953). American composer, musician, and educator. Florence Price learned piano from her mother and studied at the New England Conservatory of Music; she taught at Clark University and other institutions. Working in a tonal neoromantic idiom, Price became the first African American woman composer to be performed by a major American symphony orchestra when her Symphony No. 1 (1932) was played by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra in 1933. Her Symphony No. 2 was never completed, but she did finalize Symphonies Nos. 3 (1940) and 4 (1945). Price is also admired for her Concerto in One Movement (1934) for piano and orchestra; the 1934 orchestral scores Mississippi River Suite and The Oak; Violin Concertos Nos. 1 (1939) and 2 (1952); and such piano works as At the Cotton Gin (1928), Sonata in E Minor (1932), and 3 Little Negro Dances (1933). Price’s vocal works include The New Moon (1930) for female chorus and two pianos and Songs to the Dark Virgin (1941) for voice and piano. She also arranged spirituals, and Marian Anderson sang Price’s “My Soul’s Been Anchored in de Lord” (1937) to conclude her landmark 1939 recital at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. See also MODERNISM. PROKOFIEV, SERGEY (1891–1953). Russian composer and musician. Prokofiev’s humor, expressivity, and passion made his music internationally successful, from the fiery modernism of his youth to the more conservative works of his years in the Soviet Union. Sergey Sergeyevich Prokofiev was born in the Ukrainian estate of Sontsovka and received piano lessons from his mother. Composing by age five, he began studying piano and composition with Reinhold Glière at 11. Prokofiev was 13 when he entered the St. Petersburg Conservatory, where his teachers included Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Glazunov. Embracing influences as diverse as Richard Wagner, Alexander Scriabin, Edvard Grieg, Modest Mussorgsky, and Max Reger, Prokofiev produced his first important works, Suggestion diabolique (1908) for piano and Piano Sonata No. 1 (1909). His dissonant, percussive, sometimes shocking approach to the piano was showcased in his Piano Concertos Nos. 1 (1911) and 2 (1913, rev. 1923), both of which he premiered as pianist. He included bitonality in his Sarcasms for piano, completed in 1914, the same year in which he graduated and began to travel. In France, Prokofiev worked on Ala i Lolli for the Ballets Russes of impresario Serge Diaghilev. It was never completed or staged, but the music resulted in his barbaric Scythian Suite (1915, rev. 1922) for orchestra. Back in Russia he completed The Gambler, an opera adapted from Fyodor Dostoevsky’s novel, in 1917. It was left unstaged in that year of the Revolution, when Prokofiev composed some of his greatest scores: Visions fugitives for piano, the lyrical Violin Concerto No. 1, and his Symphony No. 1, the charming and ever youthful “Classical Symphony.” Prokofiev had anticipated neoclassi-

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cism by redefining classical techniques for modern harmonies and rhythms, but he remained uninvolved in the 1920s trend that Igor Stravinsky and others embraced. After reprising the savagery of the Scythian Suite with his cantata They Are Seven (1918) for tenor, mixed chorus, and orchestra, Prokofiev began living and concertizing in the United States. But his comic opera The Love for Three Oranges (1919) failed there in 1921, despite its popular orchestral suite (1919, rev. 1924), and Prokofiev relocated to France where he completed his Piano Concerto No. 3 (1921). His comic ballet Chout (1915) was successfully premiered by Diaghilev’s company in 1922, but the dark opera The Fiery Angel (1923, rev. 1927) was never staged in Prokofiev’s lifetime. His Symphony No. 2 (1924), an abrasive “Age of Steel” score, was received coolly, but the machine-themed Le pas d’acier (1925), for the Ballets Russes, was celebrated. Although Prokofiev was acclaimed when he concertized in the Soviet Union in 1927, he returned to France to complete his Symphony No. 3 (1928), which utilized themes from The Fiery Angel. L’enfant prodigue (1929), a dramatic dance for Diaghilev, in turn yielded material for his Symphony No. 4 (1930, rev. 1947). He also composed his Piano Concertos Nos. 4 (1931, for the left hand) and 5 (1932) in France, but in 1936, Prokofiev settled with his family in Moscow. That year he completed two internationally popular scores: the evening-length ballet Romeo and Juliet and the children’s fable Peter and the Wolf for narrator and orchestra. Two of his 1930s film scores also resulted in some of Prokofiev’s best concert music. The farcical Lieutenant Kizhe led to a sprightly and popular orchestral suite in 1934, and Sergey Eisenstein’s patriotic classic Alexander Nevsky yielded a powerful 1939 cantata for mezzo-soprano, chorus, and orchestra. By then, Prokofiev was feeling the pressure to produce music in praise of the Soviet Union, and he complied with a series of flag-wavers, which included Cantata for the 20th Anniversary of the October Revolution (1937), Zdravitsa (1939) for mixed chorus and orchestra, and The Year 1941 (1941) for orchestra. His horror and grief at living in a police state found voice in his Piano Sonatas Nos. 6 (1940), 7 (1942), and 8 (1944), all begun in 1939; his Violin Sonata No. 1 (1946), begun in 1938, shares the same anguished sensibility. During the early years of World War II, he also labored on his epic opera War and Peace, from Leo Tolstoy’s novel. The first version, completed in 1943, met with official interference, although it was performed in concert in 1945; revisions affected the score until 1952. But Prokofiev triumphed with two accomplished and popular works completed in 1944, the fairy-tale ballet Cinderella and the defiant Symphony No. 5. In these scores, as in all the music Prokofiev was writing, he largely avoided dissonance, tonal ambiguity, or other modernist devices that were then being denounced as formalism in the Soviet Union. But after his

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mournful Symphony No. 6 (1947), he was subjected to a scathing official denunciation in 1948, with his Piano Sonata No. 6 and War and Peace declared formalist. Along with his fellow “Big Four” composers Dmitry Shostakovich, Aram Khachaturian, and Nikolai Myaskovsky, Prokofiev had to apologize to Joseph Stalin and promise to do better. His ballet The Stone Flower (1949) was criticized and withdrawn, and Prokofiev resumed his celebratory obligations (the cantata On Guard for Peace, 1950; The Meeting of the Volga and the Don for orchestra, 1951). Despite poor health, he was able to complete his 1952 scores Sinfonia concertante for cello and orchestra and Symphony No. 7. In Moscow on 5 March 1953, the 61-yearold Prokofiev was fatally stricken by a brain hemorrhage. Less than an hour later the same fate befell Stalin, and the news of Prokofiev’s death was initially withheld by the Soviet government so as not to distract from its leader’s demise. See also FUTURISM. PROPORTIONAL NOTATION. Proportional notation is a form of graphic notation for unpulsed events; it is also known as analog notation, insofar as space on the score is analogous to duration. Earle Brown’s Music for Cello and Piano (1955) mostly replaced noteheads with horizontal lines, their lengths proportional to time lengths. In Luciano Berio’s Sequenza I (1958), the length of the beam between two note stems indicates how long the first note is held. A wavy line in Ross Lee Finney’s Symphony No. 4 (1972) notates how long an ostinato phrase is repeated. Proportional notation also occurs in scores by Roger Reynolds (Traces, 1969) and Jacob Druckman (Windows, 1972).

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Q QIN, ERIC. See ROUGH ASSEMBLAGE. QUARTER-TONE MUSIC. Quarter-tone music splits the 12 more or less equivalent intervals of the chromatic scale into 24 more or less equivalent microtonal intervals. Quarter-tones were a serious ongoing concern for certain early modernist composers, such as John Foulds, Julián Carrillo, Alois Hába, Ivan Wyschnegradsky, and Hans Barth. They also were employed in works by Ernest Bloch (Piano Quintet No. 1, 1923), Charles Ives (Three Quarter-Tone Pieces, 1924), Alban Berg (Chamber Concerto, 1925), Aaron Copland (Vitebsk, 1928), Mildred Couper (Xanadu, 1930), Olivier Messiaen (Deux monodies en quarts de ton, 1938), Béla Bartók (Violin Concerto No. 2, 1938; Sonata for Solo Violin, 1944), and Pierre Boulez (Le visage nuptial, 1946). Quarter-tones have figured prominently in the music of such later composers as Giacinto Scelsi, Karel Husa, Iannis Xenakis, Krzysztof Penderecki, György Ligeti, Sofia Gubaidulina, Gérard Grisey, and Brian Ferneyhough; they have also shaped works by Lejaren Hiller (String Quartet No. 5, 1962), Teo Macero (One-Three Quarters, 1967), Luciano Berio (E vó, 1972) Alan Hovhaness (O Lord Bless Thy Mountains, 1974), Toru Takemitsu (Bryce, 1976), Henry Brant (Orbits, 1979), James Tenney (Flecking, 1993), John Corigliano (Chiaroscuro, 1997), Emily Doolittle (Music for Magpies, 2003), and Jo Kondo (Dandelion-ClockWork, 2008). See also ALTERNATE TUNING SYSTEMS; FORMALISM; MAGER, JÖRG (1880–1939). QUOTATION. The device of musical quotation had a major exponent in the composer Charles Ives. Although his Piano Sonata No. 2 (1915) is built around the opening theme of Ludwig van Beethoven’s Symphony No. 5, Ives’s most vigorous use of quotation involved the hymn, pop, and folk tunes of his youth, frequently collaged into unusual densities in his orchestral, chamber, and piano music. Other early modernist composers pursued allusions to classical music, such as the quotations of Johann Sebastian Bach in Ferruccio Busoni’s Violin Sonata No. 2 (1898) and Alban Berg’s Violin 283

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Concerto (1935), or pop-music quotations, as in Erik Satie’s Embryons desséchés (1913) and George Antheil’s Sonata No. 2 for Violin and Piano with Drums (1923). For his memorable 1928 scores Symphony on a Hymn Tune and Four Saints in Three Acts, Virgil Thomson devised sly and original combinations of hymns and folk music. Quotation became more frequent in the postmodern era, with its openness to appropriating, deconstructing, and recontextualizing other music. George Rochberg began quoting earlier music in his 1965 works Contra Mortem et Tempus and Music for the Magic Theater, and eventually he was composing original works in earlier styles. The third movement of Luciano Berio’s classic Sinfonia (1968) was built around the third movement of Gustav Mahler’s Symphony No. 2 and included a spectrum of quotations from other composers throughout the history of Western music. John Cage’s Europeras I/II (1987) used only quoted music from European operas. Other composers who have used quotation include Reynaldo Hahn, Giacinto Scelsi, Dmitry Shostakovich, Ross Lee Finney, Bernd Alois Zimmermann, Lukas Foss, Pierre Henry, Jacob Druckman, R. Murray Schafer, Alfred Schnittke, Peter Maxwell Davies, Philip Krumm, John Tavener, Peter Lieberson, Neely Bruce, Gérard Grisey, Karl Aage Rasmussen, Poul Ruders, John Zorn, John Oswald, and Natasha Barrett. See also SAMPLING; USTVOLSKAYA, GALINA (1919–2006).

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R RADIGUE, ÉLIANE (1932– ). French composer and musician. Éliane Radigue worked with Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Henry in the mid-1950s at the Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française’s Studio d’Essai in Paris; she worked with Henry again in the late 1960s and began composing her own tape music such as Elemental I (1968) and the open-form work vice versa, etc . . . (1970). Using the Arp synthesizer, Radigue has created a minimalist and meditative electronic music characterized by her feeling for atmosphere and texture, most notably in her Buddhist-themed works Triptych (1978), Adnos II (1980), Adnos III (1981), Songs of Milarepa (1983), Jetsun Mila (1986), and Trilogy de la Mort, which consists of Kyema (1988), Kailasha (1991), and Koume (1993). L’île re-sonante (2000) was Radigue’s final electronic work. Turning to instrumental composition, she wrote Naldjorak I (2005) for cello, Naldjorak II (2007) for two basset horns, and her series of OCCAM scores, which include 24 solo pieces as well as works for larger ensembles and even orchestra. Radigue’s recent music includes her score for the film Riding the Ox (2015); OCCAM Hex II (2014), cocomposed with Carol Robinson and written for Cat Hope’s ensemble Decibel; and OCCAM XXIV (2018) for bass flute, written for Hope. See also POSTMODERNISM; SOUND INSTALLATION. RADULESCU, HORATIU (1942–2008). Romanian-born French composer and musician. After graduating from the Bucharest Academy of Music in 1969, Horatiu Radulescu left Romania and settled in Paris, becoming a French citizen in 1974. In the early 1970s, he also studied with John Cage, György Ligeti, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Iannis Xenakis, Mauricio Kagel, and Olivier Messiaen. The author of Sound Plasma (1973) and Musique des mes univers (1985), he founded the ensemble European Lucero in 1983, which he led in performances of his music. Radulescu composed spectral music but bypassed polyphony in favor of creating ever-changing textures, drawing out upper partials, and generating difference tones through microtonal tunings, as in Unde Incotro (1984) for 11 strings and String Quartet No. 4 (1987). His other pleroma works include Credo (1969, rev. 1976) for nine 285

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cellos, Everlasting Longings (1972) for 24 strings, Doruind (1976) for 48 voices, and Byzantine Prayer (1980) for 40 flautists with 72 flutes. In A Doini (1974) and Clepsydra (1983), the piano became a Sound Icon, turned on its side with its strings bowed or struck. Taoist themes characterize Radulescu’s Piano Sonatas Nos. 2–6 (1991–2006) and String Quartets Nos. 5 (1990, rev. 1995) and 6 (1992). Romanian folk music informed his piano sonatas, The Quest (1996) for piano and orchestra, and other later works. See also EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; POSTMODERNISM; STRING PIANO; UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). RASMUSSEN, KARL AAGE (1947– ). Danish composer and musician. Karl Aage Rasmussen studied at the Aarhus Academy of Music; he is the conductor of his ensemble, the Elsinore Players, founded in 1975. Rasmussen’s composition utilizes preexisting music while avoiding strict quotation, seeking instead to break down and recontextualize musical elements. Genklang (1972), scored for piano four-hands, prepared piano, mistuned piano, and celeste, reworks the music of Gustav Mahler; Berio Mask (1977) for chamber ensemble reinvents Luciano Berio’s reinvention of Mahler in Berio’s Sinfonia. A greater dynamism and concern for form are reflected in A Symphony in Time (1982) for orchestra and the string quartets Solos and Shadows (1983) and Surrounded by Scales (1985). Multiple tempi enliven Rasmussen’s Movements on a Moving Line (1987) for orchestra, Etudes and Postludes (1990) for piano, Sinking through the Dream-Mirror (1993) for violin and orchestra, the chamber opera The Sinking of the Titanic (1993), and Webs in a Stolen Dream (1996) for chamber ensemble. His notable recent works include Postludier (2007) for 23 solo strings, Concerto in Amber (2012) for saxophone quartet and strings, and Laudatio (2017) for mixed chorus and orchestra. He is the author of Noteworthy Danes (1991) and Sviatoslav Richter: Pianist (2010). See also POSTMODERNISM. RAUTAVAARA, EINOJUHANI (1928–2016). Finnish composer. Einojuhani Rautavaara studied with Aarre Merikanto at the Sibelius Academy (1948–1952); with Vincent Persichetti at Juilliard (1955–1956); and with Aaron Copland and Roger Sessions at Tanglewood (1955). A neoclassical composer with A Requiem for Our Time (1955) for brass and percussion and his Symphonies Nos. 1 (1956, rev. 1988, 2003) and 2 (1957, rev. 1984), Rautavaara explored twelve-tone composition with such works as his Symphonies Nos. 3 (1961) and 4 (1962); he withdrew the latter and substituted the serial Arabescata (1964), which incorporated graphic notation. Rautavaara’s renewed interest in melody combined with a mystical sensibility to produce such neoromantic works as Cantus arcticus (1972) for orchestra and birdsong on tape, Annunciations (1977) for organ and orchestra, Angel

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of Dusk (1980) for double-bass and orchestra, and Symphony No. 5 (1985). Among Rautavaara’s operas are Thomas (1985), Vincent (1987), Aleksis Kivi (1996), and Rasputin (2003). His notable later works include Symphonies Nos. 6 (1992), 7 (1994), and 8 (1999); the 2004 orchestral scores Book of Visions and Manhattan Trilogy; Towards the Horizon (2009) for cello and orchestra; Into the Heart of Light (2011) for string orchestra; and Balada for tenor, mixed chorus, and orchestra. See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM. RAVEL, MAURICE (1875–1937). French composer and musician. One of the 20th century’s great composers for piano, Ravel was also a brilliant orchestrator who brought a new clarity and classicism to impressionist techniques. Joseph Maurice Ravel was born in the village of Ciboure in France’s southwestern Basque territory, to a mother of Basque origin and a Swiss father. The family relocated to Paris, and he began taking piano lessons and studying harmony, counterpoint, and composition at age seven; he gave his first public recital at 14. Ravel attended the Paris Conservatoire (1889–1905) where his teachers included Gabriel Fauré. His first important compositions were for piano: Pavane pour une infante défunte (1899, orchestrated 1910) and the impressionist Jeux d’eau (1901), which predated the piano music of his sometimes friend Claude Debussy. For all the sensuality and sonorousness of his music, however, Ravel was devoted to melody and the clear precise lines of classical forms, and he resisted the impressionist label. Nevertheless, that style characterized his String Quartet in F Major (1903); Shéhérazade (1903) for voice and orchestra or piano; Sonatine (1905) and Miroirs (1905) for piano; Introduction and Allegro (1905) for harp accompanied by string quartet, flute, and clarinet; and perhaps his finest work for piano, the fantastical Gaspard de la nuit (1908). Ravel’s lifelong enthusiasm for Spain defined two other works of this period, Rapsodie espagnole (1908) for orchestra and the comic opera L’heure espagnole (1909). Ravel found success with scores for the ballet during the 1910s, although the music was usually composed for the recital hall first. Ma mère l’oye (1910), subtitled “Five Children’s Pieces for Piano Four-Hands,” was expanded and orchestrated in 1911 and staged as a ballet the following year. A similar trajectory occurred with Valses nobles et sentimentales (1911) for piano, orchestrated and choreographed in 1912. That work was also Ravel’s first significant appearance as a conductor, and he led many performances of his orchestral music over the next 20 years. He concertized as a pianist, too, but refrained from premiering his piano music, performing more frequently as accompanist in his songs; he also played piano works by such composers as Fauré, Debussy, and Erik Satie.

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With Daphnis et Chloé for orchestra, completed in 1912, Ravel achieved what for many is his masterpiece—his most extended composition, lasting close to an hour, and his only score written specifically for the ballet. He also derived two popular concert suites from Daphnis et Chloé in 1911 and 1913. On the eve of World War I, Ravel completed two notable chamber works, Trois poèmes de Stéphane Mallarmé (1913) for voice and chamber ensemble and Trio (1914) for piano, violin, and cello. During the war, he joined the motor transport corps and served near the front in the Verdun sector until he was discharged in 1917 due to poor health. The immediate effect of the war on Ravel can be seen in two major scores: Le tombeau de Couperin for piano, Ravel’s anticipation of neoclassicism, completed in 1917 (and orchestrated for the ballet in 1919), with each of its six pieces dedicated to a comrade fallen in the war; and La Valse for orchestra (or piano or two pianos), completed in 1920, which inflated waltz conventions into a quasi-surreal evocation of Teutonic decadence. The 1920s marked Ravel’s final creative period. In 1922, he composed the Sonata for Violin and Cello and completed his beloved orchestration of Modest Mussorgsky’s piano score Pictures at an Exhibition. Impressed by American popular music, he incorporated ragtime into the fantasy opera L’enfant et les sortilèges (1925) and featured jazz and blues techniques in his Sonata for Violin and Piano (1927). Other important pieces from this period are the gypsy-inspired Tzigane (1924) for violin and piano or orchestra and Chansons madécasses (1926) for voice, flute, cello, and piano. Ravel ended the decade with a classic, Boléro (1928) for orchestra—one of his most radical scores, a near-minimalist attempt to replace development with thematic repetition and a relentless growing intensity. Internationally respected after a decade of concert tours throughout Europe and North America, Ravel sealed that success with two more acclaimed works, his Concerto for the Left Hand (1930) for piano and orchestra and his Piano Concerto (1931), both of which demonstrated his interest in jazz. Injured in an automobile accident in 1932, Ravel recovered fairly quickly and completed Don Quichotte et Dulcinée for voice and piano or orchestra (1933). But by then he was already experiencing lapses in his speech, memory, and motor control, and soon he was left incapable of playing the piano or composing. After undergoing exploratory brain surgery in 1937, he fell into a coma; nine days later Ravel died in a Paris hospital at age 62. See also ABRAHAMSEN, HANS (1952– ); BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003); COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); FALLA, MANUEL DE (1876–1946); FUTURISM; GRISEY, GÉRARD (1946–1998); LORIOD, YVONNE (1924–2010); MODERNISM; ORNSTEIN, LEO (ca. 1892–2002); SMIT, LEOPOLD “LEO” (1900–1943); VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, RALPH (1872–1958).

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REICH, STEVE (1936– ). American composer and musician. Steve Reich studied composition with Vincent Persichetti at Juilliard and with Darius Milhaud and Luciano Berio at Mills College. His tape music It’s Gonna Rain (1965) and Come Out (1966) were minimalist works in which a repeating fragment of sound was overdubbed and gradually moved out of phase with itself. Reich created more phase music in Reed Phase (1966) for soprano saxophone and tape, Violin Phase (1967) for four violins or violin and tape, and Piano Phase (1967) for two pianos or two marimbas. In Pendulum Music (1968), three or more microphones were suspended upside down, pulled back, and left to swing over their loudspeakers, producing feedback that phased as they gradually slowed down. These gradual-process pieces led Reich to Four Organs (1970) for four electric organs and maracas, in which the musicians play a single chord that is slowly lengthened in duration. After studying African drumming in 1970, Reich composed his final phase work, Drumming (1971) for eight small tuned drums, three marimbas, three glockenspiels, two female voices, whistling, and piccolo. He employed repeated musical phrases that rhythmically realigned on specific beats in the 1973 scores Six Pianos and Music for Mallet Instruments, Voices, and Organ. The culmination was the classic Music for Eighteen Musicians (1976), which brought greater harmonic and timbral variety to Reich’s music. By then, he had been performing with his own ensemble, Steve Reich & Musicians, for more than a decade. He composed for other performers with Variations for Winds, Strings, and Keyboards (1979) for chamber orchestra or orchestra and the Psalm settings Tehillim (1981) for four female voices and orchestra. Reich’s Counterpoint series combined an amplified solo instrument with tape: flute in Vermont Counterpoint (1982), clarinet in New York Counterpoint (1985), guitar in Electric Counterpoint (1987). Reich’s later works include The Desert Music (1984) for mixed chorus and orchestra; The Four Sections (1987) for orchestra; Different Trains (1988) for string quartet and tape; Proverb (1995) for voices and ensemble; Variations for Vibes, Pianos, and Strings (2005); Double Sextet (2007) for 12 instruments or six instruments and prerecorded tape; Quartet (2013) for two vibraphones and two pianos; and Runner (2016) for chamber orchestra. The multimedia The Cave (1993) is a music and video theater work; Three Tales (2002) is a video opera. Reich is also the author of Writings on Music, 1965–2000 (2002). See also BRANCA, GLENN (1948–2018); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FILM MUSIC; KRONOS QUARTET; LA BARBARA, JOAN (1947– ); METRIC MODULATION; MOONDOG (1916–1999); MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. REINHARD, JOHNNY (1956– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Bassoonist and conductor Johnny Reinhard studied at the Manhattan School of Music and Columbia University; his teachers included Pandit Pran

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Nath and Chou Wen-chung. He formed the American Festival of Microtonal Music in 1981, which has produced concerts of microtonal and justintonation music internationally. The editor of the journal Pitch, he also has taught at New York University and other institutions. Reinhard’s notable compositions include Dune (1990) for bassoon; Cosmic Rays (1995) for string quartet; Middle-Earth (1999) for orchestra; Talibanned Buddhas (2000) for contrabassoon, cello, metal bowls, and gong; and Semantics of Tone (2007) for bass trombone. He developed a 128-note tuning system, based on the eighth octave of the overtone series, for the pieces on his album True (2013). See also ALTERNATE TUNING SYSTEMS; IVES, CHARLES (1874–1954); POSTMODERNISM. THE RESIDENTS. American composers and musicians. The Residents have worked in anonymity since the group’s inception around 1970. Based in California, they formed the label Ralph Records in 1972 and began releasing their music with a package of two 45s called Santa Dog (1972) and the LP Meet The Residents (1974, rev. 1977). The Residents’ unique sound featured tape distortions and electronic treatments of voices and instruments, rather than the familiar complement of guitars and drums. They favored dissonances and other grating effects and eschewed song format, making eccentric segues into strange new realms of sound, invariably with a rich sense of jet-black humor. Their second album, released in 1978 as Not Available, was a bleak look at a failed love affair between one woman and several men. Seeking to break the social and personal control exerted by the commodification of music for corporate profit, they released The Third Reich ‘N Roll (1976), covering 1960s pop tunes in a series of funny and savage dissections. The Third Reich ‘N Roll also freed up The Residents to work more in shortsong format, and they released the surrealistic tunes of Fingerprince (1977) and Duck Stab/Buster & Glen (1978). Fingerprince also included an 18-minute composition, Six Things to a Cycle (1975). Inspired by Harry Partch, it featured instrument building, unusual tunings, and rhythmic chanting—all of which fed into their most acclaimed and popular album, Eskimo (1979). For all its humor, Eskimo’s programmatic depictions of life in the Frozen North achieved passages of startling visceral intensity and haunting beauty. Working within conceptual restraints is a hallmark of The Residents’ music, and they deconstructed themselves by following Eskimo with a disco version, Diskomo, in a 1980 EP backed with Goosebumps, a setting of nursery rhymes performed on toy instruments. The LP Commercial Album (1980) was a tour de force in which each of the 40 songs was exactly 60 seconds long. Building on their original use of synthesizers, The Residents turned to sampling technology for their atypically somber narrative Mark of the Mole (1981), a fantasy of exploitation and displacement based on American histo-

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ry. That work was followed by their classic The Tunes of Two Cities (1982), which examined the music of both the Haves and the Have-Nots in the Mole Saga, and The Big Bubble (1985), with a Mole rock musician singing in their forbidden language. Mark of the Mole was also staged by The Residents and performed internationally in 1982 and 1983; more live appearances followed with the 13th-Anniversary Tour in 1985. The Residents also reinvented the music of George Gershwin and James Brown in George & James (1984) and John Philip Sousa and Hank Williams in Stars & Hank Forever! (1986). In adapting the CD format, The Residents produced two of their finest works: God in Three Persons (1988), a dark tale of sexual repression and the huckstering of religion, and The King & Eye (1989), which recast Elvis Presley as an epic commercialization of emotional need. The King & Eye was also performed live, along with The Residents’ versions of cowboy and early African American songs, as the Cube-E Show. Their subsequent releases Wormwood (1998), Demons Dance Alone (2002), and The Bunny Boy (2008) also spawned elaborate live shows. With Freak Show (1994), The Gingerbread Man (1995), and Bad Day on the Midway (1995), they explored new interactive possibilities in the CD-ROM format. Musicians who have performed with The Residents include Fred Frith, Philip Perkins, Chris Cutler, Don Preston, Lene Lovich, Renaldo & the Loaf, and legendary guitarist Philip Lithman, aka Snakefinger, a frequent collaborator until his death in 1987. For Sarah Cahill, they created the multimedia drum no fife (2009) for piano, tape, and video. Among The Residents’ other recent works are The Ughs! (2009), Mush-Room (2013), and The Ghost of Hope (2017). See also FILM MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. REVUELTAS, SILVESTRE (1899–1940). Mexican composer, musician, and educator. A child prodigy as a violinist, Silvestre Revueltas studied composition with Rafael J. Tello in Mexico and Felix Borowski in the United States. He performed violin and piano recitals with Carlos Chávez in the mid-1920s and served as Chávez’s assistant conductor with the Orquesta Sinfónica de México (1929–1935); in the 1930s, he taught violin and composition at the Conservatorio Nacional. Revueltas had a brief creative arc, his mature music spanning from 1930 to 1940, when he died of pneumonia in Mexico City at age 40. Although he composed noteworthy chamber music (four string quartets, 1930–1932; Three Pieces for Violin and Piano, 1932) and songs for voice and piano (Ranas, El Tecolete, 1937; Siete Canciones, 1938), Revueltas’s real forte was the orchestra. Bitonal qualities and a lively rhythmic sensibility invigorate his use of Indian and mestizo materials in a series of orchestral works, starting with Cuauhnáhuac (1930), Esquinas (1930), Ventanas (1931), Alcancías (1932), and Colorines (1933). With Janitzio (1933, rev. 1936) and Danza Geométrica (1934), Revueltas’s music became more ag-

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gressively percussive and modernist. The mournful Homenaje a García Lorca (1936) for chamber orchestra included an expressive use of glissandi and dissonance; the compressed Tres Sonetos (1938) for 10 instruments featured darker and more sustained sonorities. Sensemayá (1937, rev. 1938), his best-known score, brought Afro-Cuban qualities into his music. Revueltas also composed several film scores, most notably for Redes (1935) and La noche de los mayas (1939). See also GARLAND, PETER (1952– ). REYNOLDS, ROGER (1934– ). American composer and educator. Roger Reynolds studied composition with Ross Lee Finney and Roberto Gerhard. He was a founding member of the ONCE Group, for which he wrote his first major work, The Emperor of Ice Cream (1962, rev. 1974), scored in graphic notation for eight voices, contrabass, piano, and percussion. His other important pieces from these years include Quick Are the Mouths of Earth (1965) for chamber ensemble, Blind Men (1966) for 24 voices and chamber ensemble, and Threshold (1967) for orchestra. Reynolds also excelled in electroacoustic music with . . . between . . . (1968) for orchestra and electronics; Traces (1969) for solo piano, flute, cello, electronics, and tape; and “. . . from behind the unreasoning mask” (1975) for trombone, percussionist and assistant, and tape. In the 1979 pieces Less Than Two for two pianos and two percussionists and “. . . the serpent-snapping eye” for trumpet, piano, and percussion, computers generated electronic music. Some of Reynolds’s electroacoustic works are multimedia: Ping (1968) for flute, piano, percussion, electronics, tape, slides, and film; I/O: A Ritual for 23 Performers (1970); The Palace (1980) for baritone, tape, and lighting; Vertigo (1985) for computer-processed sound and video. He has also composed spatial pieces: The Red Act Arias (1997) for narrator, chorus, orchestra, and computer-processed sound; 22 (2005) for computer-processed sound. His later music includes Dreaming (1992) for orchestra and tape; Aspiration (2005) for violin and chamber orchestra; The Image Machine (2005) and AngelSpace (2010) for real-time interactive computer music; not forgotten (2007–2010) for string quartet; george WASHINGTON (2013) for three narrators, orchestra, video, and electronics; and Shifting/Drifting (2015) for violin and computer. The author of Mind Models: New Forms of Musical Experience (1975, rev. 2005) and Form and Method: Composing Music (2002), Reynolds has taught at the University of California at San Diego since 1969; his students include David Lang, Anna Thorvaldsdottir, and Bun-Ching Lam. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); ATONALITY; NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997); POSTMODERNISM; PROPORTIONAL NOTATION; SOLLBERGER, HARVEY (1938– ).

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RIEGGER, WALLINGFORD (1885–1961). American composer, musician, and educator. Wallingford Riegger studied cello at the Institute of Musical Art (now Juilliard) in New York; he also studied at the Hochschule für Musik in Berlin with Max Bruch and at the Cincinnati Conservatory. A cellist with the St. Paul Symphony Orchestra (1910–1913), Riegger conducted opera and orchestral concerts in Germany (1914–1916); in the United States, he pseudonymously wrote numerous commercial choral arrangements. He taught at numerous institutions, including Drake University, the Ithaca Conservatory, and the New School for Social Research; his students include George Gershwin, Henry Brant, Morton Feldman, David Behrman, Robert Ashley, and Joan Tower. Impressionism impacted Riegger’s music in such works as Blue Voyage (1927) for piano, but a more modernist approach to tonality, dissonance, and texture emerged in A Study in Sonority (1927) for 10 violins or multiples of 10. He studied dodecaphony with Adolph Weiss and began using twelve-tone techniques in his Suite for Flute Alone (1930) and Dichotomy (1932) for chamber orchestra. Riegger’s later scores include String Quartets Nos. 1 (1938) and 2 (1949), Music for Brass Choir (1949), Wind Quintet (1951), and Symphonies Nos. 3 (1947, rev. 1957) and 4 (1956). See also ATONALITY; BECKER, JOHN J. (1886–1961); COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965). RIHM, WOLFGANG (1952– ). German composer and educator. Wolfgang Rihm studied with Karlheinz Stockhausen and Klaus Huber. He has taught at the Musikhochschule of Karlsruhe; his students include Rebecca Saunders. A modernist whose music features expressionist and neoromantic qualities, Rihm found success with his chamber opera Jakob Lenz (1978) and such music-theater works as Die Hamletmaschine (1986), Oedipus (1987), Die Eroberung von Mexico (1991), and Dionysos (2010); he also scored the film Das schöne irre Judenmädchen (1984). A prolific composer, Rihm is especially admired for his Piano Pieces (1970–1980), 13 numbered string quartets (1970–2011), and his series of Chiffre instrumental works (1983–1988), Fetzen chamber scores (1999–2004), and Verwandlung orchestral pieces (2002–2008). Rihm’s other notable 21st-century works include Jagden und Formen (2001) for small orchestra; Memoria (2004) for soloists, mixed chorus, and small orchestra; Nähe fern (2012) for orchestra; and Double Concerto (2015) for violin, cello, and orchestra. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ). RILEY, TERRY (1935– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Terry Riley took violin and piano lessons as a boy; he studied composition with Wendall Otey at San Francisco State University and with Seymour Shifrin at the University of California at Berkeley; he also studied privately

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with Robert Erickson. In the late 1950s, Riley as pianist formed an improvising trio with Pauline Oliveros (French horn) and Loren Rush (string bass and koto). Soon he was playing saxophone as well as composing tape music such as his dance score The Five-Legged Stool (1960); he also performed on tape-delay system with jazz trumpeter Chet Baker. All this work fed into Riley’s epochal In C (1964) for large ensemble, a minimalist classic that used repeated patterns, with the musicians selecting the number of repetitions. The Keyboard Studies (1965) also had improvisation with repetitive thematic materials. Riley played in La Monte Young’s Theater of Eternal Music in the mid-1960s; he also began performing internationally as an improviser on soprano saxophone and electronic keyboards, as documented in his LPs Poppy Nogood and the Phantom Band (1967) and A Rainbow in Curved Air (1968). In 1970, he became a disciple of the North Indian master singer Pandit Pran Nath; he also scored his first film that year, Beverly and Tony Conrad’s Straight and Narrow. Riley used just-intonation tunings in the electronic-keyboard LPs Shri Camel (1978) and The Descending Moonshine Dervishes (1982), as well as in his composition for retuned piano, The Harp of New Albion (1984). He blended raga and Western techniques, singing and playing electronic keyboards in Song from the Old Country (1980) and The Ethereal Time Shadow (1982), and in sets with his multicultural band Khayal. Encouraged by the Kronos Quartet, Riley returned to composing scores for musicians with his string-quartet works Sunrise of the Planetary Dream Collector (1981), Cadenza on the Night Plain (1984), and Salome Dances for Peace (1986). These in turn led him to the orchestra: The Jade Palace Orchestral Dances (1989), The Sands (1991) with string quartet, June Buddhas (1991) with mixed chorus. His notable recent works include ArchAngels (2003) for eight cellos; The Cusp of Magic (2004) for string quartet and pipa; Aleph (2008) for synthesizer; At the Royal Majestic (2013) for organ and orchestra; and Dark Queen Mantra (2015) for electric guitar and string quartet. Riley has taught at such institutions as Stockholm’s Royal Academy of Music, New York University, and Mills College; his students include Beth Anderson, Rhys Chatham, and Peter Gordon. See also ASHLEY, ROBERT (1930–2014); THE BEATLES; CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ENO, BRIAN (1948– ); KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); POSTMODERNISM. RISSET, JEAN-CLAUDE (1938–2016). French composer, musician, and educator. Jean-Claude Risset studied composition with André Jolivet and worked at Bell Labs with Max Mathews. A pioneer in using computers to create electronic music, Risset produced such notable works as Computer Suite from “Little Boy” (1968) and Mutations (1969), and he developed methods for synthesizing the sound of a trumpet. He taught at the Université

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d’Aix-Marseille and was director of computer music at the Institut de Recherche et de Coordination Acoustique/Musique (1975–1979). Risset composed musique concrète (Songes, 1979; Sud, 1985; Invisible Irène, 1995) and a variety of electroacoustic scores: Mutations II (1973) for ensemble and electronics, Inharmonique (1977) for soprano and tape, Passages (1982) for flute and tape, Dérives (1985) for mixed chorus and tape, Trois études en duo (1991) for Disklavier and computer, Variants (1994) for violin and digital processing, Échappées (2004) for Celtic harp and computer. The quartet for Aventure de lignes (1981) includes two ondes martenots. Risset scored the 1978 ballet Distances and Lillian Schwartz’s animated films Mutations (1973), Newtonian I (1978), Newtonian II (1978), and Reflections (1994). Also respected are Risset’s instrumental compositions: the orchestral scores Prélude (1963), Phases (1988), and Escalas (2001); the piano works Trois instantanés (1965), Filtres IV (1986), Rounds (1990), and Tri-IX (2002); Glissements (1982) for four to eight players; Filtres I (1984) for two pianos; Filtres II (1986) for flute and piano; Trois Esquisses (1988) for organ; Reflets (1991) for 15 players; and Triptyque (1991) for clarinet and orchestra. See also MODERNISM. ROCHBERG, GEORGE (1918–2005). American composer and educator. George Rochberg studied with George Szell and Leopold Mannes at the Mannes School of Music (1939–1942), and with Rosario Scalero and Gian Carlo Menotti at the Curtis Institute of Music (1945–1948). He also studied at the University of Pennsylvania and subsequently taught there (1960–1983); his students include Maryanne Amacher. Rochberg’s early tonal scores include Trio for Clarinet, Horn, and Piano (1947, rev. 1980), Symphony No. 1 (1948, rev. 1977, 2003), and Night Music (1949) for orchestra. His first twelve-tone work was Twelve Bagatelles (1952) for piano, and he achieved distinction with this method in his Chamber Symphony for Nine Instruments (1953), Serenata d’estate (1955) for six instruments, Symphony No. 2 (1956), and String Quartet No. 2 (with soprano, 1961). In 1964, Rochberg experienced a personal tragedy that triggered an aesthetic crisis: His grief at the death of his 20-year-old son Paul revealed to him his own dissatisfaction with modernism and the expressive limits of his serial composition. Rochberg collaged music in Contra Mortem et Tempus (1965) for flute, clarinet, violin, and piano; Music for the Magic Theater (1965) for orchestra; Nach Bach (1966) for harpsichord or piano; and Passions (According to the 20th Century) (1967) for singers, jazz quintet, brass ensemble, percussion, piano, and tape. He contrasted cultures and expressed feelings of wonder, loss, and nostalgia through his quotations of music by Johann Sebastian Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven,

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Gustav Mahler, Edgard Varèse, and Anton Webern. In Symphony No. 3 (1969), Rochberg included tonal methods; the Violin Concerto (1974, rev. 2001) alternated and combined tonal and atonal structures. Quotation freed up Rochberg to compose neoromantic music in the style of earlier composers in his String Quartet No. 3 (1972) and the three “Concord” String Quartets (Nos. 4, 1977; 5, 1977; and 6, 1978). Electrikaleidoscope (1972) for amplified chamber ensemble used elements of rock music, but by the late 1970s, Rochberg’s music had become more homogeneous and tonal. His later works include the Herman Melville opera The Confidence Man (1982), Oboe Concerto (1984), Symphony No. 5 (1985), Clarinet Concerto (1996), and Eden: Out of Time and Out of Space (1998) for guitar and chamber ensemble. See also POSTMODERNISM. ROLDÁN, AMADEO (1900–1939). French-born Cuban composer and musician. Born in Paris of Cuban parents, Amadeo Roldán y Gardes entered the Madrid Conservatory at age five and studied violin. He returned to Cuba in 1919 and became concertmaster of Havana’s Orquesta Filarmonica in 1924 and its conductor in 1932; he also taught at the Havana Conservatory and founded the Havana String Quartet. Roldán’s composition was groundbreaking in its use of Afro-Cuban music, with such works as Tres Pequeños Poemas (1926) for orchestra; the ballet scores La Rebambaramba (1928) and El Milagro de Anaquillé (1929); Tres Toques (1931) for chamber orchestra; and Motivos de Son (1934) for voice and 11 instruments. Polyrhythmic qualities inform his six Ritmicas (1930), the first four of which were scored for five winds and piano; the last two were for percussion ensemble—another breakthrough in 20th-century music. Roldán’s Piezas infantiles (1937) for piano was his last composition; stricken with cancer, he died in Havana at age 38. See also MODERNISM. ROREM, NED (1923– ). American composer, musician, educator, and critic. A skilled pianist, Ned Rorem studied composition with Virgil Thomson and Aaron Copland, among others; he also attended the Curtis Institute and later taught there. His 1947 works Four Madrigals for mixed chorus and The Lordly Hudson for voice and piano won respect, and in 1949, he went to France to study with Arthur Honegger. Rorem lived in Paris until 1958; his works from these years include Cycle of Holy Songs (1951) for voice and piano and Four Dialogues (1954) for two voices and two pianos. A melodic and tonal composer, he wrote some of his best music back in the United States: Eagles (1958) for orchestra; Two Poems of Theodore Roethke (1959) for voice and piano; Trio (1960) for flute, cello, and piano; Lions (1963) for orchestra; Poems of Love and the Rain (1963) for mezzo-soprano and piano; and the opera Miss Julie (1965, rev. 1978).

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In 1966, Rorem published diaries that he’d kept in Paris, generating acclaim and controversy with his witty articulate prose, peppered with his provocative comments on matters aesthetic, political, and sexual. Diaries he had written afterward in New York were released the following year. Subsequent volumes include The Later Diaries (1974) and Lies (2000); an autobiography, Knowing When to Stop, appeared in 1993. Among his collections of music criticism are Setting the Tone (1983) and Settling the Score (1988). Rorem solidified his reputation as a master composer of art song with such works as Some Trees (1968) for three voices and piano; Ariel (1971) for soprano, clarinet, and piano; Last Poems of Wallace Stevens (1972) for voice, cello, and piano; and Women’s Voices (1976) for soprano and piano. His instrumental music also continued to impress, with Air Music (1972) for orchestra, A Quaker Reader (1976) for organ, and Sunday Morning (1977) for orchestra. Rorem’s notable later works include Pilgrim Strangers (1984) for six male voices, String Symphony (1985), String Quartets Nos. 3 (1991) and 4 (1994), Piano Concerto No. 4 (1993, for the left hand), Evidence of Things Not Seen (1997) for four voices and piano, Cello Concerto (2002), Concerto for Mallet Instruments (2004), and the opera Our Town (2005). See also MODERNISM. ROSLAVETS, NIKOLAI (1881–1944). Russian composer, musician, and critic. Nikolai Andreyevich Roslavets played violin from boyhood in his native Ukraine and studied at the Moscow Conservatory (1901–1912). Building on Alexander Scriabin’s music, he developed atonal techniques similar to twelve-tone organization in such scores as his String Quartets No. 1 (1912), Violin Sonatas Nos. 1 (1913) and 2 (1917), and his piano music: Sonatas Nos. 1 (1914), 2 (1916), and 5 (1923); Three Compositions (1914); Three Etudes (1914); Prelude (1915); Two Compositions (1915); Two Poems (1920); and Five Preludes (1919–1922). In the Hours of the New Moon (ca. 1913) for orchestra explored new sonorities. Roslavets wrote criticism and championed modernist music, but his works were attacked as antirevolutionary and formalist, and he turned to composing socialist realist music, such as the cantata October (1927) and Komsomoliya (1928) for orchestra. But by 1930, he was no longer able to obtain any official position, even though he publicly renounced his earlier works. Such later scores by Roslavets as his Chamber Symphony (1935), Violin Sonata No. 6 (1940), and String Quartet No. 5 (1941) went unperformed; not until 1989 did the official suppression of his music end. ROUGH ASSEMBLAGE. This composers collective was formed around 1991 by Mark degli Antoni (1962– ), Eric Qin (1967–1993), and Norman Yamada (1962– ). All from New York’s Mannes College of Music, these

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composer/musicians shared a postmodern interest in pop-music forms, minimalist procedures, noise, densities, and performance freedoms, as well as a lively sense of humor. An imaginative performer on sampler, degli Antoni included the instrument in his duo with percussion Mit Starken Schlägen Streckt’ Ich Dich and his sextet Ring ’Em, both 1992 scores. Qin embraced both traditional and experimental techniques in Photographs from Edward Weston (1990) for string quartet, a five-movement work lasting seven-and-a-half minutes; Construction et Demolition (1992) for two percussionists; and Music for Dancing #1–4, 5 (1993), a group of short and elegant piano works. Encouraged by John Cage, Qin utilized open structures in his 1991 scores Februarys for solo viola, Music in Grey for six musicians, and Tortoise for piano. Yamada employed pointillistic effects in Mundane Dissatisfactions (1991) for brass quintet and Year One (1993) for guitar, bass, and two percussionists; he also conducted many Rough Assemblage concerts. The collective was terminated after the death of Eric Qin in 1993 at age 25; he was struck and killed by an automobile while riding his bicycle. Degli Antoni played in the rock band Soul Coughing (1992–2000) as Mark De Gli Antoni and has created numerous film scores. Yamada’s later works were released on the CD Being and Time (1998). ROUSSEL, ALBERT (1869–1937). French composer, musician, and educator. Albert Roussel studied with Vincent d’Indy at the Schola Cantorum (1898–1907); he also taught there (1902–1914), and his students include Erik Satie, Edgard Varèse, and Bohuslav Martinu. Working within an impressionist idiom, Roussel found his own voice in such works as Évocations (1911) for soloists, chorus, and orchestra; the orchestral Suite from Le festin de l’araignée (1912); and the opera Padmâvatî (1918), which drew upon Indian music. His later neoclassical works became his most admired scores: Suite in F (1926) for orchestra, the ballet scores Bacchus et Ariane (1930) and Aeneas (1935), Symphony No. 3 (1930), String Quartet (1932), Symphony No. 4 (1934), and String Trio (1937). See also MODERNISM; MULTICULTURALISM. RUDERS, POUL (1949– ). Danish composer and musician. Poul Ruders studied organ at the Danish National Academy of Music and composition with Ib Nørholm. Respected for such early scores as Piano Sonatas Nos. 1 (1970) and 2 (1982), Pavane (1971) for orchestra, and String Quartet No. 3 (1979), Ruders won acclaim with his orchestral works Manhattan Abstraction (1982), Thus Saw Saint Joan (1984), Symphonies Nos. 1 (1989) and 2 (1996), and his Solar Trilogy (Gong, 1992; Zenith, 1993; Corona, 1995). He also found success in opera with Tycho (1986), The Handmaid’s Tale (1998), Kafka’s Trial (2003), Selma Jezková (2007), and The Thirteenth

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Child (2016). After the Edgar Allan Poe song The City in the Sea (1990) for contralto and orchestra, Ruders returned to Poe in chamber settings for soprano and instruments: Alone (1992), The Bells (1993), and Dreamland (2010). Quotation characterizes his orchestral scores Concerto in Pieces (1995), Handel Variations (2009), and Group Portrait with Smetana (2014). Ruders’s notable recent works include his score for the film Opbrud (2005); Symphonies Nos. 3 (2006), 4 (2008), and 5 (2013); String Quartet No. 4 (2012); and Clarinet Quintet (2014). See also MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); MODERNISM. RUDHYAR, DANE (1895–1985). French-born American composer and musician. Born in Paris, Daniel Chennevière began playing piano at age seven; at age 18, he published some of his impressionist piano music and the book Claude Debussy et son oeuvre. That year he also heard Igor Stravinsky’s Le sacre du printemps and began composing dissonant, polytonal orchestral music. He immigrated to the United States in 1916 and changed his name to Dane Rudhyar; he became a U.S. citizen in 1926. His modernist orchestral works Three Metochoric Poems, Poèmes ironiques, and Vision végétale were performed in New York in 1917, and Rudhyar began investigating the music of Alexander Scriabin. He also studied Indian, Japanese, and Chinese music as well as Eastern and occult philosophy, and he lectured on and wrote about modernist and Eastern music. His book The Rebirth of Hindu Music was published in India in 1928. Interested in densities and resonances, Rudhyar scored The Surge of Fire (1924) for small orchestra with three pianos. He then stepped away from tonality and composed his best-known piano music: Pentagrams Nos. 1–4 (1924–1926), Tetragrams Nos. 2–8 (1924–1929), Three Paeans (1925–1927), and Granites (1929). These atonal works employed rhythmic patterns derived from speech and a resonant textural approach that included tone-clusters and made the piano sound like gongs and bells. Rudhyar performed at the piano in these years, as both composer and improviser, and he found support from such American composers as Henry Cowell, Ruth Crawford, and Charles Ives. He also composed the orchestral scores Five Stanzas (1927) for string orchestra, Sinfonietta (1928, rev. 1979), Desert Chant (1932), and Threshold of Light (1934). Rudhyar’s music became more sporadic due to health problems and the demands of his other creative pursuits—he was also a painter, poet, novelist, and author of many books on astrology. After he turned 80, composition became his primary focus with such piano works as Transmutation (1976), Three Cantos (1977), Rites of Transcendence (1981), and Processional (1983); Encounter (1977) for piano and orchestra; two string quartets (1978, 1979); Cosmic Cycle (1981) for orchestra; and the quintet Nostalgia (1983). He created orchestral works, such as The Warrior (1921/1976) and Poems of

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Youth (1921–1933/1983–1984), from earlier scores, and he wrote the book The Magic of Tone and the Art of Music (1982). Rudhyar died in San Francisco at age 90. See also BEYER, JOHANNA M. (1888–1944); BRANCA, GLENN (1948–2018); DEBUSSY, CLAUDE (1862–1918); FINE, VIVIAN (1913–2000); MULTICULTURALISM; PLEROMA. RUGGLES, CARL (1876–1971). American composer, musician, and educator. This groundbreaking modernist, whose atonal music was championed by Henry Cowell, Nicolas Slonimsky, Edgard Varèse, John J. Becker, and Charles Ives, was born Charles Sprague Ruggles in Marion, Massachusetts. He played the violin from boyhood and, in the late 1890s, began studying privately with John Knowles Paine and others. Ruggles’s earliest compositions were songs for voice and piano in a late-Romantic style. He reviewed concerts for newspapers and played in theater orchestras in the early 1900s. Adopting the first name Carl, he relocated to Winona, Minnesota, in 1907 and taught violin at the Mar d’Mar School of Music. The next year Ruggles founded the Winona Symphony Orchestra, for which he was music director and conductor (1908–1917). In 1912, he began writing an opera based on Gerhart Hauptmann’s play The Sunken Bell but abandoned the project after a few years. Ruggles eventually destroyed almost all his early scores, but surviving sketches of The Sunken Bell show his growing use of dissonance and tonal ambiguity; so do the 1918 sketches of Mood for violin and piano (completed in 1975 by John Kirkpatrick). Ruggles embraced this more aggressive direction in his first mature work, Toys for soprano and piano (1919), a setting of his own text. By then, he was in New York as organizer and director of the Rand School of Social Science’s symphony orchestra (1918–1921). He joined the International Composers’ Guild in 1922, and that year one of his finest works, Angels for six muted trumpets, was premiered at a Guild concert. This brief dense piece, even more dissonant than Toys, was originally composed in 1921 as part of a symphonic poem titled Men and Angels, which was never completed. Instead Ruggles produced three short atonal scores, premiered by the Guild, in which he refined his personal approach to dissonant polyphony and developed techniques similar to Arnold Schoenberg’s twelve-tone method. Vox clamans in deserto (1923) was a trio of songs for mezzo-soprano and 14 instruments. The dramatic Men and Mountains (1924) for 18 instruments followed, highlighted by its slow movement “Lilacs” for seven strings. Ruggles further elaborated on that idiom with his visionary Portals for 12 strings (1926). All these works are imbued with Ruggles’s passionate mystical spirit and sense of awe and grandeur and mystery—qualities that epitomize his masterpiece, the apocalyptic Sun-Treader for orchestra (1933). His most extreme and exacting achievement in the realm of dissonant counterpoint, Sun-Treader, at 16 minutes, is his lengthiest composition as well. A ferocious perfec-

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tionist, Ruggles would labor for years over a score, and he often revised his music. He spent a decade working on the four chants of Evocations for piano (1934–1943), which he also orchestrated during the 1940s. He revised Men and Mountains for full symphony orchestra in 1935, and he recast Angels for four muted trumpets and three muted trombones in 1938. Organum (1945), his last orchestral work, was also rescored for two pianos in 1947. Ruggles was in his early 70s by then, and the intensity of his vision had receded. In 1957, he lost Charlotte Snell Ruggles, his wife of almost 50 years; in her honor, he composed Exaltation (1958), a 16-measure wordless hymn in G Major. Ruggles entered a nursing home in Bennington, Vermont, in 1966, and he died there of pneumonia five years later at age 95. See also COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006). RUSSELL, ARTHUR (1951–1992). American composer and musician. Arthur Russell studied at the Ali Akbar Khan School and the Manhattan School of Music. A cellist and vocalist, Russell worked in pop and avant-garde idioms; he blended the two for the songs of his albums World of Echo (1986) and Another Thought (1994). Among his minimalist compositions are Reach One (1973) for two Fender Rhodes pianos and the orchestral scores Instrumentals, Volumes 1 and 2 (1974) and Tower of Meaning (1981). He also worked with such composer/musicians as Elodie Lauten, Rhys Chatham, Julius Eastman, and Peter Gordon. Russell died at age 40 of complications from AIDS. See also NIBLOCK, PHILL (1933– ); POSTMODERNISM. RUSSELL, GEORGE (1923–2009). American composer, musician, educator, and theorist. A jazz drummer in the early 1940s, George Russell turned to composition and conducting with his theory of modal tonality, set forth in his influential book The Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization (1953; 4th ed., 2001); he also taught at the New England Conservatory of Music (1969–2004). Russell drew upon the music of Charlie Parker and Igor Stravinsky in “A Bird in Igor’s Yard” (1949), blending jazz and modernist techniques. In the 1960s, he began using aleatoric scoring methods in his notation and creating his polyrhythmic “Vertical Form” scores, which include Othello Ballet Suite (1967) and Vertical Form VI (1976) for jazz orchestra. Among his notable recordings are The Jazz Workshop (1956), The African Game (1983), and It’s about Time (1995). See also SCHULLER, GUNTHER (1925–2015). RUSSELL, WILLIAM (1905–1992). American composer and musician. Russell William Wagner took violin lessons as a boy and attended the Quincy Conservatory of Music in Illinois. He relocated to New York in 1928, where he changed his name to William Russell. Impressed by a performance

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of African drumming, Russell composed his first modernist work, Fugue for Eight Percussion Instruments (1932), in which he treated rhythmic themes contrapuntally and featured tone-clusters. His subsequent scores, all for percussion ensemble, relied more on pop and jazz. Three Dance Movements (1933) had rhythmic reinventions of popular forms: “Waltz” in 7/4, “March” in 3/4, “Foxtrot” in 5/4. Marches were also reworked in Russell’s five-movement March Suite (1936, rev. 1984). Multiculturalism is another postmodern anticipation in Russell’s percussion music. A 1932 trip to Haiti led to his Ogou Badagri (1933), a ballet score based on Haitian voodoo rites. For performances of Three Cuban Pieces (1935, aka Studies in Cuban Rhythms), Russell had to supply some of the more exotic percussion instruments such as a marimbula and a rattling quijada, or jawbone of an ass. Made in America (1936, rev. 1990) is an ode to appropriation, scored for auto brake drums, suitcase, washboard, tin cans, lion’s roar, and a drum kit made of found objects. It was also electroacoustic and included a Baetz’s Rhythm Rotor: a mechanical device similar to Leon Theremin’s rhythmicon, which produced polyrhythmic ticks. In Chicago Sketches (1940), Russell evoked music that he had heard throughout that city, from the blues to a washboard band, and called for finger-snapping and foot-stomping from the percussionists. In 1939, he studied with Arnold Schoenberg at University of California at Los Angeles, but in the 1940s, Russell’s composition was displaced by his interest in New Orleans jazz. He founded the label American Music (1944–1957), recording and releasing more than 60 jazz records; in 1958, he became curator of Tulane University’s jazz archive. Russell returned to composition in his last years, writing a Prelude and Chorale in 1985 to precede his 1932 Fugue. In 1990, he completed his Trumpet Concerto, which he had set aside in the mid-1930s, and composed “Tango” for percussion, which he added to his 1933 work, renaming it Four Dance Movements. See also COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965). RUSSOLO, LUIGI. See FUTURISM. RYLAN, JESSICA (1974– ). American composer and musician. Jessica Rylan studied at Bard College. A performer of live and improvised electronic music, often augmented by her processed and/or natural vocals, Rylan has designed and constructed her own synthesizers. Her recordings include Interior Designs (2007) and, as the one-woman noise band Can’t, New Secret (2005) and Private Time Part 2 (2008). Among Rylan’s sound installations are Red Sky at Night, Sailor’s Delight (2002) and The Voice of the Theatre (2004). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; POSTMODERNISM.

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RZEWSKI, FREDERIC (1938– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Frederic Rzewski studied at Harvard University with Walter Piston and Roger Sessions; he also studied with Milton Babbitt and Luigi Dallapiccola. Rzewski has taught at the Yale School of Music, Mills College, and the Conservatoire Royal de Musique in Belgium. A virtuoso pianist and improviser, Rzewski cofounded MEV in 1966 and has remained a core member along with Richard Teitelbaum and Alvin Curran; he has also performed with such composer/musicians as Anthony Braxton, Gordon Mumma, and George Lewis. Among his early compositions are the minimalist Les moutons de Panurge (1969) for melody instruments, Coming Together (1971) for speaker and variable ensemble, and The People United Will Never Be Defeated (1975) for piano. The Price of Oil (1980) for voices and instruments utilized graphic notation; The Persians (1985), a musictheater piece, adopted twelve-tone methods. He also scored the film EinBlick (1987). Rzewski’s notable later scores include De Profundis (1992) for solo pianist playing and reciting; the eight-hour The Road (1995–2003) for piano; Pocket Symphony (2000) for chamber ensemble; Spells (2004) for two pianos; Peace Dances (2007) for piano; Four Hands (2012) for piano fourhands; Dreams (2012–2014) for piano; and Words (2018) for string quartet. See also THE BEATLES; CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); EASTMAN, JULIUS (1940–1990); FREE IMPROVISATION; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); POSTMODERNISM.

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S SALLINEN, AULIS (1935– ). Finnish composer, musician, and educator. Aulis Sallinen studied at the Sibelius Academy (1955–1960); he taught there from 1963 to 1976. Sallinen explored serial methods in such early scores as String Quartets Nos. 1 (1958) and 2 (1960). As his music became more tonal and dramatic, he found an international audience with his String Quartet No. 3 (1969) and Symphony No. 1 (1971). Sallinen is especially admired for his operas—The Horseman (1975), The Red Line (1978), The King Goes Forth to France (1983), Kullervo (1988), The Palace (1993), and King Lear (1999)—and his Symphonies Nos. 2–8 (1972–2001); he has also scored films. A neoromantic feeling for drama also characterizes Dies Irae (1978) and Songs of Life and Death (1994), two large-scale works for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra. Sallinen’s Chamber Music I (1975) for string orchestra led to a series of scores for soloists and strings, Chamber Music II–VIII (1976–2009). His notable recent music includes The Barabbas Dialogues (2003) for voices, narrator, and septet; Piano Quintets Nos. 1 (2004) and 2 (2008); String Quartet No. 6 (2014); and The Castle in the Water (2017) for voices, chamber ensemble, and tape. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. SALZEDO, CARLOS (1885–1961). French-born American composer, musician, and educator. Carlos Salzedo studied piano and harp at the Paris Conservatoire and settled in New York in 1909; he became a U.S. citizen in 1923. Salzedo founded the International Composers’ Guild (1921–1927) with Edgard Varèse and the modern-music magazine Eolian Review (later Eolus, 1921–1933); he founded and taught at the harp department of the Curtis Institute of Music as well as the Salzedo Harp Colony. The author of Modern Study of the Harp (1921), Salzedo was a virtuoso harpist and composed almost exclusively for that instrument, developing revolutionary extended performance techniques in such scores as Sonata (1922) for harp and piano and Concerto (1926) for harp and seven woodwinds. Salzedo’s

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notable compositions for solo harp include Ballade (1910), Variations sur un thème dans le style ancien (1911), Five Poetical Studies (1919), Scintillation (1936), and Suite of Eight Dances (1943). SAMPLING. Defined broadly, sampling is the recording of a fragment, or sample, of a sound, which is then reused in a new context. Tape music thus represents a form of sampling; so does the manipulation of phonograph records, as in the music of free improviser Christian Marclay. More specifically, sampling refers to synthesizer innovations of the late 1970s, such as the Synclavier, which incorporated computer-based technology for converting a sound into digital information that can then be altered and played. This technology became generally available by the early 1980s, with the Fairlight and the Emulator in the marketplace, and samplers soon displaced the use of tape. Notable composers of music created with sampling include Vladimir Ussachevsky, Luc Ferrari, Pauline Oliveros, David Behrman, Alvin Curran, Richard Teitelbaum, Jonathan Harvey, Frank Zappa, Meredith Monk, Charles Amirkhanian, Maggi Payne, John Adams, Joan La Barbara, Fred Frith, The Residents, Anthony Davis, Bob Ostertag, John Oswald, David Shea, Annie Gosfield, and Missy Mazzoli. See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; QUOTATION; ROUGH ASSEMBLAGE; SURREALISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. SATIE, ERIK (1866–1925). French composer and musician. An inspiration for generations of experimental composers, Satie brought a bracing humor and imagination to his music, anticipating postmodern developments such as ambient music and the use of pop materials for non-pop purposes. Eric Alfred Leslie Satie was born in Honfleur in northern France and entered the Paris Conservatoire at age 13. He accomplished little there and got out by joining the army in 1886; he then quickly got himself discharged for health reasons. Rejecting the Romantic excesses of Richard Wagner, Satie began using slow chordal progressions to achieve a static quality in his 1886 songs for voice and piano, Trois mélodies and Élégie. His four Ogives for piano, also of that year, drew on medieval plainsong, with each one written in four barless lines. By 1887, Satie had taken the first name “Erik” and was performing as a cabaret pianist; he also composed his Trois Sarabandes for piano, introducing what would be a lifelong enthusiasm for dance forms. He expanded on the Sarabandes’ modal structures and irregular phrasing in the piano scores Trois Gymnopédies (1888) and Trois Gnossiennes (1890); by replacing development with repetition, tempered by slight rhythmic alterations, he anticipated what would become a familiar minimalist technique. In both scores, Satie also evoked classical Greece with his invented terms Gymnopédie and

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Gnossienne—a conceptual wit that informs Trois Gnossiennes’ performance notations as well, which call for amazement and right thinking alongside more traditional expression markings. Trois Gnossiennes reflects Satie’s sense of new possibilities after hearing the Javanese gamelan in Paris in 1889. In the early 1890s, his neomedieval interests also became more prominent with Satie’s involvement in Rosicrucian mysticism. As official composer of the Paris Rose + Croix Temple, he took the techniques of the Ogives and Gymnopédies further, producing such important piano works as Le fils des étoiles (1891, also for flute and harps), Sonneries de la Rose + Croix (1892), Danses gothiques (1893), and the memorable Messe des pauvres (1895) for piano or organ with unison mixed chorus. Pages mystiques for piano—posthumously edited and published by Satie’s friend, the composer and pianist Robert Caby (1905–1992)—also date from these years. Satie’s cryptic humor persisted as well, and in Vexations (1893) the second of the Pages mystiques, he has a suggestion for playing the piece 840 times in succession. Satie left Rosicrucianism in the mid-1890s and began composing for wider audiences with two scores completed in 1900: Jack in the Box for piano, which was music for a pantomime, and the puppet opera Geneviève de Brabant for soloists, chorus, and piano. Despite having composed the accomplished Trois morceaux en forme de poire (1903) for piano four-hands, Satie decided at age 39 to repair the gaps in his education by enrolling in the Schola Cantorum (1905–1908). He proved a diligent pupil with Vincent d’Indy and Albert Roussel, and after graduating, he entered a new creative period, in which staticism and repetition—and bar lines and key signatures— gave way to richer bitonal harmonies, livelier rhythms, and zanier titles and commentaries. Satie wed the music hall with the concert hall, quoting popular tunes in such piano works as Embryons desséchés (1913), Chapitres tournés en tout sens (1913), and Sports et divertissements (1914). He wrote Choses vues à droite et à guache (sans lunettes) (1914) for violin and piano, and his first work for orchestra, Cinq grimaces pour “Un songe d’une nuit d’été” (1915). The music-hall and circus qualities of the Cinq grimaces dominated Satie’s 1916 ballet score Parade, which included a ragtime dance. Parade used a large orchestra with augmented percussion, including a bouteillophone of tuned bottles, as well as noises such as typing and gunfire. The young modernist composers who would be known as the Groupe des Six were drawn to the alternative that Parade represented. Although as resolutely non-Germanic and anti-academic as his friend Claude Debussy, Satie operated outside the impressionist orbit and favored the angular vitality of the cabaret over lush harmonies and textures. Parade was anything but static, yet Satie was still ignoring development, this time by using symmetrical mosaiclike structures of time units, within which he juxtaposed different musical

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blocks. This form also defines perhaps his greatest work: Socrate (1918) for one to four sopranos and piano or orchestra, with its conversational vocal lines supported by blocks of ostinati and somewhat dissonant chords. Satie foresaw the idea of ambient music with his Musique d’ameublement (“furniture music”) in 1920 and 1923. Seeking to fill in ambient sound rather than mask it, he composed asymmetrically phrased ostinati and fragments of quotations for musicians to play in public spaces. The pop sound of Parade continued with Trois petites pièces montées (1919) and La belle excentrique (1920), both for music-hall orchestra, and his 1924 dance scores Mercure and Relâche. As an interlude for Relâche, director René Clair made the classic dada short Entr’acte (1924), in which Satie appeared. His score for the film was his final composition. Suffering from cirrhosis of the liver with complications of pleurisy, Satie died in a Paris hospital at age 59. See also ABRAHAMSEN, HANS (1952– ); BARRAQUÉ, JEAN (1928–1973); BERG, CHRISTOPHER (1949– ); FUTURISM; MILHAUD, DARIUS (1892–1974); MOMPOU, FEDERICO (1893–1987); MULTICULTURALISM; POLYTONALITY; SKEMPTON, HOWARD (1947– ); SURREALISM; TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ); TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006); THEATRICAL MUSIC; THOMSON, VIRGIL (1896–1989); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ). SAUNDERS, REBECCA (1967– ). English composer and musician. Rebecca Saunders studied composition and violin at Edinburgh University; she also studied with Wolfgang Rihm at the Musikhochschule of Karlsruhe. Saunders settled in Germany and has taught at Darmstadt, the Impuls Academy in Graz, and the Hochschule für Musik, Theater, und Medien Hannover. She called for mechanical instruments in Crimson—Molly’s Song 1 (1995) for chamber ensemble plus metronomes, whistles, and three music boxes; Molly’s Song 3—Shades of Crimson (1996) for alto flute, viola, electric guitar, four radios, and music box; G and E on A (1997) for orchestra with 27 music boxes; and Chroma (2003–2013) for ensemble with 63 music boxes, a spatial piece that is recomposed for each new location where it is performed. Saunders’s other spatial music includes Stirrings Still I (2006) for five players; Stirrings Still II (2008) for six players; Murmurs (2009) for 10 instruments; Stasis (2011) for 16 soloists; and Yes (2017) for orchestra. Saunders’s multimedia stage work Insideout (2003) is a choreographic installation for 12 musicians, 19 dancers, and video. A minimalist attention to subtle shifts of pitch, timbre, and texture characterizes miniata (2004) for accordion, piano, orchestra, and mixed chorus, with slowly changing gestures and openings of silence. In choler (2004) for two pianos, Saunders features tone-clusters and string-piano techniques. Among her other notable works are Still (2011) for violin and orchestra; Fletch (2012) for string quartet; Shadow (2013) for piano; Alba (2014) for trumpet and orchestra;

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Skin (2016) for soprano and 13 instruments; and Bite (2016) for solo bass flute. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. SCAVARDA, DONALD (1928– ). American composer and musician. Donald Scavarda studied with Ross Lee Finney and Roberto Gerhard at the University of Michigan; with Philipp Jarnach in Hamburg; and with Leon Kirchner at Tanglewood. Scavarda’s In the Autumn Mountains (1959) for soprano, baritone, and chamber ensemble used twelve-tone techniques. He experimented with durational extremes in Groups for Piano (1959), five pieces separated by silences, the total lasting 55 seconds. A cofounder of the ONCE Group, Scavarda participated as pianist and conductor in their concerts in the 1960s. Sounds for Eleven (1961) for chamber orchestra is a study in the growth and decay of sonorities; Matrix for Clarinetist (1962) utilizes multiphonics, as does the multimedia Landscape Journey (1964) for clarinet, piano, and 8 mm color film. Seeking a visual music, Scavarda made the films Filmscore for Two Pianists (1962) and Greys (1963), which led him further into filmmaking; some of his graphic art is also score notation. See also ASHLEY, ROBERT (1930–2014); EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; FILM MUSIC; GRAPHIC NOTATION; MUMMA, GORDON (1935– ); POSTMODERNISM. SCELSI, GIACINTO (1905–1988). Italian composer and musician. Although he played piano and pursued some studies in Italy, Switzerland, and Germany, Giacinto Scelsi was largely self-taught. Some of his early scores used twelve-tone techniques, such as Quattro poemi (1936–1939) for piano, which quotes Alban Berg’s Piano Sonata; Scelsi’s cantata La nascita del Verbo (1948) was a dramatic piece with demanding contrapuntal scoring. But his music changed radically in his later years, into a minimalist sensibility rich in microtonal inflections. His works described a personal spiritual esotericism and were usually based on his recorded and transcribed improvisations. Most extreme was his Quattro pezzi su una nota sola (1959) for chamber orchestra, limiting each of the four pieces to expressive fluctuations in playing a single note. His other notable music includes Kya (1959) for clarinet and seven instruments; Hymnos (1963) for organ and two orchestras; String Quartet No. 4 (1964); Anahit (1965) for violin and 18 instruments; Uaxuctum (1966) for mixed chorus, chamber orchestra, and ondes martenot; Canti dei capricorno (1972) for female voice and instruments; Aitsi (1974) for amplified piano; and Dharana (1975) for cello and double bass. Scelsi also wrote such solo works as Tre Pezzi (1956) for trombone, Trilogy (1956–1965) for cello, Hô (1960) for soprano, Xnoybis (1964) for violin, Nuits (1972) for double bass, and Maknongan (1976) for bass voice or instru-

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ment. See also ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); LÉANDRE, JOËLLE (1951– ); POSTMODERNISM; QUARTER-TONE MUSIC; TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ); TONE-CLUSTER; UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). SCHAEFFER, PIERRE (1910–1995). French composer and theorist. An engineer and announcer for France’s Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française (RTF) radio network, Pierre Schaeffer created Étude aux chemins de fer in 1948 by manipulating gramophone recordings of locomotives. Calling the results musique concrète, he created other tapes using prerecorded sounds–Étude pour orchestre, Étude au piano, Étude aux casseroles, and Étude aux tourniquets—for his Cinq études de bruit (revised 1971 as Quatre études de bruit). Schaeffer’s music was broadcast in 1948, and the RTF made studio space and equipment available to him. There he collaborated with Pierre Henry on the first major musique concrète work, Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950), and in 1951, he and Henry were able to establish the Groupe de recherches de musique concrète at the RTF—the first tape-music studio. His subsequent collaborations with Henry include Bidule en ut (1950) and Orphée 53 (1953), a musique concrète opera for tape, harpsichord, and female voice. Schaeffer created such solo works as Diapason Concerto (1948), Variations sur une flûte Mexicaine (1949), L’oiseau RAI (1950), and Les paroles dégelées (1952); he also wrote a book about the new medium, À la recherche d’une musique concrète (1952). In 1958, the Groupe became the Groupe de recherches musicales (GRM), with a commitment to electrically synthesized sound as well as tape music. But by then Schaeffer was nearing the end of his involvement with composition. After his Étude aux allures (1958), Étude aux sons animés (1958), and Étude aux objets (1959), Schaeffer retired from the GRM. GRM members formed the Groupe solfège to pursue musical experiments based on Schaeffer’s phenomenological theories, and he compiled the results in his book Traité des objets musicaux (1966). Schaeffer, Guy Reibel, and Beatriz Ferreyra created a two-hour musique concrète piece, Solfège de l’objet sonore, issued in 1967 as an extension of the Traité. Schaeffer’s work in psycho-acoustic research led to his final musique concrète work, Le trièdre fertile (1975), and Bilude (1979) for harpsichord or piano and tape. See also ACOUSMATIC MUSIC; ATONALITY; BARRAQUÉ, JEAN (1928–1973); BOULEZ, PIERRE (1925–2016); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; MESSIAEN, OLIVIER (1908–1992); MODERNISM; RADIGUE, ÉLIANE (1932– ); STOCKHAUSEN, KARLHEINZ (1928–2007); VARÈSE, EDGARD (1883–1965); XENAKIS, IANNIS (1922–2001).

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SCHAFER, R. MURRAY (1933– ). Canadian composer and educator. R. Murray Schafer studied at the Royal Conservatory of Music and the University of Toronto. His early neoclassical compositions include Concerto for Harpsichord and Eight Wind Instruments (1955) and Sonatina for Flute and Harpsichord or Piano (1958); he employed serial methods in Canzoni for Prisoners (1962) for orchestra and Requiems for the Party Girl (1962) for voice and chamber orchestra. A Gebrauchsmusik spirit informs Schafer’s use of graphic notation in Statement in Blue (1964) for beginner’s orchestra and Minimusic (1969) for any small combination of singers or instrumentalists. The electroacoustic music-theater work Loving (1965) led Schafer to his epic 12-part cycle Patria (1966–2002); his other multimedia works include the two-part Apocalypsis (1976–1977). Among Schafer’s mystical scores are From the Tibetan Book of the Dead (1968) for soprano, mixed chorus, flute, clarinet, and tape; the theatrical Music for the Morning of the World (1970) for soprano and tape, which also employs quotation; the microtonal Arcana (1972) for voice and orchestra; The Death of the Buddha (1988) for mixed chorus; and the spatial Vox Naturae (1997) for three choruses. Schafer taught at Simon Fraser University (1965–1975); his students include John Oswald. In 1969, Schafer set up the World Soundscape Project to study people’s relationships with their acoustic environments. He combined landscapes with musicians in Music for the Wilderness Lake (1979) for 12 trombones, Sun Father, Earth Mother (1984) for solo voice, and Musique pour le parc Lafontaine (1992) for four concert bands. Schafer has also written 12 string quartets (1970–2012); his notable later works include Thunder: Perfect Mind (2003) for mezzo-soprano and orchestra, Isfahan (2006) for three brass quintets, and Duo for Violin and Piano (2008). A scholar of the compositions and music criticism of Ezra Pound, Schafer is the author of On Canadian Music (1984), Voices of Tyranny, Temples of Silence (1993), and other books. See also EASTMAN, JULIUS (1940–1990); ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; POSTMODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC; WESTERKAMP, HILDEGARD (1946– ). SCHILLINGER, JOSEPH (1895–1943). Russian-born American composer, educator, and theorist. A student of the Petrograd Conservatory, Joseph Schillinger immigrated to the United States in 1928 and became a U.S. citizen in 1936. He taught at the New School for Social Research and Columbia University Teacher’s College; his students include Mel Powell, George Gershwin, Tommy Dorsey, Glenn Miller, and Benny Goodman. Schillinger developed a mathematical system of composition, using melody, harmony, rhythm, and orchestration in geometric relationships. But he wrote few works in the United States: North Russian Symphony (1930), the ballet score The

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People and the Prophet (1931), and Study in Rhythm I (1935) for piano. He also composed for theremin, with orchestra in First Airphonic Suite (1929); piano in Melody (1929) and Mouvement électrique et pathétique (1932); and piano and voice in Bury Me, Bury Me Wind (1930). His books The Schillinger System of Musical Composition (1946) and The Mathematical Basis of the Arts (1948) were compiled and published after Schillinger’s death in New York from lung cancer at age 47. Other composer/musicians who have employed Schillinger’s methods include Earle Brown and Muhal Richard Abrams. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; MODERNISM. SCHNABEL, ARTUR (1882–1951). Austrian-born American composer, musician, and educator. Artur Schnabel studied piano with Theodor Leschetizky and theory with Eusebius Mandyczewski. He began touring as a virtuoso in 1896 and won acclaim as one of the era’s masters, playing classical and Romantic scores. Schnabel’s early compositions, such as his Piano Concerto (1901), were in a post-Romantic idiom, but he turned to atonality and produced such works as his Piano Quintet (1914), String Quartets Nos. 1–5 (1916–1940), String Trio (1929), Sonata for Violin and Piano (1935), Piece in Seven Movements (1937) for piano, Symphonies Nos. 1–3 (1939–1949), Two Movements for Chorus and Orchestra (1945), and solo sonatas for violin (1918), piano (1923), and cello (1931). In 1939, Schnabel immigrated to the United States; he became a U.S. citizen in 1944. He is the author of Reflections on Music (1934), Music and the Line of Most Resistance (1942), and My Life and Music (1961). Schnabel’s piano students include Leon Fleisher, Alexis Weissenberg, and Dika Newlin. See also BUHLIG, RICHARD (1880–1952); KORNGOLD, ERICH WOLFGANG (1897–1957); MODERNISM; WEBER, BEN (1916–1979); ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). SCHNITTKE, ALFRED (1934–1998). Russian composer, musician, and educator. Alfred Schnittke studied piano at the Moscow Conservatory (1953–1961) and taught there from 1962 to 1972. He used twelve-tone techniques in such works as Music for Piano and Chamber Orchestra (1964) and composed electronic music with Stream (1969). A penchant for humor and quotation led Schnittke to collage different musical styles in Violin Sonata No. 2 (1968), Symphony No. 1 (1972), and other scores. His Piano Quintet (1976), which featured microtonal tone-clusters, was more stylistically unified, as were the darker and more introspective works written after his health began to deteriorate, such as String Quartet No. 4 (1989) and Symphony No. 6 (1992). In 1990, Schnittke relocated to Germany; he died in Hamburg of a stroke at age 63. His many compositions include Symphonies Nos. 0–8 (1957–1995), four violin concertos (1957–1984), four string quartets

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(1966–1989), six Concerti Grossi (1977–1994), and three operas (Life with an Idiot, 1992; Gesualdo, 1993; Historia von D. Johann Fausten, 1994); he also composed numerous film scores. See also MODERNISM. SCHOENBERG, ARNOLD (1874–1951). Austrian-born American composer, musician, educator, and theorist. One of the great modernists, Schoenberg defined the seismic shift away from tonality and developed the widely used method of twelve-tone composition. Born in Vienna, Arnold Franz Walter Schönberg started violin lessons in 1882, was composing at age eight, and taught himself the cello; but in 1890, he was compelled to leave school and work as a bank clerk to help support his family. Not until 1895 did Schönberg quit the bank and fully devote himself to music, despite having no formal education other than his lessons with Alexander von Zemlinsky in 1893. Immersed in the work of Johannes Brahms, Schönberg composed his (unnumbered) String Quartet in D Major in 1897; but the greater chromaticism and ambiguous tonality of Richard Wagner also had a profound impact on him, reflected in the programmatic and expressive Verklärte Nacht (1899) for string sextet, which became his most popular score (especially in his version for string orchestra, arranged in 1917 and revised in 1944). The post-Romantic sensibility of Verklärte Nacht also characterized Schönberg’s symphonic poem Pelleas und Melisande (1903) and String Quartet No. 1 (1905). By then, he was receiving encouragement from Richard Strauss and Gustav Mahler; he had also begun teaching private composition students, among them Alban Berg, Anton Webern, and Egon Wellesz. Schönberg’s ongoing relationship, professional and personal, with Berg and Webern led to their being identified as the “Second Viennese School.” In Schönberg’s Chamber Symphony No. 1 (1906), the tonal center became unclear; it was even more elusive in the dissonant String Quartet No. 2 (1908), which included a soprano. In 1909, he completed four major scores in a fully atonal and dissonant idiom: Das Buch der hängenden Gärten for voice and piano, Three Piano Pieces, the monodrama Erwartung for soprano and orchestra, and Five Orchestral Pieces (rev. 1949). After this extraordinary burst of creativity, Schönberg came to be regarded as the leading exponent of expressionist music, even though in 1911 he completed a treatise on tonal harmony, Harmonielehre, and the score of Gurrelieder, a vast post-Romantic work for soloists, reciter, chorus, and orchestra, composed mostly between 1900 and 1902. Shunning the anti-Semitism and poor employment prospects in Vienna, he moved to Berlin, and there in 1912, he composed and conducted the premiere of the epochal Pierrot lunaire for soprano and quintet. This masterpiece took the vocal techniques of Sprechstimme into new realms and established Schönberg as the most important modernist composer of his day.

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After completing his one-act opera Die glückliche Hand (1913), Schönberg responded to the war in Europe by volunteering for the Austrian army in 1915. Discharged for health reasons two years later, he moved to the Viennese suburb of Mödling in 1918 and resumed teaching, accepting as pupils Hanns Eisler and Roberto Gerhard. Schönberg’s composition, however, was quiescent for several years as he developed a method for providing greater form and structure in atonality—or, as he preferred, pantonality: the shared importance and availability of all 12 tones in the chromatic scale. Schönberg introduced procedures from his twelve-tone, or dodecaphonic, method in 1923 with the Five Piano Pieces and the Serenade for baritone and septet. The Piano Suite of that year was his first completely twelve-tone score, followed by the Wind Quintet (1924). Schönberg returned to Berlin in 1926, where his students included Marc Blitzstein, Adolph Weiss, and Nikos Skalkottas. He composed more twelve-tone music with the String Quartet No. 3 (1927), Variations for Orchestra (1928), and Begleitungsmusik zu einer Lichtspielszene (1930) for orchestra. But after two years of work on the libretto and music for Moses und Aron, he was unable to complete the third act of his Old Testament opera and left the score incomplete in 1932. The rise of Nazism forced Schönberg to flee Germany; in 1933, he changed the spelling of his name to Schoenberg and relocated to the United States, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1941. He settled in Los Angeles in 1934 and taught at the University of Southern California (1934–1936) and the University of California at Los Angeles (1936–1944). Among his American students were John Cage, Leon Kirchner, Lou Harrison, Gerald Strang, Dika Newlin, Leonard Stein, William Russell, Alfred Newman, and Oscar Levant. Schoenberg adapted well to his new homeland, and America adapted well to him. His enduring reputation was established in the United States, and he brought generations of composers and musicians to a greater understanding of his music, through his work as an educator and through the force of his late compositions, in which he achieved a new mastery and eloquence. That breakthrough was unmistakable with two outstanding twelve-tone scores in 1936, the Violin Concerto and String Quartet No. 4. Schoenberg wrote noteworthy tonal music as well: Suite for String Orchestra (1934); Chamber Symphony No. 2 (1939), a work he had started in 1906; Theme and Variations for Wind Band (1943). But his dodecaphonic music, vitalized by the urgency of World War II, produced masterpieces. In 1942, he completed Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte for reciter, piano, and string quartet (or string orchestra), a denunciation of all dictators, and the evocative Piano Concerto with its subtext of displacement and endurance. Even more autobiographical was the String Trio (1946): Schoenberg suffered a near-fatal heart attack that year, and while recovering he incorporated a programmatic account of the episode into the score. A Survivor from War-

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saw (1947) for narrator, men’s chorus, and orchestra looked at the horror of genocide during the war. Although his health declined in his last years, Schoenberg’s creative vision never slackened, and he continued to explore new ground with his Phantasy for Violin with Piano Accompaniment (1949). Schoenberg died of heart failure at age 76 in his Los Angeles home. See also BARTÓK, BÉLA (1881–1945); BOULEZ, PIERRE (1925–2016); BUHLIG, RICHARD (1880–1952); COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); COWELL, HENRY (1897–1965); CRAFT, ROBERT (1923–2015); DAHL, INGOLF (1912–1970); FILM MUSIC; FORMALISM; KOLISCH, RUDOLF (1896–1978); LEIBOWITZ, RENÉ (1913–1972); MILHAUD, DARIUS (1892–1974); NEOCLASSICISM; NONO, LUIGI (1924–1990); ORNSTEIN, LEO (ca. 1892–2002); RUGGLES, CARL (1876–1971); SCHULLER, GUNTHER (1925–2015); SERIALISM; SESSIONS, ROGER (1896–1985); STEUERMANN, EDWARD (1892–1964); SULTAN, GRETE (1906–2005); TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ); WEISBERG, ARTHUR (1931–2009); WUORINEN, CHARLES (1938– ); YUN, ISANG (1917–1995). SCHULLER, GUNTHER (1925–2015). American composer, musician, and educator. Gunther Schuller studied at the Manhattan School of Music (1939–1941) and later taught there (1950–1953); he also taught at Yale University (1964–1967), and his students include David Amram, Charles Dodge, Barbara Kolb, and Oliver Knussen. Schuller served as president of the New England Conservatory of Music (1967–1977) and director of the Berkshire Music Center at Tanglewood (1974–1984). He played French horn with symphony orchestras and the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra (1944–1959); he also performed with such jazz greats as Miles Davis, Gil Evans, Charles Mingus, Dizzy Gillespie, Teo Macero, and Ornette Coleman. As a conductor, Schuller achieved an international reputation, and he championed the music of such diverse composers as Mingus, Arnold Schoenberg, Duke Ellington, Scott Joplin, Robert F. Graettinger, Nikos Skalkottas, George Russell, and Milton Babbitt. In what he termed his Third Stream works, Schuller blended jazz with modernist techniques of twelve-tone organization and metric modulation: Seven Studies on Themes of Paul Klee (1959) for orchestra, Variants on a Theme of Thelonious Monk (1960) for 13 instruments, Diptych (1964) for brass quintet and orchestra, and the opera The Visitation (1965). At the same time, he was composing rigorous atonal works such as his orchestral scores Spectra (1958), Symphony (1965), Triplum I (1967), and Triplum II (1975). Schuller’s other notable compositions include Deaï (1978) for eight voices and three orchestras; Piano Trios Nos. 1–3 (1984–2012); the opera A Question of Taste (1989); Concerto for Piano Three Hands (1990); the orchestral scores Of Reminiscences and Reflections (1993), Where the Word Ends

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(2007), and Dreamscape (2012); Encounters (2003) for six voices (optional), alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, trumpet, jazz band, and orchestra; and String Quartet No. 5 (2013). The author of Early Jazz (1968), The Swing Era (1988), and The Compleat Conductor (1997), Schuller also founded the music-publishing firms Margun Music in 1975 and Gun-Mar Music in 1979, and the GM Recordings label in 1981. He died in Boston at age 89. See also WEIR, JUDITH (1954– ). SCHUMAN, WILLIAM (1910–1992). American composer, musician, and educator. William Schuman studied composition with Roy Harris at Juilliard (1936–1938); he also taught at Sarah Lawrence College (1935–1945) and served as president of Juilliard (1962–1969). Schuman composed traditional tonal music and won acclaim with his notable early scores American Festival Overture (1939) for orchestra and the Walt Whitman setting A Free Song (1942) for mixed chorus and orchestra. He brought a special feel for Americana to such works as his orchestral scores New England Triptych (1956) and American Hymn (1981); Mail Order Madrigals (1971) for mixed chorus; and the cantatas Casey at the Bat (1976), adapted from his 1953 opera The Mighty Casey, and On Freedom’s Ground (1985). Schuman’s other works include 10 symphonies (1935–1975), five string quartets (1936–1987), A Song of Orpheus (1961) for cello and orchestra, and the ballet scores Undertow (1945), Night Journey (1947), and Judith (1949). See also DEGAETANI, JAN (1933–1989); MODERNISM; PERSICHETTI, VINCENT (1915–1987). SCOTT, RAYMOND (1908–1994). American composer and musician. Classically trained pianist Raymond Scott was an original pop/jazz composer in the 1930s. He created witty and imaginative pieces for his Raymond Scott Quintette such as Powerhouse, The Toy Trumpet, and Dinner Music for a Pack of Hungry Cannibals—music that won fame when Carl Stalling featured it in his scores for the Warner Bros. cartoons of the 1940s and 1950s. Scott composed a Suite for Violin and Piano (1950), but his focus was building systems for creating electronic music—a sound prefigured by Hungry Cannibals’ uncanny muted trumpet. His Electronium, an artificial-intelligence device for musical composition and performance, anticipated computer and MIDI technology; his Clavivox adapted the theremin into a keyboard instrument. Scott’s electronic music includes the tuneful Portofino (1962) and Beautiful Little Butterfly (1986). See also FILM MUSIC; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; MODERNISM; POWELL, MEL (1923–1998); SYNTHESIZER.

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SCRATCH ORCHESTRA. Drawing on the musicians professional and non-professional who had performed Cornelius Cardew’s The Great Learning, the Scratch Orchestra was founded in 1969 by Cardew, Howard Skempton, and Michael Parsons. In its Draft Constitution, Cardew outlined the group’s areas of music making: Scratch Music, notated accompaniments written by the players and performed together; Popular Classics, performed not from scores but from memory and imagination; Improvisation Rites, verbal instructions for group improvisations, including free improvisation; Compositions, works by La Monte Young, Karlheinz Stockhausen, John Cage, and others; and Research Project, independent investigations that were experiential and non-academic. Each member could design and coordinate a concert, and between 1969 and 1970, the Scratch Orchestra gave more than 50 performances; composer/musicians who played with the Scratch Orchestra include Brian Eno and Michael Nyman. Internal contradictions within the group led to its 1971 reinvention as the Scratch Ideological Group, focusing on revolutionary political theories. See also GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; POSTMODERNISM. SCRIABIN, ALEXANDER (1872–1915). Russian composer and musician. Scriabin composed one of the most important bodies of piano music in the 20th century, and he blazed his own path from lush post-Romanticism to an extreme modernism that was heightened by his mystical sensibility. Born in Moscow, Alexander Nikolayevich Scriabin studied piano as a boy with Nikolai Zverev and was composing at an early age; by 14 he had completed, as part of his Op. 2, the impressive Étude in C-sharp Minor (1886), inspired by Frédéric Chopin. Scriabin attended the Moscow Conservatory (1888–1892), studying piano with Vassily Sofonov and composition with Anton Arensky and Sergei Taneyey, and in the late 1890s, he made a splash concertizing in Russia and Europe. His programs included works by Chopin, Franz Liszt, Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn, and Johann Sebastian Bach along with selections from his own compositions, such as the Op. 8 Études (1894) and Opp. 11 and 15 sets of Préludes, both completed in 1896—talented scores mostly after the models of Chopin and Liszt. Scriabin’s Piano Sonatas Nos. 1 (1892) and 2 (1897) were more ambitious works that featured autobiographical content, and in 1898, he began teaching piano at the Moscow Conservatory. That year his music became more pointillistic and enigmatic with Piano Sonata No. 3, “États d’âme.” He had begun writing large-scale compositions by then, and in his Piano Concerto (1897) and Symphony No. 1 (1900) for mezzo-soprano, tenor, mixed chorus, and orchestra, Scriabin’s debts to Liszt, Richard Wagner, and Pyotr Tchaikovsky are apparent. A more personal voice emerged in the tonal ambiguities of Réverie (1898) for orchestra and Symphony No. 2 (1902), both enlivened by Scriabin’s characteristic alternation of languid sensuality with energetic

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striving. That approach also characterized his Piano Sonata No. 4 (1903) and Symphony No. 3, “Le divin poème” (1904), which utilized chords based on fourths. These were also his last movement-form works; all of his subsequent music would be single-movement pieces. After quitting the Moscow Conservatory in 1903, Scriabin relocated to Europe and lived in Switzerland, France, and Belgium; he also toured the United States with success. His involvement with Theosophy in the mid1900s transformed the erotic longings of Scriabin’s music into a search for mystical ecstasy, described in two major 1907 scores: Piano Sonata No. 5, his most densely chromatic effort to date, and the sensual Le poème de l’extase (rev. 1908), written for a large orchestra with organ. Scriabin also experienced color associations with music, and he worked out a series of correspondences between pitches and colors for his finest orchestral work, Prométhée—le poème du feu (1910), which included piano and wordless mixed chorus. It was also supposed to feature a color organ that produced tones and flashes of color in synchronization, but the instrument was never realized. Both Poèmes achieved a greater concision and harmonic daring, with a broader spectrum of instrumental color, and became his most popular orchestral music. Scriabin returned to Russia in 1910, and his composition grew more radical with his last five Piano Sonatas: Nos. 6 and 7, “La Messe blanche,” from 1911, and Nos. 8, 9, and 10 from 1913. Like his orchestral music, these works moved toward compression: The total duration of all five is less than an hour. They use harsh dissonances, dense polyrhythms, extremes in register, unusual sonorities, and startling visceral arpeggios; their tonal bases can be elusive, with No. 10 approaching atonality. In these Sonatas and his other later piano music, such as Vers la flamme (1914), Scriabin was also generating and reinforcing overtones through loudness, sharpness of attack, trills, and tremolos. He had used partials in the overtone series to derive the six pitches of his Chord of the Pleroma (C, F-sharp, B-flat, E, A, D), more commonly known as the Mystic Chord, which permeates Prométhée and all his late piano music in a manner that anticipates twelve-tone procedures. For years, Scriabin had also been working on Mysterium, an apocalyptic multimedia score to be performed in India and last for days. Colors, textures, and aromas would combine with the sights and sounds of dancers, actors, singers, orchestra, and piano, and Mysterium’s performance would result in the spiritual and physical transformation of reality. Scriabin was composing The Prefatory Act, an orchestral piece to prepare the way for Mysterium, when he developed blood poisoning from an abscess and died in Moscow at age 43. In 1970, Alexander Nemtin began constructing a realization of The Prefatory Act from Scriabin’s surviving sketches and earlier music; he completed the three-hour work in 1996, scored for orchestra, soprano, mixed chorus, piano, and organ.

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Scriabin’s son Julian (1908–1919), born in Switzerland, was also prodigious, performing his father’s music when he was eight years old. He studied with Reinhold Glière at the Kiev School of Music and was composing impressive piano preludes by 1918, but he died the following year, drowning in a swimming accident in the Dnieper River at age 11. See also COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); CRAWFORD SEEGER, RUTH (1901–1953); ELECTRONIC MUSIC; FELDMAN, MORTON (1926–1987); JUST INTONATION; LOURIÉ, ARTHUR (1892–1966); MOSOLOV, ALEXANDER (1900–1973); ORNSTEIN, LEO (ca. 1892–2002): PLEROMA; PROKOFIEV, SERGEY (1891–1953); ROSLAVETS, NIKOLAI (1881–1944); RUDHYAR, DANE (1895–1985); SZYMANOWSKI, KAROL (1882–1937); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ). SCULTHORPE, PETER (1929–2014). Australian composer, musician, and educator. Peter Sculthorpe studied piano at the University of Melbourne and composition with Edmund Rubbra and Egon Wellesz at Wadham College, Oxford; he taught at the University of Sydney, Yale University, and Sussex University. Sculthorpe drew on Indonesian, Japanese, and indigenous Australian music, frequently evoking Australia’s landscape and people. He won acclaim for such works as his Sonatina for Piano (1954); Irkanda IV (1961) for solo violin, strings, and percussion; the minimalist Sun Music I–IV (1965–1969) for orchestra; and the music-theater work Rites of Passage (1973, rev. 2009). Ketjak (1972) is scored for six male voices and tape delay; Koto Music I (1973) and II (1976) for amplified piano and prerecorded tape loop. Environmental concerns are reflected in Earth Cry (1986) for orchestra and String Quartet No. 18 (2010). Other notable works by Sculthorpe include String Quartets Nos. 1–17 (1944–2007); the orchestral scores Small Town (1976), Mangrove (1979), Kakadu (1988), Great Sandy Island (1998), and Tropic (2008); the television opera Quiros (1982); Piano Concerto (1983); Requiem (2004) for mixed chorus, didgeridoo, and orchestra; and Lament (2014) for solo violin, solo cello, and strings. Sculthorpe also composed music for films and wrote the autobiography Sun Music (1999). See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM. SEEGER, CHARLES (1886–1979). Mexican-born American composer, educator, and theorist. Born in Mexico City of American parents, Charles Seeger was raised in Boston and studied at Harvard (1904–1908), where he wrote the orchestral overture The Shadowy Waters (1908). He then lived in Germany and composed the impressionistic Seven Songs (1911) for high voice and piano. Seeger taught at the University of California at Berkeley (1912–1918); his students include Henry Cowell. In these years, Seeger

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wrote his String Quartet (1913), Violin Sonata (1913), the pageants Derdra (1914) and The Queen’s Masque (1915) for orchestra and chorus, and Parthenia (1915) for orchestra. Seeger largely abandoned composition in the 1920s and turned to musicology. Johanna M. Beyer and Ruth Crawford studied with him at the end of the decade, and they composed following his modernist theories of dissonant counterpoint. Seeger and Crawford married in 1932, after which they turned away from modernism and became involved with radical left-politics, with Seeger composing the workers’ songs “Lenin! Who’s That Guy?,” “Mount the Barricades,” and “Song of the Builders” in the mid-1930s. He joined Crawford in transcribing and arranging American folk songs and contributed to Treasury of American Folklore (1943) and Folk Song U.S.A. (1947). His son from a previous marriage, Pete Seeger, became one of America’s most popular folksingers. After Crawford’s death in 1953, Seeger devoted himself to ethnomusicology. SEMEGEN, DARIA (1946– ). German-born American composer, musician, and educator. Daria Semegen came to the United States as a child and studied with Samuel Adler at the Eastman School of Music where she composed Six Plus (1965) for sextet and tape. She studied in Poland with Witold Lutoslawski and at Yale University with Alexander Goehr and Bülent Arel, her instructor in electronic music. At the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, Arel and Semegen cocomposed the 1971 score for the film Out of Into, from which they derived the piece Trill Study (1971). Semegen also created Electronic Composition No. 1 (1971) at the Center and taught there from 1971 to 1975. Since 1974, she has taught at the State University of New York at Stony Brook; her students include Anne LeBaron. Among her other electronic pieces are Arc: Music for Dancers (1977), Spectra: Electronic Composition No. 2 (1979), Epicycles: Music for Dancers (1982), and Arabesque (1992). Semegen has also composed such instrumental works as Jeux des quatres (1970) for clarinet, cello, trombone, and piano, which employs indeterminacy and extended performance techniques; Music for Violin Solo (1973); Music for Clarinet Solo (1980); Music for Contrabass Solo (1981); Rhapsody (1990) for Yamaha MIDI grand piano; and Vignette (1997) for piano. Bargello (2010) combines fixed media electronic music with improvising soloist of open instrumentation. See also CHANCE MUSIC; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. SERIALISM. Noting the importance of the fundamental series of pitches that are arranged in a set, or row, in Arnold Schoenberg’s twelve-tone method of composition, René Leibowitz began using the word serial for this music around 1947. Olivier Messiaen, Pierre Boulez, and Karlheinz

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Stockhausen narrowed its meaning just a few years later, drawing a distinction between the serial music of Anton Webern, which they saw leading to total serialism, and the dodecaphonic music of Webern’s teacher, Schoenberg. Although the word retains this connotation in German, its common usage in English, French, and Italian has been as a synonym for twelve-tone music. SESSIONS, ROGER (1896–1985). American composer and educator. Roger Sessions entered Harvard at age 14, received his degree, and then entered Yale where he studied with Horatio Parker and received another degree. In 1921, he studied with Ernest Bloch at the Cleveland Institute of Music and worked as his assistant. Sessions’s neoclassical music for the play The Black Maskers became a successful orchestral suite in 1923. Living mostly in Europe from 1926 to 1933, he wrote his Symphony No. 1 in E Minor (1927) and Piano Sonata No. 1 (1930). Back in the United States, he started teaching at Princeton in 1933 and composed his Violin Concerto in B Minor (1935), String Quartet No. 1 in E Minor (1936), Three Dirges for orchestra (1938), and From My Diary (1940) for piano. Sessions left Princeton in 1944 to teach at the University of California at Berkeley (1945–1952). There he wrote his Symphony No. 2 (1946), Piano Sonata No. 2 (1946), the one-act opera The Trial of Lucullus (1947), and String Quartet No. 2 (1951). Sessions’s music had grown increasingly chromatic, and his friendships with Arnold Schoenberg, Luigi Dallapiccola, and Milton Babbitt helped excite his interest in twelve-tone composition. He produced his first dodecaphonic work, Sonata for Solo Violin, in 1953; that same year he returned to Princeton, where he taught until 1965. Sessions adapted readily to twelvetone techniques and worked within the idiom for the rest of his life. This approach was especially congenial to his vocal writing, with such major works as Idyll of Theocritus (1954) for soprano and orchestra, the three-act opera Montezuma (1962), and the cantata When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d (1970) for soloists, chorus, and orchestra. His orchestral music also flourished: Piano Concerto (1956); Divertimento (1960); Double Concerto (1970) for violin, cello, and orchestra; Rhapsody (1970); Concerto for Orchestra (1981); and Symphonies Nos. 3–9 (1957–1979). Other scores include his String Quintet (1958), Piano Sonata No. 3 (1965), and Five Pieces for Piano (1975). Sessions is also the author of Harmonic Practice (1951), Questions about Music (1970), and The Musical Experience of Composer, Performer, Listener (1974). Several generations of composers studied with Sessions throughout his teaching career, including Babbitt, Miriam Gideon, Ross Lee Finney, Paul Bowles, Conlon Nancarrow, Vivian Fine, David Diamond, Leon Kirchner, Ursula Mamlok, Dika Newlin, Lejaren Hiller, Richard Maxfield, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Robert Helps, Peter Max-

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well Davies, David Del Tredici, Frederic Rzewski, Elaine Taaffe Zwilich, and John Adams. See also ATONALITY; DISSONANCE; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). SHAPEY, RALPH (1921–2002). American composer, musician, and educator. Ralph Shapey studied violin with Emmanuel Zetlin, conducted the Philadelphia National Youth Administration Symphony Orchestra, and studied composition with Stefan Wolpe. Shapey’s early music, which includes his first four string quartets (1946–1953) and Challenge—the Family of Man (1955) for orchestra, employed more traditional forms, but he became increasingly dissatisfied with 19th-century development techniques. Seeking a music that was fully itself, like a sculpted object, rather than an essay in growth that attains its full identity over time, Shapey worked in a more dissonant and atonal style with Ontogeny (1958) for orchestra and Evocation (1959) for violin, piano, and percussion; in Rituals (1959) for orchestra, he included improvisation. His composition matured in this direction with such major works as Incantations (1961) for soprano and 10 instruments, String Quartet No. 6 (1963), and Songs of Ecstasy (1967) for soprano, piano, percussion, and tape. In 1964, Shapey joined the University of Chicago, serving as music director of the Contemporary Chamber Players and teaching composition; his students include Paul Paccione, Ursula Mamlok, and Joan Tower. Frustrated with music publishers, audiences, musicians, and critics, Shapey declared a moratorium on all performances of his music in the late 1960s. He nevertheless continued to compose: Praise (1971) for bass-baritone, mixed chorus, and chamber orchestra; String Quartet No. 7 (1972); Fromm Variations (1973) for piano, Songs of Eros (1975) for soprano, orchestra, and tape. He lifted his moratorium with a 1976 performance of Praise and conducted his own and other modern and contemporary music for the rest of his career. Shapey’s notable later works include 21 Variations (1978) for piano; Double Concerto (1982) for violin, cello and orchestra; Concerto for Cello, Piano, and Two String Orchestras (1986); Images (1998) for oboe, piano, and percussion; and String Quartet No. 10 (2000). He is the author of A Basic Course in Music Composition (2001). See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC. SHARP, ELLIOTT (1951– ). American composer and musician. Elliott Sharp studied with Benjamin Boretz at Bard College and with Morton Feldman and Lejaren Hiller at the State University of New York at Buffalo. A guitarist and reed player who employs extended performance techniques, Sharp has played with such free improvisers as John Zorn, Sussan Deyhim, Zeena Parkins, Bobby Previte, and Butch Morris, among many others.

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His band Carbon (Carbon, 1984; Datacide, 1990; Transmigration at the Solar Max, 2018) included homemade instruments and expanded into Orchestra Carbon (Abstract Repressionism: 1990–99, 1992; Larynx, 2007). Along with his solo projects Tectonics (Abstraction Distraction, 2010) and Octal (Books One–Three, 2008–2015), Sharp also plays in his bands Terraplane (Blues for Next, 2000; 4am Always, 2014) and Aggregat (Dialectrical, 2016) and has scored numerous films. His compositions draw on art-rock and new-music methods and have used mathematical models and alternate tuning systems. Among his notable works are his string quartets, including Tessalation Row (1984), Digital (1986), Shapeshifters (1991), Dispersion of Seeds (2003), and The Boreal (2008); other chamber pieces such as the sextet Marco Polo’s Argali (1985), the trio Homage Leroy Jenkins (2008), and Occam’s Razor (2011) for string octet; orchestral scores Skew (1991), Calling (2002), On Corlear’s Hook (2007), and Oneirika (2012); and the operas About Us (2010) and Port Bou (2014). Among his sound installations are Tag (1997) and Fluvial (2002). See also INSTRUMENT BUILDING; JENKINS, LEROY (1932–2007); KRONOS QUARTET; POSTMODERNISM; UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). SHEA, DAVID (1965– ). American composer and musician. David Shea studied at the Oberlin Conservatory. An improvising vocalist who uses extended performance techniques, Shea turned to playing samplers, turntables, CD players, and computers; he has performed with John Zorn, Anthony Coleman, and other free improvisers. His compositions combining sampled sound with live musicians include Shock Corridor (1992), The Tower of Mirrors (1995), Hsi-Yu Chi (1996), Satyricon (1997), Chamber Symphony Nos. 1 (1998) and 2 (2002), and The Book of Scenes (2004). Among Shea’s works made totally through sampling are Alpha (1995) and Satyricon 2000. Rituals (2014) utilizes field recordings made in Australia; Piano I (2016) features his piano music. He also scored the 2004 films X, Y and a.m./ p.m. See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. SHIELDS, ALICE (1943– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Alice Shields studied with Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening at Columbia University, where she later taught. With Ussachevsky, she cocomposed electronic music for the film Line of Apogee (1968). A mezzo-soprano who has performed in opera, Shields used her own voice as a sound source in Study for Voice and Tape (1968), The Transformation of Ani (1970), and her electronic operas Shaman (1987), Mass for the Dead (1993), and Apocalypse (1994). Shields has also composed orchestral operas (Odyssey 3, 1975; Criseyde, 2010) and chamber operas (Wraecca, 1989; Zhao-

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jun—a Woman of Peace, 2018); her other music for voice and instruments includes Neruda Songs (1981) and Komachi at Sekidera (1987, rev. 1999). Among her electroacoustic works are The Red Woman (“An Bean Rua”) (1993) for female narrator and tape, Kyrielle (2005) for violin and tape, and The River of Memory (2008) for trombone and computer music. Shields’s electronic music has employed Indian raga structures (Vegetable Karma, 1999; Dust, 2001; Shenandoah, 2002) and environmental and animal sounds (Farewell to a Hill, 1975; The Mud Oratorio, 2003; Wild Heron Dance, 2017). Her recent instrumental works include Piece for Flute, Viola, and Harp (2004) and Quartet for Piano and Percussion (2016). See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; MULTICULTURALISM; POSTMODERNISM; TEXTSOUND MUSIC. SHOSTAKOVICH, DMITRY (1906–1975). Russian composer, musician, and educator. One of the giants of 20th-century music, Shostakovich is beloved for his symphonies and string quartets, written mostly in a post-Romantic idiom; his struggles with the Soviet government mark a tragic period in his life and in the history of his country. Dmitry Dmitryevich Shostakovich was born in St. Petersburg and grew up amid the throes of the Russian Revolution. His mother began teaching him piano at age eight, and soon he was composing. Shostakovich was 13 when he entered the St. Petersburg Conservatory where he studied with Maximilian Steinberg. His breakthrough came at age 18 with Symphony No. 1 (1925), a witty and exuberant score that caused a sensation at its premiere in 1926. Shostakovich confirmed his stature as a major composer in the late 1920s and early 1930s, employing neoclassical and other modernist techniques in such works as his Piano Sonata No. 1 (1926) and Piano Concerto No. 1 (1933), both of which he also premiered as part of a busy performing career. The Nose (1928), a surreal satiric opera adapted from Nikolai Gogol, featured an interlude for percussion ensemble. Polytonal passages highlight his Symphony No. 2, “To October” (1927), and Five Fragments for Orchestra (1935). He also began scoring films in the 1930s. Like his Second Symphony, the Symphony No. 3, “The First of May” (1931), was a one-movement work that featured a chorus singing praise for the Revolution. Shostakovich had been commissioned by state authorities to write it, but he became the state’s target a few years later due to his opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk (1932). Harsh dissonances informed this grim drama of adultery and murder, and although popular internationally, Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk offended Joseph Stalin. It was condemned in the official media in 1936 and no longer performed. Shostakovich withdrew his Symphony No. 4 (1936), a dissonant and tragic work, one of many by him with roots in the music of Gustav Mahler; it would remain unperformed until 1961.

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Modernist music was denounced as formalist and anti-Soviet in these years, and Shostakovich found himself in considerable danger. But he reasserted his reputation with the dynamic and accessible Symphony No. 5 (1937); it was an international success and perhaps his most popular work. Shostakovich began teaching at the Leningrad Conservatory in 1937, and the next year he composed his String Quartet No. 1, launching his admired cycle of quartets. His Symphony No. 6 (1939) met with a mixed response, but all was forgiven during the war years. Shostakovich’s 1940 Piano Quintet received the Stalin Prize First Grade, and he won again the following year for his Symphony No. 7, “Leningrad” (1941) a work that was championed in the Allied nations, increasing Shostakovich’s stature abroad. He left the Leningrad Conservatory in 1941 and taught at the Moscow Conservatory from 1943 to 1948, during which time he composed his Symphony No. 8 (1943), String Quartet No. 2 (1944), Symphony No. 9 (1945), and String Quartet No. 3 (1946). Despite having been presented with the Order of Lenin in 1946, Shostakovich was officially denounced once again in 1948. The darkness and pessimism of the Eighth Symphony were reviled as formalist; so were the lightness and humor of the Ninth. Shostakovich, Sergey Prokofiev, Aram Khachaturian, and Nikolai Myaskovsky, as the erring “Big Four” composers, had to apologize and rehabilitate themselves. Shostakovich wrote the patriotic music demanded by the state (the oratorio The Song of the Forests, 1949; the cantata The Sun Shines over Our Motherland, 1952). His deeper feelings about the oppression around him were confided in such scores as his Violin Concerto No. 1 (1948, rev. 1955); From Jewish Folk Poetry (1948) for soprano, contralto, tenor, and piano; String Quartets Nos. 4 (1949) and 5 (1952); and Symphony No. 10 (1953). All were premiered after Stalin’s death in 1953. Named People’s Artist of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1954, Shostakovich received the Order of Lenin again in 1956; he also produced his String Quartet No. 6 (1956), Piano Concerto No. 2 (1957), Symphony No. 11, “The Year 1905” (1957), and Cello Concerto No. 1 (1959). His health deteriorated severely over the 1960s, yet Shostakovich composed an array of major works starting with String Quartets Nos. 7 and 8 in 1960 and Symphony No. 12, “The Year 1917” (1961). Symphony No. 13, “Babi Yar” (1962), and the cantata The Execution of Stepan Razin (1964), both scored for bass soloist, male chorus, and orchestra, were settings of Yevgeny Yevtushenko’s poetry and not without controversy. Shostakovich’s expression became even more personal and intense with String Quartets Nos. 9–12 (1964–1968), Cello Concerto No. 2 (1966), and Violin Concerto No. 2 (1967). After Symphony No. 14 (1969), a meditation on death for soprano, bass, and chamber orchestra, his music achieved a new serenity and calm, for all its sadness: String Quartet No. 13 (1970), Sympho-

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ny No. 15 (1971), String Quartets Nos. 14 (1973) and 15 (1974), Suite on Verses of Michelangelo Buonarroti for bass voice and piano (1974), and Sonata for Viola and Piano (1975). Shostakovich died of cancer at age 68 in a Moscow hospital; mourned throughout the Soviet Union, he was given a hero’s funeral. See also DENISOV, EDISON (1929–1996); QUOTATION; TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ); USTVOLSKAYA, GALINA (1919–2006). SIKORSKI, TOMASZ (1939–1988). Polish composer, musician, and educator. Tomasz Sikorski attended Warsaw’s State School of Music (1956–1962), studying composition with his father Kazimierz Sikorski and piano with Zbigniew Drzewiecki; he also taught there from 1963 to 1968. Sikorski cofounded the contemporary-music ensemble Warsztat Muzyczny in 1963 and studied with Nadia Boulanger in 1965. He won acclaim with such works as Echoes II (1963) for one to four pianos, percussion, and tape; Antiphons (1963) for soprano, piano, French horn, percussion, and tape; Concerto Breve (1965) for piano, winds, and percussion; and Diaphony (1969) for two pianos. A personal approach to minimalism characterizes Sikorski’s later music, including Untitled (1972) for piano and three optional instruments; Listening Music (1973) for two pianos; Solitude of Sounds (1975), an electronic-music composition; Music in Twilight (1977–1978) for piano and orchestra; and the 1979–1980 orchestral works Monophony, Lontano, and Ostinato. Sikorski was afflicted with ill health throughout his life, and his physical and mental condition deteriorated over the 1980s. Yet he produced such notable compositions as the string-orchestra scores Strings in the Earth (1980), Winter Landscape (1982), and La notte per archi (1984); Self-Portrait (1983) for two pianos and orchestra; Omaggio (1987) for four pianos and orchestra; and Diario 87 (1987) for reciter and tape. Sikorski died in Warsaw at age 49. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ). SKALKOTTAS, NIKOS (1904–1949). Greek composer and musician. Nikolaos Skalkottas played violin as a child and attended the Athens Conservatory. He studied violin with Willy Hess at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik; in Berlin, he also studied composition with Philipp Jarnach, Kurt Weill, and Arnold Schoenberg. Skalkottas moved between tonal and atonal idioms in such early scores as String Quartet No. 1 (1928), Octet (1931), and Piano Concerto No. 1 (1931). He returned to Athens in 1933 and became a violinist with several orchestras there. His composition took a personal approach to twelve-tone methods in such notable works as Symphonic Suite No. 1 (1935) for orchestra; String Quartets Nos. 3 (1935) and 4 (1940); 36 Greek Dances (1936) for orchestra, which also draws on folk music; Piano Concertos Nos. 2 (1938) and 3 (1939); three volumes of Piano Pieces

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(1940); and the orchestral scores The Maiden and Death (1938) and The Return of Ulysses (1944, rev. 1949). Skalkottas died in Athens at age 45 from complications of a hernia. See also MODERNISM; SCHULLER, GUNTHER (1925–2015). SKEMPTON, HOWARD (1947– ). English composer, musician, and educator. A pianist and accordionist, Howard Skempton was inspired by the music of Erik Satie, John Cage, and Morton Feldman and used chance methods for his short piano piece A Humming Song (1967). He started studying with Cornelius Cardew and continued creating miniaturist works such as Snow Piece (1967) for piano, African Melody (1969) for cello, and May Pole (1971) for orchestra. In 1969, Skempton cofounded the Scratch Orchestra with Cardew and Michael Parsons; his music for them includes the verbal-instruction score Drum No. 1 (1969) for any number of drums. Skempton’s minimalist Waltz (1970) for piano uses repeated patterns. A prolific composer, Skempton has written other larger-scale works such as Chorales (1980) and Lento (1991) for orchestra; The Durham Strike (1985) and Images (1989) for piano; Concerto for Hurdy-Gurdy, Percussion, and Chamber Orchestra (1994); Concerto for Oboe, Accordion, and Strings (1997); The Bridge of Fire (2001) for mixed chorus; Tendrils (2004) for string quartet; Alveston (2007) for four trumpets; and The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (2015) for baritone, horn, piano, and string quintet. Skempton has taught at the Birmingham Conservatoire; he scored Michel Gondry’s film Is the Man Who Is Tall Happy? (2013). See also GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; POSTMODERNISM. SLONIMSKY, NICOLAS (1894–1995). Russian-born American composer, musician, and educator. Nicolas Slonimsky studied at the St. Petersburg Conservatory and came to the United States in 1923; he became a U.S. citizen in 1931 and taught at the University of California at Los Angeles (1964–1967) and other institutions; his students include Chou Wen-chung. As a conductor, Slonimsky performed internationally and premiered major works by Edgard Varèse, Carl Ruggles, Charles Ives, Henry Cowell, and other modernists. His witty and imaginative compositions include Five Advertising Songs (1925) for voice and piano; the bitonal Studies in Black and White (1928) for piano; My Toy Balloon (1942) for orchestra and 100 colored balloons; Gravestones in Hancock, New Hampshire (1945) for voice and piano; and Minitudes (1971–1977) for piano. Möbius Strip-Tease (1965) for voices is a perpetual vocal canon notated on a Möbius band that is revolved around the singers’ heads. Slonimsky compiled the Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns (1947) and Lexicon of Musical Invective (1952) and is the author of Music since 1900 (1937; 5th ed., 1986), Music in Latin America

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(1945), and an autobiography, Perfect Pitch (1988), among other books. He died in Los Angeles at age 101. See also ADAMS, JOHN (1947– ); MULTIMEDIA; NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997). SMILEY, PRIL (1943– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Pril Smiley studied at Bennington College with Louis Calabro, Henry Brant, and Vivian Fine; she also performed as a percussionist. Smiley began apprenticing with Vladimir Ussachevsky at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in 1963 and became a technician, teacher, and director there; her students include Ruth Anderson. At the center, she composed such works as Eclipse (1967), Kolyosa (1970), and Forty-Three (1984) as well as electronic music for film, television, and theater. Smiley retired from the center in 1995. See also MODERNISM. SMIT, LEO (1921–1999). American composer, musician, and educator. Pianist Leo Smit studied as a boy with Dmitri Kabalevsky, José Iturbi, and Nicolas Nabokov. As pianist or conductor, he premiered works by Kabalevsky, Nabokov, Aaron Copland, Béla Bartók, Paul Hindemith, and Irving Fine. Smit taught at Sarah Lawrence College, the University of California at Los Angeles, and the State University of New York at Buffalo; his students include Bernadette Speach and Joseph Kubera. Smit’s music is tonal with neoromantic qualities, with such works as the ballet score Virginia Sampler (1947, rev. 1960); three symphonies (1955–1981); the operas The Alchemy of Love (1969) and Magic Water (1978); and The Ecstatic Pilgrimage (1992), 80 songs for voice and piano to poems by Emily Dickinson. See also MODERNISM. SMIT, LEOPOLD “LEO” (1900–1943). Dutch composer, musician, and educator. Leopold “Leo” Smit studied composition and piano at the Amsterdam Conservatory; he also taught theory and composition there shortly after graduating in 1924. Impressionist elements characterize Smit’s early orchestral works Silhouetten (1922) and his Overture to De Vertraagde Film (1923), which also showed the impact of jazz. In 1927, he relocated to Paris where he was drawn to the music of Maurice Ravel, Igor Stravinsky, and the Groupe des Six and wrote such works as his Sextet (1928), the ballet score Schemselnihar (1929), Concertino for Harp and Orchestra (1933), and the often dissonant Symphonie in C (1936). He scored the Dutch film Jonge harten (1936) and returned to Amsterdam in 1937, where he composed the impressionist La Mort (1938) for soprano, alto, and piano; De bruid (1939) for female chorus; Concerto for Viola and Strings (1940), a neoclassical work with jazz inflections; and Divertimento (1942) for piano four-hands. He had completed the Sonata for Flute and Piano in 1943 and was working on a

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string quartet when the Nazis arrested Smit, who was Jewish, and sent him to the Sobibor concentration camp in Poland, where he was murdered at age 42. See also MODERNISM. SMITH, HALE (1925–2009). American composer, musician, and educator. As a young pianist, Hale Smith played both classical music and jazz; as a teenage composer, he received encouragement from Duke Ellington. Smith studied at the Cleveland Institute of Music (1946–1952) and taught at the University of Connecticut in Storrs (1970–1984). His music frequently blends jazz with twelve-tone techniques. Smith’s compositions include The Valley Wind (1955) for voice and piano; piano scores Evocation (1965), Faces of Jazz (1968), and Introspections and Reflections (1980); orchestral works Contours (1962), Ritual and Incantations (1974), and Innerflexions (1977); Variations à due (1984) for cello and alto saxophone; and the septet Dialogues and Commentary (1991). As a composer, arranger, and/or performer, Smith also worked with jazz composer/musicians Eric Dolphy, Chico Hamilton, and Dizzy Gillespie. See also MODERNISM. SOLLBERGER, HARVEY (1938– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Flutist and conductor Harvey Sollberger studied with Jack Beeson and Otto Luening at Columbia University. With Charles Wuorinen, he cofounded and codirected the Group for Contemporary Music (1964–1991); Sollberger was also music director of the La Jolla Symphony Orchestra (1997–2005). He has taught at the Manhattan School of Music, Indiana University, the University of California at San Diego, and other institutions; his students include Peter Lieberson. Composers who have written music for Sollberger include Luening, Wuorinen, Lieberson, Stefan Wolpe, Elliott Carter, George Perle, Milton Babbitt, Chou Wen-chung, Mario Davidovsky, Roger Reynolds, and Charles Dodge. Among his compositions are Chamber Variations (1964) for 12 players and conductor; Antigone (1966) for actor and tape; The Two and the One (1972) for cellist and two percussionists; Angel and Stone (1981) for flute and piano; the sextet Mutable Duo (1991); Spillville (2006) for flute, viola, and guitar; and Perhaps Gilead (2010) for flute, guitar, and string quartet. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; MODERNISM. SOMERS, HARRY (1925–1999). Canadian composer and musician. Harry Somers studied piano and composition at the Royal Conservatory of Music in Toronto; he also studied with Darius Milhaud in Paris. Noted for such early scores as North Country (1948) for string orchestra and Five Songs for Dark Voice (1956) for alto and chamber orchestra, Somers adapted twelvetone techniques to blend tonal and atonal methods in Five Concepts for

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Orchestra (1961); Stereophony (1963) for orchestra, a spatial work; Twelve Miniatures (1964) for soprano, recorder or flute, viola da gamba or cello, and spinet or piano; and his acclaimed opera Louis Riel (1967), which also included a synthesizer and tape. In Improvisation (1968) for five to eight voices and chamber ensemble, Somers utilized graphic notation. Extended performance techniques for voice and the use of phonetic sounds characterize Somers’s Voiceplay (1971) for singer/actor with solo instrument, written for Cathy Berberian (also recorded by Somers); Kyrie (1972) for vocal quartet, mixed chorus, and one to 20 instruments; Limericks (1980) for mezzo-soprano, mixed chorus, and one to 20 instruments; Shaman’s Song for voice and prepared piano; and Chura-churum (1985) for eight amplified solo voices and septet. Other important works from this period are the theatrical score Zen, Yeats, and Emily Dickinson (1975) for two actors, soprano, flute, piano, and tape; the chamber opera Death of Enkidu (1977); and the orchestral scores Those Silent, Awe-Filled Spaces (1978) and Elegy, Transformation, Jubilation (1981). Somers’s notable later music includes Of Memory and Desire (1993) for string orchestra; Third Piano Concerto (1996); Nothing Too Serious (1997) for piano; and the electroacoustic scores Magic Flute (1997) for flute and tape and A Thousand Ages (1998) for boy’s voice, men’s chorus, and electronic sounds. He also composed film music; arranged Canadian folk music; and wrote scores for children, amateur groups, and school use. Somers died in Toronto of prostate cancer at age 73. See also GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; POSTMODERNISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. SONIC ARTS UNION. Originally known as the Sonic Arts Group, this composers collective was formed in 1966 by Robert Ashley, Gordon Mumma, David Behrman, and Alvin Lucier. Essentially a live-performance electronic-music ensemble, their multimedia works extended into theater, film, television, and dance. Touring and performing in the United States and Europe, they maintained the Sonic Arts Union until 1976. The group also commissioned Pauline Oliveros’s theatrical piece Valentine (1968) for four players with amplification. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. SONIFICATION. The aural equivalent of data visualization, sonification is the use of electronically synthesized, non-speech sound as a mapping or representation of data. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; DODGE, CHARLES (1942– ); ELECTRONIC MUSIC; PAYNE, MAGGI (1945– ); TONE, YASUNAO (1935– ).

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SORABJI, KAIKHOSRU SHAPURJI (1892–1988). English composer, musician, and critic. Born to a Parsi father and an English mother, Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji was a virtuoso pianist who drew in part upon impressionism in his early composition. His lengthy and highly chromatic scores, exploring polytonality and polyrhythm, were virtuosic in their technical requirements. He was also extremely prolific throughout the late 1910s and the 1920s, producing eight piano concertos (1916–1928); four piano sonatas (1919–1929); Symphony (1922) for piano, orchestra, chorus, and organ; and many other works. Sorabji drew upon Iranian, Chinese, and Indian influences in his treatment of scale and ornamentation, especially in such nocturne-like piano scores as In the Hothouse (1919) and Le jardin parfumé (1923). The culmination was Opus clavicembalisticum (1930), a 250-page piano score that takes around five hours to perform; unlike later minimalist works of such duration, Sorabji’s music employs traditional techniques on a vast scale, using complex fugues and themes with dozens of variations. Sorabji retired from concertizing in 1936 and withdrew his music from performance for several decades. By the 1970s, he had become legendary, and his music attracted new generations of performers and audiences who could meet its demands. Pianists who have championed Sorabji include Christopher Berg, Kevin Bowyer, Michael Habermann, Marc-André Hamelin, John Ogdon, Jonathan Powell, and Fredrik Ullén. Among his later works are Symphonic Variations (1937) for piano; six Piano Symphonies (1939–1976); Sequentia cyclica super Dies irae (1949) for piano; the 1,001page score Messa Alta Sinfonica (1961) for soloists, mixed chorus, orchestra, and organ; and Opus secretum (1981) for piano. Sorabji also authored the music-criticism collections Around Music (1932) and Mi Contra Fa (1947). See also MODERNISM; MULTICULTURALISM. SOUND ART. See SOUND SCULPTURE. SOUND INSTALLATION. Installation art, in which the exhibition space becomes an art object itself, can be traced back to the 1910s and 1920s, and it came into the nomenclature by the 1960s. The transformation of an interior space into a continuous musical experience also emerged then, along with other forms of minimalist music. Max Neuhaus coined the term sound installation to describe such pioneering works as his Drive-In Music (1967), with weather-sensing radio transmitters playing over the radios of passing drivers along a specially prepared stretch of highway. Other exterior installations interact not with the listener but with the environment. Leif Brush’s Terrain Instruments are outdoor structures that respond audibly to environmental conditions. The structures of Patrick Zentz have used wind, sunlight, water, and traffic to trigger sound production.

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Many interior installations are simply zones of sound into which one enters. Chords from the Tortoise, His Dreams and Journeys (1967) was the first of many sound environments of electronic drones created by La Monte Young and Marian Zazeela. Earle Brown used suspended cassette recorders in his interactive Wikiup (1979). Iannis Xenakis designed the curved architectural space in which his tape music La légende d’Eer (1978) was premiered as an installation. Sound installations and site-specific works also have an instrument-building quality, insofar as they create an oversized resonating “instrument” out of a preexisting space, as with Bill Fontana’s works within the Washington Cathedral’s bell tower or the clockworks of Big Ben, or Ellen Fullman’s Long String Instrument. Generations of postmodern composers have built sound installations, including David Tudor, Ruth Anderson, Henri Pousseur, Alvin Lucier, Éliane Radigue, Nam June Paik, Alison Knowles, Yasunao Tone, Gordon Mumma, David Behrman, Alvin Curran, Takehisa Kosugi, Maryanne Amacher, Annea Lockwood, Gavin Bryars, Meredith Monk, Maggi Payne, Hildegard Westerkamp, John Luther Adams, Laurie Anderson, Brian Eno, Mary Jane Leach, Elliott Sharp, George Lewis, Cat Hope, Natasha Barrett, Jessica Rylan, and Ashley Fure. See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; SOUND SCULPTURE. SOUND SCULPTURE. An offshoot of 20th-century instrument building is the genre of sound sculpture, or Sound Art, to use William Hellermann’s term, which describes art objects that produce sound through an energy source, be it natural, mechanical, or human. Some of these sculptures are also sound installations, such as Alison Knowles’s interactive House of Dust (1968); Norman A. Andersen’s reconstructions of found objects and musical instruments that function in a mechanical/behavioral mode in Rainmaker’s Baggage (2005) and Koo-Koo (2007); or the use of sensors, microphones, and tape for certain works by Bill Fontana (who studied with John Cage and Philip Corner), such as Speeds of Time (2004) or Pigeon Soundings (2005). Other builders of sound sculpture have produced interactive pieces that exist in a grey zone between instrument and sculpture. Among the many examples is composer, musician, and free improviser Butch Morris who has collaborated with different visual artists to create “music machines”—essentially, music boxes combining an original design with an original composition. Richard Lerman’s amplified screens are sculpture as “Sound-Seen” but can also be played as transducers. Reinhold Marxhausen’s “Stardust” series and “Cosmic Cubes” produce a music audible only when shaken close to the ear. Fred “Spaceman” Long has used pick-ups for his series of unique junk-metal constructions he calls “Jokers.” See also MINIMALISM; POSTMODERNISM; TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TUDOR, DAVID (1926–1996).

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SPATIAL MUSIC. The tradition of composers assigning the physical placement of a work’s performers goes back to Adrian Willaert, Giovanni Gabrieli, and the other 16th-century Venetian polyphonists who situated their musicians in unusual places within St. Mark’s Basilica, seeking to heighten patterns of antiphonal response and to clarify polyphonic lines. This approach faded in the later 17th century but stirred again in the 19th, when certain composers literalized their music’s transcendent spiritual themes by devising new and transformative listening experiences: Hector Berlioz employed multiple instrumental groups in a distinct arrangement for his Requiem (1837); Giuseppe Verdi’s Requiem (1874) and Gustav Mahler’s Symphony No. 2 (1894) included offstage ensembles. The 20th-century breakthrough in creating music with a specialized spatial arrangement occurred in 1908 with Charles Ives’s The Unanswered Question and Central Park in the Dark, chamber-orchestra scores with independent subgroups of musicians. Carl Nielsen, in his Symphonies Nos. 3 (1911) and 4 (1916), anticipated certain spatial ideas, and Darius Milhaud’s L’homme et son désir (1918) and Béla Bartók’s Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta (1936) called for their own spatial arrangements. Yet despite these early modernist breakthroughs, the real interest in spatial music has been postmodern—a deconstruction of the traditional listening experience—and did not gain momentum until the 1950s. Teo Macero spatially reconfigured the five jazz ensembles of Areas (1952). In Antiphony One (1953, rev. 1968), Henry Brant adapted Ives’s approach of physically separating the musicians and not maintaining rhythmic ensemble. Devoting himself to spatial music, Brant created such landmark works as Orbits (1979), Meteor Farm (1982), Plowshares & Swords (1995), and Ice Field (2001). With Gesang der Jünglinge (1956) and Gruppen (1957), Karlheinz Stockhausen incorporated spatial considerations into his music. By the 1960s and 1970s, spatial composition was widespread. Audiences were seeded with musicians in Dennis Johnson’s Din (1960), Luciano Berio’s Passagio (1962), and Iannis Xenakis’s Terretektorh (1966). Musicians moved about the performance space in George Crumb’s Echoes of Time and the River (1967), Thea Musgrave’s Clarinet Concerto (1969), and Lucia Dlugoszewski’s Tender Theatre Flight Nageire (1971, rev. 1978). Electronic music became spatial in such quadraphonic recordings as Morton Subotnick’s Sidewinder (1971). Spatial assignment evoked ritual in Pauline Oliveros’s ceremonial works Crow Two (1974) and Rose Moon (1977). Other composers of spatial works include Harry Somers, György Kurtág, Pierre Henry, Henri Pousseur, Toru Takemitsu, R. Murray Schafer, Henryk Górecki, Roger Reynolds, Malcolm Goldstein, Maggi Payne, John Tavener, Neely Bruce, Gérard Grisey, Fred Frith, Wendy Mae Chambers,

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Michael Gordon, Daniel Ott, Isabel Mundry, Rebecca Saunders, and Natasha Barrett. See also AMACHER, MARYANNE (1938–2009); VARÈSE, EDGARD (1883–1965). SPEACH, BERNADETTE (1948– ). American composer and musician. Pianist Bernadette Speach studied with Morton Feldman, Lejaren Hiller, and Leo Smit (1921–1999) at the State University of New York at Buffalo. Her Les ondes pour quatre (1988) for string quartet notates time in fixed and free durations. Boppin’ Again (1989, rev. 1991) for 10-piece ensemble displayed her jazz roots; When It Rains, Llueve (1995) is a multicultural work with Latin rhythms and melodies. Her multimedia piece TreeSing (2007) for bass clarinet and marimba uses video processing. Among Speach’s largescale works are Within (1990) for piano and orchestra and Embrace the Universe (2001) for mezzo-soprano, viola, piano, mixed chorus, and orchestra. Her collaborations with poet and writer Thulani Davis include Telepathy Suite (1987) for chamber ensemble and Woman without Adornment (1994) for piano and reciter. Also an improviser, Speach has performed frequently with her husband guitarist/composer Jeffrey Schanzer. Her recent works include after sunrise (2011) for clarinets and percussion and altrove/elsewhere (2012) for violin and piano/toy piano. See also FREE IMPROVISATION; MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); POSTMODERNISM. SPECTRAL MUSIC. More a modernist compositional approach than a methodology, spectral music investigates the spectra, or acoustic properties, of a sound, with new harmonies derived from the overtones of specific pitches; it is also concerned with the perception of individual sounds and overall compositional form. Spectralism developed in France in the 1970s, with composer Hughes Dufour coining the term musique spectrale. Its bestknown exponent was Gérard Grisey with Les espaces acoustiques (1985). Other composers of spectral music include Unsuk Chin, Jonathan Harvey, Tristan Murail, Horatiu Radulescu, James Tenney, and Claude Vivier. See also JUST INTONATION; POLYHARMONY. SPIEGEL, LAURIE (1945– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Laurie Spiegel studied guitar and composition with J. W. Duarte in London; at Juilliard, her composition teachers included Vincent Persichetti and Jacob Druckman. She has taught at Bucks County Community College and New York University. Spiegel’s work in electronic music began with pieces created in 1971 on the Buchla synthesizer, such as Orchestras and Harmonic Spheres; her musique concrète includes Introit (1973) and Water Music (1974). At Bell Labs, she created such computer-music pieces as The Unquestioned Answer (1974), Appalachian Grove (1974), The Expanding Uni-

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verse (1975), and A Voyage (1976). Kepler’s “Harmony of the Planets” (1977), her computer realization of Kepler’s 17th-century treatise, was the opening track of the “Sounds of Earth” recording that the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) sent into space on the Voyager spacecraft in 1977. Her electroacoustic works include Waves (1975) for nine instruments and computer-generated tape, the multimedia Guadalcanal Requiem (1977), A Canon (1980) for chamber ensemble and computer, and Lyric for MIDI Guitar (1987) for classic guitar with computer interface. An innovator in computer technology, Spiegel helped design the AlphaSyntauri synthesizer for use with Apple II microcomputers, and in the mid-1980s, she designed her breakthrough Macintosh software Music Mouse, enabling the performance of real-time computer music without an instrumental keyboard or acoustic or sampled sounds. She has improvised on Music Mouse and used it to compose such notable pieces as Cavis Muris (1986), Three Sonic Spaces (1989), and Sound Zones (1990). She has written scores for classic guitar (After Dowland, 1979; Fantasy on a Theme from Duarte’s “English Suite,” 1990) and piano (à la recherche du temps perdu, 1976, rev. 1990; After Clementi, 1981; Returning East, 1988). Among Spiegel’s recent works are the multimedia electronic piece Lift Off (1999), Conversational Paws (2001) for recorded processed dog sounds, and A Stream (2007) for solo violin. Her film music includes Maya Deren: Prelude to Generating a Dream Palette (2016). See also CONRAD, TONY (1940–2016); ECOMUSICOLOGY; POSTMODERNISM. SPRECHSTIMME. In the 19th century, operas and melodramas had notated rhythmic speech as Sprechstimme (“speech voice”), and by the 1890s, a more precise indication of pitch emerged within this practice: a Sprechgesang (“speech song”), as in Engelbert Humperdinck’s melodrama Königskinder (1897). Arnold Schoenberg adopted this modification of Sprechstimme for the reciting voice in Gurrelieder (1911): a declamation somewhere between spoken and sung, which provided greater clarity while remaining heightened and musical. With his expressionist classic Pierrot lunaire (1912), Schoenberg made Sprechstimme his own, having the soprano voice always rise to or fall from the assigned pitches, rather than sustain them. He also featured Sprechstimme in his operas Die glückliche Hand (1913) and Moses und Aron (1932); in Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte (1942) he simplified it, using not the full five-line stave of Pierrot lunaire but a single line, augmented with ledger lines to indicate higher and lower intervals. Other composers who also used Sprechstimme include Alban Berg (Wozzeck, 1922) and Hanns Eisler (Palmström, 1924). See also MODERNISM.

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STEIN, LEONARD (1916–2004). American musician and educator. Leonard Stein studied piano with Richard Buhlig and composition with Arnold Schoenberg. Director of the Schoenberg Institute at the University of Southern California from 1975 to 1991, Stein performed internationally as pianist and conductor. He taught at several California institutions; his students include La Monte Young, Terry Jennings, Dean Drummond, Lois V Vierk, and John Luther Adams. See also MODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. STEUERMANN, EDWARD (1892–1964). Polish-born American composer, musician, and educator. Edward Steuermann studied piano with Ferruccio Busoni and composition with Arnold Schoenberg. He premiered several works by Schoenberg before and after his immigration to the United States in 1938; he became a U.S. citizen in 1944. Steuermann taught at numerous institutions, including Princeton, Black Mountain College, the New School for Social Research, and Juilliard; his students include Alfred Brendel, Lili Kraus, Ursula Mamlok, James Tenney, and Theodor Adorno. Among Steuermann’s twelve-tone compositions are his Four Piano Pieces (1934, rev, 1958), Suite for Piano (1952, rev. 1954), Piano Trio (1954), and String Quartet No. 2 (1963). See also MODERNISM. STILL, WILLIAM GRANT (1895–1978). American composer and musician. William Grant Still studied at the Oberlin Conservatory of Music, at the New England Conservatory of Music, and with Edgard Varèse; he also performed and arranged for W. C. Handy and composed pieces for Paul Whiteman and Artie Shaw. A conductor and multi-instrumentalist, Still was the most celebrated African American composer of his day, bringing spirituals and other folk idioms to the concert tradition in evocations of black America. Along with composing and arranging film music, Still composed such works as his five symphonies (1933–1958), most notably No. 1, “AfroAmerican Symphony”; seven operas, including Troubled Island (1938) and Highway 1 U.S.A. (1962); And They Lynched Him on a Tree (1940) for narrator, alto, black and white mixed choruses, and orchestra; and such orchestral scores as Darker America (1925), Africa (1930), and Pages from Negro History (1943). See also MODERNISM. STOCHASTIC MUSIC. In probability theory, the term stochastic refers to a system of time parameters used to define a process that employs random variables. A stochastic process is nondeterministic: the previous state of the environment cannot fully determine the following state. Its use in music was coined by Iannis Xenakis regarding his score Pithoprakhta (1956), which he had shaped with a controlled random process that gave it a logical and

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perceptible form and a coherent overall musical effect, despite individual moment-to-moment activities that could not be determined or fully perceived. Stochastic composition relies upon mathematical procedures from statistics and probabilities to guide randomness, and so it can be regarded as another modernist response to John Cage’s chance music; like aleatory, stochastic methods enable composers to use randomness without abandoning their tastes and memories, which Cage had advocated. The enormous amount of calculation invariably demanded by stochastic techniques is ordinarily handled by computers, and such postmodern composers as Lejaren Hiller and James Tenney, who utilized computers to generate sound and compositional material, also worked with stochastic techniques. See also STRANG, GERALD (1908–1983); TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ). STOCKHAUSEN, KARLHEINZ (1928–2007). German composer, musician, and educator. One of the most influential figures in late 20th-century music, Karlheinz Stockhausen was a leader in serial composition, spatial music, musique concrète, electronic music, electroacoustic music, extended time scales, and new performance freedoms. Born in Mödrath, near Cologne, Stockhausen began studying piano at age six. In 1941, he entered the teachers’ training college in Xanten, where he also studied violin and played the oboe. Stockhausen attended the State Academy of Music in Cologne (1947–1951), studying composition with modernist Frank Martin, and began to write totally serialized music in 1951 with the sextet Kreuzspiel and Formel for chamber orchestra. The following year he moved to Paris and studied with Olivier Messiaen (1952–1953). Stockhausen also worked at Pierre Schaeffer’s Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française studio, creating his first tape music, Etude (1952). His instrumental music became more pointillistic in the 1952 scores Spiel for orchestra, Schlagtrio for piano and percussion, and Punkte for orchestra (rev. 1962). After Stockhausen returned to Germany in 1953, he became a permanent collaborator at the West-Deutscher Rundfunk Electronic Music Studio in Cologne where he created electrically synthesized music with Studie I (1953) and Studie II (1954); he was later its artistic director (1963–1977) and artistic consultant (1977–1990). Kontra-Punkte (1953) for 10 instruments attracted international attention, as did Zeitmasze (1956) for woodwind quintet and the piano series Klavierstücke, with I–1V composed in 1952 and V–X in 1954–1955. By then, Stockhausen was coeditor of the new-music publication Die Reihe (1954–1959) and a lecturer at the International Summer Courses for New Music at Darmstadt (1954–1974). He produced two major compositions in 1956: Klavierstücke XI, where the pianist selects what is played, and Gesang der Jünglinge, a tape piece using vocal and electronic sounds, with microtonal scales and the spatial distribution of five loudspeaker groups.

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Spatial concerns defined one of Stockhausen’s finest works, Gruppen (1957) for three orchestras and three conductors. In 1958, he began a series of annual tours, conducting, playing, and talking about his music. The aleatoric performance freedoms of Klavierstücke XI were extended in the 1959 scores Zylkus for solo percussionist and Refrain for piano, vibraphone, and celesta. In 1960, Stockhausen completed Kontakte, a microtonal piece combining electronic sounds with piano and percussion, and Carré for four orchestras and four choirs. The indeterminate Plus-Minus (1963), written in graphic notation, was of open duration and instrumentation. Over the decade, Stockhausen worked on the many sections of Momente (1969) for soprano, four choirs, and 13 instrumentalists, which can be performed in numerous different versions. He also taught at the Basle Academy of Music (1963), the University of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia (1965), the University of California at Davis (1966–1967), and the State Academy of Music in Cologne (1971–1977); his students include La Monte Young, Maryanne Amacher, David Behrman, Gérard Grisey, Claude Vivier, Richard Teitelbaum, Philip Krumm, Wolfgang Rihm, and Horatiu Radulescu. In 1964, Stockhausen formed a group to perform live electronic music, for which he composed three sextets: Mikrophonie I (1964), scored for tam-tam, two microphones, and two filters with potentiometers; Prozession (1967) and Kurzwellen (1968), for tam-tam, viola, Electronium or synthesizer, piano, and live electronics. His other electroacoustic works included Mixtur (1964) for orchestra with four sine-wave generators and four ring modulators; Solo (1966) for melody instrument with feedback; Mikrophonie II (1965) for 12 singers, Hammond organ or synthesizer, four ring modulators, and tape; and Spiral (1968) for soloist with short-wave receiver. The multicultural tape piece Hymnen (1967) yielded a 1969 version for tape and orchestra. Even Stimmung (1968) amplified the six vocalists who sang harmonics of a low Bflat fundamental. Stockhausen’s live electronic music led him to spontaneous performance, explored in Aus den Sieben Tagen (1968). Designated “15 Text Compositions for Intuitive Music,” this purely verbal score is to be performed only by a special electroacoustic ensemble without conductor and can take upward of seven hours. Another work in this vein is Für Kommende Zeiten (1970). Other postmodern compositional approaches arise in such notated scores as Stockhausen’s five-hour Fresco (1969), subtitled “Wall-Sounds for Meditation,” for four orchestra groups and four conductors; Mantra (1970) for two pianos and live electronics; and Inori (1974) for one or two soloists and orchestra or tape, with dancer-mimes as the soloists. The culmination of Stockhausen’s work in electronic and electroacoustic music, microtonality, performance freedoms, spatial music, extended durations, and theater was his 29-hour music-drama cycle Licht, a monumental series of operas, one for each day of the week: Donnerstag (1978–1980),

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Samstag (1981–1983), Montag (1984–1988), Dienstag (1987–1991), Freitag (1991–1994), Mittwoch (1995–1997), and Sonntag (1998–2003). Each opera was a sequence of smaller works, written for various forces and individually performable. The 127 scores include Donnerstag-Abschied (1980) for five trumpets; Luzifers Zorn (1987) for bass, actor, synthesizer player, and tape; Ave (1985) for basset-horn and flute; Pietà (1991) for flugelhorn, soprano, and electronic music; Chor-Spirale (1994) for 12 voices and live electronics; Helikopter-Streichquartett (1993); Hoch-Zeiten (2002) for choir and orchestra; and Klavierstücke XII–XIX (1979–2004). Stockhausen created film music for In Absentia (2000) by the Brothers Quay, and in his last years, he worked on Klang, a series of pieces for each hour of the day. Mostly scored for soloists or chamber forces, invariably with live electronics, these works range from Freude (2005) for two harps and Himmels-Tür (2005) for a percussionist and a little girl to the purely electronic Cosmic Pulses (2007). He completed the 21st hour, Paradies for flute and electronic music, shortly before his death of heart failure at age 79 at his home in Kuerten-Kettenberg, Germany. See also AMBIENT MUSIC; ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); ATONALITY; THE BEATLES; BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003); CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981); DISSONANCE; DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000); GLOBOKAR, VINKO (1934– ); HARVEY, JONATHAN (1939–2012); JUST INTONATION; MADERNA, BRUNO (1920–1973); PAIK, NAM JUNE (1932–2006); SCRATCH ORCHESTRA; SURREALISM; TUDOR, DAVID (1926–1996); TWELVETONE MUSIC; WEBERN, ANTON (1883–1945). STRANG, GERALD (1908–1983). Canadian-born American composer, musician, and educator. Gerald Strang studied with Charles Koechlin, Arnold Schoenberg, and Ernst Toch. His friendship with Henry Cowell led Strang to such early scores as Eleven (1931) for piano, an exercise in dissonant counterpoint in which he used tone-clusters, and the polyrhythmic Percussion Music (1936) for three percussionists. He blended twelve-tone and tonal techniques in Symphony No. 1 (1942), Concerto Grosso (1950) for septet, Concerto for Cello with Woodwinds and Piano (1951), and other scores. Strang used a computer to synthesize sound for a series of 10 pieces he called Compusitions (1963–1972); working with a synthesizer, he created his series of nine Synthions (1969–1972) and his Four Synclavions (1983). Electronic music led Strang to explore microtonality, stochastic techniques, and randomness. He taught at Long Beach City College, University of California at Los Angeles, and other institutions. See also MODERNISM.

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STRAUSS, RICHARD (1864–1949). German composer and musician. Richard Strauss studied composition with Friedrich Wilhelm Mayer in 1875 and wrote conservative but skillful works in the 1880s, including his Serenade (1881) for wind ensemble, Suite (1884) for 13 winds, Burleske (1886) for piano and orchestra, and Aus Italien (1886) for orchestra. Upon absorbing the music of Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, and Richard Wagner, Strauss developed a livelier and more imaginative orchestral voice, beginning with Don Juan (1888) for orchestra. This programmatic tone poem in the Lisztian tradition used unusual melodic material and featured wide and sudden leaps. Strauss became an international sensation and established himself as a conductor with the orchestral scores that followed: Tod und Verklärung (1889), Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche (1895), Also sprach Zarathustra (1896), Don Quixote (1897), and Ein Heldenleben (1898). His tone poems ended with Sinfonia Domestica (1903) and Ein Alpensinfonie (1915), but Strauss won further renown with two landmark operas, Salome (1905) and Elektra (1908). They featured harsh dissonances and dramatic extremes of expressionist intensity, but their orchestral brilliance and vocal bravura secured their place in the repertory. With the tuneful and lighthearted Der Rosenkavalier (1910), Strauss composed his most popular opera. Hugo von Hofmannsthal wrote the libretti of Elektra and Der Rosenkavalier, but his later collaborations with Strauss—Ariadne auf Naxos (1912, rev. 1916), Die Frau ohne Schatten (1917), Die ägyptische Helena (1927), Arabella (1932)—were not as startling or affecting as their earlier work had been. The novelty of Strauss’s tone poems had worn off by then, too, and the man who had seemed the last word in modernism at the turn of the century came to be recognized as a true post-Romantic. Strauss coauthored the libretto for his final opera, Capriccio (1941). By then the grand old man of German music, he had formed an uneasy alliance with the Nazi government. He included an electronic-music instrument, the Trautonium, in the scoring of his Japanische Festmusik (1940) for orchestra. But most of the autumnal works of his final years were intimate pieces for smaller forces—Concerto No. 2 for horn and orchestra (1942), Metamorphosen (1945) for 23 strings, Concerto for oboe and orchestra (1945)—but Strauss scored the beloved Vier letzte Lieder (1948) for soprano with full orchestra. See also BARTÓK, BÉLA (1881–1945); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; KORNGOLD, ERICH WOLFGANG (1897–1957); SCHOENBERG, ARNOLD (1874–1951); SZYMANOWSKI, KAROL (1882–1937); VARÈSE, EDGARD (1883–1965). STRAVINSKY, IGOR (1882–1971). Russian-born American composer and musician. Arguably the definitive modernist, Igor Stravinsky brought a genius for rhythmic innovation to all his music, nationalist, neoclassical, and serial, and became one of the most admired composers in the history of

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Western music. Igor Fyodorovich Stravinsky was born on the estate of Oranienbaum (now Lomonosov), not far west of St. Petersburg. He began piano lessons at age nine and was composing by his teens. Preparing for a career in law, he entered St. Petersburg University in 1901 but began studying privately with composer Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov in 1903. Stravinsky produced a Symphony in E flat (1907, rev. 1914), indebted to Pyotr Tchaikovsky and Alexander Glazunov; more original were his colorful 1908 orchestral scores Scherzo Fantastique and Fireworks. Impressed by Fireworks, impresario Serge Diaghilev had Stravinsky compose a ballet on the Firebird legend. The result, L’oiseau de feu (1910), met with enormous acclaim. Stravinsky had brought brilliant orchestral color and a lively rhythmic sensibility to materials from Russian folk music, and The Firebird ultimately proved to be his most popular work, especially in the orchestral suites that he derived from it in 1911 (rev. 1919) and 1945. By then living in Europe, chiefly Switzerland, Stravinsky wrote two more Russian-nationalist ballets for Diaghilev. Petrushka (1911, rev. 1947) was well received despite its provocative polytonal passages. The premiere of the epochal Le sacre du printemps (1913, rev. 1947), however, was the most notorious scandal in music history. Stravinsky’s savage polyrhythms, thunderous percussion, and dissonant harmonies created an uproar that sealed his reputation. Le sacre du printemps joined its two predecessors in the repertory and proved widely influential for decades. Russian folk music informed additional theater works by Stravinsky in the 1910s and early 1920s, such as the opera Le rossignol (1914, rev. 1962), which he reworked as the ballet score Le chant du rossignol in 1917; the burlesque Renard (1916) for two tenors, two basses, and chamber ensemble; and the one-act comic opera Mavra (1922). It also characterized his other major compositions of the era: the short cantata Zvezdoliki (1911) for male chorus and orchestra; the beloved musical fable L’histoire du soldat (1918, rev. 1924) for three speakers, dancer, and seven instruments; and Symphonies of Wind Instruments (1920, rev. 1947). Stravinsky’s masterpiece Les noces (1923), scored for soprano, mezzo-soprano, tenor, bass, mixed chorus, four pianos, and 17 percussion instruments, was perhaps his most radical marriage of nationalism and modernism, topping even Le sacre. Stravinsky relocated to France in 1920 and became a French citizen in 1934. He began utilizing baroque and classical forms to strip the Romantic rhetoric that still clung to modernist rhythmic and harmonic techniques; with the Octet (1923, rev. 1952), he made his first use of sonata form since his 1907 Symphony. Stravinsky’s neoclassicism was fueled by his passion for clarity, polyrhythmic invention, and smaller mixed ensembles, and a series of major scores ensued. The first, Concerto for Piano and Wind Instruments (1924, rev. 1950), also launched his lifelong career as pianist or conductor of

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his own music. His love of older music also led to his arrangements for ballet scores, recasting Giovanni Pergolesi in Pulcinella (1920, rev. 1965) and Tchaikovsky in Le baiser de la fée (1928, rev. 1950). Giuseppe Verdi and George Frideric Handel loomed large behind Stravinsky’s oratorio Oedipus Rex (1927, rev. 1948); its tragic impact was undeniable, and it became one of his most performed works. Symphony of Psalms (1930, rev. 1948) for chorus and orchestra is another one of his most performed works; in its purity and vigor, it was perhaps Stravinsky’s finest music of the era, which includes such major scores as his two ballets choreographed by George Balanchine, Apollon-Musagète (1928, rev. 1947) and Jeu de cartes (1936), the Violin Concerto (1931), Duo concertant (1932) for violin and piano, Concerto for Two Solo Pianos (1935), and the Dumbarton Oaks Concerto (1938) for chamber orchestra. Shortly after the war ignited in 1939, Stravinsky left Europe and settled in the United States, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1945. American life invigorated his music, and he composed the Symphony in C (1940) and Symphony in Three Movements (1945). He reunited with Balanchine for Danses concertantes (1942) and Orpheus (1947) and composed the jazz-inspired Ebony Concerto (1945) for clarinetist Woody Herman and his band. Stravinsky’s vocal writing also found renewed power with the Mass (1948) for mixed chorus and double wind quintet and his opera The Rake’s Progress (1951). Stravinsky by then had become the most highly regarded contemporary composer in the world. Some admirers were confounded, however, when he began using serial techniques in the Cantata (1952) for soprano, tenor, female chorus, and ensemble; the Septet (1953); and Three Songs by William Shakespeare (1953) for mezzo-soprano, flute, clarinet, and viola. Having come to these methods largely through his interest in the music of Anton Webern, Stravinsky fully embraced serialism in Canticum Sacrum (1955) for tenor, baritone, chorus, and orchestra and the ballet score Agon (1957). Serialism dominated Stravinsky’s late music, with such scores as Threni (1958) for six solo voices, mixed chorus, and orchestra; Movements (1959) for piano and orchestra; A Sermon, a Narrative, and a Prayer (1961) for alto, tenor, speaker, chorus, and orchestra; Variations for Orchestra (1964); and Requiem Canticles (1966) for contralto, bass, chorus, and orchestra. He also made two of his finest arrangements: Monumentum pro Gesualdo di Venosa ad CD annum (1960), a tribute to Don Carlo Gesualdo, and Two Sacred Songs (1968) of Hugo Wolf. Declining health circumscribed Stravinsky’s last years, but at age 88, he moved into his new home in New York. One week later, he died there. See also ATONALITY; BERBERIAN, CATHY (1925–1983); BERIO, LUCIANO (1925–2003); BIRTWISTLE, HARRISON (SIR) (1934– ); BITONALITY; BOULANGER, NADIA (1887–1979); BOULEZ, PIERRE (1925–2016); COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); CRAFT, ROBERT (1923–2015); DAHL, INGOLF (1912–1970); DE-

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BUSSY, CLAUDE (1862–1918); FALLA, MANUEL DE (1876–1946); FORMALISM; FUTURISM; GROUPE DES SIX; IMPRESSIONISM; IRELAND, JOHN (1879–1962); LORIOD, YVONNE (1924–2010); LOURIÉ, ARTHUR (1892–1966); MILHAUD, DARIUS (1892–1974); MOONDOG (1916–1999); PACCIONE, PAUL (1952– ); PEARS, PETER (SIR) (1910–1986); POUND, EZRA (1885–1972); PROKOFIEV, SERGEY (1891–1953); RUDHYAR, DANE (1895–1985); RUSSELL, GEORGE (1923–2009); SMIT, LEOPOLD “LEO” (1900–1943); SULTAN, GRETE (1906–2005); SZYMANOWSKI, KAROL (1882–1937); TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996); TWELVE-TONE MUSIC; WUORINEN, CHARLES (1938– ); ZAPPA, FRANK (1940–1993). STRING PIANO. Percy Grainger took advantage of the strings of the piano with his In a Nutshell Suite (1914–1916), but it was Henry Cowell who coined the term string piano in describing his own innovative techniques for performing directly on the piano’s strings. He first strummed and plucked and struck the strings in his coyly titled solo, Piece for Piano with Strings (1923). Aeolian Harp (1923) and The Banshee (1925) were popular string-piano works, and Cowell began using implements within the piano, such as a pencil or thimble or darning egg, to produce new textures. With The Irish Suite (1928), a string-piano concerto with small orchestra, Cowell summed up what he saw as the possibilities of this modernist technique. Owing much to Cowell, later composers developed other extended performance techniques for piano, from the prepared piano of John Cage and the timbre piano of Lucia Dlugoszewski to works by George Crumb, Mauricio Kagel, Bruno Maderna, and the sound-icon pieces of Horatiu Radulecscu. Free jazz pianists such as Cecil Taylor and Sun Ra have also played string piano. See also KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); PLEROMA; SAUNDERS, REBECCA (1967– ); VIERK, LOIS V (1951– ). SUBLETTE, NED (1951– ). American composer and musician. Ned Sublette studied with Kenneth Gaburo and Pauline Oliveros at the University of California at San Diego and privately with La Monte Young. A producer, guitarist, and vocalist, Sublette has worked with such composer/musicians as Young, John Cage, Robert Ashley, Glenn Branca, Peter Gordon, Rhys Chatham, and “Blue” Gene Tyranny. His recordings include Western Classics (1982), the multicultural Cowboy Rumba (1999), and Kiss You Down South (2012). Sublette is also the author of Cuba and Its Music (2004) and The World That Made New Orleans (2008). See also POSTMODERNISM.

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SUBOTNICK, MORTON (1933– ). American composer and educator. Morton Subotnick studied with Darius Milhaud and Leon Kirchner at Mills College and began creating tape-music scores for theater and dancers in 1960. He cofounded the San Francisco Tape Music Center with Ramon Sender in 1962 and composed his first multimedia works: Mandolin (1963) for viola, tape, and film and Play! No. 3 (1965) for pianist/mime, tape, and film. In the mid-1960s, Subotnick supplied electronic music for New York’s legendary discotheque the Electric Circus. Commissioned by Nonesuch Records to compose an electronic work for LP, Subotnick created the landmark Silver Apples of the Moon (1967). A series of memorable records followed: The Wild Bull (1968), Touch (1969), Sidewinder (1971), Four Butterflies (1973), Until Spring (1975). He also scored James Broughton’s film Dreamwood (1972). With Two Life Histories (1977) for clarinet, male voice, and electronics, Subotnick began creating electroacoustic works that he termed ghost scores, in which the players are accompanied by electronic sound that is generated from their own music, created by a tape recorder with outputs attached to different modules to alter their sounds. His other ghost-score works include Liquid Strata (1977) for piano and Axolotl (1981) for cello. Subotnick began using computers in his music with Ascent into Air (1981) for chamber ensemble and computer; The Key to Songs (1985) combined live musicians with an interactive computer that imitated their instruments. Return (1986) was purely electronic, made with a computer-controlled digital synthesizer. In A Desert Flowers (1989) for orchestra and computer, the conductor used a computer-modified baton that controlled the electronics. Subotnick achieved another breakthrough in 1992 with Five Scenes from an Imaginary Ballet, the first work conceived specifically for CD-ROM. Subotnick collaborated with his wife Joan La Barbara and Mark Coniglio on the multimedia work The Misfortune of the Immortals (1995); Balinese dancers join the voices, instruments, computers, and lights of his Hungers (1986) and Intimate Immensity (1997). Subotnick’s later music includes Echoes from the Silent Call of Girona (1998) for string quartet and CDROM; the electronic work Gestures: It Starts with Colors (2000); and Release (2003) for clarinet, violin, cello, piano, and computer-controlled surround sound. In 2009, he revised his 1975 electronic work to create Until Spring: Revisited for live electronics, glass harp, and video. Subotnick has taught at Mills College, Yale University, and other institutions; his students include Rhys Chatham, Lois V Vierk, and David Lang. He has also developed a series of CD-ROMs and the website www.creatingmusic.com to teach composition to children. See also ATONALITY; GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; MULTICULTURALISM; OLIVEROS, PAULINE (1932–2016); POSTMODERNISM; SPATIAL MUSIC; SURREALISM.

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SULTAN, GRETE (1906–2005). German-born American musician and educator. Pianist Grete Sultan studied in Berlin with Richard Buhlig, Leonid Kreutzer, and Edwin Fischer; in 1941, Buhlig helped her escape the Nazis and immigrate to the United States. She taught piano at numerous institutions in New York; her students include Lucia Dlugoszewski and Christian Wolff. A champion of modern and postmodern music, Sultan performed works by such composers as Wolff, Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, Henry Cowell, Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, Ben Weber, Stefan Wolpe, Alan Hovhaness, and John Cage who composed his Etudes Australes for her. SUN RA (1914–1993). American composer and musician. Herman “Sonny” Blount began playing piano at age 11 and, by the early 1930s, was leading his own band and touring the South. In 1946, he served as pianist and arranger for Fletcher Henderson in Chicago. His studies of Egyptology, the Bible, and outer space merged into a dynamic personal philosophy, and in 1952, he changed his name and began performing as Le Sony’r Ra, or more simply Sun Ra; he also formed his own group, called the Arkestra, which he would continue to lead for 40 years. Several key players stayed for good, too, most notably the saxophonists John Gilmore (tenor), Pat Patrick (baritone), and Marshall Allen (alto). Sun Ra released his first LP, Jazz by Sun Ra, in 1956, and shortly thereafter, he formed his own record label, Saturn, through which he would document his music. In 1961, he relocated the Arkestra to New York, and their sets established the band’s character. Dressed in colorful and glittering costumes, the musicians often marched around the audience while playing or singing. Performances were multimedia events that included dancers and light shows. Sun Ra’s music became more dissonant and polyrhythmic, and his sets evolved into unpredictable excursions through the history of African American music, past (Sun Ra’s arrangements of classics by Henderson, Jelly Roll Morton, Duke Ellington, and others), present (his driving hard-bop originals), and future (roof-raising collective free jazz improvisations). The Arkestra musicians became multi-instrumentalists, frequently employing extended performance techniques, and the percussion section grew multiculturally, with Brazilian and Indian drumming. Original instruments were also included, such as the Lightning Log Drum, made by bassoonist James Jacson from a tree that had been struck by lightning. A gifted pianist, Sun Ra improvised and composed in numerous idioms. He could play free and create dissonances, tone-clusters, noise, and overtone resonances; he also played string piano. But he nourished a special devotion for electric keyboards, playing one of the first Moog synthesizers: a preproduction Mini-Moog bought in 1969. Over the years, his arsenal included Solovox, Wurlitzer organ, Farfisa organ, Rocksichord, Yamaha organ,

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Spacemaster, electronic celeste, and DMX, and his imagination and virtuosity at the synthesizer resulted in one of the great bodies of work in real-time electronic music. In 1968, Sun Ra and the Arkestra chose Philadelphia as their base, and they performed nationwide and internationally for the rest of his life. In 1986, John Cage joined Sun Ra for a special performance at Coney Island. Sun Ra died in Birmingham, Alabama, at age 79 after a series of strokes; the Arkestra continues to play under the guidance of Marshall Allen. Sun Ra’s vast discography includes such notable releases as The Magic City (1965), Nothing Is (1967), Nuits de la Fondation Maeght, Vols. 1 and 2 (1971), Pictures of Infinity (1974), Live at Montreux (1978), Aurora Borealis (1980), Strange Celestial Road (1980), Stars That Shine Darkly (1985), John Cage Meets Sun Ra (1986), A Night in East Berlin (1987), Live London 1990 (1990), and Singles, Vols. 1 and 2 (2016–2017). He also starred in, coscripted, and scored the film Space Is the Place (1974). See also ATONALITY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; IBARRA, SUSIE (1970– ); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; NIBLOCK, PHILL (1933– ); PLEROMA; POSTMODERNISM; SURREALISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. SURREALISM. Originally a French literary movement, surrealism employed automatism as a direct expression of the unconscious. Guillaume Apollinaire coined the term in 1917, and surrealism found its official voice with André Breton’s Manifeste du surréalisme (1924). Surrealism had a profound impact on such artists as Max Ernst, Joan Miró, René Magritte, Salvador Dalí, and Man Ray; it emerged in film with the work of Luis Buñuel, Dalí, Ray, and Jean Cocteau. Dream imagery and collage became important surrealist techniques. Yet surrealism was slow to develop in modernist music and usually depended on surrealist texts and/or art: Erik Satie’s collaborations with Cocteau (Parade, 1916) and Francis Picabia (Relâche, 1924); operas by Dmitry Shostakovich (The Nose, 1928), Bohuslav Martinu (Les larmes du couteau, 1928; Les trois souhaits, 1929), and Francis Poulenc (Les mamelles de Tirésias, 1944); Pierre Boulez’s settings of the poetry of René Char in the 1940s and 1950s. More rare were such instrumental evocations of surrealism as Maurice Ravel’s La Valse (1920) or George Antheil’s La Femme 100 Têtes after Max Ernst (1933) for piano. Party Pieces (1945), cocomposed by John Cage, Lou Harrison, Henry Cowell, and Virgil Thomson, employed a surrealist technique in which no one was aware of the others’ contributions until the work was completed. Conlon Nancarrow’s Studies for Player Piano (1949–1992) also evoke surrealism: a piano producing sounds no human could play.

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In postmodern composition, surrealist music came into its own with the greater plasticity of sound afforded by electronic music. Richard Maxfield and Morton Subotnick used tape interactively with live musicians to reinvent what they played; Subotnick also pursued surrealist imagery in his electroacoustic scores The Key to Songs (1985), And the Butterflies Begin to Sing (1988), and All My Hummingbirds Have Alibis (1991). Utilizing a computer to synthesize speech, Charles Dodge’s Speech Songs (1972) and In Celebration (1975) have a surrealistic effect similar to Nancarrow’s. Sampling was a breakthrough for the surrealist vision of The Residents (The Tunes of Two Cities, 1982) and John Oswald (Plunderphonics EP, 1988); it also furthered the surreal nature of free improvisation and its deconstructed and invented instruments. Mauricio Kagel’s Match (1964) reproduces a recurring dream of battling musicians. Karlheinz Stockhausen’s Aus den Sieben Tagen (1968) and Für Kommende Zeiten (1970) and Pauline Oliveros’s Sonic Meditations I–XII (1971) and XIII–XXV (1973) seek to access the unconscious directly. Robert Ashley’s involuntary speech is the basis of his Automatic Writing (1979). Other notable postmodern composers who have explored surrealism include The Beatles, Sun Ra, Anne LeBaron, John Zorn, and Frank Zappa. See also ABRAHAMSEN, HANS (1952– ); ADÈS, THOMAS (1971– ); CARTER, ELLIOTT (1908–2012); THEATRICAL MUSIC. SYNTHESIZER. A synthesizer is a single device that contains the resources needed to generate and modify electronic sound. Along with synthesizing sound, such a machine also synthesizes an electronic-music studio, bringing together a panoply of equipment into a single unit (or a group of linked units). From 1938 to 1942, the Hammond Organ Company produced more than 1,000 Novachord keyboard instruments, but this all-tube, 72-note polyphonic synthesizer with oscillators failed to catch on (although Hanns Eisler featured it in his 1940 Chamber Symphony). The Electronic Sackbut of Canadian composer Hugh Le Caine, developed in 1948, is considered the first voltage-controlled synthesizer. In the United States in 1955, Harry Olsen and Herbert Belar first demonstrated their Mark I Synthesizer developed at the RCA studios. The RCA Mark II was installed at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in 1959 and was used by such composers as Milton Babbitt, Bülent Arel, Mario Davidovsky, and Charles Wuorinen. The breakthrough came in the mid-1960s with the keyboard-operated synthesizers developed by Donald Buchla and Robert Moog, working independently. In 1968, Moog reinvented the Trautonium into the Moogtonium for electronic-music composer Max Brand. The following year the first synthesizers entered the marketplace and transformed the experience of playing real-time electronic music. One of the first Moogs was purchased by Sun Ra who soon was giving virtuoso performances on synthesizer. The Beatles

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were also ahead of the curve, using a synthesizer on Abbey Road (1969), and the instrument soon found a home in rock music. As the technology has continued to develop, synthesizers have been marketed by an array of manufacturers. They have also been used in electronic and electroacoustic music by generations of composer/musicians, such as Paul Bowles, Vladimir Ussachevsky, Harry Somers, Gerald Strang, Kenneth Gaburo, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Henri Pousseur, Robert Ashley, Muhal Richard Abrams, Per Nørgård, Éliane Radigue, Morton Subotnick, Phill Niblock, Toshi Ichiyanagi, Christian Wolff, Terry Riley, La Monte Young, Alexander Nemtin, David Behrman, Bo Nilsson, Harold Budd, Alvin Curran, Wendy Carlos, Richard Teitelbaum, Jonathan Harvey, William Hellermann, Jerry Hunt, “Blue” Gene Tyranny, Laurie Spiegel, Maggi Payne, Tristan Murail, Laurie Anderson, The Residents, Brian Eno, Claude Vivier, Dean Drummond, Elodie Lauten, Anthony Davis, Michael Byron, Diamanda Galás, Robert Macht, John Adams, Joan La Barbara, Mary Jane Leach, Philip Perkins, Bun-Ching Lam, Kyle Gann, Bob Ostertag, Jessica Rylan, and Missy Mazzoli. See also COMPUTER MUSIC; FILM MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; FREE JAZZ; MEV; SAMPLING; SCOTT, RAYMOND (1908–1994). SZYMANOWSKI, KAROL (1882–1937). Ukrainian-born Polish composer, musician, and educator. Karol Szymanowski studied piano at the Warsaw Conservatory and later served as its director (1927–1930). His early scores, such as Symphony No. 2 (1910) and the opera Hagith (1913), showed the impact of Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss; but Szymanowski’s exposure to the music of Claude Debussy, Alexander Scriabin, and Igor Stravinsky led him to an impressionist idiom invigorated with polytonal techniques, as in Mythes (1915) for violin and piano, Masques (1916) for piano, Symphony No. 3 (1916), Violin Concerto No. 1 (1916), and the opera Król Roger (1924). His later compositions drew upon Polish folk music: Stabat Mater (1928) for tenor or soprano, mixed chorus, and orchestra; the ballet score Harnasie (1931); Symphony No. 4 (1932, aka Symphonie concertante) for piano and orchestra; and Violin Concerto No. 2 (1933). After a long struggle with tuberculosis, Szymanowski died in a sanitarium in Lausanne, Switzerland, at age 54. See also MODERNISM.

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T TAILLEFERRE, GERMAINE. See GROUPE DES SIX. TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ). Japanese musician and educator. Sister of composer Yuji Takahashi, Aki Takahashi studied at the Tokyo University of the Arts and quickly established herself as a virtuoso pianist specializing in modern and postmodern music. A champion of the music of Morton Feldman and Giacinto Scelsi, she has premiered scores by numerous composers, including her brother, Takehisa Kosugi, Jo Kondo, Toshi Ichiyanagi, John Cage, Joji Yuasa, Isang Yun, Richard Teitelbaum, Lois V Vierk, and Peter Garland. She initiated and performs the “Hyper Beatles” series of commissions of Beatles arrangements from other composers and has taught at the State University of New York at Buffalo, the California Institute of the Arts, and other institutions. TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ). Japanese composer, musician, and educator. Brother of pianist Aki Takahashi, Yuji Takahashi studied piano with Hiroshi Ito and composition with Shibata Minao, Ogura Roh, and Iannis Xenakis; he has taught at Indiana University and other institutions. A virtuoso pianist, he has championed the works of Erik Satie, Toru Takemitsu, and Xenakis, and he has performed with such composer/musicians as Takehisa Kosugi and Steve Lacy. Stochastic techniques inform Takahashi’s septet Chromamorphe 1 (1964) and Metatheses 1 (1968) for piano. He has composed tape music (Time, 1963; Tadori, 1972) and electroacoustic scores (Bridges I for electric harpsichord or piano, amplified cello, bass drum, and castanets, 1967; Kafka for three voices, saxophone, keyboards, and live electronics, 1990); he also performed protest songs with Suigyu Band (1978–1985) and scored several films. By the early 1980s, he was improvising on piano and computer. Among Takahashi’s multicultural scores are Mimi no ho (1994) for sho, viola, and reciter, and the indeterminate koto nado asobi (2000) for koto and ensemble of any instruments. His other notable compositions include For You I Sing This Song (1976) for clarinet, violin, cello, and piano; Kwang-ju, May 1980 (1980) for piano; Viola of 349

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Dmitry Shostakovich (2002) for solo viola; yoru, ame, samusa (2006) and January in Kyoto (2011) for mixed chorus; Wormwood (2015) for 12 instruments; and Verbena brasiliensis (2018) for piano. See also ATONALITY; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; POSTMODERNISM; SHOSTAKOVICH, DMITRY (1906–1975). TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996). Japanese composer and educator. The first Japanese composer to achieve an international audience, Takemitsu created a sound world of subtle textures, delicate harmonies, and eloquent silences, unsurpassed in its austere beauty. Toru Takemitsu was born in Tokyo and raised in Dalian, China, where his father was employed; not until 1937 did he return to Japan. Drafted into the Japanese army during the war, he was working on the construction of an army camp at age 14 when he first heard a recording of a French song, despite the official ban on Western music. Moved by its beauty, he resolved to become a musician and did so mostly on his own; composition lessons with Yasuji Kiyose in 1948 were his only formal training. In 1951, with composer Joji Yuasa and others, Takemitsu cofounded the Experimental Workshop, which gave performances of multimedia works. The facility enabled him to produce musique concrète such as Static Relief (1955), Tree, Sky, Bird (1956), and Sky, Horse, and Death (1958). In Vocalism A–I (1956), he used inflections of the Japanese word for “love” as his only sound source; in Water Music (1960), dripping water. Requiem for Strings (1957) was the first of Takemitsu’s instrumental pieces to be taken up in the West; others soon followed, such as Tableau Noir (1958) for speaker and chamber orchestra, Coral Island (1962) for soprano and orchestra, and Textures (1965) for piano and orchestra. His Western admirers in the 1960s included Igor Stravinsky and John Cage; Aaron Copland conducted the premiere of Takemitsu’s The Dorian Horizon (1966) for 17 strings. In 1970, Takemitsu organized the Music Today festival in Osaka and designed its Space Theater with lighting effects, lasers, and sound sculptures. Music Today brought international music to Japan for the next two decades; Takemitsu also lectured at Harvard University, Yale University, and other institutions. Takemitsu’s love of French modernism, especially the music of Claude Debussy and Olivier Messiaen, was reflected in his own impressionistic use of slow tempi and subtle textures and harmonies. He drew upon Japan’s traditional court music gagaku as well as Western concert music, jazz, and experimental music, invariably with a refined feeling for silence. Rather than begin with a formal structure or methodology, Takemitsu would typically assemble his sonic elements, with their varying degrees of stillness and activity, in cycles of differing lengths, not unlike the arrangement of a Japanese garden.

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Takemitsu developed his own approach to silence and indeterminacy with the graphic score Ring (1961) for flute, terz guitar, and lute; Sacrifice (1962) for alto flute, lute, and vibraphone with antique cymbals; and the septet Sonant (1965, rev. 1969), which he soon renamed Varelia. During these years, Takemitsu was also creating music for films. He scored more than 90 in his career, among them such classics as Woman in the Dunes (1964), Kwaidan (1964), and Ran (1985). His film music encouraged Takemitsu to employ Japanese instruments compositionally in Eclipse (1966) for shakuhachi and biwa, for which he devised a graphic notation. In November Steps (1967), a popular multicultural score, he combined those two instruments with a Western orchestra. Experimental features characterize other music by Takemitsu in the 1960s and 1970s. The 1962 works Corona for Pianists and Corona II for string orchestra are graphic scores; Stanza II (1971) for tape and harp also includes graphic notation. Stanza I (1969) for female voice, guitar, harp, vibraphone, and piano/celesta offered performance freedoms, and Takemitsu incorporated it into his next piece, Crossing (1969), having it played in combination with two large orchestras. Toward (1970) and Wonder World (1972) are works of electronic music. Gémeaux (1971, rev. 1986) was scored for oboe solo, trombone solo, two orchestras, and two conductors. Voice (1971) for solo flute imitated the shakuhachi and called for multiphonics and other extended performance techniques. In an Autumn Garden (1973) is a fullfledged gagaku score. The quintet Bryce (1976) is built on three tones and the eight quarter-tones that surround them. Natural sound appeared in Takemitsu’s composition, with birdsong in Stanza II and the 1986 environmental tape pieces A Minneapolis Garden and The Sea Is Still. A feeling for nature also pervaded his purely instrumental music, as in A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden (1977) for orchestra, From Far beyond Chrysanthemums and November Fog (1983) for violin and piano, How Slow the Wind (1991) for chamber orchestra, and its companion piece And then I Knew ’Twas Wind (1992) for flute, viola, and harp. Archipelago S. (1994) is a spatial work, with the 21 musicians divided into five subgroups and distributed through the performance space. Spirit Garden (1994) for orchestra utilized Takemitsu’s own version of serial procedures. Takemitsu had begun his first opera when he died of pneumonia in a Tokyo hospital at age 65 while undergoing treatment for bladder cancer. See also THE BEATLES; BISCARDI, CHESTER (1948– ); ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; GLOBOKAR, VINKO (1934– ); MICROTONALITY; POSTMODERNISM; TAN DUN (1957– ); TEXT-SOUND MUSIC.

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TAL, JOSEF (1910–2008). Polish-born Israeli composer, musician, and educator. Born Joseph Grünthal in what is now Poland, Josef Tal was raised in Berlin and studied with Paul Hindemith at the Hochschule für Musik. He immigrated to Palestine in 1934 and taught at the Jerusalem Academy of Music and the Hebrew University where he founded the Israel Center for Electronic Music in 1961. Blending tonal, atonal, and twelve-tone techniques, Tal’s modernist music includes six symphonies (1953–1991), Five Essays (1986–2000) for piano, the operas Ashmedai (1968) and Josef (1993), and the electronic Variations (1970) and Frequencies 440–462 (1972). He replaced the orchestra with tape in his Harpsichord Concerto (1964, rev. 1977), Piano Concerto No. 6 (1970), Harp Concerto (1971, rev. 1980), and the opera Massada 967 (1972). A pianist and conductor, Tal also wrote the autobiographies Der Sohn des Rabbiners (1985), Reminiscences, Reflection, Summaries (1997), and Tonspur (2005); with Shlomo Markel, he devised the Talmark notation system for electronic music. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC. TALMA, LOUISE (1906–1996). French-born American composer, musician, and educator. Louise Talma relocated to New York with her family in 1914. At the American Conservatory at Fontainebleau, she studied piano with Isidore Philipp and composition with Nadia Boulanger; she also taught there and at Hunter College. Her early works, which include Four-Handed Fun (1939) for two pianos and Toccata (1944) for orchestra, were neoclassical, but she turned to twelve-tone music with her String Quartet (1954), the opera The Alcestiad (1958), and Dialogues (1963) for piano and orchestra. Talma’s later serial music became less strict and more freely atonal, as in Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird (1979) for voice, oboe, and piano; The Ambient Air (1981) for four instruments; and Full Circle (1985) for orchestra. See also MODERNISM; WEISBERG, ARTHUR (1931–2009). TAN DUN (1957– ). Chinese-born American composer and musician. Tan Dun studied with Zhao Xindao and Li Yinghai at the Central Conservatory of Beijing, where he was introduced to Western music; visiting lecturers Isang Yun, Toru Takemitsu, Hans Werner Henze, Alexander Goehr, and George Crumb exposed him to modernism. Having composed such notable works as Eight Memories in Watercolor (1978) for piano and On Taoism (1985) for voice, bass clarinet, contrabassoon, and orchestra, he relocated to New York in 1986; Tan studied at Columbia University with Chou Wenchung and Mario Davidovsky and became a U.S. citizen. Among his multicultural works are Ghost Opera (1994) for string quartet and pipa with water, metal, stone, and paper; Concerto for String Quartet and Pipa (1999); Concerto for Zheng and String Orchestra (1999); and the operas Marco Polo

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(1995), Peony Pavilion (1998), and The First Emperor (2006). He has also scored such films as Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), Hero (2002), and The Banquet (2006). Tan’s Water Concerto (1998), Paper Concerto (2003), and Earth Concerto (2009) employed new instruments. His multimedia works include Orchestral Theatre I–IV (1990–1999); Secret of Wind and Birds (2015), which utilizes the musicians’ and the audience’s cell phones; and Symphony of Colors: Terracotta (2017). See also THE BEATLES; ECOMUSICOLOGY; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; KRONOS QUARTET; POSTMODERNISM; THEATRICAL MUSIC. TAPE MUSIC. Tape music begins before tape does: In Cairo in 1944, Halim El-Dabh composed Ta’abir al-Zaar using a wire recorder. French radio engineer Pierre Schaeffer created Étude aux chemins de fer, the first of his Cinq études de bruit, in 1948, using disk recordings—a technique anticipated by Paul Hindemith’s Grammophonplatteneigene Stücke (1930). Schaeffer called the new medium musique concrète, and the French radio network Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française (RTF) broadcast his music and gave him further access to their facilities. In collaboration with Pierre Henry, Schaeffer created the breakthrough work Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950). By then, magnetic tape recorders were generally available, and they established the Groupe de recherches de musique concrète at the RTF in 1951, becoming the first tape-music studio, and thus the first electronicmusic studio. With sound engineer Jacques Poullin, the Groupe developed the studio’s music-making capabilities and produced musique concrète by such composers as Edgard Varèse, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Pierre Boulez, Luc Ferrari, Jean Barraqué, Olivier Messiaen, Darius Milhaud, and Iannis Xenakis. Making music with tape became an international activity. In the United States, Vladimir Ussachevsky premiered a concert of his tape works in 1952 and then began collaborating with Otto Luening. Eschewing the European jargon, they called their pieces tape music and created Rhapsodic Variations (1954), the first work combining tape and orchestra. In 1954, Luciano Berio and Bruno Maderna collaborated on a tape piece, Ritratto di città; the following year they founded the Studio di Fonologia Musicale of the Italian Radio in Milan, where Berio, Maderna, Luigi Nono, and others composed tape music. Toshiro Mayuzumi made the first Japanese tape piece, X, Y, Z (1955), at the electronic-music studios of the NHK, Japan’s broadcasting system. Toru Takemitsu and Joji Yuasa also created tape music at Tokyo’s Experimental Workshop. Roberto Gerhard pioneered English tape music, composing at the BBC Radiophonic Workshop. Canadian engineer and composer Hugh Le Caine invented the Multi-track in 1955, which could replay six tapes simultaneously, each with variable speed and direction.

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Electroacoustic music combining taped sounds with live musicians became a permanent feature of 20th-century music, but the type of music on the tape continued to change. Innovators such as Richard Maxfield and Morton Subotnick created works in which tape was an interactive partner with live performers, but over the 1960s and 1970s, tape served more frequently as messenger than as medium, to play sounds that had been electrically synthesized. Eventually it was supplanted almost completely by advances in computer music and sampling, which became commonly available in the 1980s and provided greater ease in selecting and manipulating sounds. See also ACOUSMATIC MUSIC; ADAMS, JOHN LUTHER (1953– ); AMIRKHANIAN, CHARLES (1945– ); ANDERSON, BETH (1950– ); ANDERSON, LAURIE (1947– ); ANDERSON, RUTH (1928– ); ANHALT, ISTVÁN (1919–2012); AREL, BÜLENT (1919–1990); ASHLEY, ROBERT (1930–2014); ATONALITY; AUSTIN, LARRY (1930–2018); BADINGS, HENK (1907–1987); THE BEATLES; BEHRMAN, DAVID (1937– ); BERBERIAN, CATHY (1925–1983); BERNSTEIN, LEONARD (1918–1990); BRYARS, GAVIN (1943– ); CAGE, JOHN (1912–1992); CERHA, FRIEDRICH (1926– ); CHAMBERS, WENDY MAE (1953– ); CHATHAM, RHYS (1952– ); CHIN, UNSUK (1961– ); CHOU WENCHUNG (1923– ); DENISOV, EDISON (1929–1996); DODGE, CHARLES (1942– ); DOOLITTLE, EMILY (1972– ); DRUCKMAN, JACOB (1928–1996); ECOMUSICOLOGY; ENO, BRIAN (1948– ); FILM MUSIC; FINNEY, ROSS LEE (1906–1997); GABURO, KENNETH (1926–1993); GANN, KYLE (1955– ); GLOBOKAR, VINKO (1934– ); GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ); GRISEY, GÉRARD (1946–1998); HARVEY, JONATHAN (1939–2012); HELLERMANN, WILLIAM (1939–2017); HIGGINS, DICK (1938–1998); HILLER, LEJAREN (1924–1994); HOVHANESS, ALAN (1911–2000); ICHIYANAGI, TOSHI (1933– ); INDETERMINACY; JOHNSON, DENNIS (1938– ); JOHNSTON, BEN (1926– ); KAGEL, MAURICIO (1931–2008); KANCHELI, GIYA (1935– ); KIRCHNER, LEON (1919–2009); KOLB, BARBARA (1939– ); KONDO, JO (1947– ); LA BARBARA, JOAN (1947– ); LAUTEN, ELODIE (1950–2014); LEACH, MARY JANE (1949– ); LEBARON, ANNE (1953– ); LIGETI, GYÖRGY (1923–2006); LOCKWOOD, ANNEA (1939– ); LUCIER, ALVIN (1931– ); MARCUS, BUNITA (1952– ); MARTIRANO, SALVATORE (1927–1995); MIMAROGLU, ILHAN (1926–2012); MULTIMEDIA; MUMMA, GORDON (1935– ); MUSGRAVE, THEA (1928– ); NIBLOCK, PHILL (1933– ); NILSSON, BO (1937–2018); NØRGÅRD, PER (1932– ); OLIVEROS, PAULINE (1932–2016); ONO, YOKO (1933– ); OSTERTAG, BOB (1957– ); OSWALD, JOHN (1953– ); OTT, DANIEL (1960–); PACCIONE, PAUL (1952– ); PALESTINE, CHARLEMAGNE (1947– ); PAYNE, MAGGI (1945– ); PENDERECKI, KRZYSZTOF (1933– ); PERKINS, PHILIP

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(1951– ); POUSSEUR, HENRI (1929–2009); POWELL, MEL (1923–1998); RADIGUE, ÉLIANE (1932– ); RAUTAVAARA, EINOJUHANI (1928–2016); REICH, STEVE (1936– ); THE RESIDENTS; REYNOLDS, ROGER (1934– ); RILEY, TERRY (1935– ); RISSET, JEAN-CLAUDE (1938–2016); ROCHBERG, GEORGE (1918–2005); SALLINEN, AULIS (1935– ); SCHAFER, R. MURRAY (1933– ); SCULTHORPE, PETER (1929–2014); SEMEGEN, DARIA (1946– ); SHAPEY, RALPH (1921–2002); SHIELDS, ALICE (1943– ); SIKORSKI, TOMASZ (1939–1988); SOMERS, HARRY (1925–1999); SOUND INSTALLATION; SOUND SCULPTURE; SPIEGEL, LAURIE (1945– ); SURREALISM; TAKAHASHI, YUJI (1938– ); TAL, JOSEF (1910–2008); TAVENER, JOHN (SIR) (1944–2013); TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006); TEXT-SOUND MUSIC; TONE, YASUNAO (1935– ); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ); VIVIER, CLAUDE (1948–1983); WESTERKAMP, HILDEGARD (1946– ). TAVENER, JOHN (SIR) (1944–2013). English composer and educator. John Tavener studied with Sir Lennox Berkeley at London’s Royal Academy of Music (1961–1965). He attracted attention with his avant-garde retelling of Jonah, The Whale (1966) for soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra, and the opera Thérèse (1973). Ultimos ritos (1972) for soloists, mixed chorus, orchestra, and tape explored stillness and meditation. The minimalist qualities of Tavener’s music crystallized after he was received into the Eastern Orthodox Church in 1976, and stillness characterized Akhmatova Rekviem (1980) for soprano, baritone, and orchestra and Prayer for the World (1981) for mixed chorus, his half-hour setting of a 12-word prayer. Tavener’s static, melodic music includes such major scores as The Protecting Veil (1987) for cello and string orchestra, the opera Mary of Egypt (1991), and the orchestral works Theophany (1993) and Mystagogia (1998). After Tavener was knighted in 2000, his music became more multicultural and explored other religions. He combined Christian, Hindu, and Islamic texts in The Veil of the Temple (2002), scored for soprano, boys choir, and Eastern and Western instruments, which he composed in versions of twoand-a-half and seven hours, and in Requiem (2007) for cello, soprano, tenor, mixed chorus, and orchestra. His other notable later music includes Towards Silence (2007), a spatial score for four string quartets and large Tibetan temple bowl; The Death of Ivan Ilyich (2012), a monodrama adapted from Leo Tolstoy, scored for bass-baritone, solo cello, two trombones, strings, and percussion; and the 2013 choral works Missa Wellensis (a cappella) and Monument for Beethoven (with organ), which quote Tomás Luis de Victoria and Ludwig van Beethoven, respectively. Tavener taught at Trinity College

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of Music, London; his students include Judith Weir. Afflicted with health issues for most of his life, Tavener died in his Dorset home at age 69. See also POSTMODERNISM. TAYLOR, CECIL (1929–2018). American composer and musician. Cecil Taylor started playing piano at age five. He studied at the New York College of Music and New England Conservatory of Music but found his real education on his own, principally in the music of Duke Ellington, Thelonious Monk, Bud Powell, and Horace Silver. Taylor played in bands during the early 1950s and formed his own quartet in 1953. His lengthy, heavily chromatic, dissonant, and frequently atonal post-bop piano music became longer and more visceral and polyrhythmic in the early 1960s, and it included toneclusters; his later performances also included string-piano techniques. Despite such noteworthy recordings as The World of Cecil Taylor (1961) and Unit Structures (1966), Taylor’s music often met with incomprehension and hostility. But by the 1980s, he was recognized internationally as a master of free jazz, and he began composing for large ensembles. He adapted his densities and cross-tempi and sense of spirit to a broad canvas in such works as the 10-musician recording Segments II (1985); the 1988 sessions of Legba Crossing and Alms/Tiergarten (Spree), for 15 and 17 musicians, respectively, released on Cecil Taylor in Berlin ’88 (1990); his 1990 sessions for 11 musicians, released on Melancholy (1999); and his 2000 recordings with the 18-musician Italian Instabile Orchestra, released on The Owner of the River Bank (2004). Taylor performed with numerous improvising composer/musicians in his career, including John Coltrane, the Art Ensemble of Chicago, Max Roach, Derek Bailey, Steve Lacy, Tony Oxley, Leroy Jenkins, Anthony Braxton, and Pauline Oliveros. His other notable recordings include the solos Silent Tongues (1975), For Olim (1987), The Tree of Life (1998), The Willisau Concert (2002), and Poschiavo (2018), and the group performances 3 Phasis (1979), Live in Bologna (1988), In Florescence (1990), Nailed (2000), Almeda (2004), and Almeda (To Matie) (2012). Taylor also vocalized at many performances and recorded his poetry (Chinampas, 1987). He died in his home in Brooklyn at age 89. See also EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; FREE IMPROVISATION; MODERNISM; PLEROMA; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. TEITELBAUM, RICHARD (1939– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Richard Teitelbaum studied at Yale University with Mel Powell; in Darmstadt with György Ligeti, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and Milton Babbitt; in Italy with Luigi Nono; and in Japan with shakuhachi master Katsuya Yokoyama. A pioneer in live electronic music, Teitelbaum brought the first

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Moog synthesizer to Europe in 1966, the year he cofounded MEV, in which he has remained a core member along with Alvin Curran and Frederic Rzewski. Teitelbaum has improvised on synthesizers and electronic systems with such composer/musicians as Anthony Braxton, Fred Frith, Joëlle Léandre, George Lewis, Anthony Davis, Leroy Jenkins, Derek Bailey, and Steve Lacy. He also scored Suzan Pitt’s classic animated short Asparagus (1979). Teitelbaum’s electroacoustic works include Ode (1980) for voice and Harmonizer, Solo for Pianos (1982) for digital piano system, Concerto Grosso (1985) for Human Concertino and Robotic Ripieno, the operas Golem (1994) and Z’vi (2005), and the multicultural scores Blends (1977) for shakuhachi, two synthesizers, and percussion; Man Made Ears (1987) for synthesizers, violin, and shamisen; Intera (1991) for yokobue, Western reeds, and interactive computer system; and Trio (2001) for sho, hichiriki, sampler, and computer. Teitelbaum has taught at Bard College, York University, and the California Institute of the Arts; his students include John Oswald and Michael Byron. See also FILM MUSIC; FREE IMPROVISATION; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); POSTMODERNISM; TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ). TELHARMONIUM. American musician Thaddeus Cahill (1867–1934) studied at the Oberlin Conservatory of Music and patented a polyphonic electric keyboard instrument in 1897. The telharmonium, or dynamophone, used the electro-mechanical action of spinning alternators to produce sinewave tones that were tuned to the chromatic scale. It included a touchsensitive keyboard for dynamic control, filters to create wind and string timbres, and a telephone; its sound was fed into telephone wires and heard through amplified phone receivers. Cahill built three telharmoniums between 1900 and 1906, and he gave public performances of the third and most ambitious model, which spanned five octaves. The telharmonium was discussed by Ferruccio Busoni in Sketch of a New Aesthetic of Music (1907) and praised by Mark Twain, but the elaborate and unwieldy instrument met with no success; Cahill gave up electronic music in the early 1910s. TENNEY, JAMES (1934–2006). American composer, musician, educator, and theorist. James Tenney studied piano with Edward Steuermann, conducting with Henry Brant, electronic music with Lejaren Hiller, and composition with Chou Wen-chung, Carl Ruggles, Kenneth Gaburo, and Edgard Varèse; he also held an assistantship with Harry Partch in the early 1960s. Tenney used pop music for his tape piece Collage #1: “Blue Suede” (1961). His interest in electronic music led him to become an associate member of the technical staff at Bell Labs (1961–1964), where he created such landmark computer-music works as Analog #1: Noise Study (1961),

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Stochastic Studies (1962), Phases (1963), and Ergodos II (1964), often employing stochastic procedures. He collaborated with George Brecht on the electronic Entrance/Exit Music (1962) and became involved with Fluxus performances in the mid-1960s, creating the indeterminate “Chamber Music” (1964) for any number of instruments, players, objects, or events, and his series of Postal Pieces (1965–1971), which included Swell Piece #1 (1967) for any number of sustained-tone instruments. He was also a cofounder and conductor of the new-music group Tone Roads Chamber Ensemble (1963–1970). Along with his conceptual scores, Tenney composed minimalist electronic music with For Ann (rising) (1969) and such gradual-process pieces as Clang (1972) for orchestra, Saxony (1978) for one or more saxophone players and tape-delay system, and Voice(s) (1983) for variable instrumental ensemble, voice(s), and multiple tape-delay system. Tenney’s other major works from these years include Quiet Fan (1971) for chamber ensemble, a tribute to Erik Satie; Spectral CANON for CONLON Nancarrow (1974, rev. 1991) for harmonic player piano; Chromatic Canon (1980, rev. 1983) for two pianos, a blend of twelve-tone and minimalist procedures; and Bridge (1984) for two microtonal pianos eight-hands, which merged the ideas of Partch and John Cage. Tenney composed multicultural scores with The Road to Ubud (1986) for gamelan and prepared piano and Last Spring in Toronto (2000) for gamelan and orchestra. Critical Band (1988) for variable ensemble and tape-delay system used interval ratios from the harmonic series. Flecking (1993) for two pianos tuned a quarter-tone apart utilized graphic notation. Spectrum 1–8 (1995–2001) was a series of spectral works for various instruments. Tenney wrote the theoretical studies META+HODOS (1961) and META Meta+Hodos (1975) and A History of “Consonance” and “Dissonance” (1988). He taught at York University, the California Institute of the Arts, and other institutions; his students include Peter Garland, Joe Hannan, John Oswald, Michael Byron, and John Luther Adams. See also ATONALITY; THE BEATLES; DISSONANCE; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM (1936– ); JUST INTONATION; LUCIER, ALVIN (1931– ); NANCARROW, CONLON (1912–1997); POSTMODERNISM; UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. In text-sound music, or sound poetry, music and poetry are combined in ways that typically defy syntax, often with language broken down into phonemes. While it can include accompaniment, the form requires only the spoken voice. Visual artist Kurt Schwitters (1887–1948), who was part of the German Dada movement, gave landmark performances of his Sonate in Urlauten, or Ursonate, from 1925 to 1932, developing it into

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a four-movement composition. Two modernist choral works from 1930— Ernst Toch’s Gesprochene Musik and Ruth Crawford’s Three Chants for Women’s Voices—reflect Schwitters’ impact. Such later modernist composers as Bruno Maderna, Krzysztof Penderecki, Mel Powell, Milton Babbitt, and István Anhalt also created textsound music, but it was postmodern composition that embraced this approach. Tape music offered a new medium for text-sound music, with works derived from human speech by Toru Takemitsu (Vocalism A–I, 1956), Luciano Berio (Thema, 1958), Dick Higgins (Requiem for Wagner the Criminal Mayor, 1962), Ilhan Mimaroglu (Le tombeau d’Edgar Poe, 1964), Steve Reich (It’s Gonna Rain, 1965; Come Out, 1966), Alice Shields (Study for Voice and Tape, 1968), Charles Amirkhanian (If In Is, 1971), and Ruth Anderson (I come out of your sleep, 1979). Text-sound tape music has also been created by such poets as Clark Coolidge (Preface, 1968) and John Giorno (Give It to Me, Baby, 1967). Computer music continued and expanded this tradition, from the synthesized speech of Charles Dodge to the use of sampled voices by John Oswald, David Shea, and others. Electroacoustic text-sound compositions include Mauricio Kagel’s Sur scène (1960), Kenneth Gaburo’s Antiphony III (1962), Alvin Lucier’s I Am Sitting in a Room (1970), and Robert Ashley’s In Sara, Mencken, Christ and Beethoven There Were Men and Women (1972); Maryanne Amacher created taped soundscapes for John Cage’s text-sound piece Lecture on the Weather (1975). Instruments accompany voices singing in imaginary languages in music by Claude Vivier (Kopernikus, 1979; Lonely Child, 1980) and The Residents (Eskimo, 1980; The Big Bubble, 1985). Sung performances by free jazz musician Cecil Taylor and by free improvisers Shelley Hirsch and Phil Minton have also used languages all their own; Mike Patton vocalizes somewhere beyond language or singing in John Zorn’s Six Litanies for Heliogabalus (2007). Like Schwitters, Harry Somers (Voiceplay, 1971) and Cage (Empty Words, 1974) also performed and recorded their own text-sound works. Among the notable composers of purely vocal text-sound pieces are Pauline Oliveros (Sound Patterns, 1961), Cathy Berberian (Stripsody, 1966), Henri Pousseur (Phonèmes pour Cathy, 1966), Cage (62 Mesostics Re Merce Cunningham, 1971), Gaburo (The Flow of (u), 1974), Beth Anderson (If I Were a Poet, 1975), and Tom Johnson (Tick Tock Rhythms, 2012). THEATRICAL MUSIC. There is a distinction between music theater— staged works that are built around vocal and/or instrumental music—and theater music, music made to accompany theatrical action just as film music accompanies cinematic action. This entry concerns a further subcategory, theatrical music: concert works that require musicians to do more than just

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sing or play their instruments. Such theatrical flourishes are rare in classical music. In the 1770s, Joseph Haydn had his musicians exiting one by one at the end of his Symphony No. 45 and tuning their instruments in Symphony No. 60. By the 1890s, Erik Satie was writing witty and unusual directions in his scores, attempting to recalibrate his musicians’ relationship to performance. Henry Brant’s 1930s concert scores Music for a Five and Dime and The Marx Brothers are also theatrical, although Brant was creating theater by having his musicians play just as though they were using concert instruments and not hardware or tin whistles. The theatrical tendencies in both Satie and Brant were attempts at deconstruction, and theatrical music is essentially a postmodern innovation. Almost all of Harry Partch’s music was a form of theater, with costumed musicians playing the exotic instruments he had built; even his purely instrumental Ulysses at the Edge (1955) has spoken words. John Cage’s landmark use of indeterminacy with 4'33" occurred in 1952, the same year he organized what is now seen as one of the first Happenings: a multimedia event employing numerous disciplines of performance art, film/video, poetry, dance, music, and theater, with a nonnarrative sequence and freedom for performers to improvise. Cage’s Water Music (1952) and Water Walk (1959) also had theatrical qualities, and he came to regard the 1952 event as his Theatre Piece No. 1, which he followed with Theatre Piece (1960) for up to eight performers (musicians, dancers, singers) who execute actions derived from words chosen by the performer. In Europe, the breakthrough postmodern composer of theatrical music was Mauricio Kagel, bringing surrealism, humor, and invention into the concert hall from such early works as Sur scène (1960) and Match (1964) to his later pieces Entführung im Konzertsaal (1999), with its abducted orchestra, and the farce Divertimento (2006). In the early 1960s, the international movement of Fluxus composers gave concerts that erased the distinction between music and theater. Theatrical music has remained a vital aspect of composition, with notable works from Bernd Alois Zimmermann, Lukas Foss, Lejaren Hiller, Luciano Berio, Harry Somers, Salvatore Martirano, Jacob Druckman, Thea Musgrave, George Crumb, Pauline Oliveros, R. Murray Schafer, Vinko Globokar, Peter Maxwell Davies, Nicholas Maw, Philip Krumm, Jerry Hunt, Claude Vivier, Dean Drummond, Bunita Marcus, Anne LeBaron, Tan Dun, Daniel Ott, and Isabel Mundry. See also INSTRUMENT BUILDING; SONIC ARTS UNION. THEREMIN. Patented in 1921 by Russian scientist Leon Theremin, the theremin was the first electronic-music instrument to be used internationally. The monophonic theremin generates sound through the heterodyning method, with the right hand controlling a vertical antenna for pitch, and the

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left, a horizontal antenna for dynamics. But the theremin is unique in that it is never touched: Frequency and amplitude are altered by moving one’s hands within the electromagnetic fields of the antennae. Despite notable efforts from Joseph Schillinger, Edgard Varèse, Percy Grainger, and Bohuslav Martinu, the theremin never attracted much interest from composers; the virtuoso performer Clara Rockmore (1911–1998) kept it before audiences, usually playing transcriptions. Its sound became most familiar in film music: Miklos Rózsa used the theremin to evoke madness in two 1945 dramas, The Lost Weekend and Spellbound, and Bernard Herrmann gave it a new home in science fiction when he scored The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951). With its memorable appearance in the Beach Boys’ classic “Good Vibrations” (1966), the theremin excited a new generation of music lovers. It has since enjoyed something of a renaissance, with performances by such virtuosi as Youssef Yancy, Lydia Kavina, and Armen Ra; 21st-century composers for the theremin include Halim El-Dabh, Meredith Monk, Neely Bruce, and Cat Hope. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; GRAPHIC NOTATION; SCOTT, RAYMOND (1908–1994); TRAUTONIUM. THEREMIN, LEON (1896–1993). Russian scientist and inventor. Lev Sergeyevich Teremen came upon the heterodyning method for synthesizing sound electronically when he was building a radio in 1918. Three years later, as Leon Theremin, he patented the theremin, a monophonic electronicmusic instrument with antennae for controlling pitch and dynamics. Theremin immigrated to the United States in 1928 and found a protégée in the teenage Clara Rockmore who became the preeminent theremin virtuoso of her time. Along with variations on his instrument such as the Keyboard Theremin and Electronic Cello, he also constructed the rhythmicon, which produced pitches tuned to the overtone series as well as difficult new polyrhythms for Henry Cowell’s Rhythmicana (1931). In 1938, Theremin was kidnapped by Soviet agents and forcibly returned to the Soviet Union to develop eavesdropping and surveillance technology. Not until 1991, at age 95, did he revisit the United States and Rockmore. See also BRUCE, NEELY (1944– ); GOSFIELD, ANNIE (1960– ); INSTRUMENT BUILDING; IVES, CHARLES (1874–1954); RUSSELL, WILLIAM (1905–1992). THOMSON, VIRGIL (1896–1989). American composer, musician, and critic. Already proficient at piano and organ, Virgil Thomson studied with Edward Burlingame Hill at Harvard (1919–1923), with Nadia Boulanger in Paris in 1922, and with Rosario Scalero back in the United States the following year. Returning to Paris in 1925, he composed the neoclassical scores Synthetic Waltzes (1925) for piano four-hands and Sonata de chiesa (1926)

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for five instruments. Thomson also became friends with the American writer Gertrude Stein and demonstrated a flair for setting her poetry with Susie Asado (1926) for voice and piano and Capital Capitals (1927) for four male voices and piano. Inspired by the use of popular tunes in Erik Satie’s non-rhetorical music, Thomson quoted the hymns and folk music he had heard growing up in Missouri. He used familiar materials in unfamiliar ways, bringing humor, charm, and invention to his diatonic idiom in Variations on Sunday School Tunes (1927) for organ, Symphony on a Hymn Tune (1928), and Piano Sonata No. 1 (1929, orchestrated 1931 as Symphony No. 2, rev. 1941). In the opera Four Saints in Three Acts (1928), Thomson’s greatest work, this technique approached minimalism, eschewing drama as sweepingly as Stein did in her libretto. In the late 1920s, Thomson began composing short portraits of people with his subjects sitting for him. He ultimately produced more than 100 portraits and orchestrated 11 of the best in 1982. He explored neoromantic qualities with Sonata for Violin and Piano (1930), String Quartet No. 2 (1931, rev. 1957 and orchestrated 1972 as Symphony No. 3), Stabat Mater (1931) for soprano and string quartet, the ballet Filling Station (1937), and the orchestral suites from his scores for the Pare Lorentz films The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) and The River (1937). A frequent conductor of his own music, Thomson was also chief music critic for the New York Herald Tribune (1940–1954) and a teacher for Lou Harrison, Ned Rorem, Paul Bowles, and Richard Yardumian. His notable later works include a second opera to a Stein libretto, The Mother of Us All (1947); the score for Robert Flaherty’s film Louisiana Story (1948); Cello Concerto (1949); Three Pictures (1952) for orchestra; Mostly about Love (1959) for voice and piano; the opera Lord Byron (1968); the ballet score Parson Weems and the Cherry Tree (1975); and Thoughts for Strings (1981) for string orchestra. See also COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); MODERNISM; SURREALISM. THORVALDSDOTTIR, ANNA (1977– ). Icelandic composer and educator. Anna Thorvaldsdottir studied at the Iceland Academy of the Arts and the University of California at San Diego where her teachers included Rand Steiger and Roger Reynolds; she also taught at San Diego. Thorvaldsdottir won acclaim with Hrím (2010) for chamber orchestra, a compelling study in static shifting textures, featuring glissandi and long sustained tones—a Nordic take on both impressionist and expressionist gestures, recalling Béla Bartók’s “Night Music.” When she masses like voices, as in Into—Second Self (2013) for four horns, three trombones, and four percussionists, she explores pleroma music. Her electroacoustic music includes Rain (2010) for soprano, flute, guitar, and electronics; Trajectories (2013) for piano and fixed electronics, which can also be performed in a multimedia version with

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video; and In the Light of Air (2014) for viola, cello, harp, piano, percussion, and prerecorded electronics, a tetralogy of works that can also be played separately as Luminance, Serenity, Existence, and Remembrance. Thorvaldsdottir scored the film XL (2013); her recent works include the chamber opera UR_ (2015), —Aura— (2015) for four percussionists in a close circle, and Spectra (2017) for violin, viola, and cello. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ). English composer and musician. John Tilbury studied piano with Arthur Alexander and James Gibb at the Royal College of Music and with Zbigniew Drzewiecki in Warsaw. He met Cornelius Cardew in 1959, and they concertized together in the 1960s. A virtuoso pianist of postmodern music, Tilbury gained renown playing such composers as Cardew, Gavin Bryars, Howard Skempton, Tomasz Sikorski, Morton Feldman, John Cage, Christian Wolff, Earle Brown, and Terry Jennings. For most of the 1970s, Tilbury turned from avant-garde music to revolutionary politics. In 1978, he recorded songs by Arnold Schoenberg and Alban Berg with soprano Roswitha Wexler and, in 1980, began performing with AMM. Tilbury remains active as a free improviser; he has performed solo and with such composer/musicians as Pauline Oliveros, Roscoe Mitchell, Derek Bailey, Evan Parker, and AMM’s Keith Rowe and Eddie Prévost. Tilbury resumed performing and recording the music he had championed earlier, and in 2001, he composed The Hands of Caravaggio with Rowe’s electroacoustic ensemble MIMEO. He adapted Samuel Beckett in 2005, composing the radio piece Cascando with electronic modulations by Sebastian Lexer and cocomposing Rough for Radio 1 with Lexer and Prévost. The author of Cornelius Cardew: A Life Unfinished (2008), Tilbury also scored the film The Tiger’s Mind (2012). See also MODERNISM. TILSON THOMAS, MICHAEL (1944– ). American composer and musician. Michael Tilson Thomas studied composition and conducting with Ingolf Dahl and piano with John Crown at the University of Southern California (1962–1967). The cofounder of the New World Symphony, he has conducted orchestras internationally; in 1995, he became music director of the San Francisco Symphony. Tilson Thomas’s compositions include From the Diary of Anne Frank (1990) for narrator and orchestra, Shówa/Shoáh (1995) for orchestra, Whitman Songs (1999) for baritone and orchestra, Poems of Emily Dickinson (2002) for soprano and orchestra, Notturno (2005) for flute and piano or strings, the electronic-music dance-theater score Stay Together (2006), and Four Preludes on Playthings of the Wind (2016) for mezzosoprano, two female backup singers, bar band, and chamber orchestra. See also MODERNISM.

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TIPPETT, MICHAEL (SIR) (1905–1998). English composer and musician. Michael Tippett studied composition and conducting at the Royal College of Music; he served as musical director of Morley College (1940–1951). A lyrical tonal composer, he was admired for his Concerto for Double String Orchestra (1939) and the oratorio A Child of Our Time (1941), and he found special success in opera: The Midsummer Marriage (1952), King Priam (1961), The Knot Garden (1970), The Ice Break (1976), and New Year (1989). His other vocal music includes Boyhood’s End (1943) for tenor and piano; The Heart’s Assurance (1951) for high voice and piano; The Vision of St. Augustine (1965) for baritone, mixed chorus, and orchestra; Songs for Dov (1970) for tenor and small orchestra; the oratorio The Mask of Time (1982); and Byzantium (1990) for soprano and orchestra. The author of Moving into Aquarius (1959), Those Twentieth-Century Blues (1991), and Tippett on Music (1995), he was made a member of the Order of Merit in 1983 and knighted in 1966. Among Tippet’s other works are String Quartets Nos. 1–5 (1935–1992), Piano Sonatas Nos. 1–4 (1937–1984), Symphonies Nos. 1–4 (1945–1977), Piano Concerto (1953), Concerto for Orchestra (1962), Triple Concerto (1978), and The Rose Lake (1993) for orchestra. See also MODERNISM; PEARS, PETER (SIR) (1910–1986). TOCH, ERNST (1887–1964). Austrian-born American composer, musician, educator, and theorist. Ernst Toch studied composition as a teenager with Robert Fuchs in Vienna; at the Frankfurt am Main Academy of Music (1909–1913), he studied composition and piano. Toch taught in Mannheim (1913–1914, 1918–1929), at the New School for Social Research (1934–1936), and at the University of Southern California (1937–1948); his students include Gerald Strang, Alex North, Russell Garcia, and André Previn. Toch was a leading modernist with such works as String Quartet No. 9 (1919), Burlesken (1923) for piano, Cello Concerto (1925), Piano Sonata (1928), Bunte Suite (1928) for orchestra, Gesprochene Musik (1930) for spoken choral voices, and the operas Die Prinzessin auf der Erbse (1927), Egon und Emilie (1928), and Der Fächer (1930). He fled the Nazis in 1933, immigrated to the United States in 1934, and became a U.S. citizen in 1940. Toch’s other notable music includes seven surviving string quartets (Nos. 6–13, 1905–1953) and Symphonies Nos. 1–7 (1951–1964). He also composed numerous film scores and wrote the theoretical books Melodielehre (1923) and The Shaping Forces in Music (1948). See also TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. TONE, YASUNAO (1935– ). Japanese composer and musician. Yasunao Tone studied at Chiba University in Japan and became a cofounder of the improvising unit Group Ongaku (1958–1963), playing saxophone and tapes.

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Creator of the tape piece Number (1961), he was also a founding member of Japan’s Fluxus movement with such works as Anagram for Strings (1962). Tone settled in New York in 1972 and was soon pursuing multimedia methods of converting text into music via images, as in his electronic performance piece Voice and Phenomenon (1976, rev. 1977), which includes video, and Molecular Music (1982–1985), in which changing film images generate sound. Utilizing computer technology, Tone’s Trio for a Flute Player (1988) converts the flute’s music into electronic sounds and spontaneous texts; Musica Iconologos (1993) employs its own sonification methods with visual and textual information. Tone has also made music with CDs (Music for 2 CD Players, 1986, rev. 1989; Solo for Wounded CD, 1995) and with MP3s for his series MP3 Deviations, begun in 2009. He is the creator of numerous sound installations, many of which are interactive with the public. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. TONE-CLUSTER. Modernist composer Henry Cowell coined the term tone-cluster in his book New Musical Resources (1930), describing a technique that he had employed in his piano music since the mid-1910s: building up chords from major and minor seconds, often in such densities that groups of adjacent keys are played with the flat of the hand or the forearm. These methods had also appeared in the music of Claude Debussy, Alban Berg, Percy Grainger, Charles Ives, and Leo Ornstein; but Cowell used them the most extensively, producing such notable works as Dynamic Motion (1916) and his Piano Concerto (1929). He also educated musicians and the public about tone-clusters and came to be identified with the technique when he toured internationally during the 1920s. Béla Bartók adopted tone-clusters, in part through his interest in Cowell’s music, as did others in Cowell’s circle: Dane Rudhyar, Ruth Crawford, Johanna M. Beyer, Gerald Strang, William Russell, Lou Harrison, and John Cage. In his later years, Cowell de-emphasized the radical nature of his innovations and referred to tone-clusters by the more traditional terminology of secundal harmony. Yet the subsequent generations of composers who adopted tone-clusters in keyboard and/or ensemble music, among them Giacinto Scelsi, Olivier Messiaen, Galina Ustvolskaya, Bruno Maderna, Iannis Xenakis, György Ligeti, Luciano Berio, George Crumb, Krzysztof Penderecki, Alfred Schnittke, Philip Krumm, Charlemagne Palestine, Glenn Branca, and Rebecca Saunders, were exploring not harmony so much as density and resonance—the qualities that had first excited Cowell. Creative African American music also has a long tradition of piano toneclusters, from “Blind” Tom Bethune to Scott Joplin and Jelly Roll Morton to

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Art Tatum, Thelonius Monk, Horace Silver, Sun Ra, Cecil Taylor, and Muhal Richard Abrams. See also DISSONANCE; EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; PLEROMA. TOTAL SERIALISM. Total serialism, or integral serialism, is the extension of serial, or twelve-tone, methods of pitch organization to rhythm, dynamics, and attack/timbre. See also MODERNISM. TOWER, JOAN (1938– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Joan Tower studied with Henry Brant at Bennington College; with Jack Beeson, Otto Luening and Chou Wen-chung at Columbia University; with Darius Milhaud at Aspen; and with Wallingford Riegger, Ralph Shapey, and Charles Wuorinen in New York. The founder and pianist of the Da Capo Chamber Players (1969–1984), Tower has taught at Bard College since 1972. Her early scores such as Breakfast Rhythms I and II (1974) for clarinet and five players were serial, but Tower developed her own colorful and impressionist-inspired approach to tonality with such notable works as the quintet Petroushskates (1980); the orchestral scores Sequoia (1981), Silver Ladders (1986), Made in America (2004), and Stroke (2010); the string quartets Night Fields (1994), Incandescent (2003), and Wild Summer (2017); and the piano scores No Longer Very Clear (1994–2000) and Ivory and Ebony (2009). See also MODERNISM; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); TWELVETONE MUSIC. TRAUTONIUM. The Trautonium is a monophonic electronic-music keyboard instrument designed in the late 1920s by German engineer Dr. Friedrich Trautwein (1888–1956). The Trautonium used a neon-tube oscillator rather than the heterodyning method with which the theremin and ondes martenot generated sound, giving it a more distinctive timbre. Paul Hindemith wrote a trio of works for it in the 1930s, and Richard Strauss used it in his Japanische Festmusik (1940). Trautwein revised the Trautonium as the Monochord in the late 1940s, and in the 1950s, his assistant Oskar Sala, the noted Trautonium player, developed an expanded version for the recording studio, the Mixtur-Trautonium. See also BRAND, MAX (1896–1980); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FILM MUSIC; SYNTHESIZER. TUDOR, DAVID (1926–1996). American composer, musician, and educator. David Tudor studied piano with Irma Wolpe Rademacher and composition with Stefan Wolpe. In 1950, he was introduced to John Cage by Morton Feldman and soon became part of their circle along with Earle Brown and Christian Wolff. Tudor premiered many of their important pieces, as well as works by Wolpe, Pierre Boulez, La Monte Young, Karlheinz

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Stockhausen, Sylvano Bussotti, Richard Maxfield, and Mauricio Kagel. His technical virtuosity brought clarity to these innovative works, and Tudor became an international champion of new music. By the end of the 1950s, he was developing equipment and techniques for live electronic music. He became a leader in the field, as an improviser and as a composer, and by the end of the 1960s, he had stopped concertizing as a pianist. Tudor’s music could also take on qualities of a sound installation, as with Rainforest IV (1973), and he used sound sculpture in Web for John Cage II (1989). Multimedia works such as Bandoneon! (1966) and Reunion (1968) could utilize lighting, television, dance, and video. He also performed with other composer/musicians, including Cage, Pauline Oliveros, Takehisa Kosugi, and Gordon Mumma. Tudor’s dance scores for Merce Cunningham’s company include Rainforest I (1968), Weatherings (1978), Webwork (1987), and Soundings: Ocean Diary (1994). He taught at Mills College and other institutions. After suffering a series of strokes, Tudor died in his sleep at age 70 in his home on Tompkins Cove, New York. See also ATONALITY; BEHRMAN, DAVID (1937– ); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; FLUXUS; ONCE GROUP; POSTMODERNISM. TÜÜR, ERKKI-SVEN (1959– ). Estonian composer, musician, and educator. Erkki-Sven Tüür studied percussion and flute at the Talliunn Music School and composition with Jaan Rääts at the Estonian Academy of Music; Tüür taught at the academy from 1989 to 1992. After founding the rock group In Spe (1979–1983), he returned to composition, scoring numerous films and winning international acclaim with Insula deserta (1989) for string orchestra. Tüür combined tonal and atonal methods with minimalist and serial rhythmic procedures in such works as Zeitraum (1992) for orchestra; Crystallisatio (1995) for three flutes, glockenspiel, and string orchestra; and Symphony No. 3 (1997). A greater unity characterizes such later scores as the opera Wallenberg (2001); Ardor (2002) for marimba and orchestra; Oxymoron (2003) for chamber orchestra; the microtonal compositions Meditatio (2003) for mixed chorus and saxophone quartet and Whistles and Whispers from Uluru (2007) for recorders and string orchestra; and Symphonies Nos. 4–9 (2002–2017); Tüür’s notable recent works include Awakening (2011) for mixed chorus; Peregrinus Ecstaticus (2013) for clarinet and orchestra; and the orchestral scores De Profundis (2013) and Sow the Wind . . . (2015). See also POSTMODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. Also known as dodecaphony, the twelve-tone method of composition was developed in the early 1920s by Arnold Schoenberg who first made complete use of the system with his Piano Suite (1923). Seeking greater precision and a more formalized structure in his atonal and

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freely dissonant music, Schoenberg patterned the twelve tones of the chromatic scale in a specific sequence, known as the twelve-tone set, or row, which is used forward and backward (known as its retrograde) as well as upside down, both forward (inversion) and backward (retrograde inversion). All the tones in the set are equally important, with no single one exerting a tonal pull or dominance. Melodic, harmonic, and polyphonic expressions of the set are developed through a variety of traditional techniques, including transposition, augmentation, and diminution. Similar methods had been explored during the 1910s and 1920s by Josef Matthius Hauer, Alexander Scriabin, Arthur Lourié, Nikolai Roslavets, Béla Bartók, and Carl Ruggles, but it was Schoenberg who defined twelvetone music for the era. He also disseminated the method, and his pupils Hanns Eisler, Alban Berg, Anton Webern, Adolph Weiss, Nikos Skalkottas, and Roberto Gerhard began using these techniques. After Schoenberg settled in the United States in 1933, appreciation of his methodology steadily grew. Twelve-tone techniques accommodated a wide range of expression, and they informed the work of geographically and stylistically diverse composers in the 1930s, among them Ernst Krenek, Wallingford Riegger, Ben Weber, Frank Martin, Stefan Wolpe, John Cage, Ruth Crawford, and Aaron Copland. The interest in Schoenberg’s method was further invigorated after World War II by a new enthusiasm for Webern’s music. René Leibowitz began writing about and teaching and performing twelve-tone music in Europe; from Schoenberg’s idea of the set as a premotivic series of pitches, Leibowitz coined the term serial for this music. By the late 1940s, Milton Babbitt in America and Olivier Messiaen in France had extended twelve-tone techniques and were composing with sets of not just tones but serialized rhythmic patterns, dynamic levels, and attacks/timbres as well. This approach of total serialism attracted numerous composers in the 1950s, including Krenek, Pierre Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Luciano Berio, Jean Barraqué, Bruno Maderna, and Luigi Nono. With his Serial Sound Structure Generator, Hugh Le Caine created totally serialized electronic music. During those years, many neoclassical composers turned to twelve-tone music, most notably Igor Stravinsky, Roger Sessions, Ross Lee Finney, Ingolf Dahl, Louise Talma, Irving Fine, and Arthur Berger. There was also the development of combining twelve-tone organization with tonal structures and techniques, as in the music of Luigi Dallapiccola, Josef Tal, George Perle, Richard Yardumian, Harry Somers, Bernd Alois Zimmermann, Hans Werner Henze, Walter Piston, Samuel Barber, Egon Wellesz, Isang Yun, Gerald Strang, Ursula Mamlok, Weber, Martin, Copland, Finney, and Fine. Such younger composers as Charles Wuorinen, Gunther Schuller, and Brian Ferneyhough took to stricter methods. Twelve-tone techniques were also used by jazz composers John Coltrane,

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Bill Evans, Yusef Lateef, and Sun Ra. Over the 1960s, twelve-tone composition secured itself in the American academy where its minuscule audience proved no hindrance to the music’s commission, performance, or recording—and its increasingly complex mathematics could be developed along with realizations in electronic music. Others, however, came to reject the limitations of twelve-tone music. Among the composers who used the method in early works and then abandoned it to pursue more personal paths are Cage, André Jolivet, Giacinto Scelsi, Lou Harrison, George Rochberg, Kenneth Gaburo, Earle Brown, Richard Maxfield, Donald Scavarda, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Jacob Druckman, Thea Musgrave, Henri Pousseur, Pauline Oliveros, Aulis Sallinen, Henryk Górecki, Peter Maxwell Davies, Alfred Schnittke, La Monte Young, R. Murray Schafer, Arvo Pärt, David Del Tredici, Philip Glass, Joan Tower, and Gérard Grisey. With the cultural shift toward a postmodern sensibility, the hegemony of this modernist technique receded, and strict twelve-tone composition became infrequent; more common is an inclusive approach, moving freely among different methods and styles. Composers who have used twelve-tone techniques in this manner include Lejaren Hiller, Erkki-Sven Tüür, Ben Johnston, Toru Takemitsu, Frederic Rzewski, and James Tenney. See also ANHALT, ISTVÁN (1919–2012); AREL, BÜLENT (1919–1990); BAUER, MARION (1882–1955); BERNSTEIN, LEONARD (1918–1990); BIRTWISTLE, HARRISON (SIR) (1934– ); BISCARDI, CHESTER (1948– ); BUHLIG, RICHARD (1880–1952); CERHA, FRIEDRICH (1926– ); DENISOV, EDISON (1929–1996); EXPRESSIONISM; FILM MUSIC; GINASTERA, ALBERTO (1916–1983); GOEHR, ALEXANDER (1932– ); GOULD, MORTON (1913–1996); HUSA, KAREL (1921–2016); KNUSSEN, OLIVER (1952–2018); LIEBERSON, PETER (1946–2011); LUTOSLAWSKI, WITOLD (1913–1994); MAYUZUMI, TOSHIRO (1929–1997); NEWLIN, DIKA (1923–2006); NØRGÅRD, PER (1932– ); OPERA; POWELL, MEL (1923–1998); SMITH, HALE (1925–2009); STEIN, LEONARD (1916–2004); STEUERMANN, EDWARD (1892–1964). TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Robert Sheff studied piano with Meta Hertwig and Rodney Hoare, harmony and orchestration with Otto Wick, and composition with Frank Hughes. As both pianist and composer Sheff was prodigious, and at age 13, he created a tape piece, Music for Three Begins (1958). Two years later, he and Philip Krumm were giving concerts in his native San Antonio, performing their own music along with works by John Cage, La Monte Young, Christian Wolff, and Terry Jennings. Sheff also played such modernists as Béla Bartók, Erik Satie, Charles Ives, Arnold Schoenberg, and Anton Webern.

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Upon relocating to Ann Arbor in 1962, Sheff became involved with the ONCE Group. The following year several of his indeterminate works were performed at ONCE and ONCE Friends concerts, including the graphic scores Ballad (1960), played by a trio; Meditation (1962), played by chamber orchestra; and Diotima (1963), realized for flutes and tape. While in Michigan Sheff also created two interrelated pieces in 1967, which continued to engage his music over the years: Country Boy Country Dog for tape and the procedural score How to Discover Music in the Sounds of Your Daily Life. He began teaching at Mills College in California in 1970 and, around that time, adopted the name “Blue” Gene Tyranny, inaugurating it while performing as a pianist in jazz and rock bands. Among his notable 1970s compositions are the film music for Phil Makanna’s Shoot the Whale (1972), cocomposed with Robert Ashley; A Letter from Home (1976) for voices and electronics; and two gay-rights-themed tape works, Harvey Milk (Portrait) (1978) and The White Night Riot (1979). Tyranny’s music exemplifies the postmodern belief in using modernist techniques without modernist materials. He has drawn upon jazz and rock and pop as improviser and composer, evoking emotion yet remaining nondramatic and nonrepresentational. This sensibility made him the perfect collaborator on piano and synthesizer for Ashley’s video opera Perfect Lives (1980); their subsequent work together includes Ashley’s Atalanta (Acts of God) (1982–1987), el/Aficionado (1987), Dust (1998), and Celestial Excursions (2003). Tyranny recorded a breakthrough piano improvisation in 1981, which he then used to derive the electronic music that alternates with this performance in his LP The Intermediary (1982). The early 1980s also saw more Country Boy Country Dog activity: The CBCD Concert (1980) for soloist(s) and electronics; The CBCD Variations (1980) for soloist and orchestra; and The CBCD Intro (1984). All this work fed into his 1994 recording Country Boy Country Dog. Tyranny’s later piano CDs Free Delivery (1990) and Take Your Time (2003) include interactive electronics, as have many of his performances. He has also composed piano music for other players, such as Nocturne with and without Memory (1988), We All Watch the Sun and the Moon (For a Moment of Insight) (1992), The Drifter (1994), Spirit (1997), and the piano duos Great Seal (Transmigration) (1990) and The De-certified Highway of Dreams (1991). The Driver’s Son has been an ongoing project since 1989, envisioned not as an opera but rather as an audio storyboard. His notable recent compositions include The Somewhere Songs (1988–2001) for voice and electronic orchestra; The Invention of Memory (2004) for voice, piano, guitar, and five strings; and two major works in 2010, George Fox Searches for piano and Scriabin’s Chord for violin and piano—the latter became the contemplative Solving Scriabin’s Chord (Love, Consider, Imagine) (2016) for voice and piano, inspired by Alexander Scriabin and his Chord of the

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Pleroma. See also ANDERSON, LAURIE (1947– ); BUCKNER, THOMAS (1941– ); CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); CHANCE MUSIC; COMPUTER MUSIC; DUCKWORTH, WILLIAM (1943–2012); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; GORDON, PETER (1951– ); JENKINS, LEROY (1932–2007); KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); PERKINS, PHILIP (1951– ); PLEROMA; SUBLETTE, NED (1951– ).

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U UITTI, FRANCES-MARIE (1946– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Frances-Marie Uitti studied cello with George Neikrug at the University of Texas and Andre Navarra at the Academia Chigiana in Italy; she has taught at Juilliard, the Oberlin Conservatory, Mills College, and other institutions. Acclaimed as a vocalist and virtuoso cellist whose extended performance techniques include the polyphonic use of two bows at once, she also helped design a Stringless Cello. Uitti has premiered scores composed for her by Vinko Globokar, Horatiu Radulescu, Sylvano Bussotti, Giacinto Scelsi, György Kurtág, Per Nørgård, Louis Andriessen, Luigi Nono, Jonathan Harvey, and James Tenney, among others. Also an improviser, she has performed as a soloist (Uitti 2 Bows, 1995) and with such composer/musicians as Elliott Sharp and Pauline Oliveros; There Is Still Time (2004) is her collaboration with writer/speaker Paul Griffiths. See also FREE IMPROVISATION; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; POSTMODERNISM. ULTRAMODERN. See MODERNISM. USSACHEVSKY, VLADIMIR (1911–1990). Manchurian-born American composer, musician, and educator. The son of Russians in Manchuria, Vladimir Ussachevsky settled in the United States in 1930 and studied at the Eastman School of Music (1936–1939) with Bernard Rogers and Howard Hanson. He taught at Columbia University (1947–1980), the University of Utah, and the Peabody Institute, and he was a cofounder of the ColumbiaPrinceton Electronic Music Center; his students include Alice Shields, Charles Wuorinen, Ruth Anderson, William Hellermann, Pril Smiley, Wendy Carlos, and Charles Dodge. Ussachevsky’s early compositions were mostly neoromantic, with elements of Russian sacred music, as in his Jubilee Cantata (1938) for baritone, reader, mixed chorus, and orchestra. He started experimenting with a tape recorder in 1951 and, a year later, premiered his tape music, which included Underwater Valse (1952). Ussachevsky composed for tape almost exclusively over the next 20 years with such 373

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works as Piece for Tape Recorder (1955), Wireless Fantasy (1960), and Computer Piece No. 1 (1968). He collaborated with Otto Luening on Incantation for Tape Recording (1953); Rhapsodic Variations (1954), the first work to combine orchestra and tape; A Poem in Cycles and Bells for Tape Recorder and Orchestra (1954); and Concerted Piece for Tape Recorder and Orchestra (1960). His electronic film music includes No Exit (1962) and Line of Apogee (1968), cocomposed with Alice Shields. Ussachevsky resumed nonelectronic composition with Missa Brevis (1972) for soprano, chorus, and brass. Many of his later works also combined instruments and tape, such as Creation Prologue (1961) for four choruses and tape, Colloquy for Symphony Orchestra, Tape Recorder, and Various Chairs (1976), and Dialogues and Contrasts (1983) for brass quintet and tape. He adapted readily to the use of synthesizers and computers in electronic music, and he eventually came to prefer the computer for manipulating natural sound. In the early 1980s, Ussachevsky composed for Nyle Steiner’s electroacoustic Electronic Valve Instrument (EVI), which produces electronic sounds but is controlled by trumpet-valve technique; it has a seven-octave range, with timbres from traditional brass and woodwinds to electronic sounds. EVI compositions by Ussachevsky include Celebration for String Orchestra and Electronic Valve Instrument (1980) and Novelette pour Bourges (1983) for EVI and piano. Among his other later works are Dances and Fanfares for a Festive Occasion (1980) for orchestra and Triskelion (1982) for oboe and piano. See also ATONALITY; CHOU WENCHUNG (1923– ); MIMAROGLU, ILHAN (1926–2012); MODERNISM. USTVOLSKAYA, GALINA (1919–2006). Russian composer and educator. Galina Ustvolskaya studied at the Leningrad Conservatory (1939–1941, 1944–1947) with Dmitry Shostakovich and Maximilian Steinberg; she taught there from 1947 to 1977. Her Piano Concerto (1946) and Piano Sonata No. 1 (1948) were criticized as formalist and were not premiered until 1964 and 1973, respectively. She wrote socialist realist works (The Dream of Stepan Razin for bass voice and orchestra, 1949) and some film music, but she later withdrew most of these scores. The works she acknowledged from this era were personal compositions that also went unplayed until the 1960s and 1970s, such as her Trio (1949) for clarinet, violin, and piano (quoted by Shostakovich in his String Quartet No. 5 and Suite on Verses of Michelangelo Buonarroti); Piano Sonatas Nos. 2–4 (1949–1957); and Symphony No. 1 for orchestra and two boys’ voices. Ustvolskaya came into her own with her Composition series: No. 1 “Dona Nobis Pacem” (1971) for piccolo, tuba, and piano; No. 2 “Dies Irae” (1973) for eight double basses, piano, and cube (a chipboard box she designed, used as a percussion instrument); and No. 3 “Benedictus, Qui Venit” (1975) for four flutes, four bassoons, and piano. The other notable works from her small

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output are her Symphonies Nos. 2 “True and Eternal Bliss!” (1979) and 3 “Jesus Messiah, Save Us!” (1983), both for male reciter and small orchestra; Piano Sonatas Nos. 5 (1986) and 6 (1988), with prominent use of toneclusters; Symphony No. 4 “Prayer” (1987) for trumpet, tam-tam, piano, and contralto; and Symphony No. 5 “Amen” (1990) for male reciter, violin, oboe, trumpet, tuba, and cube. See also INSTRUMENT BUILDING; MODERNISM.

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V VAN DER AA, MICHEL (1970– ). Dutch composer. Michel van der Aa studied with Louis Andriessen at the Royal Conservatory in The Hague; he also studied film direction at the New York Film Academy and stage direction at the Lincoln Center Theater Director’s Lab. Van der Aa’s electroacoustic music has combined instruments with electronic soundtracks on CD (Oog for cello, 1995; Between for percussion quartet, 1997; Just Before for piano, 2002; Second Self for orchestra, 2004) and with laptop computer (Spaces of Blank for mezzo-soprano and orchestra, 2007; Hysteresis for solo clarinet and ensemble, 2013). His other multimedia scores include Transit (2009) for piano and video and Up-close (2010) for solo cello, string ensemble, and film. Van der Aa has won acclaim for his innovative multidisciplinary work: the operas One (2002) and After Life (2006), using video; The Book of Disquiet (2008), music theater for actor, ensemble, and film; the film opera Sunken Garden (2012); The Book of Sand (2015), a digital interactive song cycle with three film layers, launched as a website and a smartphone app; and the chamber opera Blank Out (2016), combining live soprano with singers on 3D film and a surround soundtrack. Van der Aa’s notable instrumental music includes Imprint (2005) for baroque ensemble, Violin Concerto (2014), and Reversal (2016) for orchestra. With Andriessen, he cocomposed film music for The New Math(s) (2000). See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. VARÈSE, EDGARD (1883–1965). French-born American composer and musician. An essential figure in the early generation of modernists, Edgard Varèse established the importance of percussion in 20th-century music and was a leader in the development of electronic music. Edgard Victor Achille Charles Varèse was born in Paris to a French mother and an Italian father. He spent most of his childhood in the village of Villars in Burgundy, raised by his grandfather and other relatives. He was reunited with his parents in 1892 when they relocated to Turin where he studied privately with Giovanni Bol-

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zoni, director of the Turin Conservatory; he also discovered the music of Claude Debussy and Richard Strauss, whose innovations opened doors for his own composition. Varèse returned to Paris in 1903 and was accepted at the Schola Cantorum the following year, where he studied composition and conducting with Vincent d’Indy and counterpoint with Albert Roussel. He was also accepted at the Paris Conservatoire in 1905 and studied with Charles-Marie Widor. Varèse was composing orchestral music by the mid-1900s but eventually found the musical atmosphere in Paris too conservative and stifling. He moved to Berlin in 1908 and there became friends with Ferruccio Busoni; later that year, during his trips to Paris, Varèse also befriended Debussy. Both men encouraged him in the orchestral and operatic music he was writing, as did Strauss after meeting Varèse in 1909. Varèse’s first job as a conductor came in 1914, leading an orchestra in Prague. When World War I began, he was in Paris and unable to retrieve his scores in Berlin; all were subsequently lost in a fire. Varèse immigrated to the United States late in 1915 and settled in New York; he became a U.S. citizen in 1927. By the late teens, Varèse was conducting American orchestras, and in 1921, he founded the International Composers’ Guild with Carlos Salzedo, which gave numerous American premieres of important European composers. It disbanded in 1927, and the next year Varèse founded the Pan-American Association of Composers with Henry Cowell and Carlos Chávez, which lasted until 1934. With Amériques (1921) for large orchestra, Varèse defined his mature music: atonal, dissonant, crystalline, revolving around winds and percussion, driven by rhythm and densities and sonorities. Amériques also redefined the role of percussion in orchestral music, calling for 11 percussionists playing more than 20 instruments, including a siren, whip, and lion’s roar. Like Amériques, Varèse’s other 1920s scores brought a new physicality and immediacy to the concert hall, a heightened sense of sound: Offrandes (1922) for soprano and small orchestra, Hyperprism (1923) for nine winds and seven percussionists, Intégrales (1925) for 11 winds and four percussionists. The 120-musician orchestra of Arcana (1927) included eight percussionists playing 40 instruments. Only Octandre (1924) for seven winds and double bass was percussion free. The culmination came with Varèse’s Ionisation (1931) for 13 percussionists playing an arsenal of instruments, only three of which produce equal-tempered pitches: chimes, glockenspiel, and piano. No one in Europe or the United States had yet written an all-percussion score, and this conceptual advance liberated countless composers. After Ionisation, music for percussion ensemble became a staple of modern and postmodern composition.

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Despite this breakthrough, Varèse’s creative output came to a halt in the 1930s. He followed Ionisation with Ecuatorial (1934) for bass voices, eight brass, piano, organ, six percussionists, and two theremins—his first use of electronic music. By then, he was deeply concerned with the creation of new densities, tempi, tunings, and partial tones, all of which were unavailable from conventional instruments, and after composing Densité 21.5 (1936) for solo flute, Varèse fell silent. The only score to emerge from a long dark period was Étude pour espace (1947) for mixed chorus, two pianos, and percussion, a fragment of a large work that he had abandoned; in 2009, Chou Wen-chung created an orchestrated spatial version of this rarely performed piece. Encouraged by developments in musique concrète, Varèse resumed composing in 1950 and completed the four instrumental sections of Déserts two years later. Around this time, he received the anonymous gift of an Ampex 400 tape recorder, which he used to create a brief section of tape music, La procession de Vergès, for Thomas Bouchard’s film Around and about Joan Miró (1955). Varèse then recorded an array of industrial sounds and percussion instruments, and at Pierre Schaeffer’s Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française studio in Paris, he reworked the tapes into three more sections of Déserts. Scored for 14 winds, piano, five percussionists, and two channels of magnetic tape, Déserts (1954) alternates sections of instrumental music and organized sound—Varèse’s preferred term, as he resisted the label of musique concrète. Interest and support came more readily now, and he was also able to create the tape piece Poème électronique (1958). Varèse’s Nocturnal for soprano, bass voices, and orchestra was premiered in 1961, but he never completed a manuscript score for the work. Four years later Varèse contracted an infection after undergoing surgery at a New York hospital and died at age 81. A performing score of Nocturnal, published in 1972, was prepared by Chou Wen-chung, his former pupil. Other composers who studied with Varèse include André Jolivet, Colin McPhee, William Grant Still, Ilhan Mimaroglu, Lucia Dlugoszewski, and James Tenney. See also AREL, BÜLENT (1919–1990); COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); CRAFT, ROBERT (1923–2015); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; FREE IMPROVISATION; FUTURISM; GRAETTINGER, ROBERT F. (1923–1957); MACERO, TEO (1925–2008); ROCHBERG, GEORGE (1918–2005); RUGGLES, CARL (1876–1971); SLONIMSKY, NICOLAS (1894–1995); WEISBERG, ARTHUR (1931–2009); ZAPPA, FRANK (1940–1993). VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, RALPH (1872–1958). English composer, musician, and educator. One of the most important symphonists of the 20th century, Vaughan Williams composed tonal nationalist works that achieved universality through his love of folk song, his lyrical gifts, and his wide range of

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expression. Ralph Vaughan Williams was born in Down Ampney, Gloucestershire, where his father was the vicar; his mother was a niece of Charles Darwin. He received his first piano lessons from his aunt, and by age six, he was composing. Violin lessons began the following year, and he entered Charterhouse School at age 14, where he also became proficient at organ and viola. Vaughan Williams studied with Sir Charles Hubert Parry at the Royal College of Music (1890–1892); he also took degrees in both music and history at Trinity College, Cambridge (1892–1895). Rejoining the Royal College (1895–1897), he studied with Sir Charles Villiers Stanford and befriended fellow student and composer Gustav Holst, who would provide Vaughan Williams with valuable compositional advice until Holst’s death almost 40 years later. Vaughan Williams also studied privately with Max Bruch in Berlin in 1898, then returned to Cambridge and received his Doctor of Music in 1901. Already an enthusiast of early modal forms, Elizabethan madrigal, and the great Tudor polyphonists, Vaughan Williams first began listening to and transcribing English folk song late in 1903. Considerable fieldwork followed in the 1900s, often with Holst and George Butterworth. Folk song helped free up a more individual voice in Vaughan Williams’s music, but he was slow to develop as a composer. After completing his first important orchestral scores, In the Fen Country (1904, rev. 1905, 1907, 1935) and Norfolk Rhapsody No. 1 (1906), he went to France in 1908 to study with Maurice Ravel. His composition then flowed more freely: String Quartet No. 1 (1908, rev. 1921); On Wenlock Edge (1909) for tenor, piano, and string quartet; and theater music for a 1909 production of Aristophanes’s The Wasps, which became a popular orchestral suite. Vaughan Williams composed some of his best music in the early teens, starting in 1910 with Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis for double string orchestra and solo quartet, and Symphony No. 1, “A Sea Symphony,” for soprano, baritone, mixed chorus, and orchestra. He followed with Five Mystical Songs (1911) for baritone, mixed chorus, and orchestra; the popular Symphony No. 2, “A London Symphony” (1913, rev. 1919); and his classic The Lark Ascending (1914, rev. 1920) for violin and orchestra. Just before the outbreak of World War I, Vaughan Williams completed his first opera, Hugh the Drover; he then enlisted in 1914 and served in the Medical Corps in England and France. Returning to civilian life in 1919, Vaughan Williams began a 20-year teaching stint at the Royal College of Music. His composition resumed with the elegiac Symphony No. 3, “A Pastoral Symphony” (1921), for orchestra with wordless soprano or tenor, and the Mass (1922) for soloists and double chorus, with organ ad lib. He orchestrated On Wenlock Edge in 1923 and completed three major works in 1925: Flos Campi for viola, small wordless

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chorus, and small orchestra; Sancta Civitas, an oratorio for soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra; and Concerto Accademico for violin and string orchestra. By then, Vaughan Williams was a regular conductor of his own music and had begun two more operas: the four-act comedy Sir John in Love (1928), adapted from William Shakespeare’s The Merry Wives of Windsor, and Riders to the Sea (1932), a one-act setting of John Millington Synge’s drama. Riders was part of a darker strain that emerged in Vaughan Williams’s music in the early 1930s, which had begun with the orchestral score Job: A Masque for Dancing (1930). A thornier, more percussive and jazz-inflected sound entered his music with his Piano Concerto (1931, rev. 1946), which he later arranged for two pianos and orchestra. The dissonant and uncompromising Symphony No. 4 (1934) was his most aggressive work to date, yet Vaughan Williams was made a member of the Order of Merit in 1935. His music of the later 1930s was less extreme and includes two major scores for soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra, Five Tudor Portraits (1935) and Dona Nobis Pacem (1936), and the folk-song-based Five Variants of Dives and Lazarus (1939) for strings and harp. Vaughan Williams evoked confidence and serenity in his indomitable Symphony No. 5 (1943), composed during the dark days of World War II. Not until after the war could he create the bleak and chilling Symphony No. 6 (1947). That same year he also wrote the powerful Prayer to the Father of Heaven for mixed chorus, and in the 1950s, he composed three major cantatas for mixed chorus and orchestra: The Sons of Light (1950); the Christmasthemed Hodie (1954), which also featured soloists, boys’ voices, and optional organ; and Epithalamion (1957) for smaller orchestra with baritone soloist. Most striking of all may be his Old Testament setting, the startling Vision of Aeroplanes (1956) for mixed chorus and organ. After more than four decades of work, Vaughan Williams premiered The Pilgrim’s Progress, his final and perhaps finest opera, in 1951. The following year he adapted one of his film scores for the eerie and evocative Symphony No. 7, “Sinfonia Antartica,” with wordless soprano and women’s chorus. Two more symphonies followed: the colorful but enigmatic Symphony No. 8 (1955) and the darker, more provocative Symphony No. 9 (1957). Vaughan Williams was at his home in London when he died in his sleep at age 85. See also BRITTEN, BENJAMIN (1913–1976); FINZI, GERALD (1901–1956); GLANVILLEHICKS, PEGGY (1912–1990); MODERNISM; PACCIONE, PAUL (1952– ); PEARS, PETER (SIR) (1910–1986). VIERK, LOIS V (1951– ). American composer and musician. Lois V Vierk studied piano and ethnomusicology at the University of California at Los Angeles; composition with Leonard Stein, Mel Powell, and Morton Subotnick at the California Institute of the Arts; gagaku with Suenobu Togi; and

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ryuteki with Sukeyasu Shiba. Vierk has written minimalist scores that mass like voices and explore densities and glissandi: Go Guitars (1981) for five electric guitars; Manhattan Cascade (1985) for four accordions; Simoom (1986) for eight cellos; Cirrus (1987) for six trumpets; Jagged Mesa (1990) for two or more trumpets, trombones, and bass trombones; Dark Bourn (1995) for four bassoons and four cellos. Among her other instrumental works are the string quartets River beneath the River (1993) and Into the Brightening Air (1994, rev. 1999); Devil’s Punchbowl (1993) for orchestra; Silversword (1996) for gagaku orchestra; Io (1999) for flute, electric guitar, and marimba; In Memory (2004) and Words Fail Me (2005), both for cello and piano; and Yeah Yeah Yeah (1990) for piano, To Stare Astonished at the Sea (1994) for string piano, and Spin 2 (1995) for two pianos. Her film music includes Everywhere at Once (2008). See also THE BEATLES; MULTICULTURALISM; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); PLEROMA; POSTMODERNISM; TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ). VILLA-LOBOS, HEITOR (1887–1959). Brazilian composer, musician, and educator. Heitor Villa-Lobos learned cello from his father and studied briefly at the Instituto Nacional de Música in his native Rio de Janeiro. He became Rio’s Superintendent of Musical and Artistic Education in 1931 and founded its Academia Brasileira de Música in 1945; he also performed internationally as a conductor. Villa-Lobos combined Brazilian, Indian, and pop idioms, most notably with the 12 pieces of his Chôros series (1920–1929), which range from solo guitar to orchestra and chorus. He also used polytonal, impressionist, and neoromantic techniques; among his major works are the Suite populaire brésilienne (1912) for guitar and the nine suites of his Bachianas Brasileiras (1930–1948) for instruments and voices, a multicultural take on Johann Sebastian Bach. Villa-Lobos was prolific and produced more than 500 scores, among them six operas (1914–1958), 17 string quartets (1915–1957), 12 symphonies (1916–1957), and five piano concertos (1945–1954). His film music includes Green Mansions (1959). See also BRAND, MAX (1896–1980); MODERNISM. VIVIER, CLAUDE (1948–1983). Canadian composer. Claude Vivier studied with Gilles Tremblay at the Conservatoire de Musique du Québec à Montréal. Chance and theatrical elements characterized his early compositions such as Prolifération (1969) for piano, percussion, and ondes martenot and Hiérophanie (1971) for soprano and chamber ensemble; the latter, like Vivier’s Ojikawa (1968) for soprano, clarinet, and percussion, used texts in an imaginary language of his own invention—a device that would become a

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signature. In the early 1970s, he investigated electronic music at the Institute of Sonology in Utrecht and studied composition in Cologne with Karlheinz Stockhausen. A more individual sound entered Vivier’s music with such notable scores as Lettura di Dante (1974) for soprano and chamber ensemble, Siddhartha (1976) for large orchestra, Shiraz (1977) for piano, and the chamber opera Kopernikus (1979). Working in Europe, Vivier was drawn to the circle of such spectral composers as Gérard Grisey and Tristan Murail, and he began exploring spectralism with Zipangu (1980) for 13 string instruments. Lonely Child (1980) for soprano and orchestra, Vivier’s best-known work, employs imaginary language, as do his other major vocal scores of this period, Wo bist du, Licht! (1981) for mezzo-soprano, percussion, 20 string instruments, and tape and Glaubst du an die Unsterblichkeit der Seele (1983) for narrator, mixed chorus, three synthesizers, and percussion. That final work was left unfinished when Vivier, age 34, was murdered in Paris. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC.

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W WALTON, WILLIAM (SIR) (1902–1983). English composer and musician. William Walton studied at Oxford University and found his first success with two witty scores, the jazz-inspired Façade (1921, rev. 1926, 1942) for reciter and six instruments, a setting of poems by Dame Edith Sitwell, and Portsmouth Point (1925) for orchestra. Walton’s popular Viola Concerto (1929, rev. 1961) was neoromantic, as were Belshazzar’s Feast (1931) for baritone, mixed chorus, and orchestra; Symphony No. 1 (1935); Violin Concerto (1939); and String Quartet No. 2 (1946). Walton is also prized for his film scores, especially those for actor/director Laurence Olivier: Henry V (1944), Hamlet (1948), Richard III (1955), and Three Sisters (1970). Walton was knighted in 1951 and made a member of the Order of Merit in 1968. Among his later works are the operas Troilus and Cressida (1954, rev. 1963, 1976) and The Bear (1967), Cello Concerto (1956), Symphony No. 2 (1960), and Façade 2 (1978) for reciter and six instruments. See also BERBERIAN, CATHY (1925–1983); MODERNISM; PEARS, PETER (SIR) (1910–1986). WARD, THOMAS F. (ca. 1856–1912). American composer, musician, and educator. Thomas Francis Ward composed, played piano and organ, and taught in his native Brooklyn until tuberculosis forced his relocation to Florida in 1884. Ward arrived around the same time as English composer Frederick Delius and soon became his teacher. Delius left in 1885 to teach music in Virginia, and the two lost contact. Although Delius later studied at the Leipzig Conservatory, he would always insist that only Ward’s instruction had been of any use to him as a composer. Ward remained in Florida and entered a Benedictine monastery in 1891; except for a four-measure miniature he composed there, none of his music is extant. He left after five years and resumed working as a musician and church organist in Texas where he died of pulmonary tuberculosis. WARLOCK, PETER (1894–1930). English composer, musician, musicologist, and critic. Philip Heseltine studied piano at Eton College but was mostly self-taught as a composer, drawing upon Elizabethan music and Celtic folk 385

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song. In 1916, he began publishing criticism under the name Peter Warlock and became a champion of Tudor music and Frederick Delius. Soon he was signing his scores as Warlock as well, composing As Dew in Aprylle (1918), Three Dirges of Webster (1925), Bethlehem Down (1927), and other works for mixed chorus, as well as notable songs for voice and piano such as My Ghostly Fader (1918), Lilygay (1922), Three Belloc Songs (1927), Bethlehem Down (1927, rev. 1930), The Frostbound Wood (1929), and The Fox (1930); The Curlew (1922) was scored for tenor and sextet. Among his few instrumental works are Serenade (1922) for string orchestra and Capriol Suite (1926) for two pianos or string orchestra (orch. 1928). At age 36, Warlock was found dead of gas poisoning in his London flat; no final verdict was reached as to whether his death was an accident, murder, or suicide. See also MODERNISM. WEBER, BEN (1916–1979). American composer and musician. William Jennings Bryan “Ben” Weber studied piano and voice at De Paul University; he also worked as a secretary for Artur Schnabel and was sought after as a copyist. Mostly self-taught as a composer, Weber showed a special flair for piano and vocal idioms, usually in a lyrical twelve-tone idiom that incorporated tonal structures. His notable works include Fantasia for Piano (1946); Second Piano Suite (1948); Concert Aria after Solomon (1949) for soprano and chamber ensemble; Symphony on Poems of William Blake (1950) for baritone and orchestra; String Quartet No. 2 (1951); Violin Concerto (1954); Piano Concerto (1961); Dolmen, an Elegy (1964) for orchestra; and Variazioni quasi una fantasia (1974) for harpsichord or piano. Weber also scored Willard Maas’s film Image in the Snow (1952). See also ATONALITY; MODERNISM; SULTAN, GRETE (1906–2005). WEBERN, ANTON (1883–1945). Austrian composer and musician. This great early modernist composer brought a personal approach to twelve-tone music and greatly impacted later 20th-century composition. Anton Friedrich Wilhelm von Webern was born in Vienna and received his first piano lessons from his mother when he was a child; he was also studying cello by age 11. He entered the University of Vienna in 1902, where his teachers included the musicologist Guido Adler, and in 1904, he began studying privately with Arnold Schoenberg, who remained his teacher and advisor for the next 20 years. Alban Berg also began studying with Schoenberg then, and the working friendship of these three composers caused them to be known as the “Second Viennese School.” Webern did not produce his Opus 1 until 1908: the Passacaglia for orchestra, a Brahmsian study in variation, which shows signs of the unusual sound world he would soon develop. That same year, he conducted his first orches-

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tra, leading an ensemble in Bad Ischl in mostly operettas and light music; similar work followed over the 1910s. Inspired by developments in Schoenberg’s music, Webern moved away from tonal references in his settings of Stefan George: Entflieht auf leichten Kähnen for chorus (1908) and the 10 songs for voice and piano, which became his Opp. 3 and 4 in 1909. He began composing dissonant atonal scores that year with Five Movements for string quartet and Six Pieces for orchestra. The already pronounced concision of Webern’s music became even more extreme in the Six Bagatelles for string quartet and Five Pieces for orchestra, composed between 1911 and 1913— one of the Five Pieces is only seven measures long. Webern had distilled his own music of fragmentary and aphoristic gestures, where subtle adjustments of tempo and the use of silence achieved new prominence, and the momentto-moment assignment of pitch, timbre, and dynamics was thrown into heightened relief. The presence of a text helped Webern compose athematic and atonal music, and writing for voice became his focus for more than a decade. Using folk, sacred, and secular texts, he developed a vocal style of wide leaps and unexpected intimacy in Four Songs (1918) for soprano and orchestra, Six Songs (1921) for high voice and instruments, Five Sacred Songs (1922) for soprano and instruments, and Five Canons on Latin Texts (1924) for soprano, clarinet, and bass clarinet. His conducting career took off with the Vienna Workers’ Symphony (1922–1934) and Vienna Workers’ Chorus (1923–1934); he also conducted for Austrian radio (1927–1938). Along with the masters of the Viennese repertory, Webern performed works by Gustav Mahler, Charles Ives, Henry Cowell, Darius Milhaud, Schoenberg, Berg, and some of his own music, too. Webern’s static, stripped-down music avoided the lurid emotionalism of Schoenberg and Berg’s expressionist works. Schoenberg’s new method of twelve-tone organization, however, began informing Webern’s composition with Three Folksongs (1924) for voice, violin, clarinet, and bass clarinet; Three Songs (1925) for voice, clarinet, and guitar; and Two Choral Songs (1926) for mixed chorus and instruments. This method fit well with the polyphonic procedures of medieval and Renaissance music, which were lifelong passions of Webern’s, and gave him a path into purely instrumental composition. A series of masterpieces ensued: String Trio (1927), Symphony (1928), Quartet (1930) for clarinet, saxophone, violin, and piano, Concerto for Nine Instruments (1934), Variations for Piano (1936), String Quartet (1938), Variations for Orchestra (1940). Webern also taught composition privately in the 1920s and 1930s; his students include Hanns Eisler and Stefan Wolpe. Restricting himself to texts by his friend, the poet Hildegard Jone, Webern also wrote for voice with a new eloquence in the twelve-tone scores Three Songs (1934) for medium voice and piano, Three Songs (1935) for high voice

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and piano, Das Augenlicht (1935) for mixed chorus and orchestra, and perhaps most notably, the First Cantata (1939) and Second Cantata (1943), both for soloists, mixed chorus, and orchestra. At just over 10 minutes, Second Cantata was his lengthiest composition. It would also be his last. After the Austrian government officially turned fascist in 1934, the workers’ associations were terminated, and Webern’s orchestra and chorus were disbanded. The Anschluss uniting Austria with Nazi Germany was finalized four years later, and Webern’s radio position was withdrawn, ending his livelihood as a conductor. He did editorial work for Universal Edition and, during the war, retreated into seclusion at Mödling. Webern relocated to Mittersill in 1945, and that September he was erroneously shot and killed by an American soldier five months after hostilities had ceased. When he died at age 61, Webern’s obscurity as a composer was complete. But almost immediately a new generation of composers discovered his work, attracted by its lack of post-Romantic rhetoric—it was the music of Webern that drew Igor Stravinsky into serial composition in the 1950s. Webern was lionized by young European composers who embraced total serialism, such as Pierre Boulez and Karlheinz Stockhausen, who saw in him anticipations of the serialized use of non-pitch elements. That aura faded from Webern as the focus on serial methods diminished in late 20th-century composition. What has remained is a body of music unrivaled in its beauty, precision, and purity. See also CRAFT, ROBERT (1923–2015); FELDMAN, MORTON (1926–1987); KOLISCH, RUDOLF (1896–1978); KURTÁG, GYÖRGY (1926– ); LEIBOWITZ, RENÉ (1913–1972); NEOCLASSICISM; PACCIONE, PAUL (1952– ); POUSSEUR, HENRI (1929–2009); ROCHBERG, GEORGE (1918–2005); TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ). WEILL, KURT (1900–1950). German-born American composer. Kurt Weill attended Berlin’s Staatliche Hochschule für Musik in 1918 and studied with Engelbert Humperdinck; he also studied privately with Ferruccio Busoni and Philipp Jarnach (1920–1924). Weill’s impressive early scores include the single-movement Symphony No. 1 (1921), Frauentanz (1923) for soprano and five instruments, and Concerto for Violin and Wind Ensemble (1924). He found success with two expressionist works, his one-act opera Der Protagonist (1925) and the cantata Der neue Orpheus (1926) for soprano, violin, and orchestra, into which Weill incorporated elements of traditional and popular music. Energized by Gebrauchsmusik social concerns, that cross-fertilization defined a series of major dramatic works created by Weill with the poet and playwright Bertolt Brecht, starting with Mahagonny Songspiel (1927) for two sopranos, two tenors, two basses, and 11 instruments. Folk song, danceband tunes, and jazz streamed together into Weill’s modernist composition and made an indelible fit with Brecht’s savage political commentaries. Turn-

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ing to music theater, they had an international sensation with their classic Die Dreigroschenoper (1928), which made a star of Weill’s wife, the singer and actress Lotte Lenya (1899–1981). Weill’s score was even finer, more expressive and original, in their follow-up, Happy End (1929). His other efforts with Brecht include the cantatas Das Berliner Requiem (1928) for tenor, baritone, male chorus, and wind orchestra and Der Lindberghflug (1929) for tenor, baritone, bass, mixed chorus, and orchestra, and the 1930 operas Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny and Der Jasager. After his dramatic musical Der Silbersee (1932), Weill was forced to flee Nazi Germany. He relocated to France in 1933 and completed two of his finest works: the sung ballet Die Sieben Todsünden der Kleinbürger (1933), his final collaboration with Brecht, and the ominous and desperate Symphony No. 2 (1934), his last instrumental score for the concert hall. Weill settled in the United States in 1935 and became a U.S. citizen in 1943. He composed The Eternal Road (1935), a dramatic oratorio to an epic account of Hebrew scripture, and a setting of the Hebrew Kiddush (1946) for chorus, tenor, and organ; in 1947, he completed the fourth of his settings of Walt Whitman for voice and piano, as well as his opera Street Scene. Outside of these American works, Weill’s focus was on musicals, and he wrote beloved scores for Knickerbocker Holiday (1938), Lady in the Dark (1941), One Touch of Venus (1943), Love Life (1948), and Lost in the Stars (1949). He also scored Fritz Lang’s film You and Me (1938). Weill died of a heart attack at age 50 in New York City. See also BLITZSTEIN, MARC (1905–1964); SKALKOTTAS, NIKOS (1904–1949). WEIR, JUDITH (1954– ). English-born Scottish composer, musician, and educator. An oboist who played with the National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain, Judith Weir studied composition with John Tavener and at Cambridge University with Robin Holloway; she worked with Gunther Schuller at Tanglewood and has taught at Cardiff University and other institutions. With King Harald’s Saga (1979) for solo soprano singing eight roles, Weir showed a flair for drama, which led to a series of celebrated operas: The Black Spider (1984, rev. 2009), A Night at the Chinese Opera (1987), The Vanishing Bridegroom (1990), Blond Eckbert (1993), Miss Fortune (2011). A vivid colorist who works with tonal and modal structures, Weir’s other notable scores include her orchestral recomposition of Pérotin, Sederunt Principes (1987); Piano Concerto (1997); the Zhaungzi settings Natural History (1998) for soprano and orchestra; The Welcome Arrival of Rain (2002) for orchestra; Winter Song (2006) for small orchestra; and I give you the end of a golden string (2013) for string orchestra. See also MODERNISM.

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WEISBERG, ARTHUR (1931–2009). American composer, musician, and educator. Arthur Weisberg studied bassoon at Juilliard with Simon Kovar and played with the New York Woodwind Quintet. Founder of the Contemporary Chamber Ensemble in 1960 and the Orchestra of the 20th Century in 1975, Weisberg conducted classics by modernist masters such as Arnold Schoenberg, Edgard Varèse, Stefan Wolpe, Elliott Carter, and Milton Babbitt and premiered works by numerous composers, including George Crumb, Louise Talma, Charles Wuorinen, and Joan La Barbara. He taught at Juilliard, the Yale School of Music, and other institutions, and he wrote the books The Art of Wind Playing (1975) and Performing 20th-Century Music: A Handbook for Conductors and Instrumentalists (1993). Among his compositions are Duo for Cello and Piano (1985), String Quartet No. 3 (1989), Concerto for Bassoon and Strings (1998), and 15 Etudes for Bassoon (2004). WEISS, ADOLPH (1891–1971). American composer, musician, and educator. Bassoonist Adolph Weiss studied with Arnold Schoenberg from 1925 to 1927 and composed two twelve-tone string quartets. In 1928, he became probably the first person to disseminate dodecaphonic techniques in the United States, when he published his Six Piano Preludes (1927) with commentaries on their procedures. Weiss also employed twelve-tone methods in such works as Seven Songs for Soprano and String Quartet (1928); American Life (1929) for orchestra, which also featured jazz elements; and Theme and Variations for Large Orchestra (1933). His other notable scores include the cantata The Libation Bearers (1930), the neoclassical Suite for Orchestra (1938), Bassoon Concerto (1949), and the multicultural Five Fantasies for Violin and Piano Based on Gagaku (1955). Weiss played bassoon in numerous orchestras, including the New York Philharmonic under Gustav Mahler; his composition students include Wallingford Riegger and John Cage. See also MODERNISM. WELLESZ, EGON (1885–1974). Austrian-born English composer, educator, and musicologist. Egon Wellesz studied composition with Arnold Schoenberg and musicology at the University of Vienna, where he later taught. Wellesz’s Vorfrühling (1912) for orchestra and his Euripides operas Alkestis (1924) and Die Bakchantinnen (1929) were dissonant and had expressionist qualities; more traditional techniques informed Prosperos Beschwörungen (1936) for orchestra. Wellesz relocated to England in 1938 and became a British citizen in 1946; he taught at Lincoln College, Oxford. A neoromantic spirit characterized his Symphonies Nos. 1 (1945) and 2 (1948) and Octet (1949); with Symphony No. 4 (1953) and String Quartet No. 8 (1957), he combined serialism and tonality. Wellesz’s works include

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nine string quartets (1912–1966), nine symphonies (1945–1971), and the operas Die Prinzessin Girnara (1920), Die Opferung des Gefangenen (1925), Scherz, List und Rache (1927), and Incognita (1950). Among his students are Peggy Glanville-Hicks and Peter Sculthorpe. See also MODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. WESTERKAMP, HILDEGARD (1946– ). German-born Canadian composer, musician, and educator. Hildegard Westerkamp studied piano and flute at the Conservatory of Music in Freiburg before relocating to Canada in 1968; she became a Canadian citizen in 1975. Westerkamp studied at the University of British Columbia and then at Simon Fraser University where she was R. Murray Schafer’s research associate at the World Soundscape Project and later taught. A founding and board member of the World Forum for Acoustic Ecology, Westerkamp has explored urban and natural soundscapes in such works for two-channel tape as A Walk through the City (1981), Cricket Voice (1987), Beneath the Forest Floor (1992), Talking Rain (1997), and Attending to Sacred Matters (2002). Westerkamp’s electroacoustic music includes École Polytechnique (1990) for eight church bells, mixed choir, bass clarinet, trumpet, percussion, and tape; Camelvoice (1993, rev. 2018) for spoken voice and stereo soundtrack; Like a Memory (2002) for piano and two digital soundtracks; Liebes-Lied/Love Song (2005) for cello and eight digital soundtracks; and Klavierklang (2017) for piano, spoken voice, and stereo soundtrack. Among her sound installations are Nada (1998) and At the Edge of Wilderness (2000). See also ECOMUSICOLOGY; FILM MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM. WOLFE, JULIA (1958– ). American composer and educator. Julia Wolfe studied with Martin Bresnick at the Yale School of Music and has taught at New York University. A postmodern composer who combines minimalist, folk, classical, and rock techniques, she cofounded the music collective Bang on a Can in 1987 with her husband Michael Gordon and David Lang; the three also cocomposed the operas The Carbon Copy Building (1995), Lost Objects (2001), Shelter (2005), and Water (2008). Her music includes Lick (1994) for chamber ensemble; the string quartets Four Marys (1991), Early That Summer (1993), Dig Deep (1995), and Blue Dress (2015); Steam (1995) for flute, electric organ, cello, and three Harry Partch instruments; Lad (2007) for nine bagpipes; Stronghold (2008) for eight double basses; the orchestral scores The Vermeeer Room (1989), Window of Vulnerability (1991), and Thirst (2008); Cruel Sister (2004) for string orchestra; the percussion concerto riSE and fLY (2012); and Fire in My Mouth (2019) for women’s voices and orchestra. Wolfe also scored the film Porch (2006). See also CAHILL, SARAH (1960– ); INSTRUMENT BUILDING.

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WOLFF, CHRISTIAN (1934– ). French-born American composer, musician, and educator. Christian Wolff left France at age seven and relocated with his family to New York. He began composing in the late 1940s, and around 1950, his piano teacher Grete Sultan introduced him to John Cage, with whom he studied for a short time. The teenage Wolff soon became part of Cage’s circle, along with David Tudor, Morton Feldman, and Earle Brown. Having composed proto-minimalist scores such as String Trio (1950) and For Prepared Piano (1951), Wolff was drawn to Cage’s ideas; he used chance procedures in For Piano I (1952) and composed indeterminate works such as Duo for Pianists I (1957) and II (1958). Duo II also employed cueing techniques, with the musicians listening for certain sounds from each other, which would signal what was to happen next. Wolff went on to use cueing without specifying instrumentation: For Five or Ten Players (1962), In between Pieces (1963) for three players, and For One, Two or Three People (1964). His Prose Collection (1968–1971) is all verbal instructions with no musical notation. In the mid-1960s, Wolff began playing electric guitar and included it in the chamber ensembles of Electric Spring Nos. 1 (1966), 2 (1966–1970), and 3 (1967). As an improviser, he has performed with Takehisa Kosugi, AMM, Steve Lacy, and Christian Marclay, among other composer/musicians. Wolff also taught classics at Harvard (1962–1970) and classics, comparative literature, and music at Dartmouth College (1971–1999). In Edges (1968) for any number of players, Wolff combined traditional and graphic notation, but after Burdocks (1971) for one or more groups of five or more players and Lines (1972) for string quartet or other string ensembles, he felt he had gone as far as he could with indeterminacy. Inspired by Cornelius Cardew, Wolff engaged democratic-socialist political content in his music with Accompaniments (1972) for piano and Changing the System (1973) for eight or more instruments. He set political texts in many works, including Wobbly Music (1978) for mixed chorus and instruments and “I Like to Think of Harriet Tubman” (1985) for woman’s voice and three instruments. Older political songs were incorporated into Bread and Roses (1976) for piano, Preludes 1–11 (1981) for piano, Mayday Materials (1989) for Synclavier/synthesizer–generated sound, and Aarau Songs (1994) for clarinet and string quartet. His notable recent pieces include Ordinary Matter (2001) for three orchestras; Microexercises (2006) for one or more players; Accordionists (and possibly others) (2010) for two or more accordions, other instruments ad lib; Santa Fe (2012) for a minimum of four players; and Brooklyn (2015) for six or more players. See also ATONALITY; THE BEATLES; BUCKNER, THOMAS (1941– ); FREE DURATION; FREE IMPROVISATION; GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; GOLDSTEIN, MALCOLM

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(1936– ); MAXFIELD, RICHARD (1927–1969); MIKHASHOFF, YVAR (1941–1993); ONCE GROUP; OPPENS, URSULA (1944– ); POSTMODERNISM; TILBURY, JOHN (1936– ). WOLPE, STEFAN (1902–1972). German-born American composer, musician, and educator. Wolpe produced a multifaceted and expressive body of work, from Gebrauchsmusik to dissonance and atonality, which ranks with the finest of his time. Born in Berlin, Stefan Wolpe entered the Berlin Conservatory at age 14; he attended the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik (1920–1921) and studied privately with Ferruccio Busoni. In the song cycle Hölderlin Lieder (1924) for mezzo-soprano or alto and piano, Wolpe used modal, tonal, and atonal techniques. Popular music informed his Blues and Tango (1926) for piano and the jazz-inspired chamber operas Zeus und Elida (1928) and Schöne Geschichten (1929). He also played piano for socialist gatherings and composed political songs and piano works throughout the 1920s. Drawn to the era’s Gebrauchsmusik spirit, Wolpe pursued a simpler tonal style in the 1930s with such didactic works as Cantata about Sport (1932) for voices and brass band. He also composed and played for the left-wing theater group Die Truppe 31 until it was shut down by the Nazi chief of police in 1933. Wolpe fled Germany soon after and entered Vienna, where he studied with Anton Webern. The following year he arrived in Palestine and taught at the Palestine Conservatory (1934–1938). While there, Wolpe explored his Jewish heritage in his music, with Two Songs from the Song of Songs (1936) for alto and piano and Songs from the Hebrew (1938) for mezzo-soprano or baritone and piano; he also investigated twelve-tone methods in his 1936 scores Duo im Hexachord for oboe and clarinet and Four Studies on Basic Rows for piano. His modernist composition and progressive politics were not welcome at the conservatory, and Wolpe left Palestine in 1938 and settled in the United States, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1945. He produced several notable scores in the 1940s, including two Old Testament–themed works, the ballet The Man from Midian (1942) for two pianos and the cantata Yigdal (1945) for baritone, mixed chorus, and organ. Although he lived mostly in New York, Wolpe taught at numerous American institutions, including the Philadelphia Academy of Music (1949–1952), Black Mountain College (1952–1956), and C. W. Post College (1957–1968); his students include David Tudor, Morton Feldman, Ralph Shapey, Ilhan Mimaroglu, Ursula Mamlok, William Hellermann, and Johnny Mandel. By the late 1940s, with such compositions as Battle Piece (1947) for piano, Sonata (1949) for violin and piano, and Quartet (1950, rev. 1954) for trumpet, tenor saxophone, percussion, and piano, Wolpe had turned more to the articulation of simultaneities and the opposition of contrary materials.

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Chromatic circulation was coordinated with structural transformation in several of his major scores in the 1950s: Enactments (1953) for three pianos; Piece for Oboe, Cello, Percussion, and Piano (1955); Symphony (1956); and Quintet with Voice (1957). After these daunting complexities, Wolpe developed a leaner, more condensed and succinct music with his Form (1959) for piano. This approach defined his composition in the early 1960s: Piece in Two Parts (1960) for flute and piano; Piece for Piano and 16 Players (1961); In Two Parts for Six Players (1962); the cantata Street Music (1962) for baritone, speaker, and five instruments; Piece for Two Instrumental Units (1963); Cantata (1963) for mezzo-soprano, three women’s voices, and nine instruments; and Trio in Two Parts (1964) for flute, cello, and piano. In 1963, Wolpe was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease, which would claim his life a decade later in New York at age 69. But in his final years, he achieved a new clarity and originality in Chamber Pieces Nos. 1 (1964) and 2 (1967) for 14 Players; Piece in Two Parts for Violin Alone (1964); Second Piece for Violin Alone (1966); Solo Piece for Trumpet (1966); String Quartet (1969); From Here on Farther (1969) for violin, clarinet, bass clarinet, and piano; Form IV: Broken Sequences (1969) for piano; and Piece for Trumpet and Seven Instruments (1971). See also SOLLBERGER, HARVEY (1938– ); SULTAN, GRETE (1906–2005); WEISBERG, ARTHUR (1931–2009). WUORINEN, CHARLES (1938– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Charles Wuorinen studied with Otto Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky at Columbia University. As pianist or conductor, he has performed the music of many modern and contemporary composers; with Harvey Sollberger, he cofounded and codirected the Group for Contemporary Music (1962– ). With such early pieces as Concertante Nos. 1 (1957) and 2 (1958) for violin and orchestra, Wuorinen drew upon the tonal works of Igor Stravinsky. By the 1960s, he was combining Stravinskian techniques with the twelve-tone music of Arnold Schoenberg and Milton Babbitt in such scores as Chamber Concerto for Cello and Ten Players (1963) and Making Ends Meet (1966) for piano four-hands. A Reliquary for Igor Stravinsky (1975) for orchestra utilized Stravinsky’s last musical sketches. Despite the praise for his electronic work Time’s Encomium (1969), there is little electronic music in Wuorinen’s prolific output. Instrumental music has been his primary focus, with a special flair for percussion: Janissary Music (1966), Ringing Changes (1970), Percussion Symphony (1976), Percussion Quartet (1994), Marimba Variations (2009). His later works blend twelve-tone and tonal methods; he also composed more for voice, as in Lightenings VIII (1994) for soprano and piano, Stanzas before Time (2001) for tenor and harp, and The Long Boat (2003) for mezzo-soprano and English horn.

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Wuorinen’s music includes eight symphonies (1958–2006), four string quartets (1971–2000), four piano sonatas (1958–2007), and four piano concertos (1966–2003). Among his recent works are the ballet score Dante Trilogy (1996); the operas Haroun and the Sea of Stories (2001) and Brokeback Mountain (2012); Time Regained (2008) for piano and orchestra; and the orchestral scores Eros and Nemesis (2016) and Sudden Changes (2017). The author of Simple Composition (1979), he has taught at Columbia University, the Mannes School of Music, Barnard College, and Rutgers University; his students include Peter Lieberson, Joan Tower, and Wendy Mae Chambers. See also ATONALITY; SYNTHESIZER; WEISBERG, ARTHUR (1931–2009); ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). WYSCHNEGRADSKY, IVAN (1893–1979). Russian composer, musician, and theorist. Ivan Wyschnegradsky studied at the St. Petersburg Conservatory and was investigating microtonal music by 1918 with Chant douloureux et étude for violin and piano, L’évangile rouge (rev. 1937, 1963, 1979) for bass-baritone and piano, and other scores. He relocated to France in 1919 and composed such quarter-tone works as String Quartets Nos. 1 (1924, rev. 1954) and 2 (1931) and Deux choeurs (1927, rev. 1936) for mixed chorus, four pianos, and percussion. He commissioned a quarter-tone harmonium in the 1920s and collaborated with Alois Hába on the design of a multiplekeyboard quarter-tone piano. Wyschnegradsky featured both instruments, along with clarinet and strings, in Also Sprach Zarathustra (1930). Using multiple pianos tuned a quarter-tone apart was more practical, and he arranged Zarathustra for four pianos in 1936 and composed 24 Preludes (1934, rev. 1970) for two pianos; Cosmos (1940, rev. 1945) for four pianos; and Transparences I (1953) and II (1963) for ondes martenot and two pianos. His scores in other microtonal tunings include Arc-en-ciel (1956) for six pianos in 12th-tones; Deux pièces (1958, rev. 1972) in sixth- and 12th-tones and Prélude et étude (1966) in third-tones, for three of Julián Carrillo’s pianos metamorfoseadores; Étude ultrachromatique (1959) for 31-tone organ; and Composition I (1961) and Dialogue à Trois (1974) for three pianos in sixth-tones. Wyschnegradsky is also the author of Manuel d’harmonie à quarts de ton (1932), Une philosophie dialectique de l’art musical (1936), and La loi de la pansonorité (1954). See also INSTRUMENT BUILDING; MODERNISM.

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X XENAKIS, IANNIS (1922–2001). Romanian-born French composer and educator. A highly influential composer, Xenakis created stochastic processes and other musical structures derived from higher mathematics and played an essential role in the development of computer music. Born of Greek parents in Braïla, Romania, Iannis Xenakis was sent to the Greek island of Spetsai in 1932 for his education and began studying music. Fighting with the Communist Resistance during World War II, Xenakis was badly wounded; after recovering, he graduated from the Polytechnic School of Athens in 1947 with an engineering diploma. That same year he was arrested by the Greek regime for his continued guerilla activities but managed to escape and flee the country. In Greece, he was sentenced to death in absentia and stripped of his citizenship. Xenakis settled in Paris, becoming a French citizen in 1965. He worked with the architect Le Corbusier until 1959 and pursued his musical education, studying with Arthur Honegger and Darius Milhaud at l’École Normale de Musique (1949) and Olivier Messiaen at the Paris Conservatoire (1951–1953). Xenakis recognized that the polyphony of deterministic serial composition was mostly imperceptible to the ear; he also rejected the surrender of control inherent in chance music. Seeking a structural coherence that could be heard in performance, he utilized graphic designs of parabolas in Metastasis (1954) for orchestra. To write the score, he had a computer calculate the variable-speed glissandi. Computer calculations also informed Pithoprakhta (1956) for string orchestra, two trombones, and percussion, in which Xenakis introduced the use of stochastic procedures from probability theory. These controlled random processes brought unpredictability to the music as it unfolded, yet gave it a recognizable form and character of its own. The long slow glissandi, clouds of pointillistic sounds, tone-clusters, and dissonant microtonal densities in Xenakis’s works of these years soon became familiar sounds in the music of other composers internationally. A member of Pierre Schaeffer’s Groupe de recherches de musique concrète and Groupe de recherches musicales from 1955 to 1962, Xenakis created tape music derived from acoustic sounds, which often existed in 397

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multiple versions: Concret PH (1956), Diamorphoses (1957), and Bohor (1962); Orient-Occident (1960) was originally one of his film scores. He also produced his first electroacoustic work, Analogique A & B (1959) for nine strings and tape. In 1962, Xenakis completed his three ST pieces (ST = stochastic music): ST/48-1,240162 for 48 instruments, ST/10-1,080262 for 10 instruments, and ST/4-1,080262 for string quartet. His other stochastic works include Kraanerg (1969) for 23 musicians and tape and Mikka (1971) for solo violin. Xenakis combined ideas of set theory with stochastic materials in Herma (1961) for piano and Eonta (1963) for piano and brass instruments, in which the musicians move around the space. Further theoretical studies led to his use of group theory in Akrata (1964) for eight woodwinds and eight brass, which employed quarter-tones, and Nomos Gamma (1968) for orchestra, a spatial piece that distributed its 98 musicians throughout the audience. Game theory informed Stratégie (1962) for two orchestras with two conductors using controlled improvisation. In his vocal music, Xenakis’s Greek heritage emerged with Polla ta dhina (1962) for children’s chorus and orchestra, a setting of Sophocles with the young voices singing on one note. Oresteïa (1966) for children’s chorus, mixed chorus, and 12 musicians attempted to re-create aspects of music from the time of Aeschylus’s trilogy in fifthcentury-BCE Athens. Aïs (1980) for amplified baritone, solo percussion, and orchestra used texts from Homer and Sappho. Les Bacchantes (1993) for baritone, women’s chorus, and orchestra adapted Euripides. Xenakis published two collections of his writings on music, Musiques formelles (1963) and Musique. Architecture (1971). He taught at Tanglewood (1963), Indiana University (1967–1972), and the Université de Paris I (1972–1989), among other institutions; his students include Yuji Takahashi, David Del Tredici, Gérard Grisey, and Horatiu Radulescu. Polytope de Montréal (1967) launched Xenakis’s multimedia spectacles of light and tape. He called for four ensembles of 14 players in Polytope de Montréal but more often created tape music for these international events, which also used lasers: Hibiki Hana Ma (1970), Persepolis (1971), and Polytope de Cluny (1972). La légende d’Eer (1978) was a sound installation in a curved architectural space that Xenakis designed. From the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, Xenakis developed the Unité polyagogique informatique du CEMaMu (UPIC) system, in which an electromagnetic ballpoint draws graphics that are transformed into sound by a computer. With UPIC, Xenakis created Mycenae Alpha (1978), Pour la paix (1981), Taurhiphanie (1987), and Voyage absolu des Unari vers Andromède (1989). His notable instrumental music from these years includes Nyuyo (1985), a multicultural score for Japanese instruments (shakuhachi, sanger, and two kotos); the 1986 scores A l’ile de Gorée for amplified harpsichord and 12 musicians and Jalons for 15 musicians, which use woodwind multiphonics;

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and Epicycle (1989) for 12 cellos. He introduced stochastic parameters into sound synthesis with the GENDY-N computer program, creating Gendy3 (1991) and S. 709 (1994). His other later works include the string quartets Tetora (1990) and Ergma (1996); Knephas (1990) and Sea Nymphs (1994) for mixed chorus and orchestra; Dox-Orkh (1991) for violin and 89 musicians; and Sea Change (1997) for orchestra. Xenakis’s composition ended when his health began to fail in his last years, and he died in his Paris home at age 78. See also ALEATORY; ARDITTI, IRVINE (1953– ); ATONALITY; COPLAND, AARON (1900–1990); DUFALLO, RICHARD (1933–2000); ELECTRONIC MUSIC; EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; GRAPHIC NOTATION; MADERNA, BRUNO (1920–1973); MODERNISM; MUSIQUE CONCRÈTE; PLEROMA.

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Y YAMADA, NORMAN. See ROUGH ASSEMBLAGE. YARDUMIAN, RICHARD (1917–1985). American composer and musician. Mostly self-taught, Richard Yardumian studied piano with George Boyle, conducting with Pierre Monteux, and composition with Virgil Thomson. Drawing on the folk and sacred music of his Armenian heritage, Yardumian composed tonal music using his own serial-derived organizational techniques. Among his notable works are the orchestral scores Armenian Suite (1936, rev. 1954), Desolate City (1944), and Symphonies Nos. 1 (1950, rev. 1961) and 2 (1964); Chromatic Sonata (1946) for piano; Violin Concerto (1949, rev. 1960); Passacaglia, Recitatives and Fugue (1957) for piano and orchestra; Cantus animae et cordis (1955) for string quartet or string orchestra; Come, Creator Spirit (1966) for mezzo-soprano or baritone, mixed chorus, congregation, and orchestra or organ; the multimedia oratorio The Story of Abraham (1971, rev. 1973); and Hrashapar (1984) for mixed chorus, organ, and orchestra. See also MODERNISM; MULTICULTURALISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. YOUNG, LA MONTE (1935– ). American composer, musician, and educator. As a composer and improviser, La Monte Young has been at the forefront of minimalist music since its beginnings and is a major figure in the use of just intonation. Born in Bern, Idaho, Young relocated with his family to Los Angeles and studied saxophone and clarinet at the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music (1951–1954). He began studying with Leonard Stein in 1953 and continued while attending the University of California at Los Angeles (1957–1958). During these years, Young’s interests shifted from jazz to serial composition, which he employed in his own way, starting with the brief and static Five Small Pieces for String Quartet (1956). Young used long sustained tones in for Brass (1957) for brass octet and the solo-guitar score for Guitar (1958), and they defined Trio for Strings (1958) for violin, viola, and cello—a landmark minimalist work in the extremity of its held pitches. He studied with Andrew Imbrie and Seymour 401

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Shifrin at the University of California at Berkeley, and in 1959, Young produced serial music of a more traditional complexity and activity with Study I and Study II for piano. While attending Karlheinz Stockhausen’s Advanced Composition Seminar at Darmstadt later that year he wrote Study III, which included long silences and sustained tones. Young was stimulated by the indeterminate music of John Cage, and his score Vision (1959) for 12 instruments was mostly verbal, with some graphic notation. Poem for Chairs, Tables, Benches, etc. (1960) listened to the sound of furniture being dragged across the floor. Although he studied electronic music with Richard Maxfield at the New School for Social Research in 1960–1961, Young composed mostly performance pieces then, including Compositions 1960 and Compositions 1961. He was drawn into the Fluxus orbit, and during a 1961 Fluxus concert, he inserted a rendition of his Composition 1960 No. 2 and burned his violin. The following year, he hit a frying pan 923 times to perform Arabic Numeral (Any Integer) to H. F. (1960), dedicated to Henry Flynt. In the early 1960s, Young was improvising on piano and sopranino saxophone, using blues forms in a static and modal drone-like style. These sessions with such musicians as Terry Jennings and Angus MacLise led to the compositions for which Young is most well known: The Four Dreams of China (The Harmonic Versions) (1962) for tunable sustaining instruments of like timbre in multiples of four; The Tortoise, His Dreams and Journeys (1964) for voices, various instruments, and sine waves; and The Well-Tuned Piano (1964) for piano retuned in just intonation. Both The Tortoise and The Well-Tuned Piano were ongoing pieces that became lifetime projects as Young developed and expanded them. All three works involved improvisation techniques, just intonation, sustained tones, and a lengthy time scale— the qualities that have defined Young’s music. Those improvisations also led Young to initiate the Theater of Eternal Music in 1962, and over the years, its performers of his music have included Jennings, MacLise, Marian Zazeela, Dennis Johnson, Terry Riley, Tony Conrad, John Cale, Jon Gibson, and Jon Hassell. Beyond singing and playing instruments, Zazeela also served as visual designer, and with her Ornamental Lightyears Tracery series of slide projections, Young’s music became a multimedia experience. For The Well-Tuned Piano, Zazeela made The Magenta Lights, using colored lighting and curved mobiles to transform the performance spaces. She and Young married in 1963, and her lighting has been essential to his music, in concert and with such sound environments as Betty Freeman Commission (1967), The Big Dream (1984), and The Young Prime Time Twins (1991). Young and Zazeela became disciples of master singer Pandit Pran Nath in 1970, studying North Indian classical vocal music until Pran Nath’s death in 1996. They performed ragas and taught students of their own; Young’s stu-

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dents include Rhys Chatham, Elodie Lauten, and Ned Sublette. Raga heightened Young’s approach of organically evolving improvisation, leading him to give five- and six-hour performances of The Well-Tuned Piano in the 1980s and 1990s. He also produced versions of Trio for Strings for string quartet and string orchestra in 1983, and he composed The Subsequent Dreams of China (1980) for tunable sustaining instruments of like timbre in multiples of eight. In 1984, he wrote Melodic Versions of both the Subsequent Dreams and the original Four Dreams of China, calling for the same forces. Many performances ensued of The Melodic Version of The Second Dream of the High-Tension Line Stepdown Transformer from The Four Dreams of China by the Theatre of Eternal Music Brass Ensemble, a group of eight trumpets in Harmon mutes. That interest in massing like voices also characterized one of Young’s greatest works, The Lower Map of the Eleven’s Division in the Romantic Symmetry (over a 60-Cycle Base) in Prime Time from 144 to 112 with 119 (1990), scored for tunable sustaining instruments in sections of like timbre, playing within a sine-wave drone sound environment. It was premiered by an ensemble of four voices, 15 brass instruments, two electric guitars, and two electric basses, with the musicians articulating pitches that generated epic overtone and resultant-tone activity, even mightier than the marvels Young has produced playing The Well-Tuned Piano. The fully notated Chronos Kristalla (1990) for string quartet was in just intonation, as was the music of the Forever Bad Blues Band, which Young formed in 1993, playing minimalist blues on Korg synthesizer accompanied by electric guitar, electric bass, and drums. He revised the string-orchestra version of Trio for Strings into just intonation in 2001, and composed Just Charles & Cello in the Romantic Chord (2003) for cello and prerecorded cello drones, with a live computer part. Young, Zazeela, and Jung Hee Choi founded the Just Alap Raga Ensemble in 2002, which became Young’s primary vehicle for performance and composition with Raga Sundara (2004) for voices, sarangi, cello, and tabla. See also CARDEW, CORNELIUS (1936–1981); DUCKWORTH, WILLIAM (1943–2012); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; IMPRESSIONISM; KRONOS QUARTET; KRUMM, PHILIP (1941– ); KUBERA, JOSEPH (1949– ); MULTICULTURALISM; ONCE GROUP; PLEROMA; POSTMODERNISM; SCRATCH ORCHESTRA; SOUND INSTALLATION; TUDOR, DAVID (1926–1996); TWELVE-TONE MUSIC; TYRANNY, “BLUE” GENE (1945– ). YUASA, JOJI (1929– ). Japanese composer and educator. A cofounder of Tokyo’s Experimental Workshop in 1951, Joji Yuasa has created tape music (Aoi-No-Ue, 1961; Moment Grand-Guignolesques, 1962), electronic music (Projection Essemplastic for White Noise, 1964; My Blue Sky (No. 1), 1975), multicultural music (Projection for Kotos and Orchestra, 1967; Suite Fushi

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Gyo-Un for Japanese traditional instruments, alto, and tenor, 1988), multimedia works (Space Projection “Ako,” 1970), electroacoustic pieces (Triplicity for Contrabass for contrabass and tape, 1979; Towards “The Midnight Sun” for piano and tape, 1984; Scenes with a Harp for harp and tape, 1999), and computer music (A Study in White, 1987). Among his many instrumental scores are Cosmos Haptic (1957) for piano; Chronoplastic for Orchestra (1972); Eye on Genesis II (1992) for orchestra; Violin Concerto (1996); Four Imaginary Landscapes from Basho (2007) for violin and piano; and Eye on Genesis IV (2011) for piano and percussion ensemble. Yuasa has taught at Nihon University, the Tokyo College of Music, and the University of California at San Diego. His film music includes Toshio Matsumoto’s Funeral Parade of Roses (1969). See also POSTMODERNISM; TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ); TAKEMITSU, TORU (1930–1996). YUN, ISANG (1917–1995). Korean-born German composer and educator. Isang Yun studied in Paris and Berlin in the late 1950s; his teachers included Josef Rufer, a student and associate of Arnold Schoenberg. Yun’s multicultural approach combined twelve-tone methods with elements of traditional Korean music, employing a central tone around which the other tones in the row operate, as in his 1963 scores Gasa for violin and piano and Garak for flute and piano. The German premiere of Yun’s Réak (1966) for orchestra established his international reputation; however, in 1967, the Korean secret police abducted Yun, and in Seoul, he was tortured, charged with treason, and sentenced to life imprisonment. He composed his one-act opera Die Witwe des Schmetterlings (1968) in his prison cell. Worldwide protests led to Yun’s release in 1969, and he became a German citizen in 1971. In Namo (1971) for three sopranos and orchestra and Cello Concerto (1976), Yun reflected directly on his ordeal. His other notable later works include the opera Sim Tjong (1972); the Double Concerto for Oboe and Harp (1977), a plea for Korean reunification; a group of five interrelated symphonies (1983–1987); the Korean cantata My Land, My People (1987) for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra; and String Quartets Nos. 5 (1990) and 6 (1992). Yun taught at the Hochschule der Künste Berlin from 1970 to 1985. See also DISSONANCE; MODERNISM; PANTONALITY; TAKAHASHI, AKI (1944– ); TAN DUN (1957– ).

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Z ZAPPA, FRANK (1940–1993). American composer and musician. Mostly self-taught, Frank Zappa brought a provocative wit and avant-garde sensibility to rock music. He released albums with the band the Mothers of Invention (Freak Out!, 1966; We’re Only in It for the Money, 1968; Weasels Ripped My Flesh, 1970), and such solo recordings as Hot Rats (1969), Zoot Allures (1976), Shut Up ‘n Play Yer Guitar (1981), and the Synclavier pieces of Jazz from Hell (1986). Zappa also produced Captain Beefheart’s classic doubleLP Trout Mask Replica (1969). Drawing inspiration from Bülent Arel, Igor Stravinsky, and Edgard Varèse as well as jazz and rock, he composed dissonant large-ensemble works heard on such albums as Lumpy Gravy (1967), The Grand Wazoo (1972), Orchestral Favorites (1979), London Symphony Orchestra Vols. 1 (1983) and 2 (1987), and Boulez Conducts Zappa: The Perfect Stranger (1984). The author of Them or Us (1984) and coauthor of The Real Frank Zappa Book (1989), he also wrote, directed, and scored his own films, including 200 Motels (1971), Baby Snakes (1979), Video from Hell (1985), and Uncle Meat (1987), as well as scoring other films, including Timothy Carey’s The World’s Greatest Sinner (1962). Zappa died of prostate cancer in Los Angeles at age 52. See also BOULEZ, PIERRE (1925–2016); ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; POSTMODERNISM; SAMPLING; SURREALISM. ZAZEELA, MARIAN (1940– ). American musician and educator. Along with serving as its visual designer, Marian Zazeela has participated in performances of La Monte Young’s Theater of Eternal Music, most often as singer or playing bowed gong. Her lighting has been fundamental to Young’s sound environments and concert music, and the two have been married since 1963. A disciple of the master North Indian singer Pandit Pran Nath from 1970 until his death in 1996, Zazeela has sung and taught raga and was a cofounder of the Just Alap Raga Ensemble in 2002. See also CONRAD, TONY (1940–2016); DUCKWORTH, WILLIAM (1943–2012); JENNINGS, TERRY (1940–1981); MacLISE, ANGUS (1938–1979); MULTIMEDIA; POSTMODERNISM; SOUND INSTALLATION. 405

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ZIMMERMANN, BERND ALOIS (1918–1970). German composer, musician, and educator. Bernd Alois Zimmermann studied with Philipp Jarnach at the Cologne Hochschule für Musik, where he later taught, and with René Leibowitz at Darmstadt. Zimmermann merged techniques of neoclassical tonality and polyrhythm with atonality, serialism, the collaging of quotations, and jazz elements in such notable scores as Symphony in One Movement (1951. rev. 1953); Trumpet Concerto (1954); Dialoge (1965) for two pianos and orchestra; Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu (1966) for orchestra and combo; and Stille und Umkehr (1970) for orchestra. He also composed electronic music (Tratto, 1967; Tratto II, 1970), which he included in two major vocal works, the opera Die Soldaten (1963, rev. 1965) and the oratorio Requiem für einen jungen Dichter (1969). His final composition, Ekklesiastische Aktion (1970) for two speakers, bass, and orchestra, is a theatrical work setting passages from the Bible and Fyodor Dostoevsky. Zimmermann took his own life in Königsdorf at age 52. See also ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; MODERNISM; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC. ZORN, JOHN (1953– ). American composer and musician. John Zorn studied composition with Kendall Stallings at Webster College, where he researched the music of Carl Stalling who scored hundreds of cartoons at Warner Bros. Also drawn to the music of such innovators as Anthony Braxton and Mauricio Kagel, Zorn developed his own genre-defying, multicultural sound of rapidly changing material, combining techniques from jazz, rock, and world music with an experimentalist love of noise, dissonance, and atonality. He composed scores for improvising musicians as game pieces: Lacrosse (1977), Fencing (1978), Archery (1979), Go! (1981), Track & Field (1982), and Cobra (1984). For several years, Zorn also played sections of his disassembled clarinet and often used game calls in place of reeds in his alto saxophone. He became an essential figure among the free improvisers and has worked with numerous composer/musicians, including Braxton, Fred Frith, George Lewis, Annie Gosfield, Bob Ostertag, Joëlle Léandre, Gavin Bryars, Sylvie Courvoisier, Susie Ibarra, David Shea, Laurie Anderson, and Elliott Sharp. Zorn has also formed such bands as Painkiller, News for Lulu, and Masada. With Naked City, he played noise, hardcore rock, lush instrumental covers, the minimalist Qúê Trán (1989) for two keyboards and Vietnamese narration, and even an ambient album, Absinthe (1993). After The Big Gundown (1986), an album of arrangements of Ennio Morricone’s film music, Zorn began composing fully notated non-improvisational scores such as the quotation-filled For Your Eyes Only (1989) for chamber orchestra, Carny (1991) for piano, and the string quartets Cat O’ Nine Tails (1988), The Dead Man (1990), Memento Mori (1992), Kol Nidre (1996), Necronomicon (2003), and The Remedy of Fortune (2015). The Wanderers (1993) was scored for a consort of Harry Partch instruments. Zorn

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created impressive works in the studio as well, such as Spillane (1986), Elegy (1991), and Kristallnacht (1995). With Spy vs Spy (1989), he reinvented the music of Ornette Coleman. One of the most influential postmodern composers of his generation, Zorn has also scored such films as She Must Be Seeing Things (1987), The Elegant Spanking (1995), and Trembling before G-d (2001). His recent concert works include Aporias (1994) for piano, orchestra, and children’s choir; the opera Rituals (1998) for mezzo-soprano and 10 instruments; Gris-Gris (2000) for solo percussionist; The Holy Visions (2012) for five female voices; and the piano quintet Obscure Objects of Desire (2016). In 2001, he composed electronic music (American Magus) and computer music (The Nerve Key). Among his notable recent studio albums are Six Litanies for Heliogabalus (2007), Femina (2009), Interzone (2010), Mount Analogue (2014), and 49 Acts of Unspeakable Depravity in the Abominable Life and Times of Gilles de Rais (2016). See also CHANCE MUSIC; ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC; EXTENDED PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES; GEBRAUCHSMUSIK; INSTRUMENT BUILDING; KRONOS QUARTET; SURREALISM; TEXT-SOUND MUSIC. ZUBEL, AGATA (1978– ). Polish composer, musician, and educator. Agata Zubel studied composition and voice at the Karol Lipinski Academy of Music in Wroclaw, where she teaches. A soprano who specializes in modern and postmodern music and the use of extended performance techniques, Zubel won acclaim performing her settings of Samuel Beckett: Cascando (2007) for voice, flute, clarinet, violin, and cello; Not I (2010) for voice, flute, clarinet, violin, cello, piano, percussion, and electronics; and What Is the Word (2012) for voice, flute, violin, cello, and piano. Among her electroacoustic vocal works are Unisono I (2003) for voice, percussion, and computer; Unisono II (2003) for voice, accordion, and computer; and Between (2008), an opera/ballet for voice, electronics, and dancers. Her nonvocal music includes Symphonies Nos. 1 (2002), 2 (2005), and 3 (2009) and such electroacoustic works as String Quartet No. 1 (2006) for four cellos and computer and Shades of Ice (2011) for clarinet, cello, and electronics. Zubel’s other notable recent works are the opera Oresteia (2011) for voices, actors, three percussionists, and electronics; the orchestral scores In (2013) and Fireworks (2018); Violin Concerto (2014); and the William Shakespeare setting Cleopatra’s Songs (2017) for voice and instrumental ensemble. See also ELECTRONIC MUSIC. ZUKOFSKY, PAUL (1943–2017). American musician and educator. A child prodigy, Paul Zukofsky entered Juilliard in 1952 and studied violin with Ivan Galamian and Dorothy DeLay. The son of poet Louis Zukofsky, he performed at age 10 for Ezra Pound while Pound was incarcerated. A vio-

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linist and conductor devoted to modern and postmodern music, Zukofsky premiered works by such composers as Milton Babbitt, John Cage, Roger Sessions, Earle Brown, Charles Wuorinen, Elliott Carter, Toshi Ichiyanagi, Morton Feldman, Philip Glass, and Jo Kondo; he also championed the music of Artur Schnabel. Zukofsky conducted the Colonial Symphony (1978–1987), founded the CD label CP2, and taught at Juilliard, the Manhattan School of Music, Reykjavik College of Music, and other institutions. He died in Hong Kong of non-Hodgkin lymphoma at age 73. ZWILICH, ELLEN TAAFFE (1939– ). American composer, musician, and educator. Pianist, trumpet player, and violinist, Ellen Taaffe Zwilich studied at Juilliard with Elliott Carter and Roger Sessions and has taught at Florida State University. Among her early works are Symposium (1973) for orchestra and String Quartet 1974. Zwilich’s modernist use of continuous variation shaped her melodic sensibility in Symphony No. 1 (1983, aka Three Movements for Orchestra). Her other notable works include Symphonies Nos. 2–5 (1985–2008); Immigrant Voices (1991) for mixed chorus, brass, timpani, and strings; American Concerto (1994) for trumpet and orchestra; Peanuts Gallery (1996) for piano and orchestra; String Quartet No. 2 (1998); Lament (1999) for piano; Rituals (2003) for five percussionists and orchestra; Quartet for Oboe and Strings (2004); Memorial (2013) for children’s chorus and mixed chorus; and concertos for piano (1986), flute (1988), oboe (1990), bassoon (1992), violin (1997), and clarinet (2002).

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Bibliography

CONTENTS Introduction Books General Histories Individual Composers Other Individual Composers Multiple Composers Interviews Journals and Reviews Websites General Individual Composers Multiple Composers Organizations and Resources

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INTRODUCTION Although the dictionary includes entries on certain innovators in pop, jazz, and rock, along with some post-Romantic composers who had modernist qualities, this bibliography of English-language books, journals, and websites focuses more narrowly on modern and contemporary classical music. The books listed here reflect the growth over the years in appreciation of this music: more than three-quarters of these titles were written after 1970. Not only have the scandales of the 1910s become the classics of the 2010s, producing generations of research and commentary, but there has also been a great amount of scholarship in the last 40 years devoted to contemporary practices—note the numerous interview books, none of which predate the 1970s. Theodor W. Adorno’s Essays on Music and Donald Mitchell’s The Language of Modern Music remain intelligent and thought-provoking considerations of modernist music in general. The composer’s perspective is cogently expressed in the essays collected in Gregory Battcock’s Breaking the Sound Barrier and Benjamin Boretz and Edward T. Cone’s Perspectives on Con409

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temporary Music Theory. The Cambridge Companion to Twentieth-Century Opera, edited by Mervyn Cooke, and The Symphony, volume 2, edited by Robert Simpson, provide valuable surveys, as do the writings of Kyle Gann in Music Downtown, Paul Griffiths in The Substance of Things Heard, and Alex Ross in The Rest Is Noise. The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Music, edited by Nicholas Cook and Anthony Pople, and The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music, edited by Nick Collins and Julio d’Escrivan, are thorough and reliable histories. Other accomplished works include Thomas B. Holmes’s Electronic and Experimental Music, Joseph Machlis’s Introduction to Contemporary Music, and H. H. Stuckenschmidt’s Twentieth Century Music. More specialized are the insightful studies of Michael Nyman’s Experimental Music and Edward Strickland’s Minimalism: Origins. Composers’ Voices from Ives to Ellington: An Oral History of American Music, edited by Vivian Perlis and Libby Van Cleeve, is an invaluable primary source. Among the essential writings by composers are Béla Bartók Essays; Pierre Boulez’s Orientations; Ferruccio Busoni’s Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music; John Cage’s Silence; Aaron Copland’s Music and Imagination and The New Music: 1900–1960; Henry Cowell’s New Musical Resources; Debussy on Music; Charles Ives’s “Essays before a Sonata,” “The Majority,” and Other Writings; Olivier Messiaen’s The Technique of My Musical Language; Pauline Oliveros’s Deep Listening; Harry Partch’s Genesis of a Music; Dane Rudhyar’s The Magic of Tone and the Art of Music; Erik Satie’s A Mammal’s Notebook; Arnold Schoenberg’s Theory of Harmony and Style and Idea; Igor Stravinsky’s Poetics of Music; and Iannis Xenakis’s Formalized Music. The numerous books about composers provide an array of perspectives. Invaluable personal insights characterize Stravinsky: Chronicle of a Friendship by Robert Craft; Delius as I Knew Him by Eric Fenby; Bartók Remembered, edited by Malcolm Gillies; Forces in Motion: Anthony Braxton and the Meta-reality of Creative Music by Graham Lock; Schoenberg Remembered by Dika Newlin; Charles Ives Remembered by Vivian Perlis; Varèse: A Looking-Glass Diary by Louise Varèse; and RVW: A Biography of Ralph Vaughn Williams by Ursula Vaughan Williams. Thoughtful compositional analysis is offered by On the Music of Stefan Wolpe, edited by Austin Clarkson; Allan Forte’s The Harmonic Organization of “The Rite of Spring”; The Bartók Companion, edited by Malcolm Gillies; Paul Griffiths’s Olivier Messiaen and the Music of Time; George Perle’s The Operas of Alban Berg, volumes 1 and 2; and E. Robert Schmitz’s The Piano Works of Claude Debussy. Illuminating and well-researched biographies and studies include Sabine Feisst’s Schoenberg’s New World: The American Years, Don C. Gillespie’s The Search for Thomas F. Ward, Teacher of Frederick Delius, Allan B. Ho and Dmitry Feofanov’s Shostakovich Reconsidered, Rita Mead’s Henry

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Cowell’s New Music 1925–1936, Joel Sachs’s Henry Cowell: A Man Made of Music, Howard Pollack’s Aaron Copland, Rebecca Rischin’s For the End of Time: The Story of the Messiaen Quartet, Arbie Orenstein’s Ravel: Man and Musician, Vera Stravinsky and Robert Craft’s Stravinsky in Pictures and Documents, and Judith Tick’s Ruth Crawford Seeger. Almost half of the journals and reviews listed remain in publication, in print or online. The websites compiled at the end of this bibliography indicate the vitality that the internet has brought to disseminating information about modern and contemporary music. Many of these websites continue to evolve along with their subjects. Like the journals and reviews, they are liable to cease operations for varying reasons; however, all were operational as of December 2018.

BOOKS General Adorno, Theodor W. Essays on Music. Edited by Richard Leppert. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. Ashby, Arved, ed. The Pleasure of Modernist Music: Listening, Meaning, Intention, Ideology. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2004. Bandur, Markus. Aesthetics of Total Serialism. Basel: Mirkhäuser, 2001. Battcock, Gregory, ed. Breaking the Sound Barrier. New York: Dutton, 1981. Boretz, Benjamin, and Edward T. Cone, eds. Perspectives on Contemporary Music Theory. New York: Norton, 1972. ———. Perspectives on Notation and Performance. New York: Norton, 1976. Bruhn, Siglind. Images and Ideas in Modern French Piano Music. Hillsdale, N.Y.: Pendragon, 1997. ———, ed. Voicing the Ineffable: Musical Representations of Religious Experience. Hillsdale, N.Y.: Pendragon, 2002. Burge, David. Twentieth-Century Piano Music. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2004. Cooke, Mervyn, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Twentieth-Century Opera. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Downes, Stephen. Music and Decadence in European Modernism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Emerson, Isabelle. Twentieth-Century American Music for the Dance. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1996.

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Everett, Yayoi Uno, and Frederick Lau, eds. Locating East Asia in Western Art Music. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 2004. Fink, Robert. Repeating Ourselves: American Minimal Music as Cultural Practice. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005. Forte, Allen. The Structure of Atonal Music. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1999. Gann, Kyle. Music Downtown: Writings from the Village Voice. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Grant, M. J. Serial Music, Serial Aesthetics: Compositional Theory in PostWar Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Griffiths, Paul. The Substance of Things Heard: Writings about Music. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2005. Hinton, Stephen. The Idea of Gebrauchsmusik. New York: Garland, 1989. Jones, Evan, ed. Intimate Voices: The Twentieth-Century String Quartet. 2 vols. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2009. Leeuw, Ton de. Music of the Twentieth Century. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2005. Licata, Thomas. Electroacoustic Music: Analytical Perspectives. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2002. Lochhead, Judy, and Joseph Auner, eds. Postmodern Music, Postmodern Thought. New York: Routledge, 2001. Mabry, Sharon. Exploring Twentieth-Century Vocal Music: A Practical Guide to Innovations in Performance and Repertoire. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. Marquis, G. Welton, Twentieth-Century Music Idioms. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1981. Metzer, David. Quotation and Cultural Meaning in Twentieth-Century Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Mitchell, Donald. The Language of Modern Music. New York: St. Martin’s, 1970. Moreno, Enrique. Expanded Tunings in Contemporary Music. Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen, 1992. Paddison, Max, and Irène Deliège, eds. Contemporary Music: Theoretical and Philosophical Perspectives. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2010. Pendergast, Roy M. Film Music: A Neglected Art. New York: Norton, 1992. Perle, George. Twelve-Tone Tonality. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Peyser, Joan. The Music of My Time. White Plains, N.Y.: Pro/Am Music Resources, 1995. Rahn, John, ed. Perspectives on Musical Aesthetics. New York: Norton, 1995. Read, Gardner. Modern Rhythmic Notation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978.

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———. 20th-Century Microtonal Notation. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1990. Reti, Rudolph Richard. Tonality, Atonality, Pantonality. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1978. Ross, Alex. The Rest Is Noise: Listening to the Twentieth Century. New York: Picador, 2007. Rufer, Josef. Composition with Twelve Tones Related Only to One Another. London: Rockliff, 1954. Schaefer, John. New Sounds: A Listener’s Guide. New York: Harper & Row, 1987. Schuijer, Michiel. Analyzing Atonal Music: Pitch-Class Set Theory and Its Contexts. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2008. Simpson, Robert, ed. The Symphony. Vol. 2. Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1967. Stone, Kurt. Music Notation in the Twentieth Century. New York: Norton, 1980. Sutherland, Roger. New Perspectives in Music. London: Sun Tavern Fields, 1994. Voegelin, Salomé. Listening to Noise and Silence: Towards a Philosophy of Sound Art. New York: Continuum, 2010. Whitall, Arnold. Exploring Twentieth-Century Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Histories Appleton, John H., and Ronald C. Perera. The Development and Practice of Electronic Music. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1975. Bernstein, David W., ed. The San Francisco Tape Music Center. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008. Collins, Nick, and Julio d’Escrivan, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Cook, Nicholas, and Anthony Pople, eds. The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Cooke, Mervyn. A History of Film Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Corbett, John. A Listener’s Guide to Free Improvisation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016. Crawford, John C., and Dorothy L. Crawford. Expressionism in TwentiethCentury Music. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. Dean, Roger T., ed. The Oxford Handbook of Computer Music. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.

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Deutsch, Herbert A. Electroacoustic Music: The First Century. Miami, Fla.: Belwin Mills, 1993. Doctor, Jennifer. The BBC and Ultra-Modern Music, 1922–1936. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Ernst, David. Musique Concrète. Boston: Crescendo, 1972. Fearn, Raymond. Italian Opera since 1945. Amsterdam: Harwood, 1997. Finocchiaro, Francesco. Musical Modernism and German Cinema from 1913 to 1933. Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017. Gann, Kyle. American Music in the Twentieth Century. New York: Schirmer, 1997. Glinsky, Albert. Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000. Gottschalk, Jennie. Experimental Music since 1970. New York, London: Bloomsbury, 2016. Graf, Max. Modern Music. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1978. Hartog, Howard. European Music in the Twentieth Century. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1976. Hegarty, Paul. Noise/Music: A History. New York: Continuum, 2007. Holmes, Thomas B. Electronic and Experimental Music. New York: Routledge, 2002. Howard, John Tasker, and James Lyons. Modern Music. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1979. Lewis, George E. A Power Stronger Than Itself: The AACM and American Experimental Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008. Machlis, Joseph. Introduction to Contemporary Music. New York: Norton, 1979. Mackay, Andy. Electronic Music. Minneapolis, Minn.: Control Data, 1981. Manning, Peter. Electronic and Computer Music. Oxford: Clarendon, 1985. McLoskey, Lansing. Twentieth-Century Danish Music. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1998. Mellers, Wilfred. Music in a New Found Land. New York: Hillstone, 1975. Messing, Scott. Neoclassicism in Music. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 1988. Mikkonen, Simo. Music and Power in the Soviet 1930s: A History of Composers’ Bureaucracy. Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen, 2009. Nicholls, David. American Experimental Music, 1890–1940. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Nonken, Marilyn. The Spectral Piano: From Liszt, Scriabin and Debussy to the Digital Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Nyman, Michael. Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond. New York: Schirmer, 1974. Oja, Carol J. Making Music Modern: New York in the 1920s. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

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Olkhovsky, Andrey Vasilyevich. Music under the Soviets. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1975. Packer, Renée Levine. This Life of Sounds: Evenings for New Music in Buffalo. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Perlis, Vivian, and Libby Van Cleeve. Composers’ Voices from Ives to Ellington: An Oral History of American Music. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005. Peyser, Joan. To Boulez and Beyond. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2007. ———. Twentieth-Century Music: The Sense behind the Sound. New York: Schirmer, 1980. Pinch, Trevor, and Frank Trocco. Analog Days: The Invention and Impact of the Moog Synthesizer. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002. Potter, Keith, Kyle Gann, and Pwyll Ap Siôn, eds. The Ashgate Research Companion to Minimalist and Postminimalist Music. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2009. Prendergast, Mark. The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance: The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age. New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2001. Rappoport-Gelfand, Lidia. Musical Life in Poland: The Postwar Years, 1945–1977. New York: Gordon & Breach, 1991. Riley, Matthew, ed. British Music and Modernism, 1895–1960. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2010. Roads, Curtis, and John Strawn, eds. Foundations of Computer Music. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1987. Russcol, Herbert. The Liberation of Sound. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall, 1972. Salazar, Adolfo. Music in Our Time. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1970. Saunders, James, ed. The Ashgate Research Companion to Experimental Music. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2009. Schwartz, Elliott. Electronic Music: A Listener’s Guide to New Music. New York: Praeger, 1975. Sitsky, Larry. Australian Piano Music of the Twentieth Century. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2005. ———. Music of the Repressed Russian Avant-Garde, 1900–1929. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1994. ———, ed. Music of the Twentieth-Century Avant-Garde: A Biocritical Sourcebook. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2002. Smith Brindle, Reginald. The New Music. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Stradling, Robert, and Meirion Hughes. The English Musical Renaissance 1860–1940. New York: Routledge, 1993. Straus, Joseph N. Twelve-Tone Music in America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

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Strickland, Edward. Minimalism: Origins. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000. Strimple, Nick. Choral Music in the Twentieth Century. Portland, Ore.: Amadeus, 2005. Struble, John Warthen. The History of American Classical Music. New York: Facts on File, 1995. Stuckenschmidt, H. H. Twentieth Century Music. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969. Thomas, Adrian. Polish Music since Szymanowski. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Tobin, R. James. Neoclassical Music in America: Voices of Clarity and Restraint. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. Tomoff, Kiril. Creative Union: The Professional Organization of Soviet Composers, 1939–1953. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2006. Toop, David. Ocean of Sound: Aether Talk, Ambient Sound and Imaginary Worlds. London: Serpent’s Tail, 1995. Vander Weg, John D. Serial Music and Serialism: A Research and Information Guide. New York: Routledge, 2000. Warner, Daniel. Live Wires: A History of Electronic Music. London: Reaktion, 2017. Weidenaar, Reynold. Magic Music from the Telharmonium. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995. Whittall, Arnold. The Cambridge Introduction to Serialism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. ———. Music since the First World War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Wick, Robert L. Electronic and Computer Music. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1997. Yates, Peter. Twentieth-Century Music. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1981. Zaimont, Judith Lang, and Karen Famera. Contemporary Concert Music by Women. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1981. Individual Composers Adams, John Luther

Adams, John Luther. The Place Where You Go to Listen: In Search of an Ecology of Music. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 2009. ———. Winter Music: Composing the North. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 2004. Herzogenrath, Bernd. The Farthest Place: The Music of John Luther Adams. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2012.

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Amram, David

Amram, David. Offbeat: Collaborating with Kerouac. New York: Thunder’s Mouth, 2002. ———. Upbeat: Nine Lives of a Musical Cat. Boulder, Col.: Paradigm, 2008. ———. Vibrations. New York: Macmillan, 1968. Anderson, Laurie

Anderson, Laurie. All the Things I Lost in the Flood. New York: Rizzoli Electa, 2018. ———. Empty Places. New York: Harper, 1991. ———. Laurie Anderson’s Postcard Book. New York: Canal Street Communications, 1990. ———. Night Life. Gottingen, Germany: Steidl, 2006. ———. Nothing in My Pockets: A Diary. Paris: Dis Voir, 2009. ———. Stories from the Nerve Bible: 1972–1992, A Retrospective. New York: Harper, 1994. ———. United States. New York: Harper, 1984. ———. Words in Reverse. Buffalo, N.Y.: Hallwalls, 1979. Anderson, Laurie, and Germano Celant. Laurie Anderson: Dal Vivo. Milan: Fondazione Prada, 1999. Goldberg, Roselee. Laurie Anderson. New York: Abrams, 2000. Howell, John. Laurie Anderson. New York: Thunder’s Mouth, 1992. Andriessen, Louis

Adlington, Robert. Louis Andriessen: De Staat. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2004. Andriessen, Louis. The Art of Stealing Time. Edited by Mirjam Zegers. Todmorden, Lancashire, U.K.: Arc, 2002. Everett, Yayoi Uno. The Music of Louis Andriessen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Trochimczyk, Maja, ed. The Music of Louis Andriessen. New York: Routledge, 2002. Antheil, George

Antheil, George. Bad Boy of Music. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran, 1945.

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Lockwood, Robert. George Antheil Gives a Concert. Portsmouth, N.H.: Piscataqua Press, 2015. Whitesitt, Linda. The Life and Music of George Antheil, 1900–1959. Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1983. Ashley, Robert

Ashley, Robert. Atalanta (Acts of God). Santa Fe, N.Mex.: Burning Books, 2011. ———. Crash. Santa Fe, N.Mex.: Burning Books, 2014. ———. Outside of Time: Ideas about Music. Edited by Ralf Dietrich. Cologne: MusikTexte, 2009. ———. Perfect Lives, an Opera. Garden City, N.Y.: Arthur Fields, Burning Books, 1991. ———. Quicksand. Santa Fe, N.Mex.: Burning Books, 2011. ———. Yes, but Is It Edible? Edited by Will Holder and Alex Waterman. Vancouver, B.C.: New Documents, 2014. Ashley, Robert, Sumner Carnahan, Thomas Frick, and L. K. Larsen. Q+1. Santa Fe, N.Mex.: Burning Books, 2011. Gann, Kyle. Robert Ashley. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012. Babbitt, Milton

Babbitt, Milton. The Collected Essays of Milton Babbitt. Edited by Stephen Peles, Stephen Dembski, Andrew Mead, and Joseph N. Straus. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003. Dembski, Stephen, and Joseph N. Straus. Milton Babbitt: Words about Music. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987. Mead, Andrew. An Introduction to the Music of Milton Babbitt. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994. Barber, Samuel

Broder, Nathan. Samuel Barber. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1985. Dickinson, Peter. Samuel Barber Remembered: A Centenary Tribute. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2010. Hennessee, Don A. Samuel Barber: A Bio-Bibliography. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1985. Heyman, Barbara B. Samuel Barber: The Composer and His Music. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

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———. Samuel Barber: A Thematic Catalogue of the Complete Works. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Larson, Thomas. The Saddest Music Ever Written: The Story of Samuel Barber’s Adagio for Strings. New York: Pegasus, 2010. Wentzel, Wayne. Samuel Barber: A Research and Information Guide. New York: Routledge, 2010. Bartók, Béla

Antokoletz, Elliott. Béla Bartók: A Guide to Research. New York: Garland, 1997. ———. The Music of Béla Bartók. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. Antokoletz, Elliott, Victoria Fischer, and Benjamin Suchoff, eds. Bartók Perspectives: Man, Composer, and Ethnomusicologist. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Antokoletz, Elliott, and Paolo Susanni. Béla Bartók: A Research and Information Guide. New York: Routledge, 1997. Bartók, Béla. Béla Bartók Essays. Edited by Benjamin Suchoff. London: Faber, 1976. ———. Béla Bartók Letters. Edited by János Demény. London: Faber, 1971. ———. Studies in Ethnomusicology. Edited by Benjamin Suchoff. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. ———. Turkish Folk Music from Asia Minor. Homosassa, Fla.: Bartók Records, 2002. Bartók, Peter. My Father. Homosassa, Fla.: Bartók Records, 2002. Bayley, Amanda, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Bartók. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Biró, Dániel Péter, and Harald Krebs, eds. The String Quartets of Béla Bartók: Tradition and Legacy in Analytical Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. Bónis, Ferenc. Béla Bartók: His Life in Pictures and Documents. Budapest: Corvina, 1972. Brown, Julie. Bartók and the Grotesque. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2007. Chalmers, Kenneth. Béla Bartók. London: Phaidon, 2008. Cooper, David. Bartók: Concerto for Orchestra. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ———. Béla Bartók. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2015. Fassett, Agatha. Béla Bartók: The American Years. New York: Dover, 1970. Frigyesi, Judit. Béla Bartók and Turn-of-the-Century Budapest. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.

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Gillies, Malcolm, ed. The Bartók Companion. Portland, Ore.: Amadeus, 1994. ———, ed. Bartók Remembered. New York: Norton, 1990. Griffiths, Paul. Bartók. London: Dent, 1984. Helm, Everett. Bartók. New York: Crowell, 1972. John, Nicholas, ed. The Stage Works of Béla Bartók. London: Calder, 1991. Karpati, Janos. Bartók’s Chamber Music. Hillsdale, N.Y.: Pendragon, 1994. Kenneson, Claude: Székely and Bartók: The Story of a Friendship. Portland, Ore.: Amadeus, 1994. Laki, Peter, ed. Bartók and His World. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995. Leafstedt, Carl S. Inside Bluebeard’s Castle: Music and Drama in Béla Bartók’s Opera. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Lendvai, Ernö. Béla Bartók: An Analysis of His Music. London: Kahn & Averill, 2005. Maurice, Donald. Bartók’s Viola Concerto. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Milne, Hamish. Bartók: His Life and Times. New York: Hippocrene, 1982. Moreux, Serge. Béla Bartók. New York: Vienna House, 1974. Nissman, Barbara. Bartók and the Piano. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2002. Seiber, Mátyás. The String Quartets of Béla Bartók. London: Boosey & Hawkes, 1945. Somfai, László. Béla Bartók: Composition, Concepts, and Autograph Scores. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Stevens, Halsey. The Life and Music of Béla Bartók. Edited by Malcolm Gillies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Suchoff, Benjamin. Bartók: Concerto for Orchestra: Understanding Bartók’s World. New York: Schirmer, 1995. ———. Bartók’s Mikrokosmos: Genesis, Pedagogy, and Style. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2004. ———. Béla Bartók: A Celebration. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2003. ———. Béla Bartók: Life and Work. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2001. Szabolcsi, Bence. Béla Bartók: His Life in Pictures. Edited by Ferenc Bónis. London: Boosey & Hawkes, 1964. Tallian, Tibor. Béla Bartók: The Man and His Work. Budapest: Corvina, 1981. Wilson, Paul. The Music of Béla Bartók. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974. Yeomans, David. Bartók for Piano: A Survey of His Solo Literature. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988.

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Bauer, Marion

Bauer, Marion. Musical Questions and Quizzes. New York: Putnam, 1941. ———. Twentieth-Century Music. New York: Putnam, 1947. Bauer, Marion, and Ethel Peyser. How Music Grew: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day. New York: Putnam, 1939. ———. Music through the Ages: An Introduction to Music History. New York: Putnam, 1967. Pickett, Susan E. Marion and Emilie Frances Bauer: From the Wild West to American Musical Modernism. Morrisville, N.C.: Lulu Press, 2014. Bax, Arnold

Bax, Arnold. “Farewell, My Youth” and Other Writings by Arnold Bax. Edited by Lewis Foreman. Brookfield, Vt.: Scolar, 1987. ———. Miniature Essays. London: J & W Chester, 1921. ———. Selected Poems of Arnold Bax. London: Thames Publishing, 1979. Foreman, Lewis. Bax: A Composer and His Times. Woodbridge, U.K.: Boydell, 2007. Hull, Robert H. A Handbook on Arnold Bax’s Symphonies. London: Murdoch, 1932. Parlett, Graham. A Catalogue of the Works of Sir Arnold Bax. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1999. Scott-Sutherland, Colin. Arnold Bax. London: Dent, 1973. Berg, Alban

Adorno, Theodor W. Alban Berg: Master of the Smallest Link. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Bañuelos, Diego. Beyond the Spectrum of Music: Exploration through Spectral Analysis of Sound Color in the Alban Berg Violin Concerto. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM, 2008. Berg, Alban. Alban Berg: Letters to His Wife. Edited by Bernard Grun. London: Faber, 1971. ———. Pro Mundo—Pro Domo: The Writings of Alban Berg. Edited by Bryan R. Simms. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. Bruhn, Siglind, ed. Encrypted Messages in Alban Berg’s Music. New York: Garland, 1998. Carner, Mosco. Alban Berg: The Man and the Work. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1983. Floros, Constantin. Alban Berg and Hanna Fuchs: The Story of a Love in Letters. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007.

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———. Alban Berg: Music as Autobiography. Frankfurt: PL Academic Research, 2014. Gable, David, and Robert P. Morgan, eds. Alban Berg: Historical and Analytical Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Hailey, Christopher, ed. Alban Berg and His World. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010. Hall, Patricia. Berg’s Wozzeck. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. ———. A View of Berg’s “Lulu” through the Autograph Sources. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Headlam, Dave. The Music of Alban Berg. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996. Jarman, Douglas. Alban Berg: “Lulu.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. ———. Alban Berg: “Wozzeck.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. ———, ed. The Berg Companion. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990. ———. The Music of Alban Berg. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. Lonitz, Henri, ed. Theodor W. Adorno and Alban Berg: Correspondence, 1925–1935. Malden, Mass.: Polity, 2005. Monson, Karen. Alban Berg. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979. Perle, George. The Operas of Alban Berg. Vol. 1, Wozzeck. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980. ———. The Operas of Alban Berg. Vol. 2, Lulu. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. ———. Style and Idea in the Lyric Suite of Alban Berg. Hillsdale, N.Y.: Pendragon, 2001. Pople, Anthony. Berg: Violin Concerto. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. ———, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Berg. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Redlich, H. F. Alban Berg: The Man and His Music. London: Calder, 1957. Reich, Willi. Alban Berg. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965. Santos, Silvio J. dos. Narratives of Identity in Alban Berg’s “Lulu.” Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2014. Schmalfeldt, Janet. Berg’s “Wozzeck”: Harmonic Language and Dramatic Design. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983. Simms, Bryan R. Alban Berg: A Research and Information Guide. New York: Routledge, 2009. Tucker, Gary. Tonality and Atonality in Alban Berg’s “Four Songs, Op. 2.” Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen, 2001.

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WEBSITES General Alternate Tuning Systems

http://www.afmm.org http://www.huygens-fokker.org https://justintonation.tp3.app http://www.tonalsoft.com http://xh.xentonic.org Ambient Music

http://www.ambientmusicguide.com http://www.ambientvisions.com http://www.dreamstate.to Computer Music

http://www.computermusic.org http://www.computermusicjournal.org Ecomusicology

http://ecomusicology.info Electroacoustic Music

http://www.ems-network.org https://www.seamusonline.org Electronic Music

http://120years.net http://www.thereminworld.com

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Free Improvisation

http://www.the-improvisor.org Instrument Building

http://www.oddmusic.com Individual Composers Adams, John: http://www.earbox.com Adams, John Luther: http://www.johnlutheradams.com Adès, Thomas: http://www.thomasades.com Amram, David: http://www.david-amram.blogspot.com Anderson, Beth: http://www.beand.com Anderson, Laurie: http://www.laurieanderson.com Andriessen, Louis: http://louisandriessen.blogspot.com Antheil, George: http://www.antheil.org; http://www.paristransatlantic.com/ antheil/frameset.html Ashley, Robert: http://www.robertashley.org Austin, Larry: https://larryaustin.music.unt.edu Barber, Samuel: http://www.samuelbarber.fr/english.html Barrett, Natasha: http://natashabarrett.org Bartók, Béla: http://www.bartokrecords.com; www.zti.hu/bartok/ba_en.htm# Bax, Arnold: http://arnoldbax.com Behrman, David: http://www.dbehrman.net Berberian, Cathy: http://www.cathyberberian.com Berger, Arthur: https://necmusic.edu/arthur-berger-composer Berio, Luciano: http://www.lucianoberio.org/en Bernstein, Leonard: http://www.leonardbernstein.com Biscardi, Chester: http://www.chesterbiscardi.com Blitzstein, Marc: http://www.marcblitzstein.com Bloch, Ernest: http://www.ernestbloch.org Bolcom, William: http://www.williambolcom.com Bowles, Paul: http://www.paulbowles.org Branca, Glenn: http://www.glennbranca.com Brant, Henry: http://www.henrybrant.com Braxton, Anthony: http://www.tricentricfoundation.org Britten, Benjamin: http://www.brittenpears.org Brown, Earle: http://www.earle-brown.org Bruce, Neely: http://www.neelybrucemusic.com Bryars, Gavin: http://www.gavinbryars.com

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Busoni, Ferruccio: http://www.rodoni.ch/busoni/indexx.html Byron, Michael: http://www.michaelbyron.org Cage, John: https://www.johncage.org Carlos, Wendy: http://www.wendycarlos.com Carter, Elliott: https://www.elliottcarter.com Cerha, Friedrich: https://en.karstenwitt.com/friedrich-cerha Chambers, Wendy Mae: http://www.wendymae.com Chatham, Rhys: http://www.rhyschatham.net Chou Wen-chung: http://www.chouwenchung.org Copland, Aaron: http://www.coplandhouse.org Corigliano, John: http://www.johncorigliano.com Couper, Mildred: http://www.wingedsun.com/couper-m/ Courvoisier, Sylvie: http://www.sylviecourvoisier.com Cowell, Henry: http://www.henrycowell.org Crumb, George: http://www.georgecrumb.net Curran, Alvin: http://www.alvincurran.com Debussy, Claude: http://www.debussy.fr/encd/centre/centre.php Del Tredici, David: http://www.daviddeltredici.com Delius, Frederick: http://thompsonian.info/delius.html; http://www.delius.org.uk Deyhim, Sussan: http://sussandeyhim.com Diamond, David: http://www.daviddiamond.org Doolittle, Emily: https://emilydoolittle.com Eastman, Julius: http://www.mjleach.com/eastman.htm Eichheim, Henry: http://www.music.ucsb.edu/projects/eichheim/main.html Eisler, Hanns: http://www.eislermusic.com; http://www.hanns-eisler.com El-Dabh, Halim: http://www.halimeldabh.com Falla, Manuel de: http://www.manueldefalla.com/en Farwell, Arthur: https://www.mattmarble.net/arthur-farwell Feldman, Morton: http://www.cnvill.net/mfhome.htm Ferrari, Luc: http://www.lucferrari.com/en/program/ Fine, Irving: https://www.irvingfinesoc.org Fine, Vivian: https://www.vivianfine.org Finzi, Gerald: http://www.geraldfinzi.com; https://www.geraldfinzi.org Flynt, Henry: http://henryflynt.org Foulds, John: http://www.bluntinstrument.org.uk/foulds Frith, Fred: http://www.fredfrith.com Fullman, Ellen: http://www.ellenfullman.com Fure, Ashley: http://www.ashleyfure.com Gaburo, Kenneth: http://www.angelfire.com/mn/gaburo/indexpage.html Galás, Diamanda: http://www.diamandagalas.com Gann, Kyle: http://www.kylegann.com Gerhard, Roberto: http://www.robertogerhard.com

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Gershwin, George: http://www.gershwin.com Glanville-Hicks, Peggy: http://www.pghcomposershouse.com Glass, Philip: http://www.philipglass.com Goldstein, Malcolm: http://www.philmultic.com/artists/goldstein/ Gordon, Michael: http://www.michaelgordonmusic.com Gosfield, Annie: http://www.anniegosfield.com Gould, Morton: http://www.mortongould.com Grainger, Percy: http://www.percygrainger.org.uk Harris, Roy: http://www.royharrisamericancomposer.com Harrison, Lou: https://louharrisonhouse.org Harvey, Jonathan: https://jonathanharveycomposer.com Helps, Robert: http://helpsweb.free.fr Henze, Hans Werner: http://www.hans-werner-henze-stiftung.de/en/home/ Herrmann, Bernard: http://www.bernardherrmann.org Hindemith, Paul: https://www.hindemith.info/en/home/ Holst, Gustav: http://www.gustavholst.info Hope, Cat: http://www.cathope.com Hovhaness, Alan: http://www.hovhaness.com Hunt, Jerry: http://www.jerryhunt.org Hykes, David: http://www.harmonicworld.com Ibarra, Susie: http://www.susieibarra.com Ibert, Jacques: http://www.jacquesibert.fr/ibert/Home_-_English.html Ireland, John: http://www.johnirelandtrust.org Ives, Charles: http://www.charlesives.org Janáček, Leoš: https://www.leosjanacek.eu/en/ Johnson, Tom: http://editions75.com Jolas, Betsy: http://www.betsyjolas.com Jolivet, André: http://www.jolivet.asso.fr Kagel, Mauricio: http://www.mauricio-kagel.com Khachaturian, Aram: http://www.khachaturian.am/eng/ Knowles, Alison: http://www.aknowles.com Kodály, Zoltán: http://www.iks.hu Kondo, Jo: https://jokondo.b-sheet.jp/en/ Korngold, Erich Wolfgang: http://www.korngold-society.org Krenek, Ernst: krenek.at/ab/ernst-krenek/about-krenek/ La Barbara, Joan: http://www.joanlabarbara.com Lam, Bun-Ching: http://www.bunchinglam.com Lang, David: http://www.davidlangmusic.com Lauten, Elodie: http://www.elodielauten.net Le Caine, Hugh: http://www.hughlecaine.com Leach, Mary Jane: http://www.mjleach.com LeBaron, Anne: http://www.annelebaron.com León, Tania: http://www.tanialeon.com

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Lockwood, Annea: http://www.annealockwood.com Lourié, Arthur: http://www.lourie.ch/en/ Lucier, Alvin: http://alucier.web.wesleyan.edu Lutoslawski, Witold: http://www.lutoslawski.org.pl/en/ Mamlok, Ursula: http://www.ursulamamlok.com Marcus, Bunita: http://www.bunitamarcus.com Martin, Frank: http://www.frankmartin.org Mazzoli, Missy: http://missymazzoli.com Mennin, Peter: http://petermennin.com Messiaen, Olivier: http://www.oliviermessiaen.org Mikhashoff, Yvar: http://www.mikhashofftrust.org Monk, Meredith: http://www.meredithmonk.org Moon, Beata: http://www.beatamoon.com Moondog: http://www.moondogscorner.de Moran, Robert: https://robertmorancomposer.com Mumma, Gordon: http://brainwashed.com/mumma/ Murail, Tristan: http://www.tristanmurail.com Musgrave, Thea: http://www.theamusgrave.com Nancarrow, Conlon: http://www.conlonnancarrow.org; http://www.fuerst-heidtmann.de Niblock, Phill: http://www.phillniblock.com Nono, Luigi: http://www.luiginono.it/en Nyman, Michael: http://www.michaelnyman.com Oliveros, Pauline: http://paulineoliveros.us Orff, Carl: http://www.orff.de/en.html Ornstein, Leo: http://www.poonhill.com Ostertag, Bob: http://bobostertag.com Oswald, John: http://www.pfony.com Ott, Daniel: http://en.danielott.com Paccione, Paul: http://www.paulpaccione.com Pärt, Arvo: https://www.arvopart.ee/en/ Partch, Harry: http://www.corporeal.com; http://www.harrypartch.com Payne, Maggi: https://sites.google.com/site/maggipayne/ Penderecki, Krzysztof: http://www.krzysztofpenderecki.eu/en/ Perkins, Philip: http://www.philper.com Perle, George: http://www.georgeperle.net Persichetti, Vincent: http://www.associazionevincentpersichetti.com/pagine.web/inglese/associazione.htm Poulenc, Francis: https://www.poulenc.fr/en/ Pound, Ezra: https://ezrapoundsociety.org/index.php/pound-and-music Pousseur, Henri: http://www.scambi.mdx.ac.uk Price, Florence: http://www.florenceprice.org Prokofiev, Sergey: http://www.sprkfv.net

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Radulescu, Horatiu: http://www.horatiuradulescu.com Rasmussen, Karl Aage: http://www.karlaagerasmussen.com/en/ Ravel, Maurice: http://www.maurice-ravel.net Reich, Steve: http://www.stevereich.com Reynolds, Roger: http://www.rogerreynolds.com Riley, Terry: http://terryriley.net Rorem, Ned: http://www.nedrorem.net Ruders, Poul: http://poulruders.net Rudhyar, Dane: http://www.khaldea.com/rudhyar Rylan, Jessica: http://www.irfp.net Scelsi, Giacinto: http://www.scelsi.it/en/home/ Schafer, R. Murray: http://patria.org Schillinger, Joseph: https://www.schillingersociety.com Schnabel, Artur: http://www.schnabelmusicfoundation.com Schoenberg, Arnold: http://www.schoenberg.at Schuller, Gunther: http://www.guntherschullersociety.org Schuman, William: https://orpheus.dartmouth.edu Scriabin, Alexander: http://www.scriabinsociety.com Sculthorpe, Peter: http://www.petersculthorpe.com.au Sessions, Roger: https://uncw.edu/music/Sessionssociety/ Sharp, Elliott: http://www.elliottsharp.com Shields, Alice: http://www.aliceshields.com Shostakovich, Dmitry: http://shostakovich.hilwin.nl/index.html Sikorski, Tomasz: http://www.sikorski.polmic.pl/index.php/en/ Slonimsky, Nicolas: http://www.slonimsky.net Sollberger, Harvey: http://www.harveysollberger.com Sorabji, K. S.: http://www.sorabji-archive.co.uk Spiegel, Laurie: http://retiary.org Still, William Grant: http://www.williamgrantstill.com Stockhausen, Karlheinz: http://www.karlheinzstockhausen.org Stravinsky, Igor: https://fondation-igor-stravinsky.org/en/ Subotnick, Morton: http://www.mortonsubotnick.com Szymanowski, Karol: http://www.karolszymanowski.pl/front-page-en/ Takahashi, Yuji: http://www.suigyu.com/yuji/ Tal, Josef: https://joseftal.org Tan Dun: http://www.tandun.com Tavener, John: http://www.johntavener.com Teitelbaum, Richard: http://inside.bard.edu/teitelbaum Thomson, Virgil: http://www.virgilthomson.org Thorvaldsdottir, Anna: http://www.annathorvalds.com Tilson Thomas, Michael: http://www.michaeltilsonthomas.com Tippett, Michael: http://www.steenslid.com/music/tippett/; http://www.tippettfoundation.org.uk

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Tudor, David: http://www.davidtudor.org Tüür, Erkki-Sven: https://www.erkkisven.com Tyranny, “Blue” Gene: http://members.aol.com/bluegenet Uitti, Frances-Marie: http://www.uitti.org Ustvolskaya, Galina: http://ustvolskaya.org/eng/ Van der Aa, Michel: https://www.vanderaa.net Vaughan Williams, Ralph: http://www.rvwsociety.com; http://vaughanwilliams.uk Vierk, Lois V: http://www.loisvvierk.com Villa-Lobis, Heitor: http://www.villalobos.ca Vivier, Claude: http://www.claudevivier.com Walton, William: http://www.waltontrust.org/en/ Warlock, Peter: http://www.peterwarlock.org Webern, Anton: http://www.antonwebern.com Weill, Kurt: http://www.kwf.org Weir, Judith: http://www.judithweir.com Wellesz, Egon: http://www.egonwellesz.at/e_wellesz_frameset.htm Westerkamp, Hildegard: http://www.sfu.ca/~westerka/ Wolfe, Julia: http://www.juliawolfemusic.com Wolff, Christian: http://eamusic.dartmouth.edu/~wolff/ Wolpe, Stefan: http://www.wolpe.org Wuorinen, Charles: http://www.charleswuorinen.com Wyschnegradsky, Ivan: http://www.ivan-wyschnegradsky.fr/en/ Xenakis, Iannis: http://www.iannis-xenakis.org Yun, Isang: http://yun-gesellschaft.de/e/ Zappa, Frank: https://www.zappa.com Zorn, John: https://johnzornresource.com Zubel, Agata: http://www.zubel.pl/index.php/en/ Zwilich, Ellen Taaffe: https://www.zwilich.com Multiple Composers http://www.bruceduffie.com http://www.composers21.com http://www.kallistimusic.com http://www.melafoundation.org https://www.newmusicusa.org http://www.sequenza21.com http://www.therestisnoise.com

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Organizations and Resources http://bangonacan.org http://www.creatingmusic.com http://www.deeplistening.org http://www.downtownmusicgallery.com http://www.experimentalintermedia.org http://www.frogpeak.org http://www.hathut.com http://www.ircam.fr/?L=1 http://www.lovely.com http://www.moderecords.com https://www.musicworks.ca http://www.newalbion.com http://www.newworldrecords.org http://www.otherminds.org http://www.pinpegpickups.com http://www.perspectivesofnewmusic.org http://www.portsmouthsinfonia.com http://www.pytheasmusic.org http://www.synthmuseum.com http://www.21st-centurymusic.com http://www.tzadik.com

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About the Author

Nicole V. Gagné is the coauthor of Soundpieces: Interviews with American Composers (Scarecrow Press, 1982) and the author of Sonic Transports: New Frontiers in Our Music and Soundpieces 2: Interviews with American Composers (Scarecrow Press, 1994). A contributor to The New Grove II, she has written about music for BMI Magazine, Ear, Keyboard Classics, Op, Option, and www.newmusicbox.org; she has also lectured on music at Sarah Lawrence College, the University of Pittsburgh, and the California Institute of the Arts. Her essay “The Beaten Path” (2004), a history of percussion in American music, won ASCAP’s Deems Taylor Award in 2004. She is the librettist and cocomposer of the opera Agamemnon (1992), which stars singer/actress Vera Beren as Clytemnestra, and she wrote and hosted the SFCR radio series A 21st-Century Guide to 20th-Century Music from 2012 to 2018.

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