Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand: A Burial Site at the Stone-Metal Junction 9781407344737, 9781407315065
Khok Charoen (Hill of Prosperity) is a neolithic burial ground in Central Thailand, excavated in the 1960s and 70s by th
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Table of contents :
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright
Acknowledgements
List of Illustrations
List of Photographs
List of Maps, Diagrams and Charts
List of Tables
Foreword
Preface
Abstract
CHAPTER 1: Background to the Research
CHAPTER 2: Khok Charoen III
CHAPTER 3: Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I)
CHAPTER 4: Khok Charoen III and IV Compared: Similarities and Differences
CHAPTER 5: The Integration of Khok Charoen II
CHAPTER 6: Overall Chronology and Conclusions
CHAPTER 7: Links with the Present, or Ethnographic Parallels
Bibliography
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX D
APPENDIX E
APPENDIX F
APPENDIX G
APPENDIX H
Citation preview
Born 1927 in Halle, Germany, Dr Helmut Loofs-Wissowa was educated at Thomas School, Leipzig. After WWII and service in the French Army in Indochina as a war correspondent, he studied in Germany, France and Switzerland. He was appointed foundation Lecturer in Southeast Asian Civilisations at the Australian National University in 1961, and retired as Reader in 1992.
LOOFS-WISSOWA HILL OF PROSPERITY: EXCAVATIONS AT KHOK CHAROEN, THAILAND
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BAR S2844 2017
Khok Charoen (Hill of Prosperity) is a neolithic burial ground in Central Thailand, excavated in the 1960s and 70s by the Thai-British Archaeological Expedition, but because of the substantial Australian contribution these excavations can rightly be called the first Australian venture into Southeast Asian archaeology. The site, dated to the latter half of the second and the beginning of the first millennium BC, consists of three cemeteries with a total of 65 burials, straddling a discontinuity caused by floods, which greatly disturbed these burials and their finds, which include 513 pots, but no bronze. The study of this pottery is the key to the understanding of the cultural and social history of the site, explaining killings and grave robberies within a divided society. The aim of this book is to present, with the help of a great number of illustrations, an overall picture of this site at the junction of Stone and Bronze.
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand A Burial Site at the Stone–Metal Junction
Helmut Loofs-Wissowa
BAR International Series 2844 9 781407 315065
B A R
2017
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand A Burial Site at the Stone–Metal Junction
Helmut Loofs-Wissowa Edited by John Crocker
BAR International Series 2844 2017
by Published in BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series Hill of Prosperit y: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand © Helmut Loofs-Wissowa A smashed-up skeleton in the fi rst burial in Khok Charoen. This image epitomises the sometimes deadly struggle for the possession of a particular type of huge ceramic bowl which divided Khok Charoen societies from the beginning to the end of the use of this site as a burial ground. UK Copyright, The Author’s moral rights under the Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reser ved. No par t of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any for m of digital for mat or transmitted in any for m digitally, without the written per mission of the Publisher.
ISBN 9781407315065 paperback ISBN 9781407344737 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407315065 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
BAR titles are available from: BAR Publishing Banbury Rd, Oxford, [email protected] + ( ) + ( ) www.barpublishing.com
,
DEDICATION
TO SIGRID THE RESTORER
Acknowledgements The fact that the excavations at Khok Charoen constituted the very first Australian venture into Southeast Asian prehistoric archaeology unfortunately also meant that the home institution was ill prepared for the sudden influx of tons of archaeological material and for the necessity to provide support services. General goodwill notwithstanding, the progress of work on the material depended on a succession of provisional arrangements and had to be basically a one-man show. Successive Deans of Asian Studies, a Faculty in which the writer (then Reader in Asian Civilizations) was the only archaeologist, played a key role in facilitating the work which is gratefully acknowledged even if plans for a more permanent establishment of the study of Asian archaeology within the Faculty came to nought. These were difficult times for Australian universities as they were forced to adjust to new demands for which they would have to shed other subjects, and extra-Australian or Pacific prehistoric archaeology was not high on the priority list of subjects to be kept or developed. Even the very existence of the Faculty was at times under threat in spite of official exhortations to better understand Asia. In Thailand we were, as members of the Thai-British Archaeological Expedition, welcomed in the most friendly manner by the Thai authorities and ordinary people who gave us full support in all circumstances even though we may at times been at the receiving end of some good-humoured jokes about our gaucheries as farangs (white foreigners). This help has already been acknowledged in preliminary reports or articles by William Watson and the writer but should be repeated here with particular regard to officials of the Fine Arts Department, from the directors down to the local representatives. Thanks are also due to the writer's brother W. Paul Loofs from Canada who interrupted a solo around-the-world trip in his VW "beetle" to not only participate in the second excavation campaign but also to take the writer at the end of it up north to Chiang Saen for a trial excavation in co-operation with the Thai authorities and back to Bangkok. In addition to the home institution for making the Australian participation in the Thai-British Archaeological Expedition possible and the Australian Embassy in Bangkok for active support in this venture, the writer also wishes to thank the Nuffield Foundation for a grant to spend some time in London, in 1968, as a visitor of the Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art (SOAS) to help to prepare the first batch of finds from Khok Charoen for publication. Heartfelt thanks are also due to the Cultural Service of the French Embassy in Canberra for grants to study the Indochinese collections in museums and elsewhere in France, and last but not least to the Institute of Archaeology of Vietnam for the invitation (in 1978) to see the results of archaeological research in the country since the war. Later on, during the long time of work on the remaining second and third batches of finds from Khok Charoen (KC) III and IV, and especially during the last years thereof, the writer has pleasure in gratefully acknowledging the help of members or students of the Department (later School) of Archaeology of the Faculty of Arts at this University, including the then Heads, Matthew Spriggs and Peter Bellwood, as well as David Bulbeck (for Human Remains), Antonio Gonzalez and Jude Perera (for Faunal Remains), Katherine Szabo (for Molluscs), Alan Thorne (for Human Palaeontology), Brendan Whyte (National Library of Australia, for maps), and Mona Loofs-Samorzewski for proof reading and editorial assistance. The most appreciated help, however, for which the writer is hugely grateful came from two persons not any more attached to any academic institution: John Crocker who assembled this report and over three years worked on it as a very competent Editor, incorporating the many alterations and additions asked from him in a most professional way, and the writer's wife Sigrid who diligently and patiently restored all the excavated restorable pots of Khok Charoen and to whom the present report is dedicated. Finally, the angelic patience of British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, in the matter of the publication of the present report is also gratefully acknowledged.
Table of Contents List of Illustrations
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List of Photographs .
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List of Maps, Diagrams and Charts.
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List of Tables
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Foreword
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Preface
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Abstract
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Chapter 1 – Background to the Research
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1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
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21 21 23 23 41 54 60 61 65 65 65 67 67 68 69 70 70 73 73 73 96 98 99 99 99 100
Introduction . . . History of Research . . . The Setting . . . . Site History . . . . . . The Excavations . Introductory Note Concerning Pottery
Chapter 2 – Khok Charoen III 2.1 2.2 2.3
2.4 2.5
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Topography and Excavation Method Soils . . . . . The Human Burials . . . Description and Discussion . The KC III Finds . . Non-Attributable Burial Pottery Intentionally Broken Pottery Burial Phases . . Ceramic Burials . . .. Single Vessels . . Vessel Clusters . . Material Culture (funerary) . . Personal Adornments . Shell . . . . Stone . . . . Clay . . . . Pottery . . . Faunal Artefacts . . Material Culture (domestic) . . Pottery . . . Stone . . . . Bone (including fossilized bone) Other . . . . Habitation . . . . Post-holes . . . Subsistence . . .
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Chapter 3 – Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) .
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3.1 3.2 3.3
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101 102 103 103 130 155 164 165 173 173 179 189 190 190 194 195 196 198 199 199 199 215 217 218 218 218 219
Chapter 4 – Khok Charoen III and IV Compared: Similarities and Differences .
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4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7
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Topography and Excavation Method . Soils . . . . . . The Human Burials . . . . Description and Discussion . . The Finds . . . . Non-Attributable Burial Pottery . Intentionally Broken Burial Pottery Burial Phases . . . . Ceramic Burials . . . . Single Vessels . . . Vessel Clusters . . . Material Culture (funerary) . . . Personal Adornments . . Shell . . . . . Clay . . . . . Ivory . . . . . Pottery . . . . Stone . . . . . Bone . . . . . Material Culture (domestic) . . . Pottery . . . . Stone . . . . . Bone . . . . . Other . . . . . Habitation . . . . . Post-holes . . . . Subsistence . . . .
Topography and Soils. . Burials . . . Material Culture (funerary) . Material Culture (domestic) . Habitation and Subsistence . Disturbances . . . Contacts . . .
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Chapter 5 – The Integration of Khok Charoen II 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8
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239 241 242 285 292 295 297 298
Introduction . . . . . . . Khok Charoen II Compared with Khok Charoen III and IV Burials . . . . . . . Material Culture (funerary) . . . . . Material Culture (domestic) . . . . . Habitation and Subsistence . . . . . Disturbances . . . . . . . Contacts . . . . . . .
Chapter 6 – Overall Chronology and Conclusions
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Chronology . . . . . Radiocarbon Dating in KC I. . Thermoluminescence Dating in KC II Radiocarbon Dating in KC III . Thermoluminescence Dating in KC III Radiocarbon dating in KC IV .
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Table of Contents
6.2
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Summary . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . The Beginnings. . . . . . . KC III, The Earliest Burial Ground . . . . Transition from KC III to KC IV . . . . Earliest Influences from Coastal Sites . . . The Original KC IV . . . . . . The Impulse from Outside during the Later Phase of KC IV The Discontinuity . . . . . . Post-Discontinuity KC II: How Much Continuity Was There? The Abandonment of Settlements in Khok Charoen . Material Culture and Subsistence in Khok Charoen . . The Khok Charoen Community . . . . The Level of Technology of Khok Charoen Communities The Economic Basis of Khok Chaoen Communities .
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303 305 305 305 307 308 309 309 310 312 315 316 316 318 319
Chapter 7 – Links with the Present, or Ethnographic Parallels
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7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7
Introduction . . Personal Adornments Ceremonial Pottery . Pottery Decoration . Subsistence . . Folklore . . Concluding Remarks
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Appendix A – Details of “Pie Crust” Sherds Found at the KC III Site
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Appendix B – Details of Shell Pieces Found at KC III and KC IV .
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Bibliography .
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Appendix C – Khok Charoen III and IV, Stone Adzes, Adze Fragments and Rough-outs Descriptions and Illustrations
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Appendix D – Khok Charoen III and IV, Grinding Stones, Whetstones and Hammerstones Descriptions and Illustrations
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Appendix F – Khok Charoen IV, Descriptions and Illustrations of Antler Tubes .
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Appendix G – Khok Charoen III and IV, Illustrations of Stone and Clay Bracelets
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Appendix E – Khok Charoen III and IV, Bone Artefacts and Fragments Descriptions and Illustrations
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Appendix H – Khok Charoen IV, Artificially Rounded Sherds Distribution and Illustrations
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List of Illustrations Chapter 1 1.1, Images of all pot types found at Khok Charoen III and IV .
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1.2, Images of pot types 1A to 1N .
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1.3, Images of pot types 2A to 2C .
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1.4, Images of pot types 3A to 3E .
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1.5, Images of pot types 4A to 4O .
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1.6, Images of pot types 5A to 5D .
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1.7, Images of pot types 6A to 6D .
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1.8, Images of pot types 7A to 7B .
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1.9, Image of pot type 8A
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Chapter 2 2.1, Burial 1 layout .
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2.2, Burial 1a layout .
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2.3, Burial 2 layout .
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2.4, Burial 3 layout .
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2.5, Burial 4 layout .
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2.6, Burial 5 layout .
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2.7, Burial 6 layout .
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2.8, Burial 7 layout .
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2.9, Burial 8 layout .
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2.9a, Bottom of pot Find 2, showing tetrapod feet.
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2.10, Burial 9 layout .
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2.11, Pot Type 4A, Burial 1, Find 1
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2.12, Pot Type 4C, Burial 1, Find 2 .
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2.13, Pot Type 1Ca, Burial 1, Find 3
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2.14, Pot Type 1C, Burial 1, Find 4 .
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2.15, Pot Type 4D, Burial 1, Find 5
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2.16, Pot Type 3E, Burial 1, Find 6 .
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2.17, Pot Type 4Aa, Burial 1, Find 7
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2.18, Stone, Burial 1a, Find 2
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2.19, Stone, Burial 2, Find 2
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2.20, Pot Type 4A, Burial 4, Find 1
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2.21, Pot Type 4C, Burial 4, Find 2 .
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2.22, Pot Type 4A, Burial 4, Find 3
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2.23, Stone axe, Burial 4, Find 8
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2.24, Pot Type 1K, Burial 5, Find 3
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viii
List of Illustrations 2.25, Pot Type 1Ba, Burial 5, Find 4
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2.26, Pot Type 4A, Burial 5, Find 5
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2.27, Pot Type 4A, Burial 5, Find 6
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2.28, Pot Type 1K, Burial 5, Find 7
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2.29, Shell, Burial 5, Find 2 .
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2.30, Stone bracelet, Burial 6, Find 2
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2.31, Pot Type 1D, Burial 6, Find 5
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2.32, Pot Type 1Ba, Burial 6, Find 6
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2.33, Pot Type 4Ac, Burial 6, Find 7
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2.34, Pot Type 4A, Burial 6, Find 8
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2.35, Pot Type 4A, Burial 6, Find 9
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2.36, Pot Type 4G, Burial 6, Find 10
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2.37, Pot Type 4A, Burial 6, Find 11
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2.38, Pot Type 4G, Burial 6, Find 12
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2.39, Pot Type 3C, Burial 6, Find 13
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2.40, Pot Type 3E, Burial 6, Find 14
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2.41, Pot Type 4A, Burial 6, Find 15
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2.42, Pot Type 4C, Burial 6, Find 16
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2.43, Pot Type 3Ca, Burial 6, Find 17
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2.44, Pot Type 4Ab, Burial 7, Find 1
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2.45, Pot Type 4Eb, Burial 7, Find 2
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2.46, Tektite flake, Burial 7, Find 4.
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2.47, Pot type 8A, Burial 8, Find 2 .
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2.48, Shell, Burial 9, Find 1 .
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2.49, Bracelet fragment, Burial 9, Find 4 .
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2.50, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 5 .
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2.51, Pot type 4F, Burial 9, Find 6 .
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2.52, Pot type 8A, Burial 9, Find 7 .
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52
2.53, Pot type 1K, Pot “1222”
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54
2.54, Pot type 1K, Pot “1533”
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54
2.55, Pot type 4Aa, Pot “1653”
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55
2.56, Pot type 1K, Pot “1529”
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55
2.57, Pot type 3Ea, Pot “1241”
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55
2.58, Pot type 1Ba, Pot “1139”
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56
2.59, Pot type 3Ea, Pot “1139b”
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56
2.60, Pot type 1C, Pot “1380-1548”
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56
2.61, Pot type 1Ab, Pot “1450”
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56
2.62, Pot type 3C, Pot “1495”
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56
2.63, Pot type 4Ac, Pot “1548”
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57
2.64, Pot type 3Ea, Pot “1621”
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57
2.65, Pot type 4D, Pot “Item 2”
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57
.
.
ix
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 2.66, Pot type 1K, Pot “1411”
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57
2.67, Pot type 3Ca, Pot “1422”
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58
2.68, Pot type 1Ab, Pot “1629”
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58
2.69, Pot type 1Ba, Pot “1637”
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58
2.70, Pot type 3C, Pot “Item 15”
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58
2.71, Pot type 3Ea, Pot “Item 16” .
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58
2.72, Pot type 4D, Pot “Item 27”
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59
2.73, Pot type 3E, Pot “1179”
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59
2.74, Pot type 1Cb, Pot “1379”
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59
2.75, Stratigraphy of KC III, Pit E6 .
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78
2.77, Bottom sherds of a Class 6 large bowl showing impression of pebbles
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81
2.78, F5, Pot “1316” .
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83
2.79, E7, Pot “1052” .
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84
2.80, E7, Pot “1069” .
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84
2.81, E8, Pot “1203” .
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84
2.82, G5, Pot “1438” .
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84
2.83, Rim of E8, Pot “1441”
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85
2.84, H6, Pot “1633” .
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85
2.85, H5, Pot “1182” .
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85
2.86, E7, Pot “1067” .
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86
2.87, E8, Pot “1620” .
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86
2.88, F5, Pot “1618” .
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86
2.89, G5, Pot “1216” .
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86
2.90, E7, Pot “1156” .
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86
2.91, H6, Pot “1559” .
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86
2.92, E7, Pot “1488” .
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87
2.93, E6, Pot “1487” .
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87
2.94, E6, Pot “1199” .
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87
2.95, E8, Pot “1097” .
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87
2.96, F6, Pot “1562” .
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88
2.97, G5, Pot “1311” .
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88
2.98, E7, Pot “1038” .
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88
2.99, E7, Pot “1260” .
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89
2.100, H5, Pot “1133”
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89
2.101, KC III, Anvil A.
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92
2.102, KC III, Anvil B.
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92
2.103, KC III, Earplug A
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93
2.104, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 1
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95
2.105, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 2
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95
2.106, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 3
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95
2.76, Main rim types of KC III Class 6 large bowls
x
66
List of Illustrations 2.107, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 4
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95
2.108, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 5
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95
2.109, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 6
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95
2.110, KC III, Wood piece .
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99
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.
Chapter 3 3.1, Burial 1 layout .
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3.2, Burial 2 layout .
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106
3.3, Burial 3 layout .
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.
107
3.4, Burial 4 layout .
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108
3.5, Burial 5 layout .
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109
3.6, Burial 6 layout .
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110
3.7, Burial 6a layout .
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112
3.8, Burial 7 layout .
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113
3.9, Burial 8 layout .
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114
3.10, Burial 9 layout at 30 cm b.s .
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117
3.11, Burial 9 layout at 50 cm b.s .
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117
3.12, Burial 9 layout at 70 cm b.s .
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118
3.13, Burial 10 layout
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120
3.14, Burial 10a layout
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121
3.15, Burial 11 layout
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122
3.16, Burial 11a layout
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123
3.17, Burial 12 layout
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124
3.18, Burial 13 layout
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125
3.19, Burial 14 layout
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126
3.20, Burial 15 layout
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127
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128
3.22, The unclassifiable burial (Reconstruction of finds) .
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128
3.23, Pot type 4A, Burial 1, Find 2 .
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130
3.24, Pot type 1C, Burial 1, Find 3 .
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130
3.25 Pot type 1C, Burial 1, Find 4 .
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. 130
3.26, Tektite, Burial 1, Find 5
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130
3.27, Shell bead, Burial 3, Find 1 .
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131
3.28, Pot type 4J, Burial 2, Find 2 .
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131
3.29, Pot type 4A, Burial 2, Find 3 .
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131
3.30, Pot type 4D, Burial 3, Find 4 .
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131
3.31, Pot type 1Cb, Burial 3, Find 5
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131
3.32, Pot type 4Ee, Burial 3, Find 6
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132
3.33, Pot type 4Ee, Burial 3, Find 7
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132
3.34, Pot type 7C, Burial 5, Find 2 .
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132
3.21, The unclassifiable burial layout
xi
.
105
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 3.35, Pot type 1D, Burial 5, Find 3 .
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133
3.36, Pot type 4A, Burial 5, Find 5 .
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133
3.37, Pot type 4A, Burial 5, Find 6 .
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133
3.38, Pot type 2Ab, Burial 6, Find 1
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134
3.39, Fragment of Cyclophorous floridus shell, Burial 6, Find 4 .
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134
3.40, Burial 7, Find 1
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134
3.41, Stone adze fragments, Burial 7, Find 2
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135
3.42, Two Nassarius shells, Burial 8, Find 1
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135
3.43, Ear plug (?), Burial 8, Find 3 .
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135
3.44, Bracelet fragment, Burial 8, Find 4 .
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135
3.45, Shell fragments, Burial 8, Find 5
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135
3.46 Shell fragments, Burial 8, Find 6
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136
3.47, Shell fragments, Burial 8, Find 6a
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136
3.48, Shell fragments, Burial 8, Find 6b
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136
3.49, Pot type 2Aa, Burial 8, Find 7
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136
3.50, Pot type 4E, Burial 8, Find 8 .
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137
3.51, Pot type 1B, Burial 8, Find 9 .
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137
3.52, Pot type 3Ea, Burial 8, Find 10
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137
3.53, Pot type 1B, Burial 8, Find 11
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137
3.54, Pot type 4A, Burial 8, Find 12
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138
3.55, Pot type 4Aa, Burial 8, Find 13
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138
3.56, Pot type 1Ba, Burial 8, Find 14
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138
3.57, Pot type 1C, Burial 8, Find 15
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. .138
3.58, Pot type 4E, Burial 8, Find 16
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139
3.59, Pot type 1B, Burial 8, Find 17
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139
3.60, Pot type 4Ab, Burial 8, Find 18
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139
3.61, Pot type 1Ab, Burial 8, Find 19
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140
3.62, Pot type 4Ea, Burial 8, Find 20
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140
3.63, Pot type 4H, Burial 8, Find 21
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140
3.64, Limestone adze, Burial 8, Find 22
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140
3.65, Adze fragment, Burial 8, Find 23
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141
3.66, Stone artefact, Burial 8, Find 24
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141
3.67, Stone bracelet part, Burial 9, Find 1 .
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142
3.68, Stone bracelet part, Burial 9, Find 21
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142
3.69, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 5 .
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142
3.70, Pot type 1Ca, Burial 9, Find 6
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142
3.71, Pot type 4Aa, Burial 9, Find 7
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143
3.72, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 8 .
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143
3.73, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 9 .
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143
3.74, Pot type 1Ab, Burial 9, Find 10
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143
3.75, Pot type 4A, Burial 9, Find 11
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.
144
xii
List of Illustrations 3.76, Pot type 4A, Burial 9, Find 12
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144
3.77, Pot type 1C, Burial 9, Find 13
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144
3.78, Pot type 4D, Burial 9, Find 14
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144
3.79, Pot type 1Aa, Burial 9, Find 15
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145
3.80, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 16
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145
3.81, Pot type 4A, Burial 9, Find 17
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145
3.82, Pot type 3C, Burial 9, Find 18
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146
3.83, Pot type 3E, Burial 9, Find 19
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146
3.84, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 20
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146
3.85, Pot type 4Aa, Burial 9, Find 21
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146
3.86, Pot type 4C, Burial 9, Find 22
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146
3.87, Pot type 4A, Burial 9, Find 23
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147
3.88, Pot type 4D, Burial 9, Find 24
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147
3.89, Pot type 4Aa, Burial 9, Find 25
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147
3.90, Small adze, Burial 9, Find 26 .
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148
3.91, Greenstone fragments, Burial 9, Find 27
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148
3.92, Conical shell disk, Burial 10a, Find 1
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149
3.93, Five Olivia sp. shells, Burial 10a, Find 2
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149
3.94, Stone bracelet fragment, Burial 10a, Find 3 .
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.
3.95, Metacarpal shaft fragment, Burial 10a, Find 4
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150
3.96, Pot type 4Ja, Burial 13, Find 1
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150
3.97, Pot type 1Ba, Burial 14, Find 1
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150
3.98, Pot type 2A, Burial 14, Find 2
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151
3.99, Artificially rounded piece of shell, Burial 15, Find 4
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151
3.100, Stone adze, Burial 15, Find 5
.
149
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152
3.101, Pot type 4A, Unclassifiable burial, Find 1 .
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152
3.102, Pot type 1A, Unclassifiable burial, Find 2 .
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152
3.103, Pot type 1Ea, Unclassifiable burial, Find 3 .
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153
3.104, Pot type 1Bb, Unclassifiable burial, Find 4
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.
153
3.105, Pot type 4A, Unclassifiable burial, Find 5 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
153
3.106, Pot type 4G, Unclassifiable burial, Find 6 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
153
3.107, Pot type 1Ab, NAB 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
155
3.108, Pot type 4J, NAB 2 .
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
156
3.109, Pot type 4A, NAB 3 .
.
.
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.
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.
.
.
.
.
156
3.110, Pot type 4C, NAB 4 .
.
.
.
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.
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.
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.
.
.
156
3.111, Pot type 1Aa, NAB 5.
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
156
3.112, Pot type 1Ab, NAB 6
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
.
157
3.113, Pot type 4Aa, NAB 7.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
157
3.114, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 8 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
157
3.115, Pot type 3E, NAB 9 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
157
3.116, Pot type 4Ca, NAB 10
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
158
xiii
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 3.117, Pot type 1C, NAB 11.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
158
3.118, Pot type 4A, NAB 12
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
158
3.119, Pot type 3E, NAB 13 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
159
3.120, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 14
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
159
3.121, Pot type 4A, NAB 15
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
159
3.122, Pot type 4A, NAB 16
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
159
3.123, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 17
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
160
3.124, Pot type 3E, NAB 18 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
160
3.125, Pot type 1Bb, NAB 19
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
160
3.126, Pot type 1Ab, NAB 20
.
.
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
.
160
3.127, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 21
.
.
.
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.
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.
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.
.
.
161
3.128, Pot type 1Ab, NAB 22
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
161
3.129, Pot type 4J, NAB 23 .
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
161
3.130, Pot type 1Ab, NAB 24
.
.
.
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.
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.
161
3.131, Pot type 4Ga, NAB 25
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
162
3.132, Pot type 1Aa, NAB 26
.
.
.
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.
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.
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.
.
162
3.133, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 27
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
.
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.
162
3.134, Pot type 3E, NAB 28 .
.
.
.
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.
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.
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.
.
162
3.135, Pot type 3E, NAB 29 .
.
.
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.
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.
.
162
3.136, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 30
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
163
3.137, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 31
.
.
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.
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.
163
3.138, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 32
.
.
.
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.
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.
163
3.139, Pot type 1D, NAB 33
.
.
.
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.
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.
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.
163
3.140, Pot type 4J, NAB 34 .
.
.
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.
163
3.141, KCIV, E3, Pot “111” .
.
.
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.
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.
173
3.142, KCIV, F4, Pot “X” .
.
.
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.
174
3.143, KCIV, F6, Pot “R” .
.
.
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.
175
3.144, KCIV, E4, Pot “C1” .
.
.
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.
175
3.145, KCIV, E4, Pot “B” .
.
.
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.
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.
176
3.146, KCIV, G7?, Pot “Q” .
.
.
.
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.
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.
176
3.147, KCII, Pot “148”
.
.
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.
177
3.148, KCIV, VCCB 1, E6, Pot “A”
.
.
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.
179
3.149, KCIV, E6, VCCB 1, Pot “B”
.
.
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.
179
3.150, KCIV, Pot “B”, underneath view
.
.
.
.
.
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.
179
3.151, KCIV, E6, VCCB 1, Pot “C”
.
.
.
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.
180
3.152, KCIV, F4, VCCB 3, Pot “A”
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
180
3.153, KCIV, F4, VCCB 3, Pot “B”
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
181
3.154, KCIV, F4, VCCB 3, Pot “C”
.
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.
182
3.155, KCIV, F4, Shouldered adze .
.
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
.
182
3.156, KCIV, F4, Wood under Pot “C”
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
182
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
182
.
3.157, KCIV, F4, Cowrie shell next to Pot “C”
xiv
List of Illustrations 3.158, KCIV, F4, Part Cowrie shell on top of Pot “C”
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
182
3.159, Pot KCIV, F4, VCCB 3, Pot “E”
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
183
3.160, Pot KCIV, F4, VCCB 3, Pot “G” .
.
.
.
.
.
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.
183
3.161, KCIV, Pots comprising VCCB 6
.
.
.
.
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.
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.
184
3.162, KCIV, E4, VCCB 6, Pot “A3”
.
.
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.
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.
184
3.163, KCIV, E4, VCCB 6, Pot “A1”
.
.
.
.
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.
.
185
3.164, KCIV, E4, VCCB 6, Pot “A2”
.
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.
185
3.165, KCIV, E4, VCCB 6, Pot “A”
.
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.
186
3.166, KCIV, E4, Pot “R1” .
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.
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.
186
3.167, KCIV, F3, Pot “Aa” .
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.
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.
187
3.168, KCIV, F3, Pot “B” .
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.
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.
187
3.169, Impact marks at bottom of Pot “B” .
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
188
3.170, KCIV, VCCB 10, F3, Pot “A”
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
188
3.171, KCIV, VCCB 10, F3, Pot “D”
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
188
3.172, KCIV, VCCB 10, F3, Pot “C”
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
189
3.173, Comparison of KC III and KC IV disk-bead types
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
190
3.174, Four Oliva sp. shells found inside Pot “G” .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
191
3.175, KC IV, F6, Pot “B” .
.
.
.
.
.
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.
203
3.176, KC IV, F6, Pot “B1” .
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
207
3.177, KC IV, E5, Pot “X” .
.
.
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
204
3.178, KC IV, F6, Pot “Item 26”
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
204
3.179, KC IV, E4, Pot “2188”
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
205
3.180, KC IV, F4, Pot “W” .
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
205
3.181, KC IV, F6, Pot “B3” .
.
.
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.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
206
3.182, KC IV, F4, Pot “Z” .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
207
3.183, KC IV, F4, Pot “B2a”
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
207
.
.
208
3.184, KC IV, F4, Pot “B2a” compared with photo in Fig. 78 in Higham and Thosarat 1998 3.185, KC IV, E3, Pot “19”
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
208
3.186, KC IV, F3, Pot “A2” .
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
208
4.1, Post-holes in KC III site
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
234
4.2, Post-holes in KC IV site
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
234
.
.
.
237
Chapter 4
4.3, KC IV, Plan of movement of objects from their original locations due to water action Chapter 5 5.1, KC II, Burial 1 layout .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
244
5.2, KC II, Burial 2 layout .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
255
5.3, KC II, Burial 3 layout .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
256
xv
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 5.4, Pot type 4Da, Burial 3, Find 2 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
246
5.5, KC II, Burial 4 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
247
5.6, KC II, Burial 5 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
248
5.7, Pot type 4Ka, Burial 5, Find 1 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
248
5.8, Pot type 4Ed, Burial 5, Find 4 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
248
5.9, Pot type 4Gd, Burial 5, Find 7 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
248
5.10, Pot type 4Gc, Burial 5, Find 8
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
248
5.11, Pot type 6Db, Burial 5, Find 10
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
249
5.12, KC II, Burial 6 layout .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
250
5.13, KC II, Burial 7 layout .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
251
5.14, Pot type 4Ec, Burial 7, Find 4
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
251
5.15, KC II, Burial 8 layout .
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
.
.
.
252
5.16, KC II, Burial 9 layout .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
253
5.17, KC II, Burial 10 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
254
5.18, KC II, Burial 13 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
255
5.19, KC II, Burial 16 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
256
5.20, KC II, Burial 17 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
257
5.21, Pot type 1Nc, Burial 17, Find 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
257
5.22, KC II, Burial 18 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
258
5.23, Pot type 4Ad, Burial 18, Find 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
258
5.24, KC II, Burial 19 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
259
5.25, Burial 19, Shell head ornament SH18
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
259
5.26, KC II, Burial 20 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
260
5.27, KC II, Burial 22 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
261
5.28, KC II, Burial 24 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
262
5.29, Pot type 4Gb, Burial 24, Find 11
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
262
5.30, KC II, Burial 25 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
263
5.31, KC II, Burial 26 layout
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
264
5.32, KC II, Burial 27 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
265
5.33, KC II, Burial 28 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
266
5.34, KC II, Burial 29 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
267
5.35, KC II, Burial 30 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
268
5.36, KC II, Burial 31 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
269
5.37, Pot type 4Ha, Burial 31, Find 5
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
269
5.38, KC II, Burial 32 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
270
5.39, KC II, Burial 33 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
271
5.40, Pot type 1Bc, Burial 33, Find 5
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
271
5.41, KC II, Burial 34 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
272
5.42, KC II, Burial 35A layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
273
5.43, KC II, Burial 35B and 35 C layout .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
274
5.44, KC II, Burial 36 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
275
. .
.
.
xvi
List of Illustrations 5.45, Pot type 3Da, Burial 36, Find 12
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
275
5.46, KC II, Burial 37 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
276
5.47, KC II, Burial 38 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
277
5.48, KC II, Burial 39 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
278
5.49, KC II, Burial 40 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
279
5.50, KC II, Burial 41 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
280
5.51, Pot type 6Dc, Burial 41, Find 14
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
280
5.52, Pot type 6Da, Burial 41, Find 17
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
280
5.53, KC II, Burial 42 layout
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
281
5.54, KC II, Burial 19, shell ear ornaments
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
286
5.55, KC II, Shell ear-ornaments, Burials 17 and 20
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
287
5.56, KC II, shell bracelet .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
287
5.57, KC II, Burial 25, child’s bracelet
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
287
5.58, KC II, Types of stone bracelets
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
289
5.59, KC II, Stone ear ornament
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
290
5.60, Comparison of Khok Charoen and Ban Kao phallus objects
.
.
.
.
.
.
293
.
Chapter 7 7.1, Development of the SZ style in examples from Asia .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
330
7.2, Difference between “Beaker” and P’u vessels
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
332
7.3, Images of pots compared in text above
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
334
B.1, KC III, Fragments 5 to 14 of immature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti excavated in designated cuttings
.
365
B.2, KC IV, Fragments 8 to 47 of immature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti excavated in designated cuttings
.
366
B.3, KC IV, Fragments 48 to 78 of immature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti excavated in designated cuttings
.
367
B.4, KC IV, Fragments 79 to 92 of immature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti excavated in designated cuttings
.
368
.
Appendix B
Appendix C C.1, KC III, Entire stone adzes EA1 to EA2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
369
C.2, KC III, Entire stone adzes EA3 to EA8
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
370
C.3, KC III, Entire stone adzes EA9 to EA16
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
371
C.4, KC III, Entire stone adzes EA17 to EA22
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
372
C.5, KC III, Entire stone adzes EA23 to EA25
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
373
C.6, KC III, Adze fragments AF1 to AF2 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
374
C.7, KC III, Adze fragments AF3 to AF10.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
375
C.8, KC III, Adze fragments AF11 to AF18
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
376
C.9, KC III, Adze fragments AF19 to AF22
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
377
C.10, KC III, Rough-outs RO1 to RO4
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
378
.
xvii
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand C.11, KC III, Rough-outs RO5 to RO9
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
379
C.12, KC IV, Entire Adzes EA1 and EA2
.
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.
.
.
380
C.13, KC IV, Entire Adzes EA3 to EA10 .
.
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.
.
381
C.14, KC IV, Entire Adzes EA11 to EA16
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
382
C.15, KC IV, Entire Adzes EA17 to EA24
.
.
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.
.
.
.
383
C.16, KC IV, Entire Adzes EA25 to EA28
.
.
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.
.
384
C.17, KC IV, Adze Fragments AF1 to AF2
.
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.
.
385
C.18, KC IV, Adze Fragments AF3 to AF5
.
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.
.
386
C.19, KC IV, Adze Fragments AF6 to AF11
.
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.
387
C.20, KC IV, Adze Fragments AF12 to AF14
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.
.
388
C.21, KC IV, Adze Fragments AF15 to AF18
.
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.
.
389
C.22, KC IV, Adze Fragments AF19 to AF22
.
.
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.
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.
.
.
390
C.23, KC IV, Adze Fragments AF23 to AF28
.
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.
.
391
C.24, KC IV, Adze Fragments AF29 to AF32
.
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.
.
.
.
392
C.25, KC IV, Rough-outs RO1 to RO2
.
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.
.
393
C.26, KC IV, Rough-outs RO3 to RO10 .
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.
394
C.27, KC IV, Rough-outs RO11 to RO18 .
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.
395
C.28, KC IV, Rough-outs RO19 to RO25 .
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.
396
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.
397
D.2, KC III, Grinding stone GS2 to GS7 .
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.
.
398
D.3, KC III, Grinding stones GS8 and GS9
.
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.
.
.
399
D.4, KC III, Grinding stones GS10 and GS11
.
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.
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.
.
400
D.5, KC III, Grinding stone GS12 to GS14
.
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.
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.
.
.
401
D.6, KC III, Grinding stones MS1 to MS4 .
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.
.
402
D.7, KC III, Grinding stones MS5 to MS7 .
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.
403
D.8, KC III, Grinding stones MS8 to MS13
.
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.
.
404
D.9, KC III, Grinding stones MS14 to MS17
.
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.
.
405
D.10, KC III, Grinding stones MS18 to MS20
.
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.
.
.
406
D.11, KC IV, Grinding stones GS1-GS2 .
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.
.
407
D.12, KC IV, Grinding stones GS3-GS5 .
.
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.
.
408
D.13, KC IV, Grinding stones GS6, GS7, GS11 .
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
409
D.14, KC IV, Grinding stone GS13.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
410
D.15, KC IV, Grinding stone GS8 .
.
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.
.
.
.
410
D.16, KC IV, Grinding stones GS9 –GS10
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
411
D.17, KC IV, Grinding stone GS12.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
412
D.18, KC IV, Miscellaneous stone objects MS 3, MS4 and MS8.
.
.
.
.
.
.
414
D.19, KC IV, Miscellaneous stone objects MS 10 to MS15.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
415
D.20, KC IV, Miscellaneous stone objects MS 16 to MS22.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
416
Appendix D D.1, KC III, Grinding stone GS1
.
.
xviii
List of Illustrations D.21 , KC IV, Miscellaneous stone objects MS 23 to MS34.
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.
.
.
417
D.22 KC IV, Miscellaneous stone objects MS 35 to MS41.
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.
.
.
418
D.23, KC IV, Miscellaneous stone objects MS 42 to MS46.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
419
D.24, KC IV, Miscellaneous stone objects MS 47 to MS52.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
420
D.25, KC IV, Miscellaneous stone objects MS54 to MS56.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
421
D.26, KC IV, Miscellaneous stone objects MS1, MS2, MS5, and MS6.
.
.
.
.
.
422
.27, KC IV, Miscellaneous stone objects MS7, MS9, and MS28.
.
.
.
.
.
.
423
D.28, KC IV, Miscellaneous stone objects MS29, MS30 and MS53
.
.
.
.
.
.
424
Appendix E E.1, KC III, Bone artefacts BA1 to BA6 .
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.
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.
.
.
.
.
425
E.2, KC III, Bone artefacts BA7 to BA9 .
.
.
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.
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.
.
426
E.3, KC III, Fossilized bone fragments FB1 to FB4
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
427
E.4, KC III, Fossilized bone fragments FB5 to FB12
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
428
E.5, KC III, Fossilized bone fragments FB13 to FB22
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
429
E.6, KC III, Fossilized bone fragments FB23 to FB29
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
430
E.7, KC IV, Bone artefacts BA1 to BA2 .
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.
.
.
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.
.
431
E.8, KC IV, Bone artefacts BA3 to BA6 .
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.
.
432
E.9, KC IV, Bone artefacts BA7 to BA9 .
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.
.
433
E.10, KC IV, Bone artefacts BA10 to BA14
.
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.
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.
.
434
E.11, KC IV, Bone artefacts BA15 to BA19
.
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.
.
.
.
435
E.12, KC IV, Bone artefacts BA20 to BA28
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
436
E.13, KC IV, Bone artefact BA29 .
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.
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.
.
437
E.14, KC IV, Fossilized bone objects FB1 to FB7
.
.
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.
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.
.
439
E.15, KC IV, Fossilized bone objects FB8 to FB15
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
440
E.16, KC IV, Fossilized bone objects FB16 to FB24
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
441
E.17 KC IV, Fossilized bone objects FB25 to FB32
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
442
E.18, KC IV, Fossilized bone objects FB33 to FB40
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
443
E.19, KC IV, Fossilized bone objects FB41 to FB48
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
444
E.20 KC IV, Fossilized bone objects FB49 to FB56
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
445
E.21, KC IV, Fossilized bone objects FB57 to FB60
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
446
Appendix F F.1, Worked antler fragment, Burial 9, Find 28
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
447
F.2, Worked antler fragment, Burial 9, Find 29
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
448
F.3, Worked antler fragment, Burial 9, Find 30
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
448
F.4, Worked antler fragment, Burial 13, Find 3
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
449
F.5, Antler fragment, AT5 .
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.
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.
.
449
F.6, Antler fragment, AT6 .
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.
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.
.
449
xix
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand F.7, Antler fragment AT7
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
450
F.8, Antler fragment AT8
.
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.
450
F.9, Antler fragment AT9
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450
G.1, Stone bracelet fragments found in KC III
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
452
G.2, Stone bracelet fragments found in KC IV
.
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.
453
G.3, Clay bracelet fragments found in KC IV
.
.
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.
.
454
H.1, KC IV, Images of the 26 artificially rounded sherds .
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.
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.
456
Appendix G
Appendix H
xx
List of Photographs Preliminary section I.1, Khok Charoen IV, Burials 6, 6a and 11 in Cutting F4.
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.
xxx
1.1, General view of the Khok Charoen excavation site .
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7
1.2, Photograph of the Khok Charoen II excavation site .
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9
1.3, Condition of the Khok Charoen site before clearance for excavation
.
.
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.
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20
Chapter 1
Chapter 2 2.1, Burial 1, row of pots beyond “head” of Burial 1
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26
2.2, Footed bowl (Burial 1, Find 5) with disk-shell beads
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.
26
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28
2.4, Photographs 2.4 a) and b), Burial 3, skeleton laying in a gravelly soil; Burial 3 from above
.
.
29
2.5, Burial 4 fully excavated with footed bowl find 3
.
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.
31
2.6, Pelvis of main skeleton after Find 3 had been removed
.
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31
2.7, The strangely shaped burial pit of Burial 4 .
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..
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31
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34
2.3, Burial 2, side view of skeleton lying in gravelly limestone soil
.
2.8, Skeleton of Burial 5 fully excavated .
.
2.9, Burial 5, upper part of skeleton only .
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34
2.10, Entire Burial 5 (including pots beyond head)
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34
2.11, Burial 6 (foreground), Burial 2 in side view .
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.
36
2.12, Burial 6, head and shoulders from above, rim of Pot 6 visible near mandible
.
.
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.
36
2,13, Burial 6, side view of head and shoulders showing the position of pot Find 6
.
.
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.
36
2.14, Footed bowl, Burial 7, Find 2 .
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.
37
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.
39
2.16, Burial 9, seen from E, lower part, including tetrapod vessel
.
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.
40
2.17, Close-up of centre of pot Find 7
.
.
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.
40
2.18, Large roots made the excavation in some places (here E8) difficult
.
.
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.
53
2.19, Similar tree root problems at Cutting F6
.
.
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.
53
.
.
.
103
.
.
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.
111
3.2, General view of Burial 6, with Pot Find 1 and its position next to the lower femur
.
.
.
111
3.4, Skull opf Burial 8, with pot apparently going through it
.
.
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.
.
116
3.5, Burial 9, side view
2.15, Burial 9 seen from W, fully excavated. .
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.
. .
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.
.
Chapter 3 3.1, KC IV from the air
.
.
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.
.
3.2, The contested pot (see text) in more detail from Burial 6
.
3.6, The Unclassifiable Burial
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119
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129
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129
3.7, The Unclassifiable Burial, hills of Khao Hang Talat in the background
xxi
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Chapter 5 5.1, Part of Burial 6 showing pots and distinctive bangle .
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.
.
.
.
.
.
256
6.1, General view of the excavation site; girl carrying water with traditional bamboo yoke .
.
.
319
6.2, The state of the better preserved of the Khok Charoen human remains
Chapter 6
.
.
.
.
.
320
.
.
.
.
.
324
7.2, Trochus niloticus shell bracelets found in excavation pit, Khok Charoen II
.
.
.
.
324
7.3, Trochus niloticus shell bracelets as worn today
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
324
7.4, Traditional Thai spirit house
Chapter 7 7.1, Examples of ear ornaments from Dvaravati sculpture
.
.
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.
339
7.5, Wayside shrine housing phallic objects
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.
339
7.6, Close-up of objects in the wayside shrine
.
.
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.
339
7.7, Another Thai wayside shrine, showing phallic objects
.
.
.
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.
.
339
7.8, Thai monks blessing the excavations at Khok Charoen
.
.
.
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.
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.
340
.
.
.
4
.
.
5
.
.
6
1.4, Locality map showing the Khok Charoen site in relation to Highway 21 and the surrounding hills
.
6
1.5, General site map of the Khok Charoen excavation area
.
.
7
.
.
8
.
.
.
24
3.1, Layout of KC IV cuttings showing relationship between Test Cuttings and final cuttings
.
.
103
3.2, Layout of KC IV cuttings showing location of the individual burials.
.
.
104
.
104
.
243
List of Maps, Diagrams and Charts Maps Chapter 1
1.1, General map of Thailand showing geographical regions
.
.
.
.
1.2, Map of Central Thailand, showing the Khok Charoen site in relation to the cities of Bangkok, Saraburi and Lopburi
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
.
1.3, Showing Khok Charoen site in relation to Lopburi, Nakhon Ractchasima and Phetchabun .
.
.
.
.
1.6 a) and b), Detailed site plan of the Khok Charoen site and location of the initial test cuttings
Diagrams Chapter 2 2.1, Layout of KC III cuttings
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.
.
.
.
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.
.
Chapter 3 .
.
.
3.3, Layout of KC IV cuttings showing spatial relationship between human burials and vessel burials Chapter 5 5.1, Layout of KC II cuttings
.
.
.
.
.
xxii
.
.
.
.
.
List of Charts Charts Chapter 2 2.1, Distribution of various “Pie crust” style types.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
74
2.2, Distribution of various “Pie crust” style types on plain pots .
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.
.
.
.
.
75
2.3, Distribution of various “Pie crust” style types in KC IV
.
.
.
.
.
.
76
xxiii
.
List of Tables Chapter 1 1.1, Constituent parts of Khok Charoen and Non Nok Tha pottery assemblages
.
.
.
.
13
Chapter 2 2.1, Distribution of soil layers KC III
.
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.
22
2.2, Distribution of pottery types by burial .
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.
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54
.
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.
64
2.4, Distribution of shell disk-beads Types a and b in KC III burials
.
.
.
.
.
.
68
2.5, Stone bracelet fragments found in KC III
2.3, Distribution of pot types in burials 1, 6 (E) and 4, 5 (N) .
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
69
2.6, Burials containing footed bowls as grave goods
.
.
.
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.
70
2.7, Class 3, Types C to E pots in KC III .
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.
72
.
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.
73
.
.
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.
75
2.10, Sherds of "pie-crust" pots (except plain body sherds) throughout the deposit in KC IV .
.
.
77
2.11, Concordances between rim types and cord-mark styles
.
2.8, Burial distribution of burial-only and multi-use pottery
2.9, Distribution of sherds decorated in Styles 1-6 throughout the deposit .
.
.
.
.
.
.
80
2.12, Concordances between vessel size (R in cm) and cord-mark styles
.
.
.
.
.
80
2.13, Distribution of Class 6 rim sherds throughout the deposit in KC III
.
.
.
.
.
82
2.14, Table of feet of special pot type 8A found at various sites and levels
.
.
.
.
.
83
2.15, Distribution of disc-shaped sherds throughout the deposit .
.
.
.
.
.
.
90
2.16, Potsherds with significant vegetal impressions in KC III .
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.
.
.
.
.
91
2.17, Details of ring fragments found in KC III
.
.
.
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.
.
93
2.18, KC III, Ring fragments
.
.
.
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.
94
2.19, Types of stone adzes .
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.
96
2.20, Distribution of entire (or almost entire) stone adzes in KC III, according to type
.
.
.
96
2.21, Distribution of adze fragments in KC III, according to type
.
.
.
.
.
97
2.22, Distribution of rough-outs for Stone Adzes in KC III, according to layer .
.
.
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.
97
2.23, Post-holes in KC III .
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99
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100
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155
3.2, Seemingly intentionally broken burial pots in KC IV
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.
164
3.3, Head orientation of burials in KC III .
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.
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.
.
.
.
166
3.4, Relation between Later Phase burials and pottery types with burial
.
.
.
.
.
166
3.5, Stratigraphy of non-datable burials .
2.24, Animal species hunted in KC III Chapter 3 3.1, Pottery types in KC IV burials .
. .
. .
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.
170
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170
3.7, Ornaments associated with burials, Early and Late Phases .
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.
.
.
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.
172
3.8, Cluster Ceramic Burials in KCIV
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.
.
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.
189
3.6, Sex, age and height of 23 skeletons from 2 burial phases .
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.
.
xxiv
List of Tables 3.9, Distribution of shell disk-beads Types a, b and d in KC IV burials .
.
.
.
.
.
190
3. 10, Ventral margin pieces of mature cf. P. mouhoti shells
.
.
.
.
.
.
193
3.11, Distribution of pottery types in KC IV burials and N.-A.B.P. pots
.
.
.
.
.
196
3.12, Burials containing footed bowls as grave goods
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
197
3.13, Class 3, Types C to E pots in KC IV .
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.
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.
197
3.14, Distribution of pots found in burials
.
.
.
.
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.
200
3.15, Distribution of artificially modified sherds by squares throughout the deposit
.
.
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.
211
3.16, Potsherds with vegetal impressions in KC IV
.
.
.
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.
212
3.17, Fingertip impressions on clay bracelet fragments .
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.
213
3.18, Distribution of entire (or almost entire) stone adzes in KC IV according to type .
.
.
.
215
3.19, Distribution of adze fragments in KC IV according to known or suggested type .
.
.
.
215
3.20, Distribution of Rough-Outs in KC IV according to main type and layer .
.
.
.
.
215
3.21, Distribution of adze elements by level and type
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
216
3.22, Post-holes found in KC IV
.
.
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4.1, Estimated heights of buried individuals, KC III and KC IV .
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4.2, Marine shells associated with KC IV burials and Khok Phanom Di (KPD) Mortuary Phases (MP)
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4.3, Number of pots according to types in burials and as N.-A.B.P. in KC IV
3.23, Animal species hunted in KC IV Chapter 4
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4.5, Distribution of virtually reconstructed Class 4 pots in KC III and IV according to type .
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4.6, Comparison of stone adzes found in KC III and KC IV
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4.7, Disturbances in burials in KC III and IV by categories
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4.4, Class 4 pots found only in burials
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Chapter 5 5.1, Association of disk-beads with KC II burials .
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5.2, Shell fragments found in KC II
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5.3, Number of bracelets per type .
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5.4, KC II Burial pottery
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5.5, Burial pottery in KC II, IV and III compared .
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5.6, Types of Adzes found, KC II, IV and II
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5.7, Occurrence of Duff types in KC II, III and IV
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5.8, Number and position of Grinding stones/Whetstones/Hammerstones
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5.9, Burials with Type 6Db pots in them .
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6.2, Results of Carbon dating and Thermoluminescence testing, KC III, KC IV and KC II
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6.3, Measurements of Type 1K bowls from KC III and KC II
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Chapter 6 6.1, Apparent dates of selected KC III sherds
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Chapter 7 7.1, Incised-and-impressed decoration motifs on non-burial pots in Khok Charoen
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Appendix A A.1, Illustration of the 12 “Pie-crust” decoration styles .
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A.2. Images of the 166 Pie-Crust sherds
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C.1, Summary description of entire adzes (=EA) excavated in KC III, numbered EA 1 – 25 .
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C.2, KC III, Summary description of adze fragments (=AF), numbered AF 1 – 22
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C.3, KC III, Characteristics of rough-outs .
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C.4, KC IV, Summary description of entire stone adzes (=EA), numbered EA 1-28 .
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C.5, KC IV, Summary description of adze fragments (=AF) numbered AF1-32
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C.6, KC IV, Summary description of rough-outs (=RO) numbered RO1 – 25.
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Appendix C
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Appendix D D.1, KC III, Summary description of Grinding stones, Whetstones and Hammerstones (=GS) GS 1-14
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D.2, KC III, Summary description of Miscellaneous Stone Objects (=MS) MS1-20 .
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D.3, KC IV, Summary description of Grinding Stones (= GS) GS1 to GS 13 .
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D.4, KC IV, Summary description of Miscellaneous Stone Objects (=MS) MS1-56 .
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Appendix E E.1, KC III, Location and description of bone artefacts (=BA) BA1-9 .
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E.2, KC III, Fossilized Bone fragments (=FB) FB 1-29 (seq. by Cutting)
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E.3, KC IV, Bone artefacts (=BA) according to layers, BA1 to BA29 .
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Appendix F F.1, List of tubular antler (bone) objects excavated in KC IV
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Appendix G G.1, Stone bracelet fragments found in KC III
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G.2, Stone bracelet fragments found in KC IV
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G.3, Clay bracelet fragments found in KCIV
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H.1, KC IV, Distribution of artificially modified sherds by squares throughout the deposit .
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Appendix H
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Foreword The maxim by the Danish philosopher Sören Kierkegaard that "Life can only be understood backwards but must be lived forwards" can, and maybe should compulsorily, also be applied to the reporting of archaeological excavations, especially if they are large ones, dug at different times in different parts of a site by different excavators. This was precisely the way the site of Khok Charoen ("Hill of Prosperity") in the lower Nam Pasak valley, eastern Central Thailand, came into being and grew into the "Burial Site at the Stone-Metal Junction", the subject of the present report. The excavations were done in four seasons from 1966 to 1970 one after the other in three distinct burial grounds, the first two seasons directed by William Watson of the British Museum, London, with me as assistant, and the last two by me alone, of the Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra. The personnel was also different for each season and all those people involved had different aims, expectations and different degrees of understanding what this digging was about (we often heard we must be searching for gold!) but we all lived and looked forwards. The phase of looking backwards to understand had a bad start inasmuch as the interpretation of the excavated material was done separately in London (for the first two seasons) and Canberra (for the last two). We were still seeing the site through the perspective of one or the other of its constituent parts rather than perceiving it as an organism with its origin, development, changes and eventually its end. There were quite a few surprises on the way towards achieving this latter aim, the most important one being that the cemetery which came to light during the second season (the first to be fully excavated after the trial dig during the first season) and which was thought to be at the beginning of the site, was actually its final phase, preceded by the two other smaller cemeteries the ceramic traditions of which it continued. Because of this misunderstanding, which was still the basis of the first attempt to present the site as a whole (Chui-Mei Wendy Ho's unpublished 1984 University of London PhD thesis "The Pottery of Kok Charoen and its farther context"), another major surprise, the sophisticated cultural influences coming from coastal sites as well as from the North of the Indochinese Peninsula or even beyond, was not recognised as important elements shaping the identity of the site until the gestation of the present report. So far the glance backwards only revealed the make-up of the site with emphasis on its cultural aspects but leaves what I consider to be the fundamental aim of archaeological research untouched: the human beings, people. Not only their skeletons and measurements but, if at all possible, "what is inside". If we see, as we must, archaeology as anthropology of the past, we realise that archaeology, as much as it wants to be ranked as a science, can never be other than a "Human Science" and that the Science part is but the means to get at the Human one. However, the problem of how to use something which can be measured, dated and analysed as a tool to understand the nature of something on the other side of the divide can only be solved by using the bridge of legitimate speculation, plausible reasoning and educated guesswork lest all we do is to add dust to dust and ashes to ashes, as none other than Sir Mortimer Wheeler said so succinctly, although in a Southeast Asian context it might be more appropriate to talk of adding mud to mud rather than dust. The site of Khok Charoen offers the rare opportunity to perceive some of this "inside" of some members of the local society, revealing emotions such as hatred, envy and obstinacy but also a sense of purpose, loyalty and the kind of camaraderie one sees of people banding together to achieve a particular aim, ethical or otherwise. It is the story about the possession of large globular bowls of a type which, because of having extremely thin walls, is not suitable for any practical purpose but was valued as burial gift. The material stages of this dramatic story are all well documented and evaluated in the present report and summarised in Chapter 6 and need not be repeated here. The salient events are the following. The very first burial of what was to become the site of Khok Charoen had seven of these bowls as grave goods but its skeleton, seemingly after an earlier one (or rather a body) was removed, was found smashed to bits leaning against one of the bowls. No other burial had such bowls as burial gifts. For a long time everything was quiet around these large bowls but a generation or two later, the first burial was robbed and a bowl situated on the pelvis of the skeleton was taken out to be put in a nearby pit under two other pots of later phases. At the same time the largest globular bowl of this type was buried on its own as the first pot of the site's last cemetery. It then became the place of the richest burial of that cemetery, having two ordinary globular bowls at the hands; there were thirty-odd other burials with at least 13 more of these bowls as burial gifts. The two bowls in the first burial were totally smashed while all its other burial pots were left intact. End of story. This was all that could be deduced from the "looking backwards" vantage point. However, I consider it, with whatever fancy interpretation or no interpretation at all, to be such an extraordinary chain of events that its symbol, the smashed skeleton, should be on the cover of the present report so as to remind us that all was not quiet on the Hill of Prosperity front and that this was precisely what made this site so interesting and special. H. L.-W. December 2016
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Preface This is the belated final report of excavations carried out almost fifty years ago at the site of Khok Charoen ("Hill of Prosperity") in the northeastern corner of Central Thailand. These excavations were done in a pioneering spirit, with considerable enthusiasm, by a small team with a modest budget, little field experience in Southeast Asian conditions and using methods and techniques adequate at the time but now perhaps seen as somewhat antiquated. Khok Charoen was a rather disturbed site, in some parts of it extremely so, to such an extent that the temptation had constantly to be resisted, in the field as well as when interpreting the excavated material, to draw exact conclusions from patchy, scanty and unreliable data. This patchiness also diminishes the relevance of any statistical approach one would have liked to use to answer certain crucial questions. Of course, these are problems with which all excavators are confronted but in the case of the last season at the site they were of such magnitude that they became at times very frustrating indeed. Such a situation creates fundamental problems regarding excavation methods, adherence to orthodoxy and the like, all this measured against possible alternatives such as to abandon the search for meaning in these patchy data altogether. In view of the utter futility of this particular alternative and the obvious inadequacy of any other it was thought preferable to continue on our path regardless of drawbacks and frustrations in the Churchillian sense of supporting democracy as being the worst system of government except when considering all the others.. Thus, so as to salvage at least some useful results and to extract the maximum of information, the rules of Civil Law (balance of probabilities), rather than those of both Criminal Law and Science (beyond reasonable doubt) had to be resorted to more often than is necessary in less disturbed sites. If there were questions (and there were many) which could not be answered, they were formulated and, if a plausible answer could not be suggested, it is noted that (for the time being) they "must remain unanswered". Believing it to be the duty of excavators, especially if they work on their own, to explain as precisely as possible how they reached their conclusions, each significant statement of excavation results and their interpretation in this report is followed by a short "Discussion". It was thought that in sites as incomplete and disturbed as Khok Charoen, this would be the most conscientious way to discharge this duty. Statements were couched in tentative terms if not entirely certain and, even in spite of danger of repetition, the point had to be made that the presentation of certain facts can be helpful even if they are statistically irrelevant. Over the years the attitude towards the material subtly changed, new insights were gained through comparison with more recent sites or discoveries, discrepancies in the field notes detected and documents and items lost. New research and dating methods were developed but could only partly be incorporated into the ongoing work and some earlier drawings had to be redrawn. The gestation of this report has already been described in some detail in a work-in-progress article (Loofs-Wissowa 1997) passages of which are reproduced or paraphrased in the following "Introduction" and "History of Research". All this to say that the present report is neither in its form or scope, nor in its style and presentation akin to a re-arranged PhD thesis. Instead, it is a more old-fashioned piece of work, almost a historical document, but one which touches the present inasmuch as it aims at making the rich but badly fragmented and incomplete material of this site between Stone and Metal finally available to interested scholars with, it is hoped, just the right amount of interpretative "educated" guesswork. If some of these interpretations or conclusions turn out to be erroneous, the writer assumes full responsibility, just as he does for any other mistake in this report.
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Abstract Methodical research in the prehistoric archaeology of Thailand began during the early 1960s when a Thai-Danish Archaeological Expedition excavated sites in Kanchanaburi Province, western Thailand (neolithic burials) and an American one, the University of Hawaii-Fine Arts Department Expedition, sites in Northeast Thailand (burials with bronze objects); a Thai-British Archaeological Expedition endeavoured to complete this archaeological coverage by excavating three sites situated geographically between the two, one of which was Khok Charoen in the northeastern-most corner of Central Thailand. Khok Charoen ("Hill of Prosperity") is the name of an undulating field next to the road from Chai Badan to Phetchabun (just opposite the 468 m-height Hang Ta Lat Hills), where surface funds seemed to indicate a neolithic settlement; subsequent excavations were undertaken in the hope of finding such an open-air occupation site instead of cemeteries. The first 1966 excavation (later called KC I) was meant to be a trial excavation, abandoned after having discovered only burials, and the search for a settlement was postponed to the 1967 season (KC II). However, the test excavation revealed the basic structure of soil layers of the site which consists of a limestone bedrock at most one metre below the present surface overlaid by a lower limey gravel and an upper humic soil, separated by a discontinuity caused by a major flood associated with a long gap in the occupational sequence. This event became the backbone for the relative chronology of the three parts of the site. The excavation of KC II brought to light 37 burials with abundant burial pottery, making it at that time the most important pre-metal burial site in Southeast Asia, but no sign of a settlement. When the next 1968 season's excavation of KC III resulted in the discovery of yet another cemetery (10 human burials and one Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial excavated), it was decided to give up the hope of finding a settlement and to devote the last and final 1970 season to the completion of the 1966 test excavation which now became KC IV (19 human burials, including the five of KC I, eleven Single Vessel Ceramic Burials and ten Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials excavated, the last two categories consisting of completely new types of a sophistically decorated pottery). After an extended period of examination and interpretation of the tons of excavated material deposited for that purpose in London and Canberra, the full picture of the site finally emerged. This was that the chronological sequence of the site was the opposite of what had been initially believed, i.e. instead of thinking that KC II was the earliest part of the entire site, it was in actual fact its latest phase, the one after the discontinuity, with KC III and KC IV before it, in that order. Burial 5 of KC III, obviously originating from outside, is considered to be the earliest burial of the site and the one having introduced a kind of large globular bowl over the possession of which certain factions of the society had been quarrelling from beginning to end of the site's existence. The age of the site of Khok Charoen is estimated to be from the 13th century BC to its abandonment around the 9th century BC because the earliest date for what most probably was a sporadic occupation thereafter is 791 BC while the last date of that phase, AD 679, is already contemporaneous with the well-documented earliest Indian influenced School of art in Thailand, that of Sri Thep, about 15 km north of Khok Charoen.
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Photograph I.1, Khok Charoen IV, Burials 6, 6a and 11 in Cutting F4 before complete separation of material. Workers with baskets may be seen in the adjacent cutting.
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CHAPTER 1 Background to the Research 1.1 Introduction
However, the problem was that in Thailand, unlike surrounding countries in which archaeologists of the respective colonial powers had for a long time been researching the prehistory, from the Lower Palaeolithic to the Bronze and Iron Ages, the emphasis has not been on prehistoric archaeological research, perhaps because there were too many monuments above ground to be urgently restored and looked after to feel the necessity to dig under it. The little prehistoric research that there had been, apart from the publication of surface or chance-finds of some neolithic stone tools by I.H.N. Evans in 1926 and 1931, was the excavation of vaguely Hoabinhian-like flaked stone tools in caves near Chiang Rai, Ratchaburi and Lopburi by the Swiss naturalist Fritz Sarasin in 1931 (Sarasin 1933a, 1933b) and the most fortuitous discovery of some pebble tools by the Dutch prehistorian H. R. van Heekeren in 1943, while working as a prisoner of the Japanese on the infamous railway from Thailand to Burma through the valley of the Kwae Noi in Kanchanaburi Province (Van Heekeren 1948). This latter discovery served as the starting point for the first Western post-war archaeological venture in Southeast Asia which thus happened paradoxically in the only large blank spot with regard to prehistoric archaeology in the region, Thailand. After preliminary explorations in 1955 to locate van Heekeren's original "site" (Heider 1957 and 1960), plans were made for a Thai-Danish Prehistoric Expedition, i.e. a joint venture of Thai and Danish institutions (1960-62) with the purpose "to make a study of the almost unknown prehistory of Thailand": it was that basic! It was, however, the very beginning of the fulfilment of Sarasin's prophecy at the conclusion of his earlier field-work that "Siam, once thoroughly explored, will prove to be one of the countries richest in prehistoric remains" (Sarasin 1933b: 178). What it also meant was that whatever discovery was now made in Thailand could not be studied in comparison with other finds within the country but only with those made in other parts of the wider region. This proved to be a mental handicap for the first Western archaeologists working in Thailand who, whether they wanted it or not, were practically forced to unconsciously use Western thought models, categorisations and terminology. Fortunately, this situation had already slightly improved by the time of the Khok Charoen excavations in the sense that we could compare our finds with those made in Kanchanaburi and in Northeast Thailand.
The discovery and excavation of the site of Khok Charoen in Thailand has to be seen in the context of the post-war situation, political and archaeological, of entire Southeast Asia. Everywhere the war brought about political changes, violently or peacefully, as well as a more or less drastic change in the relations with the outside world, be it with former colonial powers or with neighbouring countries within Southeast Asia itself. Both these changed relationships influenced and conditioned archaeological research from the end of the war to the present, with additional changes intervening in between. Indeed, the first Regional Conference on Archaeology and Fine Arts (ARCAFA), 1972 in Phnom-Penh, at which the writer represented Australia, had as its main aim to acquaint the different countries of Southeast Asia with their neighbours' problems and to co-ordinate research rather than to deal with new developments in world archaeology. Its successor organisation, SPAFA (Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organisation Project of Archaeology and Fine Arts) in Bangkok, has been doing the same with great success ever since. Although the war interrupted or brought to an end archaeological research throughout Southeast Asia, the new beginnings that eventually emerged were quite different in the individual countries and areas of the region, due to dissimilarities between them in the pre-war situation. But it was the post-war situation, not archaeological considerations, which decided where and by whom such research could be done. However, a few basic archaeological questions from before the war remained unanswered which concerned entire Southeast Asia and which could therefore be tackled practically anywhere within the region where circumstances allowed archaeological research.
1.2 History of Research As the only country of Southeast Asia not to have been the colony or protectorate of a European power or the USA, Thailand, almost by definition, became an island of relative peace and stability in an otherwise turbulent post-war region. It was the only country the history of which was not significantly interrupted by the war – with its subsequent upheavals caused by decolonisation – and it therefore offered itself as the natural choice for Western archaeologists (not overly welcome in most other parts of Southeast Asia at that time) to restart archaeological research with an emphasis on prehistoric archaeology.
It may appear strange that it should be Denmark to have been the first Western country to begin research in Thailand's prehistory but this, too, had something to do with political history and not with any archaeological consideration. In his far-sighted efforts to modernise Siam without compromising its independence in the second half of the 19th century, King Mongkut invited Danish
1
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand specialists into the country in greater numbers than the relative unimportance and distance of small Denmark would seem to have warranted. But in terms of the politics of colonisation, Denmark was not threatening and Siam was in no danger of becoming another Greenland. To this day, the kingdoms of Thailand and Denmark enjoy a very special relationship which is the stronger as it is devoid of any ulterior motives.
A follow-up excavation at Non Nok Tha was conducted in 1968 (Bayard 1972a, 1972b), the faunal remains were published in 1975 (Higham 1975) and the burials and their pottery in 1984 (Bayard 1984). However, in the meantime a number of articles appeared which focused on these early dates for bronze and the contemporaneous pottery, seemingly confirmed and even surpassed by those of Ban Chiang, and stressed their implications for world archaeology (e.g. Solheim 1967a, 1967b, 1968, 1969a, 1969b, 1972a, 1972b, 1972c, 1972d, 1972e, 1976, 1980). In a few years after the first surveys began there, northeastern Thailand had thus changed from an unknown quantity to archaeologically one of the most significant areas of entire Asia. While this significance was later somewhat diminished, when the proposed chronology and its implications were challenged (Loofs-Wissowa 1983), and subsequently drastically revised by the main proponent himself (Solheim 1984), northeast Thailand remains to this day an important area with regard to the development and spread of bronze technology and Bronze Age cultures in Asia (Leyavanija 1997: 197).
Although having had the initial aim of following up discoveries in the Palaeolithic of Thailand, the Thai-Danish expedition also investigated and excavated mesolithic and neolithic sites (notably the burial site of Ban Kao) as well as sites yielding bronze and iron artefacts. One of the latter, Ongbah Cave, was even the object of a following-up expedition in 1965-66. After several preliminary reports (Knuth 1962; Nielsen 1961, 1962a, 1962b; Sørensen 1962, 1964; Van Heekeren 1962), the results of this venture were published as Archaeological Excavations in Thailand in four volumes from 1967 to 1988 (Van Heekeren and Knuth 1967; Sørensen and Hatting 1967; Sangvichien, Sirigaroon, Jørgensen and Jacob 1969; Sørensen 1988). Four more papers on aspects of neolithic, bronze and iron finds (Sørensen 1963, 1974a, 1974b, 1979) complete the knowledge of the prehistory of Kanchanaburi Province, western Thailand, based on this first Western archaeological expedition after the war.
It was in this confusing and yet stimulating archaeological climate that the idea of a British archaeological expedition was conceived in the hope of reducing some of the confusion, while not in any way scaling down the general excitement. The prehistory of the western part of Thailand began to be better known, especially for its Palaeolithic and Neolithic, whereas that of the eastern part showed signs of the existence of early bronze. Somewhere in between there would have to be the meeting point of "Stone Age" and "Metal Age", i.e. an area of interest with regard to significant cultural developments, offering in particular the opportunity to test the assumption that the first appearance of bronze generated changes in the economic and social life of local population groups of sufficient magnitude to warrant the use of the phrase “entering a new Age".
While the Danish expedition was still in preparation, another archaeological project initiated by foreigners was also in the making, concerning the northeastern part of Thailand and prompted by the realisation that the entire Lower Mekong region was to be upgraded economically by means of building reservoirs, power plants, locks, canals and barrages. This would involve large-scale flooding, making future archaeological investigations impossible. Thus, an urgent Archaeological Salvage Program had to be put in place (Solheim and Hackenberg 1961) which eventually took the form of the "University of Hawaii – Fine Arts Department Expedition" (later "The Fine Arts Department of Thailand – University of Hawaii Archaeological Salvage Program in Northeastern Thailand"), having its first field session in 1963-64. It conducted site surveys in wide areas of the northeast and finally concentrated on a particular site which was to make history: Non Nok Tha, a Bronze Age burial site, about 80 km northwest of Khon Kaen (Solheim and Gorman 1966). Situated near the village Ban Nadi, Amphoe Phu Wiang, the site was originally referred to as Ban Nadi or Ban Na Di site which is somewhat unfortunate as a site of that name was later (1980-81) excavated near the famous Ban Chiang site, to set the latter in its broader perspective (Kijngam 1984), thus creating room for misunderstandings.
One of the above-mentioned archaeological questions common to Southeast Asia, culturally perhaps the most intriguing and complex one, was how and why had Indian cultural influence been accepted and adapted to local conditions throughout the region, resulting in the surprisingly rapid growth of "Indianized States" which nevertheless preserved their distinctive "local genius", without there being signs of indigenous prehistoric cultures of a sufficient high level to absorb this Indian influence? We now know that there exist a number of markers along the road towards the establishment of these earliest states in the archaeological, protohistorical or ethnographic record which have nothing to do with any outside influence, in the form of strategically placed local polities which would explain the "local genius" content of the later Indian-inspired kingdoms. But at the time of early post-war research, the above question was still put in stark terms of the meeting of exponents of a High Civilisation with Stone Age savages (Lamb 1975, Loofs 1975).
Excavations at Non Nok Tha began in 1965 and continued into 1966, with the astonishing result that bronze was said to have been worked there "nearly one thousand years before it is now considered to have begun in Shang China and one hundred years earlier than it started in the Harappa Culture of the Indus Valley in India" (Solheim 1968: 62).
This is where the Thai-British Archaeological Expedition (henceforth TBAE) enters the scene, for its brief was "to 2
Background to the Research gain more information on the obscure period preceding the establishment of the first so-called “Indianized States” in Mainland Southeast Asia by investigating the Late Neolithic period and the spread of the use of metals in central and northern Thailand".
there was no information regarding the spread of the use of metals as such or of Indian cultural elements. Tha Muang site, 1.5 km distant from the present town of U-Thong and about 200 m west of the road to Nakhon Pathom within the walls of the ancient city, turned out to be an early historic site yielding a great amount of the typically carinated Dvaravati pottery (6th-11th centuries AD) as well as "Funanese" objects like those found at Oc-Eo, thus allowing interesting insights into pre-Dvaravati times there. The site seems to have been an iron-working centre as shown by the amount of iron slag, there are indications of local glass and glaze manufacture (with a date in the mid-fourth century AD perhaps the earliest in Southeast Asia) and there are also clear signs of early Buddhism. Altogether a most interesting site, excavated in part during three seasons and published in several preliminary reports and specialised articles (Watson and Loofs 1967: 245-248; Loofs 1970: 180-183, 1971a, 1971b, 1979; Loofs-Wissowa 1980; Barram 2003) but again, not the kind of site the TBAE had as its aim to investigate.
The expedition was founded in 1965, with William Watson, then Assistant Keeper of Oriental Antiquities in the British Museum, as the prime mover. It was planned for five seasons to be conducted in the first two (rainless) months of 1966 to 1970 and in no way can it be suspected of being part of some ill-intentioned "colonialist" archaeological venture. If anything, there was on the contrary already a hint of exhortation to Western archaeologists to "rethink" Southeast Asian archaeology by seeing indigenous prehistoric cultures in a more favourable light than was hitherto the custom. Although originally a predominantly British venture, support for the expedition came increasingly from Australian sources, so much so that in the last two or three years one could legitimately speak of a "Thai-Australian" expedition, the first Australian research into Southeast Asian prehistoric archaeology.
As it turned out, it was the third site of Khok Charoen which corresponded most closely to this aim as it demonstrated a level of material culture rivalling, and in the field of pottery even surpassing, many a contemporary early Bronze Age site in the region without any bronze having been discovered.
In order to achieve the aims of the expedition in the most efficient way it was thought best to geographically complement work being done by the Danish and American expeditions and to concentrate on the central part of Thailand from North to South. The first season of the TBAE, from late 1965 to early 1966, thus consisted of the conducting of reconnaissance in the vicinity of Chiang Saen, Uttaradit, Lopburi and U-Thong, resulting in the singling-out of three sites to be "trial" excavated. These were: 1) A cave called Tham Nguang Chang ("Elephant's Trunk Cave"), 98 km from Chiang Mai along the road to Fang; 2) An open field called Tha Muang within the precincts of the ancient city of U-Thong, Suphanburi Province; and 3) A series of shallow mounds of limy soil known by the name of Khok Charoen ("Hill of Prosperity"), situated just north of Chai Badan in the northeastern part of Lopburi Province, near the road to Phetchabun.
1.3 The Setting The boundary between Thailand's Central Region, i.e. the Menam Chao Phraya drainage basin, and the country's northeastern part, the Khorat Plateau, draining towards the Mekong, is usually marked by an imaginary straight line roughly following the crest of the Phetchabun Range from north to south. To the west of this line there would thus be the large and fertile alluvial plain of the Menam, the heartland of present Thailand, also rich in some mineral resources, whereas to the east, the dry and infertile plateau was until recently seen to have as its only wealth outcrops of rock salt (Royal Thai Survey Department 1966: T5). And yet, it was in this disadvantaged northeastern region that bronze technology first developed within the borders of present-day Thailand whence it spread towards the west and southwest only to be stopped, or so it seems, by the Phetchabun Range of a height of not even a thousand metres; certainly intriguing problems for archaeology.
Our original intention was to concentrate on open sites, but as the survey around Chiang Saen yielded no clear indication of any such, the Elephant's Trunk Cave was chosen as a representative excavation in the northern area. On account of its modest size, this cave site could be excavated in full during the first exploratory season and was rapidly published (Watson and Loofs 1967: 256-262; Watson 1968: 304-305). The cave contained three early Metal Age burials and a socketed bronze axe not associated with a burial in the upper filling, and some Hoabinhian-type stone tools in the lower levels. Its significance lies in the fact that two iron axes associated with one of the burials were then unique in Thailand but
The following series of maps, Maps 1.1 to 1.6, shows with increasing precision the location of the Khok Charoen site in relation to known locations in Thailand.
3
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand
Map 1.1, General map of Thailand showing geographical regions. The Khok Charoen site location in the Central Highlands is marked “Khok Charoen +” (after Moorman and Rojanansoonthon, 1968)
4
Background to the Research
Map 1.2, Map of Central Thailand, showing the Khok Charoen site in relation to the cities of Bangkok, Saraburi and Lopburi; the distance between Bangkok and Khok Charoen is about 250 Km. (Map by John Crocker)
5
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand
Map 1.3, Showing Khok Charoen site in relation to Lopburi, Nakhon Ratchasima and Phetchabun. The site is located off Highway 21. (Map by John Crocker)
Map 1.4, Locality map showing the Khok Charoen site in relation to Highway 21 and the surrounding hills. The Khao Hang Talat hills, max. elevation 468 m., may be seen in photographs of the site. Map from Thai Dept of the Interior Series 1 501S, ed. 1, 1972, 1:250000 series.
6
Background to the Research
Photograph 1.1, General view of the Khok Charoen excavation site Photograph taken from the prominent Hang Talat hills
Map 1.5, General site map of the Khok Charoen excavation area. Details of the map may be identified in the photograph, for example, the Chai Badan-Phetchabun road and the clusters of small structures
7
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand
Maps 1.6 a) and b), Detailed site plan of the Khok Charoen site and location of the initial test cuttings. Map 1.6 a) may be related to map I.1 and photograph 1.1 above.
8
Background to the Research
Photograph 1.2, Photograph of the Khok Charoen II excavation site. The photograph was taken at the end of the 1967 excavations as seen from the west. Women wearing straw hats may be seen working in the two pits at the top left of the site. The shallowness of the pits in spite of deposits over 3000 years is clearly visible, with the Hang Talat hills in the background.
channelled almost automatically into the Pasak valley rather than further to the west into the Meyom or Menan uplands or eastwards into the highlands of northern Laos.
Some geographers see the Phetchabun Range not as the sharp dividing line between two major natural landscapes but as the spine of a crescent-shaped geographical unit between the two, the Central Highlands (e.g. Moorman and Rojanansoonthon 1968), while others see it bordered on either side by a distinct transitional sub-region: towards the east the Khorat Marginal Highlands and towards the Menam basin the Pasak Lowlands (Dobby 1960: 260) in which Khok Charoen is situated. The relatively modest Pasak river which has its source about 80 km south of the sharp bend to the east of the Mekong but follows in its broad valley dug before it turned eastwards, continues to the south where it eventually joins the Chao Phraya near Ayutthaya and flows into the Bight. This peculiar geographic configuration suggests that the Pasak may have once been an old course of the Mekong itself (Dobby 1960: 264). While the geological events leading to the present natural landscape took place in times well outside the concerns of this report, they must nevertheless be taken into account inasmuch as they conditioned the movement of people into the area we are dealing with here. Early hunter-gatherer or agriculturist groups moving southwards from Yunnan along the Mekong may indeed have been
The site of Khok Charoen is situated 13.5 km north of Chai Badan at about 150 m west of the road to Phetchabun and directly opposite (i.e. on the other side of the road) to a group of three low mountains called Khao Hang Talat. The Amphoe (District) of Chai Badan being the northernmost district of the Changwat (Province) of Lopburi, Central Thailand, adjacent to the Province of Phetchabun, the southernmost province of Northern Thailand, the site is situated on the administrative border between Central and North Thailand and towards the southern end of the north-south course of the Pasak river before it turns to the west to join the Chao Phraya. Geologically, this area is already considered part of the Chao Phraya delta region and shows the characteristic features of such a situation. The river itself runs through a bed of Lopburi clays with, to the west, a large bank of Chaibadan clays, and next to the river to the east a band of limestone buttes which are also evident on the western side of the Pasak river; it is in this region of low limestone mounds, 9 km west of the river at its nearest point, that the site had been discovered.
9
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Here, on a kind of low promontory bounded by a steep slope doubled northwards by a stream with fairly deep water all the year round, and eastwards by a stream bed filled only in the wet season, numerous surface finds of mostly cord-marked potsherds and small polished stone adzes indicated human occupation. These ground and water features were reminiscent of neolithic village sites in southern China, especially if considering that in slightly changed circumstances of climate or local drainage this stream would probably have retained water also during the dry season and perhaps been part of a wider hydraulic system. Indeed, the site is surrounded on all sides by similar streams which, having their sources mainly in the Hang Ta Lat Hills, flow directly or via a number of rivulets into the Pasak. As, moreover, two other areas of swelling ground at short distance to the southwest of the promontory were also covered with cord-marked potsherds and, as the topography in this hilly piedmont area seemed to favour village settlement in general (although the economic basis for such settlements was, and still is, not well known), we were rejoicing in the prospect of finding a large neolithic settlement of a kind not yet discovered then anywhere in Southeast Asia.
the disturbed topsoil and finds from the uppermost burials – themselves sometimes greatly eroded and disturbed – cannot always be made with confidence with regard to stratigraphy, although their spatial distribution may help to determine the amount and nature of these disturbances. The first settlers in this area arrived in the late 1950s, i.e. a mere decade before the excavations started. There does not seem to have been any permanent occupation there between the time of the abandonment of the prehistoric site and the sparse settlement beginning in the fifties. Before that, this moderately densely forested dry area was apparently wasteland, known by the name of Dong Phya Klang, or "Great Central Forest" (De Lajonquière 1909: 198), traversed only by a bullock-cart track to go to Phetchabun. As this track passed by a large rock jutting out from the hillside, forming a shaded shelter of use as a resting place, the area was known by the name of Ban Hin Phoeng ("Place of the Rocky Outcrop"). Eventually, a road from Lopburi to Phetchabun was built, roughly following the track in this area, and much of the rock was blasted away to make room for it. This road created easier access to the area, allowing people to move in to claim land for cultivation which was mainly done by burning; it was perhaps for this reason, or simply for the sake of the pun, that the name of the area was changed from Hin Phoeng to Hin Phloeng ("Stone of Fire"). Still more recently the name of Khok Charoen was created for administrative purposes to distinguish the northern part of Ban Hin Phloeng from the part 2 km further to the South which retains this name (Sudhirak 1970: 84-85). However, in the course of an administrative reorganisation of Lopburi Province in 1987 and again in 1993, a new District of the name of Khok Charoen was formed adjacent (northwest) to that of Chai Badan. On a 1992 map of the area around the Hang Ta Lat hills (L7017S, sheet 5239-IV), the approximate location of the site bears the name of the Wat Sunthon Thep Khiri whereas there are two villages of the name Ban Khok Charoen next to it, one 1 km south and the other 500 m north of the Wat. In the present report the name Khok Charoen is used exclusively as it was adopted in 1966 to designate the site.
However, in the process of digging the pit for a charcoal kiln (usually only up to one metre deep) at the base of the promontory, local villagers had recently found human bones, obviously ancient and rather fragmentary and brittle. This not only indicated the presence of burials but also that these burials, although prehistoric, were situated at shallow depth below the present surface. In turn, this foreshadowed a difficult excavation because of obvious massive erosion at this part of the site which would have resulted in disturbed and incomplete, washed-away burials with little stratigraphy left for relative dating. Indeed, the rolling topography around the site itself suggested powerful water action at various times, obviously much stronger than anything experienced in recent times. 1.4 Site History The undulating land north of Chai Badan is part of the low-rainfall zone of Central Thailand with an annual rainfall of between 1000 mm and 1500 mm. The topography of the area in the vicinity of the site making it unsuitable for wet rice cultivation, it was used at the time of the excavations mainly to grow millet, or rather sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and maize as cash-crop. The cultivation of millet does not necessarily involve ploughing as the grains are sown in shallow holes (to about 3 cm deep), made with a hoe which hardly disturbs the topsoil at all. There is thus no reason to believe that millet could not have been grown there in prehistoric times using digging sticks. If fields were ploughed, this was done at the time of the excavations with a disk-plough disturbing the topsoil to a maximum depth of 15 cm, or with an ordinary plough which can disturb it down to about 25 cm, bringing up many finds which would have appeared anyway sooner or later as surface finds through natural erosion. Moreover, with burials so near to the present surface, the distinction between surface finds, finds from
At the time of the excavations, there were very few signs of human presence there between the late Neolithic, which we were excavating, and the present. A glazed potsherd of the Sukhothai type (14th-16th century) had been found in the early 1960s at 6 km northwest of the site in a field belonging to "Village No. 8", and in Ban Dong Noi, also part of this village, at about 3 km distance west of the site, an entire pot was found, apparently at about 2 m [sic] below the present surface. It was wheel-made, unglazed grey stoneware, with three small handles pasted onto the shoulder and three incised rings around a broken neck; H: 8 cm, D: 13 cm. Another, much larger but similar pot (same ware, narrow neck with also three rings around the preserved flaring rim, H: 35 cm, W: 35 cm), was found in a field of Ban Keng Ling, 3 km southwest of Khok Charoen; it was donated to the National Museum. Both pots are clearly pre-Sukhothai and would attest to some sporadic human presence in the area sometime in the early second millennium AD. 10
Background to the Research An inscription of Bhavavarman I, the first king of pre-Angkorian Cambodia (end of 6th century AD) found in Sri Thep (Coedès 1968: 68) even indicates a connection via the Khorat Plateau and beyond with Champa on the coast of the South China Sea (see also De Lajonquière 1909: 198, mentioning mountain passes into the Pasak valley well known to the Cambodians, and Wales 1937: 111, postulating a route connecting the Menam to the Mekong via Sri Thep and the Mun Valley to reach the heartland of Kambuja in the Bassac region). Sri Thep thus became the centre of fluvial traffic on the Pasak linking the Gulf of Thailand not only with the north and northeast of Thailand but also via the Chi and the Mun with the Mekong. This strategic position is later again the reason for the foundation, by King Narai of Ayutthaya (1657-1688), of the town of Chai Badan, near which Khok Charoen is situated, as a frontier town to guard against possible attacks from the Khorat Plateau. That the awareness of the importance of this geographical location was not limited to historic times but may have been realised already in late prehistory is shown by the discovery, in 1988, of Iron Age burials at a depth of four metres within the moats of the historic site of Sri Thep itself (Tankittikorn 1991). It is thus not impossible that even neolithic settlers in the Khok Charoen area were already aware of this importance.
distant from the "test-excavation" on the promontory, and only at this site was work taken "beyond the exploratory stage" (Watson 1968: 303). The result was the discovery and quite thorough excavation of another burial ground with 45 burials from twenty 4 x 4 m cuttings, then the largest neolithic (i.e. pre-metal) burial site in entire Southeast Asia.
1.5 The Excavations
In the meantime, a further attempt had been made, under the direction of the writer alone, to find the elusive settlement connected with all or at least some of these burials by excavating an area in a triangular position relative to the two previous sites, i.e. the third of the shallow mounds with the same kind of surface finds. But this third (1968) season's excavation (= KC III) only brought to light another 10 burials of a similar kind as in KC I and II, albeit accompanied by some hitherto unknown pottery types. One of these, a large restricted cord-marked bowl with incised decoration and four small solid conical legs, even seems to be a unique type. This site also showed signs of an occupation subsequent to the burials which also produced very special types of pottery.
With regard to nomenclature, however, the second excavations of what was now called Khok Charoen (henceforth KC) II, left the digs of the previous year somewhat in limbo. Although these first were only test-excavations, conducted (regrettably, in hindsight) using less rigorous methods of recording than those applied to subsequent excavations at the site and only summarily, albeit immediately, published (Watson and Loofs 1967), they now had to be by necessity designated as KC I and integrated into the general archaeology of the site under this name. The finds of KC I, like those of KC II, were shipped to London for study and the preparation of further reports or articles (Watson 1968; Loofs and Watson 1970) and were eventually reported in as much detail as possible, together with the finds of KC II, in the form of an unpublished PhD thesis, University of London (Ho 1984). The excavation campaigns of KC I and II were under the direction of William Watson, with the assistance of the writer.
The first (1966) season of the TBAE was originally conceived as one of reconnaissance, tests and trial excavations in order to determine which site(s) should be further excavated during the remaining four seasons. In the circumstances, this seemed to be the best way to proceed but in the case of Khok Charoen it turned out to be an unfortunate decision for the following reasons. Expecting initially to find a settlement, the lay-out of a grid of four 4 x 4 m cuttings was calculated to straddle the small promontory where the human bones had been found, not so much with the aim of eventually excavating the entire promontory but to ascertain the nature of the archaeological remains there or rather, to make sure that this was not a habitation but a burial site, in which case we would have to dig for the former elsewhere.
This excavation demonstrated therefore that the search for a large settlement in the immediate vicinity of the three (or possibly more) burial grounds was perhaps doomed to failure as such a settlement – if there was one at all – could well have been far outside the perimeter of those cemeteries or the bodies to be buried may have come from various smaller settlements nearby; the pattern may also have changed over time. The answer to these questions could only have been provided by a wide-ranging survey with numerous test excavations for which there was neither time nor funding available.
When it became clear, after the excavation of three cuttings (and the beginnings of a fourth) in which five burials at shallow depth were discovered, that this promontory was indeed a burial ground (we were unaware then of signs of habitation in addition to the burials), and also because of lack of time, it was decided to leave this test-excavation at that. The decision was taken to fill the cuttings in and to focus the following year on the excavation of a shallow mound nearby on which a concentration of surface finds of potsherds and stone adzes but no human bones could be observed, in the hope of discovering the habitation site associated with the cemetery.
As disappointing as this realisation may have been, it helped us to make up our minds as to how to wind up excavations at Khok Charoen within the framework of the TBAE. What we could not see during the original test-excavation on the promontory (KC I) but what became more and more apparent during the provisional evaluation of the finds from KC II and III, was that
This second (1967) season of the TBAE was entirely devoted to the excavation of this mound, about 150 m 11
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand although these two latter sites yielded highly original pottery types, some of those from KC I seemed still more sophisticated. It was therefore decided to conclude excavations at Khok Charoen by completing as far as possible the original grid of the three excavated cuttings of KC I and thus to integrate KC I into KC IV.
archaeologist working in the field to explain the manner of handling this material to obtain the maximum of information from it. This means not only its dating according to the best available techniques but also much work using the old-fashioned "archaeological" methods, especially when dealing with decorated vessels and with typology. The starting point for establishing the pottery typology for KC III and IV was the often made observation that, in spite of the absence of bronze in Khok Charoen, its pottery showed a remarkable similarity to that of Non Nok Tha on the eastern side of the Phetchabun Range at about 250 km to Northeast, where bronze was already present at the same time (e.g. Watson 1968: 304; Bayard 1979: 27; Solheim 1969b: 37; Ho 1984, I: 130). It has even been argued that for this reason Khok Charoen should simply be called a Bronze Age site, albeit one without bronze, a concept which, when applied to a site of this magnitude, does not seem to make much archaeological sense. It was therefore thought appropriate to model the pottery typology after that elaborated by Bayard for Non Nok Tha (Bayard 1984: 91), so as to more clearly show the similarities and differences between the two sites and perhaps to enable us to draw some useful conclusions concerning chronology or relations between the two.
This was, however, possible only during the fifth and last season of the Expedition in 1970, which therefore was the fourth season of excavations at Khok Charoen, or KC IV. Again under the sole direction of the writer, six more 4 x 4 m cuttings were excavated inside the grid laid out in 1966. The result was of course the discovery of more burials as well as more unique pottery types and also so far unique (for Southeast Asia) types of certain stone and bone implements. Like the first two seasons at Khok Charoen, the third and fourth were also immediately published in a preliminary form (Loofs 1970) or integrated into later works on the site as a whole, alone or in its wider context (Loofs 1974; Watson 1979; Loofs-Wissowa 1980, 1997; Higham 2002). The three parts of the site of Khok Charoen have thus been published individually, two at a time or all three together, in various ways: as preliminary reports, articles on different aspects of the site or its finds, and even as a PhD-thesis endeavouring to integrate at least one cemetery (KC II) as pars pro toto into the late prehistory of Thailand. The purpose and scope of the present work is to bring these different strands together so as to present a more all-encompassing account (with special reference to its pottery) of the whole site between Stone- and Bronze-"Ages" and to see it in the context of the wider world in space and time, including the traces it left in contemporary societies of present Thailand and neighbouring countries.
After some trial runs, Bayard opted in the end for a morphological classification "to avoid functional inferences" (Bayard 1984: 90), following in this what had already been said about such a system as the only one which can be applied cross-culturally (Ericson and Stickel 1973: 357), i.e. taking into account that the function of a vessel can be independent from its form and is often unknown or only guessed when dealing with other cultures or with prehistoric pottery. A morphological classification consisting in the division of the pottery into broad classes according to the basic shape of the pot (rim, body, base, foot etc.) and subdivided into types was thus also adopted for Khok Charoen with some modifications and additions. Whereas Bayard arrived at a total of 38 types (in 6 classes) for 799 vessels (Bayard 1984: 90-91), the Khok Charoen classification had to be enlarged to 48 types (in 6+2 classes) for 179 (burial pots KC III-IV) + 28 (ceramic burials KC IV) + 237 (all pots KC II), i.e. 444 pots altogether, without counting the undefined number of pots in Classes 5 and 6 as well as only virtually restored vessels in the category of Special and Unique Pottery. The addition of two classes and ten types was due to the necessity of having to accommodate a greater number of vessel types in Khok Charoen as a result of more diverse outside influences than in Non Nok Tha. It has to be noted that numbers given by Ho (1984, I: 130) to support the affinity of both sites are only those available to her from the analysis of finds of KC II and before the publication of Bayard's definitive count as discussed above.
However, the way in which the excavations of the site were done, going from a trial dig to two other cemeteries and back to the further excavation of the trial site, meant that little attention was paid at that stage to the chronology of the site as a whole. All that was known was that it straddled a long discontinuity caused by an inundation. Only during the study of the excavated material did the internal chronological sequence emerge, inasmuch as Khok Charoen II, initially considered to be the main part of the site, was only its last stage, whereas the beginning and the most important phase of it were Khok Charoen III and IV. As in the case of the present report it makes sense to present the history of the site from its beginning up to its end, the chapters on the latter two phases precede the description of Khok Charoen II.
The main difficulty in comparing the pottery assemblages of Non Nok Tha and pre-Discontinuity Khok Charoen in a meaningful way lies in the quantitative and also qualitative difference of their constituent parts. Without considering KC II, the comparable Khok Charoen assemblage consists of only
1.6 Introductory Note Concerning Pottery Pottery, and in particular burial pottery, being the most significant and telling category of finds in late Neolithic and early Metal Age sites, it appears incumbent on the 12
Background to the Research two components: pots in human burials and, above them, pots in ceramic burials. Both groups (burial pottery of KC III and KC IV, with 179 pots on one side and single vessel- and vessel cluster ceramic burials with 28 pots on the other) have within themselves enough in common to be treated as a unit (e.g. a great percentage of pots in human burials are the same in these two Khok Charoen cemeteries and the vessels in the ceramic burials share the same style of decoration) but can be divided into classes and types according to shape or decorative motifs.
scrutinised more closely another picture emerges. Out of 799 pots in Non Nok Tha (Bayard 1984: 91), there are 234 pots of Class 2, i.e. not far from one-third – and if the 84 pots of Class 4 (which can also be seen as Class 2 with other rims) are added – almost half of the entire assemblage. In Khok Charoen, there are only the fragments of 12 Class 2 pots out of 444 comparable vessels, i.e. a mere 5% of this assemblage; moreover, the origin of seven out of these twelve Class 2 pots is not known: they could have been stray finds or imports. In other words, an entire very important class of pottery, characteristic for one site, is simply missing in the other site, whereas the most important type of burial-only pottery in Khok Charoen, the 88 medium/large red-slipped footed bowls on a more or less high pedestal Type 4A, almost iconic for this site, is only represented by the five un-slipped pots of Type 4B in Non Nok Tha (one possibly slipped, Solheim 1980: pl. IVc). This kind of difference seems to go beyond what can be expected to exist between two ceramic-producing societies as those of Khok Charoen and Non Nok Tha to still be called "remarkably similar" although there is undeniably a "family likeness" linking the two. The degree of contemporaneity between them has to be determined mainly by other factors such as the similarity between the large pots decorated with incised-and-impressed motifs in Khok Charoen and Non Nok Tha. The consequences of a reordering of the archaeology of the Indochinese Peninsula on these grounds are discussed in the concluding chapter of the present report, in the section on "Pottery Decoration".
The constituent parts of the Non Nok Tha assemblage of 670 burial pots are shown as the phases of (from the lowest up) "Phu Wiang", "Early Non Nok Tha", and "Late Non Nok Tha" (Bayard 1984: 92, Table 2). In this chart the relative numerical importance of 27 vessel types in these three phases represented by at least five specimens is surveyed with the result that the great majority of types of Early and Late Non Nok Tha occur in both phases which can therefore be considered as one single constituent part to be compared with the (human) burial pottery of Khok Charoen III and IV. The situation is different with regard to the Phu Wiang phase where eight of its 11 types also occur in one or the other of the Non Nok Tha phases but three types are exclusive to the Phu Wiang phase, namely (Bayard's typology): 1A (a medium-sized globular bowl), 4A (a small hemispheric bowl with ring-foot) and 1B (a very large globular bowl with incised-and-pricked decoration on the upper body). However, while Types 1A and 4A would fit quite well into the Non Nok Tha phases (Solheim and Ayres 1979: 64), type 1B, represented by five vessels (but only three with incised-and-impressed decoration), is so different from the rest of the types that it must be seen as a constituent part in its own right which could be compared with the pots in the ceramic burials in Khok Charoen with which, according to their decoration, they must be contemporaneous. The comparisons between Khok Charoen and Non Nok Tha pottery styles is shown at Table 1.1. KHOK CHAROEN CERAMIC BURIALS KC IV KC III
NB: to give a rough idea of the maximum size (height or width, as the case may be) of these vessels in the context of Thai prehistoric pottery, the comparative terms "small" (up to 10 cm), "medium" (10-15 cm), "large" (15-30 cm), "very large" (30-50 cm) and "huge" (50+ cm) are used in their summary description throughout the report. The size of cord-markings is given by the number of cords per 1 cm. With regard to the identification of individual pots, two systems are in use. Whereas burial pots are identified by their find numbers, pots or potsherds found in stratified layers are identified by the numbers of the bag in which they were kept (or a letter in a drawing) and which in turn was linked to a register in a site book. As it is not practicable to publish the latter, the numbers on their own do not convey much information, except that those below 2000 refer to KC III and those above to KC IV. Unfortunately, no solution could be found to the problem of how these unintelligible numbers or letters could be transformed into a unified and meaningful system.
NON NOK THA LATE NNT EARLY NNT PHU WIANG (3 POTS)
Table 1.1, Constituent parts of Khok Charoen and Non Nok Tha pottery assemblages The differences between vessel types in human burials in Non Nok Tha (without Type 1B) and Khok Charoen (including KC II) may seem relatively unimportant, consisting mainly of a far greater number of pots in Class 2 in Non Nok Tha than in Khok Charoen, different shapes of vessels in Class 4 where footed bowls have pedestals in one and low ring-feet in the other site, and a different composition of Class 6. However, if these differences are
The same considerations apply to the mention of “items”. The following diagrams and listing provide definitions of the various classes, types and sub-types of pots excavated at Khok Charoen III and IV.
13
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand
Illustration 1.1, Images of all pot types found at Khok Charoen III and IV. Images are to allow comparison of shapes, and are not to the same scale.
14
Background to the Research
Class 1: Restricted globular, carinated or elongated bowls.
Illustration 1.2, Images of pot types 1A to 1N Type 1 A: Small globular bowl, slight carination, everted straight rim. Type 1Aa: Large globular bowl, spherical, very slightly pear shaped body. Type 1Ab: Small globular bowl, spherical body, flaring rim. Type 1B: Carinated globular bowl, hemispherical body, everted straight restricted rim. Type 1Ba: Globular bowl. Body inside flattened spherical, outside with slight carination at shoulder. Flaring rim, rounded lip. Type 1Bb: Small globular bowl. Slightly flattened spherical body. Narrow, almost horizontal shoulder; everted, outcurving, restricted rim flattened on top so as to form an everted rounded lip. Type 1C: Medium globular bowl. Body slightly flattened spherical, everted outcurving restricted rim. Type 1Ca: Large globular bowl. Almost spherical body. Flaring rim with pointed lip. Type 1Cb: Medium globular bowl. Body spherical, upper part truncated conical. Everted outcurving restricted rim. Type 1D Medium-sized globular bowl. Straight out-turned rim. Type 1Ea(?): Large globular bowl of unknown type and shape Type 1F: Carinated globular bowl. Upper body truncated conical, lower body hemispherical. Everted straight restricted rim, rounded on top. Type 1G: Large restricted slightly pear-shaped globular vessels with incised-and-pricked decoration (asymmetrically opposed hanging and standing curved arches, plain or filled-in, on plain or filled-in background) on upper body; lower body cord-marked. Type 1Ga: Large restricted globular vessels with short everted rims, upper part of body decorated with incised curvilinear or geometric motifs; body below finely cord-marked. Type 1H: Very large restricted globular or slightly
pear-shaped vessels, cord-marked throughout Type 1Ha: Very large restricted globular bowl with everted outcurving rim corner articulation, cord-marked throughout. Type 1I : Large restricted slightly flattened globular vessel with incised-and-pricked decoration (standing empty pointed arches on empty background) on upper body; lower body cord-marked. Type 1Ia Large to very large restricted moderately flattened globular vessel with incised-and-pricked decoration (standing empty curved arches on empty background) on upper body; lower body cord-marked. Type 1Ib: Large restricted globular bowl, everted outcurving plain rim; pointed lip decorated with a continuous row (about 200) of small impressed notches. Surface treatment of body not known. Type 1J: Large restricted slightly flattened globular vessel with high everted outcurving rim of about 1/4 the height of entire pot and incised-and-pricked decoration (standing empty curved arches on partly empty background) on upper body; lower body cord-marked. Type 1Ja: Very large to huge restricted globular vessels with high everted outcurving rim of only about 1/6 the height of entire pot; cord-marked throughout. Type 1Jb: Very large restricted slightly pear-shaped globular vessel with high everted straight rim of about 1/6 the height of entire pot and incised-and-pricked decoration (standing empty arches on empty background) on upper body; lower body cord-marked. Type 1Jc: Large restricted globular bowl, everted straight rim, stepped outside. Surface treatment of body not known. Type 1K : Huge globular bowl. Spherical body, everted straight restricted rim, rounded on top. Type 1Ka: Large restricted spherical vessel with short everted straight rim, red slip inside rim and even further down inside body and sometimes outside as well. Body cord-marked throughout, with three or four smoothed horizontal bands over the cord-markings at shoulder.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Type 1Kb: Large restricted spherical vessels with short everted straight rim, red slip inside rim; deep groove at rim/body juncture. Type 1L: Large restricted flattened globular vessels with high direct collar-rim and incised-and-pricked decoration on both rim and upper body (rim: symmetrically opposed hanging and standing filled-in arches on empty background with filled-in lentil-shaped inserts; upper body: filled-in ovals, curvilinear motifs or the "windmill"-motif on empty background; sometimes a band below with filled-in standing low curved arches or lentil-shaped motifs on empty background); lower body cord-marked. Type 1M: Very large restricted elongated pear-shaped vessels with low everted straight rim on horizontal shoulder platform; incised-and-pricked decoration (symmetrically opposed hanging and standing filled-in arches on empty background with filled-in lentil-shaped inserts) on upper quarter of body; lower 3/4 cord-marked. Type 1Ma: Very large restricted elongated pear-shaped vessels with everted straight rim and rounded shoulder; incised-and-pricked decoration (symmetrically opposed hanging and standing filled-in curved arches on empty background with filled-in oval inserts or other filled-in geometrical forms on empty background) on upper third, or less, of body; remainder cord-marked. Type 1Mb: Very large restricted gourd-shaped vessel with low but large everted straight rim, almost
horizontal shoulder platform and sharp carination; between shoulder and the onset of lower globular part of body incised-and-pricked decoration in the form of two large horizontally rectangular fields filled-in "windmill"-like motifs on empty background; lower body cord-marked. Type 1N: Very large to huge restricted pear-shaped vessel with elongated vertical direct rim and incised-and-pricked decoration on rim, shoulder and upper body (rim and shoulder: bands of zigzag-lines, upper body: filled-in standing curved arches on empty background or different geometrical forms); lower body cord-marked. Type 1Na: Very large to huge restricted pear-shaped vessel with elongated vertical direct rim (?) and incised-and-pricked decoration on rim and shoulder (rim: wide filled-in bands, shoulder: symmetrically opposed hanging and standing filled-in low curved arches on empty background with filled-in diamond-shaped inserts); body below shoulder cord-marked. Type 1Nb: Very large to huge restricted pear-shaped vessel, elongated rim with outside bulbous pointed upright lip. Ochre ware, burnished inside and outside. Six incised horizontal grooves inside upper part of rim, from top to 4 cm below. Rim outside plain to shoulder 11 cm below top. Body from shoulder down coarsely (4:10) diagonally cord-marked (left leaning).
Class 2: Restricted globular or carinated bowls with ring foot
Illustration 1.3, Images of pot types 2A to 2C Type 2A : Small globular bowl with ring-foot. Body slightly flattened spherical. Rim only slightly everted (almost vertical), rounded lip. Ring-foot everted, rounded base, worked out of lower body. Type 2Aa: Small ring-footed globular bowl. Spherical body. Wide mouth, small flaring rim. Type 2Ab: Medium-sized ring-footed vessel. Body almost spherical with slight carination at equator. Straight upturned direct rim, rounded lip. Ring-foot truncated conical with rounded base, added on to bottom of bowl after cord-marking Type 2Ac: Large restricted globular bowl, slightly upturned direct rim with pointed lip. Low ring-foot. Buff ware. Inside burnished, outside (and inside rim to 0.5 cm below top) covered with brick-red slip. Type 2B: Large or very large restricted globular vessels with conical shoulder part, almost horizontal rim
platform and high direct collar-rim. Incised-and-pricked decoration on shoulder (alternate square and horizontally rectangular fields filled with the "windmill"- and the "Opposed Human Figure"-motif [Higham 2004] or only the latter); lower body cord-marked. Ring-foot. Type 2B: Large or very large restricted globular vessels with conical shoulder part, almost horizontal rim platform and high direct collar-rim. Incised-and-pricked decoration on shoulder (alternate square and horizontally rectangular fields filled with the "windmill"- and the "Opposed Human Figure"-motif [Higham 2004] or only the latter); lower body cord-marked. Ring-foot. Type 2C: Very large restricted spherical vessel with vertical direct collar-rim and incised-and-pricked decoration on rim (symmetrically opposed filled-in
16
Background to the Research arches on empty background with filled-in lentil-shaped inserts) and upper third of body (asymmetrically opposed "Opposed Human Figures" on empty background, with band of filled-in standing arches on empty background below); lower 2/3 of body cord-marked. Added ring-foot. Type 2Ca: Very large restricted cylindrical vessel with
vertical direct collar-rim, narrow near-horizontal rim platform. Rim plain; incised-and-pricked decoration on upper 2/3 of body (geometricalised empty "Opposed Human Figures"-motifs on filled-in background, on two superimposed registers); lower third of body cord-marked. Ring-foot.
Class 3: Slightly restricted globular or carinated bowls or dishes
Illustration 1.4, Images of pot types 3A to 3E Type 3A: Very large globular bowl, inverted direct rim covered with red slip. Body vertically cord-marked. Type 3Aa: Medium to large globular bowl, slightly convex inverted direct rim covered with red slip. Body vertically cord-marked. Type 3Ab: Medium to large truncated flattened globular bowl, inverted direct rim covered with red slip. Body plain Type 3B: Medium to large globular bowl, softly everted direct rim, sometimes covered with red slip, continuous with body outside and slightly concave inside. Body
cord-marked below rim. Type 3Ba: Large to very large globular bowl, outcurving direct rim. Rim and body plain. Type 3C : Small globular bowl. Hemispherical body. Direct rim, slightly flattened on top. Type 3Ca: Small globular bowl. Heavy spherical body. Slightly inturned rim producing a small carination; rim pointed on top, very slightly rounded. Type 3E: Small shallow bowl. Direct rim at carination. Type 3Ea: Small shallow dish. Body shallow spherical segment with vertical incurving unrestricted rim.
Class 4: Footed (pedestal) bowls
Illustration 1.5, Images of pot types 4A to 4O Type 4A: Large footed bowl. Straight conical truncated body, upturned rounded rim, foot conical but slightly bumpy. Type 4Aa: Large footed bowl. Upturned almost direct rounded rim. Nearly hemispherical body. Relatively small foot with out-turned rim. Type 4Ab: Large footed bowl. Almost hemispherical body with direct rim. Foot conical slightly concave. Type 4Ac: Footed bowl. Straight conical truncated shallow body. Upturned rounded rim flattened on top. Foot straight conical truncated. Type 4C: Large footed bowl. Straight conical truncated body, upturned rounded rim, conical truncated foot.
Type 4Ca: Medium footed bowl. Body shallow hemispherical inside with an additional dish-like depression in the centre of the bottom; outside carinated to mark the beginning of a slightly convex and slightly inverted rim. Wide convex foot with down-turned rounded base. Type 4D: Medium-sized footed bowl. In-turned slightly concave rim. Shallow almost hemispherical body. Foot conical with cylindrical upper part and a few bumps in the lower part. Type 4E: Footed bowl. Shallow near-hemispheric body. Up- and incurving rim, marked by a rounded carination. Truncated conical slightly convex foot. Type 4Ea: Footed bowl. Shallow dish-like
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand hemispherical body. Upturned rim with bulbous lip. Truncated conical foot with slightly everted rounded base. Type 4Eb: Footed bowl. Truncated conical body. Upturned rim, rounded on top. Flaring truncated conical foot. Type 4F: Large footed bowl. Almost hemispherical shallow body. Up- and slightly inturned rim, flattened on top. Foot truncated conical with out-turned base. Type 4Fa: Large footed bowl with shallow bowl, vertical slightly incurving rim forming a soft carination and small outcurving lip. Foot presumably low and wide. Body (and foot?) cord-marked, top of rim (and inside body?) covered with red slip. Type 4Fb: Medium footed bowl with shallow bowl and vertical slightly outcurving rim forming a moderate carination. Body cord-marked from carination down. Foot 1/3 of body height. Type 4G: Footed bowl. Almost hemispherical body. Direct rim, rounded on top. Foot conical, slightly convex and flaring. Type 4Ga: Large footed bowl with deep bowl and slightly incurving rim with further incurving rounded lip. Body cord-marked. Foot 1/3 of body height Type 4H: Footed bowl. Shallow curved body. Rounded incurving rim, rounded lip. Rounded everted outcurving foot, rounded base. Type 4I: Very large footed bowl with almost hemispherical shallow body, vertical slightly inverted direct rim and high pedestal foot about half the hight of entire pot; body cord-marked. Type 4Ia: Very large to huge footed bowl with shallow bowl, vertical pointed direct rim and high pedestal foot
about half the height of the entire vessel; plain. Type 4J: Large footed bowl. Hemispherical body. Slightly inverted direct rim, pointed but with rounded edge. Large, slightly concave flaring foot. Type 4Ja: Footed bowl. Funnel-shaped body. Vertical incurving rim, top slightly inverted, rounded lip. Foot concave flaring. Type 4K: Large to very large footed bowls with shallow undecorated bowls covered with dark red slip inside and outside. High and wide pedestal feet, outside also covered with dark red slip, with incised-and-pricked decoration (upper part: filled-in rows; middle part: filled-in symmetrically opposed hanging and standing flat curved arches on empty background with filled-in lentil-shaped inserts; lower part: filled-in standing curved arches on empty background or similar arrangements). Type 4L: Very large footed bowl with shallow bowl, vertical incurving unrestricted rim and high pedestal foot, presumably about half the height of the entire vessel; probably plain. Type 4M: Large footed bowl with shallow bowl, slightly incurving rim with "nail-shaped" lip and pedestal foot of unknown height Type 4N: Large footed bowl with very shallow bowl, direct rim, "nail-shaped" lip with incised decoration on top; pedestal foot probably higher than half the height of the entire vessel. Type 4O: Very (?) large footed bowl with shallow bowl, vertical outcurving unrestricted rim, rounded lip; pedestal foot of unknown height. (does not occur in KC IV).
Class 5: Unrestricted flat-bottomed bowls or dishes
Illustration 1.6, Images of pot types 5A to 5C Type 5A: Large shallow bowls, direct rim, hemispherical truncated body and flat bottom, decorated with an appliqué (or raised) band a few cm below rim. Type 5B: Small bowl with flat base. Body truncated hemispherical with everted slightly outcurving direct
rim, rounded on top. Base slightly concave. Type 5C: Small shallow bowl with flat base. Dish-like body with everted direct rim, rounded on top. Base perfectly flat
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Background to the Research
Class 6: Unrestricted heavy thick-walled bowls and dishes (6A-6C) and urn-like vessels with circular hole in bottom (6D)
Illustration 1.7, Images of pot types 6A to 6D Type 6A: Huge unrestricted almost hemispherical bowl with vertical direct rim. Body cord-marked from 1-2 cm below rim down. Type 6B: Large unrestricted bowl with vertical direct rim; upper body almost cylindrical, lower body hemispherical. Body cord-marked throughout, inside possibly burnished. Type 6D: Large unrestricted deep vertically semi-elliptical bowl with pre-fired circular hole at bottom. Vertical direct rim. Body inside polished, outside cord-marked. Type 6Da: Large unrestricted deep inverted conical bowl with pre-fired circular hole at bottom. Very slightly everted direct rim with small
carination/shoulder underneath. Body inside polished, outside cord-marked from below shoulder down. Type 6Db: Large slightly restricted spherical bowl with pre-fired circular hole at bottom. Everted rim, marked inside body by a slight carination. Red slip on top of rim. Body inside polished, outside cord-marked. (Only found in KC II and IV) Type 6Dc: Very large unrestricted deep hemispherical bowl with cylindrical upper body. Pre-fired hole in round bottom. Direct vertical rim with slight carination/shoulder underneath. Red slip on flat top and outside rim. Body inside smoothed, outside cord-marked. (Only found in KC II)
Class 7: Carinated unrestricted bowls
Illustration 1.8, Images of pot types 7A to 7B
Type 7A: Large restricted carinated bowl with short everted straight rim; shoulder decorated with a continued incised zig-zag line on empty background. Shallow lower body plain.
Type 7b: Footed bowl (bowl only). Carinated deep bowl. Shallow dish-like body. High concave rim. Form of foot not known (presumably truncated conical with outcurve base).
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Class 8: Large restricted tetrapod bowls
Illustration 1.9, Image of pot type 8A Type 8A: Very large restricted composite tetrapod vessel. Lower body hemispherical, above shoulder concave-inflected. Out-turned rounded rim. Four short (3
cm) solid horn-like feet grow out of the round bottom of the vessel in a quadrangular formation at about 14 cm distance from each other.
Photograph 1.3, Condition of the Khok Charoen site before clearance for excavation. The hills of Khao Hang Talat are visible in the background.
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CHAPTER 2 Khok Charoen III 2.1 Topography and Excavation Method
and a lower soil separated by a discontinuity, associated almost certainly with a prolonged gap in the occupational sequence. This discontinuity (initially called "disconformity") could have been the result of either a general dramatic increase in rainfall which reversed local soil accretion to erosion for an unascertainable period, or the result of forest and scrub clearance which set off a phase of local erosion lasting until the natural balance was restored (Watson 1979: 55). No definite answer to this question could at that time be found but, given the fact that in KC IV water flows were found to have been powerful enough to carry entire skeletons or bodies over a distance of metres of bumpy terrain, a natural cataclysm (e.g. a flood or floods) seems to be the most likely explanation. Whatever the reason for it, this Discontinuity which disrupted human activity on the site for a lengthy period turned out to be essential for the relative dating of the different parts of the site.
The shallow hillock on which the excavation was carried out stretches from the KC I site (the promontory) in the northeast – the highest point – to the depression separating it in the southwest from the mound of the KC II excavation. It is bordered on its western side at a distance of about 100 m by the stream which, more to the north, forms the KC I promontory and to the east by a stream-bed without water during the dry season which contours the mound to the south at about 150 m from its centre and then turns to the north to join the main stream again. During the wet season the expanse of the KC I/IV and KC III mounds is thus an oblong island the centre of which is formed by the flat top of the latter with a slight depression of about 25 m in diameter in its centre. So as to maximise the coverage of this central part, a north-oriented grid of six 4 x 4 m cuttings (i.e. 5 x 5 m, leaving 1 m wide baulks) towards north and west was pegged out to deliniate a core area of 16 cuttings for initial excavation, leaving enough room for an enlargement of four more cuttings in all directions. Unfortunately, because of a miscalculation due to inexperience, lack of time prevented us from excavating all but ten of these cuttings (three only to a depth to allow us to check for post-holes) and also from taking the baulks down entirely; they were only partly excavated in order to free certain burials or individual finds. We were therefore left with an unfinished excavation which may give a clear picture of only some individual burials but does not allow statistical analysis of a wider kind. This would, however, have been the case even if those six other cuttings had been excavated as it is clear that the KC III burial ground extended well beyond the limits of even the larger grid, possibly over the top of the mound.
While the expanse of a few hundred square metres on which the three excavated areas are situated was submitted to the same climatic conditions and showed the same basic geological configuration, the individual parts of the site presented nevertheless a somewhat dissimilar stratigraphy. The test excavation of KC I did not yield any detailed information about local soils and layers apart from the recognition of the Discontinuity and the consequent division into three main soil formations: 1. Topsoil, 2. Stony brown earth, 3. Basal limy earth (Watson and Loofs 1967: 249); a more complete sequence of soils and layers could only be worked out during the excavation of KC II. This sequence was the only model we had when beginning the KC III excavations but it soon became evident that there were discrepancies between KC II and III concerning both pre- and post-Discontinuity soils which had to be interpreted in such a way that a meaningful comparison became possible while preserving the individuality of each part of the site. As Watson was present only at the excavations of KC I and II, he had to rely on observations by the excavators of KC III for the compilation of his interpretation of the KC III soils, notably R.H. Parker who had previously participated in the excavations of Non Nok Tha and was therefore well placed to compare the two sites. (Non Nok Tha, on the other side of the Phetchabun Range at about 250 km to NE and in part contemporaneous with Khok Charoen, shows many similarities with the latter but has bronze). This assistance was duly acknowledged (Watson 1979: 62, note).
2.2 Soils An interpretation of the soils of KC I - III has already been published (Watson 1979) although its author stresses the tentative nature of it and of some of the resulting interpretations. The following therefore mainly consists of a summary of relevant parts of this article with such revisions regarding the nomenclature of soils/layers or the position of cultural artefacts in them as have become necessary after study of the excavated material. Watson makes three fundamental observations valid for all excavated parts of the site, namely that the bedrock is limestone at most a metre below the present surface and exposed at places; that the soils over it consist of limy gravels passing irregularly into humus; and that there is in all three sections of the site a distinction between an upper
With regard to KC III, Watson recognised four layers of soils A (upper soils), i.e. Layers I-IV, and also four of soils B (lower, pre-Discontinuity soils), i.e. Layers V-VIII. Table 2.1 summarises these soil layers.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Soils A
1.Layer I. 2. Layer II. 3. Layers III, IV.
bedrock fractured into irregular lumps.
Recent disturbance in currently forming humic soil OCCUPATION Heavy black soil OCCUPATION post holes Dark soil, splitting on drying OCCUPATION post holes
NB: Contributions to the above descriptions by B. E. Butler (CSIRO), R.H. Parker (U of Otago) and J. Reid (Geology student, ANU) are gratefully acknowledged.
Disconformity ----------------------------------------------------------------Soils B
4. Layer V Layer VI
5. Layer VII 6. Layer VIII
Discussion
Fine gravelly soil. Burials with red pedestal bowl, etc. and incised-and-pricked bowls Fine gravelly soil Burials with red pedestal bowls, etc but no bowls with incised-and-pricked ornaments. sterile natural
At the time of the excavation the central part of the mound was covered with the remains of a harvested mixed millet and maize field which, when cleared, revealed an almost black granular topsoil strewn with countless cobbles or fragments thereof, with diameters of about 10 to 40 cm, of a brownish-greyish gritty matter which was recognised as ancient lava from the once volcanic part of the lower Luang Prabang Range. According to local residents, this particular field had already been ploughed five times with both disk- and ordinary tractor-drawn ploughs which means that theoretically the topsoil could be disturbed down to 25 cm. However, in actual fact the disturbed topsoil layer was rarely more than 10 cm thick (probably because the lava lumps which had never been cleared away had prevented deeper penetration) but while the difference between it and the undisturbed topsoil was quite distinct, that between the latter and what was first thought to be layer {2} was gradual and blurred to such an extent that no clear line could be drawn between the two. It became evident then that this entire layer of black and sticky humic soils was one uninterrupted deposit of {2} which was much thicker than in the other excavated parts of the site, corresponding to Watson's "Layer II", whereas Watson's "Layers III, IV" became our layer {3} which was clearly distinct from the layer above. Since there was no trace of soil {3A} in KC III (i.e. the soil, initially called {3}, which existed only in some pits or hollows in KC I/IV where it did not show up in any section but was present as a distinct layer in KC II), the interface of layer {3} with the following discernibly different layer constitutes the Discontinuity divide and this next layer below (Watson's "Layer V") would become soil {4}.
Table 2.1, Distribution of soil layers KC III Having found out that the numbers given to soils during the excavation of KC III were according to what we expected them to be to conform with KC II but not to the different reality of KC III itself, it became necessary to adapt the original classification to that elaborated by Watson. Some of Parker's denominations (Parker 1968) are added in [-]; new numbers in {-}. Soils A [Upper Black. Strong resemblance to Soil II at Non Nok Ta (NP7). May have developed under conditions of repeated flooding with deposition of silt.]. 1. Layer I [Upper zone] = {1} : Disturbed topsoil; black (2.5Y3/0) medium clay with about 2% 0.2-2 cm calcium carbonate concretions ("lime specks"). 2. Layer II [Middle zone] = {2} : Lower topsoil; very heavy, sticky and hard to cut. [Freshly cut surfaces show brown and glossy. Moulds readily between fingers. Breaks in rectangular blocks 10-15 cm across on drying.] Dark grey (2.5Y4/0) medium clay with about 2% 0.5 cm lime specks. 3. Layers III, IV [Lower zone] = {3} : Identical soil but crumbly on drying. [Breaks into small blocks up to 5 cm across on drying.] Dark grey (2.5Y4/0) heavy clay with about 15% 0.5-1 cm lime specks, becoming more brittle and with greater concentration of lime specks with depth.
However, the distinction between "Layer V" and "Layer VI" within the same Soil {4}, on the grounds that the former contained burials with bowls with incised-and-pricked decoration whereas the latter did not have such bowls, was found not to be supported by the evidence and was therefore abandoned and the layers were identified with the soils. Furthermore, later comparison with KC IV made clear that in its structure and character this soil was practically identical with soil {5} in KC IV (and KC II), i.e. the soil directly above bedrock, and very different from soil {4} in KC IV which was there interposed between the Discontinuity and that soil {5}. We realised then that this {4} was a local soil, absent in the other excavated parts of the site, that in KC III the sequence went from {3} to {5} and {6}, that there was only one pre-Discontinuity burial layer in KC III which was in these last two soils. The burials were all lying directly on or in bedrock but a difference can be made between the earlier North-oriented ones which are covered
------------------------Discontinuity------------------------Soils B {Limestone and derivatives}: 4. Layers V and VI = {5} : A layer of lime concentrated gravelly material derived by normal weathering processes from bedrock on which it lays [Grey material, finely divided but still gritty. Fewer and generally smaller limestone lumps.] Grey (2.5Y5/1) heavy clay with about 60% 0.5-2 cm lime specks in brown gravelly matrix. 5. Layers VII and VIII = {6} : Disintegrated natural
22
Khok Charoen III with a layer of {6} (except for Burials 1a, 7, and 8, where the situation is not clear) and the slightly later East-oriented Burials covered by pure {5}, except for the double Burial 9 which, according to its pottery, could be as old as the earlier burials.
describing them, the following system is used. In an initial paragraph the main features of the burial are summarised, including situation, skeletal remains (condition, age, sex, height), position, orientation, depth and soils (numbers in {-}). The next section deals with personal adornments, followed by that on burial goods (pottery, stone adzes, others). To conclude, stone settings are listed. "Find"-numbers follow the same pattern, always starting with the head (or beyond head) and going down to the feet and beyond. Stones are not considered "Finds" but are numbered separately.
2.3 The Human Burials Description and Discussion Before describing and discussing the individual burials of KC III, the pertinent question has to be asked: what exactly constitutes, in the context of this excavation, a "Burial"? While in normal circumstances, i.e. with well-preserved skeletons, grave goods and perhaps coffins, this question is superfluous, but in situations where, due to soil conditions, erosion or other natural or man-made agents, preservation is poor, coffins have not been used and skeletons have been dislocated, the question of what finds are signs of a burial may legitimately be asked. It is tempting to argue that there must at least be sufficient skeletal remains to determine the approximate size of the body, its position and its orientation – but these are criteria which leave out bodies or body parts found away from their original burials. On the other hand, there are instances where preserved grave goods may indicate size, position or orientation of a vanished or hidden skeleton and there are also cases where it cannot be determined whether the remains were those of an intentionally buried individual or an abandoned body. Thus, compromises had sometimes to be made in identifying a burial or indeed in broadening the category "burial" to include any human skeletal material found during the excavations, and giving it a number. During the process of excavating, a burial number is allocated as soon as the first sign of a possible burial appears, be it a pot or bone fragments. However, this number will be in the inventory until such time as it becomes clear whether this really is an interment or not and whether therefore this number should be retained, transferred to another burial or simply dropped.
According to the wishes of the late Professor Sood Sangvichien MD, Faculty of Medicine, Siriraj Hospital, Thonburi, it was agreed that he would take possession of the human skeletal material excavated at KC III with a view of their anatomical study. Consequently, Dr Sood and his assistants came to the site towards the end of the excavation season to clean and lift the exposed skeletons left in situ and to take the material back to Bangkok (i.e. skeletons of Burials 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, and the upper body of Burial 8). The subsequently excavated skeletal material (legs of Burial 8 and the entire skeleton of Burial 9) was delivered by the writer to Dr Sood at Siriraj Hospital immediately after the excavations. At the occasion of a stop-over in Bangkok some time later, the writer picked up Dr Sood's report which he had just finished. When reading it, however, it became clear that a mix-up with burials from other sites must have occurred as the numbers of the burials in the report only partly corresponded to those given to burials at KC III. This is quite understandable as Dr Sood's team was working simultaneously at several different sites in Thailand at that time, a fact which created ample opportunity for confusion. Ho suspects that some of the KC I skeletons had been mixed with those of KC III and reported together with them (1984, I: 20); however, this assumption could not be confirmed. Thus, after thorough checking it appeared that only three burials of KC III could be matched with those in the report, i.e. Burials 2 (= 1 in the report), 4 and 9 (= same in the report), while the others must be from other sites. In two cases (Burials 2 and 7 in the report) red ochre - of which there was no trace in KC III - was prominently mentioned, Burials 1 and 7 in the report cannot refer to these numbers in KC III because there the skeletons of Burials 1 and 7 could not be excavated and another burial ("No Number" in the report) was a jar-burial of which there was none in KC III. In the following description of burials only the skeletons of Burials 2, 4 and 9 can therefore be said to have been examined by Dr Sood, while the assessment of the others (3, 5, 6 and 8) was done according to notes in the field, photographs and drawings. Unfortunately, some miscalculations with regard to estimation of stature according to the Trotter and Gleser method (1952, 1958) seem to have crept into Dr Sood's examinations, resulting in unrealistically high stature estimations for Burial 2 and, by extension, Burial 9; these have been rectified.The following diagram shows the cuttings of site KC III and the location of the burials within the cuttings.
Our strategy in this respect has been to wait until the end of the excavation and of the analysis of the finds to decide one way or the other and to revise the number of burials in accordance with the outcome. In the case of KC III, this resulted in a drastic reduction of the number of confirmed as opposed to that of probable burials; this was to reduce the possibility of misinterpretations but may also have somewhat falsified the real picture. Pots which were clearly burial pots but could not be associated with any confirmed or suspected burial were therefore, with only few exceptions, classified as Non-Attributable Burial Pottery (N.-A.B.P.), which in certain cases could also have been used domestically. Initially, the number of possible burials in the excavated areas of KC III was reckoned as being 13; after closer examination of the material this number was reduced to 9 but after the confirmation of a suspected burial hidden underneath another one, increased again to 10. In 23
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand
Diagram 2.1, Layout of KC III cuttings, and identification of the individual burials referenced below.
24
Khok Charoen III
This burial consists only of a row of pots without a skeleton. However, as these pots are most unlikely to have been interred on their own (no such case is known from anywhere in KC), while there are several examples of burials having as grave goods a row of pots stretching beyond the skull in the direction of the skeleton, it seems justifiable to treat this ensemble as a burial. Situated in the NW-corner of G5, near and almost parallel to the N-baulk, this row of pots shows the orientation of the burial as being roughly head to E. In analogy with other burials showing a similar disposition, a supine position is assumed. As no skeletal remains attributable to this burial could be found under the pots, the skeleton must have been lying in a well-defined c. 30 cm wide and 25 cm deep natural trench in {6}, filled with {5}, clearly visible in the W-section of G5, its bottom at 85 cm b.s. However, if the axis of the line of pots is extended into cutting H5 across the baulk separating H5 and G5, and assuming that pot Find 7 was the last in the row of pots, the skeleton of an adult individual would reach about 50-60 cm into H5 but neither the E- nor the N-section of H5 showed soil disturbances corresponding to a trench. It was therefore surmised at first that this would have been the burial of a child small enough to fit into the 1 m baulk. Only later was it realised that, because of a most unfortunate confusion of the measurement of depths after the lifting of the pots constituting Burial 1 in G5 and the freeing of the skeleton of what had become Burial 2 in H5, we omitted to dig deeper in the NE corner of that cutting where we would almost certainly have found the (adult) skeleton of Burial 1 only about 10 cm further down. Although not proven, to take Burial 1 to be that of an adult individual with the same orientation as the nearby Burials 2 and 6 makes obviously more sense than to see it as a very unusual child-burial.
KC III, Burial 1
Known grave goods comprise 6 pots and one small bowl (Finds 1-7). They are, from E to W, four pots touching each other (Finds 1-4), the first two, both footed bowls, upright but inclined to SE. The third, a globular bowl, upright, and the fourth, also a globular bowl, inclined to NW, standing on the E-edge of an oval stone of 12 cm length (Stone 1 of Burial 1a). The fifth pot, a decorated footed bowl lying on its side with opening to W (Find 5), had its foot resting partly on the W-side of the same stone, indicating that it must originally have stood on it. Between this fifth and the seventh pot, another footed bowl, there was a gap of 60 cm (from foot to foot), in the middle of which, just W of a rectangular stone of 15 cm length (Stone 2 of Burial 1a), a small dish-like bowl was found (Find 6), with its top at 52 cm b.s. a few cm higher than the other pots, leaning against the stone in such a way as to suggest that it, too, was originally placed on this stone. The seventh pot (Find 7) was found upright but tilted to W at the edge of the cutting. These pots and stones were all put on the surface of {6} but filled with/surrounded by {5}. Only at the W-end of the row of pots, at the hight of pot Find 6, is there evidence of a trench in {6} to accommodate this pot and, presumably, the skeleton.
Illustration 2.1, Burial 1 layout
A small fragment of an antler, apparently unworked, found 25
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 10 cm N of Find 6 at 75 cm b.s., i.e. at the level of the base of the pots, has been labelled Find 8 but its association with the burial is not secure.
rim of the tilted pot Find 5, which may mean that the stone came to rest there after the pot became tilted – unless it was originally placed in this footed bowl which seems improbable. This stone is therefore not counted as a Find.
That there was a post-burial disturbance in the area of the pots is indicated by the fact that a 7 cm-long ordinary unworked stone was found lying partly on the inside of the
Photograph 2.1, Burial 1, row of pots beyond “head” of Burial 1, note footed bowl inclined to W.
Photograph 2.2, Footed bowl (Burial 1, Find 5) with disk-shell beads (Burial 1, Find 1) at foot.
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Khok Charoen III In the gap in the row of pots of Burial 1 (between Stone 1 and 2 of Burial 1a) and below the level of the bases of these pots, the suspected presence of another, differently orientated burial was confirmed in the form of very faint traces of human skeletal material, some shell disk beads and a stone adze. As these remains could not be part of Burial 1 and, as at the time of their discovery the skull of Burial 2 had already been found and given that number, this burial had to be called 1a. Its situation is thus also in the NW-quarter of G5, parallel to its W-side and about 60 cm distant from it. The skeletal remains, at 85 cm b.s., were impossible to lift because of being extremely fragmentary, crumbly and even powdery but their outlines allowed the identification as parts of the right ulna and radius and a metacarpal of juvenile or young adult size. Some long-bone parts of the left arm and femur, as well as parts of the hip-girdle are visible only as whitish traces while nothing but small flecks indicate other parts of the lower body. The upper body had to remain in the non-excavated N-baulk. From this evidence a supine position and orientation head to N, can be deduced. To accommodate the body, a shallow trench seems to have been dug into {6}, filled with {5}, passing between Stone 1 and 2. As these stones were at the level of the wrists or lower arms of the skeleton of Burial 1a, it is assumed that they had been placed there to contain this skeleton or to mark the burial. It is thus argued that the row of pots of Burial 1 was placed across and above Burial 1a in such a way that three of these pots (Finds 4, 5 and 7) came to stand on, or partly on, Stone 1 and 2 the tops of which were by then level with the surrounding surface. Subsequent erosion made these stones stick out again, causing the pots to slide down. Both burials were eventually overlaid and sealed by {3}. It is certain, therefore, that Burial 1a is earlier than 1 but how much earlier is unclear as no difference in colour and texture of the soil in which the two burials were laying could be observed.
KC III, Burial 1a
Illustration 2.2, Burial 1a layout
Given the fractional nature of this burial, only two items of material culture could be associated with the skeleton but their association is not entirely secure. A cluster of 24 shell disk-beads of Type a (Find 1), found at the SE-side of Stone 1 and 5 cm lower than the latter, is interpreted as the remnant of a personal adornment carried on the left wrist or lower arm. A small polished stone adze with no signs of use was found 6 cm S of Stone 2 at 89 cm b.s., just below and next to the shadowy bones of the right hand or wrist, possibly placed there on purpose (Find 2). No grave goods and no other stone settings apart from Stones 1 and 2 could be found.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand This was the first skeleton discovered in KC III, but as the grave goods of what had been designated Burial 1 were lifted first, it became Burial 2. Situated at the N-side of H5, parallel to the N-baulk, the fragmentary skeleton was in a supine position, orientated head to E. The skeleton was somewhat jack-knifed with the top of the skull at 68 cm b.s. in {5}; the lowest part of the body (pelvis, slightly turned to left but only small fragments preserved) at 80 cm b.s. in a natural depression in {6}, and the legs up again in {5}. Both feet, all bones of the post-cranial axial skeleton, parts of the pelvis and much of the shoulder-girdle missing. Both arms straight, but supernumerary arm bones crossed over left lower chest; both legs flexed, right one upwards, left one to left. Adult male individual. According to the measurements of the only complete bone of the skeleton, the right femur, the entire skeleton would have had a height of 1.67 m, thus a higher stature than the average hight of males in the area at present. Very worn teeth. Skull 5.5 mm thick at parietal region. Fragments of an additional set of forearm bones and an extra humerus, as well as of an extra femur suggest that more than one body might have been included in this burial (probably also adult male). The fact that one of the humeri also shows bite-marks may explain the disappearance of large parts of the main skeleton and even larger parts of a second one which could have been caused by animals.
KC III, Burial 2
The only items of material culture associated with this burial were parts of personal adornments of the main body: two shell disk-beads Type b next to the skull, with some more adhering to the skull (Find 1), and a fragment of a polished stone bracelet (inner diameter 6.8 cm) near the right wrist of the skeleton which would fit a large individual (Find 2). A fragment of a pig's mandible with two molars in situ (Find 3), found in the pubic region, may possibly have only been a stray find.
Illustration 2.3, Burial 2 layout
Altogether a peculiar burial – if indeed it was a burial – as the body was lying in an unusual position but with the conventional orientation.
Photograph 2.3, Burial 2, side view of skeleton lying in gravelly limestone soil {6}.
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Khok Charoen III This burial is also difficult to interpret. A fairly well preserved complete skeleton was discovered alongside the E-baulk of G5, at about its middle and close to it. It was that of an adult male of above average height (about 1.70 m) with stronger bones and thicker skull than normal, lying in a supine position and orientation with head to N. It had a fallen-in chest, arms stretched out alongside body, left hand missing, but knees flexed and slightly turned to the right. Head tilted back and turned to the left with the jaw gaping open in such a way that the chin was the first part of the skull to show up at 93 cm b.s.; the knee caps were at 82 cm b.s., the lowest part of the pelvis at 1 m b.s., left wrist (near baulk) at 90 cm b.s. and the highest part of the skull (after the jaw) at 92 cm b.s., all in gravelly limestone soil {6} and covered by an about 20 cm thick layer of the same soil. The skeleton was seemingly lying on bedrock itself without signs of a burial pit; an outcrop of hard limestone rubble at the feet of the skeleton may indicate a natural pit or cavity.
KC III, Burial 3
There were no items of personal adornment and no grave goods of any kind. It is therefore questionable whether this is a burial at all; it seems more plausible to surmise that a body had either been left where death had occurred or was unceremoniously laid down in this particular spot. What is surprising, however, is that its orientation and also very nearly its position conform nevertheless to those of other undoubted burials in the same cemetery, e.g. Burial 4 with which it seems be contemporaneous.
llustration 2.4, Burial 3 layout
Photographs 2.4 a) and b), Burial 3, skeleton laying in a gravelly limestone soil {6} at 1 m. b.s., the lowest skeleton in KC III, but not a burial; and Burial 3 from above.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand This is a double burial with additional bones of a third individual, within the confines of a single grave or burial pit. Situated just W of the centre of E6, it has an orientation with head(s) to N. The fairly well preserved or at least recognisable main skeleton is that of an adult woman in supine position, head turned to left, arms outstretched alongside body, the right one slightly flexed vertically, hands turned inward as if holding something. Legs almost straight, twisted to left, right foot turned upwards, left foot missing. The second skeleton, that of a girl in her mid-teens, only consists of parts of the skull (including half of the mandible), both humeri and fragments of lower arm bones as well as both femora and fragments of the tibiae. According to the position of these fragmentary and badly preserved remains, the body of the girl must have been lying, slightly diagonally, ventrally on top of that of the older woman, with her head resting face down behind the left-turned head of the latter. As the left humerus of the older woman was positioned over the right arm of the girl, she seems to have been holding her like in an embrace, supporting her lower back with both hands. The position of the girl's legs is not clear and neither can it be explained how the supernumerary long-bones found their way into this burial and what was their exact position therein. Deep parallel grooves cut into the girl's skull may be related to her untimely death. From the measurements of long-bones the height of the older woman would have been about 1.54 m which is a little above the average of local females at present; the height of the girl is not known. The bodies were deposited in a well recognisable but strangely shaped burial pit dug into {6} and also filled and covered with an about 20 cm thick layer of the same soil.
KC III, Burial 4
There are no signs of personal adornments on or near the two bodies. Common grave goods consist of only three undecorated footed bowls: two upright beyond the heads (Finds 1-2) and another one upside-down on the pelvic region but on top of both skeletons (Find 3). The position of Find 1 (foot upright but body broken off and its sherds moved to E) and 2 (originally upright but found tilted to S and partly covered by the sherds of the body of Find 1) indicate a disturbance between them and the head, either at the time of interment or sometime thereafter. Finds 4 (part of cord-marked bowl between Find 2 and skull), 5 (sherd from another such bowl on lower right chest), 6 (small sherd from yet another cord-marked bowl near right clavicle) and 7 (small sherd from a differently cord-marked vessel found under the E-rim of upside-down pot Find 3), all seem to attest to a massive post-burial disturbance which swept away, presumably in a W-E direction, much of the upper part of this burial between skull and lower body, leaving behind remnants of various pots which had been in contact with this exposed burial without having been part of it. Find 8, a stone axe or adze, is mentioned in the report by Dr Sood Sangvichien as having been found with the skeleton but its exact location is unknown. Find 9 is a snail shell found amongst the sherds of Find 1 but its association with the burial is not secure. Stone 1 was an unworked pebble 15x10x8 cm.
Illustration 2.5, Burial 4 layout
30
Khok Charoen III
Photograph 2.5, Burial 4 fully excavated with footed bowl find 3 on the pelvis.
Photograph 2.6, Pelvis of main skeleton after Find 3 had been removed, showing ot to be that of an adult woman.
Photograph 2.7, The strangely shaped burial pit of Burial 4. The bones to the right are long bones of the girl embraced by the older woman; the heap of sherds in the lower right corner shows the excavated “memorial ceramic burial” dug at the time of the robbing of Burial 5 by people from KC II.
31
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC III, Burial 5
Illustration 2.6, Burial 5 layout
32
Khok Charoen III This burial was situated in the SE-corner of F5 (head and upper body) and in the S-baulk (lower body and legs). Skeleton recognisable and moderately well preserved, bones rather brittle. Adult male individual, about 1.65 cm high, in supine position head to N. Head turned slightly to right, face showing signs of having sustained a frontal blow on the nasal and maxilla region (teeth on left upper side in disorder). The back of the skull is broken open with fragments spread outwards sideways as if the skull had been violently pushed onto a hard rounded object which caused it to break in this particular way not consistent with breaks caused by ordinary burial compacting. Chest also disturbed (ribs found in an unnatural position), arms outstretched alongside body, right arm slightly bent and twisted, hands turned inward as if holding something. Right leg straight but right foot turned upwards-inside by almost half a turn, left leg missing below mid-femur. Highest point of skeleton (both fore-arms) at 82 cm b.s., ribs and right lower leg at 83 cm b.s., forehead at 84 cm b.s. Lowest point (potsherds under chest and lower body) at 86 cm b.s. The entire burial, including grave goods, was lying in a trench in {6}, was also covered by an about 10-15 cm thick crumbly version of {6} and overlaid by {5}. It appears that two pits had been dug from the surface of {5} (i.e. the Discontinuity surface which at this point coincides with that of {6}) down to the level of the skeleton: one centred on the pelvis and the other seemingly on the left knee; it is assumed that a pot or pots situated on the pelvis (as opposed to pot Find 10 under it) and on or near the left leg were removed by post-Discontinuity settlers or grave robbers at this occasion, causing the displacement of ribs and the disappearance of left leg bones below mid-femur.
was pinned down while the remainder of the pot was removed in a NE direction and scattered over about 100 square metres and two or three different layers. Such a wide distribution of the remains of one pot was almost certainly caused by humans and not by water action as the other four pots Finds 3-6 are unaffected by such a force which would anyway have come from the opposite direction. As suggested by the smashed-in face, the body was violently pushed against pot Find 7 in such a way that the skull broke as a result of hitting it. Had this large thin-walled pot been empty or filled with softer objects, as one would expect in the case of a fresh burial, its wall would have been shattered by the human skull (head) but if it was filled with something hard, like hardened soil as a result of having been already for some time in the ground, it would have been the skull which would break against its wall, i.e. in the way skull and pot were found. The situation is complicated by the fact that this pot Find 7 which could be restored in its entirety, shows unmistakable signs near its bottom of having been broken intentionally by a pointed implement which could not have been done while the pot was sitting in the burial pit filled with earth. (NB: the implications for the reconstruction of the beginning of KC III as a cemetery are explained in Chap. 6: Conclusions, KC III, the earliest burial ground.) Find 8 consists of two medium sherds fitting together found lying in the left side of the chest; they do not look like stray finds and could originally have been put on top or under the chest for a reason. Type not identified. Find 9 is a cluster of 10 sherds of various sizes, including rim-sherds still more or less in situ, from a finely cord-marked large globular bowl Type 1K situated at and under right lower arm. Most likely this bowl was originally placed upright at the right elbow and was thereafter broken in an unknown manner and by an unknown force resulting in the loss of almost its entire body; the twisted radius and ulna of the right arm may also have been a result of this interference. A rim-sherd and some small wall-sherds almost certainly from the same bowl were found near the right knee after the lifting of the skeleton during the completion of the excavation of the 1 m square in the S-baulk dug to free its lower part. These sherds were lying in such a way that the remains of the contents of the pot were visible: 160 g of scraps of human bone including the 12 g vertebra of an adult, as well as 5 teeth (3 incisors and 2 molars) of an about 5 year-old child; there was also a small flake of what appears to be a Pseudodon mouhoti shell. This other part of pot Find 9 is therefore integrated into that Find.
Find 1 is a cluster of 10 shell disk-beads Type b at right wrist, and Find 2 another one of 13 beads of the same type at left wrist, both remnants of personal adornments, most probably in the form of bracelets. Grave goods were four pots stretching in a 1-2-1 row of over 1 m beyond head towards N. Standing upright, they are, from N to S: a large cord-marked globular bowl Type 1K (Find 3), with a single valve of a tree oyster Isognomon spp. (Find 12) lying on its rim; a medium cord-marked globular bowl Type 1Ba (Find 4) and a large footed bowl Type 4A (Find 5) side by side. The next pot, also a large footed bowl Type 4A (Find 6), was found partly lying on its side, opening to S. Between this pot and the skull there was a gap of about 30 cm, enough to accommodate another pot of similar size. Find 7, a large spherical bowl Type 1K, is the pot which had indeed been removed causing the bowl of the pot next to it (i.e. Find 6) to fall on its side while the foot was still standing upright. The heap of sherds (cord-marked side up) on which the broken skull was resting is about 1/3 of pot Find 7, more sherds of which were discovered not only intermingled with sherds of Find 6 but also in the 70-80 cm b.s.-spits of E5 and E7 (both also mainly {6}), as well as in the 40-50 cm b.s.-spit of F6 which is {5}. It is therefore surmised that this pot (Find 7) was originally standing upright and that the part of the pot under the skull
Find 10 consists of 12 mainly rather large sherds of a plain but burnished footed bowl, probably Type 4A (foot missing), rim diameter 20 cm, spread out under the lower body. Find 11, a single large sherd from a large cord-marked globular vessel (probably Type 1K), situated where the left knee would have been, may be seen as the remnant of such a vessel originally placed at the knee but having vanished together with most of the leg. The leg itself was broken at the edge of Stone 1, i.e. at about the middle of the femur. The cause of this disturbance could 33
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand again have been the removal of a pot or pots by grave robbers; it must have taken place at a time when the body was a skeleton as the leg of a fresh body could not have been broken off so easily.
An oval, almost spherical stone of a diameter of 15-20 cm (Stone 1) was found situated at and partly under the left buttock. There was no other stone setting.
Photograph 2.8, Skeleton of Burial 5 fully excavated (NB: two potsherds on top of skull displaced).
Photograph 2.9, Burial 5, upper part of skeleton only.
Photograph 2.10, Entire Burial 5 (including pots beyond head) seen from N.
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Khok Charoen III The head of this burial was situated almost exactly in the centre of H5, orientation head to E, body stretching to about 50 cm from W-baulk. Skeleton rather incomplete, extant bones very brittle. Right shoulder and upper arm missing, except for small fragments of lower end of humerus. Rib cage, spine and pelvis missing, except for fragments of left rim of pelvis. Right foot as well as left lower leg and foot missing. While the missing parts of the trunk may simply have disintegrated, there are signs of considerable disturbance, presumably by humans and/or animals rather than natural agents, at the lower end of the skeleton. Most probably adult female, height about 1.55 m. Supine position but slightly jack-knifed with (missing) pelvis being the lowest part of the skeleton, at about 85-90 cm b.s. and skull and (missing) feet the highest parts at 70 cm b.s. Head slightly turned to right. Head was originally resting on a sheet of three sherds of two different large globular cord-marked bowls not belonging to this burial (Find 18). The skeleton was lying in a pit or natural hollow in {6} and was covered with {5}.
KC III, 1
Personal adornments consist of a cluster of small shell fragments, not identifiable (almost certainly Pseudodon mouhoti), not restorable and not even measurable, probably an armlet at left upper arm (Find 1); a fragment of a wide flat stone bracelet near right elbow (Find 2); a cluster of small shell fragments at right lower arm, similar to the one at left upper arm (Find 3) in a disturbed area; and a nest of 103 shell disk-beads, Type a, at left wrist and under left side of pelvis (Find 4). Eleven pots can safely be considered to be grave goods of this burial. Pot Find 5 (cord-marked globular bowl) was found lying on its side, opening to W, partly on top of skull; the other, smaller such bowl (Find 6) was standing upright inside the neck of the skeleton. It probably was placed on the throat of the fresh body with Find 5 standing upright just beyond the head; over time pot Find 6, by then filled with earth and quite heavy, pushed through the decaying neck, while the reclining head allowed Find 5 to tilt and to come to rest on the upper part of the skull. Find 7 (footed bowl) was lying upside-down on left chest and upper arm, apparently in situ. Find 8 (footed bowl) was also lying upside-down but on the bottom of the burial pit between the thighs, with left upper leg resting on top of the vessel's body, also probably in situ. The same cannot be said about yet another footed bowl Find 9 which was found lying upside-down slightly tilted to S, with the northern part of its body being on top of lower end of right femur while the upper end of right tibia was positioned on the same part of the pot but lying on its right side. This strange position can best be explained by assuming that at skeleton stage the pot had been forcefully shifted to the right during which movement it disconnected the right lower from the upper leg at the knee and became wedged horizontally between the two; its original position cannot be reconstituted.
Illustration 2.7, Burial 6 layout
Find 10 (footed bowl) was tilted to left, opening to S, seemingly lying on left lower leg which itself had disappeared together with the lower half of the body of the 35
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand bowl; it may have been originally positioned between lower legs, possibly upright inside Find 11. This footed bowl Find 11 was standing upright on the floor of the burial pit with the right lower leg resting on top of it; a large part of the left side of this pot (about one-quarter of the body), i.e. the part near the missing right lower leg and the incomplete Find 10, is missing. There is, therefore, reason to believe that there was a disturbance in that area which resulted in the disappearance of the left lower leg of the skeleton and the displacement and break-up of several pots next to it; being so localised, this is unlikely to have been a natural agent like erosion. Find 12, an almost complete footed bowl, was found lying on its side, with opening to E. It showed signs of an impact at the lower side of its rim, i.e. towards the missing left lower leg (presumably it originally stood upright next to right ankle), and the lower end of the right tibia was poking into its opening. Right foot has disappeared. The small globular bowl Find 13 was positioned almost upright next to Find 12, obviously not in situ. Find 14 (small shallow dish) was lying on edge next to Find 13, opening to S; original position must have been upright. Find 15 (large footed bowl, foot and about half body missing) was found lying on its side, opening to E, between or at the (missing) feet of the skeleton; originally most probably standing upright.
Photograph 2.11, Burial 6 (foreground), Burial 2 in side view.
Finds 16 and 17 are unusual inasmuch as they are not directly associated with this burial and yet almost certainly belong to it although their exact position is not known. Find 16 consists of about half of the body of a large footed bowl broken into many smaller sherds found in the SE-quadrant of the cutting, in {2}. As these sherds are of the same type and of similar state of preservation as pots belonging to this burial (e.g. Finds 7, 8, 10, 11 and 12), it is surmised that Find 16 was also part of the grave goods of this burial and was most likely positioned at or near the left lower leg or ankle. As this part of the leg is missing, what was standing near it was presumably pushed outwards in a southerly or southeasterly direction. Moreover, Find 16 is very similar to Find 12 at the right ankle which would make it a perfect pendant to the latter. Find 17 (about half a small globular bowl) was found in {4}, at 30-40 cm b.s., in the SW-quadrant of H5, in several pieces and badly worn. Since an almost identical bowl (Find 13) was found near right lower leg or ankle, it may be assumed that Find 17 was originally placed at left (missing) leg and that it, too, was transported outwards in a southerly direction.
Photograph 2.12, Burial 6, head and shoulders from above, rim of Pot 6 visible near mandible.
A tektite flake (Find 19) was found at 80 cm b.s. just N of where the right shoulder would have been but its association with the burial is not secure.
Photgraph 2,13, Burial 6, side view of head and shoulders showing the position of pot Find 6 which has totally traversed the neck.
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Khok Charoen III The (hypothetical) skeleton of this burial could not be excavated but the items believed to be its grave goods, or part thereof (Finds 1-4), are positioned in such a way that certain aspects of this burial can be reconstructed with confidence. In analogy with other burials, the body is assumed to have been lying in extended supine position, head to N, in non-excavated ground to the N of E8. The approximately 30 cm deep natural trench in the surface of {6}, filled with an ill-defined {5}, in which the two footed bowls (Finds 1 and 2) were found, just inside E8, is seen as being consistent with the end-part of a burial pit which repeats the situation of all other N-orientated burials in KC III, i.e. Burials 3, 4, 5 and 8.
KC III, Burial 7
Grave goods include two footed bowls (Finds 1 and 2), a stone adze fragment (Find 3) and a retouched tektite flake (Find 4). The two footed bowls were found together at 76-90 cm b.s. and only 18 cm distant from the northern edge and 83-105 cm distant from the western edge of the excavated area. Find 1 (medium-sized plain footed bowl) was lying on its side, opening to NW, body broken into numerous sherds becoming smaller towards the downside where a large part of it is missing, indicating an impact there. Foot broken into only 4 pieces which include the bottom of the body. It therefore appears that pressure from above preceded the impact on the side. Find 2 (also a medium-sized footed bowl but with pricked decoration on outside rim) was underneath and partly inside Find 1 and their body sherds were intermingled; foot in one piece. This pot could be entirely restored but its original position relative to Find 1 cannot be ascertained. There is reason to believe that both pots had been standing together at the foot end of the buried body and were later pushed over, by a natural agent or by human/animal action, so as to come to rest in a tumbled way at a short distance further S, while the skeleton remained hidden in the non-excavated area to the N of E8. Find 3 (stone adze) was found at 80 cm b.s., 35 cm to NE of Finds 1 and 2, and Find 4 (retouched tektite flake) at 95 cm b.s., 15 cm N of them. Both were in {5} but their association with the burial is not secure.
Illustration 2.8, Burial 7 layout Photograph 2.14, Footed bowl, Burial 7, Find 2, being the earliest attempt to decorate such a pot.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand The head of this burial was in the centre of the SW-quadrant of E8 and the body stretched southwards to the centre of the S-baulk. Adult male in his thirties, about 1.68 m high. Supine position, head to N. Head turned to left, left lower arm turned slightly outward, right lower arm twisted inward so that the radius was lying on top of and across the ulna. Most vertebrae vanished, pelvis incomplete. Hands and feet missing except for some metacarpal fragments of right hand. This situation may be the result of the extremities having protruded from the burial mound because of erosion with only the right hand relatively better protected from being entirely devoured by animals or carried away by water flows. Most bones, including skull, flattened as if having been under great pressure and/or having been particularly soft; bones very brittle. Highest points of skeleton skull and pelvis, at 90 cm b.s., lowest, at 1 m b.s., surface on which skeleton was lying was the bottom of a natural depression in the surface of {6}. Skeleton surrounded and covered by {5}.
KC III, Burial 8
The only sign of a personal adornment was a fragment of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti (Find 1) which was found lying 10 cm W of right ankle on top of the flattened pot Find 2. As this kind of mussel shell was used in Khok Charoen in personal adornments, Find 1 was possibly part of some kind of anklet. Grave goods consist of only one large tetrapod vessel with incised decoration, at and under right ankle (Find 2). Lower leg and foot must have been lying on the shoulder of this pot. The pot was broken into a great number of small to very small sherds and was thoroughly flattened by burial compaction. Although the rim was about three-quarters complete, about two thirds of the body of the pot were missing but the bottom part with the four solid legs was preserved. Highest point of pot (rim) at 85 cm b.s. There obviously was a disturbance at the lower end of the burial resulting in the disappearance of the feet of the skeleton and the southeastern part of the pot but it is not clear whether this was due to natural/animal causes or human disturbance.
Illustration 2.9, Burial 8 layout
Illustration 2.9a, Bottom of pot Find 2, showing tetrapod feet
38
Khok Charoen III This is a double burial, with heads in the centre of the NW-quadrant of E8 and bodies stretching towards W into the non-excavated area of KC III but later excavated in a 1 m square cutting to free the skeletons; orientation head(s) to E. The two skeletons, one of an older and the other of a younger adult individual, both almost certainly male, were buried one (the older) on top of the other, the two being of roughly the same size and both having heavier and thicker bones (including skull) and are taller than the average male at present in this area (the height of the younger man being about 1.65 m).
KC III, Burial 9
The skeleton of the older individual above the younger one was much less complete than that of the latter. While the skull of the younger individual was almost complete, with a full set of teeth, the mastication surface of which is not much worn, that of the older individual could not be assembled. Fragments of it could be distinguished from the skull of the younger one by their extreme thickness at the parietal region (11 mm, as opposed to 7 mm of the younger individual), as well as by unusually strong markings of meningeal blood vessels, showing perhaps a case of osteopetrosis. Only left half of mandible found, teeth showing much deeper wear of the mastication surface. Only humeri, fragments of lower arm bones, ribs, parts of the spine and of the pelvis were found but not lower limb bones and feet, while the younger individual's skeleton was almost complete albeit badly fractured and in parts very brittle. It was lying in a supine position, head turned slightly to left and bent forward, both forearms bent upward at the elbow. Left leg stretched out but disconnected from the pelvis and lying about 10 cm further down. Right femur crossed over left just below its head, pointing SW while right tibia and fibula were butting against it in T-junction fashion in its middle, pointing NW, tibia resting on top of the inside of the rim of footed bowl Find 6, and on top of a fragment of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shell (Find 3), while the fibula was lying just underneath this rim; right foot detached from lower leg and lying 5 cm away with the toes under large four-legged globular vessel Find 7. Left lower leg lying alongside shoulder of same vessel, with foot curving downward/inward to also rest under this vessel.
Illustration 2.10, Burial 9 layout
The remnants of the much more fragmentary skeleton of the older individual were found lying on top of that of the younger one in a position which is difficult to visualise and almost impossible to interpret. The upper part of the skull (Frontal bone and Parietal bones) was fitted tightly like an out of place skull-cap on the left upper frontal part of the younger man's skull while the left half of the mandible and some teeth were found next to and below the left side of the mandible of the younger man. Diagonally across his chest, from the left shoulder down to the middle lower end of the rib cage, the spine of the older man is faintly discernible, together with rib fragments, while his pelvis can be made out about 15 cm higher up than that of the younger man. It may thus be assumed that the older man had been lying face down on top of the younger one in such a way that the front part of his head was resting against the left upper side of the younger man's head with his shoulders just at that man's
Photograph 2.15, Burial 9 seen from W, fully excavated.
39
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand chin, his arched upper body diagonally across his chest so that his pelvis was resting on the younger man's belly and his legs stretching out along the right side of the younger man's lower body. However, as no remains of the legs have been found it must be surmised that they got taken or carried away at the occasion of the disturbance which also resulted in the twisted position of the younger man's right leg. With regard to the upper bodies, the position of the humeri of the older man provide the answer. His right humerus was lying next to and partly on top of the folded-up left lower arm bones of the younger man but his left humerus was clearly under the younger man's folded-up right arm. The younger man must therefore have been holding the older one in a praying mantis-like embrace so tightly against his body that the two skeletons became integrated into each-other after they were laid to rest on the bottom of a 30 cm deep trench dug into {6} and covered with {5}.
have been in a flexed position, knee up, with footed bowl Find 6 upright between its ankle and the lower part of left femur, the foot being wedged under tetrapod bowl Find 7. When this right leg was sagging towards the left, the lower leg became detached at the knee, came to slide upward towards the pelvis and to rest on the rim of footed bowl Find 6. The rim was pushed down, lifting the other side of this pot up causing it to be in a vertical position. Eventually the flattened rim pushed through between right tibia and fibula. The left leg would originally have been placed in such a way that the upper leg was on the ground next to the foot of this footed bowl, with its body (the bowl itself) partly over it while the lower leg was lying on the shoulder of tetrapod bowl Find 7 to the very edge of which it eventually slid, the foot falling down. Pressure of accumulating soil later on pushed this pot further down, flattened and expanded it to the extent that it partly covered the bones of the left foot.
There are four items likely to have been part of personal adornments, presumably all four of the younger individual. A fragment of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shell (Find 1) was found 12 cm beyond (i.e. E of) skull at same level. As this shell is mainly used as adornment it is likely that this fragment was part of a head ornament although its association with the burial(s) is not secure. A small (3x2 cm) fragment of the same cf. P. mouhoti (Find 2) was discovered amongst potsherds on the inner side and about the middle of left femur while another 5x4 cm fragment of the same shell (Find 3) was found, like in Burial 8, next to right lower leg or ankle which makes the assumption that it was part of an anklet probable. A small fragment of a relatively large (inner diameter at least 8 cm) stone ring (Find 4), found inside the opening of four-legged globular vessel Find 7, may well have been part of a personal adornment although its association with the burial(s) is also not secure.
Photograph 2.16, Burial 9, seen from E, lower part, including tetrapod vessel, still in W baulk.
There are also no signs of any grave goods associated with the upper skeleton. Those of the lower one comprise a small footed bowl (Find 5), a large footed bowl (Find 6), a large tetrapod vessel (Find 7), a small stone implement (Find 8) and a tektite flake (Find 9); association of the latter two finds with the burial not secure. The small footed bowl Find 5 was probably standing upright while the large footed bowl Find 6 was found tilted, with opening to N, within the triangle formed by left femur and right lower leg. The huge tetrapod bowl Find 7, decorated with incised motifs on the upper and cord-marked on the lower half, was situated upright but totally flattened between lower left leg and right foot, its rim having been neatly broken or sawn off at the neck and missing. Finds 8 (small stone implement) and 9 (tektite flake) were lying on the NW shoulder of the same pot and a wedge-shaped stone (13x10x6 cm) under it (Stone 1). The best way to explain the peculiar position of the legs in relation to the three pots Finds 5, 6 and 7, would be to presume a sequence of movements which can only have taken place at a time when the body was decomposed enough for its limbs to fall apart and when at least the lower part of this burial was exposed. The right leg would
Photograph 2.17, Close-up of centre of pot Find 7, with Finds 8 and 9 clearly visible.
40
Khok Charoen III Find 2:
The KC III Finds Finds are depicted and numbered within each burial in the sequence of Personal Adornments, Grave Goods and Other. Grave goods typically comprise Pottery, Stone Implements and Other. Within a burial, the numbering in each category goes from head to feet. Stones have their own sequential numbers.
Illustration 2.12, Pot Type 4C, Burial 1, Find 2
Individual pots are analysed in the following order: Type and summary description; Decoration; Position; Breakage Pattern; Measurements. The latter include: H = height; Hr = height of rim, from top; Hc = height of carination or shoulder, from bottom; Hf = height of foot; W = width; Wr = width at rim; Wn = width at neck; Wm = maximum width; Wtf = width at top of foot, i.e. where it meets body; Wbf = width at base of foot; On = narrowest opening, i.e. inside neck or rim; Thw = wall thickness (B = body, Bb = bottom of body, F = foot); Wgt = weight (of extant part of pot). All measurements in cm, weight in g. Sherd sizes "large", "medium" and "small" are to be understood as relative to overall size of pot. The scale below all pot images is 10cm.
Large footed bowl Type 4C. Straight conical truncated body, upturned rounded rim, conical truncated foot. Buff ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Second (from E) in a row of 7 pots stretching W-E from head (?). Tilted to SE. Almost complete. Body broken into 10 medium and about 20 small pieces, concentrated at rim on one side: impact? Foot entire with central part of base of body attached to it. A few small pieces missing. H: 14; Hf: 6; Wr: 22.8; Wm: 23; Wtf: 8.5; Wbf: 14; ThwB: 1.1-0.5; ThwBb: 0.7; ThwF: 1.7-0.6; Wgt: 1,140.
Burial 1 Finds
Find 3:
Find 1:
Illustration 2.13, Pot Type 1Ca, Burial 1, Find 3 Small globular bowl Type 1Ca. Straight out-turned rim. Buff ware. Large black patch on lower part of body (outside only). Rim inside and outside covered with haematite slip and burnished. Raised band on shoulder with small vertical impressions; upper part of raised band and body above it also covered with slip and burnished. Body below raised band cord-marked 3.5:10. Third (from E) in a row of 7 pots stretching W-E from head (?). Almost upright. Almost complete. Entire pot broken into about 25 medium sherds and some smaller ones in between; only small rim parts and 4 small body sherds missing. H: 11.9; Hr: 1.5; Hc: 8.5; Wr: 11; Wn: 9.6; Wm: 13.5; On: 8.1; Thw: 0.7-0.4; Wgt: 470.
Illustration 2.11, Pot Type 4A, Burial 1, Find 1 Large footed bowl Type 4A. Straight conical truncated body, upturned rounded rim, foot conical but slightly bumpy. Buff ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Body outside slightly darker than inside and burnished to a brighter finish. Traces of red slip on outside of rim. First (i.e. E-most) in a row of 7 pots stretching W-E from head (?). Tilted to SE. Almost complete. Body broken into 3 large, 4 medium and 3 small pieces; foot broken off body, in two halves. Two small rim sherds of body and one of foot missing. H: 15; Hf: 5; Wr: 21.5; Wm: 22.5; Wtf: 7.5; Wbf: 12.2; ThwB: 1.1-0.5; ThwBb: 1.5; ThwF: 1.8-0.4; Wgt: 1,125.
41
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 4:
bottom of body attached to it; one small part of foot broken off. Some breaks run along incised lines of decoration. H: 11.9; Hr: 2.5; Hf: 4.4; Wr: 16.5; Wm: 18; Wtf: 7.1; Wbf: 11.6; ThwB: 0.8-0.4; ThwF: 1-0.5; Wgt: 620. Find 6:
Illustration 2.14, Pot Type 1C, Burial 1, Find 4 Small globular bowl Type 1C. Slightly curved out-turned rim. Buff ware. Large black patch on bottom (outside only). Rim inside and outside covered with haematite slip and burnished. Plain raised band on shoulder; body above it also covered with slip and burnished. Body below raised band cord-marked 5:10. Fourth (from E) in a row of 7 pots stretching W-E from head (?). Slightly tilted to NW. About 85% complete. Entire pot broken into about 50 medium sherds except for one side of lower body where sherds become smaller and a part of the pot is missing, thus indicating an impact. H: 12.5; Hr: 1.6; Hc: 9.3; Wr: 11.2; Wn: 9; Wm: 14.8; On: 7.4; Thw: 0.7-0.3; Wgt: 360.
Illustration 2.16, Pot Type 3E, Burial 1, Find 6 Small shallow bowl Type 3E. Direct rim at carination. Ochre ware. Outside rim covered with haematite slip. Body outside cross cord-marked 5:10. Inside burnished. Some diffuse black patches on one side of body (outside only). Sixth (from E) in a row of 7 pots stretching W-E from head (?). Lying upside-down next to (NW of) a stone in a gap between Finds 5 and 7 on which it probably stood originally. About 75% preserved. Broken into 1 large (about 1/4) and 3 medium sherds. H: 3.9; Hr: 1; Hc: 2.9; Wr: 10.2; Wm: 11; Wgt: 150. Find 7:
Find 5:
Illustration 2.15, Pot Type 4D, Burial 1, Find 5
Illustration 2.17, Pot Type 4Aa, Burial 1, Find 7
Medium-sized footed bowl Type 4D. In-turned slightly concave rim. Shallow almost hemispherical body. Foot conical with cylindrical upper part and a few bumps in the lower part. Buff ware, light grey inside. Large black patch on one side of upper body and rim and another one underneath, on lower part of foot. Burnished throughout. Incised decoration on outside rim and foot consisting of a stippled area (stipples in parallel lines) on rim limited on top by a wavy incised line (6 crests), three lines of stipples on cylindrical upper part of foot with an incised straight line on both sides, and another stippled area on lower part of foot limited on top by a straight and below by a wavy incised line of 4 crests; both wavy lines, i.e. on rim and on foot, seem to have been done in some haste as they do not join properly where their ends meet. Fifth (from E) in a row of 7 pots stretching W-E from head (?), lying on its side, opening to W, partly resting on a stone. Almost complete. Body broken into 4 large and, on the side where the black patch is, several smaller sherds of which some are missing. Foot entire with
Large footed bowl Type 4Aa. Upturned almost direct rounded rim. Nearly hemispherical body. Relatively small foot with out-turned rim. Brick-coloured ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Small black patch on one side of upper body. Seventh (from E) in a row of 7 pots stretching W-E from head (?). Slightly tilted to W. Almost complete. Body broken into 8 medium and 18 smaller sherds. Foot broken into 2 large and several small pieces, neatly broken off bottom of body. Only two very small sherds missing. H: 13.5; Hf: 3.7; Wr: 21.5; Wm: 21.9; Wtf: 7.4; Wbf: 11.8; ThwB: 0.8-0.6; ThwBb: 1.1-0.8; ThwF: 0.7-0.5; Wgt: 920. Find 8: Small fragment of antler including the burr, broken. Found 10 cm N of small bowl Find 6 on same level. Association with Burial 1 not secure. Length: 4.4 cm, W at burr: 2.5 cm.
42
Khok Charoen III Burial 1a Finds
Burial 4 Finds
Find 1: Cluster of 24 shell disk-beads Type a, at left wrist or forearm.
Find 1:
Find 2:
Illustration 2.20, Pot Type 4A, Burial 4, Find 1 Large footed bowl Type 4A. Conical truncated body. Upturned rounded rim. Conical truncated foot. Brick-coloured ware. Plain but surface smoothed and burnished throughout except inside foot. Next to (beyond) skull, rim 6 cm distant from it, slightly to right. Upright. About 85% complete. Body broken into 1 large, 7 medium and 8 small sherds; triangular segment of rim missing. Foot entire including the bottom of bowl. H: 13; Hf: 6; Wr/m: 18.2; Wtf: 7; Wbf: 13; ThwB: 0.8-0.7; ThwBb: 1; ThwF: 0.8-0.6; Wgt: 900.
Illustration 2.18, Stone, Burial 1a, Find 2 (full size) Finely polished greenstone adze, apparently unused, near "right hand" at 89 cm b.s. H: 3.5 cm; W: 3 cm; Th: 1 cm. Burial 2 Finds Find 1: Two shell disk-beads Type b, near left side of skull.
Find 2:
Find 2:
Illustration 2.21, Pot Type 4C, Burial 4, Find 2
Illustration 2.19, Stone, Burial 2, Find 2 (full size) Small fragment of polished stone bracelet, inner diameter 6.8 cm, 10 cm S of right wrist, at 52 cm b.s.
Large footed bowl Type 4C. Slightly convex conical truncated body. Upturned rim. Foot conical/slightly bell-shaped. Buff ware. Plain but surface smoothed (burnished?) throughout except inside foot. Next to (beyond) skull, slightly to left, tilted towards skull with rim almost touching it. Must have stood originally upright. About 85% complete. Body broken into 7 large and a number of medium and small sherds. Four medium sherds missing. Foot complete, broken off bowl. Indications of impact on W-side of rim of bowl. H: 13.5; Hf: 4; Wr/m: 20; Wtf: 9; Wbf: 12; ThwB: 1.5-0.6; ThwBb: 1.2-1.1; ThwF: 0.9-0.7; Wgt: 950.
Find 3: Small fragment of a pig's (?) mandible with two molars in situ, in pubic area. Association with burial not secure. Find 4: Tektite flake, in nasal aperture of skull. Association with burial not secure. Burial 3 Finds No Finds associated with this burial.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 3:
particular sherd comes is unknown in KC III but occurs only in KC IV; the presence of this sherd in isolation in KC III is thus an enigma. Its association with the burial is improbable. Find 7: A small (1x3 cm) coarsely cord-marked potsherd. Ochre ware. Partly under the E-rim of the footed bowl lying upside-down on pelvic region (Find 3). This sherd is again from a different pot than any of the other finds and the likelihood that it had been placed on purpose where it has been found is extremely remote. It must be treated as a stray find, the result of post-burial disturbance.
Illustration 2.22, Pot Type 4A, Burial 4, Find 3 Large footed bowl Type 4A. Almost hemispherical body with direct rim. Foot conical slightly concave. Brick-coloured/buff ware. Plain but surface smoothed (burnished?) throughout except inside foot. Large dark patch outside on one side including foot (uneven firing). Found upside-down on top of the pelvic region of both skeletons, slightly tilted to W. About 90% complete. Body broken into 6 large,7 medium and a number of small sherds. Foot broken into 4 parts. Clear sign of impact on SE-side of rim, i.e. nearest to left wrist. H: 16; Hf: 5; Wr/m: 22.5; Wtf: 9; Wbf: 12; ThwB: 1-0.6; ThwBb: 1.2-1; ThwF: 1.8-0.7; Wgt: 1,100.
Find 8:
Find 4: Three medium-sized sherds, fitting together, from a large cord-marked globular bowl. Buff ware. Found inside-up between Finds 1 and 2 next to skull. As no other sherds from this bowl have been found anywhere in the vicinity of the burial, it must be assumed that this one sherd of about 15x10 cm was either put near the head for a purpose at the time of the burial or is part of a pot, the main body of which has not been found, having been accidentally deposited on the exposed burial at a later date. The association of this find with the burial is not secure.
Illustration 2.23, Stone axe, Burial 4, Find 8 A "stone axe [sic] with very sharp cutting edge (retouched)" was found with the skeleton, according to the report by Dr Sood Sangvichien. Apart from the dimensions (5.2x3.9x1.3 cm) and a black-and-white photograph, no other information about, or description of, this artefact is given; the object itself remained in the possession of Dr Sood. As this axe (adze?) was presumably discovered when Dr Sood lifted the skeleton or later when it was cleaned, it must be surmised that it had been hidden from view while the skeleton was still in situ, i.e. by lying under it or in such a position that a protruding part of the skeleton was accidentally hiding it. However, the association with the burial must be considered secure.
Find 5: One medium-sized (about 6x5 cm) cord-marked potsherd. Buff ware. On right lower chest, outside-up. This sherd is not part of the cord-marked bowl from which Find 4 originates and must therefore be from a different but similar and even larger such bowl. As this sherd is also an isolated find, it can either have been put there purposefully during the burial or found its way there accidentally. Its association with the burial is also not secure.
Find 9: A snail-shell, apparently unworked. Amongst the body sherds of footed bowl Find 2 beyond head. May have been inside this pot or found its way to this location at a later time when the burial was exposed; the latter explanation seems to be the more likely one.
Find 6: A small (2x2 cm) finely cord-marked potsherd. Dark buff ware, inside burnished. On right upper chest, near right clavicle. This sherd is from yet another cord-marked bowl (i.e. neither from the Find 4 nor the Find 5 vessel) but its small size precludes the possibility that it could have been put there on purpose. However, the type of pottery from which this
44
Khok Charoen III Burial 5 finds
Globular bowl Type 1Ba. Slightly flattened spherical body with soft carination. Out-turned straight rim. Buff ware. Inside rim covered with red slip and burnished/polished. Outside body finely cord-marked (5.5:10). Three smoothed bands above shoulder, the lowest covered with red slip. Second (from N) in a row of 4 pots stretching beyond head to N, on same level as, and W of, Find 3. About 95% complete. Broken into about 60 medium to small sherds. H: 13; Hr: 1.4; Hc: 9.2; Wr: 15.2; Wn: 13.3; Wm: 18.5; On: 12; Thw: 0.5-0.3; Wgt: 500.
Find 1: A cluster of 10 shell disk-beads Type b, near right lower arm and wrist of skeleton. Presumably remains of a bracelet. Find 2: A cluster of 42 shell disk-beads Type b, near left lower arm and wrist of skeleton. Presumably remains of a bracelet or other kind of arm ornament. Find 3:
Find 5:
Illustration 2.26, Pot Type 4A, Burial 5, Find 5 Large footed bowl Type 4A. Conical truncated body. Upturned rim, flattened on top. Foot conical. Coarse buff ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Third (from N) in a row of 4 pots stretching beyond head to N, on same level as, and E of, Find 2. Upright. Almost complete. Broken into about 35 mainly medium sherds. Signs of an impact at rim on E-side. H: 15; Hf: 4.8; Wr/m: 22.5; Wtf: 8; Wbf: 12.6; ThwB: 1.5-0.6; ThwBb: 1.8; ThwF: 1.4-0.6; Wgt: 1,300.
Illustration 2.24, Pot Type 1K, Burial 5, Find 3 Large globular bowl Type 1K. Spherical body. Out-turned straight rim. Ochre ware. Inside rim covered with red slip and burnished/polished. Outside body finely (5:10) cord-marked, the paddle leaving a row of small impressions also on outside rim just below its top. Two narrow smoothed bands at neck and 3 more such bands at 4.5, 5.5 and 6.5 cm below neck (i.e. on "shoulder"), the central one being covered with red slip. First (from N) in a row of 4 pots stretching in a 1-2-1 line beyond head to N. Upright. About 80% complete but broken into 8 medium-large rim/neck/shoulder sherds and over 100 medium to small body sherds. No point of impact visible in preserved parts of pot. Not restorable in full (restoration partly virtual). H: 31.5; Hr: 3.5; Wr: 25; Wn: 20.5; Wm: 36; On: 18.4; Thw: 1-0.4; Wgt: 3,040.
Find 6:
Illustration 2.27, Pot Type 4A, Burial 5, Find 6 Large footed bowl Type 4A. Slightly convex conical truncated body. Upturned rim, soft carination. Foot slightly concave conical. Coarse buff ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Fourth from N in a row of 5 upright pots stretching beyond head to N. Originally standing upright but found tilted to S. Complete, some small rim-sherds missing. Broken into 4 large (including foot in one piece), 7 medium and 5 small sherds. Signs of an impact on rim. H: 14; Hf: 4; Wr: 21; Wm: 21.2; Wtf: 8.5; Wbf: 10.2; ThwB: 0.9-0.6; ThwBb: 1.3-0.9; ThwF: 1.5-0.6; Wgt: 1,050.
Find 4:
Illustration 2.25, Pot Type 1Ba, Burial 5, Find 4
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 7:
human bone including an adult vertebra and 5 teeth of a 5 year-old child; there was also a small flake of a Pseudodon mouhoti (?) shell. Not fully restorable. H: c. 30; Hr: 2.5; Wr: 25; Wn: 21.4; Wm: c. 36; On: 20; Thw: 0.2-? Find 10: A sheet of 12 potsherds of a large footed bowl Type 4A (foot missing) spread out under pelvic region. Reddish-buff ware. Plain but burnished throughout. Diameter at rim 20 cm. Find 11: A single large and one small sherd from a large cord-marked (4:10) globular vessel, of a diameter of about 30 cm. Situated where the left knee would have been, it could be seen as the sole remnant of such a pot originally placed at the knee but having vanished together with the leg itself.
Illustration 2.28, Pot Type 1K, Burial 5, Find 7 Large globular bowl Type 1K. Spherical body, very slight carination at shoulder. Everted straight restricted rim, rounded lip. Buff ware. Burnished inside to a dark buff sheen. Rim inside covered with red slip, outside plain. Body below rim finely (6:10) cord-marked, evenly vertically on upper body but more and more criss-crossed towards bottom. Four 2 mm-wide smoothed bands on and above shoulder, none painted over with red slip. Originally most likely upright between footed bowl Find 6 and skull as the 5th from N in a row of 5 upright pots stretching from skull to 1 m N of it. The sherds of this pot were found mainly under the crushed skull of Burial 5 (920 g) but also intermingled with sherds of Find 6, in the 70-80 cm b.s.-spits of E5 and E7 and even in the post-Discontinuity 40-50 cm b.s.-spit of F6. In spite of the wide dispersal of its sherds, the pot was found to be complete except for some small bottom sherds and could be entirely restored. Prominent sign of impact by pointed implement on bottom (about three-quarters from rim down to centre of bottom), showing that this pot was partly broken before it was put into the burial. H: 26.5; Hr: 2.5; Hc: 18.5; Wr: 24; Wn: 19.4; Wc: 26; Wm: 28.3; On: 17; Thw: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 1,750.
Find 12:
Illustration 2.29, Shell, Burial 5, Find 2 An almost complete valve, broken in two, of the tree oyster Isognomon spp., possibly worked. Length: 10.8 cm. At S-rim of large globular bowl Find 3. Was perhaps originally inside this pot.
Find 8: Two unidentified medium potsherds in left chest. Burial 6 finds
Find 9: Two clusters of 10 large and of several medium/small sherds of a large globular bowl Type 1K. Spherical body, everted straight restricted rim, pointed lip. Grey-buff ware. Rim inside covered with red slip, outside plain. Body below rim cord-marked (5:10), inside dark buff and burnished. The sherds constituting this find are the remains of a pot having been put upright at the right elbow as a burial gift, still partly in situ. There was considerable disturbance at that side of the burial during which the right lower arm was twisted, the pot was broken and much of it was displaced. Some sherds of this part were found next to the right upper leg revealing the content of this pot consisting of 160 g of scraps of
Find 1: A cluster of small shell flakes, not identifiable, not restorable and not measurable (almost certainly Pseudodon mouhoti), at left upper arm, near elbow; presumably remnants of a personal adornment.
46
Khok Charoen III Find 2:
Find 6:
Illustration 2.32, Pot Type 1Ba, Burial 6, Find 6 Globular bowl Type 1Ba. Slightly carinated body. Slightly curved out-turned rim. Buff ware. Outside body coarsely (3.5:10) cord-marked from just below rim down to bottom. Narrow smoothed band on shoulder. Inside rim covered with red slip and burnished. Traces of red slip also on outside from shoulder up, on smoothed and cord-marked parts alike. Lower part of body shows irregular dark patches (outside only); at one spot outer skin of blackened ware has flaked off, revealing a less dark patch. Inside neck of skeleton, i.e. the pot must originally have been placed on the neck of the dead body, just below mandible, whence it sagged to the position in which it was found. Upright. Almost complete. Lower part of body broken into 1 large and 3 medium sherds, upper part into 8 fairly regular medium sherds and the rim into 10 smaller sherds broken vertically; this pattern suggests slow and even pressure from above while the body was decaying. H: 12.8; Hr: 1.8; Hc: 9.2; Wr: 13.2; Wn: 11.3; Wm: 15.8; On: 9.8; Thw: 0.8-0.4; Wgt: 685.
Illustration 2.30, Stone bracelet, Burial 6, Find 2 A fragment of a wide flat stone bracelet, inner diameter 5.6 cm. Found standing on edge near upper part of right forearm, just below elbow. Find 3: An elongated cluster of small shell flakes, identical to those of Find 1, not identifiable, not restorable and not measurable (almost certainly Pseudodon mouhoti) at right arm, from elbow to mid-forearm; probably remnants of a personal adornment. Find 4: A nest of 103 shell disk-beads Type a, at left wrist and under left side of pelvis.
Find 7:
Find 5:
Illustration 2.33, Pot Type 4Ac, Burial 6, Find 7 Footed bowl Type 4Ac. Straight conical truncated shallow body. Upturned rounded rim flattened on top. Foot straight conical truncated. Buff-orange ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Upside-down on left chest and upper arm, slightly tilted to S. Complete. Foot in one piece, including bottom of body. Body broken on N-side into 4 large and on S-side into 5 medium sherds. H: 10; Hf: 3.4; Wr: 19.6; Wm: 19.8; Wtf: 7.2; Wbf: 10.5; ThwB: 1-0.4; ThwBb: 0.7-0.6; ThwF: 0.5; Wgt: 740.
Illustration 2.31, Pot Type 1D, Burial 6, Find 5 Medium-sized globular bowl Type 1D. Straight out-turned rim. Buff ware. Inside rim covered with red slip and burnished. Outside body coarsely (3.5:10) cord-marked (leaving also many unintentional cord-marks on outside rim). Two smoothed bands below neck, the lower covered by red slip. At head of body, having presumably been placed there in an upright position but was found tilted to W and slightly lifted so that it was lying partly on top of skull. Almost complete. Broken fairly evenly into medium sherds, becoming smaller towards the bottom of pot. H: 13.5; Hr: 1.8; Wr: 16.4; Wn: 14; Wm: 17; On: 12.2; Thw: 0.9-0.6; Wgt: 1,050.
47
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 8:
Find 10:
` Illustration 2.36, Pot Type 4G, Burial 6, Find 10
Illustration 2.34, Pot Type 4A, Burial 6, Find 8 Footed bowl Type 4A. Slightly S-curved conical truncated body. Upturned rounded rim, flattened on top. Foot straight conical truncated. Buff-orange ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Upside-down between thighs, slightly tilted to S. Left femur resting on underside of bowl. Complete. Foot in one piece, including bottom of body. Body broken fairly evenly into 15 medium to small sherds. H: 12; Hf: 4; Wr: 19; Wm: 19.6; Wtf: 6.5; Wbf: 11; ThwB: 0.8-0.5; ThwBb: 0.8-0.7; ThwF: 1-0.4; Wgt: 800.
Footed bowl Type 4G. Almost hemispherical body. Direct rim, rounded on top. Foot conical, slightly convex and flaring. Buff-orange ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. On left lower leg (which itself has disappeared), lying on its side opening to S; probably originally positioned between legs, perhaps standing on top of Find 11. About 60% complete. Only half of body left, broken into 5 large sherds. Foot in one piece but bottom of body inside it broken neatly in a circular shape and lost. H: 11.5; Hf: 3; Wr/m: 19; Wtf: 7.5; Wbf: 11; ThwB: 0.5; ThwBb: 0.4-0.3; ThwF: 0.6-0.5; Wgt: 400.
Find 9:
Find 11:
Illustration 2.35, Pot Type 4A, Burial 6, Find 9
Illustration 2.37, Pot Type 4A, Burial 6, Find 11
Small footed bowl Type 4A. Slightly convex conical truncated body. Upturned straight rim slightly out-turned rounded top. Buff ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Upside-down between knees; legs must have originally rested on underside of bowl. Found slightly tilted to S, lower end of right femur under N-rim while upper end of tibia was lying (probably in situ) on underside of bowl; as left lower leg is missing due to a disturbance, its position in relation to the pot cannot be ascertained, the less so as this pot's tilt and the strange position of the right leg bones must also be seen as the result of the same disturbance on the left lower side of the skeleton. About 75% complete. Broken fairly evenly into medium to small sherds. H: 11.4; Hf: 3.5; Wr/m: 15.4; Wtf: 7.2; Wbf: 10; ThwB: 0.8-0.4; ThwBb: 0.8; ThwF: 0.6-0.4; Wgt: 320.
Footed bowl Type 4A. Conical truncated body. Upturned slightly rounded rim, rounded on top. Foot straight conical. Buff-orange ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Upright under right lower leg. About 80% complete. About one-quarter of body missing, remainder broken into 11 medium sherds. Foot in one piece, including bottom of body. H: 13; Hf: 5; Wr/m: 20; Wtf: 8.5; Wbf: 12.8; ThwB: 1-0.6; ThwBb: 1-0.8; ThwF: 0.9-0.5; Wgt: 800. Find 12:
Illustration 2.38, Pot Type 4G, Burial 6, Find 12 Footed bowl Type 4G. Hemispherical body. Direct rim, slightly flattened on top. Foot almost straight conical. Buff-orange ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. 48
Khok Charoen III Lying on its side, opening to E, on right ankle; stood presumably originally upright next to right ankle. About 90% complete. About two thirds of body in one piece, including the bottom; the remainder of the body broken into a number of sherds becoming smaller towards a missing part of the rim (now on the down side) which seems to have been the point of an impact. Foot broken off body into 4 parts. This breakage pattern suggests a connection with the disturbance in the area of the left leg resulting in the disappearance of the lower left leg and the changed position of Find 10. H: 12.5; Hf: 4; Wr/m: 17.8; Wtf: 7.8; Wbf: 10.5; ThwB: 0.7-0.6; ThwBb: 0.6-0.5; ThwF: 0.8-0.5; Wgt: 600. NB: This pot (then called "Pot C") was used for dating by the TL-Dating Lab., Physics, (Faculties), A.N.U., on 2 Feb. 1976; Test No. 271 = 2355 +/- 355 BP (but with only two "good" measurements and one "fair" one).
touching it at its rim. Original position not known except that, presumably, lying with opening up. About 75% complete. Broken into 2 sherds only: one being half the bowl and the other a quarter; the other quarter missing. H: 3.5; Wr/m: 8.5; Thw: up to 1.3; Wgt: 80. Find 15:
Illustration 2.41, Pot Type 4A, Burial 6, Find 15 Large footed bowl Type 4A. Almost hemispherical shallow body. Rounded upturned rim, slightly flattened on top. Buff ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Between or at feet of skeleton. Extant part of vessel found lying on its side, opening to E, upper half missing. Original position presumably standing upright. About 40% complete. About half of body and entire foot (except for the upper part of it attached to bottom of body) missing. Extant body broken into 1 large and 5 medium sherds. H (body only): 10.2; Wr/m: 25; Wtf: 9.5; ThwB: 1-0.6; ThwBb: 1; Wgt: 520.
Find 13:
Illustration 2.39, Pot Type 3C, Burial 6, Find 13 Small globular bowl Type 3C. Hemispherical body. Direct rim, slightly flattened on top. Coarse buff ware. Roughly made, heavy. Below a smoothed band of 2 cm, body outside coarsely (5:10) but faintly cord-marked in a rough criss-cross pattern; some marks also on smoothed band. Red slip on flattened top of rim. Inside left rough. Diffuse dark patch on outside bottom. Found lying on its side, opening to NW, next to Find 12, its bottom against that pot's mid-body. Original position unknown. About 75% complete. Broken into 6 medium sherds. Indications of an impact at central part of bottom which is missing. Impact presumably connected with disturbance having also affected Finds 9, 10 and 12. H: 8; Wr: 9; Wm: 10.2; Thw: 1.1-0.4; Wgt: 200.
Find 16:
Illustration 2.42, Pot Type 4C, Burial 6, Find 16 Large footed bowl Type 4C. Slightly concave conical truncated body. Straight upturned rim, rounded on top. Foot missing. Coarsely grained buff-orange ware. Plain but traces of having been burnished throughout. Found in an upright position, slightly tilted to E, between Finds 12, 13, 14 and Stone 1, i.e. at (missing) feet of skeleton in a much disturbed area. Original position probably upright at left foot. Only about 40% preserved; foot missing and only about half body preserved, broken into 4 medium and 2 smaller sherds. H (body only): 7.5; Wr: 21.5; Wm: 22; ThwB: up to 1. NB: Certain sherds which may belong to this pot as well as others from similar pots likely to have been part of this burial have been found at some distance from this burial and in different layers; they could not be listed as part of grave goods but are taken into account when considering disturbances in the area.
Find 14:
Illustration 2.40, Pot Type 3E, Burial 6, Find 14 Small shallow bowl Type 3E. Heavy roughly shaped body. Direct pointed rim. Buff ware. Body outside coarsely (5:10) but faintly cord-marked in a rough criss-cross pattern, identical to Find 13. Faint traces of red slip on edge of rim and as an irregular band of 1-2 cm width below rim directly on cord-marks (i.e. not smoothed). Diffuse large dark patch on almost the entire outside of body; smaller inside. Lying on edge, opening to S, W of Find 13, almost
49
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 17:
A 16x12x4 cm oval unworked stone. Granulated surface. At (SW of) left foot, about 10 cm higher than where foot would have been. Burial 7 finds
Illustration 2.43, Pot Type 3Ca, Burial 6, Find 17
Find 1:
Small globular bowl Type 3Ca. Heavy spherical body. Slightly inturned rim producing a small carination; rim pointed on top, very slightly rounded. Buff ware. Traces of irregular criss-cross cord-marking (6:10) from carination down. Large dark patch on outside bottom.
Illustration 2.44, Pot Type 4Ab, Burial 7, Find 1
Exact position cannot be ascertained as sherds making up this pot (i.e. about half of it) came mainly from an area about 1-2 m S of feet of skeleton and from a slightly higher level, in {4}. Although the association of this pot with the burial is not entirely secure, there seems to be a reasonable possibility that it was originally placed next to left foot as a pendant to an almost identical pot near right foot (Find 13) and that its dislocation and dispersion was a result of the disturbance leading to the disappearance of the left lower leg. About 50% preserved. The extant half of the pot is broken into one large sherd amounting to almost one-third of entire vessel and 4 smaller sherds; 4 still smaller sherds could not be fitted. All sherds very worn and surface badly eroded. H: 8.5; Wr: 8; Wm: 10.5; Thw (except pointed rim): 0.9-0.7; Wgt: 170.
Footed bowl Type 4Ab. Almost hemispherical shallow body. Slightly curved upturned rim, rounded on top. Straight truncated conical foot. Buff ware, faintly orange on surface. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Position unknown; presumed to be near or just beyond feet of non-excavated skeleton. About 80% complete. Pot was found lying on its side, opening to NW. Body broken off its bottom and into about 30 medium to small sherds becoming smaller towards the side on which pot was lying (and part of which was missing), indicating possibly an impact there. Foot broken into only 4 pieces. H: 10; Hf: 3; Wr: 19; Wm: 19.5; Wtf: 8.5; Wbf: 11; ThwB: 1-0.6; ThwBb: 0.8; ThwF: 1-0.8; Wgt: 660. Find 2:
Find 18: Three medium sherds from two different large cord-marked bowls. Buff ware. Under left side of skull (2) and under left side of Find 5. One still larger such sherd was lying directly under skull and was taken out together with the latter by Dr Sood. The head was thus resting on a sheet of sherds and Find 5 must also originally have been partly standing on it.
Illustration 2.45, Pot Type 4Eb, Burial 7, Find 2 Footed bowl Type 4Eb. Truncated conical body. Upturned rim, rounded on top. Flaring truncated conical foot. Buff ware. Burnished throughout except inside foot. Outside rim covered with 5 irregular lines of pricked circular dots presumably made by a small hollow bamboo stick which seems to have been poked into the wet clay from a slightly different angle each time so that the impressions themselves are irregular. Original position unknown. Pot was found next to (W of) Find 1, on its side, opening to S, its sherds being partly intermingled with those of the latter. Complete (except for 2 small sherds). Body broken off foot (which remained in one piece) and broken into 8 medium and 4 smaller sherds; no signs of an impact. H: 8.5; Hf: 2.2; Wr: 16.5; Wm: 17; Wtf: 7; Wbf: 9.8; ThwB: 0.9-0.5; ThwBb: 0.9-0.8; Thw: 0.5-0.4; Wgt: 450.
Find 19: Tektite flake, apparently unused and not worked. About 10 cm N of where the right shoulder would have been, at same level (80 cm b.s.). Association with burial not secure. Stone 1: A 10x6x3 cm oval unworked pebble. Just beyond (E of) where right shoulder would have been, on same level as base of skull. Stone 2: A flat elongated unworked pebble, 11x7x2 cm. On edge, wedged between left femur and body of upside-down footed bowl Find 8. Stone 3:
50
Khok Charoen III Find 3: Lower c. two-thirds of a stone adze. Dark grey/black fine-grained volcanic rock. Sharp edges. 35 cm NE of Find 1, at 80 cm b.s. H: 2.6 (i.e. entire adze: c. 4); W: 3.5; Th: 1.1. Association with burial not secure but highly probable.
continuous walking-shell impressions. The next lower band, of 6 cm width, delimited on its lower side by the same groove, is divided by vertical grooves into 5 sections; in each section a field in the shape of a circle segment baseline-down is filled with walking-shell impressions while the remainder of the section is simply burnished. Another plain burnished 1 cm wide band, delimited by yet another groove, follows underneath and from there on (just above shoulder) downward the body is finely (7:10) vertically cord-marked, leaving only the four feet plain. Situated near right lower leg and foot in such a way that right ankle was lying on shoulder of vessel. Only about 40% complete. Broken into innumerable small and very small sherds. Rim 75% complete but body only about 33%; bottom part with feet remained intact. H (incl. feet): 27; H (body): 25; Hr: 1.5; Hf: 3; Hc: 15.5; Wr: 18.5; Wn: 14.5; Wm: 35; On: 12; Thw: 1-0.3; Wgt: 1,800.
Find 4:
Illustration 2.46, Tektite flake, Burial 7, Find 4 Small tektite flake, possibly worked; broken. 15 cm N of Find 1, at 95 cm b.s. Association with burial not secure. NB: this is the lowest tektite flake found at Khok Charoen.
Burial 9 finds Burial 8 finds
Find 1:
Find 1: Small fragment of fresh-water mussel cf. Pseudodon mouhoti, about 2x2.4 cm. 10 cm W of right ankle, lying on top of flattened pot Find 2. Could have been part of a personal adornment (anklet?). Find 2:
Illustration 2.48, Shell, Burial 9, Find 1 Small triangular (4x3.5x3 cm) fragment of fresh water mussel cf. Pseudodon mouhoti. At 12 cm beyond (E of) skull, same level. Association with burial not secure but likely (part of head-ornament?). Find 2: Small (3x2 cm) fragment of fresh water mussel cf. Pseudodon mouhoti. Amongst potsherds on the inner side and about the middle of left femur. Disintegrated into tiny flakes when lifted.
Illustration 2.47, Pot type 8A, Burial 8, Find 2 Very large restricted composite tetrapod vessel Type 8A. Lower body hemispherical, above shoulder concave-inflected. Out-turned rounded rim. Four short (3 cm) solid horn-like feet grow out of the round bottom of the vessel in a quadrangular formation at about 14 cm distance from each other. Buff ware. Large grains of magnetite in clay. Inside plain but burnished throughout: finely inside rim and neck, less carefully towards bottom. Outside plain to 2 cm below rim; then follows a 35 cm wide band, delimited on either side by a 2 mm wide groove, of 2 rows of
Find 3: Small (5x4 cm) fragment of fresh-water mussel cf. Pseudodon mouhoti. At right lower leg, lying on inside rim of large footed bowl Find 6 between tibia (top) and fibula (underneath). Believed to be part of some personal adornment (anklet?). Disintegrated into tiny flakes when lifted.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 4:
and foot coarsely (2.5:10) cord-marked, parallel-oblique on rim and foot, irregularly criss-cross on body in between. Pot was found almost lying on its side, opening to N, between left femur and right lower leg, touching Find 7 at shoulder, while foot was still standing near to upright. Almost complete. Broken fairly uniformly into numerous medium sherds. H: 14.5; Hf: 4; Wr: 26; Wc/m: 27; Wtf: 10; Wbf: 15; ThwB: 0.8-0.5; ThwBb: 0.6-0.5; ThwF: 0.9-0.5; Wgt: 1,300.
Illustration 2.49, Bracelet fragment, Burial 9, Find 4
Find 7:
Fragment of stone bracelet (?). Inner diameter at least 8 cm. Flat triangular cross-section. Inside the opening (at neck, rim itself having disappeared) of big vessel between feet (Find 7). Association with burial not secure. Find 5:
Illustration 2.50, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 5 Small footed bowl Type 4G. Body egg-cup shaped, everted direct rim, rounded on top. Foot slightly convex truncated conical, base everted and rounded. Grey/buff ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Sherds of this pot were found in the triangle formed by left femur and right tibia of the younger individual, next to (E of) Finds 6 and 7. The pot was probably standing upright and in situ but crushed and dislocated by the changed positions of the legs over time. Only about half of pot preserved in the form of 1 large, 1 small and 4 medium sherds from various parts of body and foot but without joining together. H: 8.3; Hf: 2.5; Wr/m: 13; Wtf: 6; Wbf: 9; ThwB: 0.4-0.7; ThwBb (est.): 0.4-0.6; ThwF: 0.5-0.6; Wgt: 72.
Illustration 2.52, Pot type 8A, Burial 9, Find 7 Very large restricted composite tetrapod vessel Type 8A. Lower body hemispherical, above shoulder concave-inflected. Rim missing. Four short (5 cm) solid horn-like feet grow out of the round bottom of the vessel in a quadrangular formation at about 14 cm distance from each other. Buff ware. Large grains of magnetite in clay. Inside plain but burnished throughout, finely inside neck, less so further down. Outside plain but burnished to 1.5 cm below neck, where there is a 3.5 cm band, delimited on its lower side by a 2 mm wide groove and filled with 2 rows of continuous walking-shell impressions. The next lower band of 8 cm width, delimited on its lower side by the same kind of groove, is divided by vertical lozenges, outlined by such grooves and filled with walking-shell impressions into six sections. In five more of them there are fields in the form of a circle segment baseline-down, filled with rows of walking-shell impressions, while in the sixth, only about half the width of the others, there are two vertical grooves in the middle, separated by 1 cm, on either side of which there is a triangle, curved on top, also filled with walking-shell impressions. The non-decorated surfaces in this band are finely burnished. Below this follows another narrow (1 cm)
Find 6:
Illustration 2.51, Pot type 4F, Burial 9, Find 6 Large footed bowl Type 4F. Almost hemispherical shallow body. Up- and slightly in-turned rim, flattened on top. Foot truncated conical with out-turned base. Buff ware. Inside body and flattened top of rim covered with dark red slip. Outside body
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Khok Charoen III plain burnished band, delimited by a groove, below which (just above shoulder) outside body is coarsely (3.5:10) cord-marked, generally vertically but with some irregular criss-crossings, leaving only the feet plain but burnished. Next to left lower leg which was placed on shoulder of vessel while right foot was wedged under bottom of vessel on its other side. Apart from missing rim complete (i.e. about 95%). Broken into a great number of mainly medium/small sherds. H (incl. feet but without rim): 34.5 {total H probably 38}; H&Wf: 5x4 cm; Wn: 22; Wm: 45; Thw: 0.8-0.5; Wgt: 4,550.
Find 8: Small stone implement (adze?), fragmented longitudinally; perhaps natural stone only. Found on shoulder of flattened large vessel Find 7. Association with burial not secure. Find 9: Tektite flake. Found on shoulder of flattened large vessel Find 7, at 5 cm W of Find 6. Association with burial not secure. Stone 1: A wedge-shaped stone (13x10x6 cm) under NW-edge of tetrapod vessel Find 7.
Photograph 2.18, Large roots made the excavation in some places (here E8) difficult
Photograph 2.19, Similar tree root problems at Cutting F6.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Non-Attributable Burial Pottery This category "N.-A.B.P." includes restorable vessels, the position of which is known but which cannot be associated with any confirmed burial, as well as clusters of potsherds or single diagnostic sherds found in stratified deposits but without their exact location within the cutting having been recorded. Not included are pots or potsherds never found in burials as grave goods, e.g. exclusively domestic pottery, as opposed to certain cooking pots which were also often put into burials. Also not included are vessels considered to have been interred on their own as a single vessel (i.e. "Ceramic Burials", q.v.) but pots being part of interred vessel clusters are included if they also occur in human burials. Although the emphasis is on pots which could be burial gifts and thus the indicators of un-excavated burials, pots which are neither exclusively burial nor domestic pottery could equally well be traces of a settlement; no conclusions based on their respective numbers can therefore be drawn.
Illustration 2.53, Pot type 1K, Pot “1222” Huge globular bowl Type 1K. Spherical body, everted straight restricted rim, pointed on top. Bistre ware, same in break (with grey core). Rim inside covered with red slip, outside plain. Body from 1 cm below rim finely (5:10) cord-marked, regularly vertically. Three smoothed 2 mm-wide bands on shoulder, the lowest one painted over with red slip. About 60 medium wall- and rim-sherds of this pot have been found in the 30-40 cm b.s.-spit of the cutting's SW quadrant, in {2}; none elsewhere although there may have been more sherds in W-baulk towards Burial 5 in neighbouring cutting F5. Pot physically non-restorable but virtually restorable to a great extent. H (est.): 35.7; Hr: 3; Wr: 26; Wn: 20.6; Wm (est.): 43; On: 18.6; Thw: 0.4-0.6.
Pottery types in KC III burials The distribution of pottery types by burial in KC III may be shown in the following Table 2.2 Burial 1 4 5 6 7 8 9
Pots (sequence of find numbers) 4A, 4C, 1Ca, 1C ,4D, 3E, 4Aa 4A, 4A, 4Ab 1K, 1Ba, 4A, 4A, 1K, 1K 1D, 1Ba, 4Ac, 4A, 4A, 4G, 4A, 4G, 3C, 3E, 4A, 4C,3Ca 4Ab, 4Eb 8A 4G, 4F, 8A
Table 2.2 Distribution of pottery types by burial
2) E5 Pot "1533":
With reference to Table 2.2, of the 10 confirmed burials in KC III only 7 have pots as grave goods; these are Burials 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Together, i.e. regardless of their orientation, they have 35 burial pots. The types involved are 1Ba, 1C, 1Ca, 1D, 1K; 3C, 3Ca, 3E; 4A, 4Aa, 4Ab, 4Ac, 4C, 4D, 4Eb, 4F, 4G and 8A. Pots of these types (except for the unique Type 8A) found not in association with a burial are therefore considered to be N.-A.B.P. Taking into account that pots of Types 1Cb and 3Ea could also have been part of burials in KC III (as they are in KC IV), although none of them have been found in the excavated ones, such pots are also included in the N.-A.B.P.-category to which the following 22 pots or parts of pots are thus deemed to belong. Like the finds in burials themselves, these pots are described by type, form, decoration, position, breakage pattern and measurements and are listed according to cuttings to facilitate comparison with burials therein. 1) E5 Pot "1222":
Illustration 2.54, Pot type 1K, Pot “1533” Huge globular bowl Type 1K. Spherical body, everted straight restricted rim, pointed on top. Bistre ware,
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Khok Charoen III same in break (with grey core). Rim inside covered with red slip, outside plain. Body below rim finely (5:10) cord-marked, regularly vertically (very slightly left-leaning). Four smoothed 2 mm-wide bands on shoulder, the lowest one painted over with red slip. Sherds of this pot were all found in the 50-60 cm b.s. spit of the cutting, in {5}. Pot physically non-restorable but virtually to a great extent. H (est.): 30.4; Hr: 3.1; Wr: 27; Wn: 20.8; Wm (est.): 36; On: 19; Thw: 0.4-0.7.
4) E6 Pot "1529":
3) E5 Pot "1653":
Illustration 2.56, Pot type 1K, Pot “1529”
Illustration 2.55, Pot type 4Aa, Pot “1653”
Huge globular bowl Type 1K. Spherical body with very slight carination at shoulder, everted straight restricted rim with outcurving rounded lip. Buff ware. Body inside burnished. Rim inside and top of lip covered with red slip, outside plain. Body from 1 cm below rim medium (4:10) cord-marked, regularly vertically but with increasing cross-cording towards bottom. Three smoothed 2 mm-wide horizontal lines above and at shoulder, all three plain. Found in the centre of S-half of E6 as the lowest of three pots buried in a pit dug from {3} into {6} at 55-80 cm b.s. Obviously not in situ as a burial pot but as part of a vessel cluster ceramic burial dug from a level about 20 cm above the burials but still below the Discontinuity divide. Almost complete, broken into at least 100 medium and small sherds. Indications of an impact near bottom. Not physically restorable but virtually quite reliably. H: 33.6; Hr: 3.3; Hc: 27.5; Wr: 28; Wn: 21.6; Wc: 28.2; Wm: 38; On: 19.4; Thw: 0.3-0.6; Wgt: 2,850.
Large footed bowl Type 4Aa. Hemispherical body, inverted slightly concave unrestricted rim, flattened on top. Foot truncated conical, slightly convex, outcurving base. Buff ware, orange surface treatment. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Lip differentiated from rim by an incised horizontal line outside, 4 mm below top of rim. Found in W-side of S-baulk at 80-90 cm b.s., in a pit or trench dug into {6} and filled with {5}. Possibly first of a row of pots beyond head of a N-orientated burial parallel to Burial 5 in the un-excavated area S of E5 but not confirmed because of lack of evidence. Pot was found upright but flattened by natural compacting. Complete except for two small sherds. Body broken into 4 large and 7 medium sherds; one-half of foot in one piece, including bottom of body, while other was broken off body and into 10 small sherds, indicating perhaps an impact. H: 14.5; Hr: 1.8; Hf: 4.5; Wr: 22; Wm: 22.4; Wtf: 8.8; Wbf: 13; ThwB: 0.4-0.8; ThwBb: 0.8-1.1; ThwF: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 980.
5) E7 Pot "1241":
Illustration 2.57, Pot type 3Ea, Pot “1241” Small shallow dish Type 3Ea. Body shallow spherical segment with vertical incurving unrestricted rim. Very dark buff ware. Plain throughout. Crudely shaped by hand. Found in 30-40 cm b.s.-spit, in {2}. One single rim- and wall-sherd down to bottom, about one-sixth of pot. H: 2.2; Hr: 0.8; Wr: 9; Wc/m: 9.1; Thw: 0.5.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 6) E8 Pot "1139":
Medium globular bowl Type 1C. Body slightly flattened spherical, everted outcurving restricted rim. Buff ware. Inside and outside rim and outside body down to narrow raised band 1.5 cm below neck covered with bright red slip; for another 1.5 cm below raised band outside body simply smoothed and from there on finely (6:10) cord-marked, regularly slightly right leaning. Original position unknown. Sherds from this pot come mainly from the 50-60 cm b.s spit (i.e. {3}) but some also from the 60-70 cm b.s.-spit (i.e. {5}) or even the 70-80 cm b.s. one (i.e. {6}), thus clearly straddling the Discontinuity divide. As the sherds are relatively large and not much worn it is believed that the pot was originally a burial pot rather than a cooking pot from a habitation floor and therefore of pre-Discontinuity age. Like other burial pottery in E8, it most likely came from an un-excavated burial to the NW of the cutting or indeed from Burial 7 partly within it. Pot 75% preserved and restored, with part of bottom and rim missing. Broken into mostly large and medium sherds with only very few small ones; there could have been an impact on the missing part of the bottom. H: 13.5; Hr: 1.8; Wr: 13; Wn: 11; Wc: 14.5; Wm: 18.5; On: 9.6; Thw: 0.5-0.6; Wgt: 500.
Illustration 2.58, Pot type 1Ba, Pot “1139” Small globular bowl Type 1Ba. Spherical body, everted straight restricted rim. Buff ware. Badly weathered.Traces of red slip inside rim, outside plain. From below rim to shoulder a series of 7-8 horizontal (sometimes overlapping) 2 mm-wide smoothed bands. Below this traces of fine (6:10) cord-markings, regularly vertically but patchy. The main part of this pot was found in the NE-corner of E8, at 52 cm b.s. in {3} while some sherds belonging to it came from the 30-40 cm b.s. spit, i.e. from {2}. The pot is unlikely to have come from Burial 9 (and still less from Burial 8) but a connection with the un-excavated Burial 7 or any other such hypothetical burial further N or NW is not only possible but probable. The pot is about 80% complete, broken into 10 medium sherds without indications of an impact. H: 7.2; Hr: 1.3; Wr/m: 9.3; Wn: 8.1; On: 6.8; Thw: 0.5-0.6; Wgt: 150.
9) E8 Pot "1450":
7) E8 Pot "1139b":
Illustration 2.59, Pot type 3Ea, Pot “1139b”
Illustration 2.61, Pot type 1Ab, Pot “1450”
Small shallow dish Type 3Ea. Body shallow spherical segment with direct everted rim, tapering off to a pointed edge. Ochre ware. Plain throughout. Crudely shaped by hand (a small child's finger impressions clearly visible on bottom). Found in 30-40 cm b.s.-spit, in {2}. One single large sherd from rim to bottom, being almost half the dish; no other sherd found. H: 3.3; Wr/m: 9.5; Thw: 0.7-0.8.
Small globular bowl Type 1Ab. Body almost spherical inside, outside slight carination at shoulder. Everted straight restricted rim, tapering off to a pointed edge. Buff ware. Traces of red slip inside rim, outside plain. Body very faintly cord-marked from rim down, seemingly regularly vertically but too faint to see whether finely or medium. Found in 50-60 cm b.s.-spit (i.e. {3}). One medium rim- and wall-sherd only, to just below mid-body (about one-twelfth of pot). H (est.): 9; Hr: 1.3; Hc (est.): 5.5; Wr: 11; Wn: 9.4; Wc/m: 11.8; On: 8; Thw: 0.5-0.6.
8) E8 Pot "1380-1548":
10) E8 Pot "1495":
Illustration 2.60, Pot type 1C, Pot “1380-1548” Illustration 2.62, Pot type 3C, Pot “1495” 56
Khok Charoen III Medium spherical bowl Type 3C. Body outside spherical, inside with slight carination marking the beginning of a very slightly inverted direct rim, rounded on top. Dark buff coarse and heavy ware. Inside plain, possibly originally burnished. Rim outside smoothed to 2.5 cm below top (i.e. height of inside carination), body below rim finely (6:10) cord-marked, evenly right-leaning with bands of vertical markings impressed over it at regular intervals. Sherds of this pot were found in the 50-60 cm b.s.-spit (i.e. {3}) and the 60-70 cm b.s spit (i.e. {5}), again straddling the Discontinuity divide, signifying that the pot most likely came from a burial. Pot only about half preserved, broken into 2 large sherds (both from {4}), 2 medium and 4 small sherds (from {3}). H: 11.3; Hr: 2.5; Wr: 11; Wm: 14; Thw: 0.6-0.9; Wgt: 220.
H: 2.6; Hr: 0.7; Wr: 8.7; Wm: 9; Thw: 0.8. 13) G5 Pot "item 2":
Illustration 2.65, Pot type 4D, Pot “Item 2” Medium footed bowl Type 4D. Shallow spherical segment body. Vertical incurving unrestricted rim, tapering off to a pointed edge. Foot missing. Buff ware. Burnished throughout. Incised decoration on outside rim consisting of a stippled area (triangular stipples in five parallel horizontal lines) from top of rim down, limited below by a wavy incised line (8 crests). One large sherd found at 30 cm b.s. in {2}. One rim- and body-sherd to top of (missing) foot, being about 25% of bowl. H (of body): 5; Hr: 1.9; Wr: 15.9; Wc/m: 16.4; Wtf: 7; ThwB: 0.5-0.7; Wgt: 60.
11) E8 Pot "1548":
14) G5 Pot "1411":
Illustration 2.63, Pot type 4Ac, Pot “1548” Small footed bowl Type 4Ac. Shallow hemispherical body, short vertical incurving unrestricted rim, rounded on top. Foot missing. Buff/yellow ware. Plain throughout. Sherds of this pot were found in the 50-60 cm b.s.-spit (i.e. {3}) and the 70-80 cm b.s.-spit (i.e. {6}), with the bigger sherds coming from the latter soil. The pot is obviously a burial pot. Body almost complete, broken into 1 large, 2 medium and 8 small sherds. Missing foot broken off body. H (body only): 4.6; Hr: 1.2; Wr/m: 12; Wtf: 5.6; ThwB: 0.5-0.7; ThwBb: 0.5-0.6; Wgt: 130. 12) F5 Pot "1621":
Illustration 2.66, Pot type 1K, Pot “1411” Huge globular bowl Type 1K. Spherical body, everted straight restricted rim, rounded on top. Buff/ochre ware. Body inside burnished. Rim inside covered with red slip, outside plain. Body from 1 cm below rim down medium (4:10) cord-marked regularly vertically. Two 3 mm-wide smoothed bands above shoulder, both plain. Sherds of this pot were found in the 50-60 and 60-70 cm b.s.-spits, i.e. mainly in {5} but some also in {6}. Sherds only from rim and upper body; pot physically unrestorable, but virtually with confidence. H (est.): 34.8; Hr: 3.5; Wr: 33; Wn: 28; Wm: 43; On: 25.8; Thw (est.): 0.7-0.9.
Illustration 2.64, Pot type 3Ea, Pot “1621” Small shallow dish Type 3Ea. Body shallow spherical segment with a very short vertical incurving unrestricted rim, rounded on top Ochre ware. Plain throughout. Crudely shaped by hand (small finger impressions visible outside rim). Sherd found in 1 square metre excavated in S-baulk, in {5} or {6} and almost certainly originally associated with foot-end of Burial 5. Only one sherd found, from rim to mid-bottom, being about 12% of entire pot.
57
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 15) G5 Pot "1422":
about the middle of this smoothed upper body, 12 mm below rim, there is a 5 mm-wide appliqué band, from 7 mm below which downwards the body is finely (5.5:10) vertically cord-marked. Sherds of this pot were found in the 60-70 cm b.s.-spit, in {5}; exact location within the cutting unknown. As this cutting could not be excavated below 70 cm b.s., it is likely that there are still un-excavated burials in it with which this pot could be associated. Pot only a little more than half complete, broken into 6 medium and 5 small sherds. There are signs of two impacts: one on the middle or upper part of one side and the other on the centre of the bottom. H: 6.5; Hr: 0.8; Wr/m: 10; Wn: 9; On: 7.6; Thw: 0.5-0.9; Wgt: 100.
Illustration 2.67, Pot type 3Ca, Pot “1422” Small hemispherical bowl Type 3Ca. Hemispherical body. Low direct rim tapering off to a pointed top from a slight carination outside and inside. Buff/ochre ware. Body and rim inside roughly smoothed with a 4 mm-wide spatula. Rim outside covered with red slip. Body below rim finely (5:10) cord-marked, vertically on upper body, criss-crossed further down. Found at 52 cm b.s. (top of upright standing bowl) in {5}, in NW-corner of cutting. Possibly associated with Burial 1. About 80% complete, only some small bottom-sherds missing. Signs of an impact in centre of bottom. H: 5.7; Hr: 0.8; Wr: 9.8; Wc/m: 10.5; Thw: 0.3-0.8; Wgt: 160.
18) H5 Pot "item 15":
16) G6 Pot "1629": Illustration 2.70, Pot type 3C, Pot “Item 15” Medium hemispherical bowl Type 3C. Deep hemispherical body. Small inverted incurving rim, rounded lip. Ochre ware. Rim outside covered with red slip. Upper body below rim plain to 1 cm above mid-body where there is a thin incised line; from there on down body medium (4:10) cord-marked, generally vertically but with the occasional diagonal (right up) markings reaching well into the plain part above the incised line. There are also small finger impressions. Pot was found just NW of centre of cutting at 45 cm b.s. in {5}. Possibly associated with Burial 6. Pot about 50% preserved, central part of bottom missing. H: 9.5; Hr: 1; Wr: 10.5; Wm: 11.5; Thw: 0.7-1; Wgt: 250.
Illustration 2.68, Pot type 1Ab, Pot “1629” Small globular bowl Type 1Ab. Slightly flattened spherical body. Low everted outcurving restricted rim, pointed on top. Buff/ochre ware. Rim inside covered with red slip, outside plain. Body from rim down finely (5:10) but partly only faintly cord-marked. Found in 40-60 cm b.s.-spit, in {2} or {3}. Only one rim- to below mid-body sherd, about 10% of entire pot. H (est.): 7.8; Hr: 1; Wr: 10; Wn: 9.2; Wm: 10.7; On: 8.4; Thw (est.): 0.3-0.4.
19) H5 Pot "item 16":
17) G6 Pot "1637":
Illustration 2.69, Pot type 1Ba, Pot “1637” Small globular bowl Type 1Ba. Spherical body, everted straight restricted rim, pointed on top. Buff ware. Body inside burnished. Rim inside and outside plain. Upper body (i.e. between rim and mid-body) plain but smoothed in such a way that fine horizontal lines are clearly visible, presumably on purpose. In
Illustration 2.71, Pot type 3Ea, Pot “Item 16” Medium shallow dish Type 3Ea. Body irregular shallow spherical segment. Direct rim tapering off to a pointed edge. Buff ware. Plain throughout. Roughly fashioned by hand with many marks and finger
58
Khok Charoen III impressions. Found near centre of cutting at 45 cm b.s. in {3}. Possibly associated with Burial 6. H: 2; Wr/m: 11; Thw: 0.3-0.9; Wgt: 140.
inside and outside and upper body to shoulder covered with red slip and polished. An appliqué band of 8 mm width on shoulder, impressed vertically in a continuous and regular fashion by a round object (not finger), is also covered with red slip. From this band down the body is finely (5:10) cord-marked, in general vertically but with occasional patches of left-leaning markings. Directly below the appliqué band there are three 3 mm-wide smoothed bands over the cord-marks, the upper-most and the second one next to each-other, whereas there is a small gap between this second and the lowest band leaving the markings visible. Pot was found in SE-corner of cutting, 60-70 cm b.s. in {5}. Almost complete (only about one-quarter of rim missing), broken into 2large sherds at bottom and the rest fairly regularly into medium sherds. No signs of an impact. H: 13.6; Hr: 1.2; Wr: 11.6; Wn: 9.6; Wc: 13.5; Wm: 16; On: 7.8; Thw: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 650.
20) H5 Pot "item 27":
Illustration 2.72, Pot type 4D, Pot “Item 27” Medium footed bowl Type 4D. Shallow spherical segment body. Vertical incurving unrestricted rim, tapering off to a pointed edge. Bottom of body and foot missing. Buff ware. Body inside burnished. Incised decoration on outside rim consisting of a stippled area (oval stipples in several irregular horizontal lines, poked into the wet clay from the right side) from top of rim down, limited below by a wavy incised line; some stipples are on this line. Found against W-baulk, 1.5 m from N, at 60 cm b.s. in {5}. One medium sherd from rim to upper body. Hr: 2; Wr: 17; Wc/m: 18.5.
Discussion Of the four restorable pots of known location, two (Pot "1653", a footed bowl Type 4Aa in E5, and Pot "1379", a globular bowl Type 1Cb in H5) had already been allocated to (hypothetical) burials before being relegated to N.-A.B.P.-status because of lack of corroborating evidence, although the probability of the existence of these burials – one S of E5, parallel to Burial 5, and the other S of H5, also N-orientated – remains strong. Pot "1379" is of particular interest as it is the only one of its type excavated in KC III where it was found in a state of breakage indicative of a burial pot but not being associated with a burial and having as its counterpart the only such pot excavated in KC IV in a burial (Burial 3, Find 5). The other two (Pot "1533", a huge globular bowl Type 1K in E5 and Pot "1139", a globular bowl Type 1Ba in E8), were both, although situated near the border of their respective cuttings next to un-excavated areas, unlikely to have been part of a burial hidden therein. Pot "1533" is an ambiguous case inasmuch as two identical pots were found with Burial 5 (Finds 3 and 7) in the neighbouring cutting F5; as there were no clear signs of Pot "1533" having been buried on its own, its classification as N.-A.B.P. seemed to be warranted at the time, although it was later discovered to have been a burial pot of Burial 5. Two more N.-A.B.P. pots of the same type are composed of stratified sherds coming from different locations but are not entirely restorable: Pot "1222" from E5 and Pot "1411" from G5. Finally, there is Pot "1529", found together with two other pots in the ceramic burial (vessel cluster) dug from the first post-Discontinuity layer in E6, but obviously coming originally from a lower burial layer and therefore also N.-A.B.P.
21) H5 Pot "1179":
Illustration 2.73, Pot type 3E, Pot “1179” Medium shallow dish Type 3E. Body irregular shallow spherical segment. Vertical incurving unrestricted rim, rounded on top. Ochre ware. Roughly fashioned by hand. Plain except for irregular medium (4:10) cord-marking on body below rim. Found in 30-40 cm b.s.-spit in {2}. About 80% complete, broken into 1 large sherd (almost half of entire pot) and 7 medium sherds leaving only a small part of bottom missing. H: 3; Hr: 1; Wr: 9.6; Wc/m: 10; Thw: 0.7-0.8; Wgt: 140. 22) H5 Pot "1379":
Illustration 2.74, Pot type 1Cb, Pot “1379” Medium globular bowl Type 1Cb. Body spherical, upper part truncated conical. Everted outcurving restricted rim. Buff ware. Body inside burnished. Rim
There are seven sherd assemblages the exact location of which (apart from cutting and depth/soil) is unknown, but which can be restored to the extent that the type of pot can be recognised as one known from an existing burial in KC 59
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand III. These include two cord-marked globular bowls (Pots "1637", Type 1Ba, in G6 and "1380-1548", Type 1C, in E8), two small unrestricted cord-marked bowls (Pots "1495", Type 3C, in E8 and "1422", Type 3Ca, in G5), one small shallow bowl (Pot "1179", Type 3E, in H5), one small shallow dish (Pot "item 16", Type 3Ea, also in H5) and one plain footed bowl (Pot "1644", Type 4G, in E8).
with a more generalised kind of interference which resulted in the disappearance of the left lower leg of the skeleton. Furthermore, one from Burial 5 which shows definite signs of an impact near the bottom probably received the blow (which did not shatter it) before it was put into the burial. Of the first seven pots, all but one (a small cord-marked globular bowl in Burial 1, hit at mid-body) were footed bowls hit somewhere at the rim. Whether this means that these hits must necessarily be intentional (a somewhat inefficient way of breaking a pot, it seems) or were the results of post-burial interferences, is not clear; it certainly diminishes the case for the intentional ritual breaking of burial pottery in KC III, unless one accepts the idea of "symbolic" breaking.
Six single diagnostic sherds allowing type identification deemed N.-A.B.P. include three small shallow dishes Type 3Ea (Pots "1241" in E7, "1139b" in E8 and "1621" in F5), one cord-marked globular bowl Type 1Ab (Pot "1450" in E8) and two footed bowls of Type 4D (Pots "item 2" in G5 and "item 27" in H5) which are significant because they attest to the presence of two more pots with incised-and-pricked decoration, in addition to Find 5 of Burial 1, in or near the same cuttings.
The three pots buried on their own as "Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial A" in E6 (the only confirmed such burial in KC III) also showed the typical signs of an impact indicating intentional breaking but there the situation is different from the human burials inasmuch as these three pots were clearly buried in a pit specially dug for this purpose. One therefore has to imagine that these pots were broken by a blow with a hard pointed object one by one after having been put in this pit unless they were broken before being thrown or placed into it. Whatever the method to get them there, these three pots were found as clusters of sherds on top of each-other, the points of impact having been discovered only during restoration.
Intentionally Broken Pottery The custom of breaking grave goods, in particular pottery, before or after putting them into a burial has been affirmed in several instances in Thailand (e.g. Bayard1972a:18). However, before any broken burial pot from KC III can be taken as further proof of this ritual, satisfactory answers to at least two questions must be found: namely, how plausible are the signs of intentional, as opposed to accidental, breaking and does the position of the broken pot support the assumption of ritualistic breaking? Considering that in normal circumstances it must obviously be impracticable to break a vessel before depositing it, there are only two ways left to intentionally break a ceramic vessel at the occasion of a burial, i.e. to throw it into the grave where it would break and remain in that position with the resulting breakage pattern, and to hit the vessel after it had been deposited on the burial with a hard object pointed enough to leave a recognisable point of impact. As in the first case the breakage pattern does not necessarily indicate intentional breaking, it is thought that the radiating ("spider's web") impact pattern in its various forms presents more reliable evidence for such an action, presumably carried out with a sharp implement. In this case the vessel would have to be positioned in such a way that it could be easily reached for this purpose from above the burial or from its side.
Sheets of potsherds under parts of the body should be seen as the result of another form of intentional breaking, especially if it can be shown that individual restorable burial pots had been used for this purpose. In KC III, only Burials 5 and 6 show remains of such sheets but there was only one virtually restorable pot, Find 10 of Burial 5. This is a large footed bowl the body of which is spread out flat in 12 sherds under the pelvic region of the skeleton; the fact that the foot had been removed could show that this particular pot was meant to be something like a support on which this part of the body of the deceased should rest. Find 8, being two medium sherds under the left chest seems to be a special case which is unexplainable without entering the realm of speculation. Burial 6 has a sheet of several large sherds from at least two different non-restorable large cord-marked globular bowls (Find 18), spread out under the skull and the burial pot situated just beyond it.
Of the ten burials of KC III only seven had pots as grave goods, with altogether 35 such pots of which 11 showed signs of an impact. Of these 11 pots, two (out of seven) were from Burial 1; two (out of three) from Burial 4; four (out of seven) from Burial 5; two (out of 13) from Burial 6; and one (out of two) from Burial 7 but this pot's unknown position in relation to a hypothetical skeleton does not allow for any worthwhile interpretation.
Yet another form of intentional breaking of burial pottery is the neat removal of the entire rim of a vessel at the neck, apparently leaving the remainder of the vessel intact. The evenness of the break was almost certainly not the result of an accident or any action other than deliberate and purposeful fracturing by people using an unknown implement. Only one instance of this kind of intentional breaking was found in KC III: the large tetrapod bowl Find 7 of Burial 9.
However, only the two pots of Burial 1, the two of Burial 4, and three of Burial 5 seem to be relatively clear-cut cases, being in positions to have easily been hit deliberately, while the two pots of Burial 6 showing signs of an impact are more likely to have been connected 60
Khok Charoen III Discussion
selected comparative purposes: ex-Burials 10 and 11 which are represented by only one pot each deemed to have been positioned just beyond the head of skeletons which themselves could not be excavated. After closer examination of the evidence, these two "burials" had to be taken off the list as having insufficient justification and the two pots were transferred to the category of "Non-Attributable Burial Pottery" (Pots "1379" and "1653" respectively).
The available evidence shows that the question of whether or not intentional breaking of burial pottery occurred in KC III cannot be answered either way. Of the 30 pots found as grave goods in situ, there are only two (the small globular bowl Find 4 of Burial 1 and the large globular bowl Find 7 of Burial 5) which show signs of having been broken by a blow to the body of the pot as opposed to the rim only but the point of impact is situated on the lower part of the pot, not accessible to the application of such a blow while the pot was in an upright position. While it is possible that this impact had a different origin in the first case and therefore is no proof for ritual breaking of burial pottery in the human burials of KC III, there is a convincing explanation why this conclusion is not valid in the second case which seems to prove the contrary. More proof for such a custom in later times comes from a ceramic burial which was discovered containing two burial pots of types known from the human burials and one domestic pot never found associated with a burial of a type exclusive to the post-Discontinuity period of the site; all three pots were broken intentionally as signs of impacts attest. The intentional breaking of pots to use their sherds as a sheet under parts of the body and the removal of the rim of a burial vessel by neatly breaking it off have also been practised in KC III. One instance of the latter custom is also known from the lowest level at Non Nok Tha: a restricted almost globular bowl with ring-foot and diagonally cord-marked body, probably Class 2, Type C or E (Solheim 1980: 48, pl. IV a).
The number of burials yielding reliable data for comprehensive analysis must be further reduced as Burial 1a is partly hypothetical, Burial 7 is also (like ex-Burials 10 and 11) hypothetical albeit with a high probability of being real and Burial 3, having no finds at all, may not even be a real burial; however, having at least a fairly well preserved skeleton, it will here be taken into account. With its unusual burial pot, Burial 8 is also a special case but nevertheless useful for comparative purposes. We are thus left with only four burials (Burials 3, 4, 5 and 8) for comparison. These four burials can be tabulated according to the following points: 1) who was buried (sex, age, height); 2) in what position and in what soils; 3) most likely cause of death; 4) personal adornments; 5) summary of grave goods; 6) post-burial disturbances. Burial 3: 1) Adult male, thick bones, about 1.70 m high. 2) Supine position with flexed knees; lying deep in {6}, covered with {6}. No burial pit or trench discernable. 3) Not known. The unusual position of the skeleton points to the probability that the body was simply abandoned or summarily interred, which leaves the question of the cause of death unanswered. 4) No personal adornments. 5) No grave goods of any kind. 6) No signs of post-burial disturbances.
Burial Phases Assuming that the orientation of burials is the primary indication of their being part of a particular phase, only two burial phases can be distinguished in KC III: Head-to-North and Head-to-East (each with minor variations). In only one instance, Burials 1 and 1a, was there an overlap to allow the determination of the relative chronological situation of these two. Here, some skeletal material was discovered which, although being in an extremely bad state of preservation, could be virtually reconstituted into a N-oriented burial, lying in a trench in {6}. Immediately above it and crossing it at a right angle ran the row of pots of the E-oriented Burial 1, in such a way that there can be no doubt that Burial 1a was older than Burial 1. Head-to-North was therefore considered to be the first burial phase, followed after probably only a short interval by a second phase represented by the Head-to-East burials. In cases like Burials 8 and 9, the latest burials of KC III, their orientation must have been determined by conventions which cannot be elucidated through the surviving record.
Burial 4: 1) Double burial with supernumerary long-bones: 1 adult female, 1 mid-teenage girl. The adult about 1.54 m high; height of the girl unknown. 2) Supine position for the adult female, ventral on top of the adult for the girl; lying in a trench dug into {6} covered with {6}. 3) Adult female: natural; girl: deep cuts on top of head (inflicted by humans?) are the most likely cause of death. 4) No personal adornments. 5) 3 plain footed bowls. 6) Disturbance which swept away, in an easterly direction, much of the upper part of the burial between skull and lower body. Obviously post-burial but after an unknown time span.
North orientation
Burial 5: 1) Single burial of an adult individual, probably male, about 1.65 m high. 2) Supine position; lying in a trench dug into {6},
There are six burials in KC III with a real or assumed Head-to-North orientation: Burials 1a, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8. To these, two more hypothetical burials could be added for 61
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand covered with {6}, except for two pits filled with an ill-defined {5} going down to lower body and legs of skeleton. 3) A frontal blow to the nasal and maxilla region as well as to the chest (by humans?) may have been the cause of death (unless this blow was to the dead body). 4) An adornment of shell disk-beads Type b (bracelet?) at each wrist or lower arm. 5) 1 large and 1 medium cord-marked globular bowl and 2 plain footed bowls beyond head, remains of 2 more large cord-marked bowls at right elbow and left knee and one-third of 1 more large cord-marked bowl under head (two-thirds dispersed) and of 1 more plain footed bowl under pelvis. A single valve of a tree oyster (Isognomon spp.) was found lying on the rim of the first large globular bowl. 6) There could have been three post-burial disturbances. A hypothetical one, soon after the burial, which resulted in the disappearance of a still intact pot which may have originally been situated in the otherwise inexplicable gap between the northernmost pot (Find 3) and the cluster of three pots a little further south (Finds 4-6). Another one to explain the gap between them and the head, causing the dispersal of the large cord- marked bowl there (Find 7). Finally, a much later third one through two pits dug from post-Discontinuity level towards the lower part of the skeleton which took away the pot situated at the knee (Find 11), as well as the left leg, broken at mid-femur at the edge of Stone 1 (which is difficult to imagine when the body was still fresh). It also twisted the right lower arm, broke the pot next to it (Find 9) and, very probably, took away a pot or another large object placed on the pelvic region, because the hands, appear to be holding something, but there is nothing there. There is also the possibility that the excavated skeleton was a secondary burial and that the replacement of the original burial by it was the first disturbance of Burial 5. See “Conclusions” (Chapter 6) for further comments.
being on its southeastern side, is likely to have been taken or swept away in a southeasterly direction. As no signs of this disturbance could be found in the overlaying soil, it is surmised that it must have taken place not long after the time of the burial. East orienttaion The only other orientation of burials in KC III is Head-to-East which is that of Burials 1, 2, 6 and 9 but not all four of these burials can be relied upon to yield meaningful data for comparison. Burial 1 is hypothetical as its assumed skeleton could not be excavated (although its grave goods are those of a burial), Burial 2 has no grave goods at all, and Burial 9, with its large tetrapod decorated bowl identical with the differently oriented Burial 8, does not seem to fit neatly enough into the scheme of the two burial orientations. This leaves only Burial 6 as a "typical" representative of the Head-to-East orientation; the other three burials will be used for comparison whenever appropriate so as to reach at least some useful conclusions. Using the same system as for burials with a Head-to-North orientation, these four burials are again tabulated according to the points 1) who was buried (sex, age, height); 2) in what position and in what soils; 3) cause of death; 4) personal adornments; 5) summary of grave goods; 6) post-burial disturbances. Burial 1: 1) Skeleton not excavated (presumably adult individual). 2) (judging from the section, supine position implied); lying in a natural or dug pit in {6}and covered with {5}. 3) Not applicable. 4) Not applicable. 5) 6 pots beyond "head": 3 plain footed bowls, 1 footed bowl with incised and pricked decoration, 2 medium-sized cord-marked globular bowls. 6) No signs of post-burial disturbances.
Burial 8: 1) Single burial of an adult male, about 30 years old, thick bones, 1.68 m high. 2) Supine position; lying in a natural hollow on the surface of {6} and covered with {5}. 3) Probably natural death although the position of the head (sharply turned to left) may indicate a complication. 4) Possibly a shell anklet at right ankle (Find 1). 5) Only 1 large pot with incised decoration, Type 8A (Find 2). 6) There clearly was a disturbance at the lower end of the burial where both feet are missing, together with about two-thirds of the body and one quarter of the rim of the unique burial pot. While the absence of the feet may be explained by animal action (having been exposed they had been devoured by carnivores or rodents), that of well-defined parts of the pot must be due to a natural cause or action by humans. The missing part of the pot and possibly the feet as well,
Burial 2: 1) Double burial: 1 adult male, 1.67 m high, unusual thick skull; some long-bones and fragments thereof from a second individual, also adult male but of unknown height. 2) Supine position for the main skeleton; lying partly in a pit or depression in {6} covered with {5}. 3) The badly fractured skull and broken teeth seem to indicate a violent death, either by accident or, more likely, from intentional blows to the head. A wound in one of the 3 humeri found in this burial, almost certainly made by humans, also points to fights or other violent events. The position of the skeleton (crooked, head bent forward, legs flexed) could even be interpreted as a sign that the body was buried in a hasty and unorthodox manner, consistent with the assumption that the cause of death was an unusual one, similar to Burial 3. 4) A head ornament made of shell disk-beads Type b 62
Khok Charoen III and a stone bracelet at right wrist. 5) No grave goods apart from a small fragment of a pig's (?) mandible, the association with the burial of which is not secure. 6) Post-burial disturbance by animals while skeleton(s) were at least partly exposed and previous water action to cause this exposure.
one single counterpart in KC IV and the second only one in KC III itself: Burial 8). 6) Disturbance on right side of skeleton which altered the position of right leg and pelvis of younger individual and probably caused the disappearance of both legs of the older one; appears to have been the result of natural forces.
Burial 6: 1) Adult female, about 1.55 m high. 2) Supine position; lying in a pit dug into {6} and covered with {5}. 3) Seemingly natural. 4) An unusual flat stone bracelet at right elbow, a shell ornament at each arm and an ornament made of shell disk-beads Type a at left wrist and/or pelvis. 5) 13 pots, none with incised-and-pricked decoration: 3 medium-sized cord-marked globular bowls, 8 medium-sized footed bowls and 2 small dishes at various parts of the body from beyond head to feet. 6) Post-burial disturbances at right upper arm and shoulder and at lower end of burial, most likely by animals or humans. Numerous sherds from pots not belonging to this burial were found lying on top of various parts of the skeleton, presumably having been deposited there by water flows (from a northerly direction?) while missing parts of pots at the lower end of the burial had probably been carried away in a southerly direction by the same flows.
Discussion 1) When comparing the ten skeletons from burials of both orientations complete enough to yield information regarding age, sex and height, it becomes evident that there does not seem to be anything which significantly differentiates between the two groups. In the group of N-oriented burials, there was one multiple burial of an adult and a teenage female and there were three single burials of one adult male each, while in that of the E-oriented burials, there were two multiple burials of two adult males each and one single burial of an adult female. As precisely as it could be measured, the adult female in the first group had a height of about 1.54 m, that of the teenage girl is unknown and the heights of the adult males were about 1.65 m, 1.68 m and 1.70 m; the adult female in the second group was about 1.55 m high and the heights of the adult males were about 1.67 m, 1.65 m and again 1.65 m, with that of the fourth unknown but probably in the same range. Although, of course, totally irrelevant statistically, it could be argued that, with an "average" height of 1.67 m for males and 1.55 m for females, this population sample is somewhat taller than the present population in the area. The fact that these three males have stronger and thicker bones, including skulls, than the present males could possibly be taken to support this assumption.
Burial 9: Double burial: 1 older and 1 younger adult individual, both male, about 1.65 m high and both with stronger/longer bones and thicker skulls than the present population; the older man's skeleton lying on top of the younger one. 2) Supine with flexed arms for the younger man, ventral for the older one; lying in a trench dug into {6} and covered with {5}. 3) Because of the poor state of preservation of the upper skeleton, including skull, the cause of death of the older individual cannot be ascertained but there are strong signs of violence. How else could the peculiar position of the head be explained which lacks its entire face, thus allowing the top front part of the younger man's head (or skull?) to practically slip into that of the older man? An alternative scenario could be that the body was already partly decomposed when it was buried on top of that of the younger man, or came to rest there as the result of natural events, but this is difficult to accept as the position of that man's arms would remain unexplained. The cause of death of the younger man himself seems to have been natural as there are no direct signs to the contrary. 4) Older individual no items of personal adornments discovered; younger one probably a shell head ornament and a shell ornament at right ankle, and possibly a stone ring in an unknown position. 5) One large cord-marked footed bowl and 1 large tetrapod cord-marked bowl with incised decoration; both pots very rare in Khok Charoen (the first has only
2) There is a difference between the two orientations with regard to the soils surrounding the burials. All skeletons were lying in a pit or trench in, or on the surface of, solid {6} but three of the N-oriented burials (Burials 3, 4 and 5) were covered with a layer of soil {6} beneath the overlaying {5}. For Burial 1a the setting was not well-defined but Burials 7 and 8 were clearly, like the four E-oriented burials (Burials 1, 2, 6 and 9), entirely surrounded by {5}. This situation suggests that the N-oriented burials of KC III, without considering the ambiguous cases of Burials 7 and 8, are older than the E-oriented ones. With the exception of the two burials the skeletons of which were lying in supine position but with flexed knees (Burials 2 and 3, unlikely to have been proper burials anyway), and Burial 9 which has flexed arms and seems to be a very special case on account of its pottery, the characteristic position for KC III was supine with outstretched arms and legs. This was also so with the double burials where the main skeleton was in this position with the other skeleton ventrally superior. 3) While the cause of death can only rarely be established without painstaking forensic examination, the high probability that the wounds which appear to have caused the death of two of the five individuals buried in the 63
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand N-orientation were inflicted by humans may indicate a certain amount of violence in this particular community or perhaps as a result of inter-communal feuds. The same is true for the burials of E-orientation, where the cause of death of the men seems to have been violent for at least two of them, for one it is unknown and only one may have died a natural death. The female, too, appears to have died naturally. Taken together (and disregarding doubts as well as the unsuitability of the sample for any kind of statistical purpose), it is quite conceivable to imagine that. of the individuals buried in KC III, a great proportion had died of wounds sustained in battle or in accidents. At least one reliable conclusion can be drawn: that there do not seem to be special cemeteries for people having died a violent death or some other category of this nature.
Pot Type Bur 1,6 (E) Bur 4,5 (N)
1Ba 1C 1Ca 1D 1K 3C 3Ca 3E 4 A 4Aa 4Ab 4Ac 4C 4D 4G x x x x x x x x x x x x X x x x x
Table 2.3 Distribution of pot types in burials 1, 6 (E) and 4, 5 (N) Two of the four types of burial pots of N-oriented burials (Types 1K and 4Ab) only occur in this older phase whereas another two (Types 1Ba and 4A) continue into the younger one; all four types must be seen as the oldest pottery types of Khok Charoen but their origin is as yet not known. As far as the sequence of plain burial pots and those with incised-and-pricked decoration is concerned, there still remain some questions. Amongst the N-oriented burials, Burials 4 and 5 do not have pots with such a decoration but the younger Burial 7 has a footed bowl with pricked decoration, albeit of a rather simple kind (uneven rows of dots along the rim) which could be taken to indicate the beginning of this type of pottery decoration, becoming more intricate with time. Unfortunately, this particular pot is the only one of its kind in Khok Charoen or similar sites, which makes this working hypothesis untestable at present. However, the two ex-Burials 10 and 11 with one pot each (a cord-marked globular and a plain footed bowl respectively) do not contradict the assumption that there were no incised-and-pricked decorated pots with N-oriented burials. Of the altogether 19 pots in the E-oriented burials (6 in Burial 1 and 13 in Burial 6), only one has an incised-and-pricked decoration but this pot is a special case. One of the four footed bowls in Burial 1 is of the Type 4D, i.e. bearing on rim, ankle and foot a very characteristic decoration consisting of incised straight and wavy lines with pricked lines in between. Two pots of this type are known from KC IV where they coexist with three pots of Type 4E on which a wavy line is replaced by a zigzag line; there are also a number of sherds with those decorations attesting to the existence of more of such pots in KC IV. In KC III, the pot from Burial 1 is the only one found of either type apart from one sherd each from two more pots of Type 4D found in stratified deposits not in direct association with any burial. The possibility must therefore be taken into account that the KC III pots which are in all respects (ware, colour, decoration, etc.) identical with those found in KC IV, do in actual fact come from, or are contemporaneous with, that other part of the site, although we do not know in what way. The cases of Burials 8 and 9 with their incised-and-pricked decorated pots unique in the whole of Khok Charoen and their obscure origin will be considered separately.
4) No useful conclusion can be drawn from the distribution of the four kinds of personal adornments associated with burials of both orientations (shell disk-beads Type a or b, fragments of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shells, and stone bracelets), as no pattern emerged. Disk-beads of Type a are associated with a skeleton of N-orientation but of unknown sex (Burial 1a) and with a female one of E-orientation (Burial 6), while Type b is associated with a male skeleton of E-orientation (Burial 2) and another male with N-orientation (Burial 5). A similar situation exists with regard to shell fragments of P. mouhoti, which have possibly been associated with two male skeletons of different orientations at right ankle (Burials 8 and 9), with a female skeleton of E-orientation at left upper and right lower arm (Burial 6) and with the younger male in Burial 9 near the skull. Here we have the intriguing case of two apparently contemporaneous male burials of different orientation, having an identical big pot as main burial gift and possibly similar shell adornments at the right ankle and yet being differentiated in several other ways, maybe including that of having one more adornment at the head. The two fragments of two different kinds of stone bracelets were found one with a male skeleton of E-orientation (Burial 2) and the other with a female skeleton of the same orientation (Burial 6). A stone ring fragment which was lying on top of the large decorated pot of the male burial which also had the two different shell ornaments (Burial 9) may not belong to this burial. 5) With regard to grave goods, and in particular burial pots, the overall situation is relatively clear. The comparison of the pottery types of the two confirmed burials with pots as burial gifts of each orientation (Burials 4 and 5 for N-orientation and 1 and 6 for E-orientation), shows the main difference between them to be the much greater number of types for the E-oriented burials. This not only emphasises the distinctness of the two burial phases based on orientation but also their relative chronology as the phase with more types must obviously be the younger one.
6) Post-burial disturbances, by natural forces and by humans or animals, seem to have been relatively common in KC III, both shortly after the burial and at various later times; there are even indications of grave robberies. Of the four N-oriented burials surveyed (including Burial 8 but excluding Burial 1a which was disturbed by Burial 1), only one, Burial 3, seem to have remained undisturbed while the other three (Burials 4, 5, and 8) showed signs of massive disturbances at different times. However, Burial 3
The distribution of pot types by burial is shown in Table 2.3. 64
Khok Charoen III may be a special case in this regard inasmuch as the body, seemingly lying in a natural cavity in the bedrock and being without grave goods, was protected from disturbances anyway. The same situation prevailed with regard to the E-oriented burials where more or less extensive disturbances were attested for three of the four surveyed burials (Burials 2, 6 and 9). But as the fourth (Burial 1) has not been completely excavated, the excavation of its skeleton may well have also revealed some such disturbance. Thus, one could even go as far as to say that, according to the available evidence, an undisturbed burial would be the exception in KC III.
The only find in KC III suggesting that there could also have been, as in KC II and I/IV, burials of single special pots not in association with a human burial, is a bottom sherd with fragments of an added ring-foot of the same type as Pot "19" of KC I, i.e. a large decorated restricted bowl, lower body cord-marked. But this "Pot 1106", found in layer {2} of cutting E7, can in no way be taken as an indication for the existence of single ceramic burials in KC III as it is obviously neither in situ nor is it even certain that it is from this site altogether; more likely it was a stray find originating from the nearby KC I/IV mound. It is also not clear whether Pot "19" was buried on its own, as part of a cluster, or not at all. There are, however, four pots of types normally associated with burials (two small cord-marked globular bowls, one large cord-marked globular bowl and one plain footed bowl), classified as Non-Attributable Burial Pottery, which because of their isolated situation may be suspected of having been individually interred. But all four are situated so near to the edge of a cutting (at the most 60 cm) that a connection with an un-excavated burial cannot be excluded and had indeed been surmised for two of them (ex-Burials 10 and 11). Moreover, signs of a pit individually dug for these pots are either absent or too faint to be conclusive.
2.4 Ceramic Burials The term "ceramic burial" was chosen to describe the interment of ceramic vessels not in evident association with a human burial, in preference to "vessel deposit", "ceramic offering", "pottery without skeleton" or similar terms variously used as denotation of the same phenomenon. Such interments can be those of isolated single pots, usually quite different from the pottery found as grave goods in human burials, or of clusters of the same pots as those used as grave goods but without visible human skeletal material nearby or of totally different pots found in neither of them. It must be obvious, therefore, that, while it is relatively easy to identify ceramic burials of the first kind, the identification of the latter kinds may at times be the result of misinterpretation of the evidence, especially in disturbed soils or incomplete excavations.
Vessel Clusters During the excavation of KC I, we had the impression that, in addition to the one special single vessel burial, there were also some other, more ordinary pots which could possibly have been buried independently of any graves (Watson and Loofs 1967: 251). However, this assumption could not be confirmed and was also not mentioned, with reference to KC I, by Ho (1984) but ten such clusters were later found during the excavation of KC IV, although none of them situated in a cutting excavated as KC I; they were in E4 (1), E6 (1), F3 (4) and F4 (4).
Single Vessels The first discovery of a single vessel burial at Khok Charoen was already made during the trial excavation of 1966, later to become KC I, and was duly noted in the preliminary report of the TBAE's first season, with the interred vessel being described as a "remarkable object" (Watson and Loofs 1967: 256). We were indeed greatly surprised to find such an elaborately decorated and well-made tall cylindrical pot next to relatively simple burial pottery. This ceramic burial is dealt with in detail in the chapter on KC IV.
For KC II, Ho listed nine clusters of intact pottery found without human skeletons but to which burial numbers had already been attributed and considered them to be "Group B" of the burials excavated at the site (Ho 1984, I: 17-18). In KC III there is clear evidence of one interred vessel cluster unrelated to any burial although its centre is only about 80 cm distant from the feet of Burial 4. In the centre of the S-half of E6 a pit had been dug from {3} through {5} down into {6} to accommodate a compact cluster of the sherds of three individual pots which could be almost completely restored although they had been deliberately broken as shown by recognisable points of impact in each of them.
Two similarly shaped pots were found in KC II in the same circumstances, i.e. each one buried on its own in a pit obviously dug to accommodate only this one single pot. They were both of (Ho's) vessel Type 10 (a tall gourd-shaped restricted vessel, narrow mouth) and were both given an individual burial and find number: Burial 46, Find 1 for one, and Burial 47, Find 1 for the other. Both these gourd-shaped pots were initially thought to have been locally made imitations of a KC IV model (Ho 1984, I: 51, 53) but it became clear subsequently that they were not a part of the KC II cemetery but remnants from the time of the KC IV burials (see infra, "Overall Chronology and Conclusions, Post-Discontinuity KC II").
The three pots buried in this way were 1) a large cord-marked globular bowl Type 1K (Pot "1529"); 2) a medium-sized cord-marked globular bowl Type 1Ab (Pot "1527"); and 3) a large flat-bottomed unrestricted bowl with a pie-crust band at the shoulder Type 5A (Pot "T"). Whereas the first two pots are of types found in burials 65
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand (the first one only in KC III, the second only in KC IV), the last one is of a type of domestic pottery found exclusively in KC III. Although the sherds of these three pots were somewhat intermingled, the large globular bowl was at the bottom, the medium-sized in the middle and the large "pie-crust" bowl on top of this agglomerate which ranged from 55 cm b.s. (rim of pit) to 80 cm b.s. (bottom of pit) and had a diameter of almost 1 m at its top and about 40
cm at the bottom. There were three large stones disposed in a triangle at the rim of the pit with their tops being at 51, 55 and 44 cm b.s. respectively but the centre of the pit was not marked in any particular way; there are not even signs that the pit was entirely filled in. The apparent incongruity of this ceramic burial is explained below. The stratigraphy of Pit E6 is given below at Illustration 2.75.
Illustration 2.75, Stratigraphy of KC III, Pit E6
66
Khok Charoen III Discussion
discontinuity domestic serving dish to the two burial pots, one of which must have come from KC IV, and where was their settlement? The fact that this domestic serving dish was the only (almost) complete such pot not only of its type but even of its class in KC III, where sherds in stratified deposits showed that there must have been a great number of Class 5 pots outside the excavated area, indicates that those who buried this particular pot almost certainly came from a place a short distance to the North of the excavated cuttings.
To find two intentionally broken burial pots at the bottom of a pit dug from a post-Discontinuity layer well above the level of the nearest burial with a domestic-only pot on top, obviously raises the question of how these pots from ancient burials came to be in the possession of later settlers only to be buried by them in a pit dug for this purpose, together with one of their own pots which was also intentionally broken? It is tempting to argue that the proximity of this pit to Burial 4 makes it highly probable that the digging of it was the reason for the disturbance at the foot-end of this burial which caused the disappearance of the left foot of the skeleton and perhaps a pot, or pots, originally situated beyond the feet. But the stratigraphical evidence clearly shows that the bottom of the pit in soil {6} was too far away not only from the feet of Burial 4 but also from the extension of the axis of the skeleton where pots beyond the feet would normally be positioned; there was also no direct communication between pit and burial visible. These pots were thus brought in from somewhere outside cutting E6 to be interred as a vessel cluster ceramic burial after the Discontinuity but the question remains when exactly these pots were broken: before or after they were deposited or thrown into the pit. There seem to be only two possibilities. If it was before, the pots would be broken but would have to be in a state that allowed their transport unless one thinks that their sherds would have been deposited in a heap; in view of the fact that these pots could be restored almost entirely, this latter theory seems unlikely as it would imply that all sherds of these pots, including small ones, were collected and transferred to the pit. If, on the other hand, the pots were broken after (or just before) they were deposited in the pit, probably by a thrust from the inside, this would mean that until then they would have been intact which is only possible if they came from undisturbed pre-Discontinuity burials or a cache of pots to be used in burials.
During the analysis of the excavated material and in particular the way it had been moved around it was eventually possible to elaborate a reasoned scenario explaining the sequence of events which led to this apparently intractably complicated situation (see infra, "Overall Chronology and Conclusions, Post-Discontinuity KC II").
2.5 Material Culture (funerary) In this section only those items of material culture are dealt with which have been found in burials or in association with them, regardless of whether or not they have also been used in occupation contexts. In several cases, the distinction between funerary and domestic items of material culture is fairly clear-cut as, for instance, that of pottery where there are pots found only in burials, others only in domestic contexts and still others in both, or in the case of stone adzes some of which are clearly dummies put into graves whereas others are found in both funeral and non-funeral contexts. But when it comes to personal adornments or other special items found in graves, it is often impossible to say whether these objects were also part of every-day life or were specially put on the body of the deceased for the funeral. As, however, such items are rarely found in stratified deposits dissociated from any burial, the burials themselves are the main source of information with regard to them and they are therefore considered part of funerary material culture. A certain amount of overlap is unavoidable but there does not seem to be another way to demonstrate as clearly as possible what was thought of as being fit for the dead and what was of the domain of the living.
There can be no doubt that the large globular bowl Type 1K came from the part of KC III where it and the other six known pots of this type were excavated and in particular Burial 5 in cutting F5. The pot above it (between it and the domestic vessel Type 5A), a medium-sized globular bowl Type 1Ab, is a singleton in KC III where it does not appear in any burial and neither have sherds of it been found in stratified deposits. However, eight pots of this type have been found in KC IV (two in burials, the others in the layer of the burials), three of which are so similar in make, size, ware, cord-markings and general appearance to the pot in the pit in KC III that they must have a common origin. The conclusion therefore is that this Pot "1527" which showed when restored points of impact and had sharp-edged sherds, was found more or less intact, presumably in the KC IV area of the site, by settlers who deemed it significant enough to be included in this ceramic burial thus uniting a burial pot from KC III with one from KC IV and a domestic one from KC III.
Personal Adornments Only personal adornments made of shell or stone have been found in association with burials in KC III. However, eight unidentified clay objects, obviously fragments of rings or bracelets, have also been found in stratified deposits, seven of which come from upper pre- or early post-Discontinuity layers and seem to be part of one particular type of small ring which may or may not have been a personal adornment. But one, found in soil {5} and having an inner diameter of about 6 cm, looks very much like the fragment of an ordinary clay bracelet similar to those known from other parts of the site and is therefore included in the present survey.
Who then were these people who added a post67
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand lighter when young, with a hardly noticeable ventral margin and a thin shell which unfortunately has a tendency of breaking under certain conditions into very small flakes. However, due to the small size and poor state of conservation of most specimens, this identification is only tentative.
Shell Shell Disk-beads Two types of shell disk-beads have been found in KC III, designated Type a and Type b. Type a are very small disks of almost uniformly 3 mm in diameter, a central hole of 1 mm and thickness of up to 1 mm with about 0.7 mm as average. Type b are disks of 4-6 mm diameter, a central hole of 1.5-2 mm and thickness of 0.7-1.1 mm, average around 0.9 mm. The differences in overall and central hole diameters are likely to be the result of the use of different mechanical devices to determine these two-dimensional sizes, whereas the thickness was left to the judgment of the artisan cutting the individual disks. The very small difference in size between Type a disk-beads and the lower end of the Type b range which almost constitutes a continuum, may easily lead to misinterpretations with regard to which is which. However, not having found any Type b disk-beads with a diameter of less than 4 mm, the distinction is fairly neat after all and becomes very reliable if the two types are found in discrete clusters, as they usually are.
There were altogether 33 fragments/pieces of cf. P. mouhoti excavated in KC III, 14 of the young and 19 of the adult mussel. Of the 14 young mussels, four were associated with burials. However, only one of these four was found intact, namely a vaguely rectangular piece of 2x2.4 cm, near right ankle of Burial 8 (Find 1) which is interpreted as possibly being the remnant of an anklet. What is thought to be the pendant to the latter, i.e. the remnant of another possible anklet at the right lower leg of Burial 9 (Find 2), an approx 5x4 cm fragment of this shell, disintegrated into tiny flakes when lifted. Two clusters of identical flakes at left upper and right lower arm of the female skeleton in Burial 6 (Finds 1 and 3) could not be lifted at all; their exact dimensions are also not assessable. In addition to these finds a small almond-shaped (2.5x1.3 cm) flake of what appears to also be a cf. P. mouhoti shell was found amongst the remnants of the contents of pot Find 9 of Burial 5, originally positioned near right lower arm but badly broken and partly dislocated towards the right knee.
In four burials, shell disk-beads have been found as part of personal adornments: Burials 1a, 2, 5 and 6. Burial No. 1a 2 5 6
Sex ? M M F
Skeleton Stage Adolescent Adult Adult Adult
Age ? ? ? ?
Orient. N E N E
Bead type a b b a
Qty
Most of the remaining ten pieces (of young mussels) from stratified deposits were found in post-Discontinuity soils and are all, except for one, remarkably similar; like the supposed anklet remnant of Burial 8, they are more or less rounded rectangular with the length varying from 2.3 cm to 3.1 cm and the width from 1.5 cm to 2.4 cm which makes one think that they could have been fashioned in this way or selected for their size on purpose. The only larger piece, a more rounded part of the shell with much of the ventral margin preserved, of a length of 4.8 cm and a width of 3.6 cm, is in turn very similar to the supposed anklet remnant of Burial 9 which was about 5x4 cm large but disintegrated. There may thus have existed two distinct type-sizes of cf. P. mouhoti pieces, making the supposition that they could have been used for some sort of standardised adornment more acceptable, although nothing is known (nor suggested) of the method used to fix these pieces to a support or the body. The soils in which these pieces have been found and their spatial distribution do not hold the answer to the question of whether they had been parts of personal adornments in burials. While it might be argued that their provenance precludes such an assumption, not enough is known about the behaviour of small shell fragments in situations of erosion or other powerful water action to be absolutely certain about this. The only instance where two of these small pieces were found in pre-Discontinuity layers was in cutting H5, containing two burials with which they could have been associated (Burials 2 and 6, the latter being considered to have two arm-ornaments made of the mature cf. P. mouhoti shell). Of the remaining eight such pieces, four came from H6 which could not be excavated down to burial level, one from G5 in which there was Burial 1, and three from E7 which was bounded by two cuttings (E6 and
24 2 52 103
Table 2.4 Distribution of shell disk-beads Types a and b in KC III burials Discussion No disk-beads have been found in stratified deposits not directly associated with a burial, except for one single disk without central hole of a Type b bead, under a root in F6 in which there was no burial. This fact may mean that, although all four burials have been disturbed, these disturbances were not of a kind to dislocate and disperse skeletal remains or burial gifts. As there is no single common denominator in any two of the particulars in the above table, no useful conclusion with regard to the distribution of disk-beads can be drawn. Shell Pieces Natural fragments or apparently deliberately shaped pieces of molluscs found in stratified deposits or used as personal adornments in burials seem to belong almost exclusively to one species of fresh water mussels of the order Unionoida, the taxonomy of which is at present very much in a state of flux (Mason 1991: 276): Pseudodon mouhoti. This mollusk is a heavy mussel with a thickened ventral margin when old and much more delicate and
68
Khok Charoen III E8) containing four burials between them; a situation which does not allow a clear-cut conclusion.
they have a triangular cross-section with a single bevel inside which is either straight or slightly concave while the "top" and "bottom" sides are either straight or slightly convex. The "bottom" side is thus the baseline of an almost right-angled triangle and its length, compared to the height at the vertex, gives the width/height ratio. Following this method, two sub-types can be defined: a = ratio of up to 2:1, and b = ratio of above 2:1. The three Category B bracelets are also very similar to each-other in the sense that they present similar vaguely triangular or rectangular (vertical) cross-sections resulting from the double drilling on one side which left the other side relatively straight. The only difference is that, while in two of the three fragments this straight side is the outside, thus indicating double drilling of the inner diameter, in one fragment the inner side is the straight one, meaning very probably that the inner diameter was drilled in one process straight through whereas the outer diameter was double drilled. The calculation of the width/height ratio is the same as for Category A bracelets, except that the width-figures are the lower figures.
Only one of the 19 mature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti fragments/pieces, was found in association with a burial, i.e. near the skull of the younger male in Burial 9, while another one, found in the square metre excavated to free the lower legs of the same skeleton but without having its exact location recorded, was most likely also associated with Burial 9 in the area of its lower legs or feet. Of the remaining 17 pieces, 6 were found in H5 (possibly connected with Burials 2 or 6), 2 more in E8 (i.e. in addition to the 2 associated with Burial 9 and likely to be associated with the same burial or with Burial 8), 3 in E7 (no burials) and 6 in E6 (Burial 4). However, as with the young P. mouhoti pieces, those of the mature P. mouhoti shells all straddle the Discontinuity divide. (NB: for illustrations of KC III shell pieces see Appendix B, together with those of KC IV). Shell Bracelet
The outer diameter of the bracelet cannot be used for a significant categorisation as it varies within the categories, types and sub-types but from the inner diameter can be deduced whether a particular bracelet was for a child or an adult and where it was most likely worn: on the wrist/lower arm or perhaps like an armband on the upper arm. Although in no way precise nor reliable in all circumstances, a general guide-line would be that bracelets with an inner diameter of up to 5 cm are most likely to be children's bracelets, between 5 and 6 cm those of adults and above that, these adornments could possibly have been worn like armlets. Being the most indicative measurement, the inner diameter is thus the scale of the tabulation of these fragments, shown in Table 2.5.
One fragment of Trochus niloticus shell, presumably from a bracelet, was found in the NW-corner of cutting E7 (i.e. next to the feet of Burial 8) in soil {2}. While this situation may suggest an association with Burial 8, the fact that this fragment was found in such a high layer and that it is the only one of its kind found in KC III, strongly speaks against any association with burials here but rather suggests a KC II origin where these bracelets were relatively common. How and when this fragment found its way from the less than 100 m distant KC II to this part of KC III is difficult to say but it seems fair to assume that it need not have involved any purposeful human action. Stone
Specimen
Width mm 13 14 11
Height mm 3 5 6
Ratio W:H 4.3 2.8 1.8
I. D. cm 4.0 4.6 5.0
Type
Soil
A1b A1b A1a
{3} {3} {3}
11 15 12 16 22 7 6
6 5 7 6 5 19 17
1.8 3 1.7 2.7 4.4 0.4 0.4
5.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.6 6. 6.0
A1a A1b A1b A1b A1b B1 B2
{3} {3} {3} {5} {5} {2} {2}
12 6
7 18
1.7 0.3
6.8 8-8.5
A1a B2
{5} {5}
Only three items of adornments made of stone have been found with the burials and all three are fragments of bracelets. They are amongst the 12 fragments of stone bracelets (each of a different bracelet) found in KC III which can be divided into two broad categories: disk- or ring-bracelets. The cross-section of the former (Category A) is wider than high, whereas that of the latter (Category B) is higher than wide. Within these two categories, at least two types are present: 1 = the single bevel type and 2 = the double bevel type, depending on whether the drilling of the inner diameter was done from one side only or from both sides. The ratio between width and height of the cross-section is used to determine sub-types a and b.
F5, Item 8b F5, item 8a 1432, (E6, 50/60) H5, Item 13 H5, Item 4 E8, Item 33 E5, Item 10 Bur 6, Find 2 E8, Item 37 1227, (E6, 30/40) Bur 2, Find 2 Bur 9, Find 4
Of these 12 fragments, 9 are of Category A and only 3 of Category B. Category A bracelets are all of Type 1, i.e.
Table 2.5, Stone bracelet fragments found in KC III Refer to Appendix G for images of bracelet fragments
69
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Discussion
other than as burial gifts. The distinction between plain footed bowls which could have had a domestic use because sherds have also been found in stratified deposits, and decorated ones which were made exclusively as burial gifts (Ho 1984, I: 45-46), does not seem to apply to KC III (and I/IV): not only because even plain footed bowls there are too well finished for ordinary kitchen ware, but also because sherds of decorated footed bowls are occasionally found far away from burials (hardly surprising in disturbed sites with a history of widespread disturbances by water action). Even if sherds of either type have been found unmistakably in stratified deposits, the use of these vessels for a domestic purpose is by no means proven as they may have been in storage for the event of a burial or for any other unknown reason.
The three bracelet fragments found in burials are Find 2 of Burial 2, from a Type A1a bracelet, Find 2 of Burial 6, from a Type A1b bracelet and Find 4 of Burial 9, from a bracelet Type B2. No useful conclusion can be drawn from the distribution of these three kinds of adornments, except that all three burials happen to be of the East orientation while none of the North orientation had any stone bracelets. However, given the fragmentary nature of the excavation in general, this evidence is not solid enough to be taken into account. With regard to their spatial distribution, the stratigraphical situation of these fragments does not allow for a clear interpretation. Of the nine fragments of disk-bracelets, six were found in post-Discontinuity layers and three (two of which were in burials) in the pre-Discontinuity one, while two of the three ring-bracelet fragments were found in post-Discontinuity soils and only one in a burial. As neither the differences between Types A1a and A1b or B1 and B2, nor the location of child-bracelets yielded useful insights, it must be very tentatively concluded that in KC III stone bracelets were not much used as personal adornments, nor was their use dictated by particular rules or conventions.
The table at Table 2.6 summarises the characteristics of graves containing footed bowls. Whether or not some types within Class 4, i.e. the very large footed bowl Type 4I , the medium/large one of Type 4O, and the medium-sized footed bowls Type 4M and 4N, have been used for purposes other than as burial gifts is irrelevant in the context of KC III as these 8 "pots" are all only virtually reconstructed from single diagnostic sherds and not likely to have been associated with the burials; they are part of the large group of "special and unique" pots.
Clay
Burial No 1 4 5 6 7 9
A small fragment of a reddish-ochre clay bracelet, plain but with smoothed surface and an inner diameter of about 6 cm was discovered in soil {5} in cutting E8 in which there were the upper bodies of Burials 8 and 9. In spite of its position in the layer of these burials, an association with them is highly improbable as this fragment is unique in KC III but is very similar to the fragments of clay bracelets found in KC IV, from where it almost certainly originated. The time and manner of the transfer from KC IV to the northernmost part of KC III, only about 100 m away, remains unknown; because of the low layer in which the fragment was found in KC III it may well have been at a rather early time.
Orientation
Skeletons
E N N E N E
? FF M F ? MM
Pottery types 4A, 4Aa, 4C, 4D 4A(2), 4Ab 4A(3) 4A(4), 4Ac, 4C, 4G(2) 4Eb 4F
Table 2.6, Burials containing footed bowls as grave goods Discussion There does not seem to be a pattern in the distribution of footed bowls in burials of different orientations or containing skeletons of different sex. All that can be said is that of these 20 footed bowls from six (out of 10) burials in KC III, ten were of Type 4A, two of Types 4C and 4G and one each of Types 4Aa, 4Ab, 4Ac, 4D, 4Eb and 4F. Leaving aside the last pot as not being in any way representative for KC III burials, as well as the two pots with incised and/or pricked decoration for the same reason, the conclusion must be that the presumably locally made plain but burnished footed bowl of Type 4A (together with the very similar Types 4C and 4G) was the typical burial-only type of pottery in KC III.
Pottery Burial only pottery Footed Bowls With regard to pottery as grave goods in human burials, only those types are considered here which are made for burials only. The most common type in this category clearly is the footed bowl (i.e. Class 4) which, as has already been repeatedly suggested (e.g. Loofs-Wissowa 1980: 8-9; Bayard 1984: 93), must have been produced with the only aim in mind to be put into a burial. Whatever the name given to them ("fruit stands" or similar descriptions suggesting a particular domestic use), it is indeed hard to imagine that these footed bowls, usually carefully made, could have been used for any purpose
Large cord-marked Globular Bowls In addition to footed bowls, there are pots of another type which seem to have only been used as burial goods as they
70
Khok Charoen III could hardly have had any utilitarian function. These are the very large and yet thin-walled globular cord-marked bowls of Type 1K (unique to KC III and II) which are too large and delicate to have been used for cooking and would break when filled with a liquid. At least seven pots of this type have been found in KC III, all in the SE-part of the excavated area. They are all almost perfectly spherical (i.e. without or with only the slightest carination or shoulder), with a flaring rim covered inside with red slip and finely and carefully cord-marked. Their height is also remarkably similar (rounded off to the nearest cm): 27, 30, 30, 32, 34, 35 and 36 cm. However, the relatively wide distribution (both spatially within the confined area of the site and with regard to stratigraphy) of these pots or their sherds of them, attests to disturbances which are difficult to explain as they seem to be due to different causes and were operative in different directions. Of the seven pots only three have been found whole: one as Find 3 of Burial 5; another, Pot "1533", as a cluster of potsherds (with signs of an impact) in E5, i.e. a cutting without burials; and the third, Pot "1529", as an intentionally broken heap of sherds (also with signs of an impact) in the vessel cluster ceramic burial in E6.
almost certainly the remains of a Type 1K pot originally placed there. As there is enough room on or around Burial 5 (e.g. the empty space on the lower abdomen where the hands look like holding an object of a width of 30 cm) to accommodate the four 1K bowls which are not finds of Burial 5 and cannot be attributed to any other burial in Khok Charoen, nothing stands in the way of assuming that they, too, were originally part of its furniture, including the one found in the vessel cluster ceramic burial in E6 where it was most likely deposited by the post-Discontinuity grave robbers of Burial 5. Nor is there any reason to assume that, because of missing bottom sherds, these pots could not all show signs of an impact. Burial 5 could thus have had not only three but eight such large globular bowls amongst its burial pots which can be taken as an indication of a special status (for whatever reason) of the individual buried there. NB: For an attempt to construct a reasoned scenario to explain the role these bowls may have played in the context of the settlement of the Khok Charoen area, see infra, "KC III, the earliest burial ground" (in CONCLUSIONS, The Beginnings).
Three more were found as sherds in stratified deposits in the following way. About 1/3 of the sherds of Find 7 of Burial 5 (which could be restored to an almost complete pot clearly showing an impact) were found within Burial 5 but others in E5, E7, both in {5} and even in post-Discontinuity {3} in F6; Pot "1222", virtually restored from about 60 medium wall-sherds and about half the rim, was found as a dispersed heap of sherds in E5 in {2}; and Pot "1411", also only virtually restored from a great number of sherds, including rim-sherds, was found in G5 in {5}. Sherds of these three pots thus cover an area of over 200 square metres but the original position of two of them remains unknown while the third was Find 7 of Burial 5. Apart from the two Finds of Burial 5, the other four pots have been classified as "N.-A.B.P.".
Small shallow Dishes and Bowls Further pottery types which appear to be burial-only pottery are Class 3, Types C to E pots. While no sherd of a Type A or B pot of Class 3 has ever been found in a burial, 14 of the small bowls and shallow dishes (or parts of them) of Type C, D or E were excavated in KC III in direct or suggested association with burials. Theses are summarized at Table 2.7. Discussion Of the four pots found directly with burials, three were with Burial 6 (two at right ankle and one presumably originally at left ankle) and one with Burial 1 (near head). Of the four found in the burial layer {5}, two were very probably associated with Burial 5 (one near head and one near feet), one also possibly with the same burial but without an indication as to near which part of it, and the fourth cannot be attributed to any known burial. Pot "1495" was found in the burial layer of a cutting in which there were two confirmed burials (Burials 8 and 9) and one hypothetical one (Burial 7), and it is near the feet of the latter that it may have originally been positioned. Of the remaining five pots, two (in a post-Discontinuity layer) consisted only of one sherd, one was only about half complete, one was very weathered and the fifth was found next to a limestone adze (which is often associated with a burial). Thus, there is no evidence in the circumstances in which these bowls or dishes were found that they had been used for anything other than as grave goods. The conclusion seems to be warranted to look upon this category of pots as being essentially burial-only pottery, produced on an ad hoc basis (as the crudely hand-made dishes clearly show), presumably for the purpose of presenting small offerings to the deceased
The seventh Type 1K pot was Find 9 of Burial 5, i.e. a cluster of ten medium/large rim- and wall-sherds recognisable as being from a vessel of this type although details of dimensions could not be verified (except that the maximum width, which in this type is usually also roughly the height, must have been around 30 cm) nor could the pot be restored. These sherds were lying under the right elbow and lower arm of the skeleton in a position suggesting that the pot had originally been put upright at the elbow as a burial gift but was later broken in the course of disturbances affecting this burial which also caused the main body of the pot to be dispersed; a small part of it, showing that it contained scraps of human bone and some teeth of a child, was found after the lifting of the burial's skeleton and was incorporated into Find 9. However this Find 9b could also be the remains of yet another 1K pot, associated wih a primary burial in this pit before it was replaced, in a violent manner, by the excavated one. Burial 5 may have contained one more Type 1K pot: the two sherds of a cord-marked bowl of about 30 cm diameter near where the left knee would have been (Find 11), are 71
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Type 3C
3Ca 3D 3E 3Ea
Cutting
Pot
H5 F5 E8 H5 H5 G5 F5 G5 H5 H5 F5
Bur 6 Find 13 Pot “1646” Pot “1495” Pot “item 15” Bur 6 Find 17 Pot “1422” Pot “1456” Bur 1 Find 6 Bur 6 Find 14 Pot “1179” Pot “1621”
H5 E7 E8
Pot “Item 16” Pot “1421” Pot “1139b”
Soil
Remarks
{5} {5} {5}
About 50% complete, sherds mixed with those of Find 3 burial 5 About 50% complete About 50% complete
{5} {5}
About 80% complete, (part of bottom missing) One rim-sherd only, pot reconstructed virtually
{2}
About 75% complete, very weathered One rim-sherd only (about 20% of pot) found in 1m square excavated to free lower body in Burial 5 Almost complete, found next to limestone adze One large rim-sherd only (about 15% of pot) One large rim-sherd only (about 25% of pot)
{5} {5}? {2} {2}
Table 2.7, Class 3, Types C to E pots in KC III
Large Restricted Tetrapod Pots
because the latter are too soft for having been used in real life, they must have been made specially for inclusion in burials as the genuine stone adzes, almost all made of fine-grained volcanic rock (a scarce raw material), were regarded as too valuable to be wasted in this way. Indeed, seven limestone adzes were found in such a brittle or soft state that it was difficult to imagine that they could ever have been functional tools. As far as their bad state of preservation allows to judge, they were all of the same type, of very similar form, dimensions and consistence but were all found in post-Discontinuity layers.
Although the only two pots of Type 8A in KC III came from burials (Burial 8, Find 2 and Burial 9, Find 7), it would be wrong to include them in the "burial-only" or "multi-use" pottery. These two pots being the only restorable representatives of their type in Khok Charoen and obviously not of local manufacture, they belong to the category "special and unique pottery" below.
However, three of the hard limestone adzes came from the pre-Discontinuity layer {5} and may well have been original grave goods. One limestone adze (H5, item 22), a hard, unilaterally shouldered, very well-made and clearly unused adze (but usable as such), was found in a position which makes it almost certain that it was originally in some way part of a burial, namely in or on the surface of {6}. As this small but compact object was relatively heavy while the seven softer limestone adzes thought to come from burials were slightly bigger/flatter and yet lighter, it could be surmised that the latter could therefore have been transported more easily by water flows into higher strata than the former.
Stone Three stone adzes and one doubtful stone implement (and no other stone artefacts) have been found with or near burials in KC III and, although they have all have been given a Find number, only one of them is in secure association with a burial. They are: Burial 1a, Find 2: finely polished greenstone adze, apparently unused, near "right hand"; Burial 4, Find 8: a "stone axe" [sic], situation unknown but association with burial secure; Burial 7, Find 3: dark grey/black stone adze of fine-grained volcanic rock, situation relative to hypothetical skeleton unknown; Burial 9, Find 6: small stone implement (?), fragmented longitudinally, found on shoulder of flattened tetrapod vessel Find 5; possibly natural stone only.
Of the 11 other adzes, mainly made of fine-grained volcanic rock, three were found in layer {5} and one in {6}, suggesting that they, too, were originally associated with burials although it is not known in what way and with what burials.
Apart from these three adzes and without taking into account fragments or flakes, rough-outs, doubtful pieces or surface finds, 22 more stone adzes have been found in KC III, 11 of which are made of limestone and some of them could possibly have been associated with burials. According to their metamorphic state, a distinction is made between hard limestone adzes and adzes made of softer, more chalk-like limestone. It is argued that,
Shell There is only one item in this category and even this is a doubtful case. Two fragments of an almost complete valve of the tree oyster Isognomon spp. (Find 12) were found lying flat on
72
Khok Charoen III the rim of the large globular bowl beyond the head of Burial 5 (Find 3); they fitted tightly together, showing that the break-up of the entire 10.8 cm long piece must have occurred while it was lying there and not before. This large shell could have been inside this pot, found upright but flattened, as the first in a row of four pots beyond the skull of the main skeleton, or it may have been deposited there at a later time by unknown agents. Although its association with the burial is not entirely secure, a striking and unique marine shell of this size is unlikely to have been lost in a deposit unless it came from another burial.
1 4 5 6
Burial
Burial-only pottery 3E, 4A, 4Aa, 4C, 4D 4A(2), 4Ab 1K(3), 4A(3) 3C, 3Cb, 3E, 4A(4), 4Ac, 4C, 4G(2)
Multi-use pottery 1C, 1Ca 1Ba
Table 2.8, Burial distribution of burial-only and multi-use pottery Discussion Multi-use pottery clearly played a minor role in KC III burials. The small sample does not allow any firm conclusion to be drawn but can nevertheless be taken as a general indicator of the relative importance of the two categories of pottery as grave goods. Of the 8 multi-use pots found outside burials, one was part of the vessel cluster ceramic burial in E6 (Pot "1527"), two were non-attributable burial pots (Pot "1380-1548" and Pot "1379") and the remaining five, all small globular bowls at the lower end (as far as size is concerned) of Types 1Ab and 1Ba (Pots "1139a", "1629", "1450", "1139" and "1637"), are difficult to classify.
Faunal Artefacts One single object in KC III could possibly have been a faunal artefact associated with a burial but both its quality as an artefact and its being part of grave goods are doubtful. It is the fragment of an antler including the burr, 4.4 cm long and broken: on top an old break which could have been a deliberate cut and, on the bottom and diagonally across, a new break which must have happened during the excavation and resulted in the loss of an unknown part at the lower end of the piece, it being rather brittle; it could not, however, have been a large part.
While pots in burials are normally restorable, burial pots found outside burials are often incomplete because of having been transported away from their original positions, sometimes over long distances. In the case of the multi-use pottery in KC III, the five pots in burials and the one pot found in a ceramic burial (originating from a KC IV human burial) are all 90-100% complete. The two other pots thought of as Non-Attributable Burial Pottery are also over 90% (Pot "1379") and about 80% (Pot "1380-1548") complete, which means that they almost certainly came from an un-excavated burial nearby or from a depot of pottery ready for use.
This object (Find 8) was found 10 cm North of small bowl Find 6 of Burial 1 on the same level. 2.6 Material Culture (domestic) Pottery This section deals with two kinds of pottery types: those belonging to the Multi-Use Pottery, i.e. pots which were used for domestic purposes but were also found in burials as grave goods, albeit in smaller numbers than the Burial-Only Pottery types, and Domestic-Only Pottery types which were never found in burials but represent newly developed or introduced types to fulfil domestic requirements which were probably also new; these were obviously later types, well into post-Discontinuity times and associated with settlements of that time.
Four of the five small globular bowls found in post-Discontinuity layers {2} or {3} seem at first sight unlikely to have been associated with burials. However, three of them were represented only by one single relatively large diagnostic sherd being about 15% (Pot "1139a"), 10% (Pot "1629") and 8% (Pot "1450") of the entire pot, enough to restore it virtually but not physically; such single sherds, being moved by floods, can easily find their way into upper layers, so much so that the layer in which they were found is not necessarily the one from which they originated. There is no doubt that the 80% complete fourth of these small globular bowls which was found in {2} came from further down, i.e. from a burial layer. The fifth small globular bowl (Pot "1637"), a little more than 50% complete and with signs of an impact on the lower side, was found in layer {3} and was obviously associated with a pre-Discontinuity burial.
Multi-use pottery This category comprises pottery types found in burials but which may also have been used for other purposes (e.g. as domestic pottery) but not those which must be seen as exclusively burial or exclusively domestic pottery. The types to be considered here are restricted globular bowls of Class 1 = 1Ab (4), 1Ba (4), 1C (2), 1Ca (1), 1Cb (1) and 1D (1). Of these 13 pots, only 5 are from burials. Considering only these pots found in burials and comparing them with the distribution of the burial-only pots we find the following position in Table 2.8 The ensuing discussion indicates the distinction between burial-only and multi-use pottery.
It is thus possible that all of the 13 Multi-Use Pots in KC III were associated with burials and that there are no indications that any of them had been used for a domestic purpose prior to being put into the burial. This situation seems consistent with the supposition that such pots were originally produced for domestic use in the settlement of the deceased individual but were diverted to supplement
73
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand the burial-only pottery available there at the time of the burial.
the second which seems to be slightly younger, because where sherds from the two pots were intermingled, as in cutting E7, its sherds were found in higher layers (10-60 cm b.s.) than those of Pot "Ta" (30-80 cm b.s.).
Domestic-only pottery
In addition to the sherds which compose the two above pots, a great number of sherds from Class 5-type pots were found in stratified deposits throughout KC III, raising hopes that statistics could be used with more justification than in the case of the burials, especially as these stratified sherds were almost all of a comparable "medium" size. So as to get a rough idea as to how many individual pots there may have been in existence during the time of the settlement at that part of the site, all excavated sherds which could be recognised as being from pots of this type were counted, weighed, sorted into rim/shoulder sherds, body sherds and bottom sherds, and individually drawn; their total weight is 3,581 g. Special attention was given to sherds showing remnants of the characteristic appliqué (or raised) bands which existed in 12 different typical patterns, and it was argued that the number of sufficiently dissimilar sherds within each type would indicate the number of individual pots. There were altogether 166 sherds with parts of this decorative "pie crust"-band. A break-up of this figure shows the relative importance of the various band styles in the following chart.
Only two types of pots, those of Classes 5 and 6, are definitely domestic-only vessels never found in association with a burial. As not a single vessel of these two classes was found as more than an agglomeration of a few sherds unable to be physically restored (although virtual restorations based on diagnostic sherds resulted in the differentiation into types and sub-types), it must be assumed that these sherds strayed into the excavated areas from outside and that the bulk of the remnants of the pots remained where they had been used or manufactured, only a short distance away. As none of these sherds was significantly larger or smaller than a "medium-sized" mean it was thought justifiable to treat all sherds for statistical purposes as equals and simply count them. Class 5 (“Pie crust”) Pottery There are three restorable vessels of Class 5, one each of Type 5A, 5Aa and 5Ab. These are large shallow bowls, direct rim, hemispherical truncated body and flat bottom, decorated with an appliqué (or raised) band a few cm below rim. The body below this band is either plain (Type 5A), decorated with bold incised vertical or diagonal lines (Type 5Aa) or with fine incised lines, sometimes criss-crossed, seemingly imitating cord-markings (Type 5Ab). In addition to these few basic types, there was a great variety (at least 14) of different styles of body decoration, including three types of real cord-markings, each represented by only one sherd (in the case of 11 of these styles), by two (in one case) or three sherds (in two cases). The approximately 85% complete and restored bowl of Type 5A (Pot "T") was the uppermost of the three pots in the vessel cluster ceramic burial in cutting E6 and obviously not in situ; its original position is unknown. The other two pots (Pots "Ta" and "Tb", of Types 5Aa and 5Ab respectively) are both composite in the sense that the sherds from which they have been (partly virtually) restored came from depths ranging from the surface to 80 cm b.s. in cuttings E5-8 and G5-6 for the former and from 10-60 cm b.s. in cutting E7 for the latter, in both cases possibly also including some sherds from another vessel.
Chart 2.1, Distribution of various “Pie crust” style types (number of occurrences on the vertical axis) After close examination of not only the bands themselves but also of rim shapes, types and colours of wares and differences in surface treatment inside/outside, it was found that in only four cases was there reason to believe that two sherds (or in one case three) came almost certainly and in four more cases very probably, from the same pot, even though no two sherds fitted together. This led to the surprising conclusion that at least 157 pots of Class 5 (without Type 5D) could have existed in KC III. However, in view of the fact that this result can be seen as too extraordinary to be accepted without question, it became evident that perhaps the method of interpretation was unsound, i.e. that the range of diversity (in shape, ware, decoration etc.) within a single pot was wider than assumed. As this range cannot be assessed without several complete pots of the same type for comparison, the idea of arriving at the number of individual pots in existence at any one time by this particular method has to be used with caution. This being a relatively important methodological
The difficult stratigraphy (thinness, patchiness and irregularity of some layers) having made it necessary to excavate by 10 cm spits, the original position of "stratified" sherds could sometimes only be determined approximately. A general observation with regard to the distribution of the sherds of these two pots can nevertheless be made. Whereas sherds from Pot "Ta" were found in six cuttings and at depths which include pre-Discontinuity layers down to {5} in E5 and G5, and even {6} in E7, those of Pot "Tb" were confined to cutting E7. The first pot appears to have been more thoroughly disturbed and dispersed, both in spread and in depth, than 74
Khok Charoen III question in archaeological research, the respective drawings are nevertheless published for scrutiny as Appendix A of this report. The problem of how to convert the number of rim-sherds into that of individual pots is not new and has been, if not tackled, at least hinted at by several authors (e.g. Vincent 1988: 15, ref. to Bronson 1976; White and Henderson 2003: passim) without there being as yet a solution in sight.
rim/shoulder sherds exhibiting a decoration, thus 145 sherds in all. However, 26 sherds could not be included as they either showed many of the many minor styles or their stratigraphic origins were unclear. A survey of the remaining 119 sherds, with a total weight of 2,149 g, shows that Style 1 is by far the most common style, representing almost half of all the styles put together. Its 60 sherds span the entire deposit, from {1} down to {5} with the bulk being in {3} and {5}. The next most widespread style is Style 3 with 21 sherds almost evenly distributed throughout the three post-Discontinuity layers and the pre-Discontinuity layer with again a slight emphasis on {3} and {5}. The picture is very similar as regards Style 5, with 15 sherds the next most common, but for the following Styles 2 (12 sherds), 4 (7 sherds) and 6 (4 sherds) a shift towards the higher layers can be observed meaning presumably that these were later and later additions to the growing variety of decoration styles although one or two sherds of each of these styles were still found in {5}. The discovery of many sherds of this non-burial pottery in {5} is difficult to explain as it is practically impossible that they originated from this level; the vagaries of water action over time is the most likely reason.
A survey of the space immediately below the decorative band on these 166 sherds revealed that in 92 cases there was no decoration on the outside of the body of the bowl between the band and the bottom whereas in 58 cases there was evidence for the existence of such a decoration; the remaining 16 sherds did not show signs of either way, be it because the sherd was broken off directly below the band or because the plain part below the band was too small to be sure that there could not have been a decoration below it. Thus, almost exactly two thirds of these sherds were from pots without body decoration like the only intact such pot found in KC III, that in the Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial in cutting E6, and designated Type 5A. No clear concordance between the styles of the decorative band and the basic types of body decoration could be observed. Thus for plain pots the association of band-styles (1-12) with sherd numbers was the following chart:
The weight of sherds by style and level is shown in Table 2.9 below. Soil {1} {2} {3} --------{4} Total
Style 1 158 117 403 -------185
Style 2 50 56 34 -------128
Style 3 63 95 117 -------178
Style 4 227 75 0 -------19
Style 5 21 24 43 -------82
Style 6 9 0 26 ------39
Total 526 367 623 ------631
863
268
453
321
170
74
2149
Table 2.9, Distribution of sherds decorated in Styles 1-6 throughout the deposit (weight in g) Because of the insufficient recording of sherds without body decoration, except for those showing some of the appliqué band, it cannot be confirmed that this plain pottery preceded even the earliest decorated one but it stands to reason that it very probably did and that it was the kind of domestic pottery used by the first settlers in the area after the Discontinuity who later on embellished it with various styles of body decoration.
Chart 2.2, Distribution of various “Pie crust” style types on plain pots (number of occurrences on the vertical axis) While band-style 5 is most commonly associated with the undecorated pots Type 5A (as indeed in the case of the type-specimen itself), the distinctly different styles 6, 4, 3 and 7 follow not that far behind, showing that the association of plain pots with band-style 5 was not only not mandatory but, with only a quarter of the 92 sherds, not even particularly frequent.
Discussion These Class 5 pots of the "pie-crust" type (referring to the appliqué or raised band decorated in this manner which is the unifying element in an otherwise quite heterogeneous group of pots) are a widespread and long-lasting type of kitchen ware in the life of post-Discontinuity occupants of the KC III area. The basic form (shallow bowl with flat bottom) which is the same regardless of great differences in size, ware, colour, body decoration and band-style, suggests a serving dish and the large number of individual pots which must have existed within a relatively small area
As band-styles are also not securely associated with the decoration-style of the bodies, it was thought that the best way to gain some information of the chronological position of the pots would be to look at the distribution throughout the deposit of the most common body decoration styles (i.e. Styles 1-6), as shown by the 58 excavated body sherds, the 29 bottom sherds and the 58
75
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand indicates that these dishes were probably part of the standard equipment of every household. Indeed, if we think of the un-excavated area to the N of KC III, an expanse of only a few hundred square metres, as the place where a village of perhaps not more than twenty huts (households) stood for some time, the great number of pots, whether 157 (or 210, if the sherds found in KC IV are taken into account) or even much less of that (if errors in the judgment of allowable dissimilarity have been made), would mean several generations (if one pot per household is postulated) but less if quite different scenarios are envisaged. The statistically ambiguous number of potsherds notwithstanding, the above estimations may at least give a very rough idea of the significance of this type of pottery which, for the time being, seems to be unique in Southeast Asia.
Stratified sherds found in Khok Charoen outside KC III A surprising amount of single sherds from "pie-crust" pots was found in stratified deposits in KC IV although no entire pot (or cluster of sherds from the same pot) was discovered there. This again indicates that the original position of these pots was somewhere outside the excavated area of KC IV. The 92 rim/shoulder sherds with remains of the decorative bands and the 49 body sherds with decoration and bottom sherds were again individually drawn and analysed with a view to finding out more about the numerical importance and the spread of this kind of pottery. The total weight of these 141 sherds found in KC IV is 3,385 g (2,353 g rim/shoulder sherds, 372 g body sherds with decoration and 660 g bottom sherds), i.e. the same total weight as that of the 166 such sherds found in stratified deposits in the excavated area of KC III itself (3,581 g). All the KC III band-styles were also represented in KC IV but the frequency of their occurrence was different.
Decorative appliqué or raised "pie crust"-bands in the manner of those on the Khok Charoen pots are not uncommon on first or late second millennium BC Mainland Southeast Asian pottery, in particular in Styles 1-3 (including finger-nail impressions); they occur in the Thai sites of Ban Chiang, Ban Na Di and Ban Chiang Hian (see Chantaratiyakarn 1984: 613-614 for a summary) and even on the relatively unknown pottery from Dong-Son, northern Vietnam (Janse 1958: pl. 59), where they appear on pots of a "reddish ware" the lower body of which seems to be finely cord-marked. What is unique for Khok Charoen is the association of these bands with unrestricted flat-bottomed vessels; no connection of these other pots with the serving dishes of KC III is suggested, although there is, as concerns the Dong-Son pottery, a surprising similarity with some of the Class 1 cooking pots in the KC III and IV burials.
Chart 2.3, Distribution of various “Pie crust” style types in KC IV (number of occurrences on the vertical axis)
However, another pot in KC III itself bears the typical Style 3 "pie crust" appliqué band, the Class 1 Type Cb medium-sized cord-marked globular bowl Pot "1379", the only such pot found in Khok Charoen (i.e. none in KC I, II or IV). It was found in the SE-corner of H5, in {5}, and was initially thought to be Find 1 of the hypothetical Burial 10, the idea of which was eventually abandoned for lack of evidence and the pot changed into the category of N.-A.B.P. as there also was no sure sign that it could have been buried on its own and the type of vessel is not one found in a single vessel ceramic burial.
Here the band-styles were on the whole more evenly distributed but their linkage with body-styles was quite different from KC III inasmuch as the great majority of these rim/shoulder sherds came from plain pots (53), as opposed to those which show the presence of a body decoration (10); 29 rim/shoulder sherds could not be classified either way. It is tempting to argue that this must mean that a few plain pots were broken into these many sherds but again an examination of rims, wall-thickness, colour etc. showed that all these 53 sherds (some composite but counted as one) are possibly (taking into account the proviso mentioned above) coming from as many individual pots, that the ratio of plain to decorated pots is even more drastically in favour of the former than in KC III and that these plain pots come with a greater variety of band-styles.
The question now is whether there could be a link between these two Type 1Cb pots found in a pre-Discontinuity layer, and the post-Discontinuity "pie-crust" pottery of a different kind, because of the use of the same typical element of decoration. While not being the most common style of the appliqué band, Style 3 is, with 25 sherds, the third most used of the 12 styles and is found throughout the deposit, from the very top layer {1} (one sherd) down to the bottom of the deposit in {6} (three sherds), across the Discontinuity-line but with the bulk (14 sherds) being just above it. Without a better knowledge of the mechanics of the various disturbances having occurred at the site, this question, like the more general one of the dispersion of body and bottom sherds, must remain unanswered.
There is also a marked difference with regard to styles of body decoration as only two styles are prominent: Style 3, of 20 sherds, and Style 1, of 12 sherds; Style 4 is on two sherds and the other Styles (2, 5 and 6), relatively frequent in KC III, are represented by only one sherd each. As it is far more difficult to ascertain whether body sherds belong
76
Khok Charoen III to the same pot when they are far apart and do not fit than to decide on the common origin of rim sherds, it is quite possible that some of these numbers are due to the hazards of the fate of individual pots having been shattered and their sherds dispersed in a particular area. The smallness of the sample does not allow one to look more thoroughly into this matter; more important is the distribution of these 141 sherds (92 rim/shoulder, 49 body and bottom) within the stratified deposit in KC IV which seems to be different from KC III, shown in Table 2.10 below. Soil {1} {2} {3} Discont. {5} Total
Bands 74 163 645 ----------------------1471 2353
Bodies/bottoms 22 102 335 --------------------573 1032
Discussion We witness here the development of a type of late neolithic domestic pottery, possibly unique in Southeast Asia, which perpetuated its basic shape as a serving dish in various sizes (from a rim diameter of just over 10 cm up to 50 cm) over a lengthy period while constantly adding new styles of decoration in such a way that at the time of the abandonment of the settlements in which this pottery was used sherds of pots with all styles of body decoration were found side by side in the uppermost layer {1}, some as surface finds.
Total 96 265 980 -----------------2044 3385
With regard to the origin of this domestic post-Discontinuity pottery complex in time and space, the fact that no "pie-crust" bowl was found in or associated with a burial in either KC III or IV, whereas there was at least one in a KC II burial, confirms that these latter burials were themselves of post-Discontinuity times and much younger than those of the other two parts of the site but the high frequency of sherds in {4} and even {5} in KC IV remains unexplained. The differences in the distribution of styles of bands or body decoration between KC III and IV, as shown by stratified sherds found in these two locations, could be due to a difference in time which cannot be detected from other archaeological evidence.
Table 2.10, Sherds of "pie-crust" pots (except plain body sherds) throughout the deposit in KC IV (weight in g) One single "pie-crust" pot was found in KC II. This is Find 7 of Burial 17, at the left foot of a very fragmentary skeleton but seemingly in situ (Ho 1984, II: Fig. 30). Classified as "Unrestorable Burial Pottery", only its weight is given: 265 g (Ho 1984, I: 271). It is described as a unique type in KC II, having a flat base (ibid.), although it is also tentatively reconstructed as being the top part of a footed bowl (Ho 1984, II: Fig. 3.7, 2b). According to the burial drawing and the photograph of these sherds (Ho 1984, II: Fig. 11.18d), the pot is about 65% complete and the weight of the entire pot would therefore have been around 420 g. The measurements, according to the photograph, are H: 9 cm, Wr: 11 cm, Wm (at shoulder): 13.3 cm. Appliqué band Style 10, body decoration Style 1.
The probable spatial origin is easier to guess: most likely in the un-excavated centre of the triangle formed by the three excavated areas of the site: KC I/IV, KC II and KC III. Due to having never been cultivated, at least since the abandonment of KC II, this particular spot was still covered by its primeval dense vegetation and could not be excavated in a hurry. However, this is where a post-Discontinuity settlement or workshop may have been, at least for some time. Class 6 Pottery (A-Ca)
The fact that this is the only such pot found in KC II requires an explanation in spite of being, with its small size and rough workmanship, at the lower end of impressiveness of this vessel type. This is because, while the cemetery of KC II is closer to the likely place of origin of those "pie-crust" pots than KC III or KC IV, the sherds of them have been found all over two other cemeteries to the northeast or south of it and not to the southwest in KC II. It seems less likely that this wide dispersal of sherds was linked to water flows during the events causing the Discontinuity than that it indicates a similar natural cataclysm some time thereafter, probably bringing an occupation phase to an end and destroying much of its material culture; only those pots were preserved intact which by chance had been in a sheltered position, such as the pot in Burial 17 of KC II or the one in the Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial in KC III. One isolated rim sherd of a "pie-crust" pot with band style 5 (?) and body decoration style 10 was also found in Level 3 of KC II (Ho 1984, II: Fig. 3.7, 2a), suggesting that there may have also been sherds of other such pots in KC II but nothing near the amount found in KC III and IV.
This class of pottery consists of two parts: Types 6A-Ca are several types of rather large, coarse, thick-walled and cord-marked heavy round-bottomed and unrestricted vessels which may have been storage vessels (if put on a support) or vessels for some processing activity. The other part (Types 6D-Dc) comprises four differently shaped unrestricted (or only very mildly restricted) more or less elongated bowls with a pre-fired circular hole in their base, interpreted as having been rice cookers or -steamers; these types are discussed in the section of "Special and Unique Pottery - 2". Although sherds of this pottery are, with very few exceptions, only found in KC III, not a single fully restorable pot was excavated here nor anywhere else in the area. We thus have less data to work with than with regard to the Class 5 "pie-crust" bowls on the same site which, moreover, are flat-bottomed whereas the Class 6 vessels have a round bottom the sherds of which can easily remain undetected amongst the mass of body sherds and can therefore not be used for counting purposes.
77
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Rims
manner of a corner articulation, edge flattened in a right angle to outer/upper surface, lip not differentiated. Type 9) = rim elongated vertically slightly incurving pointed/rounded on top, lip not differentiated. Type 10) = rim flattened on top horizontally with a small bulge on either side giving it the form of a nail head. Type 11) = direct everted rim flattened on top horizontally, rounded lip projecting to outside. Type 12) = rim slightly rounded on top with exterior rim edge projecting over the vertical exterior wall, no other lip on top of rim differentiated. Type 13) = direct vertical rim rounded on top with only little increase in wall thickness, lip not differentiated. Type 14) = direct vertical rim rounded on top with no increase of wall thickness but with a sligh everted articulation. Type 15) = direct vertical rim flattened horizontally on top with no increase of wall thickness except for interior rim edge projecting over the vertical interior wall, forming a lip.
The only element for ordering the Class 6 "Big Bowls" are the 224 excavated stratified rim sherds, analysed according to their shape, the cord-marking below the rim and the radius of the opening at rim edge level deduced from the curvature of the sherds themselves; as these sherds are often relatively small, the latter figures can only be taken as approximative. Being on a sliding scale, differences in rim shapes do not lend themselves to a precise categorisation although some 15 general types can be distinguished, leaving four sherds as unclassifiable. In view of the fact that these pots are hand-made by individual potters and at different times, perhaps not too much significance should be attributed to subtle variations in shape, decoration or size; the aim of the survey is merely to record these differences and to try to make as much sense of them as the data allow. All rims are direct rims without significant change of direction of the body wall, the only definable juncture with the body (nomenclature as proposed by White and Henderson 2003: 48, if appropriate) being the line denoting the upper end of the cord-marking which covers the entire body. In some cases wall thickness is gradually increasing to form a bulbous end (= rim with lip) without any change at the line of cord-marking, while in others this line is marked by a more or less pronounced bulge, an incised step or band or various kinds of grooves, to separate the lip, which now coincides with the entire rim, from the body. This rim may be rounded triangular (the majority of cases), flattened diagonally or horizontally, rounded hemispherically or pointed towards the inside of the vessel; it can also be elongated vertically, in- or outcurving or in an angle like a corner articulation. In the absence of more meaningful criteria these differences in the form of rim and lip have been used to establish the following types which may be associated with different cord-markings and found in vessels of different sizes. Type 1) = rim rounded triangular, lip up- and incurving, not differentiated. Type 2) = rim rounded triangular, lip incurving, clearly differentiated by a small groove. Type 3) = rim flattened diagonally, lip slightly elongated, up- and incurving, rounded. Type 4) = rim triangular rounded on top and outside, inside wall slightly inverted forming at the top an undifferentiated sharp-angled pointed lip. Type 5) = rim bulbous rounded on top, lip not differentiated. Type 6) = rim rounded on top, inside wall slightly inverted, outside rim surface slightly everted giving the top of the rim the form of a circle segment, lip not differentiated. Type 7) = rim rounded on top and towards the outside but separated from body by a groove as large as the rim itself, rounded undifferentiated lip vertically projecting to inside and also separated from body by a groove situated higher than that on the outside so as to create a more or less pronounced S-form. Type 8) = rim flattened diagonally and inverted in the
Illustration 2.76, Main rim types of KC III Class 6 large bowls
The four unique rim sherds of Class 6 vessels which do not fit into the above 15 categories and are either sole representatives of additional categories or singletons are classified as "u16" – "u19". Type u16) = rim rounded slightly bulbous and inverted, lip not differentiated.
78
Khok Charoen III Type u17) = direct outcurving rim rounded on top in circle segment form creating a pointed exterior rim edge, lip not differentiated. Type u18) = slightly everted direct rim rounded on top hyperboloid stem, lip not differentiated. Type u19) = slightly everted direct rim flattened horizontally on top, rim not differentiated.
cross-cordings could broadly be divided into the following styles. 1) X : the most common diagonal cross-cording of about 5 mm side length of the squares, found on 100 sherds of which 64 in its simplest form (X), 2) Xcc : 13 with some criss-crossing, 3) X: 5 with a smoothed band a few mm below the beginning of the cord-marking at rim, 4) X+| : 3 with vertical lines through the diagonal squares of the cord-markings, 5) Xr : 12 show this kind of cord-marking in a distinctly more roughly made knobby form, 6) Xrcc : 3 more of these also have some rough criss-crossing.
In evaluating these rim sherds the same method as for the Class 5 "pie-crust" bowls is used, the same difficulties were encountered and the same doubts as to the suitability of the method were felt but these doubts were assuaged by the same consideration namely that in the circumstances this method was the only one most likely to produce some useful results. Of the 224 excavated and consecutively numbered rim sherds of Class 6 vessels (all of a roughly comparable size), no perfect fit could be observed (if two or more sherds were found fitting together, either near each other or at a distance or a different level, they were counted as one) but in 12 cases two sherds and in two more cases three sherds were deemed to be sufficiently similar to have come from the same pot regardless of the position in which they were found. As no entire or physically restorable pot was excavated or known to exist, the question of what exactly "sufficiently similar" means is almost impossible to answer: how is one to know the degree of diversion allowable in the massive rims of 60 cm wide hand-made bowls (i.e. more than 1.80 m rim length per bowl) if such a bowl cannot be seen in its entirety? Some guess-work is unavoidable and so are errors; in the present survey it was sought to err on the side of caution and to allow rims which were only possibly, as opposed to probably, part of the same pot to be considered as such. With this allowance the number of individual pots represented by the 224 rim sherds could only be reduced by 16 to 208 which is still a considerable number when seen in the context of the space and time of the small excavation of KC III. Even so, this number may still be far too high if, as in the case of Type 5 pots above, the possibility is taken into account that the basis for this calculation is too narrow in the sense that the diversity allowable within the same vessel was wider than assumed. However, in the following paragraphs the number of pots is given as if supported by accepted evidence.
The cross-cordings on the remaining 44 sherds are of a larger (L) and a smaller (S) version: 7) XL : 13 of a slightly rhomboid (vertical) and somewhat larger form, 8) XLcc :1 of the same form with some criss-crossing, 9) XLr : 6 in a rough/knobby version of the same form,. 10) XS : 17 of a smaller version of the ordinary diagonal form of about 3 mm squares, 11) XScc : 6 of the same form with criss-crossing, 12) XSr : 1 of the same form in a rougher version. The linear cord-markings on 54 sherds are of the following three main styles. 13) /// : 4 with right-leaning lines about 1 mm wide with about 3 mm interstices, 14) ///L : 17 with right-leaning lines about 2 mm wide with 3-4 mm interstices, 15) ///Lr : 4 with right-leaning lines about 3 mm wide with 1-2 mm interstices, 16) ///Lcc : 2 same, with narrower almost horizontal lines across, 17) ///S : 4 with very fine right-leaning lines with 1-2 mm interstices, 18) ||| : 2 with vertical lines about 2 mm wide with about 2 mm interstices, 19) |||L : 4 with vertical lines about 3 mm wide without interstices (i.e. like 3:10 cord-marks), 20) |||S : 4 with vertical lines 1-2 mm wide without interstices (i.e. like 4-5:10 cord-marks), 21) |||S- : 1 same, with about 1 cm-wide smoothed band at about 2 cm below beginning of cord-marking below rim, 22) \\\ : 4 with left-leaning fine lines with 3-4 mm interstices, 23) \\\- : 1 same, with about 1 cm-wide smoothed band about 3 mm below beginning of cord-marking below rim, 24) \\\L : 4 with left-leaning lines about 2 mm wide with 3-4 mm interstices, 25) \\\S : 3 with left-leaning lines 1-2 mm wide without interstices (i.e. like 5-6:10 cord-marks).
Cord-markings The range of different styles of cord-markings seems relatively restricted as it consists of only two basic types: diagonal cross-cordings or cord-marks consisting of lines, either diagonally right leaning, vertical or left leaning. Of the 208 sherds, 9 have to be deducted as their cord-markings are not known, but of the remaining 199 sherds, representing possibly as many individual pots, 144 had cross-cordings as opposed to 54 with line-cordings; one sherd could not be classified because of its very special kind of marks. Although on a somewhat sliding scale again, the
79
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Rim Type
X
L
XS
///
///L
Cord-mark styles ///S ||| |||L
|||S
\\\
\\\L
\\\S
Total
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15)
33 4 10 13 7 5 2 5 13 2 1 1 0 2 1
4 1 5 1 0 1 2 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 1
10 1 3 2 1 0 3 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0
3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 1 3 3 1 1 4 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
58 10 23 20 11 8 13 6 24 6 5 3 3 2 2
Total
99
20
24
4
22
4
3
2
4
5
4
3
194
Table 2.11, Concordances between rim types and cord-mark styles (main types and styles only but sub-types and sub-styles included in counting, except for the 4 unique sherds). Numbers of sherds There was thus again (like with the decorative "pie-crust" bands and body decoration in Class 5 bowls) no strict concordance between rim types and cord-mark styles except that there seem to have been "preferred" associations of the two (e.g. rim type 1 with cord-mark style X) which were usually vastly outnumbered by the combined number of other such associations with the result that neither of the two elements indicates with certainty the presence of the other.
with size. As the maximum width of Class 6 vessels was found to be in the range of 26 to 62 cm, there were only 19 radii, from 13 cm to 31 cm, to be considered. The choice of radius, rather than diameter, was made for simplicity's sake as the former is easier to measure, especially when dealing with small rim-sherds from large vessels; the translation into diameters is therefore only approximative. The most interesting fact shown by the above table is that the curve of the number of vessels according to size (i.e. widths measured in R) almost exactly matches that of vessels decorated with the most common style of cord-marking, i.e. diagonal cross-cording of about 5 mm side length of the squares. About half of all Class 6 vessels
With regard to the concordance between cord-mark styles and vessel size, measured in terms of the radius (R) at rim edge level (with very few exceptions the maximum width), the situation is slightly better in the sense that it appears that at least some styles are reliably associated Radius (cm.)
X
L
XS
///
///L
Cord-mark styles ///S | |||L
13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 23) 24) 25) 26) 27) 28) 29) 30) 31)
0 1 2 5 3 2 1 3 4 6 4 7 17 16 10 8 6 3 1
0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 2 3 1 3 3 1 2 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 5 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 4 2 0 1 0 2 3 2 3 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total
99
20
24
4
22
4
3
|||S
\\\
\\\L
\\\S
Total
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 3 2 9 5 11 6 6 8 11 11 16 27 27 15 17 11 5 2
2
4
5
4
3
194
Table 2.12, Concordances between vessel size (R in cm) and cord-mark styles (main styles only but sub-styles included in counting, except for the 4 unique sherds). Number of sherds 80
Khok Charoen III
Illustration 2.77, Bottom sherds of a Class 6 large bowl showing impression of pebbles used to stabilise vessel was decorated in this way and if the other two main styles of cross-cording are taken into account this figure reaches almost three-quarters. This not only means that this style was the preferred one for the characteristic large bowls but also for smaller bowls of all sizes down to those of less than 30 cm diameter.
In addition to these 68 bowls with the most common medium-sized cross-cording style, there are another 52 bowls of the same large size (assumed diameters of 48 cm to 62 cm) but with other styles of cord-markings: 28 also with cross-cordings (11 with the larger kind XL and 17 with the smaller kind XS) and 24 with the three styles of line-cordings (18 of the right-leaning ///, 1 of the vertical ||| and 5 of the left-leaning \\\ style). Their rim styles are also not in any meaningful way connected with their cord-markings, be they cross- or line-cordings (the 28 former are divided into 23 rim styles and the 24 latter into 18 rim styles), but according to their form and dimensions, these 52 pots would also be of Type 6A and their function presumably the same as that of the other 68 pots of this type.
Within this range of (assumed) diameters from 26 cm to 62 cm some groupings can be perceived denoting types and sub-types of Class 6 vessels. The most important group comprises the 68 big bowls of Type 6A with a diameter from 48 cm to 62 cm, decorated with medium-sized diagonal cross-cording (Styles X, Xcc, X-, X+|, Xr and Xrcc) and having rims which are basically similar but vary in details. Apart from the variety of details of rim forms, this group of 68 vessels is remarkably homogeneous and even more so if one concentrates on the core group of those 15 huge bowls with identical rims, identical cord-markings and the widths of which only vary by 14 cm out of 62 cm. There must have been a need for vessels of that particular shape for a specific purpose the nature of which is still unknown. On the only large bottom piece excavated, composed of four large sherds (one of which broken in two) covering 22 cm in diameter of the bottom including the centre and found in different layers from 20 cm to 60 cm b.s. in H6, impressions have been found around the centre suggesting that at one stage of its manufacture this huge bowl rested on a series of small pebbles stabilising it while it was standing on the centre of its round bottom. This must have happened at a time after the cross-cording was applied but while the clay was still soft enough for the pebbles to leave a clear impression. It is not immediately transparent what this may mean in terms of what the bowl may have been used for but this observation may be of interest.
The next discernible groupings according to size consist of 28 bowls with diagonal cross-cording and diameters from 40 cm to 46 cm (17 of Style X and 11 of Styles XL and XS) and of 31 such bowls with diameters of 28 cm to 38 cm (14 of Style X and 17 of Styles XL and XS). These bowls are difficult to allocate to any precise sub-type except that they are not part of Type 6A and must have served different purposes or the same purpose as the big 6A bowls but at a lesser scale. The more diverse styles of linear cord-markings are far less common in the larger vessels than in smaller ones. They are more evenly distributed in the lower range of pot sizes and comprise Types 6B and 6C where rims of Style 11 predominate. Surprisingly, one of the peaks of the cross-corded bowls, that of 44 cm diameter (11 bowls), corresponds to one of the only two low points (0) of the line-corded ones (the other being at 30 cm diameter).
81
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand One single sherd (sherd no. 168, from {4} in G5, rim style 8e, cording X-, R= 28 cm) had the sloping exterior rim edge and the square rim top covered with dark red haematite slip and polished to a fine sheen, leaving the
inside and outside walls in the natural buff colour of the ware. The distribution of Class 6 rim sherds in KC III is shown at Table 2.13 below.
Soil
R(cm) 13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Total
{1} {2} {3} ---{5}
0 1 0 --0
1 0 1 ---2
0 1 0 ---1
2 1 3 --3
1 0 4 --0
1 5 5 --2
1 2 2 --1
0 5 1 --1
1 2 5 --2
0 3 5 --4
0 4 7 --3
4 3 8 ---2
5 6 11 ---5
2 3 17 --5
0 4 6 --6
1 3 10 --4
1 5 3 --2
0 2 2 --2
0 1 1 --0
20 51 91 --45
Tot
1
4
2
9
5
13
6
7
10
12
14
17
27
27
16
18
11
6
2
207
(NB: the depth of sherd no. 208 in E6 (R=13 cm) could not be ascertained)
Table 2.13, Distribution of Class 6 rim sherds throughout the deposit in KC III (by size; number of sherds) style X and presumably having a diameter of about 50 cm (Ho 1984, I: 111-112; II: Fig. Site 11), but not in the excavated layers of this site. Both sites are classified as being of "Early Metal Age 2" (Ho 1984, II: 73).
Stratified Class 6 sherds found outside excavated KC III There were a number of rim- and wall-sherds of Class 6 vessels found outside KC III but again no restorable vessel. Two rim-sherds are mentioned as samples of "rim types without parallels in complete pots" in KC II, i.e. 1a and 1b (Ho 1984, II: Fig. 3.7). Both have what seems to be the most common cross-cording in the KC III pots, i.e. X, but there is no indication of the size (R) of these vessels. The "suggested pot shape" shows a more elongated or deeper version of the form proposed for 6A-type pots in KC III but there may not have been enough other sherds available to arrive at the same conclusion. Sample 1a, from F7, has the rare rim type of 4f, represented in KC III by only one specimen (sherd no. 108 from {5} in E5) and is said to come from Level (or Phase) 2 which is the second oldest of the three burial levels in KC II, overlaying the oldest Level 1. Sample 1b, from F5, rim type 2c, comes from Level 1 itself, seen as the earliest burial phase not only of KC II but also of KC I (Ho 1984, I: 22), and is therefore thought to be part of this level; in the light of later evidence, this is most unlikely.
Discussion As in the case of the Class 5 "pie-crust" vessels, the Class 6 "Big Bowls" seem to have been part of the standard equipment of every household of a settlement or settlements, unless they were the implements for the pursuit of some industrial production. Neither possibility can be confirmed by the available evidence; in the first case one would have to ask for what purpose a large and heavy round-bottomed bowl (and therefore unsuited as a storage vessel) could have been used in an ordinary household and, in the second, what kind of cottage industry would have needed such bowls? To answer this question, one would normally find clues in traces of residues at the bottom of such recipients but in the circumstances of repeated floods and powerful water action, this would be like expecting to find food remains on a plate just out of a dish-washer. The distribution chart throughout the deposit shows not only a concentration of sherds of the larger vessels in the earliest post- and uppermost pre-Discontinuity layers, but also that on the whole the smaller vessels are the younger ones. Furthermore, the few sherds found in the lowest pre-Discontinuity layer look like having found their way into it not because these pots were really part of that layer but because they were transported there by water action or some other natural force; being rather heavy, these thick-walled sherds may have been moved in a different way from that of lighter and smaller sherds. The chart also shows that this pottery, like the "pie-crust" pottery, was a long-lasting one as there are a surprising number of rim sherds of all pot-sizes also in the uppermost layers.
Some other Class 6 sherds have possibly come to light during the aborted excavation of cutting H9, i.e. "Pit IV" of KC I, the western-most cutting of this trial excavation at about 20 m to the West of KC IV's F6, but information about them is too fragmentary to be taken into account here; suffice it to say that sherds from this apparently KC III-based post-Discontinuity domestic pottery have also been excavated at the two other parts of the site (KC II and I/IV). A "large" Class 6 rim-sherd ("U/R 1"), seemingly of rim type 3a and with cross-cording style X or XL, has been found as a surface find at the archaeological site of Ban Sub Takien (STK), at 35 km SE of Khok Charoen, where also a great amount of similar rim types of different sizes and "a lot of sherds with cross-cordage" were also found at all layers "which might be parts of the bowls belonging to this type of rim" (Ho 1984, I: 72-73, 96-97, 110-111). At Klong Bamrung (KBR), about 50 km E of Khok Charoen, another large (about 15x13 cm) rim-sherd was found on the surface, of probably the same rim type, cross-cording
Given the resemblance of these bowls to large baskets made of woven cane or bamboo (shape of the bowl, imitation of the sturdy rim of the basket by the thick rim of the bowl and of the weave by the diagonal cross-cording), investigations in the possible use of the ceramic bowls 82
Khok Charoen III could perhaps include having a closer look at the various uses of such large baskets and why the need for a more solid version of them could have arisen. Basket-making is still today an important part of Southeast Asian material culture, especially in mountain tribal societies whose technology is likely to be nearer to that of prehistoric populations in the area than that of peoples having moved into it in more recent times.
item 4 (point only), has the same form as the point of entire foot G5, item 11, and could thus be from the same pot, whereas G5, item 3 (point only) cannot be from the same pot as G5, item 13 (entire foot), because its form is quite different although its height is assumed to be the same. There are therefore four confirmed additional pots of Type 8A in KC III, the feet of two of which are of the same height as those of pot Burial 9, Find 5, and also four in KC IV. The three feet found in KC II were most likely from one single pot, probably the one associated with Burial 26, imported in post-Discontinuity times from an unknown source.
Special and unique pottery -1 (on site) The only pots excavated in KC III to be classified as special or indeed unique are the two large restricted tetrapod vessels of Type 8A: Burial 8, Find 2 and Burial 9, Find 7. Their presence in these two burials must be considered as due to special circumstances and not because they were part of habitual burial pottery.
Special and unique pottery - 2 (from outside the excavated area) Pots in this category are "virtual" inasmuch as almost all consist of only one diagnostic rim-sherd but without enough body-sherds to physically restore them. Their restoration could be done virtually according to the sherd's curvature, inclination and diameter, and with reference to known pots of a similar kind. Pots so restored belong to Classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7. They have in common that they have not been found in excavations in KC III but the individual pots and/or the pottery complex of which they are part, must have existed (with the exception of the imported Class 7 pot) near enough to the KC III-mound for some of their sherds to reach the ground of the KC III excavation itself. In these virtual reconstructions precise measurements are not realisable, only the rounded off (to the nearest cm) estimates of heights and maximum widths are given while the narrowest openings ("On") inside rims or orifices are given in accurate figures whenever possible.
(NB: for description of the two pots, with measurements, decoration etc., see Find 2, Burial 8 and Find 7, Burial 9.) In addition to the two restored specimens of this type (Find 2 of Burial 8 = about 40% complete, all four feet included, and Find 5 of Burial 9 = about 95% complete, the four feet also included), five individual feet or parts thereof were found in stratified deposits in KC III and four in KC IV. In KC II one such isolated foot was even found in a burial: Burial 26, Find 6 (Ho 1984, I: 201; II: Figs. 37, 45 and 46) but association with this burial "doubtful" (found at 30-36 cm b.s.); exact dimensions not given (height about 3.0 cm). Two more entire feet of the same height were found in post-Discontinuity stratified deposits in KC II.
Designation KC III, Burial 2 ,Find 2 “ Burial 9, Find 7 “ G5 Item 3 “ G5, Item 11 “ G5, Item 13 “ F6, Item 4 “ H5, Item 11 KCIV, surface find “ E6, Item 5 “ F3, Item 93 “ TC2, Item 5 KCII, Burial 26, Find 6 “ E5, Cer, 1 “ E6, Cer. 8
Description 4 entire feet 4 entire feet Point only (2.8 cm) Entire foot Entire foot Point only (2.0 cm) Entire foot Entire foot Entire foot Entire foot ¾ but entire height preserved Entire foot Entire foot Entire foot
Soil {5} {5} {2} {3} {3} {3} {2} -{5} {5} {4}
Foot Ht. 3.0 cm 5.0 cm c. 5.0 cm 3.7 cm 5.0 cm 3.7 cm? 3.8 cm 5.5 cm 5.8 cm 4.3 cm 4.5 cm
{3} {2} {2}
3.0 cm 3.0 cm 3.0 cm
All pot illustrations are to the same scale and the scale shown is 10 cm. In relevant cases, the drawing of the lower body is conjectural. Class 1 Pottery - Type 1Ia: Very large restricted globular bowl, vertical neck with everted rim. Upper body decorated with six incised large standing arches. Inside smoothed or burnished. 1): F5, Pot "1316"
Table 2.14, Table of feet of special pot type 8A found at various sites and levels Discussion As the two extant burial pots had both their four feet preserved, any additional foot found which cannot be matched in height or form with another one must indicate the existence of one more individual vessel. In KC III, F6,
Illustration 2.78, F5, Pot “1316”
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand (H: 25, W: 30; On: 15). 50 cm b.s. in {3}. Grey-blue-yellow pumice-like light-weight ware, inside grey-ochre. Three more small plain body-sherds of same ware found in F6, G6 and H6, same depth and in same layer; could be of same pot or of pots 20 and 21.
4): E8, Pot "1203"
2): E7, Pot "1052"
Illustration 2.81, E8, Pot “1203” (H: 27, W: 25; On: 12). 20-40 cm b.s. in {2}. Brick-coloured ware, burnished or slipped. - Type 1Nb: Very large to huge restricted pear-shaped vessel, elongated rim with outside bulbous pointed upright lip. Ochre ware, burnished inside and outside. Six incised horizontal grooves inside upper part of rim, from top to 4 cm below. Rim outside plain to shoulder 11 cm below top. Body from shoulder down coarsely (4:10) diagonally cord-marked (left leaning).
Illustration 2.79, E7, Pot “1052” (H: 30, W: 35; On: 12). 10-30 cm b.s. in {2}. Ochre ware, orange patches; inside grey-puce. - Type 1Ib: Large restricted globular bowl, everted outcurving plain rim; pointed lip decorated with a continuous row (about 200) of small impressed notches. Surface treatment of body not known. 3): E7, Pot "1069"
5): G5, Pot "1438"
Illustration 2.80, E7, Pot “1069” (H: 27, W: 33; On: 12). 10-30 cm b.s. in {2}. Dark buff ware. - Type 1Jb: Large restricted globular bowl, everted straight rim, stepped outside. Surface treatment of body not known.
Illustration 2.82, G5, Pot “1438”
84
Khok Charoen III (H: 45-55, W: 40; On: 18). 69 small sherds, all from upper body, found scattered throughout G5 and F5 from 40-70 cm b.s., 53 of them in G5 at 60-70 cm b.s. in {5}.
The proof of the existence of at least six Type 1Nb pots in KC III, i.e. of a kind similar to the several Type 1N and 1Na pots in KC IV, also presents the same thus far unsolved problem concerning chronology. These pots are part of a group of ceremonial vases/urns, decorated in a sophisticated manner, which are totally new on the scene in Late Neolithic Southeast Asia. The fact that only one of them in KC III comes from a pre-Discontinuity layer and the others from post-Discontinuity ones, while those in KC IV are all of the Later pre-Discontinuity phase, cannot as yet be explained satisfactorily.
NB: The following five pots (Nos. 6 to 10) are all variants of Pot “1438” (No. 5), but of only two, Nos. 6 (Pot “1441”) and 8 (Pot “1125”) a precise measurement – their rim diameter (Wr) is known = 24 cm for both. 6): E8, Pot "1441"
The Class 2 Pot - Type 2Ac: Large restricted globular bowl, slightly upturned direct rim with pointed lip. Low ring-foot. Buff ware. Inside burnished, outside (and inside rim to 0.5 cm below top) covered with brick-red slip.
Illustration 2.83, Rim of E8, Pot “1441” (Wr: 24). 5 rim-sherds showing 11 horizontal grooves inside upper part of rim, from top to 4 cm below. Three of these sherds fitted together: 1 in E8 at 40-50 cm b.s. in {3} and 2 in H5 at 30-40 cm b.s. in {2}; the other two of the same make came from F5 at 10-40 cm b.s., also in {2}. 7): H5, Pot "1059" (No measurements). 4 rim-sherds with slightly wider-spaced horizontal grooves inside upper part of rim and of dark buff-brown ware: 2 in H5 at 10-30 cm b.s. in {2}, 1 in H5 at 30-40 in {2} and 1 in E6 at 40-50 cm b.s. in {3}. 8): F5, Pot "1125" (Wr: 24). 1 rim-sherd showing 4 horizontal grooves inside upper part of rim, from top to 4 cm below and of dark buff-ochre ware. 10-30 cm b.s. in {2}.
11): H6, Pot "1633"
Illustration 2.84, H6, Pot “1633” (H: 12, W: 16; On: 10). 8 sherds (including a rim-sherd), constituting about 20% of the vessel without ring-foot and weighing 110 g, at 40-60 cm b.s. in {3}.
9): E8, Pot "1037" (No measurements). 2 rim-sherds showing horizontal grooves inside upper part of rim similarly spaced as in Pot "1125" but of light ochre ware. 0-10 cm b.s. in {1}.
Class 3 Pottery - Type 3A: Very large globular bowl, inverted direct rim covered with red slip. Body vertically cord-marked. 12): H5, Pot "1182"
10): E5, Pot "1363" (No measurements). 1 sherd showing two horizontal grooves inside rim 7 mm apart and of brick-coloured ware. 40-50 cm b.s. in {2}. Discussion The discovery of Type 1Ia pots in KC III, albeit very fragmentary and in an unusual ware, is most significant because of its chronological implications. The presence of large pots decorated with standing arches in early post-Discontinuity layers in KC III, while such pots are also known from the Later pre-Discontinuity phase in KC IV, seems to suggest that the two were contemporaneous which appears unlikely, or that the tradition of this particular decoration motif continued into post-Discontinuity times (a pot of this type was also found in Burial 17 of KC II) which would be equally surprising although not impossible.
Illustration 2.85, H5, Pot “1182”
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand (H: 29, W: 37; On: 22). 30-40 cm b.s. in {2}.
(H: 18, W: 25; On: 18). 0-40 cm b.s. in {2}.
- Type 3Aa: Medium to large globular bowl, slightly convex inverted direct rim covered with red slip. Body vertically cord-marked.
16): G5, Pot "1216"
13): E7, Pot "1067"
Illustration 2.89, G5, Pot “1216” (H: 15, W: 21; On: 13.2). 30-40 cm b.s. in {2}. Grey-puce ware, burnished?
Illustration 2.86, E7, Pot “1067” (H: 13, W: 17; On: 13.2). 10-30 cm b.s. in {2}. 14): E8, Pot "1620"
17): E7, Pot "1156"
Illustration 2.90, E7, Pot “1156” (H: 15, W: 20; On: 12). 30-40 cm b.s. in {2}.
Illustration 2.87, E8, Pot “1620”
- Type 3B: Medium to large globular bowl, softly everted direct rim, sometimes covered with red slip, continuous with body outside and slightly concave inside. Body cord-marked below rim.
(H: 26, W: 29; On: 16.5). 40-90 cm b.s. in {3} or {5}. - Type 3Ab: Medium to large truncated flattened globular bowl, inverted direct rim covered with red slip. Body plain (?).
18): H6, Pot "1559"
15): F5, Pot "1618"
Illustration 2.91, H6, Pot “1559” (H: 15, W: 17; On: 12). 20-40 cm b.s. in {2}. Very thin-walled: 5 mm or less.
Illustration 2.88, F5, Pot “1618”
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Khok Charoen III 19): E6, Pot "1488"
22): E8, Pot "1097"
Illustration 2.92, E7, Pot “1488” (H: 11, W: 11; On: 8.2). 60-70 cm b.s. in {5}. Very thin-walled: 3 mm or less. Illustration 2.95, E8, Pot “1097” (H: 17, W: 17; On: 10.6). 10-30 cm b.s. in {2}
- Type 3Ba: Large to very large globular bowl, outcurving direct rim. Rim and body plain. 20): E6, Pot "1487"
Discussion The purpose of this Class 3 pottery complex remains unknown. The fact that no such large globular vessel has ever been discovered in a burial in Khok Charoen or other sites in the wider area excludes the use as burial pottery, while the shape as well as the fine finish of these pots also seem to exclude their use as domestic pottery for any imaginable everyday task. As, with very few exceptions, these rim-sherds come from post-Discontinuity layers, it must be surmised that the origin of these pots was somewhere outside (presumably to the W of) the excavated area of KC III whence sherds of them reached this area itself shortly after the Discontinuity.
Illustration 2.93, E6, Pot “1487” (H: 22, W: 26; On: 14.4). 60-70 cm b.s. in {5}. Grey-blue-yellow pumice-like light-weight ware. Three more small body-sherds of same ware found in F5 in {2} (1218 and 1615) and in E7 in {5} (1519); perhaps of same pot or of pots 1 and 21.
Class 6 pottery (D-Dc) The other virtual pottery complex came to be identified in the following way. Amongst the many sherds seemingly of inverted direct rims of restricted large bowls of Class 3, there were also four rim-sherds which were burnished inside but indicated such narrow orifices that only a small child could have reached into the vessel to do the burnishing. As this seemed implausible, the possibility of a utilitarian use of these pots with small orifices was investigated and it became clear that, if turned upside-down, they would resemble three bowls excavated in KC II which had pre-fired cut holes in their round bases and for which the Type 6a (in Ho's typology) was created, although one of the smaller round-bottomed bowls Type 6b (Ho's typology) from KC II also had such a pre-fired cut hole (Ho 1984, I: 55-56, 220-223, 252-253; II: 87; measurements and particulars amended when warranted according to original drawings). Here are these three KC II pots.
21): E6, Pot "1199"
Illustration 2.94, E6, Pot “1199”
1) Burial 41, Find 17: UBP. 72, Type 6b. Large, unrestricted, inverted conical deep bowl with a pre-fired circular hole in round bottom. Slightly everted direct rim, very faint carination/shoulder below rim. Buff ware, dark grey in break. Red slip on flat top of rim. Inside walls polished. Finely (6:10) vertically cord-marked from shoulder down, petering out to smoothed plain bottom. In
(H: 22, W: 19; On: 7.6). 30-40 cm b.s. in {2}. Grey-blue-yellow pumice-like light-weight ware. Two not-fitting body-sherds of same pot found together with the rim-sherd. Same ware as pots 1 and 20.
87
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand about the centre of a compact cluster of 17 pots in SW corner of cutting E5 (no skeleton), upright. About 75% complete, broken into medium/large sherds. Much of bottom and of one side of upper body missing. Black patches near and on bottom indicate that blackened parts broke away first. H: 16; Hr: 1.1; Hc: 14.9; Wr/m: 23.8; Wn: 23; Thw: 0.6-0.7; diameter of hole in bottom: 5.3; Wgt: 579.
- Type 6D: Large unrestricted deep vertically semi-elliptical bowl with pre-fired circular hole at bottom. Vertical direct rim. Body inside polished, outside cord-marked. 23): F6, Pot "1562"
2) Burial 40, Find 12: CBP. 99, Type 6a. Large globular slightly restricted bowl with a pre-fired circular hole in the round bottom. Direct upturned rim with diagonally flattened lip. Buff ware, dark buff-grey in break. Red slip on flattened lip of rim. Coarse (3-3.5:10) vertical slightly irregular cord-marking petering out to smoothed and polished plain bottom at 8-5 cm from rounded rim of hole. The inside wall polished with scored patches lying horizontally one on top of the other. Second pot from S in an elongated cluster of ten pots stretching N-S in NW quadrant of cutting E5 (no skeleton), upright. About 85% complete, broken into medium/large sherds. Small parts of bottom and one side missing. Black patch at bottom. H: 24.2; Hr: 0.4; Wr: 24; Wm: 28.6; On: 23; Thw: 0.6-0.7; diameter of hole in bottom: 7.6; Wgt: 2,620.
Illustration 2.96, F6, Pot “1562” (W: c. 20). 20-40 cm b.s. in {2}. 24): G5, Pot "1311"
3) Burial 41, Find 14: CBP. 100, Type 6a. Very large deep unrestricted, cylindrical/hemispherical bowl with a pre-fired circular hole in round bottom. Direct vertical rim with slight carination/shoulder underneath. Buff ware. Red slip on flat top and outside of rim; excess red pigment spread into inside rim has been cleaned or scratched off but there is a 3-4 cm-long horizontal groove 5 cm below rim filled with red pigment. Medium (5:10) vertically cord-marked from 1 cm below carination down to 8-5 cm from rounded rim of hole where it peters out to a smoothed plain bottom. N-most pot in a large irregular cluster of 17 excavated pots in SW-corner of cutting E5 (no skeleton excavated). About 75% complete, broken angularly in large sharp-edged sherds. Huge black patch covering almost a quarter of the pot on one side, including bottom. H: 31; Hr: 1.5; Hc: 29.3; Wr: 32; Wc/m: 33; Thw: 0.6-1.3; diameter of hole in bottom: 6.4; Wgt: 3,520.
Illustration 2.97, G5, Pot “1311” (W: c. 15). 40-50 cm b.s. in {3}. - Type 6Da: Large unrestricted deep inverted conical bowl with pre-fired circular hole at bottom. Very slightly everted direct rim with small carination/shoulder underneath. Body inside polished, outside cord-marked from below shoulder down. 25): E7, Pot "1038"
The best way to test whether the above-mentioned four rim-sherds from KC III, thought to be of Class 3 restricted globular bowls with very narrow openings, could instead be the rims of the holes in the bottoms of unrestricted bowls, was to compare their diameters. The openings of the four virtual KC III pots (5.8, 6.8, 5.0 and 5.6 cm for Pots "1038", "1260", "1311" and "1562" respectively), do indeed fall into the same range as the KC II bowls (5.3, 7.6 and 6.4 cm). As the thickness of their walls (0.9, 0.8-1, 0.7 and 0.7 cm, respectively) was also the same as those of the KC II pots, it was thought justifiable to add them to Class 6 as Type D. As such, only their lower bodies can be virtually reconstructed and the widths estimated, while upper bodies and rims may be imagined as having more or less the same dimensions and forms as the KC II pots. According to the only available models, i.e. these three pots excavated from burials in KC II, it is possible to divide this type into the following subtypes.
Illustration 2.98, E7, Pot “1038” (W: c. 18). 0-10 cm b.s. in {1}.
88
Khok Charoen III 26): E7, Pot "1260"
Post-Discontinuity lightweight ware Another matter concerning Class 6 pottery needs recording. Scattered throughout KC III (except for cutting E8) in stratified deposits {2} and {3}, 41 small sherds of a grey-blue lightweight ware were excavated which were all rather thick and roughly (about 2:10) cross-cord-marked in the manner of the heavy Type 6A "big bowls". One of these sherds being a rim-sherd, the diameter of such putative lightweight large bowls could be estimated to be almost 60 cm and the difference in the cord-markings showed that there may have been up to five individual bowls of this kind in the excavated area. The combined weight of the 41 sherds was 578 g and a tabulation of their weight (g) per cutting (E5: 159, F5: 143, G6: 62, E6: 61, F6: 57, H5: 55, G5: 18, E7: 12 and H6: 11) indicates that the dispersion centre of them could have been in the SE-part of the excavated area while there may be many more of these sherds beyond it.
Illustration 2.99, E7, Pot “1260” (W: c. 22). 30-40 cm b.s. in {2}. - Type 6Db: Large slightly restricted spherical bowl with pre-fired circular hole at bottom. Everted rim, marked inside body by a slight carination. Red slip on top of rim. Body inside polished, outside cord-marked. (Only found in KC II and IV)
Classes 1 and 3 are also represented in this pottery, sherds (without cord-markings) of other pots of this grey-blue lightweight ware having been found in the same layers in the SE-part of KC III (E6, F5, F6, G6 and H6). They have been tentatively categorised as Pots Nos. 1, 20 and 21 in the above list of "Special and Unique Pottery - 2" and suggest the existence of a post-Discontinuity pottery complex which may have attempted to recreate some of the more impressive types of the pre-Discontinuity era in both KC III and IV; unfortunately, the evidence is too incomplete to pursue this matter any further.
- Type 6Dc: Very large unrestricted deep hemispherical bowl with cylindrical upper body. Pre-fired hole in round bottom. Direct vertical rim with slight carination/shoulder underneath. Red slip on flat top and outside rim. Body inside smoothed, outside cord-marked. (Only found in KC II) Discussion In KC II, the three bowls with holes were associated with two "Group B" burials (40 and 41), i.e. "clusters of intact pottery but no human skeletons [were] found with them" (Ho 1984, I: 17), which renders their identification difficult. Both potsherd clusters were situated directly at the edge of an un-excavated baulk of cutting E5 (Burial 40 at the N-baulk and Burial 41 at the S-baulk) making it very likely that they were part of grave goods of human burials stretching to the N or S of them. Burial 40 was indeed found out to be a human burial while Burial 41, with its tightly packed 17 pots including one each of (new) Type 6Da and 6Dc but no trace of a skeleton, became Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 1, containing otherwise only N.-A.B.P. vessels. In KC II, the Type 6D pots could thus have been multi-use pottery. Ethnographic parallels show that pots with holes very similar to those excavated in KC II are still now used by certain tribal societies in the northern part of the Indochinese Peninsula for the steaming of rice (with a sieve-like disk covering the hole and over another pot with boiling water), suggesting that the KC II pots may have served the same purpose.
The Class 7 Pot 27): H5, Pot “1133”
Illustration 2.100, H5, Pot “1133” Five sherds of one single carinated bowl of Type 7B (Pot "1133"), constituting about 25% of the body, were found at depths of 10 to 50 cm b.s. (i.e. in post-Discontinuity layers) in H5 and G5. As this type of vessel has not been found at all in Khok Charoen whereas it was "rather common at neolithic Sai-Yok" (Van Heekeren and Knuth 1967: 42), we have here proof of trans-Central Plain relations in prehistoric times, the more so as Pot "1133" is identical in all aspects (ware, surface treatment and size) to the Sai-Yok vessel "SY. I/245" and cannot possibly be a local copy. What remains obscure, however, is when exactly, in what way and why this particular pot found its way from Kanchanaburi across the Central Plain to the Pasak Lowlands about 250 km to the NE.
The most prudent conclusion is therefore that, while there is a strong likelihood that the four KC III sherds were indeed from rice-steamers, there is no proof that they were in use at the time of the burials in KC III. Rather, they were probably used by people who buried their dead in KC II, although the time and manner of the dispersal of some sherds of them to the area of KC III cannot be ascertained.
89
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Artificially rounded/shaped potsherds
Discussion
A great number of disk-like potsherds have been excavated in KC III, although it is not certain whether in all cases their circular shape was due to conscious action by humans or the result of accidental breakage. Round-bottomed pots, when submitted to pressure on or near the centre of the bottom, sometimes break in a circular pattern which makes the resulting innermost sherd look like having been rounded intentionally.
This table clearly shows who used artificially shaped potsherds in KC III. While only 5 out of 55 of these sherds have been found in pre-Discontinuity soils, the other 50 came from post-Discontinuity layers with the great majority of them from the lowest such layer and the others, in ever decreasing numbers, from the layers above. It can therefore be assumed that it was by the earliest settlers after the Discontinuity that sherds were artificially rounded or otherwise shaped for a specific purpose and that this habit was then lost over time.
It may be assumed that normally suitable small flat sherds (probably those which had already a rounded part through breaking) were further broken and trimmed into the desired shape but this shape need not necessarily have only been that of a disk. Accordingly, using the presence of marks of artificial trimming as a criterion and, after discarding many unsuitable sherds, only 55 sherds have been retained for consideration and divided into three categories.
However, those five apparently pre-Discontinuity sherds deserve closer attention. One of them, 1468, a badly shaped small "disk" comes from a 10 cm spit in E6 (60-70 cm b.s.) in which there were several pits or ditches: one connected with Burial 4, another with the vessel cluster ceramic burial and still two or three smaller ones of unknown origin. Thus, while the overwhelming majority of stratified sherds from this spit were indeed in {5}, there is the possibility that some were of post-Discontinuity origin.
1) Those sherds which have a circular enough form to be considered "rounded", although some of them have shapes more akin to a hexa-, hepta- or octogon than to a real circle, others have been broken into semi-disks (presumably after they have been fashioned and used) and still others are slightly elongated or oval. There are 15 sherds in this category, with a diameter ranging from 2.5 cm to 5 cm. All, except the largest, are fashioned from medium cord-marked sherds from round-bottomed vessels, presumably of Class 1, A-D and perhaps also K-type.
With regard to the other four sherds, the situation is somewhat clearer as they came from spits where the danger of confusion was much less (although never entirely absent). Three from 70-80 cm b.s. and one from 80-90 cm b.s., in a relatively undisturbed context. They comprise one specimen of Type 1: an almost perfect disk of 3.5 cm diameter, rather thick and heavy (0.8 cm, 13 g), fashioned from a dark buff/grey sherd with a very faintly cord-marked (?) outside and a smooth, perhaps even originally burnished inside surface; this ware and surface treatment is reserved for special pottery. As this particular sherd (item 15, F5) came from the one square metre excavation in the S-baulk to free the lower part of Burial 5 and was thus in proximity of that burial it could well have been associated with it. The two specimens of Type 2 are: sherd 1502, E6, 70-80 cm b.s., a disk of also 3.5 cm diameter but fashioned on one side into a triangle of 75 degrees; and sherd 1498, F5, 80-90 cm b.s., on one side well-rounded to 2.5 cm diameter and on the other extended into a point formed by a triangle of 55 degrees but of an overall length of 3.5 cm. Both, with very weathered cord-markings and thin-walled, were not remarkable but their origin in {5} seems certain. This must also be said about the one specimen of Type 3: sherd 1497, E5, 70-80 cm b.s., the segment of a disk of 12 cm diameter, angle 50 degrees, cord-marked 5:10, thin-walled and showing signs of having been worked.
2) Sherds having a shape akin to a drop, i.e. a round body with an isosceles triangle pointing outwards. This shape seems sufficiently characteristic to be seen as a desired form in its own right, although some of these sherds may have simply been unfinished disks. There are 10 sherds in this category, all cord-marked, with a diameter (of the round part) from 2 cm to 4 cm. 3) Sherds in the form of circle segments less than a semicircle. With 30 sherds, this is by far the largest group; all but one are cord-marked and that one (1441, E8) is so weathered that it could also have been cord-marked. These 30 sherds are remarkably similar in shape and size with the diameter of their imaginary circles being larger than that of sherds in the other two categories: 4.5 cm to 12 cm.
Soil Surface {1} {2} {3} -------------{5} Total
Type 1
1 1 1 10 --------------2 15
Type 2
0 0 1 7 ---------------2 10
Type 3
0 1 5 23 --------------1 30
Total
1 2 7 40 ---------------5 55
It is therefore likely that the artificial shaping of potsherds was also practised in pre-Discontinuity times, although perhaps not to the scale of the first post-Discontinuity settlements.
Potsherds with vegetal impressions
Table 2.15, Distribution of disc-shaped sherds throughout the deposit
Relatively few (14) potsherds were excavated in stratified 90
Khok Charoen III deposits in KC III which show significant vegetal impressions beyond those occurring naturally in the No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14a 14b
Cutting
item
E8 E8 E6 E6 F6 F6 F6 G6 E5 F5 G5 G5 H5 H5 “
1004 1427 1098 1241 1544 1525 1615 1637 1073 1372 1282 1443 1351 1448 “
Soil {1} {5} {2} {3} {1} {1} {5} {5} {2} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} “
Pot part
Pot type
Body (o) Shoulder (i) Rim (o) Shoulder? (o) Neck (o) Base of rim (o) Shoulder (o) Below lip (o) Body (i) Body (o) Shoulder (o) Body (o) Shoulder (o) Direct rim (i) Direct rim (o)
1K 1Ab/1Ba 1K 1 (med.) 1D? 1K 1K ? too small 1K? 1K? 1K? 1K? 1K? 6C/ Ca? “
process of manufacture but not all of them are identifiable.
Impression mm 8x3 deep 4x3, shallow 4x2, med., char. 10//x2, med., char. 9x7, deep, char. 5x2, med., char. 2ø, deep, char. 9x4, deep 4x4, shallow, char. 6x5//, med. 15//x3ø tube 3x3x3, med. 4x3, deep 5x3, deep 13x3, arched
Object Rice grain + husks 2 rice grains + husks Rice grain Plant matter? ? complex relief Rice grain 2 millet grains Rice grain? Plant matter? ? complex relief Millet/rice stalk ? (3-pointed object) Rice grain + husk Rice grain + husk ? ? (w. recent rootlet)
{NB: (o )= outside; (i) = inside; // (after a measurement) = sherd broken at that spot, figure could be higher; ø = diameter; char..= charred, i.e. black particles in impression indicating burnt vegetal matter; med = medium (size or depth)}
Table 2.16, Potsherds with significant vegetal impressions in KC III (listed by cuttings from N to S) Discussion
could they have been used as containers of solids or liquids of any kind. They were imported into KC III by those settlers who buried the first of their dead in Burial 5 but it is not known where they were made, nor when and by whom. Wherever it was, rice was cultivated there.
The most significant amongst these 17 impressions (in three cases there were two impressions on the same sherd) are the five clear impressions of rice grains in their husks. Three more impressions are almost certainly of rice grains although their husks could not be seen, while the most likely interpretation of two small circular impressions (2 mm in diameter, on sherd No. 7) is that they are those of millet grains. Of the remaining seven impressions one is most likely of a rice or millet stalk, two are probably of some other plant matter such as small twigs but the origin of four impressions could not be elucidated (the "arched" one must have been made by a small staple-shaped object leaving two holes linked by a shallow impression).
No particular theory concerning the cultivation of millet can be built on the doubtful evidence of one particular sherd, also presumably from a Type 1K bowl, but the possibility exists that millet (most probably Setaria italica or Panicum miliaceum) was also grown somewhere in the area at that time. Potsherds with finger impressions
There is thus evidence for the cultivation of dry rice in the area and at the time of the burials of KC III although not necessarily in the immediate vicinity of the site. As the sherds bearing the impressions are on the whole rather small and with more or less weathered surfaces – sometimes to the extent that it could not even be seen whether they were cord-marked or not – the determination of the part and type of the pot from which they came could often only concern the broadest categories. However, it is clear that, in view of the feeble curvature in both directions of all sherds, they are most likely from large cord-marked Class 1 bowls like 1Ab, 1Ba or the largest of them, 1K.
Finger impressions on clay can be the source of useful information about potters (sometimes even their ethnic background) and pottery making, provided there are enough impressions available to support such information statistically. Unfortunately, this was not the case in any of the three cemeteries of Khok Charoen where this matter was not pursued purposefully but during work on the excavated material of KC III and KC IV some examples of finger impressions came to light which may nonetheless be of some interest although in weathered or otherwise damaged pottery important details, such as the print patterns, may be lost.
This latter type, unique to KC III and even there confined to a concise part of the excavated area, is obviously an intriguing pottery type of which only seven specimens are known to exist in KC III but at least nine more again in KC II. These are large thin-walled bowls, looking like oversized cooking pots but which cannot have been used as such as nothing could have been cooked in them nor
In KC III, finger impressions are always without print patterns, except for the rare cases where a very small rim of them is preserved at the tip of a finger when fingernail impressions are made into one of the decorative bands (band-type 2) of the Class 5 "pie-crust" dishes. As such partial marks are of little informative value, this particular matter is not discussed further.
91
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand There are six cases of documented well-visible finger impressions on pottery in KC III (probably in addition to a great number of unrecognised and un-recorded ones), three of which on small Type 3Ea dishes usually made by hand and perhaps in some haste as little care seems to have been taken to smoothen the finished product. The finger impressions on the three dishes (diameter: 9 cm, 9.5 cm, and 10.8 cm respectively) were so narrow (width: 8-10 mm) that they could be from a child or a young adult. The other three cases are those of a sherd from a medium-sized cord-marked bowl Type 5D, a miniature footed bowl (most likely a toy), and a neck-sherd from a Type 1I vessel, all three with different finger impressions.
pieces which were found 10 cm apart and also at 10 cm difference in depth, both vertically in the soil as if standing upright, in an ash lens within the lower part of {2} in the NW-quadrant of E7. This lens, of a diameter of about 1 m and a depth of about 20 cm, also contained a small polished adze of grey-green fine-grained volcanic rock (item 5), a fragment of Trochus niloticus shell, presumably from a bracelet (item 6), a large shoulder sherd of a "pie-crust" bowl decorated with bold diagonal lines and band style 3 (item 7), a large "big bowl" rim-sherd, diameter about 30 cm, rim type 1c, cross-corded XL, as well as various small unidentifiable bone fragments. Of the other anvil (anvil B) only about half of the upper part including the rounded top has been found in the northern half of the neighbouring cutting E6 but in layer {5}. There were no other significant finds nearby.
1) On Pot "1621", in Cutting F5 in {5}, a Type 3Ea dish, the impressions are inside and outside near the rim in such a way that it can clearly be seen how the young potter pinched the rim simultaneously from both sides to give it the desired shape. 2) The same observation can be made with regard to the Type 3Ea dish Pot "1139b" in E8 in {2}, although the impressions are less definite. 3) The much flatter Type 3Ea Pot "item 16" of Cutting H5 in {5} has these juvenile finger impressions only on the inner or upper side mainly near the rim but also nearer to and directly in the centre, while no impressions could be seen on the outside. 4) The Type 5D Pot "1106a", in E7 in {2}, consists of one large diagnostic sherd from rim to base or about 1/4 of the entire cord-marked bowl; about half-way up there is an impression of which only a round end-part can be seen but which, with a width of 13 mm, looks like that of an adult person. As this impression was made into the cord-marking, it could have been done while transporting the finished pot to be fired.
Illustration 2.101, Anvil A
5) The thick-walled miniature footed bowl (foot broken off) of 6 cm diameter, Pot "item 3" of E7 in {1}, of a unique type (Class 9nc2) shows small finger- and finger-tip impressions all over its outside confirming that it was made by a child. 6) The neck-sherd of a large thick-walled restricted bowl, almost certainly of Type 1I, Pot "1354" in E8 in {5}, has adult finger impressions inside the upper part of the cylindrical neck near to where the rim is turning outwards. There are two sets of three adult finger tips, one a little lower than the other and set off from it, showing that at least this part of the 10 mm-thick neck wall had been modified from the outside by repeated movements of the fingers pushing from the inside, presumably to adjust the rim before the firing of the pot. Other pottery objects
Illustration 2.102, Anvil B Both anvils are mushroom-shaped, with a shallow convex top (or face) and a cylindrical handle of a lesser diameter meeting the top in a sharp angle. Both anvils are made of the same buff-ochre heavy granular ware and even the diameter of the top is very similar: 6.5 cm for anvil A and 7 cm for anvil B, although the diameter of the handle (and probably also its height) is different, with 3.5 to 4 cm for the first and 5.5 cm for the second. Maximum height of the first anvil is 10.5 cm (of which 1.5 cm for the top) and the height of the top of the second is 1.8 cm. Weight of entire anvil A: 290 g and of the fragment of anvil B: 140 g which means that the weight of the second anvil must have been at least double that of the first.
Anvils Two clay anvils (to be held inside a pot while it is shaped outside with a wooden paddle) have been excavated in KC III. One (anvil A) was an entire anvil broken into two 92
Khok Charoen III Discussion As these two clay anvils are the only ones excavated anywhere in Khok Charoen (although three more specimens were found as surface finds in the KC IV area), it may be assumed that this particular implement did not play an important role in the material culture of the site or, more exactly, that the place of pottery manufacture where these anvils had been used lay well outside the excavated area. With regard to dating the anvils, several factors complicate the issue. While it could seem reasonable to date anvil B to the layer in which it was found, i.e. {5}, the only pre-Discontinuity layer, the fact that it is only a fragment and obviously not in situ, must cast doubt as to the reliability of this date. Anvil A, found roughly in the centre and near the top of the ash lens in lower {2} the bottom of which touched {3}, was of course also not in situ and could have come from any post-Discontinuity layer. The ash lens appeared very disturbed and although it contained some typical KC III items, the presence of the fragment of a shell bracelet which was only in use in KC II shows that there also was some connection with that other, later part of the site.
Illustration 2.103, Earplug A Calling the two known earplugs A (KC III, G6, item 1) and B (KC II, s.f.), they can be compared and contrasted as follows. They both have the shape of a thick disk with the obverse and reverse slightly convex and the edge slightly concave. Max. thickness for both: 1.5 cm, width of edge for both: 1 cm; diameter plug A: 2.5 cm, plug B: 2.7 cm. Weight plug A: 15 g, plug B: 18 g. Ware colour plug A: darkish buff, plug B: medium buff-ochre. Discussion In spite of looking alike, these two earplugs clearly are from two different individuals. However, the fact that they are not associated with a burial nor any object as a chronological pointer means that their age can only be guessed within the framework of local history. The significance of these ear ornaments is discussed in the chapter on "Links with the Present".
In conclusion it can therefore only be said that the date of the two KC III anvils is uncertain but the fact that they must have come from a layer well below {1} indicates that they were in use at the time of a post-Discontinuity settlement in the area before it was abandoned. Given their similarity with the oldest (= largest) such clay anvils excavated in Ban Na Di, Level 7 (Higham and Kijngam 1984: 152-157, Figs. 3-30 to 3-33), it could be assumed that the KC III anvils are also relatively older than the KC IV surface finds which include, in addition to two large handle fragments, a complete much smaller anvil similar to those in the upper layers of Ban Na Di. However, the proximity of the two parts of the site and the fact that these are highly mobile surface finds should preclude such hasty assumptions. Whether a comparison over a distance of about 250 km (and over the dividing Phetchabun Range) is relevant to the dating of the cultural sequence in Khok Charoen is another question.
Unidentified Pottery Objects These include 7 fragments of a type of small ring the purpose or use of which is unknown, about one-half of a still smaller ring of a different kind which could have been part of a pottery vessel of an unknown type (handle?), a "nose"-shaped clay object, a medium fragment (itself broken into three parts) of a larger pottery item which may or may not have been a vessel, an odd-shaped pottery fragment which may also have been part of a larger vessel, a small pottery "horn" which probably was on a type of pot not known from the site and a small clay cylinder with a central hole which most probably either was, or was to be made into, a bead.
The Earplugs A single earplug made of baked clay has been "excavated" in KC III, but at a depth (10 cm b.s.) and in a layer {1} which render this term almost meaningless as this disturbed topsoil does not allow any dating although the exact location of the specimen is known. As if to prove this point, an almost identical earplug was found at a distance of about 100 m as a surface find in the KC II area, exact location unknown. No other such earplug seems to be known from the site or its vicinity.
Ring fragments Desig.
Cutting
Soil
1392 1619 1375 1179 It. 20 1351 It. 28
E8 F6 G5 H5 H5 H5 H5
{5} {3} {5} {3} {3} {5} {5}
Inner ø cm. 2.5 2.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 2.5 1.0
Width cm. 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.8 1.0
Colour Buff Dk. Grey Buff-ochre Dk. Buff Dk. Buff Dk. Buff Dk. buff
Remarks Burnished Weathered Burnished
Table 2.17, Details of ring fragments found in KC III
93
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand As the above data show, no two of these fragments fit exactly together and therefore very probably come from seven or at least five different rings. In spite of marked differences in size and colour these rings have their peculiar cross-section in common (V-shaped with the point towards the inside), suggesting that this is a distinct ring-type which was in use during a limited time span just before or just after the Discontinuity but after the time of the burials and before the final settlement phase of the site. The small inner diameter of the rings shows that they
could not have been bracelets (not even for children) but must have served another purpose and the fact that at least two of them were burnished while others were too damaged to exclude the possibility that they, too, had been treated in this way, may mean that this purpose was more than a purely utilitarian one; but what exactly it was is still unclear. Illustrations of the ring fragments are given in Table 2.18 below.
KC III, Ring fragment 1
KC III, Ring fragment 2
KC III, Ring fragment 3
KC III, Ring fragment 4
KC III, Ring fragment 5
KC III, Ring fragment 6
KC III, Ring fragment 7 Table 2.18, KC III, Ring fragments
94
Khok Charoen III The other six unidentified pottery objects have the following characteristics: 1): The small half circle ring (E7, 1029), probably a handle: outer diameter 2.2 cm, inner diameter 0.7 cm, round cross-section, weight 3 g, dark buff, from 0-10 cm b.s., in {1};
Illustration 2.107, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 4 5): A small "horn" (E8, item 26), almost certainly originally attached to a vessel as a handle or knob: height 1.7 cm, diameter at base 1.7-2.0 cm, weight 5 g, very dark buff and showing traces of having been burnished, from 58 cm b.s., in {5}.
Illustration 2.104, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 1 2): A "nose"-shaped object (G5, 1371): length 4.3 cm, width 2.2 cm, height 1.5 cm, weight 11 g, dark buff and very granular, from 50-60 cm b.s., in {5};
Illustration 2.108, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 5
Illustration 2.105, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 2 3): A strangely shaped fragment, broken into three pieces (F6, 1566), perhaps the shoulder-part of an unknown vessel-type: length 9.4 cm, width 4.5 cm, weight 36 g, ochre, from 20-40 cm b.s., in {2} or {3};
6): A roughly shaped small clay cylinder, light ochre, with a 2-3 mm central hole: length 2.2 cm, diameter 1.4 cm, weight 5 g; outside rough and irregular as if unfinished and also not fired but only dried. Found amongst stratified potsherds in G5, 60-70 cm b.s., in {5}.
Illustration 2.106, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 3 4): An odd-shaped small fragment, bearing half of a circular impression on the outside and having a smooth, slightly concave inside (E5, 1117): length 3.0 cm, width 2.3 cm, thickness 1.0 cm, weight 6 g, dark ochre and very granular, from 10-30 cm b.s., in {2};
Illustration 2.109, KC III, Unidentified pottery object 6
95
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Discussion
and Southeast homeland (Heine-Geldern 1932). Taking this and some of the other related original ideas of Heine-Geldern as a starting point, Duff evolved a coherent typology for stone adzes in Southeast Asia and beyond, also including South China, Japan and Formosa (Taiwan), with extensions as far east as Polynesia. The Walzenbeil, or "Round-Axe", i.e. with oval cross-section, is not considered by him as a significant element in this context (Duff 1980: 151) while Watson thought that stray finds of them in Khok Charoen "point to a stage of lithic industry once present in central Thailand which can only have corresponded to an earlier neolithic phase" under the influence of the stone industry and ultimately of metal-users of southern China (Watson 1979: 57-58).
The survey of these few unidentified pottery objects excavated in KC III reveals that there must have been some types of post-Discontinuity pottery, either vessels or other objects, which do not otherwise occur in the excavation and may therefore be intrusions from an unknown place outside the excavated area. The "horn" from a pre-Discontinuity layer could document a more precise origin, namely KC IV. Its very dark buff colour and the probability that it was burnished, both hallmarks of some elaborate pottery types typical of KC IV but not occurring in KC III, point indeed to that area as its origin although no vessel type there is known to have such horns. In this connection it is of interest to note that a "nose"-shaped clay object very similar to No. 2 above was also found in KC IV (see "unidentified pottery objects). The putative clay bead from {5} in G5 is also most interesting as no finished clay bead was found in KC III and especially not at a depth suggesting association with a burial.
In northeastern Central Thailand, and in particular Khok Charoen, an area which does not seem to have been influenced by any Austronesian culture, the adzes are almost exclusively of Duff's Type 1, 2 and 8, in different combinations for the three parts of the site. These types and their main variations are succinctly characterised by Duff (1970: 19-20) in the following terms (in KC IV, three presumed rough-outs for Type 7 adzes have also been found; this type is mentioned without any of its variations):
Stone Stone adzes Entire stone adzes Altogether 25 entire (or at least of a shape that type and basic dimensions can be accurately recognised) stone adzes have been excavated in KC III, only one of which was found in secure association with a burial. Three more were found in situations making it very likely that they had been originally associated with burials and seven small limestone adzes are thought to be too soft for use as genuine tools and could therefore have been substitutes for real adzes in burials although they were found in post-Discontinuity layers. It is thus impossible to state with any degree of confidence which adzes had been used only by post-Discontinuity settlers, which ones had perhaps been reused by them after having been found on the surface or in eroded pre-Discontinuity burials and which ones had remained in these burials and had come to light only after the settlers themselves had long gone.
Type 1
Shape Simple rectangular
2 3
Stepped rectangular Triangular apex upwards Shouldered grip
8
Variants Var. A: unilateral bevel Var. B: rounded rectangular Var. D: secondary face bevel Var. E: everted blade corners Var. F: shallow elliptical Var. G: unequal elliptical Var. A: stepped butt Var. A: shouldered, 2A Var. B: double shouldered, 2A Var. D: shouldered, 2D Var. E: rectangular-shouldered “axe” Var. F: curve-shouldered “axe”
Table 2.19, Types of stone adzes In KC III, the 25 excavated entire adzes are divided into 9 of Type 2G, 8 of Type 1A, 7 of Type 2D and 1 of Type 8A. These are summarised in Table C.1 and illustrated in Appendix C. Their distributiuon is shown at Table 2.20 below.
The attempt to classify all stone adzes found in KC III according to the typology evolved by Duff for adzes in Southeast Asia (Duff 1970, 1980) based mainly on the cross-section (rectangular, rounded rectangular, elliptical, oval, triangular) as well as butt modification, led to the realisation that in the case of Khok Charoen, where the cross-sections were often ill-defined and butt modifications ambiguous, such a classificatory system was not as easy to utilise as one would have wished. However, as it is still the best available to this day, it is used here with discretion. This system evolved out of the original concept of the linkage of the Austronesian culture with a polished stone adze having a four-cornered cross-section (the Vierkantbeil or Quadrangular adze) which spread into the Pacific from its continental East-
Soil {1} {2} {3} Discont. {5} Total
1A 0 1 2 ------------5 8
2D 1 0 1 ----------5 7
2G 0 0 1 ----------8 9
8A 0 0 0 ----------1 1
Total 1 1 4 19 25
Table 2.20, Distribution of entire (or almost entire) stone adzes in KC III, according to type
96
Khok Charoen III Adze fragments
(Stepped Adzes) are on the whole much larger than the eight specimens from KC III, the height of which ranges from 2.8 cm to 4.0 cm, with an average of 3.3 cm. This may mean that the latter constitute a type of their own, not related to the Duff-type 1A, itself derived from Heine-Geldern's Stufenbeil (Heine-Geldern 1932: 579-585), but are derived from his Kleinbeile or "small axes" (Heine-Geldern 1932: Tf IV) which include all sorts of small adzes like those of the Duff-types 2 found in KC III and Khok Phanom Di and even a stepped adze coming from northern Burma of the exact proportions of those from KC III, i.e. a height of 2.8 cm. The conclusion must thus be that these small stepped adzes are in reality only a variation of Duff's already quite heterogeneous Type 2G and not part of the Stepped adze movement as proposed by Duff (and indeed Heine-Geldern before him) with the implication that it indicated the spread of Austronesian languages and/or peoples. If anything, these small stepped adzes may in actual fact be a sign of the presence of Austro-Asiatic (or "Proto-Austro-Asiatic")-speaking population groups at this northeastern rim of the Menam drainage basin in late Neolithic times. This assumption is consistent with Heine-Geldern's admission, in a letter to the Journal of the Polynesian Society 1958, that in the twenty-six years since writing his 1932 article he had realised that some of his views expressed therein regarding the connection of adze types with language groups "contain serious errors". As to the Indochinese Peninsula in particular, he spoke of a "mixed Quadrangular and Shouldered Adze Culture" but emphasised that he still thought that the distribution of shouldered stone adzes "indicates some connection with the peoples speaking Austro-Asiatic languages. This was recognised by Sir Arthur Phayre as early as 1876." (Heine-Geldern 1958: 170-171). The Stepped adze is not mentioned.
There are 22 recognisable adze fragments of various sizes none of which is of a shape allowing reliable identification of the type. All that can be said is that 18 of these fragments seem to come from Type 2 adzes, three fragments are likely to be from Type 1A adzes and one (the tang of a shouldered adze) from a Type 8D adze. Making due allowance for the fact that the classification of these fragments is only tentative, the following Table 2.21 is suggested for their distribution. See Table C.2 of Appendix C for their descriptions and illustrations. Soil {1} {2} {3} Discont. {5}
1A 0 0 2 --------1
2? 0 2 3 -------6
2D 0 0 0 --------1
2G 0 2 0 --------5
8D 0 0 0 -------1
Total 0 4 5 -------14
Total
3
11
1
7
1
23
Table 2.21, Distribution of adze fragments in KC III, according to type Rough-outs Nine rough-outs for stone adzes have been excavated but due to their unfinished state, the Duff-type they were supposed to reach when completed can only be guessed. In the state in which these rough-outs were found it looks as if their shapes preclude any type other than 2A, 2D and 2G, i.e. there could not have been any 1A, 2B, 2E or 2F types, nor any other types including shouldered adzes. Therefore, the most useful way to present these rough-outs may be to lump them all into the unspecified Type 2 category and look at them in terms of stratified distribution. Their distribution are given at Table 2.22 below. These are described in Table C.3 snd illustrated in Appendix C., Soil {1} {2} {3} Discontinuity {5}
The excavated adzes can be divided into two broad and almost equal categories as far as the raw material from which they are fashioned is concerned: those made of volcanic rock (13) and those made of limestone in its various forms (12). The proportion of pre- to post-Discontinuity finds was exactly the same for both categories with 9 or 10 of the former and 3 of the latter. As one cannot expect to find rough-outs for small limestone adzes, the fact that of the nine rough-outs in volcanic rock only four were found in pre-Discontinuity layers whereas the other five come from later layers, including disturbed and undisturbed topsoil, possibly means that there was a local lithic industry which continued unabated from pre- to post-Discontinuity times, although given the small numbers involved this can only be a tentative hypothesis.
Rough-outs 1 1 3 ------------------4
Table 2.22, Distribution of rough-outs for Stone Adzes in KC III, according to layer Discussion The most surprising observation is the relative frequency of Type 1A adzes (almost one-third of all adzes) which contrasts with comparable sites in Thailand, such as Sai-Yok (Van Heekeren and Knuth 1967: 43-46), Ban-Kao (Sørensen 1967: 85-88) or Khok Phanom Di (Pisnupong 1993), where they do not seem to occur at all and is also not in step with Duff's typology in which they are listed as only occurring in South China, Formosa and the Philippines and having a Polynesian extension. However, these Type 1A "Adzes with Stepped Grip"
Stone adzes and fragments from KC III are also illustrated at Appendix C. Grinding stones, whetstones and hammerstones There were 10 grinding stones, 2 whetstones and 2 hammerstones excavated in KC III, the two whetstones and one of the hammerstones having also served as grinding stones. These are summarised in Table D.1 of Appendix D. 97
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Discussion
Fossilised bone
Although there is no general agreement on terminology, the convention is adopted here that grinding stones are characterised by their shallow concave surfaces whereas whetstones have flat surfaces criss-crossed by narrow grooves. Both types had to do with the grinding/polishing of stone tools and the sharpening or repairing of their cutting edges. However, some whetstones may also have served as grinding stones (but not the other way) because of having one or more concave hollows on the side surfaces; the same is true for certain hammerstones (or pounders). There is no evidence of the use of any of these stones as grinding stone for grains in the manner of a quern, a mortar or a millstone.
Twenty-nine bone fragments of a dark brown to almost black colour (or blueish-white, if burnt) have been excavated in KC III which could be identified as being fossilised. Their surface is mostly shiny as if polished, they have a dense structure and are hard and heavy. They are likely to have been fossilised by the break-down of organic substances and their replacement with iron and calcium compounds, which is characteristic for limestone soils such as those in Khok Charoen. However, these fragments must still have been elastic enough to be cut, split or otherwise worked as at least 13 of the 29 fragments show signs of having been intentionally fashioned and used for a variety of purposes. These are listed in Table E.2 of Appendix E.
Miscellaneous stone objects
Discussion Although weighing altogether not even 100 g, this collection of 29 small fragments of fossilised bone – almost half of them having possibly been artefacts or parts thereof – must be considered to be highly significant as this raw material is very rare in Mainland Southeast Asia and its origin is quite mysterious. The existence of fossilised human skeletons in the area would be surprising and that of any other medium-sized mammal is equally difficult to imagine. And yet, there cannot be any doubt that such a skeleton, if not even several skeletons, must have existed somewhere in the limestone soils of this part of northeastern Central Thailand as there are no alternative explications: such bones are not likely to be traded nor can they be transported by natural agents from far-away places.
This category includes cores, flakes and undefined stone objects which may have been artefacts or implements but the use of which as such cannot be proved. Rather than subdivide this category into sections with ambiguous confines, these 20 objects are listed together, as shown in Table D.2 of Appendix D below. Discussion Considering the number of stone artefacts or fragments thereof (57) the fabrication of which results in waste flakes, it is puzzling that only so few of such flakes have been found. Moreover, the majority of what could be waste flakes are from a rock (burgundy-coloured chert) of which no finished adzes are known to exist in KC III. This seems to indicate that the adzes used in KC III were not made within the excavated part of the settlement and that for a particular type of tool (scrapers) a raw material was preferred which was not used for adzes. Grinsdstones, whetstones, hammerstones and other stone objects are illustrated at Appendix D.
We are thus left with a problem which is the more difficult to solve as the small size of the bone fragments makes the identification of the species involved almost impossible. However, two items of the above list, Nos. 22 and 25, one possibly a fragment of an undefined antler and the other most likely a fragment of the os innominatum of a medium-sized to large mammal (according to the diameter of the acetabulum of the rim of which this small fragment is thought to be a part), point to a large deer or wild cattle species or related taxa having thus been fossilised. This suggestion is based on the fact that present deer species did already play a role in the life of KC III people in the second millennium BC; their presence in the area in much earlier times should therefore not surprise. Moreover, representatives of other species with an almost unknown past may also have been fossilised, such as the Kouprey (Bos sauveli), certain Bubalus taxa and the enigmatic Saola or Vu Quang ox for which a new Genus had to be created (Pseudoryx) and the exact shape of the innominate bone of which is still not known or at least not published in an accessible way. This latter long-horned mammal is of particular interest to Southeast Asian prehistory as it is, besides the doe, goat or buffalo, a serious candidate for being the animal represented on the bicephalous ear-ornaments dated to the first millennium BC found throughout the Indochinese Peninsula (including Thailand) and the Philippines, clearly having some cultural significance (Reinecke 1996: 29-32). The
Bone (including fossilized bone) Fresh bone artefacts Only nine artefacts made of fresh (old) bone or antler ("BA") have been excavated in KC III. Numbered BA 1-9, they are shown in Table E.1 of Appendix E. Discussion Of these nine artefacts, the last is the most intriguing as it points to a connection with KC IV where several such tubes or fragments thereof have been excavated. There can be no doubt that this fragment also comes from KC IV. By their small numbers and their heterogeneity, the other items, one of which (No.4) is doubtful as an artefact, may simply attest to the fact that one cannot expect to find a representative collection of an industry like this in a burial ground but also to the possibility that in KC III the bone industry did not play an important role.
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Khok Charoen III Saola is also prominently represented on at least one bronze vessel found in a burial of the Dong-son Civilisation, dated to about 2000 BP, near Da Do in Son La Province, northern Vietnam, the style of which is more reminiscent of the Tien (Dian) Civilisation of Yunnan than of Dong-Son proper. This, and the often-made observation that due to the size and shape of its horns the Saola is unlikely to have evolved in the dense jungle area between Vietnam and Laos in which it is now sporadically found, points to a much wider habitat (Reinecke 1996: 30-32).
60-80 cm b.s., i.e. in Layer {5}, dug from the first post-Discontinuity Layer. In layers above this, post-holes either did not exist or had escaped our attention; the latter explanation was a real possibility as we found out that, in analogy with the situation in Non Nok Tha, in certain soils it took two days of drying-out for post-holes to become noticeable, and rarely had the entire surface of a 10 cm-spit in any given cutting remained exposed for that long in the upper layers. Five post-holes were detected in KC III but none of them could be followed accurately through more than 10 cm while their full depth, again in analogy with Non Nok Tha, was expected to be between 30-40 cm. This difficulty is almost certainly due to flood disturbances not experienced in Non Nok Tha. These are tabulated at Table 2.23 below.
Bone fragments are illustrated at Appendix E. Other Wood Under this heading only one item must be mentioned, namely a 4.5 cm long brownish-grey piece of wood, very light in weight (4 g) and soft to the touch. It is thus quite distinct from recent, old or fossilised wood but the reason for its preservation remains obscure. It was found in the 40-50 cm b.s. spit in an apparently undisturbed layer of soil {5} in Cutting H5 in which there are two burials (2 and 6) but not in obvious association with either of them. The fact that this piece of wood shows signs of having been cut and shaped artificially means that it was an artefact or part of one but there is no way of knowing what sort of (weapon, tool, agricultural etc.), nor whether it was part of grave goods or of the equipment of later settlers. The circumstances of its position when found also do not yield any information as to its origin as, being wood, it must have floated quite differently from other items of material culture, funeral as well as domestic, when water movements caused dislocations in this much disturbed site.
No.
Cutting
Soil
F5
Depth (cm b.s.) 80
{5}
Dia. (cm) 20
1 2 3 4 5
E5 F6 F6 E6
80 60 60 70
{5} {4} {4} {5}
20 20 25 24
Dug from ? {3} {3} {3} {5}?
Remarks Beginning not visible Seemingly dug from {5}
Table 2.23, Post-holes in KC III (depth at which they appeared) Discussion It appears from the above data that the floor into which these holes were dug was mainly that of Layer {3}, which would agree with the hypothesis that there was a settlement immediately after the Discontinuity and perhaps another one sometime thereafter. However, two of the holes were partly or fully in {5} and their connection with post-Discontinuity layers could not be ascertained, presumably because water action during the transitional period and afterwards obliterated some of the evidence. To attempt such a reconstruction, a distance of 2 m between posts was assumed, according to the evidence in Non Nok Tha where this was consistently the average, the shortest being 1.80 m and the longest 2.10 m (R.H. Parker, pers. comm. 1968), and imaginary lines were drawn to accommodate possible patterns to the position of the holes. In addition, the weight (adjusted to the nearest kg) of stratified non-burial pottery excavated from 40-60 cm b.s., this being roughly the depth of the expected occupation floor, is represented in each cutting in the hope that it would give some more indication of the most likely situation of possible structures. Although no proposed lay-out of a house, or houses, turned out to be convincing enough to be retained as a probability (mainly because of lack of evidence from the un-excavated NW part of the grid), the overall situation nevertheless allows the conclusion that there was some sort of a settlement in houses on poles in post-Discontinuity KC III, the extent of which remains unknown.
Illustration 2.110, KC III, Wood piece 2.7 Habitation Post-holes Post-holes indicating habitation in houses on poles (here traditionally thought of as having a diameter of about 20 cm) could only be found at the relatively low depth of
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand individually. Most finds: 62 (including a water buffalo horn, bone fragments of a banteng (?) and a cranial fragment of the only identified dog) come from the pre-Discontinuity layer {5}. The remaining 34 finds from two post-Discontinuity layers: 31 from {3} and 3 from {2}.
Subsistence Hunting In addition to the cultivation of (dry) rice, possibly millet and perhaps also of a tuber or tubers, and the gathering of edible items, hunting must have been the basis of subsistence. To assess the variety and the relative (but not absolute) quantity of hunted animals, two surveys of the excavated faunal bone material in KC III and IV were used (Gonzales 2006; Perera 2007) with special attention to marks.
Bite- and gnawing-marks (except human) on faunal bones in KC III Rodents: 157 (of which 70 "small" rodents) Carnivores: 88 (of which 1 "small" carnivore, 1 "large" carnivore and 1 dog) Porcupines: 62
Because of the disturbances of the site by natural forces, faunal bones in stratified deposits were mainly found in very small parts, fragments or splinters, rarely as complete bones and never in the form of an entire skeleton or significant parts thereof. This made the identification of this bone material extremely difficult and resulted in many entries in the reports having to be couched in general terms such as "large, medium or small mammal" or only "vertebrate". While Order or Family could thus mostly be determined, species or sub-species were often unidentifiable.
Discussion The juxtaposition of the number of entries and the combined weight of the bone material they represent clearly shows the small size of the (widespread) separate samples and therefore also the impossibility of translating these finds into the more meaningful count of individual animals. It nevertheless gives an overview of which group of animals may have been the most important in the food spectrum of the KC III society. It seems that, as far as weight is concerned, wild cattle came out on top (together 1320 g), followed by the wild pig (290 g) and all kinds of deer (together 270 g). Since the only finds of identified water buffalo bones with marks suggesting hunting come from before the Discontinuity divide, it could be assumed that thereafter it was no longer hunted . However, it is quite possible that water buffalo bone fragments are amongst the many unidentified fragments attributed to "large mammals" or "large bovidae" hunted in post-Discontinuity times, this assumption is unverifiable. In addition there is the difficulty, especially with regard to highly mobile objects such as small bone fragments, to precisely pinpoint their location in relation to the Discontinuity divide if they were found only a few cm below or above this divide, as indeed most of them were. Instead of basing any argument on such unsafe ground it seems more prudent in the circumstances to admit that the meaning of such a concentration of finds originating from both pre- and post-Discontinuity layers at the level of the meeting of the two is still not clear.
Obviously, butchering marks or human gnawing (of which three instances have been documented in KC III: one on a rib of a large bovid and two on vertebrae of medium mammals) are the most reliable sign that the animal had been eaten but cut- or percussion-marks are also likely to indicate the same fact although they may also be signs of attempts to modify the bone for use as an implement. However, as one does not exclude the other, it was thought best to also include bones with these marks in the category of being from animals hunted for food. For the purpose of the present survey, a tabulation has been adopted which shows both the number of entries concerning a particular group of hunted animals in the reports (left column) and the combined weight of the finds in g, adjusted to the nearest 10 g (right column). No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Species Cattle (incl. Bos javanicus, Bos gaurus) Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Pig (Sus scrofa) Small deer (incl. Muntiacus muntjak) Medium deer (incl. Axis porcinus) Large deer (incl. Cervus unicolor, Cervus eldi,Cervus schomburgki)
Count 37 3 25 10 10 7
Weight 1030 290 290 80 80 110
With regard to bite- and gnawing-marks, it could be concluded that, while rodents on the one hand and carnivores and porcupines on the other are represented in almost equal numbers, there is nothing reflecting this situation in the number of bones of these animals found in stratified deposits, let alone in bones suggesting that any of them had been eaten. While this is not astonishing regarding porcupines and carnivores, it is somewhat surprising when considering rodents, which to this day play a role in the diet of many agricultural communities in the area.
Table 2.24, Animal species hunted in KC III In addition to the animals in these six categories, there are single-animal entries of the following: rhinoceros, dog, serow (Capricornis sumatraensis), turtle and a medium/large bird (together 140 g); these are not tabulated
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CHAPTER 3 Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) 3.1 Topography and Excavation Method
KC II and III) in terms of pottery and other items of material culture.
The tract of low limestone mounds locally known as Khok Charoen was initially singled out for a trial excavation on account of its configuration reminiscent of neolithic settlements in southern China (shallow hills with a stream or creek nearby) as well as of the numerous surface finds of potsherds, stone adzes and some ancient human skeletal material. While the former seemed indeed to point to some neolithic occupation (as there were no metal objects amongst these surface finds), the latter, which had come to light through the digging of charcoal kilns, foreshadowed burials, especially as some bones were found together with charred potsherds which were obviously the remnants of grave goods. Three such charcoal kilns still in use and one abandoned pit of about 4 m in diameter and 1 m depth were grouped together along the northern side of a tongue of land bounded by two small streams and reaching to their junction.
The most delicate problem with regard to the integration of KC I into IV was, however, that one was a trial excavation with the aim of finding out as quickly as possible what there was excavatable in this particular part of Thailand, whereas the other was a complementary excavation with a higher standard of documenting and recording several years afterwards. Thus, we only spent ten days excavating KC I, during which time we brought to light five burials, a great number of grave goods and even evidence for a special kind of pottery having been interred on its own without a skeleton nearby (called "ceramic offerings"). However at the time these burials were considered to be "too fragmentary and too much disturbed to allow a dependable conclusion [regarding their chronological situation]" (Watson 1979: 55) or, in other words, not really deserving of further investigation. That such further investigation became eventually desirable was the result of an afterthought necessitated by considerations of the excavation strategy mentioned earlier. In what follows, KC I and IV will therefore be integrated as seamlessly as feasible in the circumstances but it has to be kept in mind that some minor unavoidable lacunae and/or ambiguities may have crept into the report, the more so as most of the KC I material, together with their documentation, had already been shipped to London when the examination of the KC IV material began in Canberra.
It therefore appeared most promising to position squares to be excavated alongside these kilns in such a way so as to allow an extension of the grid to all sides if this was deemed necessary in future excavations. This was done by pegging out four 4 x 4 m cuttings in a roughly E-W direction along the crest of this small peninsula, distanced by 6 m (i.e. one cutting and two 1 m baulks) and off-set by 5 m (one cutting and one baulk), designated, from E to W, Pit I, II, III and IV. Meant to avoid confusion with Arabic numerals of the proposed grid system, this use of Roman numerals later proved to be a source of misunderstandings when such numerals were used to name the excavation seasons at the site (i.e. KC I - IV).
The laying out of the grid of cuttings to be excavated in KC IV was basically done in the same way as in KC III except that the KC I orientation had to be continued and care had to be taken to position the KC I cuttings, especially those in which burials had been found (Pits I III), roughly in the centre of the new grid. To do this we pegged out two rows of four 4 x 4 m cuttings with 1 m baulks between them, one cutting in each row being a KC I pit now having the corresponding new denomination. We thus had, from "N" to "S" and from "E" to "W": E3 (the old Pit I), E4, E5 and E6, and F3, F4, F5 (the old Pit II) and F6 at the eastern corner of the old Pit III which became G7. On the rare occasion of a reference to the old Pit IV which had only been partly excavated and very patchily documented, that cutting is called H9, i.e. the name it would have been given had the grid been extended further to W. As soil layers were expected to be as disturbed and difficult to follow as in KC III (in actual fact they turned out to be even more disturbed), excavation was again done in 10 cm spits except towards the end of the season when, in a race with time, in some instances spits of 20 cm were used to free burials still partly in a baulk.
For local topographical reasons, it was thought impracticable to orientate these cuttings – and thus the entire grid – to true North; instead, an orientation 50° to W was chosen, which meant that the side of the cutting 50° to the E of it became the "conventional" N-side for the purpose of measuring and locating objects within the cutting, while for matters concerning the outside world, e.g. orientation of burials and the position of objects relative to skeletons, topographical or geographical features etc., true directions are used; henceforth the "conventional" directions are shown as "-" while the true ones retain the normal capital letters without quotation marks. In hindsight, this method of laying out an excavation grid clearly was a mistake and one which was not repeated in KC II and III but which, unfortunately, had to be continued in KCIV. After two seasons devoted to the search for a settlement but resulting each time in the discovery of yet another burial ground, it was decided that the best way of winding up excavations at Khok Charoen would be to complement the grid of the first so-called trial excavation, which had yielded such interesting and yet so tantalisingly fragmentary results (when compared with
Burials of KC I were eventually put at the beginning of the series of KC IV burials and KC I pottery was included in
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand the typology elaborated for KC III and IV. However, in spite of our efforts, we again ended up with only a partial and unfinished excavation (making any statistical analysis problematical) but one which added valuable data for the evaluation of not only the site at which excavations of Khok Charoen began but also of the complex site as a whole.
with a view to refining the simple scheme established by Watson of only one layer each on both sides of the Discontinuity divide and to compare and adjust the result to the sequence observed in KC III.
3.2 Soils
1) Soil B (Layer II) of KC I which was relatively abundant in KC II in the form of Soil B, 4. (Layer IV), did not occur at all in KC III but did exist very sparsely in the NE-part of KC IV although it was never seen in a section. This created a nomenclative problem in the sense that the very soil (without a number) which evidenced the Discontinuity in KC I appears as soil 4 in KC II while in KC IV this number is allocated to the soil underneath it, i.e. the uppermost pre-Discontinuity soil following the lowest post-Discontinuity soil {3}. For the purpose of comparing the different parts of the site the missing soil/layer is therefore called {3A} in KC IV.
There were indeed three major differences with regard to soils between KC I/IV and III.
The starting point in the analysis of soils in KC I - III by Watson (1979) referred to in the chapter on KC III, was that of the soils of the "trial excavation" which later became KC I. The three fundamental observations: that the bedrock is limestone at most one metre below the present surface, that the soils over it consist of limy gravels passing irregularly into humus, and that there is a distinction between an upper and a lower soil separated by a discontinuity associated with a prolonged gap in the occupational sequence, are based primarily on the evidence of KC I and are therefore also valid for KC IV.
2) This soil {4} as known from KC IV, where it is interposed between soil {3A} and {5}, followed by the more or less solid bedrock {6}, is absent in KC III where {5} is the only artefact-bearing pre-Discontinuity layer between {3} and {6}. In this case the existing soil numbers are maintained.
Referring in particular to the soils of KC I, Watson only distinguished between two soils in the following way (Watson 1979: 56): Soil A: Layer I - Burials with red pedestal bowls, etc., OCCUPATION
3) While in KC IV soils {2} and {3} were of roughly the same thickness, in the black upper soils of KC III the undisturbed topsoil was generally far thicker than layer {3} underneath, in many places more than double in thickness.
---------------------------Discontinuity------------------------Soil B: Layer II - Pit with cylindrical pot decorated in incised-and-pricked style, buried singly, no inhumation. The soil filling the pit and otherwise seen only on a small area surrounding it was extremely fine, café au lait and more plastic than the gravelly soil above (in which the pits of the burials had been dug). Its appearance corresponded closely to Layer IV of Khok Charoen 2, both having the character of a leached soil. It seems clear that the same erosion as deduced from Khok Charoen 2 was responsible at Khok Charoen 1 for removing the habitation surface from which the pit of the 'vessel deposit' was dug.
The complete sequence elaborated for KC I/IV is thus the following: Soils A =
NB: this 'soil 4' of KC II is described (Watson 1979: 57) as being the uppermost of the pre-Disconformity Soils B: "4. Layer IV - Light brown fine soil. Sherds lime-encrusted, not rolled. OCCUPATION on the surface over this soil, which has been eroded away. Vessel deposit pit cut from this soil." Below this soil is only: "5. Layer V - Coarse whitish gravelly soil" and "6. Layer VI Natural".
{1}: Disturbed topsoil, black medium clay. {2}: Undisturbed topsoil, very heavy and sticky, hard to cut; dark grey medium clay. {3}: Almost identical soil to {2} but crumbly on drying; dark grey heavy clay with greater concentration of lime specks and still more crumbly towards bottom of layer.
Discontinuity--------------------------------------------Soils B =
This first analysis of the soils of KC I and the finds therein, made after a hurried trial excavation of a very disturbed site in archaeologically unknown surroundings, obviously needed revisions not only in the light of subsequent excavations in other parts of the site but also and most importantly in the light of new evidence obtained from the cuttings complementing the test pits of KC I, i.e. those of KC IV. Our first concern when excavating the cuttings of KC IV was therefore to examine the soils we encountered 102
{3A}: Light brown very fine soil, remnant of a layer which was washed away by floods; did not show up in any section. {4}: Lime concentrated soil generally underlaying directly layer {3}; grey heavy clay. {5} : Brown lime soil; layers of gravelly material derived from bedrock on which it lays by normal weathering processes. Grey medium clay with lime specks in brown gravelly matrix. {6} : Natural limestone bedrock, more or less fractured into irregular lumps.
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Discussion
Again as already in KC III, pots which are possibly burial pottery but could not be associated with a confirmed burial are classified as Non-Attributable Burial Pottery ("N.-A.B.P.") while "Ceramic Burials" are treated in a section apart.
The ambiguous position of soil {3A}, a layer of light brown ("café au lait") fine plastic soil which did not show up in any section in KC I/IV but was found in pre-Discontinuity pits and hollows as remnants of a once widespread layer from or through which pits for vessel deposits (later called ceramic burials) were dug and which was thought to have been a habitation surface, is crucial for the relative chronology of the entire site. Watson likened this soil in KC I (where it was first noticed) to the last pre-Discontinuity artefact-bearing soil in KC II and thought that the burial layers in KC I and KC II were contemporaneous, i.e. the first post-Discontinuity layer. On the other hand, Watson (1979: 55) was of the opinion that the KC III burials are pre-Discontinuity and older than those of KC II. While this has been shown to be so, the conclusion that the burials of KC I (and therefore also those of KC IV) must date from post-Discontinuity times has to be revised in the light of the excavation of KC IV the stratigraphy of which clearly established that all burials are of pre-Discontinuity date and where burial pottery with incised-and-pricked decoration was even more abundant than in KC III.
The general layout of the KC IV site is shown in Diagram 3.1 below.
The statement that "KCH 1 is contemporary with the earliest phase of KCH 2" (Ho 1984, I: 22), in this case based on the orientation of some burials in KC I but most likely also influenced by the position relative to soil {3A/4}, must thus also be revised in the sense that the burials of KC I/IV are considerably older than even the earliest burials of KC II.
Diagram 3.1, Layout of KC IV cuttings showing relationship between Test Cuttings (TC) and final cuttings E3 to G7
3.3 The Human Burials Description and Discussion Similar to KC III, the answer to the question of what constitutes a "Burial" in KC I/IV was not easy to find, the more so as burials in KC I/IV turned out to be the worst preserved of the site. As a result, the process of elimination of not sufficiently documented or otherwise doubtful burials was more difficult and arduous than in any other part of Khok Charoen. Only 13 out of 18 potential burials (in KC IV alone) survived this process, but with the addition and integration of the 5 confirmed burials of KC I and The Unclassifiable Burial, the overall number of burials in this part of the site amounts to 19. To describe these 19 burials the same system as for KC III is used, to wit, in an initial paragraph the main features of the burial are summarised, including situation, skeletal remains (condition, position, orientation as well as age, sex and height if known or estimated), depth and soils and whether or not a burial pit or trench could be observed. The next section deals with personal adornments, followed by grave goods (pottery, stone implements, others). Finally, stone settings are listed; stones are not considered "Finds" but are numbered separately.
Photograph 3.1, KC IV from the air Diagram 3.2 below shows the location of the individual KC IV burials within the KC IV cuttings structure.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand those people who put the ceramic burials there. No SVCB was found cutting into a human burial.
Diagram 3.2, Layout of KC IV cuttings showing location of the individual burials. The direction notation “N” on the diagram refers to a direction conventionally called “North” to align with the short axis of the excavation, for naming purposes. See the explanation on the first page of this chapter.
The three types of burial in KC IV KC IV is the only part if the site which has three kinds of burials, viz. Human Burials, Single Vessel Ceramic Vessels (SVCB) and Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials (VCCB). While human burials and VCCBs were found in situ, some of the SVCBs seem to have been originally situated outside the excavated area whence their sherds were transported into it by a natural force, presumably by flooding. However, SVCBs in the eastern part of the excavated area were apparently not affected by these forces. There are two cases of VCCBs having been dug into human burials (Burials 12 and 13), indicating that the existence of human burials was probably unknown to
Diagram 3.3, Layout of KC IV cuttings showing spatial relationship between human burials and vessel burials
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Burial 1
This burial was the first to be discovered during the trial excavation to become KC I, in Pit II, which became F5 in the terminology of integrated KC I/IV. It was situated alongside the "W"-baulk, head almost in the middle of "W"-side, body stretching to near N-corner of cutting. It was the very fragmentary and disturbed burial of a relatively small (about 1.45 m) individual, probably female (as indicated by large pelvis), in supine position; head to SW. Skull badly crushed, turned to right. Top of skull at 50 cm b.s., lowest part of skeleton at 60 cm b.s. Right upper and left lower leg, right lower arm, both hands and both feet missing; only very small fragments of trunk bones preserved (disturbance?). Bones very brittle, soil very hard (in places harder than bones). In a large pit or hollow in {6} filled with a mixture of {4} and {5}, sealed by {4}. A nest of shell disk-beads of Type b at right elbow (Find 1), indicate an armlet or bracelet. No other personal adornment found. Grave goods consist of two pots above head: a large footed bowl Type 4A furthest to SW (Find 2) and, next to head, a cord-marked globular bowl Type 1C (Find 3), as well as one footed bowl Type 4A at right elbow (Find 4). Several more pots as grave goods were almost certainly hidden in the baulk between F5 and E5 as the excavation of the latter cutting showed the lower part of a large cord-marked globular bowl of Type 1C or 1Ca, upright and in situ, in its "S"-baulk. Depth and position of this pot in the prolongation of the axis of the skeleton are consistent with the supposition that it was the last in a row of pots beyond the feet, leaving room for at least three more pots in between. However, the two pots (CBP 62 and CBP 39, one inside the other) at about 1.20 m SSW of skull, listed by Ho (1984, I: 229) as grave goods, are unlikely to belong to this burial. The presence of sherds of a very well made thin-walled globular bowl Type 1Ab, grey-ochre ware, outside finely cord-marked, inside burnished ("Pot 59"), at 60-70 cm b.s. in {5} points to another burial in the vicinity which could not be excavated. An unusually large entire tektite was also found near this skeleton (Find 5) but exact location unknown and association with burial not secure. Two small flat (about 10 x 5 cm) stones near skeleton: Stone 1, at 8 cm to the right of skull, i.e. opposite forehead and Stone 2, at about 10 cm to the left of left knee (disturbed area; patella missing).
Illustration 3.1, Burial 1 layout
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 2
This burial was the second one to be discovered during the trial excavations of KC I, in Pit I which became E3 in KC IV. Situated in S-quadrant of cutting, head near centre of cutting, body stretching diagonally towards S-corner. Skeleton essentially complete but very fragmentary and brittle, lacking almost all trunk bones. Supine position, head to (very slightly W of) N, height about 1.65 m. Depth of skeleton 50-60 cm b.s., seemingly in a large hollow in the surface of {5}, filled with {5} containing slightly less lime specks and sealed by {4}. No individual burial pit apparent. No personal adornments could be found securely associated with this skeleton. However, a single hyperboloid-shaped bead made from Tridacna shell, found in the vicinity of the skull at the same depth (exact location unknown) ,was almost certainly part of some adornment of head or upper body, especially as there was no other burial in this cutting (Find 1). Only two pots could be considered as grave goods (Ho 1984, I: 230, 254): a possibly intentionally broken large cord-marked footed bowl Type 4J at (and partly on) right shoulder (Find 2) and a footed bowl Type 4A on pelvis (Find 3). However, the association of Find 2 with the burial is not entirely secure. Only three of these very unusual high-stemmed cord-marked footed bowls have been excavated in KC IV (none in KC II or III): Pot "E2" in F4, sideways joined with Pot "E" in such a way that it is clear that it could not have been in situ but must have been transported there by some natural force; Pot "C2" in E4 which was found as a heap of sherds far away from any burial and obviously also displaced; and the present pot which does not appear on any photograph in the position it was supposed to have been found, of which it was only said (Watson 1968: 303, pl. XLVIb, b) that it was "found with a burial" and which would be the only one of the three to have been in such a position and with the only burial in Khok Charoen. The possibility of a wrong attribution is thus sufficiently great to warrant the placement of this pot in the category of doubtful burial goods. The question of whether the large, elaborately decorated bowl Type 2B, which was found, broken and incomplete, about 1 m N of the skull of Burial 2, was part of this burial as tentatively suggested by Ho (1984, I: 230, 263), must be answered in the negative. Nine other sherds of this type of pot were found in various cuttings to the NW of E3 (E5, E6, F4, F5, F6 and even in TC2) only one of which (between F5 and F6) belongs to the pot found in E3 whilst the others must be from perhaps as many as six separate individual pots of the same type. As there are burials in all these other cuttings none of which has a pot of Type 2B associated with it, the one in E3 cannot have been in situ but almost certainly was carried to the position in which it was found by natural forces, leaving sherds (one of which was found) on the way from where it came, namely from NW.
Illustration 3.2, Burial 2 layout
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Burial 3
This was the first burial discovered in Pit III, i.e. the one cutting to the NW outside the filled-in grid of the eight cuttings of KC IV which becomes G7. Situated in the "N"-half of the cutting with head to NNE near the middle of "N"-side, feet almost in the centre of the cutting, in supine position, it was the skeleton of an adult individual of undetermined sex, height about 1.60 m. Depth of skeleton below 60 cm b.s., in {5}. No burial pit or trench visible. No personal adornment securely associated with this burial could be found. NB: In her burial catalogue, Ho (1984, I: 231) mentions, as Find 6 of skeleton 3, "ivory bracelet fragments", thought of (op. cit.: 71) as "belonging to three or more bracelets" and described (op. cit.: 307) as having a diameter "smaller than 5 cm, smaller than usual bracelet diameter". Attempts to virtually reconstruct these bracelets from the 14 small fragments resulted in one complete bracelet with a diameter of 4 cm, about 3/4 of another with a diameter of 4.5 cm and three left-over fragments. Their exact position not being known, these small bracelets are more likely to belong to the nearby parallel child burial (Burial 4) rather than to this Burial 3 which is that of an adult. Grave goods consist of seven pots: three undefined broken pots beyond head, (Finds 1-3), a footed bowl of Type 4D, upright at right arm (Find 4), and a globular bowl Type 1Cb (Find 5), and two footed bowls Type 4Ea (Finds 6 and 7) in a row beyond feet; the position in which these last three pots were found (Find 5 upright, Find 6 tilted to SSW and Find 7 lying on its side with opening to SSW) suggests that originally Find 7 may have been standing upright on top of or inside the equally upright standing footed bowl Find 6, as near to Find 5 as their respective shapes allowed.
Illustration 3.3, Burial 3 layout
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 4
This burial, situated in the E-quadrant of cutting G7 (the former Pit III), parallel to Burial 3, is that of a child. Skeleton in supine position with head to NNE, the uppermost part of it remaining in the "N"-section of the cutting. Depth of skeleton 50 cm b.s., laying on sterile soil in {5}. The only personal adornments attributable to this burial are the ivory bracelets originally thought to be part of Burial 3, i.e. at least two bracelets with diameters of 4.0 cm and 4.5 cm (Find 1) indicating that they were made for a child but, although very probable, their association with this burial is not secure. Ivory being extremely rare in Khok Charoen (apart from these bracelets, only one other object made from ivory has been found at the site: an ear plug from Burial 8, KC IV), such bracelets are likely to have been very valuable and only worn by children of high rank and there are no other status symbols visible in relation to this burial. The mention of "broken pots at the feet" of this burial (Watson and Loofs 1967: 253) may have referred only to some potsherds as the presence of pots as grave goods was not confirmed by a later more definitive report (Ho 1984, I: 232).
Illustration 3.4, Burial 4 layout
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Burial 5
This is the best documented burial of KC I and the last to be discovered and excavated. It is also the western-most burial of the KC I/IV excavations, signifying that this particular burial ground extended still further to W than was first assumed. The burial was situated in the middle of the "S"-half of cutting G7, skeleton in supine position with head to NNE at a depth of 60-70 cm b.s., laying in {5}. It has the same orientation and is in the same layer as the other two burials (3 and 4) in this cutting. The skeleton is fairly complete and well preserved, including trunk bones, but left knee and both feet missing; most probably adult male, height about 1.60 m. A great number of shell disk-beads Type b in pelvic region, some still stuck together showing that they were originally stringed (Find 1) indicate personal adornments in that area and/or bracelets at both wrists. Grave goods include two pots at head: a carinated footed bowl Type 7C (foot missing), upside down directly beyond head (Find 2) and a cord-marked globular bowl Type 1D at right side of head (Find 3); the former pot is of particular interest as it is the only such vessel in entire Khok Charoen and seems to be inspired by pottery forms from Ban-Kao (e.g. Sørensen 1967: Pl. 97d) or Sai-Yok (e.g. Van Heekeren and Knuth 1967: 41, Fig. 23,12), although having different dimensions and proportions. Further down the skeleton there are several sherds of an unknown type of pot at left knee (Find 4); a large footed bowl Type 4A upright but tilted to E, at right ankle (Find 5) and another, also of Type 4A but fragmentary, adjacent to it to W (Find 6). A large body sherd of a thick-walled cord-marked vessel at left ankle next to missing foot (Find 7), likely to be from an elongated vessel Type 1M, could possibly be part of the pot Find 4 and therefore indicate the direction in which the latter was displaced (to SSW), very probably together with bone fragments of left femur and knee, both feet and parts of Find 6, still hidden in the "S"-baulk. The association of sherds Finds 4 and 7 with this burial is, however, doubtful; more likely than not they have been deposited on this burial as stray finds. Large/medium-sized potsherds on right upper arm and, on edge, next to left lower arm have clearly been placed there on purpose as a cover, if not as grave goods (Finds 8 and 9). No clear signs of a burial pit and no stones. Illustration 3.5, Burial 5 layout
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 6
This was the first burial discovered in KC IV proper. Henceforth all burials are those excavated during the KC IV-season itself, as opposed to having been excavated during the trial excavation of KC I and now integrated into a common system. Situated roughly in the centre of cutting F4, this burial was difficult to interpret. In addition to the main skeleton, that of a relatively short (about 1.50 m high) adult male in his thirties, there were some skeletal remains of a small child in such a position that it was at first impossible to say whether the two were associated or not. The contour of what at first appeared to be a very oddly-shaped burial pit delimitating the skeleton closely on its right side but bulging out on the left side of it with two protuberances, was eventually interpreted as being more probably the imprints of previous positions of the body or skeleton of the child of Burial 6a. It seems indeed that this small body had been pushed around savagely by turbulent waves until its total disintegration but not without leaving a mark of its final position. Having established that these were almost certainly two separate "burials", the child-burial therefore became Burial 6a. In what follows, only the burial of the adult male is discussed. The skeleton was in supine position, head to WSW. Bones very brittle. Legs fairly well preserved but feet missing. Upper part of skeleton including head badly disturbed. The mandible and 16 teeth were found at about 20 cm SW of shoulders, while some skull fragments were intermingled with fragments of left scapula; rest of skull missing. Right shoulder and upper arm disturbed and much of it missing. Left upper arm relatively intact although bones of left hand dispersed over an area of about 50 cm in diameter. This configuration suggests that there was a disturbance coming from WNW, carrying away much of the skull and right shoulder while another such disturbance affected the left side of the skeleton but not necessarily at the same time. Most probably dug from surface of {5}. Upper body and legs are pointing slightly upwards, the pelvis being the lowest point of the body, resting on the surface of soil {6} at 60 cm b.s. while there is still some {5} under upper body and lower legs. The entire burial is thus rather shallow with (missing) head at about 40 cm b.s. and (missing) feet at only about 30 cm b.s. Bone fragments showing rodent (?) bite-marks in an area where left lower arm and hand must have been.
Illustration 3.6, Burial 6 layout
No personal adornments belonging to this burial could be found (clusters of shell disk-beads Type d, situated 20-50 cm to the left of the male skeleton's upper part are thought to belong to the child Burial 6a). There is only one possible burial gift, namely a medium-sized almost spherical ring-footed vessel Type 2Ab, upper part with incised decoration, lower part cord-marked (Find 1). Found upright and undisturbed in one piece at 20 cm distance from left femur, this pot is the only complete and undamaged vessel found anywhere in Khok Charoen. A small tektite flake (Find 2) was found lying on the lower end of left femur but association with burial not secure. 110
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) A large oval stone (20 cm long and 15 cm in diameter) was lying next to left tibia (Stone 1) but not unequivocally associated with the burial. There are thus no convincing signs that this adult male without personal adornments and probably originally without burial gifts (because of the doubtful chronological position of the pot near his left femur) was properly buried rather than having been put (or come) to rest in supine position in a natural hollow in {6} in such a way that his pelvis was resting on the bedrock while upper body and legs were bending upwards. He was also much disturbed but probably after a flood as his head and feet have disappeared although their outlines are preserved as imprints. See also “Discussion” at the end of the section on burial finds.
Photograph 3.2, The contested pot (see text) in more detail: in both type and decoration incompatible with Burial 6. (It is also the only unbroken pot on the entire site).
Photograph 3.3, General view of Burial 6, with Pot Find 1 and its position next to the lower femur.
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 6a
This child burial was first thought to be part of Burial 6 (that of an adult male) but circumstantial evidence showed that it was most likely a separate burial but not in situ, the body (or skeleton) having been moved by water action in such a way that it came to rest in the vicinity of Burial 6 and almost parallel to it. In this position it was lying in what seemed to be a hollow in {5}, sealed by a patchy layer of {4} and overlaid by {3}. The skeletal material consists of 7 teeth of a 4 year-old child found in association with about 20 small bone fragments consistent with being those of long-bones and of the sacrum of a child of that age and in a disposition allowing to very approximately evaluate the location of the complete skeleton. Situated in the "SW"-quarter of cutting F4, the orientation of the skeleton was with head to SW but it being a displaced one, this orientation has little diagnostic significance; the same is true for the position, assumed to be supine. However, if this displacement was only a short one, it could well be that the original position and orientation had been retained. Three clusters of 10, 28, and 11 shell disk-beads Type d at, respectively, the "head", "left wrist" and "right wrist" of the fictitious skeleton (Finds 1-3), could be interpreted as possibly being the remnants of personal adornments (necklace, bracelets). In each cluster fragments of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shell were also found as well as a small (1.5 cm in diameter) Cyclophorus floridus snail in the "head" area and one-half of a cowrie shell in the "left wrist" area. However, as shell disk beads of Type d have been found dispersed over a wider area, including five such disk beads at left upper leg/hip and one at right hip of skeleton Burial 6 (Finds 4 and 5), the question of whether they all originate from Burial 6a or perhaps from another source whence they spread to that burial and beyond remains unanswered. Illustration 3.7, Burial 6a layout
No securely associated grave goods or stone settings could be observed.
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Burial 7
This is a very disturbed burial and difficult to evaluate, especially as a large root had grown right across it separating the skull from the rest of the skeleton which was itself very fragmentary. Situated in the W-corner of F6 alongside "W"-baulk, this semi-complete skeleton of a male adult was in supine position, head to SW. It consisted of the skull, mandible fragments with 12 teeth, fragments of left humerus, femur, lower leg and foot but nothing of the right side except for small fragments of bones of the right shoulder/upper body area in which a small piece of fossilised bone in the form of a spear- or arrow-point (Find 1) was embedded. This latter find could explain the cause of death of the individual and the seemingly unceremonious manner in which he was buried – if indeed buried he was at all. The skeleton was found at a depth of 50-60 cm b.s. in a hollow in {6}, the sacrum resting on bedrock, sealed by {5}. There were no signs of personal adornments or of grave goods of any kind except for a large, almost complete slightly shouldered polished stone adze found at right shoulder or right side of neck but possibly not in situ (Find 2); its association with this burial is not entirely secure.
Illustration 3.8, Burial 7 layout
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 8
This is a very complex, rich but disturbed multiple burial. The main skeleton is that of a young adult female but there is also a male teenager (represented by post-cranial bones) and three children (represented mainly by teeth): two infants of about 3 years of age and one 6 year-old child, of undetermined sex. Situated partly in "SW"-quarter of E4 but mainly in "S"-part of "W"-baulk, i.e. the baulk between E4 and E5, and into that between E4 and F4. At a depth of 60 cm b.s., this burial was in a deep trench in {5}, filled with a mixture of {4} and {5} and sealed by {3} (this latter fact is almost certainly due to a post-burial interference which obliterated the evidence of the burial having originally been sealed by {4}). The main skeleton in extended supine position, head to NE. The skeleton of the adult female is identifiable but badly fragmented. Skull dispersed: skull itself almost together but mandible 10 cm distant from top of cranium to NE. Right lower teeth present pathological abnormality (malocclusion). Of the post-cranial skeleton only fragments of both humeri, some rib fragments, fairly complete left femur and tibia and parts of right tibia and fibula were preserved; hardly anything of spine, pelvis, feet and hands. The skeleton's right side was particularly fragmented and there was something like a gap in the middle of the body, i.e the pelvic region, filled by a stone and two pots. As fragments of the children's skulls and their teeth were found very near to, and partly intermingled with, the equally fragmented and dispersed adult skull, and as no other bone fragments of the children could be found below the level of the left elbow of the adult skeleton, it is surmised that the children were buried in such a way (perhaps in a crouched position) that their heads practically touched that of the adult while their bodies were lying at or near the adult's left chest, shoulder and upper arm. The few post-cranial bones of the male teenager were found so dispersed that it was impossible to assign any original position to this seemingly headless body which leads to the suggestion that these bones may have been added to the woman's and children's burial only afterwards. Several finds attest to the existence of elaborate personal adornments worn by the adult female or the children while none can be attributed with certainty to the male teenager (which could be explained by the possibility that the remains of the latter were added to the burial in a skeletal state without any ornaments attached). They are: two Nassarius shells next to and under the woman's skull (a third was discovered later intermingled with skull fragments) and almost certainly part of her personal adornments (Find 1); four shell disk-beads Type a, found amongst the small bone fragments on the left side of the thoracic area, presumably part of the personal adornment of a child (Find 2); a small, mushroom-shaped ivory object, interpreted as an ear-plug, found in the same area as these small shell disk-beads, is also most likely to have been a a child’s personal adornment, as it appeared too small for the adult woman (Find 3); the fragment of a clay bracelet found under pot Find 14 on left side of adult skull
Illustration 3.9, Burial 8 layout
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) could only have belonged to an adult (Find 4); fragments of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shell from under pot Find 16, also on left side of adult skull (Find 5) which may well be part of a head ornament of the adult female, especially as another fragment of the rim of the same kind of shell was found inside or under pot Find 13 on the right side of the skull (Find 6), fitting perfectly to one of the fragments of Find 5; also three more such roughly oval-shaped P. mouhoti fragments were found, two intermingled with skull fragments and the third near the neck (Find 6a); a small rim fragment of a cf. P. mouhoti shell (Find 6b), found in the thoracic region like Finds 2 and 3, may also be part of some personal adornments of either the adult female or the children.
globular bowls on the left side of the head; between them above the head a globular bowl on the right and a footed bowl on the left and another globular bowl and a footed bowl beyond them in the direction of the axis of the body. The original position of the globular bowl with ring-foot Find 7 which was found a little apart from and higher up than the other pots cannot be ascertained with any degree of probability and neither can that of the small shallow dish Find 10 as both are somewhat outside of the group of the other pots and are also of a unique type in this burial. Two pots are situated to the left of the pelvis: a footed bowl Type 4Ab (Find 18) upright but slightly tilted towards the body, and a globular bowl Type 1B (Find 17) next to it, also upright, the sherds of its upper body intermingled with those of the other pot. On top of both pots was a 680 g lump of solid limestone, roughly 14x10x6 cm, which does not seem to be part of the original burial arrangements but probably came to lie there as a result of another disturbance. As there are signs of significant erosion after this disturbance its nature is impossible to ascertain.
Grave goods were manifold, in particular as far as pottery is concerned. There were 10 pots around and beyond the skull of the adult female but there is no way of knowing if all of them were really dedicated to her or perhaps some to the children next to her. These ten pots are: a globular bowl with ring-foot, Type 2Aa (Find 7), furthest beyond head, upright and slightly tilted to E; a small dish Type 3Ea (Find 10), a little nearer to head on the right, upright; four footed bowls: 1) Type 4E (Find 8), next in line straight beyond head, lying on its side, opening towards head but partly on top of globular bowl Find 9; 2) Type 4Aa, foot and small parts of body only (Find 12), on right side, almost at the hight of head but separated from it sidewise by footed bowl Find 13, partly lying under which it was found, opening towards head; 3) Type 4Aa (Find 13), lying directly on right side of head, opening to head, partly on smashed body of footed bowl Find 12; and 4) Type 4E (Find 16), on left side of head lying on its side opening to SW, foot resting on globular bowl Find 15 and body on globular bowl Find 14, with broken body sherds of the latter found within it. There were also four globular bowls: 1) Type 1B (Find 9) straight beyond head, lying on its side with opening away from head inside footed bowl Find 8; 2) Type 1C (Find 15) on left side of head upright under the foot of footed bowl Find 16; 3) Type 1B (Find 11) on right side of head (opposite globular bowl Find 15), lying on its side opening to NW; and 4) Type 1Ba (Find 14) on left side of head, upright but partly covered by the adjacent footed bowl Find 16 lying on its side. With the exception of perhaps this last globular bowl Find 14, and possibly also globular bowl Find 15, none of these ten pots around the head of the main body was found in situ: they were all either overturned or toppled in such a way that they came to lie on top of another pot.
Yet another two pots are situated at the left knee: a globular bowl Type 1Ab (Find 19) upright on top of left knee or perhaps originally on top and between both knees; and a footed bowl Type 4Ea (Find 20) upside-down directly under left knee in such a way that the knee was resting on the underside of the body of the footed bowl next to its foot which was thus sticking up on the left side of the knee while the globular bowl Find 19 was lying on top of the knee(s). It seems that originally these two pots were sandwiching the left knee between them and it is quite possible that there was a similarly supporting pot under the right knee which got lost in the disturbance that took away much of the right side of the main skeleton. Finally, there is one more pot at the (missing) feet of the main skeleton, a footed bowl Type 4H (Find 21), upright but slightly tilted to SW. In all, there were thus 15 pots in this multiple burial: 7 footed bowls, 6 globular bowls, one globular bowl with ring-foot and one small shallow dish. Grave goods other than pots consist of an apparently unused small limestone adze found under globular bowl Find 15 at left side of the adult woman's head (Find 22). There was also a small fragment of a stone adze near lower right tibia (Find 23) but its association with the burial is not secure; the same is true with regard to another fragment of an obviously much larger stone adze with parts of the original highly polished surface preserved (Find 24) found on left side of lower left tibia almost opposite to Find 23.
Given the fact that the area immediately above the skull is empty of pots and those surrounding it are mainly pushed over towards the outside, it seems reasonable to assume that this was the centre of an either human- or animal-made disturbance in order to get at an object buried in that particular spot. The presence of a large mandible fragment originating from the other side of the skull in the middle of this space may have something to do with this disturbance. A tentative reconstitution of the original position of pottery around the head by reversing the direction in which each individual pot was toppled shows that there had been two footed bowls on the right and two
Five mandibles and two end parts of metatarsals of medium/small mammals (most, if not all, muntjac) found in this burial, probably all from different individual animals, may have been grave goods but their association with the burial is not secure. They are: mandible fragment on top and a little beyond skull of main skeleton (Find 25); mandible fragment on top of sherds of pots Finds 14 and 15 (Find 26); mandible fragments found amongst bones of 115
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand upper body of main skeleton (Find 27); mandible fragments on pelvic region, with other fragments having been found about 20 cm above them (Find 28); mandible fragments found on top and between knees of main skeleton (Find 29); lower end of metatarsal found lying SW of skull of main skeleton (Find 30); lower end of metatarsal in pelvic region (Find 31). Two pig incisors without roots (Find 32) and a splinter of a rodent's tooth with glossy surface (Find 33), found near fragments of main skull could have been part of personal adornments of
either the adult woman or one of the children but as they do not show any signs of having been worked this is only a remote possibility and their association with the burial is doubtful. The fragment of an unidentified fossilised bone of a medium/large mammal, showing percussion marks and signs of having been artificially split (Find 34), was also found amongst the bones between skull and pelvic region of the main skeleton but its exact location could not be recorded and its association with the burial is also not secure.
Photograph 3.4, Skull of Burial 8, with pot apparently going through it. Photo taken from E.
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Burial 9
Illustration 3.11, Burial 9 layout at 50 cm b.s (Reconstruction of finds)
Illustration 3.10, Burial 9 layout at 30 cm b.s.
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 9 is the richest (in terms of grave goods) burial of KC IV. Like Burial 8, it is also a child burial but without an adult, it has the same NE-orientation and was also extensively disturbed. It was the burial of a 5 year-old boy, represented mainly by 13 teeth, but there were also two teeth of a 3 year-old child of undetermined sex, most likely an intrusion (from Burial 8?). The skeletal material other than teeth (cranial vault fragments, some fragments of ribs and long-bones of limbs and a number of non-diagnostic post-cranial scraps, apparently only from the 5 year-old boy) was very sparse and incomplete, just enough to make out height (about 1.10 m), position (supine) and orientation (head to NE). The burial was situated slightly "E" of the centre of cutting F6 at a depth of 70 cm b.s., lying on bedrock surrounded by {5} and most probably sealed by {4} (the stratigraphy of this particular area is somewhat problematical). Skeleton very fragmentary; fragments of skull scattered over 45 cm along the axis of main skeleton, indicating a massive disturbance in that area; only small fragments of bones of chest, left shoulder and arm as well as of upper and lower right leg remain; no hands, feet or any part of the pelvis. No remnants of personal adornments could be detected in direct association with the skeletons but the following finds made near them could well have been parts of this child's personal adornments scattered during disturbances of the burial. Fragment of a stone bracelet with inner diameter of 5.4 cm found about 90 cm distant to SW from "right wrist" (Find 1); fragment of a stone bracelet with inner diameter of 3.6 cm found about 60 cm distant to SW from "right wrist" (Find 2); two shell disk-beads of Types a and b found about 30 cm distant to W from presumed position of the skull (Find 3); a shell disk-bead Type b found inside pot Find 11, i.e. 20-30 cm beyond skull (Find 4). The most significan finding of grave goods is that of pottery. In all there were 21 pots in this burial of which 7 were situated beyond the skull along the axis of the skeleton and the remaining 14 at various parts of the post-cranial body from chest to feet and beyond. These are the burial pots Finds 5-25: footed bowl Type 4G, first (i.e. NE-most) of the 7 pots (all upright) beyond head but at about 60 cm distance from the other 6 and about 1.50 m distant from "skull" itself (Find 5); large cord-marked globular bowl Type 1Ca, second of the 7 pots beyond skull and first of a group of tightly-packed 6 pots (Find 6); footed bowl Type 4Aa, second in this group of 6 pots (Find 7); a large potsherd of this pot Find 7 found at a distance of over 1 m to SW from the pot itself and over 10 cm higher than the latter (Find 7a); footed bowl Type 4G, third in the group of 6 (Find 8); footed bowl Type 4G, fourth in this group (Find 9); cord-marked globular bowl Type 1Ab, fifth in the group (Find 10); footed bowl Type 4A, sixth and nearest to head of the group (Find 11); footed bowl Type 4A, on chest next to neck, upright (Find 12); small cord-marked globular bowl Type 1C, inside this footed bowl Find 12, upright (Find 13); footed bowl Type 4D, on abdomen or pelvic region, slightly tilted to NE (Find 14);
Illustration 3.12, Burial 9 layout at 70 cm b.s
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) large cord-marked globular bowl Type 1Aa, found upright on a thick root directly above this footed bowl Find 14, which evidently had grown between these two pots lifting up the globular bowl originally standing in the footed bowl (Find 15); foot only of footed bowl Type 4G, found slightly to SE under footed bowl Find 14, thus originally either on abdomen or pelvic region, or left lower arm (Find 16); footed bowl Type 4A, found upside-down with two smaller pots (Finds 18 and 19) "inside" it, on upper legs or knees (Find 17); small bowl Type 3C under footed bowl Find 17 (Find 18); small shallow dish Type 3E, also under footed bowl Find 17 (Find 19); small footed bowl Type 4G, upright on right lower leg or on feet (Find 20); footed bowl Type 4Aa, next to footed bowl Find 20, upright but outside part of body broken off (Find 21); large footed bowl Type 4Ab, upright beyond (i.e. to SW of) right foot (Find 22); smaller footed bowl Type 4A upright inside larger footed bowl Find 22 (Find 23); footed bowl with (hastily done) incised-and-pricked decoration Type 4D, upright beyond (i.e. to SW of) left foot (Find 24); footed bowl Type 4Aa, third of three pots beyond feet, upright in the middle of the two others (Find 25). Two rim-sherds of this pot Find 25 were found lying on Find 2 (xPot "B") of The Unclassifiable Burial at 1.5 m distance.
Grave goods other than pottery include the following items. Small greenstone adze at foot of footed bowl Find 5, towards skeleton (Find 26); two fragments of (very probably) two different but similar large polished greenstone adzes, between the two pots nearest to head (Finds 10 and 11) of the group of six pots beyond head (Find 27); tubular object of worked antler of large cervidae under footed bowl Find 5, i.e. the pot furthest away from head to NE (Find 28); almost identical tubular object of worked antler, next to globular bowl Find 10, i.e. the second nearest to head in this group of six pots, lying horizontally in a NW direction (Find 29); fragment of such a tubular object of worked antler, found together with Find 29 next to globular bowl Find 10 (Find 30). The association with the burial of these last three finds is doubtful. Four stones were placed around this burial. Stone 1: about 20x15x15 cm, beyond head, 25 cm N of Find 6 (but slightly shifted by a large root); Stone 2: about 30x10x15 cm, on edge near right lower arm and upper leg; Stone 3: about 25x20x15 cm, beyond feet on top of Finds 22 and 23; Stone 4: about 20x12x10 cm, beyond feet at 20 cm S of Find 24.
Photograph 3.5, Burial 9, side view. (Cutting F6, 70 cm b.s.)
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 10
This is the final resting place of the disjointed fragmentary skeleton of a male adult, c. 30 years old, transported there by natural agents (water action) from a hypothetical original grave nearby. Thus, neither the place where these skeletal remains (teeth and post-cranial material) were found, in the "E"-half of E6, nor the position and orientation (probably extended with head to ENE) have any diagnostic value with regard to the classification and interpretation of this "burial". The circumstances of the discovery, however, allow some tentative conclusions as to the history of the body. The skeletal remains were found at a depth of 45-65 cm b.s. mainly in soil {5} almost directly on bedrock but sealed by {4} and in the vicinity of "islands" of soil {5} topped by stones or, in the W-corner of the cutting, pots. The surface of the bedrock itself shows signs of "channels" running roughly W-E, and it is in one of these gullies that the skeletal remains were situated. It can be assumed that they have been guided to their resting place by stones and prevented from sliding further to E also by a stone. The skeleton must therefore have come from W, possibly even from outside the excavated area. The head-to-ENE orientation may actually be not too different from the one at the time of the original burial (if the body had been buried at all) as it seems unlikely that the body would have turned directionally to a significant degree during its course; the orientation may originally well have been to NE, like Burials 8 and 9, or even NNE like Burials 3, 4 and 5 in G7 which is situated near the area from which the body almost certainly came. There were obviously no grave goods but two shell disk-beads Type b found together with fragments of left tibia (Find 1) could be taken to indicate a personal adornment although their association with the skeletal remains is not secure.
Illustration 3.13, Burial 10 layout
120
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Burial 10a
This is also not a real burial but only a cluster of four skull fragments and 13 teeth of a c. 4 years old child, not in situ but there is a slight possibility that these remains were originally part of Burial 10, as they were situated only 1 m distant to W from where the feet of the adult male's skeleton would have been, in the same "channel" as the latter and probably coming from the same area. However, in the absence of more indications that Burial 10 may originally have been a multiple burial (one would have expected some mixing of skeletal material) it seems more prudent to consider this child's remains as a burial in its own right. The cluster was situated in the W-quadrant of E6, at 62 cm b.s. in soil {5} mixed with blocks of limestone bedrock. Like the skeleton (or body) of Burial 10, these remains were obviously transported to the place where they were found by water action. No other remains of this child having been discovered, apart from some non-diagnostic scraps from the post-cranial skeleton, the original position and orientation of the body cannot be ascertained. There was, however, a surprising amount of remnants of personal adornments intermingled with the skull fragments and teeth in the same cluster, attesting to the high social status of the dead child. A conical shell disk of a diameter of 6 cm, with a central hole (made from the top portion of a Conus shell, most probably Conus generalis), evidently an ornament near head, neck or upper chest (Find 1); five Oliva sp. shells, also probably part of an ornament at or near the head (Find 2); a fragment of a stone bracelet, interior diameter 3.8 cm, found near the cluster mixed with bottom-sherds of Pot "C" may also belong to this burial although its association with it is not secure (Find 3); an adult human metacarpal shaft fragment showing signs of having possibly been worked which could have been part of a personal adornment, found amongst the teeth and skull fragments (Find 4). No grave goods could be found.
Illustration 3.14, Burial 10a layout
121
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 11
This apparently double burial of an elderly (30-50 years old) male with very worn teeth and a young adult of c. 20 years of age, was found in the N-quadrant of F4, embedded in {5} at a depth of 55-60 cm b.s. and in such a fragmented state that it seemed at first impossible to disentangle the skeletal remains of the two individuals and to make some sense of this burial. After closer scrutiny it appeared, however, that the remains attributable to the younger person were consistently a few cm lower in the deposit than those clearly belonging to the older one and that, therefore, the latter must have been superimposed on the former, with an unknown time span between them, although they were both lying in the same soil {5} and sealed by it. The burial of the younger individual, being the one who had been buried earlier, is now Burial 11, whereas that of the older male becomes Burial 11a. The skeletal remains of the young adult only consist of a few sutured skull fragments found amongst skull fragments of the older man, four isolated incisors next to the right mandible of the latter without belonging to it, the left ulna and fragments of the left radius (clearly in situ) and small long-bone fragments and the right femur nearby which seem to have been slightly moved. Although few, these remains are sufficient to indicate roughly the approximate hight, position and orientation of the skeleton, namely the "normal" height of around 1.60 m, most probably extended supine position and an orientation of head to SSE. There were no signs of personal adornments or of grave goods of any kind, as the large cord-marked globular bowl (Pot "G", Type 1Ja), near where the right elbow of the skeleton would have been and originally considered an obvious and very conspicuous burial gift, was found to be situated with its bottom about 10 cm higher up in the deposit than even the skeleton of Burial 11a overlaying that of Burial 11. Eventually it was recognised as being Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 5.
Illustration 3.15, Burial 11 layout
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Burial 11a
Some time after the interment of the body of a young adult individual in soil {5} in the N-quadrant of F4, that of an older male was buried almost exactly on top of and into it, his head touching that of the younger person (as their intermingled skull fragments show) and his body aligned with the other one in such a precise manner that it replaced it in parts, causing general disturbance and loss of skeletal material of the skeleton underneath. The older man was thus also lying in extended supine position with head to SSE, his skeletal remains consisting of skull fragments, right mandible and teeth, right humerus and right clavicle (all in situ), while other skull fragments, fragments of right ulna and radius as well as of both feet have been found dispersed up to 1 m SE beyond the position of the skull. This strange way of dislocation suggests that parts of the burial were exposed in their skeletal state and swept away by water action in the usual direction as known from other parts of the site, i.e. roughly W to E, with minor changes occasioned by stones or other immovable features of the then surface. No personal adornments or grave goods could be fund.
Illustration 3.16, Burial 11a layout
123
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 12
This burial of an adult male in his twenties was found with the lower body in E4 at about the middle of "S"-baulk and the upper body and skull in "S"-baulk towards F4, in extended supine position with head to SE. Skeleton very fragmentary and incomplete, skull broken into numerous small and brittle fragments, and some teeth. Of the post-cranial skeleton only brittle fragments of left humerus were recognisable while of the remainder only small non-diagnostic scraps could be found with bones of the lower body entirely missing although its feet must have just been cutting into Burial 15 below the latter's right arm; the right hand, the entire trunk and pelvis and the left lower arm of that burial are also missing. The skeleton of Burial 12 was positioned low in the deposit (top of skull at 70 cm b.s., humerus at 80 cm b.s. and another undefined part of the skeleton at 82 cm b.s.) and was entirely surrounded by {5}, with {4} well above and in no visible way connected with the burial. There were no signs of personal adornments nor of any sort of grave goods. The cluster of four unusual pots found next to and in the skeleton, one of them seemingly sitting directly on its right chest, were found not to be part of this burial but of a ceramic burial in its own right (Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 6), unconnected with Burial 12 but dug into it.
Illustration 3.17, Burial 12 layout
124
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Burial 13
This burial of an almost certainly female adult and a sub-adult of undetermined sex is a difficult one to interpret as the upper part of its skeleton(s) remains un-excavated in the baulk between F3 and E3 (the former Pit I of KC I), with only the top of a skull visible in the "S"-section of E3. Originally thought of as an isolated skull fragment (Watson and Loofs 1967: 255), its position at a depth of 70-80 cm b.s. leaves little doubt that it is a part of one of the skulls (if there were two skulls) of the double burial the lower part of which was excavated, first in the E-corner of F3 and as a follow-up in the "SE"-quarter of the baulk to E3. Although the skeletal material found (right radius, ulna, femur and tibia of the adult and left radius and ulna as well as right femur of the juvenile, all at 70 cm b.s.) is very fragmented and obviously disturbed, it allows the partly virtual reconstruction of the entire burial as the adult right tibia (with cut or scratch marks) was clearly in situ. The body of the adult was lying in extended supine position with head to N, while the position of that of the younger individual remains unknown but most likely was also extended and with the same orientation. The burial was found in a large pit or hollow in {5}, filled, in slightly mound-like fashion, with a {5}-like soil with less lime specks in it and sealed by {4}. Four large pots, one on the right side of feet and lower legs and three on the left side further S, their tops at the same depth as the skeletal remains, turned out to be two ceramic burials (Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials 9 and 10, respectively) which had been dug into the same large pit as the burial, thereby creating a major disturbance at its foot-end. Both the human burial and the ceramic one near its right leg (Pot "B") appear to have been further interfered with, as the upper part of this pot was missing as if cut off horizontally at the exact level of the skeletons and the skeletons were disjointed and very fragmentary, although this could have been already so at the time the ceramic burial was dug into them. Grave goods consist of two footed bowls at left lower leg of skeleton: one, Type 4Ja, broken and upside-down at left foot (Find 1) and the other, Type 4A, broken but apparently complete and lying on its side with opening to N, just below left knee (Find 2); but could not be excavated. The incomplete 4 cm long polished tubular object made of antler, found amongst human bone fragments next to the pot of the ceramic burial (VCCB 9) near right leg of female skeleton, could possibly have been part of the grave goods of this burial (Find 3) but association with the burial not secure. Illustration 3.18, Burial 13 layout
125
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 14
Of this burial of a male adult only cranial and tooth fragments as well as three limb bones are preserved, apparently in situ, at 70 cm b.s. near the centre of the "S"-section of F3 and only up to 40 cm into the cutting; the rest of the skeleton is thought to be hidden under the "S"-baulk. The section showed a 60 cm wide (natural?) trench in {5}, filled with a mixture of {4} and {5} but sealed by a layer of pure {4} before being overlaid by {3}. The remains of the skull and right upper arm indicates a supine position and orientation head to E. As this "S"-side of the cutting was the limit of the excavation, the burial could not be further investigated. There were no signs of personal adornments at head or uppermost body but two pots next to the skull, both upright, are taken to be grave goods. They are: a medium-sized cord-marked globular bowl Type 1Ba, slightly to left beyond skull and a small partly cord-marked bowl with stand, Type 2A, at right temple.
Illustration 3.19, Burial 14 layout
126
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Burial 15
This burial of an approximately 30 year old male was found in the middle of "S"-half of E4 but with head and left shoulder in "S"-baulk, in extended supine position with head to S. Like the skeleton of Burial 12 next to it, that of this burial was lying very low in the deposit, entirely surrounded by {5} without there being any signs of a pit or trench connecting the burial with {4}. The depth b.s. is greater than that of Burial 12, namely 75 cm for the highest part of the skull to 90 cm for some lower leg bones. Burial 12 must have been dug into it with its feet cutting into its right flank below the lower arm. Skeleton fragmentary and brittle: only parts of skull with mandible, fragments of bones of the shoulder girdle and upper limb long-bones preserved. Where lower leg and foot bones would have been, there were indeed fragments of these bones but dispersed in a manner showing that this area had been disturbed from above, presumably by the pointed end of a post the hole of which had been visible on the 60 cm b.s.-floor. There was also a gap of c. 60 cm between bone fragments of upper and lower body with no finds in between, probably caused by water action coming from a westerly direction. This assumption is made even more probable as a potsherd found amongst the bones of the upper body is very likely to have been part of a pot (Pot "Z") the main remnants of which are situated in the centre of F4. Personal adornments are represented by 349 shell disk-beads of Type a, found in four distinct clusters on the upper body: one on each shoulder, one on the upper part of the sternum and a large cluster on the lower end of the sternum in the centre of the chest (Find 1); these beads must have been in the form of chains as some of them were found still strung together. Some of these beads are extremely thin: about 0.5 mm or even less. Nine more of the same disk-beads were found amongst bone scraps near "lower abdomen" (Find 2); they could be stray finds from the adornments higher up on the body or remnants of a separate adornment. Three canine teeth, two directly at the skull and one on the chest, must be considered as part of personal adornments as well (Find 3). A probably artificially rounded piece of a cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shell, oval 4x5 cm, found at "right ankle" of the skeleton, may also have been the remnant of a personal adornment, albeit of an unknown form (Find 4); association with the burial not secure. Only one item could be seen as a burial gift, namely an apparently unused adze made of finely layered limestone, found at right tibia (Find 5); association with the burial not secure.
Illustration 3.20, Burial 15 layout
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand The Unclassifiable Burial
Illustration 3.22, The unclassifiable burial (Reconstruction of finds)
Illustration 3.21, The unclassifiable burial layout
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) This burial without a skeleton is situated in a 2.10 m-long trench dug from {4} into {6} in the "E"-half of the baulk between F6 and F5 and parallel to it, partly within F6 itself and partly in the baulk. A step of 10 cm half-way in the bottom of the trench divides it into a "northern" and a "eastern" half with a depth of 30-70 cm b.s. for the former and 30-60 cm b.s. for the latter. As there is no {5} in this
part of the cutting, {4} was directly overlying {6} causing the trench to be filled with a mixture of {4} and {6}. Two series of three pots separated by a gap of 50 cm were standing close together in a row on the floor of this trench, except that Pot "B" was originally standing on top of Pot "A". From SW to NE these are: Pots "A", "B", "C" and "D", "E, "F", i.e. Finds 1-3 and 4-6 respectively.
Photograph 3.6, The Unclassifiable Burial.
Photograph 3.7, The Unclassifiable Burial, with the hills of Khao Hang Talat in the background
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 3:
The Finds As with KC III, the KC IV finds are ordered according to burials and numbered within each burial in the sequence of Personal Adornments, Grave Goods and Other. Grave goods typically comprise Pottery, Stone Implements and Other. Within a burial, the numbering in each category goes from head to feet. Stones have their own sequential numbers.
Illustration 3.24, Pot type 1C, Burial 1, Find 3
Individual pots are reviewed in the following way: Type and summary description; Decoration; Position; Breakage Pattern; Measurements. The latter include: H = height; Hr = height of rim, from top; Hc = height of carination or shoulder, from bottom; Hf = height of foot; W = width; Wr = width at rim; Wn = width at neck; Wc = width at carination or shoulder; Wm = maximum width; Wtf = width at top of foot, i.e. where it meets body; Wbf = width at base of foot; On = narrowest opening, i.e. inside neck or rim; Thw = wall thickness (B = body, Bb = bottom of body, F = foot); Wgt = weight (of extant part of pot). All measurements in cm, weight in g. Sherd sizes "large", "medium" and "small" are to be understood as relative to overall size of pot.
Globular bowl Type 1C. Spherical body. Everted outcurving rim. Small raised ridge on shoulder. Dark buff ware. Rim inside and outside plain to shoulder. From ridge down to bottom orderly cord-marked (6:10). Nearest to head of two pots above head, upright. Almost 90% complete. Broken fairly evenly into about 30 medium sherds. H: 13.5; Hr: 2; Wr: 12.7; Wn: 11.2; Wm: 16.5; On: 9.5; Thw: 0.4-0.8; Wgt: 640. Find 4:
Burial 1 Find 1: A nest of shell disk-beads of Type b at right elbow (number of beads not recorded). Find 2: Illustration 3.25 Pot type 4A, Burial 1, Find 4 Large footed bowl Type 4A. Slightly convex conical truncated body. Slightly inverted direct rim, rounded on top. Foot conical truncated. Dark reddish ware. Plain. Red pigment spread irregularly on interior wall (probably traces of slip). At right elbow, lying on its side with opening to SW. About 65% complete (one entire side of upper part of bowl missing). Rest of body broken into only 3 large and 4 medium sherds. Foot in one piece, including bottom and parts of lower body of bowl. H: 14.5; Hf: 5.5; Wr: 20.2; Wm: 20.9; Wtf: 7.4; Wbf: 11.2; ThwB: 0.5-1; ThwBb: 0.9-1.1; ThwF: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 770.
Illustration 3.23, Pot type 4A, Burial 1, Find 2 Large footed bowl Type 4A. Convex conical truncated body. Slightly inverted direct rim, flattened on top. Foot conical truncated. Buff ware, orange surface. Plain. Covered with orange slip and polished throughout except inside foot. Furthest to SW of two pots above head, upright. About 85% complete. Body broken fairly evenly in over 20 medium sherds. Foot broken into 3 pieces one of which comprises bottom of body. H: 14.5; Hf: 4.4; Wr: 22.8; Wm: 23.5; Wtf: 8.8; Wbf: 14; ThwB: 1.2-0.6; ThwBb: 1.2-0.9; ThwF: 1-0.5; Wgt: 1,010.
Find 5:
Illustration 3.26, Tektite, Burial 1, Find 5
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Large entire tektite of oval shape, black. Near skeleton but exact location unknown. 4.7x2.7x2.0 cm. 25.5 g. Association with skeleton not secure.
Find 3:
Burial 2 Find 1: Illustration 3.29, Pot type 4A, Burial 2, Find 3 Footed bowl Type 4A. Truncated conical, slightly convex body. Slightly inverted rim. Foot truncated conical. Ochre ware, orange surface. Plain but "well-finished, thin slip and burnished. Parallel striations inside the rim" (Ho 1984, I: 254). Broken but apparently entire, upright on pelvis, slightly tilted to E. H: 13; Hf: 5; Wr: 18; Wm: 18.5; Wgt: 860.
(Full size) Illustration 3.27, Shell bead, Burial 3, Find 1 Hyperboloid-shaped bead made of Tridacna shell. In the vicinity of skull but exact location unknown. H: 1.2 cm; maximum diameter: 1.1 cm. Find 2:
Burial 3 Finds 1-3: Three undefined broken pots beyond head, partly in "N"-section. No further information about them recorded. Find 4:
Illustration 3.28, Pot type 4J, Burial 2, Find 2
Illustration 3.30, Pot type 4D, Burial 3, Find 4
Large footed bowl Type 4J. Hemispherical body. Slightly inverted direct rim, pointed but with rounded edge. Large, slightly concave flaring foot. Heavy dark brown ware. Polished or lacquered to a high sheen inside and outside except for inside foot. Coarsely but regularly cord-marked (2:10), vertically (slightly diagonally left up) from c. 1 cm below tip of rim to c. 2.5 cm above the narrowest part of foot, i.e. junction of foot and body. At or on right shoulder. Association with burial not secure. Bowl complete, possibly intentionally broken into numerous medium/large sherds. Foot in one piece but about one-third broken off and missing. Sharp edges, no signs of impact. H: 21.5; Hf:11; Wr: 26.5; Wm: 27.5; Wtf: 6; Wbf: 16; ThwB: 0.6-0.9; ThwBb: 1.4-1.5. NB: this being a very irregular and asymmetric pot, in particular with regard to its foot and wall thickness, these measurements, while true in themselves, should not be taken to be those of a fully symmetrical pot. Wgt: 1,420.
Footed bowl Type 4D. Shallow hemispheric body. Upturned rim marked by a carination. Flaring foot. Buff ware. Incised wavy line with stippled fields (from top) on outside rim, two straight horizontal lines with stippled field in between at ankle and another wavy line with stippled fields (from bottom) at base of foot. Upright on right arm. Almost complete (only a large rim-sherd missing), broken into large and medium sherds. H: 11; Hf: 4.5; Wr: 15.6; Wm: 16.5; Wtf: 7.2; Wbf: 10.8; ThwB: c. 0.5-0.7; ThwBb: c. 1; ThwF: c. 0.5-1; Wgt: 660. Find 5:
Illustration 3.31, Pot type 1Cb, Burial 3, Find 5
131
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Globular bowl Type 1Cb. Spherical body. Everted outcurving rim. Buff ware "Pie-crust" appliqué band on shoulder. Body above shoulder and rim inside and outside covered with red slip and burnished. Body below shoulder coarsely but neatly vertically cord-marked (2.5:10); three smoothed horizontal bands just below shoulder. First in a row of three pots beyond feet, upright. Almost complete: small parts of rim and shoulder missing. Broken regularly (i.e. in rings) into medium-sized sherds indicating natural steady pressure from above. Rim broken off neatly and easily restorable. H: 13.6; Hr: 1.8; Wr: 13.8; Wn: 11.5; Wm: 17.1; On: 9.8; Thw: c. 0.4-0.8; Wgt: 700.
Last in a row of three pots beyond feet, lying on its side with opening away from feet of skeleton, its own foot standing on top of the equally overturned footed bowl next to it (Find 6); originally it must thus have stood in or on top of the other footed bowl and the two were toppled together. Almost complete (part of rim missing), broken uniformly in medium sherds; no sign of impact. H: 10.8; Hf: 3; Wr: 16.5; Wm: 16.5; Wtf: 6; Wbf: 9; ThwB: c. 0.5-0.7; ThwBb: c. 1; ThwF: c. 0.5-0.7; Wgt: c. 660. Burial 4
Find 6:
Find 1: 14 fragments of ivory bracelets, restorable to one full bracelet with an inner diameter of 4 cm and an outer one of 5 cm, about thre-quarters of another bracelet with an inner diameter of 4.5 cm and an outer one of 5.8 cm and two more small fragments the diameter of which cannot be ascertained and which may belong to one or two more bracelets. Exact position unknown; association with the burial highly probable but not secure.
Illustration 3.32, Pot type 4Ee, Burial 3, Find 6 Footed bowl Type 4Ee. Shallow near-hemispheric body. Up- and incurving rim, marked by a rounded carination. Truncated conical slightly convex foot. Buff ware. Burnished throughout except inside foot. Incised curvilinear motifs filled with horizontal rows of stipples on outside rim (and foot?). Second in a row of three pots beyond feet, lying almost on its side (i.e. tilted in the direction away from feet), with its foot wedged under the upright standing globular bowl next to it (Find 5) in such a way that it seems clear that these two pots could not have stood originally next to each other in an upright position on the same level. Complete, broken uniformly into large/medium sherds; no sign of impact. H: 10.5; Hf: 3.5; Wr: 16.2; Wm: 17.3; Wtf: c. 6.8; Wbf: c. 7.8; ThwB: c. 0.5-0.7; ThwBb: c. 1; ThwF: c. 0.5-0.7; Wgt: c. 700.
Burial 5 Find 1: A quantity of shell disk-beads Type b (exact number not recorded) in pelvic region, some still stuck together showing that they had originally been stringed, attest to the presence of personal adornments in that region and/or bracelets at both wrists. Find 2:
Illustration 3.34, Pot type 7C, Burial 5, Find 2
Find 7:
Footed bowl Type 7C (bowl only). Carinated deep bowl. Shallow dish-like body. High concave rim. Form of foot not known (presumably truncated conical with outcurve base). Plain but "burnished inside and out, and burned to a mottled red-brown on the outside, while the inside is black all over" (Watson and Loofs 1967: 253); there are also "broad parallel striations at mouth rim" (Ho 1984, I: 254). Directly at (beyond) head, upside-down, with skull fitting neatly into the curvature of the concave rim wall. Bowl almost complete, broken into large sherds. Foot missing except for small parts where it joined the bottom of the body from which it was broken off, together with the central part of it.
Illustration 3.33, Pot type 4Ee, Burial 3, Find 7 Footed bowl Type 4Ee. Shallow hemispheric body. Slightly inverted direct rim. Truncated conical slightly convex low foot. Buff ware. Burnished throughout except inside foot. Horizontal row of incised intertwined wavy lines with stippled fields on outside rim (and similar decoration on foot?).
132
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) The following dimensions are of bowl only (Ho 1984, I: 254; II: Fig. 3.1, 3d, excluding foot). H: 17.5; Hr: 13; Wr/m: 27; Wtf: c. 7; Thw: c. 0.6; Wgt: 1,650.
Footed bowl Type 4A. Shallow hemispheric bowl. Slightly incurving direct rim, flattened lip. Truncated conical foot. Red ware. Plain. Covered in dark red slip and burnished throughout except inside foot. At right ankle of skeleton, upright. Complete but foot broken off in one piece. H: 12.7; Hf: 6; Wr: 20; Wm: 20.5; Wtf: c. 8.3; Wbf: c. 9; ThwB: c. 0.5-1; ThwBb: c. 1; ThwF: c. 0.4-0.9; Wgt: 865.
Find 3:
Find 6:
Illustration 3.35, Pot type 1D, Burial 5, Find 3 Globular bowl Type 1D. Spherical body. Everted outcurving rim. Light buff ware. Rim smoothed inside and outside. Body from below rim downward coarsely but nearly vertically (slightly left-leaning) cord-marked (3:10); four smoothed horizontal bands over cord-markings between rim and mid-body, the lowest covered with red slip. At right side of head, lying on its side with opening to W, bottom leaning against right cheek as if put in this way on purpose. Almost complete (only about one-quarter of rim missing), broken in large sherds. H: 13; Hr: 1.5; Wr: 15; Wn: 12.8; Wm: 17.3; On: 11.2; Thw: c. 0.5-0.7; Wgt: 610.
Illustration 3.37, Pot type 4A, Burial 5, Find 6 Footed bowl Type 4A. Truncated conical deep body Slightly incurving direct rim.Truncated conical foot, flaring at base. Weathered surface. Plain. No sign of any surface treatment. Next to and a little to the outside of and underneath footed bowl Find 5 which is directly at right ankle of skeleton. Upright. About half of the pot missing (i.e. most of what was not under Find 5). H: 15.8; Hf: 6.5; Wr: 20; Wm: 21; Wtf: c. 6.5; Wbf: c. 12.5; ThwB: c. 0.5-1; ThwBb: c. 1.1; ThwF: c. 0,5-1.2; Wgt: 550.
Find 4: Four medium and several small sherds (rim, neck, shoulder and upper body, fitting together) of a large vessel Type 1M. At left knee. Stray find: not associated with this burial. Presumably from same pot as Find 7. NB: this pot can only be seen as in situ if it is postulated that other parts of it have been carried away alongside the body (see Find 7), leaving this part (i.e. Find 4) behind at the spot where the entire pot had been placed originally, which is most unlikely. Moreover, pots Type 1M have never been found in association with a human burial.
Find 7: A large (11x18 cm) curved body sherd of a thick-walled, cord-marked vessel, probably the same as Find 4 although it does not fit any of the sherds of that find but came from the lower part of the Type 1M vessel. At left ankle next to missing left foot, lying flat. Stray find: not associated with this burial. NB: this pot, including Find 4, obviously not in situ but having been carried to this burial by water forces, is included in the list of Single Vessel Ceramic Burials as Pot "153".
Find 5:
Find 8: Several large and medium non-diagnostic body-sherds from unidentified large vessel(s) lying flat on right upper arm as cover. Find 9: Two large non-diagnostic body-sherds from unidentified large vessel(s) put on edge on the outside of left lower arm (for protection?). Illustration 3.36, Pot type 4A, Burial 5, Find 5
133
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 6
Find 3: 11 shell disk-beads Type d and three small (0.8, 0.8, 1.5x0.8 cm) fragments of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shell, thought to be remnants of a personal adornment. Found in the area of the "right wrist" of the presumed skeleton.
Find 1:
Find 4:
(Full size) Illustration 3.39, Fragment of Cyclophorous floridus shell, Burial 6, Find 4
Illustration 3.38, Pot type 2Ab, Burial 6, Find 1 Medium-sized ring-footed vessel Type 2Ab. Body almost spherical with slight carination at equator. Straight upturned direct rim, rounded lip. Ring-foot truncated conical with rounded base, added onto bottom of bowl after cord-marking. Buff-orange ware. Two small solid handles on shoulder, on opposite sides. Rim plain. Upper half of body bears an incised and impressed decoration consisting of four semicircles with the line of carination as base, filled with 7 or 8 vertical-curved bands of "walking shell" impressions; a narrow irregular band on shoulder at the base of the vertical rim repeats this kind of decoration. The space in between is left plain but burnished. Lower half of body roughly cord-marked (4:10), criss-crossed and irregular. Ring-foot plain but space inside, i.e. bottom of pot, is also cord-marked, showing that the foot was added after cord-marking. Upright next to left upper leg at same level, side of pot 20 cm distant from femur. Complete and unbroken. H: 13; Hr: 1.2; Hc: 7; Hf: 2.2; Wr: 9.7; Wn: 9.9; Wm: 17; Wtf: 10; Wbf: 11.6; On: 8.4; ThwB: 0.5-0.6; ThwBb: 0.5; ThwF: 0.8-1.8; Wgt:
Five shell disk-beads Type d and a 0.8x1.5 c fragment of Cyclophorus floridus snail, thought to be stray remnants of a personal adornment at the "right wrist" of the presumed skeleton of Burial 6a. Found at left upper leg/hip of the skeleton of Burial 6. Find 5: One shell disk-bead Type d, thought to come from the personal adornment at the "right wrist" of the presumed skeleton of Burial 6a. Found at the right hip of the skeleton of Burial 6. Burial 7 Find 1:
Find 2: Small tektite flake (0.6 x 1 cm), on lower end of left femur. Association with burial not secure (could have been in fill). Burial 6a
(full size)
Find 1: Ten shell disk-beads Type d, three very small (0.4, 0.7, 1.0x0.5 cm) fragments of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shell and one small (1.5 cm diameter) Cyclophorus floridus snail thought to be remnants of a personal adornment. Found in the area of the "head" of the presumed skeleton.
Illustration 3.40, Burial 7, Find 1 Small piece of fossilised bone, tapered off to a point. L: 2.6 cm, W (at broken oval base): 0.5x0.8 cm, Wgt: 1 g. Clear signs of having been fashioned into a projectile point. Dark buff colour, shiny surface. Found embedded in right shoulder/upper chest area of skeleton and is believed to have been the cause of death of the individual.
Find 2: 28 shell disk-beads Type d, three very small (0.6, 1.0, 1.1 x 0.5 cm) fragments of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shell and about one half of a cowrie shell Cypraea annulus (?) the back of which seems to have been removed (largest dimension 2 cm), thought to be remnant of a personal adornment. Found in the area of the "left wrist" of the presumed skeleton.
134
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Find 2:
Find 3:
Illustration 3.43, Ear plug (?), Burial 8, Find 3 A small mushroom-shaped ivory object, almost certainly an ear-plug. Truncated conical "foot" topped by a disk of the same diameter as the base of the foot. Two very narrow (< 1 mm each) horizontal circular grooves on lower part of foot. About 2/3 complete (broken vertically). Found in the same area as the small disk-beads Find 2, it is more likely to have been a personal adornment of the same child than of the adult woman. H: 1.2 cm; W (diameter) of top disk: 1.5 cm; of top of foot: 1 cm; of base of foot: 1.5 cm; Wgt: 1 g.
(Full size) llustration 3.41, Stone adze fragments, Burial 7, Find 2 Fragment (butt and upper part) of a shouldered stone adze with oval cross-section. Grey chert with siliceous incrustations, dark grey in break (old break). Polished. H (of fragment): 6 cm; W: 4 cm; Th: 1.7 cm.
Burial 8
Find 4:
Find 1:
Illustration 3.44, Bracelet fragment, Burial 8, Find 4 Small (2 cm long) fragment of a clay bracelet, drop-shaped cross-section (rounded end towards inside). Light buff. Inner diameter 6.5-7 cm, i.e. bracelet was most likely that of an adult person. Rather light: the fragment weighs 1 g, meaning that the entire bracelet only weighed about 10 g. Found under globular bowl Find 14 but position relative to footed bowl Find 16 which was also found under this pot is not clear; both these pots were lying next to (on left of) skull of main skeleton.
Illustration 3.42, Two Nassarius shells, Burial 8, Find 1 Two small Nassarius shells, next to and under the main skeleton's skull and therefore almost certainly part of the young woman's personal adornment (as "beads"?). (NB: a third such shell was eventually discovered amongst the skull fragments without being properly documented; its existence should nevertheless be on record). Find 2: Four shell disk-beads Type a, found amongst the small bone fragments on the left side of the thoracic area of the woman, being presumably part of the personal adornment of a child.
Find 5:
Illustration 3.45, Shell fragments, Burial 8, Find 5
135
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Five shell fragments (cf. Pseudodon mouhoti) from under footed bowl Find 16, i.e. about 10-20 cm NE of skull of main skeleton, in a very disturbed context. Two rounded rectangular fragments of 3.2x1.8 cm and 2.9x1.9 cm, weighing together 3 g, likely to have been remnants of a personal adornment of the adult female, and three very thin flakes of similar dimensions but weighing together only 2 gm.
Find 6b:
Illustration 3.48, Shell fragments, Burial 8, Find 6b
Find 6:
Shell fragment (cf. Cristaria plicata) found amongst small bone fragments in the left side of the main skeleton's thorax. Fragment of ventral margin, L: 3 cm; Wgt: 2 g. Find 7:
Illustration 3.46 Shell fragments, Burial 8, Find 6 Shell fragment (cf. Pseudodon mouhoti) found inside footed bowl Find 13, i.e. next to (SW of) skull of main skeleton. As this fragment of c. 5x1.5 cm, weighing 4 g, fits to one of the fragments from the other side of the skull (Find 5), it was from the same shell (and the same personal adornment).
Illustration 3.49, Pot type 2Aa, Burial 8, Find 7 Small ring-footed globular bowl Type 2Aa. Spherical body. Wide mouth, small flaring rim. Heavy buff ware, dark brown in break. Ring-foot added to body Rim and upper one-third of body plain but outside (rim also inside) smoothed or burnished and covered with red slip. At 3 cm below neck raised band with small vertical impressions, c. 0.3 cm distant from each other, also covered with red slip. Below this, an undecorated band of 0.6 cm width showing signs of having been burnished (with a narrow bamboo stick?). From there on to 1.5 cm above ring-foot finely (4.5:10) cord-marked but also superficially (i.e. only ridges) covered with the same red slip. Ring-foot plain. Lying on its side opening to NW, 55 cm NE of skull as the first (i.e. NE-most) of ten pot beyond and next to skull. Almost entire: only a 5x6 cm piece at lower body and part of ring-foot missing (on the upper side of pot as found). This corresponds to a point of impact with breaks radiating from it in all directions. Pot broken into large sherds. H: 11.8; Hr: 1; Hc (raised band): 8.2; Hf: 1.5; Wr: 10.6; Wn: 9; Wm: 14; Wtf: 7.1; Wbf: 8.2; On: 7.6; ThwB: 0.4-0.6; ThwBb: 0.6; ThwF: 0.4-1; Wgt: 450. (NB: this is the only pot of this type found in Khok Charoen)
Find 6a:
Illustration 3.47, Shell fragments, Burial 8, Find 6a Three shell fragments (cf. Chamberlaindia hainesiana): two found amongst skull bones and one amidst bone fragments in the left side of the thoracic region near the neck of the main skeleton. Rounded rectangular or almost oval, these fragments measure 2.5x1.6 cm, 2.7x1.4 cm and 2.8x1.6 cm respectively and weigh 1 gm each.
136
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Find 8:
Inside, i.e. on top of, footed bowl Find 8 together with which it was toppled towards the head, at about 20 cm NE of it. Complete, broken into two large sherds (practically the entire pot), 1 medium and 10 small sherds on one side and on rim; it must have been protected from more breakage by the footed bowl Find 8. H: 11.3; Hr: 2.5; Hc: 7; Wr: 13; Wn: 11.8; Wc/m: 15; On: 10.3; Thw: 0.4-0.7; Wgt: 400.
Illustration 3.50, Pot type 4E, Burial 8, Find 8 Footed bowl Type 4E. Almost hemispherical shallow bowl. Inverted, straight but slightly convex inverted unrestricted rim, rounded lip. Truncated conical foot, slightly flaring at rounded base. Buff ware, dark buff in break. Burnished throughout except inside foot. Incised and pricked decoration on outside rim and foot consisting (on rim) of 16 triangles pointing upwards, delineated by incised lines on top while the baseline is the carination formed by the beginning of the rim, without incised line. These triangles are filled with 15-20 (but in most cases 16) impressed dots probably made with a hollow bamboo stick or a reed of about 0.2 cm in diameter often leaving a tiny crescent-shaped bulge on one side of the prick. On the lower part of the foot an irregular and somewhat wavy incised line delineates 7 more or less rounded triangles pointing upwards, with their baseline being the slight crease formed by the flaring of the base of the foot; these triangles are filled with 10-15 impressed dots each. In the area where foot meets body, 4 or 5 horizontal lines of impressed dots complete this lower region of decoration which seems to have been applied in some haste and in a careless manner as opposed to the top part which was done much more carefully. Found lying on its side, foot pointing away from head, at about 20 cm beyond head, i.e. NE of it, as the second of ten pots next to and beyond skull. Almost complete, broken into large sherds; no sign of impact. H: 9; Hf: 3; Hr/c: 1.8; Wr: 15.4; Wm: 16.2; Wtf: 6.6; Wbf: 9.5; ThwB: 0.4-0.9; ThwBb: 0.6-0.8; ThwF: 0.4-0.6; Wgt: 450.
Find 10:
Illustration 3.52, Pot type 3Ea, Burial 8, Find 10 Small shallow dish Type 3Ea. Shallow round-bottomed body. Slightly upturned rounded rim. Crudely fashioned by hand (small finger prints visible indicating that was made – maybe in haste – by a young female or a child)). Buff ware. No decoration of any kind. Found lying upright about 40 cm NE of skull as one of a group of ten pots beyond or next to head. About four fifths complete, broken in two medium and two small sherds. H: 2.3; Wr/m: 9.6; Thw: 0.7-0.8; Wgt: 100.
Find 11:
Illustration 3.53, Pot type 1B, Burial 8, Find 11 Carinated globular bowl Type 1B. Hemispherical body. Everted straight restricted rim. Straight shoulder. Light buff ware. Red slip inside rim. Rim outside smoothed, shoulder smoothed and superficially burnished horizontally, leaving irregular bands of 0.25 cm width, the lowest of which had been applied on top of cord-markings, showing that the pot was cord-marked before shoulder was burnished. Body cord-marked (6:10) vertically irregularly from carination downwards. Found lying on its side, opening to NW, next to skull as one of a group of ten pots beyond or next to head. Complete, broken into 2 large, several medium and numerous small sherds, the latter concentrated on one lower side of the pot.
Find 9:
Illustration 3.51, Pot type 1B, Burial 8, Find 9 Carinated globular bowl Type 1B. Hemispherical body. Everted straight restricted rim, straight shoulder. Light buff ware. Traces of red slip inside rim. Rim outside plain, shoulder horizontally smoothed (with a c. 0.2 cm wide spatula?). Body below carination finely (7:10) vertically cord-marked.
137
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand H: 10.5; Hr: 1.5; Hc: 7; Wr: 12; Wn: 10.6; Wc/m: 12.8; On: 9.4; Thw: 0.3-0.6; Wgt: 400.
Find 14:
Find 12:
Illustration 3.56, Pot type 1Ba, Burial 8, Find 14 Slightly carinated globular bowl Type 1Ba. Spherical body with slight carination at shoulder. Flaring rim with pointed lip. Buff ware. Dark red slip inside rim, outside rim plain but smoothed. Body below rim cord-marked (6:10), straight vertically to about mid-body, criss-crossed below. On and above shoulder 3 horizontal smoothed bands (over cord-marking) of c. 0.15 cm width, the lowest one covered with dark red slip. Found in a disturbed context, i.e. intermingled with sherds of globular bowl Find 15 and partly under big sherds of footed bowl Find 16 in such a way that the exact original situation of these three pots on left side of skull cannot be ascertained. About four-fifths complete (i.e. much of rim and upper body of one side missing as if upper part of pot had been cut off diagonally), broken almost uniformly into small to medium sherds. H: 13.8; Hr: 1,8; Hc: 10.4; Wr: 13.6; Wn: 10.5; Wm: 15.2; On: 9; Thw: 0.3-0.5; Wgt: 420.
Illustration 3.54, Pot type 4A, Burial 8, Find 12 Foot of a footed bowl, probably 4A. Truncated conical, flaring base. Ochre ware. Plain; outside and inside smoothed, leaving striations (smoothing done with a tool?). Next to (about 15 cm to NW of skull) and slightly above it, opening of base of foot to NW. Part of a group of ten pots beyond or next to head. Foot complete and unbroken, broken off bowl in a regular, circular way, leaving the bottom part of the bowl attached to the foot. Must have been broken off a long time ago but sherds of top part of bowl not found; probably lost when burial was disturbed. Could have been used as a vessel in its own right. H: 4; Wtf: 7.4; Wbf: 12.5; ThwBb: 0.9-1.1; ThwF: 0.5-1; Wgt: 250.
Find 13:
Find 15:
Illustration 3.55, Pot type 4Aa, Burial 8, Find 13 Footed bowl Type 4Aa. Truncated conical body.Upturned slightly convex rim, rounded lip. Truncated conical foot, very slightly flaring base. Ochre ware, dark brown in break, orange surface. Plain. Bowl inside and outside burnished; foot only roughly smoothed on outside, inside still less. Directly at right side of skull, lying on its side with opening of bowl towards skull. Complete, broken into about 25 medium and small sherds, the smallest being on the upper side of the bowl (pot lying on its side), foot complete and unbroken, including the bottom of the bowl. H: 10.8; Hf: 3.2; Hr: 2.5; Wr/m: 17; Wtf: 6; Wbf: 9.6; ThwB: 0.6-0.9; ThwBb: 0.7-0.9; ThwF: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 540.
Illustration 3.57, Pot type 1C, Burial 8, Find 15 Globular bowl Type 1C. Spherical, slightly pear-shaped body. Flaring rim with pointed lip. Buff ware. Dark red slip inside and outside rim and outside neck down to shoulder. Raised band at shoulder. Body from 0.5 cm below raised band to bottom cord-marked (5.5-10), vertically to slightly below mid-body, criss-crossed below. (Cord-marking was applied after band was raised because at places the latter had also been marked a little). Found in a disturbed context, i.e. intermingled with sherds of globular bowl Find 14 and partly under sherds of footed bowl Find 16, at left side of skull.
138
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Almost complete, broken into numerous small to medium sherds in no particular pattern. H: 13.5; Hr: 2; Hc: 9.5; Wr: 12.3; Wn: 10.2; Wm: 15.5; On: 8.2; Thw: 0.4-0.8; Wgt: 650.
Find 17:
Find 16: Illustration 3.59, Pot type 1B, Burial 8, Find 17 Carinated globular bowl Type 1B. Hemispherical lower body, truncated conical upper body. Everted direct rim with pointed lip. Light ochre ware. Dark red slip inside rim. Upper body from rim to shoulder (carination) plain but smoothed horizontally with 0.2-0.3 cm-wide tool (spatula, bamboo stick?), resulting in irregular horizontal bands interspersed with traces of cord-marking, meaning presumably that the smoothing was done over the cord-marking. Body below carination cord-marked (5:10), vertically (slightly inclined to right) throughout except for centre of bottom. At left side of pelvis adjacent and partly intermingled with sherds of footed bowl Find 18 under a medium-sized (c. 14x10x6 cm) irregularly shaped lump of limestone, 700 g. Complete, broken vertically into two halves, each one in more than 20 small/medium sherds along circular breaks (indicating steady pressure without a particular impact?). H: 12.4; Hr: 2.5; Hc: 7.9; Wr: 13.4; Wn: 12; Wm: 14.6; Thw: 0.4-0.8; Wgt: 600.
Illustration 3.58, Pot type 4E, Burial 8, Find 16 Footed bowl Type 4E. Truncated conical, slightly convex shallow body. Inturned rim with flattened lip. Truncated conical foot, slightly flaring at base, rounded base. Buff ware Rim outside decorated with an incised-and-pricked decoration consisting of 15 isosceles triangles point up, the baseline being the slight carination marking the beginning of the rim, while the two sides are delimited by incised lines (drawn hastily as they rarely meet at the top). These triangles are filled with deeply poked holes of up to 0.2 cm diameter in an irregular manner varying in number from 9 to 15 per triangle; there are also several such dots outside the triangles. At the top end of the foot, just below the junction with the body, there are two incised somewhat wavy horizontal lines, the interval of which is filled with a single row of c. 30 deeply incised larger dots than those on the rim, up to 0.3 cm diameter and irregularly spaced. Below this, between these horizontal lines and the imaginary line of the slightly everted base, is an irregular wavy line with 5 crests forming as many rounded triangles point up, filled with the same large dots as those between the horizontal lines above, in an irregular way and in numbers ranging from 15 to 19 per wave. This decoration thus conveys haste and carelessness in its execution which may be explained by the necessity to produce burial pottery in a hurry. Found in a disturbed situation intermingled with sherds of globular bowls Finds 14 and 15, lying on its side with opening to SE partly on top and partly underneath these pots. The position suggests that at least one of them was originally inside (on top) of it when it was standing upright on the left side of the head. Almost complete, only the bottom of body missing, i.e. the disk-like part linking foot with body; body above and foot below broken into 6 and 5 medium sherds respectively in a fairly regular pattern. However, a hole on one side (the side on which the pot was lying) of lower body and upper foot seems to indicate the spot where an impact led to the breaking of the pot. H: 9.8; Hr: 1.6; Hf: 3.8; Wr: 14.5; Wm: 15.3; Wtf: 6.3; Wbf: 8.6; ThwB: 0.4-1.4; ThwBb:1-1.6; ThwF: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 430.
Find 18:
Illustration 3.60, Pot type 4Ab, Burial 8, Find 18 Footed bowl Type 4Ab. Large shallow hemispherical dish-like body. Upturned, slightly convex rim with rounded lip. Small foot with slightly everted base, rounded base. Buff ware, buff in break, orange surface. Body inside and outside, foot only outside, smoothed and slightly burnished. At left side of pelvis, adjacent to and sherds partly intermingled with those of globular bowl Find 17 and also under the same medium-sized (14x10x6 cm) heavy (700 g) lump of limestone. Almost complete: only about one-tenth of rim and parts of upper body missing. Broken into c. 10 medium and 30 small sherds in an irregular pattern, indicating a possible point of impact at one side of mid-body. H: 10.3; Hr: 3.3; Hf: 2.4; Wr: 19; Wm: 19.6; Wtf: 6.4; Wbf: 8; ThwB: 0.5-0.9; ThwBb: 0.7-0.8; ThwF: 0.5-0.6; Wgt: ...
139
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 19:
bottom of bowl and entire foot of which the body is broken off in a circular pattern in 15 medium/small sherds. H: 9; Hr: 2.4; Hf: 3.1; Wr: 16.3; Wm: 16.6; Wtf: 7; Wbf: 9.4; ThwB: 0.6-0.9; ThwBb: 0.9; ThwF: 0.5-1.1; Wgt: 460. Find 21:
Illustration 3.61, Pot type 1Ab, Burial 8, Find 19 Globular bowl Type 1Ab. Spherical body. Everted outcurving restricted rim, pointed lip. Orange ware, buff in break. Body cord-marked (3.5-10) vertically with slight inclination to left on top, straight down to bottom, at centre of which it becomes criss-crossed. On left knee of skeleton, upright. Complete, apart from 3 very small sherds at rim; broken in half vertically, each side consisting of one large (about three-quarters of the side) sherd and just a few small ones. H: 12.2; Hr: 2.2; Wr: 13.3; Wn: 11.3; Wm: 13.7; On: 9.4; Thw: 0.4-0.9; Wgt: 700.
Illustration 3.63, Pot type 4H, Burial 8, Find 21 Footed bowl Type 4H. Shallow curved body. Rounded incurving rim, rounded lip. Rounded everted outcurving foot, rounded base. Ochre ware, orange on surface. Body and foot outside burnished (with a spatula-like tool 0.3 cm wide). Inside body smoothed but not burnished, inside foot only roughly smoothed. (The burnishing was clearly done with great care, contrasting with the obvious lack of care in the treatment of at least two of the footed bowls with incised-and-pricked decoration). Upright, slightly tilted to SW, at feet of skeleton. Almost complete (only about one-tenth of wall of mid-body missing), broken into one large central piece comprising the bottom of the bowl with the entire foot attached to it from which the rest of the body is broken off into 4 large and 11 smaller sherds. H: 9.8; Hf: 3.5; Wr: 16.4; Wm: 18.2; Wtf: 8.2; Wbf: 10.5; ThwB: 0.5-1; ThwBb: 0.8-0.9; ThwF: 0.6-1.5; Wgt: 450.
Find 20:
Illustration 3.62, Pot type 4Ea, Burial 8, Find 20 Footed bowl Type 4Ea. Shallow dish-like hemispherical body. Upturned rim with bulbous lip. Truncated conical foot with slightly everted rounded base. Buff ware. Rim outside decorated by 12 isosceles triangles point up, the baseline of which is formed by the carination marking the beginning of the upturned rim (i.e. not incised), while the two sides are delimited by incised lines. These triangles are filled with deeply poked dots of up to 0.2 cm diameter in a not quite regular pattern, varying in number from 29 to 44 (at least in the 7 fully preserved triangles). This decoration is mirrored by that on the foot, consisting of 6 such triangles point down, the upper baseline of which is the angle formed by the the junction of foot and body, while the two sidelines are incised. But this is done again in a seemingly hasty way shown by the awkward insertion of a 7th small triangle filled with only 7 pricked dots, as opposed to the 22 to 28 dots in the other six more or less regular triangles. Body between these two series of incised-and-pricked decorations on rim and foot faintly cord-marked (4.5-10), perhaps intentionally slightly smoothed. Found upside-down, partly under lower part of left femur. Complete except for small part of rim on one side. Broken into one large piece comprising the
Find 22:
Illustration 3.64, Limestone adze, Burial 8, Find 22 Small ground limestone adze. Slightly chipped on sides and surface of butt but no trace of use at cutting edge. Found under globular bowl Find 15 at left side of skull in a disturbed context. H: 3; W: 2.7; Th: 1; Wgt: 10.
140
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Find 23:
Find 25: Fragment of mandible with 5 molars in situ of medium/small mammal. Found lying on top and slightly beyond skull of main skeleton. Association with burial not secure. Find 26: Fragment of mandible with 2 molars in situ of medium/small mammal. Found lying on top of sherds of pots Finds 14 and 15; not part of mandible fragment Find 25. Find 27: Two fragments of mandible(s) each with 2 molars in situ of medium/small mammal plus 2 more detached molars, not necessarily from same animal(s). Found amongst bones of upper body of main skeleton in disturbed situation. Association with burial not secure.
Illustration 3.65, Adze fragment, Burial 8, Find 23 Small (2x1.8 cm) stone adze fragment showing some of the original surface which is finely polished but without sheen. Fine-grained grey-green volcanic rock, uniformly textured. Curvature indicates that the implement must have been comparatively large, i.e. not like the small stone adzes commonly found at this site. Found near right lower tibia. Association with burial not secure.
Find 28: Two fragments of mandible(s) each with one molar in situ of medium/small mammal plus 6 more detached molars, not necessarily from same animal(s). Found lying in the middle of pelvis of main skeleton. Association with burial not secure. Find 29: Two fragments of mandible(s) each with one molar in situ of medium/small mammal plus 5 more detached molars, not necessarily from same animal(s). Found on top and between knees of main skeleton, next to pot Find 19. Association with burial not secure.
Find 24:
Find 30: Lower end bit of phalanx of medium-sized mammal, W: 2.1 cm. Found lying at (SW of) skull of main skeleton. Association with burial not secure. Find 31: Lower end bit of phalanx of medium-sized mammal, broken in half, W: 3.6 cm. Found lying on pelvic region of main skeleton. Association with burial not secure. Find 32: Two pig's incisors (without roots). Found amongst skull fragments of main skeleton. Could be part of a head ornament but association with burial not secure.
Illustration 3.66, Stone artefact, Burial 8, Find 24 Fragment of stone artefact, 3.5x2.2x0.6 cm, showing parts of the original surface of both sides (front and back) which is highly polished to a brilliant gloss. Fine-grained dark green volcanic rock with lighter green-grey markings on surface but not in break. The curvatures of the original surfaces indicate that the artefact must have been quite large and of an unusual shape as both original surfaces (3.3 cm on one and 1 cm on the opposite side of the only up to 0.6 cm thick fragment) are slightly concave. The virtual reconstruction of the shape from these scant data appears almost impossible. Found on left side of left lower tibia, at only about 15 cm distance from fragment Find 23 but cannot have been part of the same artefact. Association with burial not secure.
Find 33: Two small splinters of a rodent's tooth (or a pig's tusk?), the surface-side of which shows pronounced gloss; one 2.5 cm long and up to 0.4 cm wide, the other 1.5 cm long and 0.5 cm wide. Found amongst skull fragments of main skeleton. Could be part of a head ornament but association with burial not secure. Find 34: Fragment of unknown fossilised bone of medium/large mammal, artificially split and with percussion marks. Found amongst bones between skull and pelvic region of main skeleton; exact location could not be recorded and association with burial not secure.
141
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial 9
Found inside footed bowl Find 11, i.e. 20-30 cm beyond presumed position of main skull.
Find 1:
Find 5:
Illustration 3.69, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 5 Footed bowl Type 4G. Truncated conical, slightly hemispherical body. Rounded inverted direct rim, rounded lip. Truncated conical, slightly everted foot, rounded base. Ochre ware, dark brown in break, orange surface. Pot seems to have been burnished inside and outside (surface somewhat eroded and lime-incrusted, outside of foot fully covered by lime-incrustations), inside foot only superficially smoothed. First (i.e. NE-most) in a group of 7 pots beyond head consisting of 6 pots close to skull and this one, about 60 cm distant to NE. Upright. Complete except for one 6x7 cm piece of upper body and rim. Broken into one large piece (bottom of bowl and almost entire foot), 1 large, 12 medium and 10 small sherds, the latter mainly on the side of the pot towards the gap between it and the other 6 pots near head, suggesting an impact which may have something to do with the existence of this gap. It is also possible that the gap was intentional or occasioned by natural agents. H: 12.5; Hf: 3.4; Wr: 19.5; Wm: 20; Wtf: 7; Wbf: 10.5; ThwB: 0.6-0.9; ThwBb: 0.9-1; ThwF: 0.5-1; Wgt: 700.
(full size) Illustration 3.67, Stone bracelet part, Burial 9, Find 1 Fragment of a stone bracelet. Grey volcanic stone (almost like pumice but heavier), very weathered. Length of segment 5 cm, width 1 cm, thickness up to 0.7 cm, triangular (slightly ogival) cross-section, point to outside. Inner diameter 5.4 cm. Weight 5 g (entire bracelet thus c. 16 g). Found about 90 cm SW of where right wrist of main skeleton would have been, about 30 cm higher, next to a big root, in soil {4}.
Find 2:
(full size) Illustration 3.68, Stone bracelet part, Burial 9, Find 2
Find 6:
Fragment of a stone bracelet. Dark grey-brownish medium fine-grained rock. Length of segment 2 cm, width 1.2 cm, thickness up to 0.3 cm, triangular cross-section, point outside. Inner diameter 3.6 cm (far too small for an adult). Weight 1 g. Found about 60 cm SW of where right wrist of main skeleton would have been, at the level of top of pots in soil {5}. Illustration 3.70, Pot type 1Ca, Burial 9, Find 6
Find 3: Two shell disk-beads. One of Type b (0.5 cm diameter, 0.2 cm thick, hole of 0.15 cm), the other of Type a (0.35 cm diameter, very thin with a hole of not quite 0.1 cm). Found at about 30 cm W of presumed position of skull of main skeleton, about 10 cm higher, in soil {4}.
Large globular bowl Type 1Ca. Almost spherical body. Flaring rim with pointed lip. Ochre ware. Raised band on shoulder with vertical incisions at 0.3 cm intervals. Rim inside and outside and upper body down to raised band covered with dark red slip. Smoothed band of 1 cm with some incised horizontal grooves below raised band. Body below this finely (5:10) vertically cord-marked. First (i.e. NE-most) in a group of 6 tightly packed
Find 4: A shell disk-bead Type b (0.5 cm diameter, 0.2 cm thick, hole of 0.1 cm).
142
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) pots (after the very first, Find 5) in two rows of three beyond head. Upright. Complete, broken into numerous medium and small sherds without a discernible pattern. H: 16.5; Hr: 2; Hc: 12; Wr: 13; Wm: 18.2; On: 8.8; Thw: 0.5-1; Wgt: 800.
Third (from NE) in a tightly packed group of six pots beyond head. Upright. About five-sixths complete: small part of one side of body missing. Broken in one large piece (bottom of bowl together with entire foot) and 22 small sherds all around body. H: 10; Hr: 2; Hf: 2.4; Wr: 14.4; Wm/c: 15; Wtf: 7.5; Wbf: 9.6; ThwB: 0.6-1.1; ThwBb: 0.9-1; ThwF: 0.4-0.9; Wgt: 475.
Find 7:
Find 9: Illustration 3.71, Pot type 4Aa, Burial 9, Find 7 Footed bowl Type 4Aa. Reversed bell-shaped body. Incurving simple rim with outcurving rounded lip. Slightly convex truncated conical foot with flaring base. Ochre ware, brown in break, orange surface. Plain. Body inside and outside and foot outside smoothed without signs of having been burnished but probably polished. Second (from NE) in a tightly packed group of six pots beyond head. Upright. Only about one-half preserved, i.e. about one-third of pot from rim to foot plus almost all of rim on the other side. Broken into numerous small sherds; foot broken off bottom of body. One sherd belonging to this pot and fitting to the preserved one-third of it, was found more than 1 m distant (to SW) and over 10 cm higher than pot itself (= Find 7a). H: 11; Hf: 3; Wr: 16.2; Wm: 16.8; Wtf: 7; Wbf: 10; ThwB: 0.5-1; ThwBb: 0.7-0.8; ThwF: 0.5-1; Wgt: 350.
Illustration 3.73, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 9 Footed bowl Type 4G. Hemispherical body. Direct rim with flattened top. Steep, almost cylindrical, slightly convex (outside only) foot with rounded base. Ochre ware, dark brown in break, orange surface. Plain. Body inside and outside and foot outside coated with orange slip and probably polished. Fourth (from NE) in a tightly packed group of six pots beyond head. Upright. Complete except for bottom of body (being also the top of foot). Body broken into 5 medium sherds, making up about four-fifths of circumference, while the last fifth is broken into a great number of small sherds, denoting an impact from SE, i.e. the "outside" as seen from the block of six pots; foot broken in four sherds: one-half, one-quarter and 2x one-eighth, the latter also on SE-side. H: 10.3; Hf: 3; Wr: 14.1; Wm: 14.2; Wtf: 6.8; Wbf: 8.4; ThwB: 0.7-1.2; ThwBb: 0.8-1.2; ThwF: 0.6-1; Wgt: 460.
Find 7a: Potsherd, c. 7x5 cm (including 3 cm rim), 33 g. Plain, smoothed inside and outside. Ochre ware, brown in break, orange surface. Fitting perfectly to remains (body and rim) of Footed bowl Find 7 but found over 1m distant (to SW) and over 10 cm higher than the highest part of that pot.
Find 10:
Find 8:
Illustration 3.72, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 8 Footed bowl Type 4G. Hemispherical body with slight carination (outside only), marking beginning of tapering of direct rim. Wide, slightly convex (outside only) truncated conical foot. Ochre ware, dark brown in break. Plain. Body inside and outside and foot outside smoothed without signs of having been burnished.
Illustration 3.74, Pot type 1Ab, Burial 9, Find 10 Globular bowl Type 1Ab. Spherical body. Flaring rim with pointed lip. Buff ware. Rim plain. Body from 0.5 cm below rim downward finely (6:10) vertically cord-marked.
143
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Fifth (from NE) in a tightly packed group of six pots beyond head. Upright. Only upper half of body and a 3.5 cm piece of rim preserved, broken into 12 medium and several small sherds with horizontal breakage-lines indicating pressure from above, except for the NW-side, i.e. the "outside" as seen from the block of six pots, where the smallest sherds indicate an impact. H (approximate only because of missing bottom): 13.5; Hr: 1.8; Wr: 12; Wn: 10; Wm: 14.5; On: 8.5; Thw: 0.4-0.6; Wgt: 300.
one other large sherd (about one-third of body, including rim) and 10 medium sherds accounting for the other two-thirds. The missing part of rim and upper body on NE-side, i.e. towards skull, displaying old breaks, is probably the result of an impact which may be linked to the disappearance or dispersal of the skull(s). H: 11.5; Hr: 1.5; Hf: 3.6; Wr: 18.5; Wm/c: 18.9; Wtf: 8.4; Wbf: 11.6; ThwB: 0.5-0.9; ThwBb: 1; ThwF: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 680.
Find 11:
Find 13:
Illustration 3.75, Pot type 4A, Burial 9, Find 11 Illustration 3.77, Pot type 1C, Burial 9, Find 13
Footed bowl Type 4A. Hemispherical body. Direct rim rounded on top. Wide truncated conical foot, slightly convex on outside. Ochre ware, dark brown in break, orange surface. Plain. Body inside and outside and foot outside coated with orange slip and probably polished. Last (from NE, i.e. nearest to head) in a tightly packed group of six pots beyond head. Upright. Distance from presumed position of main skull only about 10 cm; pot may have been put directly at head. Complete except for 3 small sherds, broken into one large piece (foot and bottom of bowl) and 20 medium and small sherds, evenly distributed around body. A small dent at base of foot (old break) could perhaps denote an impact. H: 11.5; Hf: 3.8; Wr: 17.8; Wm: 18.1; Wtf: 8.4; Wbf: 11.5; ThwB: 0.4-0.8; ThwBb: 0.5; ThwF: 0.6-0.9; Wgt: 500.
Globular bowl Type 1C. Spherical body. Flaring rim with pointed lip. Ochre ware. Raised horizontal band on shoulder. Rim inside and outside and upper body down to raised band covered in dark red slip. Body below raised band finely (7:10) vertically cordmarked. Upright inside (i.e. on top of) footed bowl Find 12, on upper chest. Complete except for several small sherds (together not more than about one-tenth of entire pot). Broken into 3 large sherds on one side and 25 smaller ones on other sides and bottom. H: 12; Hr: 1.6; Hc: 8.8; Wr: 10.4; Wn: 8.8; Wc: 12.4; Wm: 13.8; On: 7.4; Thw: 0.3-0.6; Wgt: 440. Find 14:
Find 12:
Illustration 3.78, Pot type 4D, Burial 9, Find 14
llustration 3.76, Pot type 4A, Burial 9, Find 12
Footed bowl Type 4D. Shallow body, hemispherical inside but with rounded carination outside, marking the beginning of a slightly concave rim with pointed lip. Flaring foot with concave walls. Light ochre ware. Smoothed throughout (except inside foot) and probably burnished. Incised-and-pricked decoration on rim and foot consisting of (on rim) an irregular wavy line with 9 crests, above which there are up to 6 horizontal lines of incised/pricked elongated dots filling the space between the wavy line and the top of the rim. There are about 80 of these dots in the top
Footed bowl Type 4A. Hemispherical body. Almost direct rim (slight carination at outside denoting beginning of rim; no sign of this inside). Straight truncated conical foot. Brownish-ochre ware, dark grey-brown in break, light orange surface, Plain. Body inside and outside and foot outside coated with orange (?) slip and lightly polished. On upper chest next to neck. Upright. Complete except for one small rim-piece (1x6 cm) and adjacent upper body wall sherd (1.5x3 cm). Broken into one large piece (foot and bottom of bowl),
144
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) line. The decoration on the lower foot mirrors that on the rim inasmuch as there is another irregular wavy line with only 4 crests, below which there are the same lines of elongated dots filling out the space between this incised line and the base of the foot. On the upper part of the foot, just below the ankle, a smaller decorative ensemble uses the same elements again: two slightly undulating horizontal lines, 1.5 cm apart, with 4 lines of elongated dots in between. An interesting observation concerning the incised-and-pricked decoration of this pot is that each line and each dot seem to be applied with great care in spite of obvious irregularities/idiosyncrasies leading to the conclusion that they may well have been deliberate and not, as in some other cases, the result of haste. On abdomen or pelvis of presumed skeleton. Upright, slightly tilted to NE. Complete except for two small sherds. Broken regularly into many medium and smaller sherds without signs of an impact; foot broken off bottom of bowl. H: 13.6; Hr: 2.5; Hf: 5; Wr: 17.8; Wm: 18.7; Wtf: 6; Wbf: 12; ThwB: 0.5-1.2; ThwBb: 1.3; ThwF: 0.5-1.8; Wgt: 850.
Find 16:
Illustration 3.80, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 16 Foot of a footed bowl Type 4G. Inside straight truncated conical, outside slightly convex. Orange ware, dark brown in break. Plain. Outside smoothed or perhaps burnished. Situated under, slightly to SE of, footed bowl Find 14 but original position relative to it is difficult to assess because of root disturbance; possibly on "left lower arm", as opposed to "abdomen or pelvis" for Finds 14 and 15. Entire and in one piece; foot partly broken off bottom of bowl (of which a 2x4 cm part is preserved) and partly one with it. Hf: 3; Wtf: 8; Wbf: 10; ThwF: 0.7-0.8; Wgt: 150.
Find 17: Find 15:
Illustration 3.81, Pot type 4A, Burial 9, Find 17 Footed bowl Type 4A. Body inside hemispherical outside slight carination at beginning of rim. Rounded lip. Foot truncated conical. Orange-ochre ware, grey in break. Plain. Outside body and foot and inside body smoothed and covered with a dark brown slip polished to a sheen, leaving the original orange-ochre colour visible inside the foot. Small incised horizontal groove 0.5 cm below lip, on outside. Found upside-down, foot tilted to NE, on "upper legs" or "knees". As there are two small pots (Finds 18 and 19) underneath the footed bowl, it seems likely that this was its original position. Complete except for a 6x8 cm part of body and some small sherds of foot, together not more than one-tenth of pot. Broken into three large pieces (foot and bottom of bowl, and two large parts of body) and 12 medium and smaller sherds. Impact probably where the large body sherd and the small sherds of foot are missing, i.e. on upper side. H: 10.8; Hr: 1.6; Hf: 3.2; Wr: 18.2; Wm: 18.4; Wtf: 8.5; Wbf: 11.2; ThwB: 0.4-0.7; ThwBb: 0.6-0.9; ThwF: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 650.
Illustration 3.79, Pot type 1Aa, Burial 9, Find 15 Large globular bowl Type 1Aa. Spherical, very slightly pear-shaped body. Flaring rim pointed lip. Ochre ware. Rim inside and outside and upper body to 3 cm below rim covered with dark red slip. From 3 cm below rim downward body finely (6:10) vertically cord-marked. Found standing upright on a 10 cm thick root above footed bowl Find 14. It is assumed that originally the pot had been standing inside (i.e. on top of) this footed bowl and that the root, growing between the two, lifted it up to the position it was found in, with its rim at about 30 cm b.s. Almost complete; only an approx. 6x8 cm large part of mid-body missing. Broken fairly regularly into numerous medium and small sherds, the smallest of which are concentrated on the side (E) where the body part is missing and seem to indicate an impact here. H: 16.6; Hr: 2; Wr: 13.6; Wn: 11.3; Wm: 19.6; On: 9.6; Thw: 0.4-0.8; Wgt: 930. 145
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 18:
Body broken into 7 medium and some very small sherds, foot broken into one big piece consisting of half the foot and the bottom of bowl, other half broken into 6 small sherds. H: 10.5; Hf: 3; Wr/m: 15.5; Wtf: 6.2; Wbf: 8.4; ThwB: 0.5-0.8; ThwBb: 0.8; ThwF: 0.7; Wgt: 450.
Illustration 3.82, Pot type 3C, Burial 9, Find 18
Find 21:
Small globular bowl Type 3C. Spherical body. Inverted direct rim, rounded lip. Ochre ware. Rim outside covered with dark red slip to 1 cm below lip. Body from there on downward coarsely (4:10) cord-marked, vertically on top, slightly right-leaning further down. Found under upside-down footed bowl Find 17, on "upper legs" or "knees" of main skeleton. Almost complete, small pieces of rim and bottom missing. Broken into 15 medium sherds. H: 9.5; Wr: 10.5; Wm: 12.6; Thw: 0.4-0.9; Wgt: 340.
Illustration 3.85, Pot type 4Aa, Burial 9, Find 21 Footed bowl Type 4Aa. Body hemispherical inside, rounded carination to mark beginning of rim and slight convexity of outside rim. Foot truncated conical, slightly outcurving base. Ochre ware, dark brown in break, orange surface. Plain. Coated with orange slip and polished throughout except inside foot. Situated next to footed bowl Find 20 on "lower left leg" or on "feet" of main skeleton. Also upright but the SE (outside) half of body broken off, leaving only the remaining part of the pot, including the foot, in situ. Almost complete except for about one-sixth of body wall above foot missing. Foot and bottom of bowl in one piece, remainder of body wall broken into 18 medium and small sherds. H: 11.5; Hr: 2.8; Hf: 3; Wr: 16.5; Wm: 16.9; Wtf: 7.2; Wbf: 9.7; ThwB: 0.6-1.2; ThwBb: 0.9-1.1; ThwF: 0.6-1; Wgt: 520.
Find 19:
Illustration 3.83, Pot type 3E, Burial 9, Find 19 Shallow dish-like bowl Type 3E. Hemispherical shallow body. Direct rim, slightly pointed top. Crudely shaped by hand. Ochre ware. Plain. Inside smoothed superficially with a small tool (spatula?). Horizontal striations outside rim. Found together with small globular bowl Find 18 under upside-down footed bowl Find 17, on "upper legs" or "knees" of main skeleton. Complete. Broken into 22 small sherds in such a way ("spider-web" pattern) that a point of impact in the centre of bottom must be assumed. H: 4.1; Wr/m: 12.6; Thw: 0.4-0.7; Wgt: 210.
Find 22:
Find 20:
Illustration 3.86, Pot type 4C, Burial 9, Find 22 Illustration 3.84, Pot type 4G, Burial 9, Find 20
Large footed bowl Type 4C. Body hemispherical inside, very slightly incurving rim outside. Flaring truncated conical foot. Ochre ware, darker in break, orange surface. Plain. Coated with orange slip and polished throughout except inside foot. Situated seemingly beyond (SW of) "right foot" of main skeleton. Upright. Complete except for a 3x9 cm gap on one side. Body broken into 10 large and 20 small sherds, the latter being concentrated at the bottom of bowl
Footed bowl Type 4G. Hemispherical body. Direct rim, rounded on top. Truncated conical foot, rounded base. Ochre ware with orange tinge, dark brown in break. Plain. Smoothed and lightly polished (?) throughout, except inside foot. On "lower right leg" or on "feet" of main skeleton. Upright. Almost complete; small part of body missing (not more than one-tenth of entire pot), foot complete.
146
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) (impact?). Foot broken off body into 6 medium sherds. The pot being slightly asymmetrical and lopsided, some of the following measurements are only approximate. H: 11.7; Hf: 2.3; Wr: 21.2; Wm: 22; Wtf: 8.6; Wbf: 10.9; ThwB: 0.4-0.8; ThwBb: 0.4-0.5; ThwF: 0.7; Wgt: 680.
filled with up to six irregular horizontal lines of pricked oval dots of about 0.3 cm length. On the lower half of foot the rim-motif is repeated inasmuch as a crudely incised horizontal line at mid-foot acts as the equivalent of the top of rim, below which there is an irregular wavy line with 9 crests, the troughs being based on a virtual line just above the base of foot. The space between the horizontal and the wavy line is filled with the same elongated dots which are here arranged in up to 6 diagonal lines (left side up). On the upper part of foot there are two horizontal lines 1-1.5 cm apart but so coarse and carelessly done that it is impossible to say whether they are meant to be straight or wavy. The interval is filled with the same dots again, arranged in 2-3 irregular more or less horizontal lines. Situated beyond (SW of) "left foot" of main skeleton. Upright. Complete except for 3 very small sherds of body and a 1x4 cm part of base of foot. Body broken into 6 large and 10 small sherds, the latter at the bottom. Foot added to body and broken off it into 6 medium sherds. H: 12; Hr: 2; Hf: 5; Wr/m: 17.5; Wtf: 6; Wbf: 10.2; ThwB: 0.4-0.8; ThwBb: 0.7-0.9; ThwF: 0.5-0.9; Wgt: 680.
Find 23:
Illustration 3.87, Pot type 4A, Burial 9, Find 23 Footed bowl Type 4A. Body hemispherical inside, slight soft carination outside. Very slightly incurving rim, rounded lip. Concave foot. Ochre ware, dark brown in break, orange surface. Plain. Coated with orange slip and polished throughout except inside foot. Inside (on top of) large footed bowl Find 22, beyond (SW of) "right foot" of main skeleton. Upright inside the bowl of Find 22 into which it fitted quite snugly. Complete, broken into one large piece consisting of more than half the pot (entire foot, the bottom and half the wall of the bowl), while the other part was broken into 10 medium and small sherds; this smaller part was clearly broken off the bigger one but the manner in which this occurred remains unknown. H: 10.5; Hf: 3.5; Wr: 16.5; Wm: 17; Wtf: 7; Wbf: 9.4; ThwB: 0.5-0.9; ThwBb: 0.8-0.9; ThwF: 0.5-1.2; Wgt: 450.
Find 25:
Illustration 3.89, Pot type 4Aa, Burial 9, Find 25 Find 24:
Footed bowl Type 4Aa. Body inside hemispherical, small soft carination outside to mark the beginning of short upturned rim. Rounded lip. Flaring foot with rounded base. Ochre ware, darker in break. Plain. Body inside and outside, foot only outside, coated with orange slip and polished. A fine incised horizontal groove, 0.3 cm below top of the lip, separates it from the rim as such. Last of three pots beyond (SW of) "feet" of main skeleton. Disturbed situation (two rim-sherds of this pot, together 6 cm long, were found inside medium globular bowl Find 2, itself in situ, of The Unclassifiable Burial, 1.5 m to ESE of this Find 25, showing the direction in which objects have been transported, presumably by flood waters). Complete except for some small wall- and rim-sherds. Body broken into 30 small sherds, foot broken into 16 small sherds, 6 of which were of the bottom of bowl with which the foot formed one piece. H: 10.5; Hr: 1; Hf: 3.5; Wr: 17.7; Wc/m: 18.5; Wtf: 7; Wbf: 10.7; ThwB: 0.4-0.6; ThwBb: 0.5-0.6; ThwF: 0.5-0.7; Wgt: 450.
Illustration 3.88, Pot type 4D, Burial 9, Find 24 Footed bowl Type 4D. Body inside hemispherical with short upturned rim; soft rounded carination outside, marking the beginning of the upturned and slightly convex rim and a somewhat S-shaped wall (i.e. concave-convex-concave). Rim flattened on top. Top part of foot cylindrical, lower part S-shaped, mirroring body wall. Base of foot rounded. Ochre ware, dark ochre in break. Incised-and-pricked decoration on rim and foot, consisting of (on rim) an irregular wavy line with 11 crests, the troughs being based on the imaginary line of the carination and the space between the wavy line and the top of rim being
147
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 26:
(full size) Illustration 3.90, Small adze, Burial 9, Find 26 Small adze made of greenstone, polished. Entire except that a small part of the butt is broken off. Surface chipped at places, including the cutting edge (traces of use?).
Found at foot of footed bowl Find 5, towards skeleton. H: 4.5; W: 2.6; Th: 1; Wgt: 20.
Find 27:
(full size) Illustration 3.91, Greenstone fragments, Burial 9, Find 27 Two fragments of (probably) two different but similar greenstone adzes of relatively large size (presumably about 6 cm long and 4 cm wide), with finely polished surface. Found under, or near the lowest part of, globular bowl Find 10, on the side towards footed bowl Find 11, in disturbed context. As the bottom half of this pot is missing, it is impossible to ascertain the origin of these stone adze fragments nor the nature of their association with the burial. Both fragments are triangular, 3x2x3.7 cm and 3x1,5x3.5 cm, and 0.8 and 1 cm thick respectively.
Found under footed bowl Find 5 (i.e. NE-most in a group of 7 pots beyond head), near rim towards skeleton. Find 29: Tubular object of worked antler (large/medium cervidae). Slightly oval cross-section. Artificially cut, one end absolutely flat, the other in an irregular fashion to achieve a pointed and crenelated rim. Outside surface smoothed or polished. (See Appendix F for image). Length: 5.1 cm; outer diameter: 2.6-3.2 cm; inner diameter: 1.3-2.1 cm; wall thickness: 0.5-0.7; weight: 31 g. Found next to (NW of) globular bowl Find 10 (i.e. about 20 cm N of skull), lying almost horizontally on same level, together with a fragment of a similar object (Find 30).
Find 28: Tubular object of worked antler (large/medium cervidae). Slightly oval cross-section. Artificially cut, one end flat, the other rounded. Outside surface polished; some scratch-marks. About one-fifth of tube missing (longitudinally). (See Appendix F for image). Length: 4.1 cm; outer diameter: 2.7-2.8 cm; inner diameter: 1.3-1.5 cm; wall thickness: 0.5-0.7 cm; weight: 19 g (entire object thus c. 25 g).
Burial 10 Find 1: Two shell disk-beads Type b, found together with fragments of left tibia (possibly remnants of a leg ornament). Association with skeleton not secure.
148
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Burial 10a Find 1:
(full size) Illustration 3.92, Conical shell disk, Burial 10a, Find 1 A conical shell disk (made from the upper part of a Conus shell, very probably Conus generalis), with central hole. Broken into one large and 3 smaller fragments; about one-fifth of disk missing (part of rim). Height: 1.5 cm; diameter: 6 cm; diameter of central hole: 0.4 cm; weight: 20 g. Found together with 13 teeth and skull fragments of a c. 4 years old child. Evidently part of a personal adornment at head, neck or on upper chest.
Found together with 13 teeth and skull fragments of a c. 4 years old child. Almost certainly part of a personal adornment at head or neck. NB: the only other such Oliva shell beads found in KC IV were 4 inside Pot "G", F4, together with 6 disk-beads Type d. Find 3:
Find 2:
(full size) Illustration 3.94, Stone bracelet fragment, Burial 10a, Find 3 Fragment of a stone bracelet. Grey-brown fine-grained rock with lighter yellowish marbling. Finely polished on both sides. Inner diameter: 3.8 cm (i.e. likely to be a child's bracelet). Weight of 2.5 cm long fragment: 3 g (entire bracelet: c. 24 g). Found mixed with lower body or bottom sherds of Pot "C" in W-corner of cutting, about 20 cm NW of skull fragments and Finds 1 and 2. Association with "burial" not secure.
(full size) Illustration 3.93, Five Olivia sp. shells, Burial 10a, Find 2 Five small elongated shells (Oliva sp.), one broken, with a hole at both ends, obviously used as beads or otherwise as parts of a personal adornment. Length: up to 2 cm; diameter: up to 0.8 cm.
149
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 4:
up) without any cross-cording at all. Lower end of cord-marking shows some fine horizontal striations. Foot plain but smoothed, outside more carefully than inside. In E-corner of cutting, about half-way between Pots "A" and "B" but well above them, i.e. at 60-70 cm ins unexplained). H: c. 14.5; Hf: c. 5.5; Wr: 19; Wm: 20; Wtf: 6.2; Wbf: 12.3; ThwB: 0.7-1.2; ThwBb: >1; ThwF: 0.6-1.1; Wgt: 600.
(Full size) Illustration 3.95 Metacarpal shaft fragment, Burial 10a, Find 4 Adult human metacarpal shaft fragment, possibly worked. Was found amongst the skull fragments and teeth of the child and could have been a part of this child's personal adornment at head/neck/upper chest. Association with "burial" not secure.
Find 2: This is a virtual find only in the sense that the pot had been seen and photographed in a baulk ("N"-baulk of F3, 60-85 cm from "E", 80-60 cm b.s., in pit filled with {5}, sealed by{4}) but could not be excavated although its association with Burial 13 can be considered beyond doubt. It follows that, while some data concerning this find are relatively reliable, others could obviously only be guessed (= c.) or are simply unknown (= ?). Footed bowl Type 4A. Body c. hemispherical. Rim? Foot straight truncated conical. Ochre ware. Decoration ? (presumably plain). Lying on its side with opening of its foot to SW (opening of bowl to NE). Apparently fairly complete but breakage pattern ? (presumably mainly large and medium sherds; foot seems in one piece). H: c. 17; Hf: c. 6; Wr/m: c. 25; Wtf: c. 8; Wbf: c. 12; Thw: ?; Wgt: ?
Burial 11 There were no finds securely associated with this burial. Burial 11a There were no finds securely associated with this burial. Burial 12
Find 3: Fragment of a tubular object of worked antler (large cervidae). Slightly oval cross-section. One end artificially cut and smoothed, the other broken. Outside surface polished. (See Appendix F for image). Length: 4 cm; outer diameter: c. 3.2 cm; inner diameter: 2 cm; wall thickness: 0.5-0.6 cm; width of longitudinal fragment: 2-2.5 cm (i.e. not quite one-quarter of entire tube). Was amongst the human bone fragments of Burial 13 found in baulk between F3 and E3 at 70 cm b.s. in {5} but in disturbed context (mixed with sherds of ceramic burial dug immediately next to the human burial). Could have been part of a tool or a ritual object. Association with burial not secure.
There were no finds securely associated with this burial. Burial 13 Find 1:
Burial 14
Illustration 3.96, Pot type 4Ja, Burial 13, Find 1
Find 1:
Footed bowl Type 4Ja. Funnel-shaped body. Vertical incurving rim, top slightly inverted, rounded lip. Foot concave flaring. Ochre ware. Body inside, lip and outside rim to about 1 cm below lip coated with dark grey-ochre slip and burnished. Body below, for about 2 cm, smoothed by horizontal circular motion leaving fine horizontal striations. Below this, to about 1.5 cm above ankle, body is medium coarsely (4:10) but regularly cord-marked in a diagonal pattern (left side
Illustration 3.97, Pot type 1Ba, Burial 14, Find 1
150
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Globular bowl Type 1Ba. Body inside flattened spherical, outside with slight carination at shoulder. Flaring rim, rounded lip. Ochre ware. Inside rim shows traces of dark red slip, outside rim plain. Body from base of rim down finely (5:10) cord-marked, vertically (very slight inclination to right) and regularly. Five narrow horizontal smoothed bands (over cord-marking) on shoulder, the uppermost at beginning of rim, the lowest on carination and the other three at regular distances in between; lowest band covered with dark red slip. Upright, slightly to left beyond skull. About nine-tenths complete, only about half the rim and a small portion of adjacent upper body on one side missing. Broken into 12 medium and 12 small sherds between in a circular fashion, suggesting steady pressure from above. H: 11.8; Hr: 1.8; Hc/s: 8; Wr: 17; Wn: 14.8; Wm: 17.8; On: 13.2; Thw: 0.3-0.7; Wgt: 510.
ring-foot finely (6:10) but irregularly cord-marked. Rest of pot plain but smoothed. Upright, at right temple of skull. Almost complete, only the thin central part of bottom inside ring-foot and one medium sherd next to ring-foot missing. Body broken into 2 large and a number of smaller sherds in a circular fashion (especially lower body above ring-foot), suggesting steady pressure from above. H: 10; Hr: 1.6; Hf: 1.2; Wr: 10.8; Wn: 10; Wm: 12.9; On: 8.4; Wtf: 7.9; Wbf: 8.5; ThwB: 0.5-0.9; ThwBb: 0.2-0.4; ThwF: 0.4-1.2; Wgt: 460.
Burial 15 Find 1: 340 shell disk-beads Type a, found in four distinct clusters on the upper body: one on each shoulder, one on the upper part of the sternum, and the largest cluster on its lower end, i.e. the centre of the chest. Some beads are still stuck together showing that originally these beads (or part of them) must have been on a string.
Find 2:
Find 2: Nine shell disk-beads Type a, found above pelvic region; they could be stray finds from the adornments on head and upper body or remnants of a separate adornment.
Illustration 3.98 Pot type 2A, Burial 14, Find 2
Find 3: Three canine teeth (medium-sized canine), two directly at the skull and one on the chest, could be considered as part of personal adornments.
Small globular bowl with ring-foot Type 2A. Body slightly flattened spherical. Rim only slightly everted (almost vertical), rounded lip. Ring-foot everted, rounded base, worked out of lower body. Ochre ware. Body from a little below mid-body down to top of Find 4:
(full size) Illustration 3.99, Artificially rounded piece of shell, Burial 15, Find 4 A seemingly artificially rounded piece of a cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shell, slightly oval, c. 4x5 cm. Found at "right ankle" of skeleton. May have been the
remnant of a personal adornment (anklet?). Perhaps not in situ; association with burial not secure.
151
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Find 5:
(full size) Illustration 3.100, Stone adze, Burial 15, Find 5 medium sherds; a ring of small sherds between body and foot seem to indicate that it was steady compacting pressure from above which caused the pot to break while the root growing through it eventually made it assume the position in which it was found. Pot "A" was very probably originally standing in an upright position with Pot "B" on top and in it. (NB: this is the only Type 1A pot in Khok Charoen). H: 12.3; Hr: 2.6; Hf: 4; Wr/m: 19.2; Wc: 19; Wtf: 7.2; Wbf: 10.7; ThwB: 0.4-0.9; ThwBb: 0.6-1; ThwF: 0.6-0.8; Wgt: 680.
Shouldered adze of layered grey-whitish stone (calcite or hard limestone?). Finely worked with very smooth surface but not polished; sharp edges: apparently unused. Some lime incrustations on one side. L: 5.9; W: 2.4; Th: 1.7; Wgt: 33. Found at right tibia but perhaps not in situ; association with burial not secure. The Unclassifiable Burial Find 1:
Find 2:
Illustration 3.101, Pot type 4A, Unclassifiable burial, Find 1
Illustration 3.102, Pot type 1A, Unclassifiable burial, Find 2
(xPot "A") Footed bowl Type 4A. Hemispherical body inside, with soft carination outside denoting beginning of rim. Upturned direct rim, rounded on top. Slightly convex foot with rounded base. Ochre ware, orange surface inside and outside; darker in break. Plain but burnished inside and outside except inside foot. The pot was found lying on its side, bowl open to NE, top traversed by a large root and with the next pot (Find 2, a small globular bowl) half inside it, at 36-56 cm b.s. Almost complete except for some small wall-sherds. Foot in one piece, including bottom of body. Upper part of body broken ito two large and 6
(xPot "B") Small globular bowl Type 1A. Spherical body with slight carination. Everted straight restricted rim, slightly flattened on top. Buff ware, dark in break, orange surface. Plain surface throughout, outside lightly burnished (?). Found upright, partly inside the bowl of footed bowl pot "A" next to (SW of) it which seems to have been pushed onto its side by a large root. This Pot "B" was therefore most likely originally positioned on top and inside Pot "A", standing upright. Complete except for a 5 cm piece of rim missing. Broken into about 30 medium and small sherds in an irregular pattern with no visible point of impact. Two 152
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) rim-sherds of pot Find 25 of Burial 9, together 6 cm long, were found on top of it. H: 10.5; Hr: 1.5; Hc: 7.5; Wr: 10.5; Wn: 9.6; Wc: 12.6; Wm: 13.1; On: 8.2; Thw: 0.4-0.5; Wgt: 440.
H: 9.1; Hr: 2; Hc: 7; Wr: 12.3; Wn: 10.2; Wc: 11; Wm: 12.8; On: 9; Thw: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 280. Find 5:
Find 3:
Illustration 3.105, Pot type 4A, Unclassifiable burial, Find 5
Illustration 3.103, Pot type 1Ea, Unclassifiable burial, Find 3
(xPot "E") Footed bowl Type 4A. Almost hemispherical body. Vertical direct rim, rounded on top. Large truncated conical foot, rounded base. Ochre ware, darker in break. Plain but smoothed (burnished?) inside and outside, except inside foot. Found upright, second in the second row of three pots stretching SW-NE. 50-65 cm b.s. Almost complete, broken into foot (complete and in one piece) and 12 medium to large body sherds. Although found together, perfectly fitting and apparently in situ, body and foot are quite different in colour and weathering: whereas the body is ochre in colour and free of lime incrustations, the foot is light grey and covered in lime incrustations; this dissimilarity is particularly visible at the line of fracture between foot and body and may be linked to water-induced perturbations in this area. H: 14.8; Hf: 5; Wr: 21; Wm: 21.2; Wtf: 8.1; Wbf: 13.4; ThwB: 0.8-1.1; ThwBb: 0.8-1; ThwF: 0.6-1.5; Wgt: 1,360.
(xPot "C") Large globular bowl of unknown type and shape (possibly Type 1Ea?). Buff ware. Lower body including bottom cord-marked; upper body including rim missing. Third in this group of 3 pots. Found upright but thoroughly flattened, with Pot "B" having apparently fallen on top of it while still being partly inside footed bowl Pot "A" lying on its side; Pot "C" must thus have been standing upright next to Pot "A", at 50-55 cm b.s. Very fragmentary and not restorable. Only about one-quarter of body preserved, broken into small and medium sherds. The reason for the disappearance of the greater part of this large pot was most probably a disturbance before Pot "B" fell on top of it, as this small and light bowl could not have caused such damage. The only measurement available is Wm: c. 25. Find 4:
Find 6:
Illustration 3.104, Pot type 1Bb, Unclassifiable burial, Find 4 Illustration 3.106, Pot type 4G, Unclassifiable burial, Find 6
(xPot "D") Small globular bowl Type 1Bb. Slightly flattened spherical body. Narrow, almost horizontal shoulder; everted, outcurving, restricted rim flattened on top so as to form an everted rounded lip. Ochre ware with orange surface; large dark patches. Rim and small shoulder-platform plain, body below shoulder/carination finely (5.5:10) vertically cord-marked. Found upright, missing side to SE, first in a row of three pots stretching SW-NE. 60-65 cm b.s. About one half preserved, as if neatly cut from top to bottom, broken fairly regularly into about 20 medium sherds.
(xPot "F") Footed bowl Type 4G. Truncated conical body. Curved vertical direct rim, flattened on top; shallow horizontal groove inside rim at 3 mm below top. Convex flaring foot with outcurving base, rounded at end. Orange ware, dark brown in break, fine magnetite grains in paste. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Found upright as last in a row of three pots stretching SW-NE. Base of foot at 65 cm b.s.
153
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Top part of vessel very disturbed (only about one-fifth of body preserved, including about one-quarter of rim), broken into 2 medium and 9 small sherds; foot complete and in one piece including bottom of bowl. Most likely the disturbance which took away much of the pot was the same that affected the neighbouring Pot "E" when pots of this cluster were exposed. H: 11.5; Hf: 3; Wr: 16; Wm: 16.2; Wtf: 6.3; Wbf: 11.4; ThwB: 0.4-0.6; ThwBb: 0.6-1.1; ThwF: 0.4-0.7; Wgt: 200.
child, buried with orientation head-to-SW (the step being the head-rest) and having six pots as burial gifts, all upright: Pot "A" (a large footed bowl) containing Pot "B" (a small plain globular bowl) 60 cm beyond head and Pot "C" (a large cord-marked globular bowl) next to head, and Pots "D" (a small cord-marked globular bowl), "E" (a large footed bowl) and "F" (a small footed bowl) beyond feet, in that order. Relatively shortly after the burial, i.e. at a time when the corpse had not yet been reduced to a skeleton, this trench was disturbed in such a way that the pots in the "northern" part of it were partly exposed while those in the "southern" part were still covered by soil and protected; the baby's body in between was removed at that occasion. Some considerable time thereafter the trench was filled again with the same mixture of soils {4} and {6} and eventually sealed by {4}. The apparently unsuccessful attempts by post-Discontinuity people to open the trench cannot be explained by the archaeological evidence.
Discussion 1 (re The Unclassifiable Burial) This arrangements of two groups of three pots in the same trench with a gap of 50 cm between them is at variance with any other burial in Khok Charoen, be it human or ceramic. The step in the floor of the trench directly after Pot "C", which means that the pots of the first group are situated higher than those of the second, could suggest the fusion of two separate pits but the stratigraphy clearly shows only one continuous trench; the step is therefore most likely an intended feature. In both halves of the trench the pots facing each other over the gap between them (i.e. Pots "C" and "D") are very fractured whereas Pots "A" and "B" appear to be in almost pristine condition while "E" and "F" were also broken but not as much as "C" and "D". The complete Pots "A" and "B" were dislocated by two large roots having grown, one above and the other right through Pot "A". These roots traverse the entire cutting in soils {4} and {3}, causing the lifting of pot Find 15 from Burial 9 and the separating of the skull of Burial 7, but cannot have flattened Pot "C". The empty space of 60 cm in the trench between Pot "A" and the "southern" end of it (the last 20 cm being taken by a large ants' nest) remains unexplained.
The pots themselves do not give an answer to the question of how this burial could be dated, being partly (Pots "A", "E" and "F") pots found in human burials elsewhere in KC IV and partly (Pots "B", "C" and "D") pots which do not occur in any burial in Khok Charoen, be it human or ceramic. The fact that none of the six pots is decorated in a way which fits into the group of pots with incised-and-pricked decoration in ceramic burials in KC IV is irrelevant if a human burial is postulated as no such pot was found in human burials. Footed bowls of Type 4A occur in human burials throughout KC IV but those of Type 4G have only been found in Burial 9, the richly endowed child-burial a short distance to NW in the same cutting and lying on the same soil, and only there together with Type 4A footed bowls. It does not seem unreasonable to assume a connection between these two, particularly as two rim-sherds of footed bowl Find 25 (Type 4Aa) of Burial 9 were found lying on top of Pot "B", presumably deposited there by flood waters coming from W and indicating that these two burials must have been exposed at the same time. However, the nature of this connection remains obscure as does the difference between the disturbances of them (role of water action?) and the origin of Pots "B", "C" and "D", not found in any other burial.
A two-pronged funnel-shaped pit dug from the surface of {3} towards the trench just above the centre of the gap could have been dug to gain access to it in early post-Discontinuity times but three observations speak against this assumption. One is that there is no connection between the funnel-shaped pit from {3} down towards the trench in {6} which is clearly separated from it by a line showing the surface of a slightly heaped mound covering the burial and the trench. Another is that the trench is filled with a mixture of {4} and {6} without a trace of {3} which supports the theory that this funnel did not actually reach the trench and that the robbing of this burial must have taken place during the time preceding the Discontinuity. And the third is that the difference in colour and surface between the foot and body of Pot "E" can best be explained by the supposition that the top part of this pot was at times exposed, broken off its foot and badly damaged before it was again covered with soil while the foot had always been protected by what was left of the original covering of this burial but over time gathered a coat of lime incrustations.
The gap between the two groups of pots was almost certainly the result of the forceful removal of whatever there was between Pots "C" and "D", causing these two pots to be greatly damaged, but the absence of any skeletal remains or potsherds makes it difficult to guess what that may have been. Possibilities include the body of a baby, some valuable entire pots or perhaps another object considered of importance but not measuring more than 50 cm in length. The position of the pots in one row with a gap in between (implying one row each at head and feet of a body) rather than in clusters, points to a human burial rather than a ceramic one or two separate ceramic burials. Discussion 2 (re Pot Find 1 of Burial 6)
A likely (but not the only) scenario to account for these observations could be the following. The trench was originally dug to contain the body of a baby or very small
There are doubts whether the medium-sized ring-footed vessel Type 2Ab, the only complete and unbroken pot 154
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) excavated in Khok Charoen, is really associated with Burial 6, the sole burial gift and Find 1 of which it was originally considered to be. It was found standing upright, apparently in situ and on the same level as the skeleton, its side at 20 cm distant from the left femur, which would be a very unusual position for a burial pot, especially if it was the only one in a burial. The skeleton itself was lying in a natural hollow of the bedrock in a slightly jack-knifed position with head and feet higher than the pelvis; bite-marks on fragments of left lower arm or hand indicate that this part of the body was exposed for some time while Pot Find 1 nearby does not show signs of having been disturbed in any way. This complete and unbroken pot, with an incised-and-pricked decoration in a style associated with pots in ceramic burials (Single Vessel or Vessel Cluster) only found in the highest pre-Discontinuity layer {4}, looks out of place next to a disturbed burial lying on bedrock {6}, being surrounded by {5} but apparently sealed by {4}. Given the similarity regarding decoration as well as the uniqueness of Pot Find 1 as a burial pot in Khok Charoen, it can be said with confidence that it originated from outside and had been put next to the earlier Burial 6 at the time of the ceramic burials in KC IV by an unknown agent.
Of the 19 burials in KC IV, only 10 have pottery as grave goods; these are Burials 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13, 14 and the unclassifiable burial (ub). Together, i.e. regardless of their orientation, these burials have 60 burial pots. The types involved are 1A, 1Aa, 1Ab, 1B, 1Ba, 1Bb, 1C, 1Ca, 1Cb, 1D, 1Ea; 2A, 2Aa, 2Ab; 3C, 3E, 3Ea; 4A, 4Aa, 4Ab, 4D, 4E, 4Ea, 4G, 4H, 4J, 4Ja; 7C (this last type being obviously a special case and not to be taken as a precedent). These are tabulated in Table 3.1 below. Burial 1 2 3 5 6 8 9 13 14 ub
Pots: (sequenced according to Find numbers) 3: 4A, 1C, 4A 2: 4J, 4A 4: 4D, 1Cb, 4Ec, 4Ee 4: 7C, 1D, 4A, 4A 1: 2Ab 15: 2Aa, 4E, 1B, 3Ea, 1B, 4A?, 4Aa, 1Ba, 1C, 4E, 1B, 4Ab, 1Ab, 4Ea, 4H 21: 4G, 1Ca, 4Aa, 4G, 4G, 1Ab, 4A, 4A, 1C, 4D, 1Aa, 4G, 4A, 3C, 3E, 4G, 4Aa, 4Ab, 4A, 4D, 4Aa 2: 4Ja, 4A? 2: 1Ba, 2A 6: 4A, 1A, 1Ea?, 1Bb, 4A, 4G
Table 3.1, Pottery types in KC IV burials
The fact that a cluster of sherds of the distinctive Pot "Z" (a virtually reconstructed unique gourd-shaped vessel Type 1N, situated originally outside the excavated area from where parts of the upper body were swept by flood currents eastwards into F4) were found above Pot Find 1 but separated from its top by a few cm, while three Pot "Z"-sherds were also found lying directly on the chest, the right lower arm and the right upper leg of the skeleton itself, complicates the situation. As there is no clear answer to what this means regarding stratigraphy and relative chronology, it may be concluded that the association of "Pot Find 1" of Burial 6 with the burial itself remains in doubt.
If it is argued that it is highly unlikely that, with rare exceptions, any pot other than of one of the above types could be considered to be a potential burial pot, the following 34 pots found apparently unconnected with a burial in KC IV are classified as N.-A.B.P. This does not mean, however, that they must all have been part of unknown burials at the edges of the excavated area or of burials the skeletons of which had disappeared, as a number of them could indeed have been domestic utensils; three of these pots have even been found as part of vessel cluster ceramic burials. Like for burial finds, the pots are described by type, form, decoration, position, breakage pattern and measurements and are listed according to cuttings (beginning with E4) so as to facilitate comparison with what burials there are in that particular cutting. The former "Pits" of KC I (i.e. E3, F5 and G7) are not included as information about N.-A.B.P. vessels is too sparse.
Non-Attributable Burial Pottery As in KC III, this category includes vessels the position of which is known but which cannot be associated with a known burial, as well as clusters of potsherds or single diagnostic sherds found in stratified deposits but without their exact location within the cutting having been recorded. Not included are pots deemed to have been interred on their own as a single vessel ceramic burial or as part of a vessel cluster ceramic burial. Also not included are pots never found in burials as grave goods, i.e. exclusively domestic pottery, as opposed to certain cooking pots which were also often put into burials. However, again as in the case of KC III, no conclusion regarding the number of still un-excavated burials can be drawn from the number of such multi-use pots.
1) E4 Pot "2187":
In KC IV, the number and variety of pottery types was considerably higher than in KC III (70 as opposed to 44) which makes it necessary to first establish the list of types occurring in burials before the N.-A.B.P. or (NAB) pots can be singled out.
Illustration 3.107, Pot type 1Ab, NAB 1
155
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Large globular bowl Type 1Ab. Wide spherical/ellipsoid body, restricted everted rim rounded on top. Buff-ochre ware. Body below rim very coarsely (2.5:10) cord-marked, vertical to shoulder and criss-cross fashion below. Almost half complete. Sherds found dispersed at different depths within the cutting, from 30 to 60 cm b.s. in {4} and {5}. H: 14.4; Hr: 2.5; Wr: 19.3; Wn: 17; Wm: 22; On: 15; Thw: 0.6-0.8; Wgt: 400.
outside. Foot slightly convex truncated conical. Ochre/orange ware. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Found upside-down as the first (i.e. "S"-most) of a series of six pots in "E"-baulk in a line alongside baulk to "N", at 90 cm b.s. in a trench dug into {5} and filled with a mixture of {4} and {5}. Complete except for two small sherds of rim and foot; in one piece. H: 12.2; Hf: 4.5; Wr: 18.6; Wm: 19; Wtf: 7.5; Wbf: 10.6; ThwB: 0.6-0.8; ThwBb: 0.6-0.8; ThwF: 0.5-0.6; Wgt: 720.
2) E4 Pot "C2":
4) E5 Pot "B":
Illustration 3.108, Pot type 4J, NAB 2 Large footed bowl Type 4J. Shallow hemispherical body with short vertical incurving rim. Buff-orange ware. Foot missing. Body coarsely (3:10) but regularly slightly left-leaning vertically cord-marked, from 1.5 cm below top of rim down to top of foot. Inside body and outside rim to beginning of cord-marking burnished. Sherds from this pot were found in the centre of cutting at depths from 30 to 60 cm b.s. in {4} or {5}. About 55% of body preserved, broken into 24 medium or small sherds; sherds of this pot have been found under stones at 80 cm to N of main cluster. Foot broken off in an artificial manner. H (of body): 10; Hr: 0.8; Wr: 24; Wc/m: 25; Wtf: 4.8; ThwB: 0.6-0.9; Wgt: 670. {NB: as the bowl of this pot shows a great similarity with pots of Ban-Kao Type 2, var. A (Sørensen 1967: pl. 90) which all have a large foot of a greater height than the body, an overall height of the pot of 25 cm and an overall weight of about 2.5-3 kg may be assumed.}
Illustration 3.110, Pot type 4C, NAB 4 Large footed bowl Type 4C. Shallow truncated conical body with upturned direct rim. Large, slightly convex truncated conical foot. Ochre/orange ware, dark in break. Plain but burnished throughout except inside foot. Found leaning towards "S" with another pot (Pot "C") upright in its opening, being the second in a row of six pots in "E"-baulk at 90 cm b.s. in a trench dug into {5} and filled with a mixture of {4} and {5}. There is a gap of 90 cm between the first pot (Pot "A") and the other 5 pots, including this second one, which are all close together. Complete. Body broken into one large sherd (about one-quarter of body) and about 30 medium and small sherds for the other three-quarters. Foot broken off body in 6 medium and some small sherds. H: 17; Hf: 7; Wr: 23.5; Wc/m: 23.7; Wtf: 7.6; Wbf: 14; ThwB: 0.7-1.2; ThwBb: 1.3-1.5; ThwF: 0.7-1; Wgt: 1,370.
3) E5 Pot "A":
5) E5 Pot "C":
Illustration 3.111, Pot type 1Aa, NAB 5
Illustration 3.109, Pot type 4A, NAB 3
Medium globular bowl Type 1Aa. Spherical body, everted straight rim. Orange ware, dark in break. Plain
Medium footed bowl Type 4A. Body almost hemispherical inside and with very soft carination 156
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) but burnished inside body and rim, outside rim and body to 2.2 cm below rim; from there on medium (4.5:10) cord-marked, regularly vertically slightly leaning to right. Found upright inside the leaning large footed bowl Pot "B", third in a row of six pots in "E"-baulk, at about 95 cm b.s. in a trench dug into {5} and filled with a mixture of {4} and {5}. Complete except for some small pieces on one side of body where there are signs of an impact; broken into numerous medium and small sherds. H: 12.5; Hr: 2.2; Wr: 12.8; Wn: 10.8; Wm: 13.8; On: 9.3; Thw: 0.4-0.7; Wgt: 500.
Plain but burnished inside and outside except inside foot. Foot found lying upside-down, two large body sherds between it and the previous Pot "D" (there must have been a push from "N"), in "E"-baulk at almost 1 m b. in a trench dug into {5} and filled with a mixture of {4} and {5}, sitting on bedrock. Complete except for two small rim-pieces; broken neatly into 3 large sherds (foot with bottom of body and body broken into two halves), with 3 medium sherds between. H: 13.5; Hf: 4.3; Hr: 3; Wr/m: 18.2; Wc: 18; Wtf: 6; Wbf: 10; ThwB: 0.5-0.9; ThwBb: 0.6-1.2; ThwF: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 860.
6) E5 Pot "D":
8) E5 Pot "F1":
Illustration 3.114, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 8
Illustration 3.112, Pot type 1Ab, NAB 6
Small globular bowl Type 3Ca. Body almost spherical inside, slight carination outside marking the beginning of an inverted straight direct rim. Dark orange ware, dark brown in break. Bowl inside and rim outside burnished with a 2.5 mm-wide implement. Body below rim very finely (10:10) but irregularly cord-marked. Found upright, covered by a small shallow bowl Type 3E (Pot "F2") as a lid, at 10-20 cm E of the previous Pot "E" but 15-20 cm higher than the latter and yet clearly in the same trench dug into {5} and filled with a mixture of {4} and {5}. Complete except for a small rim-piece; broken into 3 large, 4 medium and some small sherds. Possible point of impact at one side of bottom. H: 8.1; Hr/c: 2; Wr: 8.8; Wc: 10.5; Wm: 10.7; On: 8; Thw: 0.4-0.6; Wgt: 260.
Medium globular bowl Type 1Ab. Spherical body, everted straight rim. Dark ochre ware, almost black in break. Plain; rim inside and outside burnished. Body from beginning of rim down cord-marked (4:10), regularly vertically until mid-body, from there on more and more cross-corded. Found upright as the fourth in a row of six pots in "E"-baulk at almost 1 m b.s. in a trench dug into {5} and filled with a mixture of {4} and {5}, sitting on bedrock. Complete except for one small rim-piece and two very small body sherds; broken into numerous mainly small and very small sherds in a circular pattern. H: 14.4; Hr: 2.2; Wr: 14; Wn: 12.4; Wm: 16.9; On: 11; Thw: 0.3-0.6; Wgt: 560. 7) E5 Pot "E":
9) E5 Pot "F2":
Illustration 3.115, Pot 3E, NAB 9 Small shallow bowl Type 3E. Body hemispherical inside; outside very slight carination 1.2 cm below top of direct rim. Dark orange ware, dark brown in break. Inside smoothed or burnished with a 2.5 mm-wide implement. Outside weathered but showing faint traces of very fine (10:10?) cord-marking (intentionally smoothed?) Found mixed with sherds of Pot "F1" in such a way that it must be concluded it served as a lid to the latter, with opening upwards, in the same trench dug into {5}
Illustration 3.113, Pot type 4Aa, NAB 7 Medium footed bowl Type 4Aa. Hemispherical body (inside), outside with soft carination marking the beginning of the vertical direct rim. Slightly convex truncated conical foot. Orange ware.
157
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand and filled with a mixture of {4} and {5}, at 10-20 cm E of Pot "E" but 15-20 cm higher. About two-thirds complete; broken into 2 large and 7 small sherds. No sign of impact visible. H: 3.6; Wr/m: 9; Thw: 0.3-0.5; Wgt: 60.
Rim inside and outside covered with red slip which on continues down to appliqué-band shoulder and onto its flat horizontal surface. Body below this band medium (5:10) cordmarked, vertically but very slightly leaning to right. Found isolated and in situ 20 cm E of Pot "A" (40 cm from "S"-baulk) sitting upright on the surface of {4}, imbedded in {3}, top at 20 cm b.s., thus well above the burial level. But as these Type 1C pots have occurred already three times in genuine burials in lower soils (Burials 1, 8 and 9), the present pot could well have originally been in a lower soil and found its way up into a post-discontinuity situation for an unknown reason. About two-thirds complete; broken into one large and a great number of medium and small sherds in what seems to be a circular pattern without signs of an impact. H: 12.3; Hr:1.5; Hc: 9.4; Wr: 13; Wn: 11.4; Wc: 13.6; Wm: 15; On: 9.6; Thw: 0.3-0.9; Wgt: 400.
10) E5 Pot "A" (in "S"-baulk):
Illustration 3.116, Pot type 4Ca, NAB 10 Medium footed bowl Type 4Ca. Body shallow hemispherical inside with an additional dish-like depression in the centre of the bottom; outside carinated to mark the beginning of a slightly convex and slightly inverted rim. Wide convex foot with down-turned rounded base. Dark orange ware, darker in break. Plain but seemingly burnished throughout except for inside foot. Inside body uniformly darker, probably a slip. There are also some diffuse darker patches on outside body (but not foot) which could be the remnants of the same slip while much of it had been rubbed off through handling or exposure to weather etc., not affecting the inside of the body. Found isolated and obviously in situ near the centre of "S"-baulk, top at 40 cm b.s. in {6} or a mixture of {5} and {6}, upright. Almost complete; only a small part of rim and wall missing on one side. Body and foot broken into numerous medium and small sherds in a circular pattern, leaving a disk-like piece in between (= bottom of body). This indicates slow crushing through natural compacting rather than any violent action by humans, animals or nature. H: 11.9; Hr/c: 3; Hf: 3.8; Wr: 16.2; Wc/m: 17.4; Wtf: 7; Wbf: 11; ThwB: 0.5-1; ThwBb: 0.6; ThwF: 0.6-1.2; Wgt: 700.
12) E5 Pot "C" (in "S"-baulk):
Illustration 3.118, Pot type 4A, NAB 12 Medium footed bowl Type 4A. Shallow hemispherical body, soft carination outside to mark the beginning of a vertical direct rim, rounded on top. Foot truncated conical. Orange ware, darker in break. Plain but smoothed inside and outside except inside foot. Sherds of this pot were found in a cluster of sherds pots in the from several different "W"-part of "S"-baulk, 20-40 cm b.s. This being a very complicated area in terms of stratigraphy, where within this depth layers or lenses of any soil from {2} to {6}coexisted, the exact location of sherds of this particular pot could not be ascertained. However, as it cannot have been in situ nor interred on its own, it must be concluded that it was a displaced burial pot of unknown provenance. Only about two-thirds of body left but enough to see the top of foot; foot itself (including bottom of body) missing. Body broken into 2 large and 10 medium sherds without small sherds or signs of an impact. One side of body blackened from a post-firing fire while the other retained its original orange colour; pot must have been broken before a part of it was affected by a fire. H (est.): 13; Hr: 2.5; Hf (est.): 4.5; Wr/m: 20; Wtf: 7; ThwB: 0.5-1.
11) E5 Pot "B2" (in "S"-baulk):
Illustration 3.117, Pot type 1C, NAB 11 Medium globular bowl Type 1C. Spherical body, becoming truncated conical above shoulder. Low everted straight restricted rim, pointed on top. Ochre ware, brown in break.
158
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) 13) E5 Pot "2060":
15) E6 (really "E7") Pot "Z1":
Illustration 3.119, Pot type 3E, NAB 13
Illustration 3.121, Pot type 4A, NAB 15
Shallow bowl Type 3E. Body inside (presumably) shallow hemispherical, outside soft carination marking the beginning of a low, slightly inverted direct rim. Buff ochre ware, crudely fashioned by hand. Rim outside covered with red slip. Body cord-marked (very faintly, probably medium and not very regularly). Found in stratified deposit at 30-40 cm b.s. in {4} Only one medium rim-sherd (about one-ninth of bowl), lower body missing. H (est.): 4.8; Hr: 1.2; Wr: 14; Wc/m: 14.5; Thw: 0.5-0.7.
Medium footed bowl Type 4A. Shallow almost hemispherical body inside, slight carination outside, marking the beginning of a vertical direct rim with rounded top. Foot truncated conical. Dark ochre ware. Plain but well smoothed (burnished?) throughout except inside foot. Found inside an abandoned charcoal pit about 1 m distant from the "W"-rim of E6, thus confirming that the burials of KC IV extended further to NW than the excavated parts. About four-fifths complete; parts of one side of body and rim and about half foot missing. Broken into 18 medium and small sherds (part of foot and the bottom of body forming one sherd). Pot partly charred. (It is not known which breaks are the result of having been in the heat of the charcoal pit and which ones were there before the pit was dug and used). H: 11.4; Hr: 2.3; Hf: 3.3; Wr: 19.3; Wc/m: 19.8; Wtf: 7.8; Wbf: 10.5; ThwB: 0.4-0.8; ThwBb: 0.6-0.8; ThwF: 0.6-0.7; Wgt: 680.
14) E6 Pot "X":
Illustration 3.120, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 14
16) E6 (really "E7") Pot "Z2":
Small hemispherical bowl Type 3Ca. Body inside hemispherical, outside soft carination marking the beginning of a very slightly inverted direct rim, pointed on top. Orange ware, dark brown in break; crudely fashioned by hand. Beginning of rim at carination marked by an irregular wavy line which could be a result of fashioning the vessel but could also be an intentional element of decoration. Faint patches of medium irregular cord-marking on body and also some on the outside of the otherwise plain rim. The sherds of this pot were found amongst an assemblage of stray sherds at 20-30 cm b.s. in {4}, in the "SE" quadrant of the cutting. Only about one quarter of pot preserved (3 large sherds, 2 of which fit together, including rim and all of body to bottom). H: 6.3; Hr: 1.8; Wr: 11; Wc/m: 12.2; Thw: 0.4-0.7; Wgt: 75.
Illustration 3.122, Pot type 4A, NAB 16 Medium footed bowl Type 4A. Body almost hemispherical inside, very slight carination outside, marking the beginning of a very slightly inverted direct rim with flattened top. Concave truncated conical foot with rounded base. The pot being totally charred, the original colour of its ware cannot be ascertained. Plain but well smoothed (burnished?) throughout except inside foot. Found inside an abandoned charcoal pit (same as Pot "Z1") about 1 m distant from the "W"-rim of E6. About half the pot preserved. Body walls broken into 8 medium sherds including bottom of body from which the almost complete foot was broken off into 3 medium sherds. Even more than in the case of Pot
159
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand "Z1", which was less charred than the present pot, it is suspected that the heat and rough handling in the charcoal pit has created additional breakage in a pot where the pre-charcoal pit condition is unknown. When retrieved, the pot was very brittle. H: 13; Hr: 2.2; Hf: 4; Wr: 19; Wc/m: 20; Wtf: 7; Wbf: 11.2; ThwB: 0.6-0.9; ThwBb: 1.1-1.2; ThwF: 0.9-1.1; Wgt: 400.
19) E6 (really "E7") Pot "2330":
17) E6 Pot "X2": Illustration 3.125, Pot type 1Bb, NAB 19 Medium globular bowl Type 1Bb. Almost spherical body with small near-horizontal shoulder, straight everted rim with rounded top. Totally charred. Outside rim and shoulder apparently plain. Body below shoulder regularly medium (4:10) cord-marked in high relief. Found inside an abandoned charcoal pit barely 1 m distant from the "W"-rim of E6 (i.e. same pit in which the two footed bowls Pots "Z1" and "Z2" were found, indicating the existence there of at least one burial to which these 3 pots belonged as grave goods unless a vessel cluster ceramic burial is surmised which is unlikely). About two-thirds of pot preserved, broken into 18 medium and small sherds. (As with the other pots found in this charcoal pit, heat and handling of logs etc. may have contributed to breakage). H: 14.2; Hr: 2; Hc: 10.6; Wr: 15; Wn: 13.5; Wm: 17; On: 10.6; Thw: 0.6-1.1; Wgt: 470.
Illustration 3.123, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 17 Medium hemispherical bowl Type 3Ca. Body inside hemispherical, outside with slight carination marking the beginning of a slightly inverted direct rim, tapering off to a point. Buff/ochre ware. Rim plain. Body below rim finely (5:10?) but very faintly cord-marked. Sherds of this pot were found in stratified (but at places disturbed) deposits at 20-30 cm b..s. in {3} or {4}. Only about one-quarter of pot preserved, broken mainly into medium sherds. H: 7.5; Hr: 2; Wr: 11; Wc/m: 13; Thw: 0.6-0.7.
20) F3 Pot "C1":
18) E6 Pot "2077":
Illustration 3.124, Pot type 3E, NAB 18 Illustration 3.126, Pot type 1Ab, NAB 20
Medium hemispherical bowl Type 3E. Body inside shallow hemispherical, outside with soft carination marking the beginning of a low vertical direct rim tapering off to a rounded point. Buff/ochre ware. Rim shows traces of red slip. Body below rim finely (6:10?) but faintly cord-marked. Found in stratified deposit, 30-40 cm b.s. in {4}. One medium rim-sherd only (about one-eighth of pot but without the bottom part). H (est.): 5.5; Hr: 1; Wr: 13.2; Wc/m: 13.8; Thw: 0.6-0.8.
Large globular bowl Type 1Ab. Flattened spherical body, everted straight restricted rim with nail-head top. Dark buff ware. Body inside, rim inside and outside burnished. Body below rim regularly vertically medium (4:10) cord-marked (bottom missing). A large rim- and body-sherd to below mid-body (about 15% of entire pot) was found at “S"-rim, 1.50 m from "E"-rim of the cutting at 40 cm b.s. in {4}. This being the edge of the excavated area this sherd was probably transported to its resting place by water action coming from NW. H (est.): 16; Hr: 3; Wr: 17; Wn: 14.8; Wm: 21.1; On: 13; Thw: 0.5-0.7; Wgt: 120.
160
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) 21) F3 Pot "2423":
23) F4 Pot "E2":
Illustration 3.127, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 21 Small hemispherical bowl Type 3Ca. Body inside hemispherical, outside slight carination marking the beginning of a very slightly inverted direct rim, rounded on top. Buff/ochre ware. Crudely shaped by hand. Rim outside covered with red slip. Body below rim faintly irregularly medium (4:10?) cord-marked (bottom missing) Only one large rim- and body-sherd to below mid-body (about 15% of entire pot) was found in a disturbed area in the E-corner of the cutting where sherds of pots at the feet of Burial 13 are intermingled with those of pots of a Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial into which this burial was cut. As the exact location of the sherd could not be recorded, its origin remains unknown; it could also have been a stray find. H (est.): 7.3; Hr: 2.1; Wr: 11; Wc/m: 12.3; Thw: 0.6-0.8.
Illustration 3.129, Pot type 4J, NAB 23 Very large footed bowl Type 4J. Shallow hemispherical body with short incurving rim leaving a carination on the outside while the inside is gently curved. Heavy ochre ware, almost black in break. Body coarsely (3:10) but regularly cord-marked, vertically but slightly left-leaning. Body inside and outside to 0.8 cm below rim burnished or polished. Leaning against and on top on N-side of upside-down Pot "E", opposite Pot "F", carried there presumably by water action from NW. Almost complete except for foot of which one sherd was found later further to E; another large rim-sherd was also found 1.80 m E of main body, indicating the direction of the flow. Body broken into an irregular fashion in a great number of medium and small sherds. H: c. 24.6; Hr: 0.8; Hf: c. 10; Wr: 31.7; Wc/m: 33.8; Wtf: 8.2; Wbf: 23.1; ThwB: 0.4-0.9; ThwBb: 1.2-1.5; ThwF: 0.5-0.6; Wgt: 1,300.
22) F4 Pot "B2":
24) F4 Pot "F":
Illustration 3.128, Pot type 1Ab, NAB 22 Medium globular bowl Type 1Ab. Slightly flattened spherical body, everted straight restricted rim, flattened on top. Buff ware, grey in break. Rim plain; body below rim regularly medium (4:10) cord-marked, slightly left-leaning vertical. Sherds of this pot were found intermingled with those of Pot "B" (of F4) in a way which indicated that it was probably swept partly under this huge globular bowl by flood waters and was therefore not a part of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 3 to which Pot "B" belongs. Almost one half complete, broken into 21 medium and small sherds. H: 12.8; Hr: 2; Wr: 12.5; Wn: 11.6; On: 10; Thw: 0.3-0.5; Wgt: 300.
Illustration 3.130, Pot type 1Ab, NAB 24 Medium globular bowl Type 1Ab. Spherical body, everted straight restricted rim, pointed on top. Buff ware, dark brown in break. Rim inside covered with red slip, outside plain. Body outside finely (5:10) cord-marked, mainly vertically but with patches of cross-cording at mid-body and on bottom. A fine incised straight horizontal line on neck and two irregular wavy horizontal lines on shoulder over cord-markings (unique in KC). Found upside-down adjacent to huge globular bowl Pot "E" (F4) but not necessarily in association with it.
161
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand About 85% complete, broken uniformly into a great number of small and very small sherds. H: 11.5; Hr: 1.7; Wr: 12; Wn: 10.5; Wm: 14.8; On: 9.2; Thw: 0.2-0.5; Wgt: 400.
27) F5 Pot "109":
25) F5 Pot "39": Illustration 3.133, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 27 Small globular bowl Type 3Ca. Body almost spherical inside, outside a hardly noticeable carination marking the beginning of a straight inverted direct rim, rounded on top. Coarsely made. Rim outside covered with red slip. Body below rim faintly medium (4:10) vertically cord-marked. Found in "W"-baulk, 1.30 m from "S"-rim, at 30 cm b.s. in {4}. Upright, slightly tilted to "E". Complete except for small rim-pieces. H: 8; Hr: 1.7; Wr: 8; Wc: 10.5; Wm: 11.5; On: 7.6; Thw: 0.3-0.7; Wgt: 320.
Illustration 3.131 Pot type 4Ga, NAB 25 Shallow footed bowl (foot missing) Type 4Ga. Dish-like shallow body, inverted direct rim, rounded on top. Plain but outside covered with red slip and polished. Found in "W"-baulk, 1 m from "S"-rim, at 30 cm b.s. in {4}. Upright, under Pot "62", like a saucer. Possibly associated with Burial 1 (beyond head) but not proven. Bowl only, broken into 5 large sherds, 1 medium sherd missing. H (est.): 8; H (of body): 4.5; Hr: c. 2.5; Wr: 14.6; Wm: 15.9; Wtf: 6.2; ThwB: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 610.
28) F6 Pot "P1":
Illustration 3.134, Pot type 3E, NAB 28 Small shallow dish Type 3E. Body in the form of a spherical segment, direct rim, pointed on top. Ochre ware. Roughly fashioned by hand; there are also numerous impressions left by a small spatula-like implement. Plain inside and outside. Found near "N"-baulk, at about the centre, at 70 cm b.s. in {5}, in a cluster of potsherd and bone fragments. Deemed to be too far away from Burial 9 to be associated with it. Complete (only a small piece of rim missing), broken in 1 large and 3 medium sherds. H: 3.5; Wr/m: 8.8; Thw: 0.4-0.9; Wgt: 130.
26) F5 Pot "62":
Illustration 3.132, Pot type 1Aa, NAB 26
29) F6 Pot "P2":
Medium globular bowl Type 1Aa. Very slightly pear-shaped body, everted straight restricted rim, rounded on top. Rim and upper body plain, lower body from equator down crudely (3:10) but regularly vertically cord-marked (this being the only such pot in KC where cord-marking begins at mid-body rather than on shoulder or below rim). Found in "W"-baulk, 1 m from "S"-rim, at 30 cm b.s. in {4}. Upright, inside bowl of Pot "39". Possibly associated with Burial 1 (beyond head) but not proven. About 15% of pot missing, remainder broken fairly evenly into medium sherds. H: 14.2; Hr: 2.3; Wr: 11; Wn: 10; Wm: 17.4; On: 8.4; Thw: 0.5-0.7; Wgt: 635.
Illustration 3.135, Pot type 3E, NAB 29 Small shallow dish Type 3E. Body in the form of a spherical segment, direct rim, pointed on top. Ochre ware with orange patches inside and outside, dark brown in break. Roughly fashioned by hand, with irregularities and impressions from unknown sources. Plain inside and outside. Found in the same cluster of potsherds and bone fragments as Pot "P1", i.e. near "N"-baulk at 70 cm b.s. in {5}. These two pots were the only restorable ones in this cluster which contained 36 other unremarkable sherds.
162
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) About five-sixths complete, broken into 1 medium and 5 small sherds; lime incrusted. H: 2.8; Wr/m: 9; Thw: 0.3-0.5; Wgt: 50.
Medium hemispherical bowl Type 3Ca. Body inside hemispherical, outside slight carination marking the beginning of straight direct rim with everted lip, rounded on top. Buff/ochre ware. Crudely fashioned by hand. Traces of red slip outside rim. Body below rim very faintly cord-marked, too faint to see nature or direction of markings. Found in 30-40 cm b.s. layer in {4}; exact location unknown. One large rim- and body-sherd to lower body only; bottom missing. About 15% of pot. H (est.): 7.3; Hr: 2.5; Wr: 11.8; Wc/m: 12.7; Thw (est.): 0.5-1.
30) F6 Pot "2002":
Illustration 3.136, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 30 Small hemispherical bowl Type 3Ca. Body (bottom missing) presumably hemispherical inside, outside carination marking beginning of slightly inverted direct rim, tapering off to a point. Dark ochre/brown ware, dark brown in break. Rim plain. Body from carination down finely (5:10) and regularly cord-marked, slightly left-leaning diagonally (inverted v-shaped impressions). Found in uppermost disturbed layer {1}, surface-20 cm b.s. Only one half of rim and parts of upper body left, together about 15% of pot. H (est.): 6.5; Hr: 1.8; Wr: 9; Wc/m: 11.5; Thw (est.): 0.5-0.7; Wgt: 60.
33) F6 Pot "2240":
Illustration 3.139, Pot type 1D, NAB 33
31) F6 Pot "2299a":
Medium globular bowl Type 1D. Spherical body, everted straight restricted rim, pointeon top. Ochre ware. Rim inside covered with red slip, outside plain. Body inside burnished, outside from rim down finely (5:10) and regularly cord-marked, vertically but slightly to the left towards the bottom. Three very faint horizontal bands of red slip at about mid-body, directly on cord-marking without smoothing. A faint incised horizontal line at 1 cm below top on outside rim. Found as a heap of potsherds 40-80 cm NE of the NE-most pot Find 5 of Burial 9 at 50-60 cm b.s. in {5} but unlikely to have been associated with this burial. Almost complete, about 15% of upper body wall missing. Well preserved, sharp breaks. Broken into 30 mainly medium sherds without signs of an impact. H: 14; Hr: 2; Wr: 15; Wn: 12.6; Wm: 15.8; On: 10.6; Thw: 0.3-0.8; Wgt: 560.
Illustration 3.137, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 31 Small spherical bowl Type 3Ca. Body spherical inside, outside very slight carination marking the beginning of a straight inverted direct rim, rounded on top. Buff ware, orange and black patches. Roughly fashioned by hand. Rim outside plain and smoothed. Body below rim finely (5:10) but patchily cord-marked in criss-cross fashion except for part immediately below rim which is mostly vertically marked. Inside body roughly smoothed, outside surface somewhat bumpy. Found in the area of Pots "P1" and "P2" but exact location unknown. Complete, broken into 5 medium and 8 small sherds possibly as the result of an impact. H: 7.6; Hr: 2.2; Wr: 7.2; Wc: 9.6; Wm: 10.1; Thw: 0.6-0.8; Wgt: 250.
34) F6 Pot "X":
32) F6 Pot "2140":
Illustration 3.140, Pot type 4J, NAB 34 Illustration 3.138, Pot type 3Ca, NAB 32
Medium footed bowl Type 4J. Shallow hemispherical
163
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand body with short incurving rim forming a carination. Foot missing. Dark buff ware. Body inside and rim inside and outside burnished. Four fine incised horizontal lines at base of rim (carination), body below rim coarsely (3:10) cord-marked to 1 cm above top of foot. The larger sherd was found lying inside-up at left "elbow" of Burial 7 (of which it is not a Find) at 60 cm b.s., the smaller fitting sherd was found in the 40-50 cm b.s.-spit of the same cutting at an unknown distance from the former in {5}. Both sherds were obvious not in situ but were most likely transported there from a burial further to NW outside the excavated area, the larger sherd having been stopped in its advance by Burial 7. Two sherds, together 8x9 cm, from rim to top of foot, with sharp breaks. H (of body): 7.5; Hr: 0.8; Wr: 17; Wc/m: 18.8; Wtf: 5; ThwB: 0.5-0.9.
diversified than in KC III. With regard to types, in KC IV burials Class 4 (footed bowls) was far ahead of any other class: 34 out of 53 (without considering the one 7C pot), as opposed to 14 for Class 1 and three for both Class 2 and Class 3. Within Class 4, Type 4A (11) was the most widespread, followed by Type 4G (5, but for one burial only), Type 4Aa and 4E (both 4, for two burials) and by Types 4D (3), 4Ea (2), 4Ab (2) and 4H, 4J and 4Ja (1 each per burial). The distribution of types in the group of 34 N.-A.B.P. pots is different from that in the burials themselves. Here, 10 were of Class 1 (including one from "Cutting E7"), 13 of Class 3 and 11 of Class 4 (none of Class 2). Within the Class 4 pots, there were 4 of Type 4A (including 2 from "Cutting E7"), three of Type 4J and one each of Types 4Aa, 4C, 4Ca and 4 Ga. In Class 1, there were 5 of Type 1Ab, two of Type 1Aa and one each of Types 1Bb (from "E7"), 1C, 1D and 1Ea (?). In Class 3, there were 8 of Type 3Ca and 5 of Type 3E. The relatively great number of the smaller Class 3 pots could be explained by the fact that, being quite light, they probably were the first to be washed out of burials by water action or dislocated by other natural forces.
Discussion The great variety of types of N.-A.B.P. in KC IV reflects that of the burial pottery itself which was far more Intentionally Broken Burial Pottery 1
Burial 2
2
Find
Type 4J
Position Right shoulder
2
8
7
2Aa
Beyond skull
3
8
14
1BA
Left of skull
4
8
16
4E
Left of skull
5 6
8 9
18 5
4Ab 4G
Left of pelvis Beyond skull
7
9
9
4G
Beyond skull
8
9
10
1Ab
Beyond skull
9
9
11
4A
Beyond skull
10
9
12
4A
Upper chest
11
9
15
1Aa
12
9
17
4A
13
9
19
3E
On pelvis, on top of another pot On knees or upper legs Under no !2
14 15
9 9
22 23
4C 4A
16
13
2
4Ja
Beyond right foot Inside ie on top of no. 14 In E corner of cutting
Remarks No signs of impact but "apparently deliberately broken" (Watson 1968: pl. XLVI b); method of breaking unknown. Association with burial not secure. Lying on its side, impact and radiating breaks on upper side, i.e. after pot had been toppled. Disturbed context: intermingled with sherds from two pots next to it; no signs of impact but part of upper body missing as if cut or sawn off artificially. Lying on its side, originally upright; impact at place where foot joins body. Tilted to one side; possible point of impact at mid‐body. Upright; first of 7 pots with large gap between this pot and the second one; side towards gap broken open from rim to foot. Upright; fourth of 7 pots, in the tightly‐packed group of 6; impact at lower body from the outside (i.e. from SE). Upright; fifth of 7 pots, in the tightly‐packed group of 6; impact on entire body from the outside (i.e. from NW). Upright; last of 7 pots, in the tightly‐packed group of 6 (may have been put directly at head); impact on lower body from the outside (i.e. from SE). Upright; rim and upper body towards skull broken as if having been hit by a hard object. Upright, lifted by a large root; signs of an impact on mid‐body on E‐side. Upside‐down, covering two smaller pots (Finds 18 and 19); possible impact on top from above. Broken in 22 sherds in such a way ("spider's web"‐ pattern) that an impact in the centre of bottom must be assumed. Upright; signs of impact at lower body (from W?) Upright; one side broken off artificially from main part of body. Lying on its side; foot separated from body in a manner suggesting use of a saw‐like tool as surfaces are very flat and even and there is an about 1 cm‐high ring missing between body and foot.
Table 3.2, Seemingly intentionally broken burial pots in KC IV 164
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) The situation with regard to intentionally broken pottery in KC IV is somewhat different from that in KC III: of the 35 burial pots in KC III, 11 showed signs of an impact whereas in KC IV, 16 pots out of 54 can be considered to have possibly been broken intentionally however 14 of these 16 pots are from only two burials (4 from Burial 8 and 10 from Burial 9) while one is from Burial 2 and another one from Burial 13, leaving five pottery-containing burials (1, 3, 5, 6 and 14) where no pot had been intentionally broken. Furthermore, signs of intentional breaking are more convincing in KC IV than in KC III where there remains some doubt whether the breaking of burial pots in a ritual manner was practiced at all. These finds are summarized in Table 3.2 above.
sat directly on the knees or distal ends of the femurs. But these two pots are not only different in themselves but also different in the way they have been treated: while the small globular bowl is almost complete and broken apparently naturally into medium sherds without signs of an impact, the dish-like shallow bowl is broken into 22 small sherds in the "spider's web" pattern meaning that it must have been deliberately hit in the centre of the bottom in a ritual manner as it could not have happened naturally inside the protective bowl of the vessel above it. The only way to interpret these observations is to suggest a burial ritual in at least two stages whereby a pot is first broken, another pot is put on top of it to protect or hide it and this pot is then broken in turn. Burial 8, being even more disturbed than Burial 9, yielded less precise evidence regarding the breaking of burial pots but nevertheless shows that such breakage occurred there too. Four pots (two globular and two footed bowls) showed signs of having been broken or otherwise interfered with: a globular bowl with ring-foot beyond skull, broken while lying on its side; another globular bowl near skull seems to have a part of the upper body artificially cut or sawn off; a footed bowl near skull, broken where foot joins body; and the other footed bowl near pelvis, also tilted to one side, broken at mid-body. That pots were apparently broken while lying on their side (although they would presumably have originally been standing upright) probably indicates that the breaking was not done at the occasion of the burial itself but some time later when the burial was exposed and the pots were again accessible; this would mean a different ritual which had nothing to do with the initial one of breaking pots at an interment.
Discussion Without taking into account the evidence from Burials 2 and 13 which may be the result of a different category of interference with pots than the ritual breaking of them at the occasion of a burial, we are left with that of only two burials, Burials 8 and 9, which are the two richest and most complex multiple burials of KC IV and cannot be considered to be typical for the site. However, these two burials leave little doubt that at least in their case there was ritual breaking of burial pots although the exact way this was done is not clear. The most convincing example are the three pots out of the tightly-packed group of six beyond, i.e. to the NE of, the skull of Burial 9 which bore marks of having been hit by a hard pointed object. These three pots, two medium footed bowls and one relatively large globular bowl, had been standing upright (like the other three of the group) as the nearest to the skull; they would have been accessible for some time and the signs of impact - all on the outside while the inaccessible inner sides of the pots are much less broken - are consistent with the assumption of deliberate human action of administering blows to these pots.
There were no sheets of potsherds or broken restorable pots under parts of the body in any of the burials in KC IV. However, in one burial, Burial 5, several large and medium non-diagnostic body-sherds were found lying flat on the right upper arm (Find 8) and two large similar sherds were standing upright on edge on the outside of the left lower arm (Find 9); the function of these sherds is not clear: presumably special protection of these two individual body parts.
Similar considerations apply to the other seven pots of this burial showing signs of having been hit, but investigation into their original positions at the time of burial were hampered by the fact that not only the skull, which was thoroughly dispersed, but the entire post-cranial skeleton was disturbed by the growth of at least two enormous roots growing right through it and dislocating bones as well as pots, some of which knocked over others in a domino-effect. A particularly difficult case is that of Finds 17, 18 and 19: a large footed bowl found upside-down sheltering two smaller pots (a small globular bowl and a small dish-like shallow bowl), all three pots situated on the knees or upper legs of the skeleton. The footed bowl shows signs of having sustained a blow by an elongated implement on its upper side (as found), affecting both the rim/upper body and the foot which would have been impossible had it been standing upright; the conclusion seems therefore warranted that the position in which the pot was found was the original one (of all the 21 pots associated with this burial, this footed bowl was the only one found in an upside-down position), presumably in order to protect the two smaller pots underneath it which
The practice of neatly breaking or sawing off the rim, foot or another part of a ceramic vessel, as shown by the globular bowl Find 14 of Burial 8 and footed bowl Find 2 of Burial 13, has also been observed in KC III (Burial 9, Find 7) in the largest Type 1K bowl in KC III, and in the lowest level of Non Nok Tha (Solheim 1980: 48, pl. IVa); neither the purpose nor the method of it has as yet been elucidated. Burial Phases Compared with KC III where there were only two orientations (Head-to-North and Head-to-East) to indicate discrete burial phases, the situation with regard to burial phases determined by orientation in KC IV appears to be more complicated. Of the 18 burials in KC IV, three 165
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand (Burials 6a, 10 and 10a) cannot be taken into account because of doubts whether their skeletal remains were in situ and whether their position was a reliable indicator of the orientation in their original burials (if they were buried at all). The 15 remaining burials have the following orientations (Head-to): Burial No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 11a 12 13 14 15
Head‐to SW N NE NE NE WSW SW NE NE SSE SSE SE N NE(?) S
In (soil) {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5}
Dug (from) {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5}
However, if one considers S-, SE- and SSE-orientations as being variations of the same general "southeastern" as opposed to a general "northeastern" orientation comprising the N-, NE- and E-orientations, the resulting picture would be quite different inasmuch as one would have the simple sequence of S-, SSE- and SE-oriented burials all being older than the N-, NE- and E-oriented ones. Burials 11, 11a, 12 and 15 would then constitute the earlier phase, Burials 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 13 and 14 the later one and the SW-oriented Burials 1 and 7, as well as the WSW-oriented Burial 6, would have to be treated as special cases within their respective phases. Because of the apparently violent death, Burial 7 may well be such a case and so could Burial 1 of the same orientation. However, there is no obvious reason to consider burial 6 to be a special case, other than having a pot of problematic origin as a burial gift. The evidence derived from stratigraphy thus tallying with that from orientations, this model of dividing the KC IV burials in an Earlier and a Later phase has good chances of being accepted as well-founded.
Sealed by {4} {4} {4}? {4}? {4}? {4} {5} {4} {4} {5} {5} {5} {4} {4} {5}
The question of how it could be that Burials 12 and 15 are in the same time slot although one cuts into the other, implying that the existence or exact location of the lower burial had either been forgotten or deliberately ignored by those who buried somebody there only a relatively short time later can only be answered if and when the time span separating the two burials is better known.
Table 3.3 Head orientation of burials in KC III As all burials regardless of their orientation have been found to be in {5} and to have also been dug from {5}, it follows that they are essentially contemporaneous and that any time interval between burials can only have been relatively short. Although the sealing of burials is not a reliable guide to their chronological situation, as it could have been altered by natural disturbances or human interference, it seems that in the circumstances the best available criterion to differentiate between an earlier and a later phase is whether a burial is entirely enveloped by {5}, i.e. also sealed by it, or whether it had been dug from the surface of {5} and then sealed by {4}. Burials 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 13 and 14 are therefore likely to be younger than Burials 7, 11, 11a, 12 and 15. It is not certain by which soil Burials 3, 4 and 5 were sealed as no section drawings had been made of the cutting in which they were found (G7, the former Pit III of KC I) and the stratigraphical situation of these burials had to be judged from the nearest cutting F6. The "W" and "S" sections of F6 show that if the depths b.s. of Burials 3, 4 and 5 in G7 (60, 50 and 60-70 cm respectively) were to be transposed onto the section drawings of that cutting, these three burials would appear to have been sealed by {4}. The later phase would thus consist of ten burials as opposed to five for the earlier one.
The fact that no burial pots were discovered with any of the five burials (7, 11, 11a, 12 and 15) deemed to belong to the Earlier phase makes a distinction of the two phases on the grounds of burial pottery impossible. The nine burials of the Later phase with burial pottery have pots of the following types. Burial no 1 2 3
With regard to relative chronology, this classification based on stratigraphy could be taken to mean that the sole instance in KC IV where one burial cuts into another (the SE-oriented Burial 12 cuts into the S-oriented Burial 15), and thus reliably establishes a sequenc, is irrelevant because both burials are deep in the deposit and surrounded by {5}. Furthermore, one could assume that burials with S-orientation are the oldest, whereas those with SE-orientation must be younger.
Head to SW N NE
Class1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
1C 1Cb
5
NE
1D
4A 4A.4J? 4A, 4D, 4Ee, 4Ee 4A
6 8
WSW NE
1Ab, 1B, 1Ba, 1C
2Ab 2Aa
3Ea
9
NE
1Aa, 1Ab, 1c, 1Ca
3C, 3E
13 14
N W
1Ba
2A
4A, 4Aa, 4Ab, 4E, 4Ea, 4H 4A, 4Aa, 4C, 4D, 4G 4A, 4Ja
Table 3.4, Relation between Later Phase burials and pottery types with burial What this table demonstrates is that while the ubiquitous footed bowl Type 4A can be found in seven of the nine burials of the Later phase, it is absent in the two burials (6 and 14) of the same phase which are oriented in a way
166
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) unique for KC IV (WSW and E respectively). These two burials are also, together with Burial 8, the only ones to have a pot of Class 2 as a burial pot, alone (Burial 6) or together with a pot Type 1Ba (Burials 8 and 14). However, to try to draw useful conclusions from this fact is not easy, except for saying that there existed perhaps burial customs in KC IV which are not amenable to clarification without more examples.
Burial 12: 1) Adult male in his 20s, height not ascertainable. 2) Supine position, head to SE, in {5}, surrounded and sealed by {5}. 3) Not known. 4) No personal adornments discovered. 5) No grave goods discovered. 6) This burial was very disturbed, not only because a ceramic burial containing four large pots was dug into it, disturbing parts of the upper body, but also because its entire lower body was missing, together with any grave goods which could have been there. Both the feet of Burial 12, which must have been cutting into the right flank of Burial 15, and the lower body of Burial 15 were missing, swept away by an unknown force (water action?) which may have come from a westerly direction.
THE EARLIER PHASE Five burials, lying in {5}, are also surrounded and sealed by {5} and must therefore be considered to be the oldest burials in this part of the site. They are Burials 7, 11, 11a, 12, and 15. For their orientations see Table 3.3. As in KC III, these five burials can be tabulated according to the following points: 1) Who was buried (sex, age, hight); 2) in what position, orientation, and in what soil; 3) most likely cause of death; 4) personal adornments; 5) summary of grave goods; 6) post-burial disturbances.
Burial 15: 1) Adult male of about 30 years of age, height not ascertainable (skeleton too fragmentary). 2) Supine position, head to S, in {5}, surrounded and sealed by {5}. 3) Not known. 4) A great number (349) of shell disk-beads Type a, some still stringed, in clusters on shoulders and chest indicate personal adornments on upper body (and possibly on lower abdomen); three canine teeth (two at skull and one on chest) may also have been part of personal adornments and so could have been an artificially rounded piece of a young cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shell at "right ankle". 5) There were no pots as grave goods but an apparently unused adze of layered limestone, found at right tibia, could have been a burial gift. 6) The burial was disturbed by a post hole where the feet would have been and there was a gap of 60 cm between bone fragments of upper and lower body with no finds in between, possibly caused by water action which took part of the skeleton away, together with at least the feet of Burial 12 which had been cut into Burial 15 and probably legs and parts of the lower body of that burial as well.
Burial
7: 1) Young adult male, height 1.60-1.65 m. 2) Supine position, head to SW, in {5}, dug from {5}, sealed by {5}. 3) A projectile point of fossilised bone embedded in the skeleton's right shoulder/upper chest area is thought to have been the most likely cause of death of this young man. 4) No personal adornments discovered. 5) Possibly a polished shouldered stone adze of grey chert at right shoulder. 6) Root disturbance separating head from body; flood currents from a westerly direction pushed a big pot over the upper part of skeleton and probably carried away large parts of right side of skeleton.
Burial 11: 1) Adult male of c. 20 years of age, height about 1.60 m. 2) Supine position, head to SSE, in {5}, surrounded and sealed by {5}. 3) Not known. 4) No personal adornments discovered. 5) No grave goods discovered. 6)Skeleton very fragmentary and incomplete through superposition of Burial 11a and natural compaction but in situ.
THE LATER PHASE Ten burials in {5} are sealed by {4} and are therefore believed to be of a time following the earlier phase of burials in, and surrounded by, {5}. They are Burials 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13 and 14. For their orientations refer to Table 3.3. At least three of these burials (1, 8 and 14) have a fill consisting of a mixture of {4} and {5} which suggests that they had been dug from {4} while it was forming; they are also sealed by {4}. These three may therefore be amongst the latest burials of the Later phase but as the fill in the other burials could not be identified with certainty in this much disturbed soil, it would be premature to establish a chronological sequence based on this particular criterion.
Burial 11a:1)Adult male, 30-50 years old, height not assessable. 2) Supine position, head to SSE, in {5}, surrounded and sealed by {5}. 3) Not known. 4) No personal adornments discovered. 5) No grave goods discovered. 6) Skeleton extremely fragmented and incomplete. Only parts of skull and of right humerus in situ but fragments of skull, right forearm and both feet had been displaced by flood currents coming from a westerly direction.
167
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Burial
1: 1) Female adult or adolescent, height 1.45 m. 2) Supine position, head to SW, dug into {6} from {4}, sealed by {4}. 3) Possibly violent death (crushed skull, turned sharply to right). 4) A cluster of shell disk-beads Type b at right elbow denotes an armlet or bracelet. 5) A large plain footed bowl and a globular bowl Type 1C at head and another plain footed bowl at right elbow; an unusually large entire tektite found near skeleton (exact location unknown) could possibly be a burial gift but association with burial not secure. 6) Right upper and left lower leg, right lower arm, both hands and feet missing which points to a disturbance (probably flood waters) coming diagonally from a northerly direction, leaving the upper part of the body relatively intact; any burial pot which could have been in the area of the lower body would also have been swept away.
in pelvic region, some still stringed, indicating adornments in this area and/or bracelets at both wrists. 5) A deep carinated footed bowl (Ban-Kao/Sai-Yok inspired?) and a cord-marked globular bowl at head and 2 large plain footed bowls at right ankle. 6) The presence of substantial parts of a deep pear-shaped cord-marked vessel Type 1M at left knee and (missing) foot, obviously not in situ, attests to a disturbance coming from NNE. Burial
6: 1) Adult male in his 30s or 40s, height 1.50 m. 2) Supine position, head to WSW, in {5}, dug from {5}, sealed by {4}. 3) Not known. 4) No personal adornments discovered. 5) A small globular bowl with ring-foot Type 2Ab, near left upper leg; a tektite flake was found lying on lower end of left femur but association with burial not secure. 6) The configuration of the skeleton suggests that a disturbance (water action?) from WNW carried away much of the skull and right shoulder while another one affected parts of the left side of the skeleton (not necessarily at the same time) but leaving the lone burial pot undamaged.
Burial 2: 1) Adult individual of undetermined sex and age, about 1.65 m high. 2) Supine position, head to N, in a large hollow in {5}, surrounded by less lime-specks containing {5}, sealed by {4}. 3) Not known. 4) A hyperboloid-shaped bead made from Tridacna shell found near skull was almost certainly part of a head or upper body adornment. 5) A large cord-marked footed bowl Type 4J at right shoulder and a plain footed bowl on pelvis. 6) Undefined minor post-burial disturbances.
Burial 8: 1) Young female adult (main skeleton), a male teenager (represented by post-cranial bones only) and three children (represented mainly by teeth): two infants of about 3 years of age and one 6 year-old child of undetermined sex; heights not ascertainable (skeletal material too fragmented). 2) Main skeleton in supine position, head to NE; the burial was at 60 cm b.s. in a deep trench in {5}, dug from {4}, filled with a mixture of {4} and {5} but also sealed by {4}. 3) Not ascertainable for any of the five individuals but the absence of the male teenager's skull indicates a possibly violent death for this person. 4) Three Nassarius shells and fragments of young cf. Pseudodon mouhoti mussels on, under and near main skull are likely to be remnants of head adornments of the female adult; an small ivory ear plug almost certainly belonged to a child (too small for an adult); 4 shell disk-beads Type a, found amongst small bone fragments in the thoracic region, are probably also part of an adornment of one of the children; the fragment of a clay bracelet, found on left side of skull could have fitted a young adult or a 6 year-old child; and two shell pieces, one from a young and the other from a mature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti shell, found in the thoracic region of the adult female skeleton, could also have come from a personal adornment of an adult or a child. 5) 15 pots altogether: 10 pots next to and beyond skull (1 globular bowl with ring-foot,1 small dish, 4 footed bowls and 4 globular bowls), 2 pots left of pelvis (1 footed and 1 globular bowl), 2 pots at left knee (1 footed and 1 globular bowl) and 1 footed bowl Type 4H at (missing) feet. Grave goods other than pots include an unused limestone adze under a pot at
Burial 3: 1) Adult individual of undetermined sex and age, about 1.60 m high. 2) Supine position, head to NNE, in {5}, surrounded and sealed (?) by {5}. 3) Apparently natural. 4) No personal adornments discovered. 5) 3 undefined pots beyond head, a plain footed bowl at right arm and a globular bowl, a plain footed bowl and a footed bowl with incised-and-pricked decoration (Type 4D) beyond feet. 6) Undefined post-burial disturbances resulting in knocked-over pots etc. Burial 4: 1) Child of undetermined sex and age; height unknown (head not excavated). 2) Supine position, head to NE, in {5}, surrounded and sealed (?) by {5}. 3) Not known. 4) Possibly three or more ivory bracelets. 5) No grave goods discovered. 6)Undefined post-burial disturbances as shown by the dispersal of bracelet fragments. Burial
5: 1) Probably male adult, about 1.60 m high. 2) Supine position, head to NNE, in {5}, surrounded and sealed (?) by {5}. 3) Apparently natural. 4) A great number of shell disk-beads Type b 168
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) left side of skull and two fragments of two different stone adzes near lower right and left tibia (association of these latter finds with burial not secure); yet another category of possible grave goods includes 5 mandibles and 2 end-bits of metatarsals of medium/small mammals, probably all from different animals, found on various parts of the main skeleton (skull, upper body, pelvic region and knees) but their association with the burial is not secure as they may have been accidentally deposited on this burial in the course of a disturbance. 6) The fact that the area immediately beyond the skull is empty of pots and that several of those surrounding it are pushed over towards the outside suggests that this was the centre of an either man- or animal-made disturbance in order to get at an object buried in this particular spot; furthermore, the fragmentary and disjointed state of the skeletal remains in this burial indicate that there must have been disturbance/s, presumably water action, to bring this state about; it seems therefore reasonable to assume that this burial experienced several post-burial disturbances, the exact nature of which is not known.
adult; presumably same for the younger individual), in a large pit in {5}, Surrounded and sealed by {5}. 3) Cut (?)-marks on tibia indicate a possibly violent death. 4) A tubular object made of antler, 4 cm long and polished, found near right leg of the female skeleton, could have been part of a personal adornment. 5) Two footed bowls at left leg: Type 4Ja at foot and 4A below knee (not excavated). 6) This burial was thoroughly disturbed by a ceramic burial dug into it which was itself disturbed by unknown agents resulting in the dislocation of parts of the skeletons and the crushing of at least one skull. Burial 14: 1) Male adult, height not ascertainable (only head and uppermost body excavated). 2) Supine position, head to E, in a (natural?) trench in {5}, filled with a mixture of {4} and {5} and sealed by a thin layer of {4}. 3) Not known. 4) No personal adornment discovered. 5) Two pots next to skull: a globular bowl Type 1Ba and a small globular bowl with ring-foot Type 2A. 6) Having only been partly excavated, the extent of post-burial disturbances cannot be known but judging from the bad state of preservation of the skull such disturbances could be quite considerable; agents unknown.
Burial 9:
1) A 5 year-old boy, height about 1.10 m. 2) Supine position, head to NE, on bedrock, surrounded and sealed by {5}. 3) Not known. 4) No personal adornments discovered directly on or next to skeletal remains but the following finds made near the burial could be remnants of such adornments displaced by disturbances: a fragment each of 2 different stone bracelets at 90 cm and 60 cm distance to SW from "right wrist"; 2 shell disk-beads Types a and b at 30 cm distance to W from presumed original position of skull, and one shell disk-bead Type b found inside footed bowl Find 11, 20-30 cm beyond skull. 5) 21 pots in all; 7 beyond head: 5 footed bowls and 2 cord-marked globular bowls; 14 pots at various parts of the post-cranial body: a footed bowl with small globular bowl inside it, on chest; a large globular bowl on abdomen with footed bowl on it; foot of footed bowl originally on abdomen or left lower arm; upside-down footed bowl with two smaller pots under it, on upper legs or knees; small footed bowl on right lower leg; footed bowl next to it; large footed bowl beyond right foot with smaller footed bowl inside it; footed bowl with incised-and-pricked decoration (Type 4D) beyond left foot; and another plain footed bowl next to it. 6) Massive disturbance in the skull area (skull fragments scattered over 45 cm along axis of main skeleton) and the area between the first and the other six pots beyond head caused by root growth. Another disturbance coming from N/NE dispersing items of personal adornments.
NON-DATABLE BURIALS There are three burials/skeletons which could not at first sight be assigned to a particular burial phase and/or of which the status of Burial is altogether in doubt: Burials 6a, 10, and 10a. Burial 6a: 1) 4 year-old child of unknown sex and height. 2) Presumably supine position, head to SW, in {5}, surrounded by {5}, sealed by {4}. (While obviously not diagnostically reliable, both position and orientation could arguably be the original ones if the displacement of the body/skeleton was only over a short distance). 3) Not ascertainable. 4) 3 clusters of shell disk-beads Type d suggest adornments at "head", "left wrist" and "right wrist", with fragments of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti in all three areas, a small floridus snail in the "head" area and half a cowrie shell in the "left wrist" area; some of the Type d shell disk-beads were also found on the left side of Burial 6. 5) No grave goods of any kind could be found. 6) It is assumed that the body/skeleton was carried by water action along natural channels or
Burial 13: 1) Probably female adult and a sub-adult of undetermined sex, heights not ascertainable (upper part of skeletons not excavated). 2) Supine position, head to N (for the female 169
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand grooves in the surface of {5} to the position where it was found.
So as to reduce the number of non-datable burials by apportioning them if possible to one or the other of the established phases, the stratigraphical situation in which these burials were found must necessarily remain the only criterion as there is no pottery available to check on this matter and other items such as shell disk-beads could not be used because the same types were found in both phases. (NB: burial phase E = "Earlier", L = "Later").
Burial 10: 1) Male adult, about 30 years old, of unknown height. 2) Extended position presumed, head to ENE, in {5} on bedrock {6}, sealed by {4}. 3) Not ascertainable. 4) 2 shell disk-beads Type b near left tibia could possibly be remnants of a personal adornment but association with skeleton not secure. 5) No grave goods. 6) The skeletal remains were found in one of the "channels" in the bedrock surface running roughly W-E and next to one of the several "islands" of {5} topped by big stones; it is assumed that the skeleton, coming from W, was carried there by erosion flows, guided and eventually stopped by stones, and that its orientation could well have been similar to the original one.
Burial no 6a 10 10a
Burial phase L L L L L L L L
Sex
Stage
Age
F ? ? ? M M ? F ? ? ?
Adult/adolescent adult adult child Adult Adult Child Adult Child Infant Infant
Adol. ? ? ? ? 30‐50 4 Young 6 3 3
Stage
Age
? M ?
Child Adult Child
4 30 4
Burial phase L L E
Stratig. Surrounded {5} {5} {5}
Stratig. Sealed {4} {4} {5}
Table 3.5, Stratigraphy of non-datable burials
Discussion
Burial 10a: 1) 4 year-old child of unknown sex and height (teeth and skull fragments only) but most probably female on account of its personal adornments. 2) Orientation not ascertainable, skeletal remains found at 62 cm b.s. on {6}, surrounded on all sides by {5}. 3) Not ascertainable conical shell disk with central hole (upper part of a Conus shell) and 5 Oliva sp.shells, found amongst the teeth and skull fragments, interpreted as being remnants of head/ear/chest adornments, as is also an adult human worked (?) metacarpal shaft which could have been part of a personal adornment; a fragment of a stone bracelet, interior diameter 3.8 cm, found 50 cm to NW of skeletal remains, is likely to have also belonged to this child but its association with the skeleton is not secure. 5) No grave goods. 6) The skeleton of this child may originally have been part of Burial 10 with which it seems to share a common origin, lying in the same channel in the bedrock surface only about 1 m distant to W from where the feet of the adult skeleton would have been; in the absence of other indications that Burial 10 could have been a double burial, these skeletal remains must be considered a separate burial.
Burial no 1 2 3 4 5 6 6a 8
Sex
Of the three seemingly non-datable burials, the one which is not only surrounded but also sealed by {5} is almost certainly part of the earlier phase while the two others, both sealed by {4}, are likely to be part of the later phase although the fact that neither of them has been found in situ means that this is only on the balance of probabilities. The burials of these two phases are compared and contrasted in the manner of those of KC III, i.e. following the six-points tabulation of individual burials (1: who was buried; 2: position and soils; 3: cause of death; 4: personal adornments; 5: grave goods; 6: post-burial disturbances). After the attribution of one of the three formerly non-classifiable burials to the earlier burial phase, this phase consists of 6 burials, one of which is not in situ but its skeletal remains and personal adornments yield useful information. The later phase comprises twelve burials, one of which is a double and another a multiple burial consisting of five individuals: a young adult (=main skeleton), one child, two infants and a teenager whose post-cranial bones had probably been added only later. The following Table 3.6 shows sex, age and height of the 23 individuals of all ages buried in the two phases (17 individuals in the later and 6 in the earlier phase).
Height (m) 1.45 1.65 1.60 ? 1.50 ? ? ? ? ? ?
170
Remarks Head not excavated Skeleton extremely fragmentary Main skeleton of this multiple burial Represented mainly by teeth Represented mainly by teeth Represented mainly by teeth
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I)
9 10 13
L L L
14 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 7 10a 11 11a 12 15
L ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ E E E E E E
M M M F ? M ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ M ? M M M M
Teenager Child Adult Adult Adult ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ Adult Child Adult Adult Adult Adult
? 5 30 ? ? ? ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ ? 4 20 30.50 20‐30 30
? 1.10 ? ? ? ? ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1.60‐1.65 ? 1.60 ? ? ?
Represented mainly by post‐cranial bones only Skeleton very fragmentary Main skeleton of this double burial (upper part of both skeletons not excavated) Only head and uppermost body excavated ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ Skeleton fragmentary Teeth and skull fragments only Skeleton very fragmentary Skeleton very fragmentary Skeleton very disturbed Skeleton very disturbed
Table 3.6, Sex, age and height of 23 skeletons from 2 burial phases Discussion
compared with KC III, would of course be somewhat hasty, but the possibility that this could have been so should be taken into consideration.
1) The paucity of exact information regarding sex, age and height of the buried individuals renders any interpretation of the data unreliable and of next to no use statistically. While the age of the individuals can in most cases be, if not exactly determined, at least broadly guessed, their sex is not even known with certainty for half of them (12 out of 23) and their height, estimated for less than one-third (7 out of 23), is unknown for all the remaining individuals. All that is left to do is to draw very general conclusions in the knowledge that even these are in no way scientific or necessarily trustworthy.
2) All properly buried people were in extended supine position regardless of the burial phase. In the earlier phase their orientations were SE, SSE and S with one exception being SW; in the later phase N, NE and E with two exceptions being SW and WSW. Of the three burials originally thought to be non-classifiable, one was eventually attributed to the earlier phase because of its stratigraphical situation but neither its position nor its orientation are ascertainable; the other two are presumed to be in an extended supine position and their orientation is presumed to be SSW for one burial, and ENE for the other. It could therefore be concluded that the extended supine position has to be seen as the typical one for all burials in KC IV in whatever burial phase or orientation.
Keeping the above proviso in mind, what is most striking is the disproportion between the 6 buried individuals in 6 burials in the earlier phase and 17 individuals in 12 burials in the later phase which might indicate a denser settlement in the phase just preceding the Discontinuity than in earlier times. It could also be that a possible earlier aquatic catastrophe put an end to the first burial phase prior to a more dramatic such event which finished the use of KC IV as a cemetery for human and ceramic burials altogether.
3) In the earlier phase the cause of death was "violent" for the young adult male and not known for the other individuals of all ages including the one whose remains were not found in situ. In the later burial phase the cause of death appeared to have been natural for one of the adult males and one adult individual of unknown sex, for the female adult or adolescent it was "possibly violent" and for the five individuals in the multiple burial it was not ascertainable although the fact that there was no skull to go with the post-cranial skeletal remains of the male teenager points to his death, too, having possibly been violent. For the female adult in the double burial It was also "possibly violent" but for all the other individuals, including the two not found in situ, it was not known. Altogether a situation difficult to interpret, in particular if the aim is to compare the two burial phases as no meaningful conclusion can possibly be drawn from such sparse and disparate data. However, if the situation of both phases in KC IV (23 individuals: 4 violent/possibly violent, 2 natural, 17 not known) is compared with that of both orientations in KC III (11 individuals: 4 violent, 4 natural, 3 not known), it appears that there may not be such a fundamental difference between the societies which buried their dead in these two cemeteries in the sense of being able to say that one could have been more violent than the other.
Equally significant is the fact that there was a surprising number of infants, children and teenagers/adolescents amongst the buried people (1 out of 6 in the earlier burial phase and up to 9 out of 17 in the later one) which could be an indication of high infant mortality or of some calamities which wiped out entire families; it certainly is not a sign of peaceful village life going on for generations. With regard to the height of adult individuals of both sexes, the data are particularly sparse and potentially misleading. For the earlier phase there are only two estimates for males: 1.60-1.65 m for a young male (Burial 7) and 1.60 m for an older adult one (Burial 11). For the later phase there are no estimates for gender specific adults except 1.60 m for one presumed male (Burial 5) but two estimates of 1.65 m and 1.60 m for adults of unknown sex (Burial 2 and 3, respectively). There is one estimate of 1.45 m for the only confirmed female in the later phase (Burial 1) who could have been a young adult or an adolescent. To conclude from these meagre data that there was no discernible difference between the populations of the earlier and of the later phase of KC IV, as well as
171
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 4) Personal adornments were also not amenable to being easily categorised or used as markers in whatever field, mainly because they were so unevenly distributed and occurred in such diverse combinations and associations. Of the 6 burials in the earlier phase (7, 10a, 11, 11a, 12 and 15) four had no adornments (7, 11, 11a and 12) while two (10a and 15) had rather elaborate ones: Burial 10a (skull fragments and teeth only) had a conical disk made of the top part of a Conus shell almost identical with that worn by the "Princess" in Khok Phanom Di, five Oliva sp. shells and probably also a stone bracelet and a modified adult human metacarpal shaft; Burial 15 had 349 shell disk-beads, one rounded piece of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti and perhaps three canine teeth. Of the twelve burials in the later phase (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6a, 8, 9, 10, 13 and 14), Burials 3, 6 and 14 had no personal adornments, in the case of Burials 9, 10 and 13 the association of what could have been a personal adornment with the skeleton was not secure and the remaining six can be divided into burials whose personal adornments consist only of shell disk-beads (Burials 1 and 5) and those where they consist of, or include, marine molluscs or other clearly imported Burial no 1 2 3 4 5 6 6a 8 9 10 14 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 7 10a 11 11a 12 15
Burial phase L L L L L L L L L L L ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ E E E E E E
Sex
Stage
F ? ? ? M M ? F M M M ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ M ? M M M M
Adult Adult Adult Child Adult Adult Child Adult Child Adult Adult ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ Adult Child Adult Adult Adult Adult
Orient‐ ation SW N NE NE NE WSW SW NE NE ? E ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ SW ? SSW SSW SW S
Disk‐bead type b b d a b ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ a
objects (Burials 2, 4, 8 and 6a). The focus being on imported items, local molluscs (cf. Pseudodon mouhoti and the Cyclophoris snail) are left out in the table below. Only two tentative conclusions can be drawn from it which are that adornments including these precious imported items were (according to the sparse data) mainly, if not exclusively, worn by women or girls and that, while shell disk-beads Type a and b can be found in both phases, Type d seems to be limited to the later phase and Type c has not been found in KC IV burials at all. With regard to Nassarius, Oliva and cowrie shells, the Tridacna bead and in particular the Conus disk as part of personal adornments, there is a problem regarding chronology in the sense that there could be doubts as to whether their discovery in one phase or the other has anything to do with the dating of the burial because so far it had been thought their obvious link with Khok Phanom Di is only in a terminus a quo sense and therefore useless as time markers. This matter is further discussed infra in the section "Conclusions, Post-Discontinuity KC II: how much Continuity was there?"
Shells
Bracelets
Other
Cowrie Nassarius ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ Oliva
Ivory Clay Stone ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ stone
Tridacna bead Ivory ear plug ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ Conus shell disk
Burial pots 3 2 7 4 1 15 21 2 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
Table 3.7, Ornaments associated with burials, Early and Late Phases 5) There does not seem to be a direct relation between grave goods and personal adornments, i.e. the buried individuals with the richest personal adornments did not necessarily also have the most burial pots and vice versa. As no pottery nor other grave goods had been discovered with any of the six burials of the earlier phase, including Burial 15 with the greatest number of shell disk-beads found in KC IV, the discussion about grave goods can only concern the later phase. The eight burials of this phase (i.e. without taking into account the partly excavated Burials 4 and 14 as well as Burials 6a and 10 which consisted of very fragmentary skeletal material) have altogether 55 pots as grave goods 36 of which were in Burials 8 and 9 alone. Of these two child-burials only one had imported items amongst its personal adornments, whereas the other one (Burial 9), even richer in burial pots, had none and the number of burial pots of the third child-burial (Burial 10a of the earlier phase) which had the
most conspicuous exotic personal adornment, is not known. Of the remaining burials having burial pots, Burials 3 (7), 5 (4), 1 (3), 2 and 14 (2 each) and 6 (1), only Burial 2 had the Tridacna bead as its personal adornment but the association of this bead with the burial is not entirely secure. This unevenness in the distribution of grave goods and in particular burial pottery obviously reflects differences in the social status of the deceased but given the small sample size of burials in both phases no comments on this matter can be made. 6) Post-burial disturbances caused by natural forces are more severe and widespread in KC IV than in any other part of the site. The reason for this has to be seen in local geographical configurations which conditioned the powerful water action affecting the entire site in such a way that the "promontory" on which KC I/IV is situated was influenced more strongly by it than the relatively
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) more sheltered areas of KC II and III. This would also explain why it was only in KC IV that large parts of skeletons had been dislocated by this water action and that veritable channels or gullies can be observed in the surface of the lowest layers or bedrock. As burials of both phases are affected by what must have been truly enormous floods it stands to reason to assume that such flooding occurred at least twice during the time of human occupation of the site and/or its use as a burial place.
been standing upright inside the bowl of a footed bowl Type 4J (without foot) which thus served as a stand or support for the round-bottomed tall vessel; as the latter clearly was the main vessel to be buried, these two pots together are considered to be a Single Vessel Ceramic Burial (no. 6). This first pot (CBP. 111, Type 9 in Ho's typology) was discovered in Pit I of KC I, buried in a cavity just below the level marking the Discontinuity, the pot itself being surrounded by the rare {3A} which prompted Watson (1979: 56) to surmise that this soil was what was left of a layer washed away by erosion from the surface of which the pit for this vessel burial was dug; the human burials (at that time only one burial phase was assumed) were dug, according to Watson (ibid.), from a post-erosion layer. The pot was eventually classified as being of Type 2Ca, because of its ring-foot and it was also found that the human burials, even of the later burial phase, were of pre-Discontinuity times.
3.4 Ceramic Burials Like in KC III, there are two kinds of interments of pots without skeletons in KC IV: Single Vessel and Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials. From the experience gained at KC I and KC II, we concluded that vessels of the first category were of a type never found in human burials (of a different shape and with incised-and-impressed decoration, lower body cord-marked), while in the second category there were only ordinary burial or domestic pots interred on their own. The point was also made that ceramic burials of the Single Vessel type were relatively easy to identify, whereas the identification of Vessel Cluster ceramic burials could be more difficult because of possible misinterpretation of the evidence in disturbed soils or incomplete excavations.
Singly buried vessels (confirmed or assumed) in Khok Charoen. 1) Pot "111" (KC IV, E3):
According to these observations it was clear that there were ceramic burials of the first kind in both KC I and KC II but those of the second kind seemed to occur only in KC II although it is still doubtful whether these vessel clusters constitute a well-defined category. In KC III, on the other hand, there were no signs of ceramic burials of either kind and no pot was found which was sufficiently special to have possibly been buried on its own; the two most spectacular pots of the pre-Discontinuity period, large tetrapod bowls Type 8A, were in (human) Burials 8 and 9 as grave goods. In addition to single vessel and vessel cluster ceramic burials, there is also one burial complex containing six vessels (in a row, with a gap in the middle) in KC IV the nature of which is obscure ("The Unclassifiable Burial"). Single Vessels
Illustration 3.141, KCIV, E3, Pot “111”
In KC IV, where the first Single Vessel Ceramic Burial, that of a tall cylindrical vessel with vertical direct rim, round bottom and added ring-foot (Ho 1984, II: Figs. 3.2, 11.13, 68) was found, the subsequent discovery of similar vessels showed that pots found in circumstances indicating or suggesting that they had been buried on their own are all of the tall round-bottomed restricted vessel type with a more or less pear-shaped (from almost cylindrical to gourd-shaped) large body and everted rim but no ring-foot. They thus belong to our Class 1 but, following the Non Nok Tha typology, if a pot of the same shape has an added ring-foot, it belongs to Class 2. Both forms, i.e. with and without ring-foot, have been found interred vertically on their own in deep individual pits. In one instance such a tall vessel of Type 1Ma had probably
Large jar-like vessel Type 2Ca. Cylindrical body with round bottom to which a ring-foot was added. Straight vertical direct rim, rounded on top. Narrow almost horizontal shoulder with rectangular carination. Grey-brown ware with orange wash. Rim, shoulder and the uppermost 1.5 cm of body plain but burnished or polished. Another plain burnished band of 1.5 cm width, 12 cm below the first, forms the lower limit of a decorative field of two superimposed horizontal “S” or “Z”-figures formed of the same 1.5 cm wide bands filled with small "walking-shell" impressions; remaining spaces are left plain and burnished. Lower body including bottom coarsely (4:10) but
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand carefully cord-marked. Added ring-foot again plain and burnished like the rim. Found in N-corner of E3 in a pit apparently dug from {4} into {5}, filled with {3A} around the pot. Exact depth not recorded but according to the nearest available section drawing (E4-"N") it must have been from about 30 cm to 60 cm b.s. Pot almost complete (part of rim missing), broken into mainly large sherds. H: 33.5; Hr: 6; Hc (from top): 6.9; Hf: 2.6; Wr: 13; Wn: 13; Wc: 18; Wm: 19.7; Wbf: 13; Wtf: 12.2; On: 11.4; Thw: 0.3-0.9; Wgt: 1,750.
Inside vessel burnished. Found in E-corner of F4 upright in a circular pit about 10 cm wider on all sides than the pot itself, dug from {5} (?) into {6} and filled with a mixture of {5} and {6} around the pot. Compacted to less than two-thirds of its height, the rim was at 45 cm b.s. in {5} and the bottom at 74 cm b.s. in {6}. About two-thirds preserved, broken evenly into numerous medium sherds, no point of impact. Half of rim and one-thirds of body missing, including a large part of bottom on one side. H: 48; Hr: 3; Hc: 4.2 (from top); Wr: 17; Wn: 13; Wc: 19.5; Wm: 26.5; On: 11.4; Thw: 0.5-0.9; Wgt: 2,500. A large stone adze made of light grey-green fine-grained rock, polished to a high sheen and showing no traces of use (item 156, F4), was found lying horizontally on a ledge in the pit at 70 cm b.s. near bottom of pot. Length: 10.4; Width max.: 5.3; Thickness: 2.2; Weight: 200. There were also some small fragments of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti at the bottom of this pot (item 157, F4), a fresh water mussel probably used as personal adornment. (NB: this pot was TL dated to "Apparent Age: 3190 years B.P." on 13 December 1978, by Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, A.N.U., Test No. 1069; the year of the firing of this pot would thus have been about 1212 BC.)
2) Pot "X" (KC IV, F4):
3) Pot "R" (KC IV, F6): (See Illustration 3.143 below for this pot) Large jar-like vessel Type 1M. Pear-shaped body with round bottom. Everted rim, rounded on top. Horizontal shoulder with rectangular carination. Buff ware, mid-brown in break. Fine sand temper. Rim plain but burnished inside and outside. Shoulder covered with "walking-shell" impression all around, leaving incised marks on lower lip of rim. From shoulder carination 6 circle segments of 11 cm length protrude at least 3.5 cm downwards, covered with 3 horizontal rows of slightly left leaning vertical "walking-shell" impressions and delimitated by a fine incised line; left-over space plain but burnished. Although there is no more information about the incised decoration below the 3.5 cm mark, the fact that this pot is very similar to Pot "X" in many respects (size, shape, method of decoration etc.) allows the assumption that the form of the decoration would also have been similar to that of the other pot, i.e. occupying only the uppermost part of the body, while the rest of it is simply cord-marked. The few lower body and bottom sherds recovered support this assumption as their cord-marking is also coarse (3.5: 10) but carefully applied. Inside body also burnished.
Illustration 3.142, KCIV, F4, Pot “X” Large jar-like vessel Type 1M. Pear-shaped body with round bottom. Everted rim, rounded on top. Horizontal shoulder with rectangular carination. Dark buff ware, grey-brown in break. Fine magnetite granules in paste. Rim plain but burnished inside and outside. On shoulder two circular bands of small "walking-shell" impressions. Uppermost part of body, from carination to 8 cm below it, covered with an incised decorative motif consisting of two plain narrow bands on either side from which protrude towards the middle 4 circle segments from top and 4 from the bottom, leaving an oddly-shaped band between them with 4 small almond-shaped fields in the centres of the 4 more open spaces thus left. Circle segments and almond-shaped fields are filled with vertical "walking-shell" impressions while the bands are plain but burnished. From this decorative ensemble downwards, body coarsely (3:10) but carefully vertically cord-marked.
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) vessel Type 1M, 1Ma or another still unknown sub-type (the only sherds found were lower body/bottom-sherds showing a carination not observed in other such vessels). Several large sherds forming almost the entire bottom and parts of lower body found at 45 cm b.s. in a disturbed area in the W-corner of E5 where the top of a pit dug from {4} and filled with a mixture of {4} and {5} reaches 35 cm b.s. but is sealed by a layer of pure {4}. This position is interpreted as meaning that the pot was in situ but that its body above 10 cm was swept away at the level of the surface of {5}. Coarsely (3.5:10) but carefully cord-marked. The only measurements available are Hc (from bottom): 5.5; Wm: 20; Thw: ?-1; Wgt: 900. 6) Pot "C1" (KC IV, E4):
Illustration 3.143, KCIV, F6, Pot “R” Sherds of this pot were found in "E"-baulk of F6 from 20-60 cm b.s. (i.e. from {3} to {6} with concentration in the 40-50 cm b.s. band (only {6}); one body sherd was found lying next to left hip of Burial 7 and a large bottom piece came from F4, 40-50 cm b.s. in {5}. It is very likely that the original position of this pot was outside (W or SW of) the excavated area, in {5} or {6} whence sherds of it were carried into the F-row of cuttings. Only about one-sixth of vessel found, broken into 20 medium sherds, from rim/uppermost body and from lowest body/bottom; the main part of body is lost but can be virtually restored from diagnostic sherds. H: c. 47; Hr: 3; Hc (from top): 3.2; Wr: 17; Wn: 13; Wc: 21.5; Wm: c. 29; On: 11; Thw: 0.4(?)-1; Wgt: 750.
Illustration 3.144, KCIV, E4, Pot “C1” Large jar-like vessel Type 1Ma. Pear-shaped body with round bottom.Narrow diagonal shoulder, rim missing. Dark ochre/brick-coloured ware, sand tempered. Shoulder decorated with band of “S” or”Z” figures, delimited above carination by a thin incised horizontal line. From carination down to 7 cm below it, incised decoration consisting of elongated leaf-shaped and rectangular fields delineated by thin incised lines and filled with "walking-shell" impressions, the remaining space plain but burnished. A 1.5 cm-wide plain burnished horizontal band separates this decoration from the very coarse (2:10) but carefully and regularly applied vertical cord-marking which covers the entire body including bottom. (NB: notable similarity in decorative elements with Pot “A3” KC IV, E4, SUP-1, No. 39, part of VCCB 6).
4) Pot "Ra" (KC IV, E6): Presumably large jar-like vessel Type 1M (only part of round bottom found which corresponds in size, wall thickness and cord-marking to other Type 1M pots found in KC IV rather than those of Type 1Ma). One large bottom sherd found in the 0-20 cm b.s.-spit of E6, i.e. in {1}, {2} or {3}; exact location not recorded. Coarsely (3:10) but carefully cord-marked. The only measurements available are Wm: 24; Thw: ?-0.9.
Found intermingled with sherds of Pot "C2" (a large cord-marked footed bowl Type 4J, foot missing) near
5) Pot "Rb" (KC IV, E5): Presumably large jar-like
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand centre of cutting (1.30 m N, 1.80 m W) 60-75 cm b.s. entirely in {5} but in a disturbed context. Considering the fact that the rim of Pot "C1" is missing and that sherds of its upper body are small, worn and crumbly whereas those of its lower body are much larger and have sharp breaks, it seems logical to surmise that it stood originally upright and in situ in this particular location before its top was exposed and disturbed. The fate of Pot "C2" is more difficult to evaluate as sherds of its bowl were lying partly above Pot "C1" although they are well preserved and large. Moreover, Pot "C1" having what seems to be an artificial hole of about 8 cm in diameter in the bottom, was very probably originally standing inside the bowl of Pot "C2" and the two pots were toppled together by an unknown force. About one-quarter of vessel preserved. H (to base of rim): c. 37 (as rim was probably 3 cm high, an overall height of about 40 cm can be assumed); Hc (from broken-off rim down): 0.8; Wn: 16; Wc: 17.6; Wm: 28; On: 14; Thw: 0.5-0.9; Wgt: 800.
delimited by a thin incised line, separates this entire decorative field from the finely (7:10) generally vertical cord-marked middle and lower body including round bottom. The obvious care with which this cord-marking is applied contrasts with the apparently careless execution of the incised decoration above it: crooked lines, unevenly or wrongly joined, dots put at random and in different sizes (i.e. different depth of impression), variable dimensions of motifs etc. The vessel was found upright, about 10 cm distant (to SW) from a heap of 4 large stones, without signs of a pit, near the centre of "E"-half of E4, in {4} near or on the surface of {5}, its height having been compressed to 20 cm, from 70-50 cm b.s. Almost one-half of vessel preserved vertically, the NE-half (towards stone heap) missing, top part very disturbed (fragments of rim preserved but section between rim and upper body missing). Extant parts of pot broken into about 50 medium sherds and numerous smaller ones towards the bottom where they are tiny and crumbly. This fact speaks against this vessel being in situ, although its upright position suggests so; the vessel could well have been carried by flood flows to the location against the stones after it had already been disturbed elsewhere. No firm conclusion could be reached concerning this matter. H: c. 35; Hr: 2.5; Wr: 11.8; Wn: 9.7; Wm: 21; On: 8.2; Thw: 0.3-0.6; Wgt: 800.
7) Pot "B" (KC IV, E4):
8) Pot "Q" (KC IV, G7?):
Illustration 3.145, KCIV, E4, Pot “B” Large jar-like vessel Type 1Ma. Pear-shaped body with round bottom. Everted outcurving restricted rim, soft rounded shoulder/carination. Dark ochre ware. From shoulder to 8 cm below it and delimited on either side by a thin incised horizontal line, there is a burnished field with 5 pairs of circle segments of thin incised lines standing on or hanging down from their respective delimiting horizontal lines facing each-other with incised circles or ovals in the centres of the diamond-shaped left-over spaces; circle segments and circles or ovals are filled with irregularly placed large impressed dots. A 0.5 cm-wide plain burnished horizontal band,
Illustration 3.146, KCIV, G7?, Pot “Q” Large jar-like vessel Type 1Ma. Pear-shaped body with round bottom. Rim missing. Soft rounded shoulder/carination. Ochre-grey ware with orange wash outside, almost black in break. Below neck (marked by a thin incised horizontal line) a 1 cm-wide plain burnished band is followed by another narrow band incised with right-leaning diagonal striations which forms the upper border of a 3.5 cm-wide 176
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) burnished field filled with 12 incised geometric "bow-tie" motifs. Below this field there is yet another narrow plain burnished band the lower line of which marks the beginning of fine (5:10) and carefully applied cord-marking covering the entire body below, including round bottom. Body burnished inside. Sherds from this vessel have been found all along from F6 to F4 (and most probably also in F5, the old Pit II of KC I, where they were not recorded) in the following manner. In F6, decorated and cord-marked sherds from 30-50 cm b.s. (in {4} and {5}) as well as one cord-marked sherd inside footed bowl Find 23 of Burial 9; in F4, decorated sherds from 40-60 cm b.s. (only in {5}) and cord-marked ones, including large bottom-sherds, at "lower body" of Burial 6a, at right shoulder and at, as well as under, right femur of Burial 6. The most likely scenario would thus be that this Pot "Q" came originally from an area W of F6 (perhaps G7, the old Pit III of KC I), was transported through F6 where it shed much of its decorated upper body, over the foot-end of Burial 9 and through F5 until finally most of its lower body and bottom came to rest near Burials 6 and 6a while some small sherds even travelled further to E. Only about one-sixth of vessel preserved, broken irregularly into sherds of different sizes. There are signs that parts (centre?) of the bottom could have been broken or sawn off in the form of a disk of about 13 cm diameter. H (to neck): 37.5; Wn: 13.2; Wc: 18.5; Wm: 25.4; On: 11.8; Thw: 0.4-0.8; Wgt: 850.
10) Pot "148" (KC II, Burial 46, Find 1):
Illustration 3.147, KCII, Pot “148” Large vessel of Type 10 (Ho's typology). Gourd-shaped body. Everted short restricted rim, flat diagonally falling shoulder and sharp rectangular carination. Uppermost body to about 10 cm below carination covered with bold incised triangular motifs filled with cord-marks. Body thereunder medium (5:10) vertically cord-marked down to bottom. Found upright interred on its own in a square pit. Only upper body, including shoulder and rim, as well as bottom preserved, i.e. about three-quarters of vessel, broken irregularly in very few large (at top) and numerous medium and small sherds further down; lower middle part of globular body missing. H: c. 35.5; Hr: c. 1; Hc (from top): c. 2.2; Wr: 11.8; Wn: c. 8; Wc: c. 15.2; Wm: 27.6 (?); On: c. 7; Thw: c. 0.4-0.8; Wgt: 1,500.
9) Pot "153" (KC IV, G7?): Parts of rim, neck, shoulder and upper body of a vessel of Type 1M (4 large and several smaller sherds fitting together, as well as one large unconnected body sherd constituting together about one-eighth of entire pot). Pear-shaped body. Low everted outcurving restricted rim, rounded on top. Horizontal shoulder with rectangular carination. Dark buff ware, very weathered. Shoulder and uppermost part of body to at least 10 cm below carination decorated with unidentifiable incised/impressed motifs. Coarse vertical cord-marking on body below. Found on left side of skeleton Burial 5 as Find 4 (upper part of vessel) near left knee and Find 7 (the large body sherd) where missing left foot would have been. Stray finds, not part of burial pottery; most probably transported there by water action from outside (N or W of) the excavated area. Measurements arrived at from the sherds composing Finds 4 and 7, complemented by those extrapolated from more complete pots of the same type and dimensions (="c."). H: c. 45; Hr: 1.5; Hc (from top): 2.5; Wr: 11.8; Wn: 10.4; Wc: 18; Wm: c. 28; On: 8.8;Thw: c. 0.5-0.9; Wgt (of complete pot): c. 2,500.
11) Pot "154" (KC II, Burial 47, Find 1): Large vessel of Type 10 (Ho's typology). Same shape and possibly also same size as Pot "148" (Ho 1984, I: 263). Body gourd-shaped but lower body wider and more flattened spherically than that of Pot "148". Entire vessel also less high. Bottom missing, presumably round. Measurements approximate only. H: c. 30; Wc: c. 12; Wm: c. 29; Wgt: c. 1,500. Discussion The first observations to be made are that all Type 1M vessels (or parts thereof) excavated in KC IV, except for Pot "Ra" (no. 4), were in the pre-Discontinuity layers {4} or even {5}, regardless of whether they were of the M or Ma type and whether they were of Class 1 or 2, and that none of them was in any way associated with a burial of either burial phase. There are also no signs of the pit for these vessels having been dug from any other layer than
Two similar vessels found in KC II (referred to in Chapter 2) should be added to this list:
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand soil {4}. Post-Discontinuity societies in the area seem not to have practised the burying of single vessels. Secondly, the burying of single vessels was a phenomenon restricted to KC IV as there were no such ceramic burials in KC III and the only vessels buried in this way in KC II (Pots "148" and "154") were suggested to be local copies in all respects: decoration, shape and also function, of Pot "111" from KC I/IV (Ho 1984, I: 51). Thus, the very idea of single vessel ceramic burials would have come from KC IV. However, how and when this idea could have been transmitted from KC IV to KC II is not clear as the potter who produced Pot "148" and/or Pot "154" is unlikely to have seen Pot "111" with her own eyes, and as of all the pots in single vessel ceramic burials in KC IV, it was the one with the least resemblance to this presumed copy. Pot "148", with its flat flaring rim and globular lower body, looks much more like one of the more typical 1M-type vessels such as Pots "X", "R", "C1" or "Q" (unknown to Ho at the time of writing her thesis), rather than the cylindrical Pot "111" with its collar-like direct rim. Pot "154" with a still more spherical lower body and a pronounced gourd-like appearance makes the acceptance of this theory still more difficult. Moreover, only one of these two vessels (Pot "148") is decorated but with a coarse version of a motif which does not appear on Pot "111", nor in any way resembles a motif on this pot.
identical shape were buried in KC IV. Whether this means that the pots in KC IV and their mode of interment were inspired by what had happened earlier in the field which became KC II when there were no human burials around, whether both these developments had been initiated by some outside group or groups of people (the KC II pots seem to be of local manufacture whereas those of KC IV are clearly imported), or whether there is still another solution to this problem can only be decided by precise dating of the pots involved. In the dating of Pots "148" and "154" is made easier by the fact that each of these upright vessels was found covered by a lid in the form of an upside-down smaller bowl the age of which can be approximately ascertained. These lids are a carinated cord-marked bowl Type 1F for Pot "148" and a footed bowl (without foot) of an unknown type, decorated "in an unusual pattern" (Ho 1984, I: 228) for Pot "154". There are five Type 1F pots known from KC IV, four of which were found in stratified deposits (two each in {4} and {5}) and one as a component of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 1 which was dug, like almost certainly all such ceramic burials in KC IV, from {4}. As to the decorated footed bowl, it cannot be of a type current in KC II which were well known to Ho but must also originate from a pre-Discontinuity source in or near Khok Charoen, possibly even KC III. There, a footed bowl Type 4Eb was found in a burial (Burial 7, Find 2) which is not only decorated in such a simple manner that it can be assumed to be at the beginning of the development towards a more elaborate system of incised decoration for footed bowls but also has roughly the same dimensions as the bowl used as lid.
However, as Ho herself points out (Ho 1984, I: 227-228), both these pots in KC II, "148" as well as "154", were found in individual pits dug from the surface of Layer 4, through the layer and with their bottoms in Layer 5. This Layer 4 was originally called by Watson Layer IV or soil 4 (Soils B) and surmised to be the equivalent of the soil from the surface of which the only then known vessel deposit or jar burial was cut (Watson 1979: 57, 56). As noted in the section on soils at the beginning of the chapter on KC IV, in order to facilitate comparison between the different parts of the site it became necessary to adjust the nomenclature of soils/layers to their characteristics rather than their sequence within the local deposits. For KC II this means that what is called Layer 4 there does not correspond to soil {4} in KC IV but to the (there) non-existing one above it while {4} itself is in reality what is called 5 in KC II which in turn is bedrock in KC IV. Regrettably, it was not practicable to renumber the KC II layers accordingly, as had been done in KC III and IV.
It can therefore be taken as proven that the two "jar burials" of KC II have nothing to do with this part of the site or its burials, that they date from pre-Discontinuity times and that their origin, both in terms of inspiration and manufacture remains to be elucidated. The question of whether chronologically differentiated phases of single vessel ceramic burials could have existed within the general framework of pre-Discontinuity times is difficult to answer because of confusing and scanty data without common denominators. Of the nine vessels, only three (Pots "111", "X" and "C1") were found in situ, one more (Pot "B") only possibly so, while the origin of the remaining five (Pots "R", "Ra", "Rb", "Q" and "153") remains obscure and was very probably outside the excavated area. Of the three secure in situ pots, one (Pot "111") was of a unique type, the second (Pot "X") was Type 1M and the third (Pot "C1") Type 1Ma; only one of them (Pot "X") was connected with {5}, the other two only with {4} although traces of {3A} were discovered with Pot "111". As the stratigraphical origin of the remaining six vessels is not known for certain (Pots "B" and "Q" are clearly in {4}, the others go down into {5}), the only tentative conclusion to be drawn is that the custom of singly burying ornate pots (doubtlessly made especially for this purpose) independently from human burials and by different settlers from those who buried their dead there, lasted most likely only during the period of the deposition
This reappraisal signifies that the pits for the two Pots "148" and "154" were dug from and through the lowest (sterile) layer above bedrock and into the latter, thereby demonstrating a chronological situation different from what had been suggested by Ho. Taking into account that these two pots are of a much simpler make than the more sophisticated vessels constituting the nine single vessel ceramic burials of KC IV, it now appears that it must have been the other way round. Instead of the idea of single vessel ceramic burials and the shape of pots thus buried having spread from KC IV to KC II at an undefined time, these two isolated pear-shaped pots buried in their individual pits at the edge of what much later became a post-Discontinuity burial ground have been there even before those nine elongated pots of a similar but not 178
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) of {4}, from its beginning after a minor natural calamity to the Discontinuity; Pot "111" would have been the last in this series just before the major flood.
Pot "B":
Vessel Clusters Vessel cluster ceramic burials occur in three forms in KC IV: as a veritable cluster or pile-up, as a loose assemblage of pots (in a vaguely linear arrangement or no recognisable arrangement at all, where it is sometimes impossible to know whether these pots are individually interred, in small groups of two or three or the entire assemblage in one common trench) or as single vessels found in circumstances suggesting that they had either originally been part of a cluster or had been singly buried in the style of a cluster.
Illustration 3.149, KCIV, E6, VCCB 1, Pot “B” Large globular bowl Type 1J. Slightly flattened spherical body. Large everted outcurving restricted rim, rounded on top. Buff ware, dark grey in break, orange surface (wash?). Rim and neck plain inside and outside, smoothed but not burnished. On shoulder two fine incised lines 2 cm apart, the space in between being filled with an incised decoration made with a small shell (but not "walking shell"). The field between the lower incised line and the beginning, 5 cm below it, of cord-marking, contains an incised decoration motif consisting of six semicircles based on the line where the cord-marking begins, leaving on top slightly curved triangular spaces in which are placed incised triangles filled with the same shell impressions as those on the shoulder. Body from there on coarsely (3:10) cord-marked, slightly vertically curved, i.e. left-leaning on the upper part of lower body and gradually turning into right-leaning towards bottom. Found upright, the second of three pots (from "S" to "N"), top at 42 cm b.s. in {4} on the surface of {5}.
Altogether there are 10 such "clusters" (in whatever form), listed here by cuttings from NW to SE in the excavated area of KC IV. 1) Vessels in E6: Three pots close together in a triangular disposition near W-corner of cutting: Pots "A", "B" and "C". All three in {4}, sitting on the surface of {5}. Pot "A":
Illustration 3.148, KCIV, VCCB 1, E6, Pot “A” Carinated globular bowl Type 1F. Upper body truncated conical, lower body hemispherical. Everted straight restricted rim, rounded on top. Dark ochre ware, darker in break. Rim and upper body to 2 cm below neck plain. Body from there on downwards coarsely (3:10) cord-marked, vertically but slightly left-leaning on upper body and right-leaning below carination. Found upright, the "S"-most in a group of 3 pots. Top at 52 cm b.s. but still in {4}, on the surface of {5} (the other two pots of this cluster are slightly higher). Almost complete, except for one-half of rim and some small body-sherds, amounting to not more than about one-sixth of entire vessel. Broken in numerous small and medium sherds in a pattern of concentric circles indicating that breakage occurred as result of compaction rather than sudden disturbance. H: 12; Hr: 1.2; Hc: 5.6; Wr: 12.6; Wn: 11; Wc/m: 17.3; On: 9.8; Thw: 0.4-1; Wgt: 540.
Illustration 3.150, KCIV, Pot “B”, underneath view (Discussed in next paragraph)
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Almost complete, except for parts of lower body (towards "W") and small parts of rim, together not more than about one-sixth of entire vessel. Body broken in numerous medium and small sherds with possible sign of impact on side where parts of body are missing. There may also have been another impact on rim parts of which are missing on same side.
which was obviously applied after the impressions. Lower body cord-impressed. Found upright, the third of three pots (from "S" to "N"), top at 41 cm b.s. in {4} on the surface of {5}. Very fragmentary, only upper part of vessel partly preserved. Rim almost entirely and upper body only partly preserved to allow reconstruction to about mid-body. Lower body only an assemblage of innumerable small and crumbly sherds. Preserved part not more than one-sixth of entire vessel. H: c. 30; Hr: 6.8; Hc (from top): 7; Wr: 13; Wn: 14; Wc: 17; Wm: c. 31.5; On: 12.2; Thw: 0.3-0.8(?); Wgt: c. 600.
H: 21; Hr: 5; Hc (i.e. beginning of cord-marking): 10.5; Wr: 15.4; Wn: 10.8; Wm: 21.8; On: 9.2; Thw: 0.4-0.9; Wgt: 1,300.
Pot "C":
Vessels in F4: There is a loose row of 7 interred vessels stretching from W to NE across the "W"-half of the cutting: Pots "A", "B", "B2", "C", "C2", "E" and "G". As the disturbed condition of this particular area did not allow determination of the way these pots were buried (singly, in small groups or together in a common pit), it was considered more prudent to allocate individual cluster numbers to whatever pot or group of pots to have most likely constituted a plausible sub-unit within this long row. 2) F4: Pot "A":
Illustration 3.151, KCIV, E6, VCCB 1, Pot “C” Large globular bowl Type 1L (only upper body and rim restorable). Spherical body truncated on top, forming a small shoulder platform out of which rises vertically a cylindrical direct rim, rounded on top. Ochre ware, dark brown in break, orange surface (slip or wash?). Rim and upper body to 13 cm below shoulder covered by a complex decoration, incised into a polished surface, consisting of geometric fields filled with orderly "walking-shell" impressions. On rim, these are two pairs of circle segments facing each-other (i.e. from top and base of rim), leaving a somewhat diamond-shaped free space on either side into which a horizontal almond-shaped motif is placed (a decorative ensemble found in the same form on at least two of the singly buried vessels of Type 1M, Pots "X" and "R", and in another variant on a third, Pot "B", as well as in other pots of Type 1L, 2C and 4K). Below shoulder are three bands (one single band and a double one below) of rectangles divided diagonally into triangles which are alternatively filled with shell impressions or left plain, thus creating a cross-like pattern which is also characteristic for some other pots of KC IV. Below these three bands, another one is filled with 12 almond-shaped motifs much like those on the rim but on their own. There are traces of a red (hematite) slip on fields with shell impressions
Illustration 3.152, KCIV, F4, VCCB 3, Pot “A” Large globular bowl Type 1I Spherical body. Straight cylindrical neck, everted incurving rim, flattened on top. Reddish-ochre ware, dark grey-brown in break. Rim outside underneath decorated with short right-leaning incised lines, neck plain. Upper body to 6 cm below neck covered with two rows of vertical "walking-shell" impressions Below that, down to mid-body, the main decorative motif consists of three incised horizontal lines as upper and lower delimitation of a field in which there are six Gothic arches made of the same three lines and based on the lower set of horizontal lines. Lower body finely 180
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) (5.5:10) and regularly vertically cord-marked with increasing cross-cording towards bottom. Situated in W-corner of cutting, the extant parts of the vessel on the W-side. Upright but slightly tilted towards SW. Probably in situ. In {4} on surface of {5}. Only about one-sixth of body preserved on one side, of rim and neck about three-quarters. Apart from the neck, where there are large sherds, sherds of the body wall are quite small. The side on which the pot seemed to be lying is simply missing, presumably removed by powerful water action (the pot was situated next to a channel formed by such action). H: 29.5; Hr (and neck): 4; Hc/s: 22; Wr: 17; Wn: 12.7; Wm: 34; On: 11.2; Thw: 0.2-0.8; Wgt: 700.
Large globular bowl Type 1H. Spherical body without carination or shoulder. Everted straight restricted rim, pointed on top. Buff ware, grey-brown in break, orange surface (wash?). Fine sand temper. From rim down finely (6:10) cord-marked, upper body vertically, from mid-body onwards more cross-corded. Inside body and inside and outside rim plain but carefully smoothed. W-most of the group of four pots constituting this Cluster. Not restorable. Only about one-eighth of vessel preserved, medium and small sherds mainly from rim and uppermost body as well as some from bottom (enough for a virtual restoration). However, it seems that much of the bottom and of the S-side of the pot is missing. H: c. 30; Hr: 1.5; Wr: 21; Wn: 18.5; Wm: c. 35.6; On: 15.4; Thw: 0.4-0.7; Wgt: 460. Associated finds: 42 shell disk-beads Type d and one Type b, inside pot but could be infill (item 73), a retouched tektite flake (same, item 74), some small human rib fragments and fragments of phalanx or scapula (same, item 75) and several small cord-marked sherds as well as 3 more shell disk-beads Type d (item 76) found under the pot. Some of these cord-marked sherds may belong to Pot "B2" but some others certainly not, because they are black inside (which Pot "B2" is not) and have also been found further to NE in a situation which strongly suggests that they had been transported in a W-NE direction from an original situation probably outside the excavated area. The same is true concerning shell disk-beads Type d, 39 of which had been found inside Pot "B" and 3 under it. These disk-beads have also been found in various locations towards NE and obviously the same considerations apply to them. The fact that these objects were found under Pot "B" could either mean that this pot had come to rest on them after having been shifted by natural forces into this position or that, the pot being in situ there, a channel of water flow had developed in such a way that it deposited sherds and disk-beads seemingly under the pot after having washed away much of its S-side and bottom. In view of the fact that Pot "A" also had its S-side missing and that various displaced objects clearly show that such a channel must indeed have run in a W-NE direction just S of these two pots, the second possibility is the more likely one.
3) F4: Pots "B", ("B2"), and "C" ("C2"). These four pots were found very close together in what looked like a pit in {5} or even {5C}, filled with {4} or a mixture of {4} and {5}, as 2nd to 5th in the row of 7 pots in the "W"-half of the cutting, separated from Pot "A" by 30 cm and from Pot "E" by 40 cm; they were therefore considered a cluster in their own right although two of these pots were clearly not in situ. They are Pot "B2", a globular bowl Type 1Ab, the sherds of which were intermingled with those of Pot "B", and Pot "C2", a carinated bowl Type 1F, sherds of which were found scattered near and under Pot "C". Both are likely to have been transported to the place where they have been found by the same current which brought various remains coming from W in contact, mainly by partly undercutting them, with the larger pots in situ in this particular area, such as Pots "A", "B" and "C". Thus, Pots "B2" and "C2" cannot have been part of this vessel cluster burial and have to be deducted from it. As Type 1Ab (but not Type 1F) occurs in burials, Pot "B2" has been moved to the category of non-attributable burial pottery and Pot "C2" to that of domestic pottery, leaving Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 5 with only Pots "B" and "C". Pot "B":
Illustration 3.153, KCIV, F4, VCCB 3, Pot “B”
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Pot "C":
Illustration 3.154, KCIV, F4, VCCB 3, Pot “C”
Illustration 3.155, KCIV, F4, Shouldered adze
Huge globular bowl Type 1Ha. Hemispherical lower and middle body, upper one-third of body truncated conical. Everted outcurving restricted rim with a double S-profile outside, producing a very small shoulder at the base of rim. Buff ware, dark grey-brown in break. Very coarsely (1.5:10) cord-marked from shoulder down, vertically and carefully applied in spite of its coarseness. Found on edge, opening to E, about 10 cm NE of Pot "B". Not restorable. Only part of one side of upper body and rim found, broken into numerous medium and small sherds (not more than one-eighth of entire vessel); missing side to SE. H: c. 36.5; Hr: 3; Hc (from top): 3.5; Wr: 24; Wn: 19.5; Wc: 20.5; Wm: c. 46; On: 16; Thw: 0.4-1.8; Wgt: 2,000. Associated finds: 15 small bone fragments (human long-bones?), 5 shell disk-beads Type d and one Type a, under Pot "C" (item 85); a shouldered stone adze, grey chert with dark grey patches, found lying, cutting edge to N, between Pots "B" and "C", Length: 6.3 cm, Width: 4 cm, found together with small bone fragments (probably not human), fragments of a large mammal molar and one shell disk-bead Type d (item 82); half a cowrie shell without back (cut off artificially?), found on surface of Pot "C" (item 80); a small piece of wood, 2.5x1.5 cm, found under Pot "C" at 50 cm b.s. in {5}, worked: possibly part of a spear (item 91). (Some finds illustrated below).
Illustration 3.156, KCIV, F4, Wood under Pot “C”
Illustration 3.157, KCIV, F4, Cowrie shell next to Pot “C”
Illustration 3.158, KCIV, F4, Part Cowrie shell on top of Pot “C”
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) 4) F4: Pot "E".
of peninsula formed by two converging flood streams which carried other pots or parts thereof, items of personal adornments and skeletal remains in an E-direction away from their original position. Yet, the fact that the rim and neck of this vessel were missing, that the remaining top part of the body was found sunken into the lower body and that there were finds inside or on top of this vessel (filled with {4}) suggests that it might have been affected by some natural force other than mere compacting, such as water flowing over it again after it had been exposed by a previous flood. In turn, this could mean that flooding took place more than once but at an unknown time. About five-sixths of body preserved, broken into a great number of small sherds, none of which is larger than 5x5 cm, in a circular pattern with a clear break at mid-body. Entire neck and rim missing, having been cut off intentionally (judging by the straight and smooth break). H (body only): 32; Wn: 17.4; Wm: 41; On: 16; Thw: 0.5-1; Wgt: c. 3,600. Associated finds: 14 shell disk-beads Type d; some small long-bone fragments and a vertebra of a Varanus, showing butchering marks; two snail shells, one astragalus of a small/medium cervid and one almost complete valve of cf. Contradens contradens. These objects were found on, in or next to Pot "E" on its S-part and at least some of them are possibly connected with Burial 6a.
Illustration 3.159, Pot KCIV, F4, VCCB 3, “E” Large globular vessel Type 1L. Spherical body. Neck (presumably cylindrical) and rim (presumably direct vertical) missing. Ochre ware, dark ochre in break. Vessel outside divided, at mid-body, between an upper part bearing an elaborate incised decoration on a smoothed/polished background, and a lower cord-marked part, the division between the two being an incised horizontal line of 1.5 mm width. Using this line as a base, there are ten incised segments 12 cm long and 2 cm high, limited on top by a crescent-shaped continuous line and filled with 6 or 7 crescent-shaped dotted lines made by a pencil-like instrument. About 2.5 cm above the base-line for these decorative motifs there is another deeply incised horizontal line delimiting the next decorative field above which is filled by 7 oval-shaped medallions, each delimited by the same incised line and filled by a series of incised dots linked by straight lines to each-other in a zig-zag way to produce a saw-tooth pattern. Perhaps because the distance between these 7 ovals had not been calculated precisely enough (or for a different reason), there is on one side a gap of 8 cm between two medallions which is filled by a plain upright rectangle, 6x5 cm, delimited by the same kind of incised lines. The field above, i.e. from 1.5-5 cm below the line of the missing neck and rim, delimited on either side by the same deep incised lines, is filled by two saw-tooth lines obtained in the same fashion as in the medallions below except that they are more regular and nearer to each-other. Lower body very coarsely (2:10) cord-marked, essentially vertically but applied with evident care to produce a V-shaped pattern by alternating slightly left-leaning with slightly right-leaning impressions within a 6 cm-high register; this model is then repeated two more times down to the very bottom of the vessel. Found upright in about the centre of the "W"-half of the cutting, apparently in situ as the pot seems to stand on {5}, surrounded by {4}, at 50-60 cm b.s. on a sort
5) F4: Pot "G".
Illustration 3.160, Pot KCIV, F4, VCCB 3, “G” Large globular bowl (lower part only) Type 1Ja(?). Spherical body. Ochre ware, dark brown in break. Finely (4.5:10) cord-marked, criss-crossed.
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Found upright, centre of bottom at 30 cm from "N"-baulk, 1.20 m from "W"-baulk, clearly in situ embedded in {6}, filled with {4}, cut-off level at 40 cm b.s. (i.e. the upper limit of {6}), lowest point of bottom of vessel at 50 cm b.s., well within {6}. The more than 1 m gap between this Pot "G" and Pot "F" to the W of it, is in actual fact a gully created partly by the digging of a pit for the SSE-orientated Burials 11 and 11a before Pots "F" and "G" were deposited and partly, in its W-part, by a powerful erosion flow roughly from W to E which, bypassing Pot "F" on its N-side, swept away parts of Burials 11 and 11a along the S-side of Pot "G" at a time when these burials were exposed and Pot "G" was already in place. The preserved part of the pot, estimated to be between one-quarter and one-third of the entire vessel, is broken in a great number of small/medium sherds none larger than 10 cm in the greatest dimension but most less than half that size. Entire upper part of body including neck and rim missing, presumably carried away by natural forces having something to do with the formation of the {5B}/{5} interface, but could be virtually restored in analogy with other, more complete Type 1J pots. H: c. 47; Hr: c. 8; Wr: c. 35.5; Wn: c. 25.5; Wm: 46.5; On: c. 22; Thw: 0.3-?; Wgt: c. 2,000. Associated finds: 6 shell disk-beads Type d and 4 perforated Oliva sp. shells (item 93), all found on top of the preserved part of Pot "G" where they must have been deposited by water action. One of the two large sherds making up Pot "D" (a slightly carinated bowl of Type 1F, probably domestic only pottery) was also found on top of Pot "G", almost 2 m to NE of the other one which had been discovered not far from the left shoulder of Burial 6 and was first thought to be associated with this burial; it soon became clear that neither of these two sherds, fitting together but constituting only about one-fifth of the entire pot (the only one of this kind found in Khok Charoen), could have been in situ nor in association with a known burial but must have come from outside the excavated area.
Illustration 3.161, KCIV, Pots comprising VCCB 6 Pot "A3":
6) E4: A cluster of 4 imbricated pots near the centre of the S-part of the "S"-baulk, stretching into the baulk towards F4, cut into the middle part of Burial 12, composed of Pots "A3", "A1", "A2" and "A". See illustration below.
Illustration 3.162, KCIV, E4, VCCB 6, Pot “A3” Large globular bowl Type 2C. Almost perfectly spherical body, slight shoulder with small sloping platform. Vertical cylindrical direct rim, slightly pointed on top. Traces of an added ring-foot. Ochre ware, orange tinge outside (wash?), dark brown in break. Outside rim, shoulder platform and upper third of body smoothed and covered with a series of motifs formed by fine incised outlines filled with "walking shell" impressions. At 1 cm below top of rim and at base of rim straight horizontal lines serve as suspension- or base-line for two pairs of circle segments filled with shell impressions facing each-other; the remaining open space contains a lentil-shaped motif on opposite sides also filled with such impressions. The line at the base of rim and
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Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) another one at the shoulder delimit the simple decoration on the platform consisting of two opposite rows of small saw-teeth lines leaving some space between them. At 1 cm below shoulder and again 5 cm below that, straight horizontal lines serve again as suspension- and base-line for hook-like motifs (9 "hanging down" from upper line and 6 "standing" on lower line) filled with shell imprints. At 2 cm below this register, yet another horizontal line is the base-line for 15 shell impression-filled circle segments and one more horizontal line 1 cm below that marks the beginning of very coarse (2.5:10) and knobby cord-marking covering the remaining two-thirds of the body including the round bottom. This cord-marking is carefully applied, generally right-leaning vertically but at places creating a pattern by varying the degree of leaning; there does not seem to be anything hasty or non-deliberate about this decoration. Found upright as the lowest of four pots in a pit dug right through chest and abdomen of Burial 12, deep in {5}, in such a way that the bottom of this Pot "A3" was, at 80 cm b.s., even lower than the skeleton at 70 cm b.s.; top of rim at 65 cm b.s. This particular area being rather disturbed by roots and ants' nests, the stratigraphical evidence is not clear enough to be absolutely certain from which layer this pit was dug but most probably from {5}. Post-hole No 11 which was situated directly above this Pot "A3" appeared at 50 cm b.s. on the interface of {4/5} but did not reach down to the pot, was sealed by {3}. The pot is about three-quarters complete (rim and lower half of body almost complete, upper body less than half preserved), broken into a great number of medium and small sherds, the latter mainly around the middle of body. There are signs of an impact on the W-side of top of rim. H (without ring-foot): 32.8; Hr: 5.2; Hc (from top): 6; Wr: 13.4; Wn: 14; Wc: 18; Wm: 31.6; Wtf: 14; On (top of rim): 12.6; Thw: 0.3-0.8; Wgt: 1,150.
Large globular bowl Type 1L. Flattened spherical body without carination or shoulder. Vertical cylindrical direct rim, rounded on top. Ochre ware, dark brown in break. Outside rim and upper part (about one-quarter) of body smoothed and covered with a series of motifs formed by fine incised outlines filled with zigzag lines made by joining impressed dots by short straight strokes. Thus, two horizontal lines, one 1.5 cm below top of rim and the other at neck, form the suspension- and base-line for four pairs of circle segments facing each other, each filled with one zigzag line. The remaining open spaces contain four lentil-shaped fields with a similar single zigzag line inside. At 1 cm below neck, and again 1.5 cm below that, on the almost horizontal uppermost part of the body, two more horizontal lines contain between them one zigzag line below which begins the 4 cm-high main field, delimited by a third horizontal line at 8 cm below neck, and containing ten horizontal oblong cartouches containing each 3 superimposed short zigzag lines. Another incised horizontal line 1 cm further down marks the upper limit of coarse (3:10) vertical cord-marking, at places slightly left-leaning, which covers the remaining three-quarters of the body including its round bottom. All markings, incised, impressed or cord-markings, are visibly applied with care although they now appear somewhat faint. Found upright as the second vessel deposited in this pit containing a cluster of four, next to (NW of) Pot "A3", bottom at 75 cm b.s., top of rim at 60 cm b.s., in {5}. Body four-fifths complete, rim half complete. Broken into a great number of almost uniformly medium sherds in a regular pattern without any particular point of impact visible; compacting must have occurred gradually and uniformally. H: 26.8; Hr: 7; Wr: 14.8; Wn: 14; Wm: 30; On: 12.4; Thw: 0.3-0.8; Wgt: 1,800. Pot "A2":
Pot "A1":
Illustration 3.164, KCIV, E4, VCCB 6, Pot “A2” Medium globular bowl Type 1E. Almost spherical body. Everted outcurving restricted rim, flattened on top. Ochre ware, dark brown in break. Rim plain. Body coarsely (3:10) but very regularly cord-marked from 1 cm below neck down, generally vertically but occasionally slightly curved right-leaning. Found upright, slightly tilted to S, as third pot
Illustration 3.163, KCIV, E4, VCCB 6, Pot “A1”
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Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand deposited in a pit containing 4 vessels, sitting between and on top of Pots "A3" and "A1". Bottom at 70 cm b.s., top at 55 cm b.s. About two-thirds preserved, broken into a great number of medium and small sherds in no visible pattern and also without any signs of an impact; missing parts towards SW. H: 18; Hr: 2.3; Hn (from top): 2; Wr: 14.6; Wn: 11.6; Wm: 20.4; On: 10; Thw: 0.2-0.6; Wgt: 625.
broken off foot like flower petals in large sherds leaving bottom of body and upper part of foot in one large piece; lower part of foot broken regularly into 8 large sherds and several small ones on SW-side. H: 25.7; Hr: 1; Hf: 14.6; Wr: 27; Wm/c: 29.2; Wtf: 9; Wbf: 23; ThwB: 0.5-0.9; ThwBb: 0.8-0.9; ThwF: 0.7-1.2; Wgt: 1,820. 7) F3: Significant amounts of sherds of two large and special vessels were found intermingled with various items connected with burials, at 60-70 cm b.s. in a large pit dug from {4} into {5}, filled with a mixture of {4} and {5}, in the W-corner of the cutting. These two vessels were Pot "R1", a large footed bowl Type 4K, and Pot "R2", a very large globular bowl Type 1Ja. Both pots were obviously not in situ but, as neither of them could possibly have been a burial pot, (in spite of the accompanying funerary items) and, as the footed bowl Type 4K has its counterpart in Vessel Cluster 6 which was dug into a burial and was also in contact with bone fragments etc., we concluded that these sherds were most likely the remains of another Vessel Cluster situated to the W of the excavated area, transported by natural forces to the place where they were found.
Pot "A":
Illustration 3.165, KCIV, E4, VCCB 6, Pot “A” Large footed bowl Type 4K. Shallow hemispherical body. Small inverted, slightly outcurving rim, rounded on top. Large concave truncated conical foot with direct base, rounded underneath. Ochre ware with orange tinge on outside, dark in break. Body, including rim, inside and outside smoothed. Inside body, top of rim and possibly also outside body covered in red slip, although this seems to have vanished on lower part of body. Foot outside smoothed and covered with decorative motifs consisting of bold incised lines/outlines filled with "walking shell" impressions. There are two rows of vertical shell impressions between the top of the foot and the first horizontal line 3.5 cm below it. The second horizontal line, 1.5 cm below the first, delimits the main register on its upper side while its base-line is formed by the next horizontal line 5 cm further down. Two pairs of large circle segments facing each other occupy the space in between, the two upper segments suspended by the top line and the two lower ones sitting on the base-line. The centre of the left-over space between these segments on both sides is filled by a pointed elongated lenticular motif; these lentils as well as the circle segments are filled with one or two rows of left-leaning, almost diagonal, shell impressions. One cm below the base-line of this register, yet another horizontal line marks the upper limit of the last register the base-line of which is situated just 1.5 cm above the base of the foot. Sitting on it are ten circle segments filled with two rows of left-leaning shell impressions, leaving a space of about 1 cm between their tops and the line above them. The highest vessel and probably the last to be deposited in this pit containing a cluster of 4 vessels. Found upright, base of foot at 70 cm b.s., top of rim at 46 cm b.s., in {5}. Bowl about 85% complete, foot complete. Body
Pot "R1":
Illustration 3.166, KCIV, E4, Pot “R1” Large footed bowl Type 4K. Shallow hemispherical body. Rim unknown (only lower part of body preserved). Concave truncated conical foot with direct base, rounded underneath. Ochre ware, slight orange tinge on surfaces inside and outside, darker in break. Body plain outside, inside covered with dark red slip. From top of foot to a bold incised line 4 cm further down, there is one single row of vertical "walking shell" impressions with 8 points (most probably made with an Anadara granosa or nodifera shell of which none has been found in Khok Charoen). Below the incised line, some sherds indicate a plain but smoothed band of unknown width (at least 1 cm) after which there is a gap of 9 cm when another section of at least 3 cm of shell impressions appears, consisting of 2 rows made by a smaller shell, the top one vertical and the lower one left-leaning, supported by another
186
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) bold incised horizontal line 2 cm above the base of the foot. This space is used to accommodate 10 (?) incised curved diagonal strokes going from the horizontal line up left, down right, to end in a fine point 4-5 mm above the base. Sherds of this pot were found mixed with sherds of Pot "R2" in W-corner of cutting, at 60-70 cm b.s. in a large pit dug from {4} into {5} and filled with a mixture of both. Only lower body including upper part of foot and lower part of foot found, broken into mainly medium sherds; about 15-20% of entire vessel. H: c. 30; Hf: 19; Wr/m: c. 30; Wtf: 8.5; Wbf: 23.5; ThwB: 0.5-0.6?; ThwBb: 0.6-0.8; ThwF: 0.4-0.5; Wgt: 620.
Outside body from 0.5 cm below beginning of rim down to and including round bottom, finely (7:10) and very carefully cord-marked, vertically and with hardly any cross-cording. Found upright at 50 cm to S of centre of cutting at 40 cm b.s., sitting on the surface of {5} but surrounded by {4}, well below the Discontinuity-divide. Pot about 90% complete but broken into numerous uniformly small or very small sherds in a pattern suggesting that the pot must have been in situ when broken up. Several breaks in "spider's web" fashion indicate sharp blows from different directions. Sherds were found within a circle of not more than 30 cm and in a maximum of 20 cm in depth. H: 18.4; Hr/n: 2.5; Wr: 17.7; Wn: 14.8; Wm: 21.5; On: 12.8; Thw: 0.7-1; Wgt: 1,150.
Pot "R2": Huge globular bowl Type 1Ja. Spherical body. Rim unknown, presumed everted straight or outcurving, restricted. Buff ware. Coarsely (3:10) but carefully vertically cord-marked from 1 cm below rim down to bottom. Sherds of this pot were found mixed with sherds of Pot "R1" in W-corner of cutting, at 60-70 cm b.s. in a large pit dug from {4} into {5} and filled with a mixture of both. Very fragmentary: only small parts of body preserved (bottom, parts of side walls and one sherd from the base of the rim). Mainly medium sherds and some small ones; indications of at least one impact at the centre of the bottom. About 10-20% of entire vessel. H (without rim): c. 70; Wm: c. 70; On: c. 20; Thw: 0.7; Wgt: 1,600. This huge bowl would have been the largest ceramic vessel ever found in Khok Charoen.
Finds nearby include a solid leg from a pot Type 8A (KC III), at 60-70 cm b.s., and some small non-diagnostic potsherds and scraps of unidentifiable bone directly under Pot "Aa", all in {5}. As this spot was in the middle of a gully formed by water action, filled with {5} containing remnants from burials somewhere outside the excavated area, the presence of an in situ pot directly on it can only mean that this pot was in a pit dug from {4} the bottom of which just reached the surface of {5}, although its outline was only faint. 9) F3: Pot "B":
Other finds with which sherds of Pots "R1" and "R2" were intermingled include a cowrie shell and 3 human teeth, presumably from a juvenile (item 89), 2 shell disk-beads: one of Type c and the other of Type d (item 90), and 2 more shell disk-beads Type d (item 110). 8) F3: Pot "Aa":
Illustration 3.168, KCIV, F3, Pot “B” Large globular vessel, upper part missing, Type 1L. Slightly flattened spherical body. Ochre ware, dark grey-brown in break. Upper body from mid-body upwards (to at least 7.5 cm above mid-body; rest missing) plain and burnished, covered with a decoration consisting of incised outlines of 5 large curvy-linear or spirally motifs, filled with "walking shell" impressions, disposed in regular intervals around the vessel. This decorative ensemble is based on an incised horizontal line 1 cm above the
Illustration 3.167, KCIV, F3, “Aa” Large globular bowl Type 1Ea. Almost spherical body. Everted, outcurving, restricted rim, rounded on top. Ochre ware, orange tinge on surface.
187
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand line which marks the division between upper and lower body but curves down to half that distance under each of those 5 motifs, the space between the two horizontal lines remaining plain. Lower body covered with coarse (2.5:10) but very regular vertical, slightly right-leaning, cord-markings. There are faint traces of the entire cord-marked lower body having possibly been covered with a light red slip. Situated upright at 1 m from "E", half in the cutting itself and half inside "N"-baulk, top (of preserved part of pot) at 80 cm b.s., bottom at 1 m b.s., in {5} and evidently in situ but upper body (including rim) broken off horizontally. About one-half of body preserved, broken into 5 large sherds around bottom (in the manner of petals of a flower) and a great number of medium and small sherds. At the S-side of the pot, an empty space where the sixth such large sherd would have been indicates a particular disturbance and next to it the breakage pattern suggests the impact of a hard pointed implement leaving three holes of 2 cm in diameter, one of which possibly made from the inside of the pot. See illustration below.
Pot "A":
Illustration 3.170, KCIV, VCCB 10, F3, “A” Large carinated footed bowl Type 4F. Shallow hemispherical body. Inverted concave rim, rounded on top. Short but wide S-curved foot (added to body). Granular ochre ware. Entire inside body and top of rim covered with dark red slip, darkest on top of rim. Rim, body and foot outside medium (4:10) cord-marked: rim to carination vertically, slightly left-leaning and very regularly; from carination down to 1 cm below it same but slightly right-leaning; from there on down to beginning of foot horizontally in wide shallow curves, ends crossing when they meet and thus forming a plaid-like pattern which is continued on the bottom in a circular way; and finally on the foot again very regularly vertically to 1 cm above its base. Inside foot plain and smoothed. Upright, as the more N-one of the two pots in the E-corner of the cutting (the other being Pot "C") and with Pot "D" sitting snugly in its opening. Bottom at 80 cm b.s. in a pit filled with a modified {5} and sealed by {4}, clearly in situ. Almost complete but broken into a multitude of medium, small and very small sherds (ware very brittle), the smallest sherds being in the area where foot meets body. H: 12; Hr/c (from top): 2.2; Hf: 3.8; Wr: 21.5; Wc/m: 23.5; Wtf: 10.5; Wbf: 14.5; ThwB: 0.5-1.3; ThwBb: 0.3; ThwF: 0.5-1; Wgt: 900. Pot "D":
Illustration 3.169, Impact marks at bottom of Pot “B” H (if a cylindrical direct rim of about one-fifth to one-sixth of body height is assumed): c. 38; Wm: 40; Thw: 0.3-?; Wgt: 1,400. 10) F3: Three non-burial pots close together in the E-corner of the cutting and apparently in the same large pit as Burial 13 and Pot "B" (Vessel Cluster 9) are considered to be a vessel cluster in their own right, dug on the SE-side of the feet of Burial 13, as no other pot was found between Vessel Cluster 9 and this one except for the two burial pots of Burial 13. These three pots are Pot "A", Pot "D" (inside Pot "A") and Pot "C", next to the two.
Illustration 3.171, KCIV, VCCB 10, F3, “D” Slightly carinated medium globular bowl Type 1Fa. Lower body hemispherical, upper body truncated conical. Everted, outcurving, restricted rim, rounded horizontal lip. Buff ware. Outside lip and between lip and neck plain with an incised horizontal line below lip and another one at neck, the two being linked by 7 diagonal strokes around neck at irregular intervals.
188
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) From neck down body cord-marked (6:10) in a somewhat irregular fashion: from neck down to half-way to carination very regularly vertically; from then on to and below carination to bottom, more and more in a criss-crossed fashion. The part of the body above the carination bears a decoration consisting of three pairs of shallow arches incised into the cord-marking, forming at their intersections a rhombic motif; unique for Khok Charoen. Found upright inside the opening of the bowl of Pot "A", into which it fitted perfectly. Entire, except for a few small sherds around the middle part of the body. Broken into one large sherd (complete rim and one-half of upper body), a dozen medium and a number of small sherds on one side (impact or pressure?). H: 14.5; Hr: 1.7; Hc: 7; Wr: 15.3; Wn: 12.3; Wc/m: 19.5; On: 10.2; Thw: 0.4-0.9; Wgt: 760.
Cluster no
Cutting
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E6 F4 F4 F4 F4 E4 F3 F3 F3 F3
Number of pots 3 1 2 1 1 4 2 1 1 3
Types 1F, 1J, 1L 1I 1H, 1Ha 1L 1Ja(?) 2C, 1L, 1E, 4K 4K, 1Ja 1Ea 1L 4F, 1Fa, 1Fb
Table 3.8, Cluster Ceramic Burials in KCIV Discussion Of these 10 "clusters", five are actually single vessels (but of different types and in circumstances quite different from the typical Single Vessel Ceramic Burials) and one (Cluster 7) is not in situ but is included in the list because it contains a pot of the same type (4K) as another cluster nearby and was probably also originally near enough to have been part of the same lay-out as that discovered in the excavated parts of the site. The pits for these 10 clusters were most likely dug from {4}, although the bottoms of some were in {5}. However, in view of the disturbances due to water action, the exact layer from which a pit is dug is very difficult to establish; the "archaeological" method of dating would suggest that all these pits were dug from {4}. This means that pots in vessel cluster ceramic burials are of the same period as those in single vessel ceramic burials and that the question of whether discrete chronological phases existed within this long time span is as difficult to answer as with regard to the single burials. These clusters contain altogether 19 pots of 14 types none of which has been found in any human burial. Nine such non-burial pots constitute broad chronological markers as they are decorated with incised-and-impressed motifs similar to those on pottery found in several sites in Mainland Southeast Asia dated to the Bronze Age. They are: one pot Type 1I (in Cluster 2), one Type 1J (in Cluster 1), four pots Type 1L (in Clusters 1, 4, 6 and 9), one pot Type 2C (in Cluster 6) and two pots Type 4K (in Clusters 6 and 7), i.e. seven huge restricted globular vessels and two large footed bowls. They were all found in {4} and are thus roughly contemporaneous with the Later burial phase even though five, one pot each of Types 1E, 1L, 2C and 4K in Cluster 6 and a pot Type 1L (Cluster 9), had their bottoms in {5}.
Pot "C":
Illustration 3.172, KCIV, VCCB 10, F3, “C” Large carinated vessel Type 1Fb. Hemispherical lower body, truncated conical upper body. Everted, straight, restricted rim with outcurving lip, rounded on top. Buff ware. Entire vessel, from below lip down to and including bottom, medium-finely (5:10) vertically cord-marked, very regularly and most carefully applied. This care is particularly visible at neck where a neat row of bead-like impressions, the result of the application of cord-markings at different angles, had been turned into a decorative feature. Upright, clearly in situ, in E-corner of cutting, partly in "E"-baulk, as the more S. one of the two pots in this corner. Bottom at 85 cm b.s. in a pit filled with a modified {5} and sealed by {4}. Only a little more than one-half preserved, broken into numerous mainly medium sherds. H: 24.5; Hr: 1.9; Hc: 16.4; Wr: 16; Wn: 13.8; Wc/m: 32; On: 12.5; Thw: 0.4-0.8; Wgt: 1,200.
3.5 Material Culture (funerary) As in KC III, only items of material culture are dealt with in this section which have been found in burials or in association with them, regardless of whether or not they have also been used in an occupational context.
189
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Personal Adornments
Type a: 16 more beads of this type were found singly (save for three together once), ten of them in {4}, five in {3} and one in {5}. Some of these single disk-beads Type a were found together with single beads of the other types (b, c and d) but in no particular order. Found in F3, F4 and F6.
In KC IV, personal adornments found in or near burials were made of shell, stone, clay or (in two cases only) of ivory. Shell
Type b: 14 more beads found, also singly (once two together), all in {4} except for one in {3} and one probably in {5}. In very few cases Type b beads were found together with Type a or Type d beads but not with Type c. Found in E4, E6, F3, F4 and F6.
Shell disk-beads Unlike in KC III, where only two types of shell disk-beads have been found, i.e. Type a (flat, 3 mm in diameter) and Type b (flat, 4-6 mm in diameter), there were four types in KC IV. Three types were found in burials: Types a, b and d (a cambered irregular disk made from a small thin-walled naturally curved shell, average diameter about 1 cm and up to 3 mm thick); the fourth, Type c (flat, 6-9 mm in diameter and also up to 3 mm thick), occurred only in stratified deposits in E4, F4 and F3 but not in association with any of the 9 burials in these cuttings.
Type c: 15 beads found, all singly (once four together), nine in {4}, three in {3} and three in {5}. One was found together with a Type a bead (in {3}) and another one (in {4}) with a bead Type d; none with Type b. Found in E4, F3 and F4. Type d: 119 beads of this type were found in addition to the 55 attributed to the child Burial 6a, 109 in F4, 10 in F3. Of the 119 beads only 8 were found singly, the others in clusters from 2 to 29 beads. Most were in {5}, some in {4} and one or possibly two in {3}. Only three Type d beads were found together with a single bead each of Type a, b and c. The E-most stray Type d beads, a cluster of six, were found in association with four Oliva sp. shell beads. Discussion
Illustration 3.173, Comparison of KC III and KC IV disk-bead types __ Burial no
Cutting
Skel. Sex
Skel. Stage
Skel. Age
Bead type
Qty.
Adol.
Bur ial ph ase L
1
F5
F
Adult
b
Adult
?
L
b
child Adult Child Infant Infant Teen‐a ger Child infant Adult Adult
4 Youn g 6 3 3 ? 5 3 30 30
L L L L L L
d a
A nest A qua ntit y 55 4
5
G7
M
6a 8
F4 E4
? F ? ? ? M
9
F6
10 15
E6 E4
M ? M M
L L L E
b a b a
2 1 2 349
Table 3.9, Distribution of shell disk-beads Types a, b and d in KC IV burials
This distribution of shell disk-beads in KC IV is evidently the result of water movements during pre-Discontinuity times as very few, if any, of these single beads or small clusters were in situ where they were discovered. While the fact that a few beads have been found in {3A} can be explained as an outcome of turbulent water action, the spatial distribution may be of some interest. These water flows having generally run in a W-E direction, the burials from which the various beads originated must be sought further to W of where they have been found. In the case of beads Type a, found in burials in E4 and F6 but isolated specimens also in F3, F4 and F6, this could indicate the presence of burials containing beads of this type in adjacent non-excavated areas further W. The same is true for Type c, not found in any excavated burial but in E4, F3 and F4 as stray finds. Most of the isolated Type b beads found in E4, E6, F3, F4 and F6 probably originate from one of the burials containing this type in E6, F5, F6 and G7. Type d beads are confined to F4 and F3 but as the W-most extension of their distribution in F4 is well inside this cutting and also to the W and NW of Burial 6a, there could still be or have been another (child?) burial in this area which is either undiscovered or was totally dispersed by water action. With regard to the question whether bead types are associated with, and thus indicative of, the sex, age or status of the deceased individual, the situation is as inconclusive in KC IV as it is in KC III. Even if burials with only one or two beads of Types a and b are left out and the orientation or phase of burials is not considered,
In addition to those found associated with burials, shell disk-beads have been found in stratified deposits or in other circumstances (e.g. under or in pots) in the following way:
190
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) there still remains the unsatisfactory situation that Type a beads were found in KC III with an adolescent of unknown sex and an adult female and in KC IV only with an adult male, whereas Type b beads were found in KC III only with an adult male and in KC IV with an adult/adolescent female and an adult male. Beads of Types c and d, only found in KC IV, are easier to categorise as nothing is known about the association of Type c beads and there are reasons to believe that Type d beads could be associated with child burials only.
and teeth of a 4 year-old child, clearly not in situ. However, as this cluster also contained not only these shell beads but also a disk of 6 cm diameter made from the top of a Conus shell, known to be a shoulder ornament, and as at a distance of 50 cm from this cluster a fragment of a stone bracelet with an inner diameter of 3.8 cm was found, i.e. that of a small child, it was thought justifiable to interpret this ensemble of skeletal remains and parts of personal adornments as being the remnants of the much disturbed burial of a child of high social status. The original position of the burial is likely to have been at a moderate distance to W, probably outside the excavated area. For illustrations see KC IV, Burial 10a, Finds. Four more smaller perforated Oliva sp. shells were found, together with 6 shell disk-beads Type d, inside Pot "G" in F4, i.e. Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 7, on top of the fill of this pot together with six disk-beads type d, where they must have been deposited by water action. By their association with other items of material culture as well as what can be found out of their original stratigraphical situation, these 9 Oliva sp. shell beads are part of the Earlier burial phase of KC IV, having as their terminus a quo Mortuary Phase 5 of Khok Phanom Di (i.e. c. 1650-1600 BC), although the time and method of reaching the Khok Charoen area cannot be ascertained.
Entire shells used as beads Small entire shells of three taxa have been used as beads in KC IV in addition to or together with shell disk-beads. They are Oliva sp., Nassarius spp. and cowrie shells (Cypraea); all three are quite rare, being securely associated with only one burial each plus some stray finds. A small (young) land snail, Cyclophorus floridus, may also have been used as a bead. Five Oliva sp. shells, perforated and obviously used as beads, were found in Burial 10a which is virtual in the sense that it only consists of a cluster of skull fragments
(full size) Illustration 3.174, Four Oliva sp. shells found inside Pot “G was missing (either broken off naturally or cut out artificially) and a small piece on one side of the front opening was also broken off; most likely C. annulus. The other entire cowrie shell was found in the 20-30 cm b.s. spit in TC (Test Cutting) 1, the NE-most of all the cuttings in KC IV on the slope towards the nearby brook and obviously an area where objects ended up having been washed down from further N. This shell also had its back broken or cut off but was otherwise intact; it probably is either also C. annulus or C. miliaris. The other two halves were found, one as Find 2 of Burial 6a (in F4) and the other on the surface of Pot "C" (one of the pots of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 5), barely 40 cm distant from the first; both were fragments of a shell the back of which was missing and were almost certainly parts of the same shell. This third cowrie shell, although smaller than the other two (1.8 cm as opposed to 2.3 cm), is also very probably a C. annulus. The fact that two of these three cowrie shells are found in association with disk-beads Type d and with skeletal remains of a child lends support to the suggestion that this combination may have been a typical one.
Only three Nassarius shells have been found in KC IV but these are securely associated with Burial 8 and in particular the main skeleton of this multiple burial of the Later burial phase. This young adult female wore a head ornament of which the three shells, found directly on her skull, were a part (the third one was discovered later). Although Nassarius shell beads have only been discovered in one Later phase burial in KC IV and nowhere else on the site, they also have their terminus a quo in Khok Phanom Di, Mortuary Phase 4, which is considerably earlier, i.e. c. 1700-1650 BC (Pilditch 1993: 156), but again without it being of help in dating their occurrence in Khok Charoen. For illustration, see Find 1 of Burial 8. Two entire and two halves of cowrie shells (Cypraea) have been found in KC IV but in such a bad state of preservation that their exact taxon can only be guessed. One entire cowrie shell was found in the W-corner of F3 at 60 cm b.s., in a cluster composed of sherds of Pots "R1" and "R2" (i.e. Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 9), some small scraps of a child's bones including three teeth and a tektite flake, as well as 2 shell disk-beads Type d. Its back
Only one small Cyclophorus floridus has been found in
191
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand (questionable) association with Burial 6a. The specimen, which seems to have been perforated to make it suitable for use as a bead, was found on the skeleton of Burial 6 but there are reasons to believe that originally it was in the "right wrist" area of the skeleton of Burial 6a; it is therefore part of Find 4 of that burial.
unidentified shell and perforated from both ends (Length: 15 mm; cross-section: pointed oval; Width: 12x9 mm; Weight: 1 g), was found in the S-quadrant of F3 at 15 cm b.s. in {3}. As there were no signs of disturbances, the presence of this early artefact in a post-Discontinuity layer poses questions not only related to chronology but also to connections with other sites. No answer has yet been found.
Single items of personal adornment made of shell
Shell pieces
Two more items of personal adornment made of shell, one a bead and the other an ornamental disk, have been found associated with burials in KC IV; they are both almost certainly either coming from, or imitations of objects made in, a coastal site at the Bight of Bangkok such as Khok Phanom Di.
Like in KC III, natural fragments or apparently deliberately shaped pieces of molluscs found in KC IV in stratified deposits or used as personal adornments in burials seem to come almost exclusively from one species of fresh water mussels of the order Unionoida, the taxonomy of which is at present very much in a state of flux (Mason 1991: 276). This is cf. Pseudodon mouhoti, a heavy mussel with a thickened ventral margin when mature and a much more delicate and lighter shell which has a tendency under certain conditions of breaking into very small thin flakes when young. Due to the small size and poor state of conservation of most specimens, this identification is only provisional. In addition to the above species, one single valve of another taxon of the Unionidae family, cf. Contradens contradens, was found amongst small bone fragments, some disk-beads Type d and two snails in and near Pot "E" in F4, i.e. Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 6; the entire assemblage is thought to be connected with (human) Burial 6a but it is not known whether this valve was part of the personal adornment of the child whose burial this is supposed to be.
The bead, of hyperboloid or "bow-tie" (Ho 1984, I: 307) shape (also called "I" - bead), made of Tridacna shell, was found near the skull of Burial 2 (exact location not recorded) and, because of it being almost certainly part of this burial's personal adornment, became Find 1. At the time of excavation, such a bead was a novelty in Thailand but at the 1985 excavations at Khok Phanom Di a large number of these beads were discovered in five burials of the 4th and 5th Mortuary Phases (Pilditch 1993: 165) thus not only attesting to relations between this coastal site and Khok Charoen but also providing a very early terminus a quo for this earliest layer at KC IV. The site of Ban Mai Chaimongkhon, 2 km N of Chansen, also yielded such beads (Natapintu 1995: 166, fig.10) but their chronological situation is not clear. (This bead is illustrated at Burial 2, Find 1)
Young cf. P. mouhoti pieces
The ornamental disk was part of a cluster of skull fragments, teeth and scraps of the post-cranial skeleton of a c. 4 year-old child of unknown sex and which also included 5 modified Oliva sp. shells, found at 62 cm b.s. in {5} on limestone bedrock in E6. This assemblage is interpreted as being the remnants of a child burial (Burial 10a) obviously not in situ but transported there by water action and, although nothing else is known about it, its stratigraphic position and the items of personal adornment put it in the Earlier phase of KC IV. The conical disk with a diameter of 6 cm and a central hole is made from the top portion of a Conus shell (most probably Conus generalis) and evidently was an ornament near head, neck or upper chest. This disk is very similar to the one, also made from the top of a Conus shell, found on the left upper chest of "The Princess", i.e. Burial 15, 5th Mortuary Phase (1650-1600 BC, or later), in Khok Phanom Di (Pilditch 1993: 172), which again indicates a connection with that site or other coastal communities but does not determinate the date of Burial 10a. (See illustration at Burial 10a, Find 1).
Of the 92 fragments/pieces of the young cf. Pseudodon mouhoti mussel, including two entire and three almost entire valves, all but 6 pieces and one entire valve were found in stratified deposits or disturbed settings apparently not connected with a burial. Those found in burials are the following. Nos. 1-2 Burial 8, Find 5: two pieces, 3.2x1.8 cm and 3.0x1.9 cm respectively, the first one fitting to Find 6. Next to ("E" of) skull of main (adult) skeleton. No. 3 Burial 8, Find 6: a 4.7 cm long ventral margin fragment, next to ("W" of) skull of main skeleton; fits to Find 5 on other side of skull. Nos. 4-6 Burial 8, Find 6a: three pieces, 2.8x1.6 cm, 2.6x1.6 cm and 2.7x1.4 cm; all from near skull of main skeleton. No. 7 Burial 15, Find 4: an entire valve, 5.5x4.0 cm, 9 g; on right leg. Could be same kind of anklet as suggested in KC III, Burial 8, Find 1 and Burial 9, Find 2.
Yet another ancient item of personal adornment made of shell was discovered in KC IV but in stratified deposits far away from any burial. Half a barrel bead (broken longitudinally) of the kind known from the 2nd and 3rd Mortuary Phase of Khok Phanom Di (roughly 1800-1700 BC), size 6 (Pilditch 1993: 121-122), made from an as yet
The remaining 85 fragments/pieces were found outside burials in stratified deposits but, in contrast to KC III, all (with very few exceptions) in pre-Discontinuity layers and in particular in {4}. Only six pieces seem to come from 192
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) {5} (Nos. 14, 15, 16, 19, 20 and 35) but in circumstances suggesting that they, too, may have originally been in {4}. The only exceptions are Nos. 65 and 69-73 which were found in {3}, the first, a small artificially cut or sawn piece, and the other five (including two ventral margin fragments), in clusters of displaced bone fragments, clearly also not their original location.
pieces which does not seem to follow natural breakage patterns points to their use by humans for some non-utilitarian purpose such as personal adornment or the decoration of objects. Places where fragments of ventral margins occur together with shell pieces in relatively great numbers could have been workshops. One of the items found in {3}, No. 65, and both items found in TC2, No. 89 and 90, show signs of having been worked in addition but their origin is unknown.
In addition to the stratigraphical position of these 85 items, their spatial distribution also yields useful information. They are divided into three categories: Fragments (of ventral margins), Pieces (of valves), and Others, i.e. entire valves, oddly-shaped large pieces or pieces with special features. Like in KC III, pieces, including those found in burials, all seem to have roughly the same shape (more or less rounded rectangles) and similar dimensions: Length from 1.6 to 3.4 cm (KC III: 2.3 to 3.1 cm), Width from 1.0 to 3.1 cm (KC III: 1.5 to 2.4 cm) which look like having been obtained on purpose. (NB: the former KC I-Pits, i.e. E3, F5 and G7, could not be included in this survey for lack of data).
Similarly to fragments/pieces of young cf. P. mouhoti, those of mature mussels have mostly been found in {4} but with a higher percentage of specimens found either directly (5) or possibly (8) in {5} (Nos. 7, 13-17, and 8-10, 21, 32-34, 46 respectively), while there is also a higher proportion of finds (5) made in {3}. The spatial distribution is again significant. The majority of the finds of mature shells coming again from F3, followed by F4, E4 and F6, with E5 and the Test Cuttings thereafter, similar tentative conclusions as with regard to young cf. P. mouhoti could be drawn, namely that these possibly worked pieces of the mature shell are also connected in whatever way with human burials and that there are no chronological distinctions between the use of the two. The smallness of the sample does anyway not allow a refinement of this proposition.
For illustrations of these shell pieces, together with those of Khok Charoen III, see Appendix B.
Cutting E4 E5 E6 F3 F4 F6 TC1 TC2 TC3 TOTAL
Frags. 1 0 0 9 4 0 0 0 0 14
Young shells Pcs. 12 2 4 33 9 5 0 0 1 66
Other 1 0 0 6 2 0 0 2 1 12
Total 14 2 4 48 15 5 0 2 2 92
Mature Shells Items 6 3 5 20 11 6 2 1 1 55
Stone Stone bead No stone bead has been found in burials in KC IV but one was discovered in stratified deposits. The fragment of a black, highly polished tubular stone bead was found in the N-quadrant of F3, at 40 cm b.s. lying on the surface of {4}, near and on the same level as adze fragments, a single shell disk-bead Type c and some small faunal bone fragments but far away from any known burial. The bead is made of a kind of impure limestone, outer diameter 8 mm, inner diameter 3 mm, length of fragment 17 mm; straight boring, one side cut diagonally and polished, the other broken diagonally with sharp edges. The position of the bead makes it difficult to determine whether it originated from a pre- or post-Discontinuity burial but the fact that no such bead was found associated with any burial in KC IV whereas 12 beads of this kind were found near the neck of the skeleton of one burial (Burial 24) in KC II, where they were considered not to be of local origin (Ho 1984, I: 64) strongly suggests that the lone fragment in KC IV comes from this KC II burial and is of post-Discontinuity origin. However, as Burial 24 was "intricately mixed with what seems to be at least two other burials" (Ho 1984, I: 196) cutting into each-other, some doubts must remain about its exact chronological position.
Table 3.10, Ventral margin pieces of mature cf. P. mouhoti shells The situation with regard to the mature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti is different inasmuch as it appears that fragments or deliberately cut pieces of the thickened ventral margin, rather than pieces of the wall, of this large freshwater mussel could have been used as personal adornment. However, the evidence for such use is not strong as only one of the 56 such pieces was from a burial, i.e. Find 6b of Burial 8, where it was found together with pieces of young cf. P. mouhoti (Find 6a) amongst small bone fragments in the left thoracic region of the main skeleton. Discussion The fact that the bulk of the finds of young shells comes from F3 and to a lesser extent from F4 and E4, followed by F6 and E6, while there are very few in E5 (and the outlaying TC2 and 3), suggests that these finds are somehow related to the location of (human) burials. What sort of relation this could have been is not clear but the apparent standardisation of the size and shape of the shell
Stone bracelets As in KC III, stone bracelet fragments found in KC IV are divided into those of disk-bracelets (A) and of ring-bracelets (B), the former having a triangular 193
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand cross-section wider than high, whereas that of the latter is higher than wide. Another distinction (for both categories) is the one between bracelets with single-bevel and double-bevel inside boring, i.e. whether the drilling of the core was done from one side only (1) or from both sides (2). The disk-bracelets alone are again split into the very flat ones with a width/height ratio of up to 2:1 and the more compact ones with a ratio of over 2:1. Considered the most useful measurement, the inner diameter was adopted as the scale of the tabulation.
found at 40 cm b.s., in {4}, about 50 cm N of the head of Burial 14 (that of an adult male) but there were no signs that it could have been associated with this burial, while the second smallest bracelet fragment, with an inner diameter of 3.2 cm (F3 item 41), was found in the same cutting far from any burial at 30 cm b.s. in {3} on the surface of {4}; there thus does not seem to be a way the origin of these two tiny bracelets could be ascertained. The other fragment of a bracelet with an inner diameter of 3.6 cm (F4 item 57b), in addition to the one found in Burial 9, was also found away from any burial in the W-quadrant of the cutting at 30 cm b.s. in {4} but together with a disk-bead Type c and some small skeletal fragments, including a tooth, consistent with the skeleton of a small child, suggesting a link with a child burial originally outside (W of) the excavated area.
Of the 16 stone bracelet fragments found in KC IV, only three were thought to be associated with a burial although having not been found in situ the association is not absolutely secure. Two of them, with an inner diameter of 5.4 cm and 3.6 cm respectively, were found near Burial 9 (that of the very fragmentary skeletal remains of a child of 5 years of age) in a situation suggesting they may have been near the wrists of the skeleton; the third fragment, with an inner diameter of 3.8 cm, was also found near a child burial, Burial 10a, a cluster of skull fragments and teeth of a 4 year-old child with exotic personal adornments (a conical Conus shell disk and five Oliva sp. shell beads) with which it was closely intermingled in such a way that there could be little doubt that it belonged to this "burial" although the whole cluster was not in situ.
The last of the small bracelet fragments, E4 item 17 with an inner diameter of 4 cm, was found in the centre of the cutting near the feet of Burial 15 but so much higher up in {3} that it is most improbable that it had anything to do with this burial; being in a flow channel of erosion waters carrying objects in an E direction, the fragment is more likely to originate from Burial 8 which includes 3 children (two infants of 3 years of age and one 6 year-old child) and is only about 1 m distant to W.
See Appendix G for descriptions and illustrations of these objects.
One small piece of a bracelet for adults (5.5 cm inner diameter) shows traces of an attempt to make a hole in what must have been the edge of the fragment, presumably to repair the broken bracelet, by boring a conical hollow on opposite sides of the 4 mm-thick disk. However, before the points of these cones could meet in the middle to form a hole, the corner broke off and the attempt was abandoned. In itself, this is a normal enough procedure to salvage a valued object but what was shown in this instance was the gap in technological know-how between the maker of the finely finished bracelet and its wearer who seems to have been unable to even drill a straight hole.
Discussion According to their inner diameter, almost half of bracelets found in KC IV may have been either for children or worn (or used) in a different way from ordinary bracelets as it is difficult to imagine that a bracelet with an inner diameter of only 3 cm could be pushed over the wrist of even a very young (living) child. Until one of those tiny bracelets has been found in situ, e.g. on or near the skeleton on an infant, the question of their use may have to be left unanswered. The two finds in burials with inner diameters of 3.6 cm and 3.8 cm originate indeed from burials with skeletal remains consistent with that of a child of 5 years (Burial 9) or with a child of 4 years (Burial 10a). The fragment F6 item 57 (inner diameter 4.6 cm) is also likely to originate from Burial 9 as it was found only 30 cm S of Pot "B" of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 1, in which two rim-sherds of pot Find 25 of Burial 9 (a footed bowl Type 4Aa) were discovered, at 50 cm b.s. in {4}. It is suggested that the same water flow which deposited these sherds of the SW-most pot of Burial 9 onto a pot of a vessel cluster 1.5 m E of it, also transported this bracelet fragment from the same burial (the burial nearest to this cluster) to a position 30 cm S of this cluster. This would presumably be part of a bracelet of the 5 year-old boy of Burial 9, together with Find 1 of that burial (the fragment of another bracelet with an inner diameter of 5.4 cm), showing that even bracelets with the adult range inner diameter could be worn by children as there was no adult skeleton in this burial.
Clay Six fragments of clay bracelets have been found in KC IV, four of them in E4 and one each in E5 and F3. They all have an inner diameter of between 5.5 cm and 7 cm, i.e. the adult range. As clay bracelets are not as precisely made as stone bracelets which are usually mechanically bored and therefore perfectly circular, the diameters of the former cannot be as reliably measured as those of the latter especially if the fragments are only short. The figures for the inner diameter of clay bracelet fragments can therefore only be approximations. All six fragments are of bracelets of the same type, i.e. having a drop-shaped cross-section where the inside is round and the outside has been slightly elongated into a point through pinching (width of finger-tips [Wf-t] in mm). The clay is only of two colours: buff (4) and dark buff/ochre {=db/o} (2). See Appendix G for descriptions and illustrations of these objects.
The fragment of the smallest of these bracelets, the one with an inner diameter of only 3 cm (F3 item 75), was 194
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Discussion
cm and an outer one of 5.8 cm, leaving two or three fragments belonging to yet another bracelet or other bracelets the inner diameter of which is impossible to measure. As these are clearly children's bracelets, it is assumed that they are the personal adornments of the child buried in Burial 4 of which it has been designated Find 1, rather than being associated with Burial 3 (to which they were initially assigned) which is that of an adult. These two burials are only about 1 m distant from each-other and are located parallel to each-other. The exact location of the fragments between the two burials has not been recorded.
In spite of some striking similarities between fragments, and taking into account irregularities inherent in the manufacture of clay bracelets, there cannot be any doubt that the six fragments are from six different bracelets. However, the concentration of these finds in a relatively small part of the site may mean that the number of individuals involved could even be smaller and that the wearing of clay bracelets was perhaps not a general custom. The fact that all fragments were found in pre-Discontinuity layers and none in post-Discontinuity ones, nearer in time to the introduction of bronze into the area, could be taken to contradict the suggestion that ceramic bracelets "seem to be predominantly a Bronze Age phenomenon in Thai prehistory" (Chang and Voelker 2003: 25), although the smallness of the sample and the disturbed nature of the site do not lend much weight to this argument. The same is true with regard to the surmise that these bracelets have not been found in burials (ibid.) as there is at least one instance in KC IV where the association of a clay bracelet with a burial appears to be secure. A fragment of a large clay bracelet, pinched into its drop-shaped cross-section by adult fingers (thus a bracelet for an adult made by an adult) was indeed found under one of the three pots surrounding the skull of the main skeleton of Burial 8 on its left side. This pot Find 14, a carinated bowl directly next to skull above left shoulder, was found intermingled with sherds of pot Find 15, a globular bowl further towards the top of skull, and partly under large sherds of footed bowl Find 16, at top of skull, in such a way that the exact original position of these three pots relative to each-other is difficult to reconstruct; whatever it was, it seems that the fragment found under one of them must have been in situ there and therefore part of the personal adornments of this multiple burial. However, as this burial shows signs of post-burial interferences, even this assumption may not be true.
There is, however, one consideration which casts some doubt on the allocation of these bracelets to either of the two burials. Ivory being a highly-priced raw material for personal adornments (the outer diameter of 5.8 cm indicates a probably very valuable tusk), affordable only to the richest members of the community, one would expect burials of their children to reflect the wealth or high social standing of the parents in more ways than just a bracelet or two. The child Burial 4 is devoid of all signs of rank or wealth as far as it had been excavated although its head and part of upper body which remained in "N"-baulk may have worn such signs. The ivory ear-plug A small mushroom- or T-shaped ivory object interpreted as an ear-plug was found amongst the bone fragments on the thoracic area of the main skeleton of Burial 8, that of a young adult female. As it seems too large for any of the three children in the same burial, aged 3, 3 and 6 years, and as it also could not have belonged to the head-less male teenager some post-cranial bones of whom were also present in this burial, it was almost certainly part of the personal adornments of the young woman (Find 3). The object consists of a truncated cone topped by a disk of the same diameter as the base of the cone (in one piece). Height: 12 mm (cone: 9.5 mm, disk: 2.5 mm); diameter of cone at base: 15 mm, where it meets disk: 10 mm, of disk: again 15 mm. Near base of cone two parallel horizontal grooves of less than 1 mm width and depth. About two-thirds complete, broken vertically; weight of extant fragment: 1 g. See Burial 8, Find 3 for an illustration of this object.
The position of the two fragments found near the interlocked Burials 12 and 15 is different inasmuch as an association with these burials is possible but not probable let alone likely and in any case extremely difficult to prove or disprove in this most disturbed spot where two of the oldest burials of the site are cut into each-other and a later vessel cluster ceramic burial is cut into both of them.
While the shape of this ear-plug is known from Bronze Age Mainland Southeast Asia (Chang and Voelker 2003: 24, fig. 11), the sophisticated manner of its production clearly involving mechanical devices may well be unique for this part of the region at that time. It follows that it must have been imported to Khok Charoen from a technologically more advanced metal-using population group familiar with the working of ivory and probably living in an area where this raw material was also readily available.
Ivory Two items of personal adornments made of ivory have been found in KC IV: a series of bracelets and an ear plug. The bracelets Two or three or possibly more ivory bracelets, represented by 14 fragments ranging in length from 1 to 5 cm, have been found in KC IV, supposedly associated with Burial 4. These fragments could be restored to one full bracelet with an inner diameter of 4 cm and an outer one of 5 cm and about 3/4 of another bracelet with an inner diameter of 4.5 195
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Pottery Like in KC III, pottery finds in KC IV are divided into the categories of Burial-Only Pottery, Multi-Use Pottery, Domestic-Only Pottery and Special and Unique Pottery.
There are 60 pots found in burials in KC IV to which should be added 33 pots classified as N.-A.B.P., raising the number of potential burial pots to 93.
Burial-only pottery KCIV BURIALS Burial no 1 2
Class 1 1C
x
x
Class 3
x
Class 4
no
Total
1
Class 2
3
1Cb
1
5 6 8
1D 1Ab 1B 1Ba 1C
1 1 3 1 1
2Ab 2Aa
1 1
3Ea
1
9
1Aa 1Ab 1C 1Ca
1 1 1 1
3C 3E
1 1
13
14 Ub
1Ba 1A 1Bb 1Ea?
1 1 1 1 17
2A
1
4A 4A 4J 4D 4E 4A 4A 4Aa 4Ab 4E 4Ea 4H 4A 4Aa 4Ab 4D 4G 4A 4Ja 4A 4G
2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 4 3 1 2 5 1 1 2 1
3
3
37
3 1 1 2 2 3 1 4 4 2 3 2 1 6 5 2 3 5 1 1 2 3 2 1 60
Total N‐A.B.P.
Total All pots Burials NABP Grand Total
Class 1 1Aa 1Ab 1Bb 1C 1D
Class 1
x 2 5 1 1 1 10
Class 2
17 10 27
Class c
x
Class 3 3Ca 3E
X
x 8 5
13
Class 4 4A 4Aa 4C 4Ca 4Ga
x
total
6 1 1 1 1 10
33
X
Class 3
X
Class 4
x
Total
3 0 3
3 13 16
37 10 47
60 33 93
Table 3.11, Distribution of pottery types in KC IV burials and N.-A.B.P. pots ("x" = number of pots of this type, "ub" = the unclassifiable burial) different considerations than those for cooking pots and may at times have to be done in a hurry, signs of which are visible in a number of footed bowls with hastily executed incised-and-pricked decoration.
Footed Bowls As stated earlier, footed bowls should be considered by definition to be pottery for ritual purposes only, such as burial pottery, as they cannot be used for any domestic function like cooking, storing or serving. It follows that the manufacture of these pots must have been regulated by
The distribution chart of pottery types in KC IV shows the numerical importance of footed bowls as compared with
196
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) all other pottery types in burials or as N.-A.B.P. pots, being 37:23 for burials only and 47:46 including N.-A.B.P. pots. As the latter do not necessarily all originate from burials, the last figure cannot be used for statistical purposes.
Burial no 1 2 3 5 8 9 13 ub
Ten burials (out of 19) in KC IV have pottery as grave goods (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13, 14 and ub), all but two of which (6 and 14) include footed bowls. Of these 40 footed bowls, 15 are of Type 4A, 7 of Type 4G, 4 each of Type 4Aa and 4E, 3 of Type 4D, 2 each of Types 4Ab, and 4Ea, and 1 each of Types 4H, 4J and 4Ja. The same conclusion as in KC III can therefore also be reached for KC IV, namely that the plain burnished footed bowl Type 4A, together with the similar Type 4G, was the typical burial-only type of pottery. There are, however, significant differences between the two parts of the site, in particular the addition of Types 4E, 4Ea, 4H, 4J and 4Ja to the burial-only pottery in KC IV.
Type 3C 3Ca
Cutting F6 E5 F5 E6
Pot Burial 9, Find 18 Pot “F1” Pot “109” Pot “X”
Soil {5} {4/5} {4} {4}
F6
Pot “2299a”
{5}
E6 F3
Pot “X2” Pot “2423”
{3/4} {5}
F6 F6
Pot “2140” Pot “2002”
{4} {1}
3E
F6 E5 F6
Burial 1, Find 19 Pot “F2” Pot “P1”
{4/5} {5}
3Ea
F6 E5 E6 E4
Pot “P2” Pot “2060” Pot “2077” Burial 8, Find 10
{5} {4} {4{ {4/5}
Phase L L L L L L L L?
Skeletons (c = child) F ? ? M FMCCC CC FC C?
Pottery types 4A(2) 4A, 4J 4D, 4E(2) 4A(2) 4A, 4Aa, 4Ab, 4E(2), 4Ea(2), 4H 4A(4), 4Aa(3), 4Ab, 4D(2), 4G(5) 4A, 4Ja 4A(2), 4G
Table 3.12, Burials containing footed bowls as grave goods ("ub" = The Unclassifiable Burial) Small shallow Dishes and Bowls Pots of Class 3 fall into two broad categories, those of Types A and B (large restricted globular bowls, never found in burials) and Types 3C to 3E (small bowls or dishes) 16 of which were found in KC IV, most of them as N.-A.B.P. Table 3.13 below summarises the position.
Remarks Complete, upright, covered by Type 3E, Pot “F2” Complete, upright About one‐quarter preserved; found among stray sherds in S‐quadrant of cutting Complete; found in the area of Pots “P1” and “P2” but unlikely, though possibly, associated with Burial 9 About one‐quarter preserved; sherds found in disturbed area Only one diagnostic sherd, about one‐eighth of pot, found in an area where sherds of Burial 13 are intermingled with those of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 11 Only one diagnostic sherd, about one‐eighth pot About one‐half of rim and parts of upper body preserved together with about one‐sixth of pot; found near surface About two‐thirds complete; upright, as lid to Type 3Ca Pot “F1” Complete; found relatively far away from Burial 9 but could possibly have been assocated with it About five‐sixths complete; found in same circumstances as Pot “P1” Only one diagnostic rim‐sherd, abouy one ninth of pot Only one diagnostic rim‐sherd, abouy one‐eight of pot
Table 3.13, Class 3, Types C to E pots in KC IV
Discussion
dish beyond skull of Burial 8; the Type 3C and 3E bowls of Burial 9 were found together under a footed bowl on knees or upper legs. It thus seems established that these Class 3 small bowls and dishes, most of them crudely shaped by hand (presumably by children) all came from burials where they had probably been put to contain some last-minute offerings to the deceased.
Three of these 16 Class 3 pots were directly associated with burials (Burials 8 and 9), three more could possibly (but not probably) have been associated with Burial 9, and of the remaining ten all but two clearly came from pre-Discontinuity burial layers, one being a doubtful case and one was almost a surface find without any indication of where it may have been originally. The three securely associated pots were positioned as follows: the Type 3Ea 197
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Class 7 pots
Slightly chipped on sides and surface of butt but no trace of use at cutting edge. Found under globular bowl Find 15 at left side of skull in disturbed context. Association considered secure.
The remnants of an obviously intrusive Type 7B pot in KC III, about a quarter of the body of Pot "1133", were found in the form of five rim- and wall-sherds dispersed in cuttings H5 and G5 at depths ranging from 10 to 50 cm b.s., i.e. throughout layers {2}, {3} and {5}, thus partly above the Discontinuity divide and also well above the burials. In KC IV, one single diagnostic rim-sherd of an intrusive pot Type 7A (Pot "2098") was excavated in cutting F6 at a depth of 30 to 40 cm b.s. in {4} which corresponds to the last layer before the Discontinuity.
Burial 8, Find 23: Small stone adze fragment showing some of the original surface which is finely polished but without sheen. The curvature indicates that the entire implement must have been considerably larger than the small stone adzes commonly found at this site. Found near right lower tibia. Association with burial not secure.
There is, however, another Class 7 pot in KC IV which does not seem to have been imported but looks like a somewhat clumsily executed imitation of a Class 7 pot of which there is no original model. It is Find 2 of Burial 5 in E3 (Originally KC I, Pit 1), the same burial in which the only Tridacna “bow-tie” bead in Khok Charoen was excavated (Ho 1984, I: 254 [Pot "107"]). The class 7 pot was found upside-down next to the head of this burial in such a way that the skull fitted snugly into the concavity of the side of the bowl, could have been made especially for this burial by a local potter who had only heard of such pots but never seen one. In any case, no other pot of these particular proportions (height and width of body to bottom of bowl) has been found anywhere in Khok Charoen nor is it known from sites in Kanchanaburi like Ban-Kao. The nearest to being a model could be two vessels (Pots 3 and 6) of burial 29 in Ban Kao, having a shape similar to the KC IV vessel except that, with equal heights, their widths are only about half of that of the KC IV vessel (Sørensen & Hatting 1967: Plate 51)
Burial 8, Find 24: Fragment of a stone object, showing parts of the original surface of both sides (front and back) which is highly polished to a brilliant gloss. The curvatures of the original surfaces indicate that the artifact was not only quite large but also of an unusual shape as both original surfaces are concave. Found on left side of left lower tibia at about 15 cm distance from fragment Find 23 but cannot have been part of the same artifact. Association with burial not secure but highly likely. Burial 9, Find 26: Small adze made of greenstone; entire except for a small broken-off part of the butt. Surface chipped in places, including the cutting edge (traces of use?). Found at foot of footed bowl Find 5, towards skeleton. Association considered secure. Burial 9, Find 27: Two small triangular fragments of (probably) two distinct but similar adzes of a relatively large size with finely polished surface. Found under, or near the lowest part of, globular bowl Find 10, on the side towards footed bowl Find 11,in disturbed context. As the bottom half of this pot is missing, the origin of the stone adze fragments and the nature of their association with the burial cannot be ascertained.
Discussion If the "pseudo"-Class 7 pot (classified for convenience sake as Type 7C) in Burial 5 of the Earlier Phase in soil {5}, is really based on the knowledge, as indirect as it may be, of the Kanchanaburi pots, we would have proof for the contemporaneity of the Earlier Phase of KC IV with the Kanchanaburi Neolithic or at least a terminus a quo of trans-Central Plain contacts. Such contacts apparently also occurred with KC IV during the Later phase and with KC III at an unknown time after the burials there.
Burial 15, Find 5: Shouldered adze of sigmoidal type limestone. Finely worked, very smooth surface. Apparently unused. Found at right tibia but association with burial not secure. Discussion Six of these eight items have been found in Burials 8 (3) and 9 (3), both burials with rich grave goods but both so much disturbed that the attribution of finds to the buried individuals can at best be tentative. In Burial 8, only the small unused limestone adze next to the skull of the young female adult seems to be securely associated with the burial and in Burial 9, only the small greenstone adze is likely to be a genuine burial gift for the 5 year-old boy. The other two stone adzes, also in two very disturbed and badly preserved burials, are again doubtful cases. The almost complete large adze in Burial 7 could well have been associated with this skeleton as such a small but heavy compact object is unlikely to have been transported over long distances and the careful make and unused appearance of the adze in Burial 15 would suggest that it
Stone There are 4 stone adzes, 3 adze fragments and one fragment of an artefact of unknown purpose associated with burials in KC IV but not all are in secure association with the burial in or near which they were found. Burial 7, Find 2: Large part (butt and upper section) of a slightly shouldered stone adze with oval cross-section. Polished. Found at right shoulder of skeleton in disturbed context. Association with burial not entirely secure but likely. Burial 8, Find 22: Small ground limestone adze. 198
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) was a burial gift. A special case is a shouldered adze made, like that in Burial 15, of sigmoidal type limestone (no. 10) which was found in G7 in {4} or {5}. There are three burials in this former Pit III of KC I to which this shouldered adze could have belonged but as its exact position was not recorded all that can be done is to note this possibility.
mobile is clearly shown by their wide distribution, from cutting F3 at the S-corner of the excavated area to Test Cutting 1 at its N-most extension almost 40 m distant. It therefore remains unclear whether these three tubes were really securely associated with Burial 9 or the other one with Burial 13 and, for that matter, whether there is an association with burials at all. However, there are four other excavated burials W of Burial 9 (as well as an unknown number of non-excavated ones beyond them) and also four W of Burial 13, all more or less disturbed, from which the tubes could have originated. Almost half of such a tube was even found in stratified deposits in KC III (E6), 100 m SW of KC IV, where it was unlikely to have been associated with Burial 4 in that cutting because of being in soil {4} well above it. The question of whether or not they are part of burial gifts is irrelevant as long as their purpose is not elucidated.
Bone People who buried their dead in KC IV seem to have developed a more sophisticated bone industry than those who buried theirs in KC III, as shown by the use of bone for a greater variety of technical and perhaps ornamental or ritual purposes. Amongst the latter is a particular type of artefact which could be seen as falling into the category of funeral material culture as several of them have been found in or near burials and no utilitarian purpose can immediately be perceived.
As Burial 9 is a child burial, the question of a possible connection between the tubes and children (and in particular children of high social status) should also be asked. If the tubes are implements or tools of some kind, their presence in a burial would presumably denote a relation with a person who used such a tool in his/her life, just as pottery-making tools in a burial usually indicate the grave of a potter; in the case of children, this would be highly unlikely. If, on the other hand, the tubes were part of a special personal adornment, a kind of status symbol or "ritual object", their place in the burial of any high-ranking individual could be seen as normal, regardless of age or gender. The evidence available in KC IV is not sufficient to clarify this matter.
It is a tubular object made of antler or of long-bones of medium/large mammals (perhaps even humans) of a length of 2 cm to over 6 cm and an outer diameter of 2.5 cm to 3.5 cm; the outside is usually polished and both ends are finely cut or sawn absolutely straight. There are 9 such implements or fragments thereof excavated in KC IV of which 3 have been found in Burial 9 and one in Burial 13 although the association of them with these burials is doubtful. See Appendix F for descriptions and illustrations of these Antler objects. Discussion
The above considerations taken together must unfortunately lead to the conclusion that we simply do not know what these objects have been used for, what their meaning or significance in society may have been or what their origin was. All we know is that they were present in Khok Charoen in pre-Discontinuity times, almost certainly during the Earlier phase thereof, and that they were locally made mainly, if not solely, of antler of large deer species apparently abundant in the area at that time. The identification of the raw material of some fragments as being long-bones of medium or large mammals, including possibly humans, is to be seen as tentative only as the drastic surface modification through polishing or weathering of these mainly small items sometimes precludes a definite classification. In any case, these polished antler tubes constitute a significant element of the bone industry of KC IV, whether being part of funeral material culture or of that of daily life.
Although the association of the first three of these antler tubes with Burial 9 appears reasonably secure, it must be kept in mind that this richly furnished burial of a child was much disturbed, both by natural agents (root growth, water action) and by human interference (signs of impact on burial pots, large gap between Finds 5 and 6) mainly in the area of the (missing) skull and beyond where the three tubes have been lying. Their position (Find 28: sideways under the NE-most burial pot facing the gap between it and the next pot; Finds 29 and 30: outside, i.e. NW of, intentionally broken burial pots next to the missing skulls) can be interpreted to mean that they were not found in situ and possibly transported there by water action from outside the burial. The general direction of water flows being W-E, it could even be argued that the (probably exposed) burial pots next to which they were found stopped them from floating further E-wards. That this could well have been so is demonstrated by the fact that rim-sherds of a burial pot at the feet of the same Burial 9 (Find 25) had been transported for about 1.5 m in an ESE direction, i.e. roughly the direction in which the tubes could have been transported, to end up next to a pot of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 1.
3.6 Material Culture (domestic) Pottery Multi-use pottery
Similar considerations apply to the situation in Burial 13 where the tube was also found at the W-side of the skeletons. That these objects were indeed relatively
These are pottery types found in burials but which may 199
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand also have been used for other purposes such as cooking pots, storing vessels and the like. Types to be investigated in KC IV are all those found in burials as well as N.-A.B.P. vessels; they comprise thus the following Class 1 and 2 pots (Class 3C+ and Class 4 pots being considered Burial-Only Pottery). Burial 1 2 3 5 6 8 9 13 14 ub
1A(1); 1Aa(3); 1Ab(7); 1B(3); 1Ba(2); 1Bb(2); 1C(4); 1Ca(1); 1Cb(1); 1D(2); 2A(1); 2Aa(1); 2Ab(1). Of these 29 pots, only 17 were found in burials while the other 12 were found as N.-A.B.P. pots.
Burial‐Only Pottery (40)
Multi‐Use Pottery (20)
4A (2) 4A, 4J? 4A (2), 4D 4A (2) 3Ea, 4A?, 4Aa, 4Ab, 4E (2), 4Ea (2), 4H 3C, 3E, 4A (4), 4Aa (3), 4Ab, 4D (2), 4G (5) 4A, 4Ja 4A (2), 4G
1C 1Cb 1D 2Ab 1Ab, 1B (3), 1Ba, 1C, 2Ca 1Aa, 1Ab, 1C, 1Ca 1Ba, 2A 1A, 1Ea?, 1Bb
Table 3.14, Distribution of pots found in burials (number of pots per type in brackets, if more than one) 1F. Lower body hemispherical, upper body slightly convex truncated conical. Everted straight rim, pointed on top. Buff ware, dark brown in break, heavy. Coarsely (2.5:10) cord-marked throughout from 1 cm below neck down. Only two matching large sherds found, one seemingly near or at left elbow of Burial 6a (if supine position of skeleton is assumed) and the other near Pot "G" (VCCB 7), 1.60 m NE, neither in situ but both in {4}. The origin of the pot is therefore to be sought somewhere W or SW, presumably just outside the excavated area. In addition to these two large sherds which represent about 20% of the entire pot, some small sherds have been found near Pot "G". H: 11; Hr: 1.2; Hc: 5; Wr: 12; Wn: 10.4; Wc/m: 14.4; On: 9; Thw: 0.5-0.7; Wgt: 175.
Discussion The proportion of Burial-Only to Multi-Use pots in KC IV burials (40:20) is thus different from that in KC III burials (25:5) but the conclusion is the same in both cases, namely that in general, compared with the Burial-Only pottery, the Multi-Use pots play a minor role in human burials. As far as KC IV is concerned this could mean that, in the absence of the larger Class 5 and all Class 6 pots, the only Domestic-Only pottery would have to be found amongst the Class 1 pots of Types E and F which do not exist in KC III. Domestic-only pottery There are still 6 ceramic vessels left which, being neither burial pots nor multi-use pots, must have fulfilled other functions which most likely were domestic-only. They are four pots of Type 1F (i.e. carinated bowls) and two of Class 5 (small bowls with flat base).
3) E4: Pot "D": Medium restricted carinated bowl Type 1F. Lower body shallow hemispherical upper body slightly convex truncated conical. Everted straight rim, slightly rounded on top. Buff ware. Medium (4:10) cord-marked, vertically on upper body, criss-crossed on lower body. Found upright in E-corner of cutting surrounded by {4}, sitting on {5}. Almost complete (only about one-third of rim missing), broken into a great number of small and medium sherds along horizontal circles denoting breakage through compacting. H: 12; Hr: 2.8; Hc: 5.5; Wr: 17; Wn: 15; Wc/m: 21; On: 13.2; Thw: 0.5-0.8; Wgt: 750.
1) F4: Pot "C2": Medium restricted carinated bowl Type 1F. Lower body hemispherical, upper body slightly convex truncated conical. Everted straight rim. Buff ware, dark grey-brown in break. Medium (5:10) cord-marked throughout from 1 cm below top of rim down, upper body vertical, lower body slightly criss-crossed but generally vertical. Found next to and partly under Pot "C" (VCCB 5), obviously not in situ and not part of this vessel cluster ceramic burial, in {4}. Only 34 small and medium body-sherds and one medium rim-sherd preserved, amounting to about one-quarter of entire vessel. H: 12.4; Hr: 1.8; Hc: 7; Wr: 12; Wn: 10.4; Wc/m: 19; On: 8.4; Thw: 0.4-0.9; Wgt: 350.
4) F4: Pot "2405": Medium restricted carinated bowl Type 1F. Lower body shallow hemispherical, upper body slightly convex truncated conical with a minor bulge 1 cm below base of rim. Everted outcurving rim, rounded on top. Buff ware. Medium (4:10) cord-marked, vertically on upper body, elaborately criss-crossed on lower body. Sherds found in stratified deposits at 30-70 cm b.s. in {4} and {5}, in E-corner of cutting. About two-thirds complete, broken in a
2) F4: Pot "D": Medium restricted carinated bowl Type
200
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) number of mainly medium sherds; no signs of an impact. H: 10.2; Hr: 1.2; Hc: 4.4; Wr: 13; Wn: 11.4; Wc/m: 16; On: 10.5; Thw: 0.4-0.6; Wgt: 310.
Special and unique pottery - 1 (on site) There are a number of special and unique pottery types in KC IV which have not been found in a human burial anywhere on the site nor were they likely to have been used for a domestic purpose. They are found mainly in, or as, ceramic burials (single vessel or vessel cluster) but also singly on their own without being buried intentionally and their origin is unknown except that they were not made locally. They are of pre-Discontinuity times and most had suffered from the same destructive natural forces which also greatly affected the human burials of both burial phases.
5) F3: Pot "D1": Small bowl with flat base Type 5B. Body truncated hemispherical with everted slightly outcurving direct rim, rounded on top. Base slightly concave. Coarse buff ware. Plain; roughly finished inside and outside, smoothed with 2 mm-wide spatula. Found together with sherds of Pot "D2" in the centre of "W"-side of F3 at 40-50 cm b.s., in {4}, in such a way that it may be assumed that it was upright and covered with Pot "D2" as lid which had slipped sideways down its "S"-side. About 75% complete, i.e. a large part of one side is missing while the rest, including the base, is complete but broken into 16 medium/small sherds. The base shows clear signs of having been broken by the impact of a pointed implement at its centre. H: 6.6; Wr: 11.6; Wm: 12.4; Wb (at base): 8; ThwB: 0.4-0.6; ThwBb: 0.6-0.8; Wgt: 270.
The types involved are of Classes 1, 2 and 4 and the status of individual pots is indicated thus: SVC = a single vessel ceramic burial, VCC = (part of) a vessel cluster ceramic burial, UKS = unknown status. NB: to give a rough idea of the size (height or, in the case of some footed bowls, width) of these vessels in the context of Thai prehistoric pottery, the comparative terms "small" (up to 10 cm), "medium" (10-15 cm), "large" (15-30 cm), "very large" (30-50 cm) and "huge" (50+ cm) are used here.
6) F3: Pot "D2": Small shallow bowl with flat base Type 5C. Dish-like body with everted direct rim, rounded on top. Base perfectly flat. Coarse buff ware. Plain; roughly finished inside and outside, smoothed with 2 mm-wide spatula. Found together with sherds of Pot "D1" in the centre of "W"-side of F3 at 40-50 cm b.s. in {4}, in such a way that it may be assumed that it was the lid of the upright standing Pot "D1" which had slipped sideways down its "S"-side, opening to "N". About 85% complete, broken into 10 medium/small sherds, base in one piece. The smallest sherds being concentrated on the side of the lid which, presumably, was on top of the missing part of the wall of Pot "D1", denoting an impact; Pots "D1" and "D2" had almost certainly been smashed from the top as well as from the bottom. H: 4.8; Wr/m: 13.5; Wb (at base); ThwB: 0.4-0.8; ThwBb: 0.7-0.8; Wgt: 250.
Type 1G: Large restricted slightly pear-shaped globular vessels with incised-and-pricked decoration (asymmetrically opposed hanging and standing curved arches, plain or filled-in, on plain or filled-in background) on upper body; lower body cord-marked. 1): F6, Pot "B" = UKS 2): F6, Pot "B1" = UKS Type 1Ga: Large restricted globular vessels with short everted rims, upper part of body decorated with incised curvilinear or geometric motifs; body below finely cord-marked. 3): E5, Pot "X" = UKS 4): F6, Pot "item 26" = UKS Type 1H: Very large restricted globular or slightly pear-shaped vessels, cord-marked throughout. 5): E4, Pot "2188" = UKS 6): F4, Pot "B" = VCC 5
Discussion
Type 1Ha: Very large restricted globular bowl with everted outcurving rim corner articulation, cord-marked throughout. 7): F4, Pot "C" = VCC 5
Although there is no proof that the four carinated bowls were used for domestic purposes, let alone exclusively so, they do not look like the kind of pot to be used in a ceremonial or ritual way. The same is true for the two roughly made bowls with flat base even though they have been found as a unit probably containing something which may have been the reason for apparently smashing them. However, there does not seem to be another way of categorising these six pots other than as Domestic-Only pottery, the only pots in KC IV to qualify for this denomination.
Type 1I: Large restricted slightly flattened globular vessel with incised-and-pricked decoration (standing empty pointed arches on empty background) on upper body; lower body cord-marked. 8): F4, Pot "A" = VCC 2 Type 1Ia: Large to very large restricted moderately flattened globular vessel with incised-and-pricked decoration (standing empty curved arches on empty background) on upper body; lower body cord-marked. 9): F4, Pot "2242" = UKS 201
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 10): F4, Pot "W" = UKS
or less, of body; remainder cord-marked. 28): E4, Pot "B" = SVC 7 29): G7?, Pot "Q" = SVC 8 30): E4, Pot "C1" = SVC 6
Type 1J: Large restricted slightly flattened globular vessel with high everted outcurving rim of about one quarter the height of entire pot and incised-and-pricked decoration (standing empty curved arches on partly empty background) on upper body; lower body cord-marked. 11): E6, Pot "B" = VCC 3
Type 1Mb: Very large restricted gourd-shaped vessel with low but large everted straight rim, almost horizontal shoulder platform and sharp carination; between shoulder and the onset of lower globular part of body incised-and-pricked decoration in the form of two large horizontally rectangular fields filled-in "windmill"-like motifs on empty background; lower body cord-marked. 31): KC II, Pot "148" = SVC Type 1N: Very large to huge restricted pear-shaped vessel with elongated vertical direct rim and incised-and-pricked decoration on rim, shoulder and upper body (rim and shoulder: bands of zigzag-lines, upper body: filled-in standing curved arches on empty background or different geometrical forms); lower body cord-marked. 32): F4, Pot "Z" = UKS 33): F4, Pot "B4" = UKS
12): F3, Pot "2227" = UKS Type 1Ja: Very large to huge restricted globular vessels with high everted outcurving rim of only about one-sixth the height of entire pot; cord-marked throughout. 13): F3, Pot "R2" = VCC 9 14): F4, Pot "G" = VCC 7 15): F6, Pot "2142" = UKS (NB: same or very similar pot as KC III, H6, Pot "1584") Type 1Jb: Very large restricted slightly pear-shaped globular vessel with high everted straight rim of about one-sixth the height of entire pot and incised-and-pricked decoration (standing empty arches on empty background) on upper body; lower body cord-marked. 16): F6, Pot "B3" = UKS
Type 1Na: Very large to huge restricted pear-shaped vessel with elongated vertical direct rim (?) and incised-and-pricked decoration on rim and shoulder (rim: wide filled-in bands, shoulder: symmetrically opposed hanging and standing filled-in low curved arches on empty background with filled-in diamond-shaped inserts); body below shoulder cord-marked. 34): F4, Pot "B2" = UKS
Type 1L: Large restricted flattened globular vessels with high direct collar-rim and incised-and-pricked decoration on both rim and upper body (rim: symmetrically opposed hanging and standing filled-in arches on empty background with filled-in lentil-shaped inserts; upper body: filled-in ovals, curvilinear motifs or the "windmill"-motif on empty background; sometimes a band below with filled-in standing low curved arches or lentil-shaped motifs on empty background); lower body cord-marked. 17): E4, Pot "A1" = VCC 8 18): F4, Pot "E" = VCC 6 19): E6, Pot "C" = VCC 3 20): F3, Pot "B" = VCC 11 21): E6, Pot "D" = UKS
Type 2B: Large or very large restricted globular vessels with conical shoulder part, almost horizontal rim platform and high direct collar-rim. Incised-and-pricked decoration on shoulder (alternate square and horizontally rectangular fields filled with the "Windmill"- and the "Horizontal S or Z"-motif or only the latter); lower body cord-marked. Ring-foot. 35): E3, Pot "19" = UKS 36): F4, Pot "Y" = UKS 37): F3, Pot "A2" = UKS
Type 1M: Very large restricted elongated pear-shaped vessels with low everted straight rim on horizontal shoulder platform; incised-and-pricked decoration (symmetrically opposed hanging and standing filled-in arches on empty background with filled-in lentil-shaped inserts) on upper quarter of body; lower three-quarters cord-marked. 22): F4, Pot "X" = SVC 2 23): F6, Pot "R" = SVC 3 24): E6, Pot "Ra" = SVC 4 25): E5, Pot "Rb" = SVC 5 26): G7?, Pot "153" = SVC 9 27): KC II, Pot "154" = SVC 11
Type 2C: Very large restricted spherical vessel with vertical direct collar-rim and incised-and-pricked decoration on rim (symmetrically opposed filled-in arches on empty background with filled-in lentil-shaped inserts) and upper third of body (asymmetrically opposed "Stylised Scroll"-motif on empty background, with band of filled-in standing arches on empty background below); lower two-thirds of body cord-marked. Added ring-foot. 38): E4, Pot "A3" = VCC 8 Type 2Ca: Very large restricted cylindrical vessel with vertical direct collar-rim, narrow near-horizontal rim platform. Rim plain; incised-and-pricked decoration on upper two-thirds of body ("Horizontal S or Z motif on filled-in background, on two superimposed registers); lower third of body cord-marked. Ring-foot. 39): E3, Pot "111" = SVC
Type 1Ma: Very large restricted elongated pear-shaped vessels with everted straight rim and rounded shoulder; incised-and-pricked decoration (symmetrically opposed hanging and standing filled-in curved arches on empty background with filled-in oval inserts or other filled-in geometrical forms on empty background) on upper third,
Type 4I: Very large footed bowl with almost hemispherical shallow body, vertical slightly inverted 202
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) direct rim and high pedestal foot about half the hight of entire pot; body cord-marked.
The 20 pots the original position and status of which is unknown but which could all have been part of a vessel cluster ceramic burial comprise the following types (number of pots in brackets): 1G (2), 1Ga (2), 1H (1), 1Ia (2), 1J (1), 1Ja (1), 1Jb (1), 1L (1), 1N (2), 1Na (1), 2B (3), 4I (1) and 4K (2).
40): F3, Pot "A1" = UKS Type 4K: Large to very large footed bowls with shallow undecorated bowls covered with dark red slip inside and outside. High and wide pedestal feet, outside also covered with dark red slip, with incised-and-pricked decoration (upper part: filled-in rows; middle part: filled-in symmetrically opposed hanging and standing flat curved arches on empty background with filled-in lentil-shaped inserts; lower part: filled-in standing curved arches on empty background or similar arrangements). 41): E4, Pot "A" = VCC 8 42): F3, Pot "R1" = VCC 9 43): F3, Pot "2216" = UKS 44): F4, Pot "2011" = UKS
1) Pot "B" (KC IV, F6):
Discussion These 44 special and unique pots are thus divided into 11 SVC, 13 VCC and 20 UKS and can be assessed in the following way. The 11 vessels interred on their own as single vessel burials are all of Class 1, Type M, Ma or Mb, and of Class 2, Type Ca, i.e. of the elongated form, from cylindrical to slightly pear-shaped to gourd-shaped, and are all rather tall. Whether there was a ring-foot attached or not, it was clearly the elongated round-bottomed shape as such which was thought to be the most appropriate one for pots to be buried in this manner as no differently shaped pot was found as a single vessel ceramic burial. The fact that the only Class 2 pot as a single vessel ceramic burial (Pot "111", SVC 1) had its ring-foot added (i.e. appliqué, rather than raised) after the completion of the body could indicate that the change from a Class 1 to a Class 2 pot was perhaps not part of the original design of the pot but was done for an unknown reason after its completion.
Illustration 3.175, KC IV, F6, Pot “B” Large restricted globular bowl Type 1G. Body slightly pear-shaped with short everted straight rim, pointed on top. Buff ware, grey in break. Upper body below rim with incised and impressed decoration (asymmetrically opposed hanging and standing empty curved arches on filled-in background; lower body probably cord-marked. The pot, broken into large sherds but bottom missing, was found in an upright position c.30 cm E of the (missing) right elbow of Burial 7 but clearly not belonging to this burial (top of pot at 40 cm b.s. in {4}, bottom presumably in {5}, whereas the skeleton was found at 50-60 cm b.s. in a hollow of {6} and sealed by {5}). Given this stratigraphic difference, the pot should be younger than the skeleton but as there is no other burial in the vicinity with which it could be associated it must be assumed that it originated from outside the area at a time after the burials, presumably from W. H: c. 23.5; Hr: 2; Wr: 14; Wn: 13; Wm: c. 26.2; On: 10.6; Thw: 0.4-1.
(NB: More detailed descriptions and measurements of the above 11+13 vessels are to be found in the sections on single vessel- and vessel cluster ceramic burials. As these 24 vessels have already been illustrated there, only the illustrations of the 20 pots of unknown status (i.e. being neither non-attibutable burial pots nor domestic-only pots) need be included in the following survey.)
203
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 2) Pot "B1" (KC IV, F6):
reminiscent of the "Horizontal S or Z"-motif; body below finely (10:10) cord-marked. Two large and three small sherds found in stratified deposits at 50-60 cm b.s. (in {5}) in "E"-baulk of E5; two more small sherds, one at 90-100 cm b.s. (also in {5}) in E3 and the other at 20-30 cm b.s. (in {4}), almost certainly belong to the same pot. These well preserved sherds with sharp breaks represent about one-half of rim and neck and small parts of shoulder, thus probably less than 10% of the entire pot; the rest is only restored virtually. H: c. 27.5; Hr: 1.6; Wr: 13.5; Wn: 11.7; Wm: c. 28; On: 12; Thw: c. 0.3-0.8; Wgt: 240. 4) Pot "Item 26" (KC IV, F6):
Illustration 3.176, KC IV, F6, Pot “B1” Large restricted globular bowl Type 1G. Body slightly pear-shaped with short everted straight rim, pointed on top. Buff ware. Upper body below rim with incised and impressed decoration consisting of a 2.5 cm wide horizontal band filled with "walking shell"-made zig-zag lines below which are opposed hanging and standing empty curved arches on an empty background; lower body most likely cord-marked. This pot consists of one large diagnostic sherd of rim and upper body which nevertheless allows a virtual reconstruction if Pot "B", with which it seems to have much in common, is taken as a model. The sherd was found laying on top of where the left elbow of Burial 7 would have been, at the same depth as the 50 cm distant Pot "B" and probably of the same origin. H: c. 21.2; Hr: 2; Wr: 15; Wn: 13.6; Wm: c. 23.8; On: 11.5; Thw: 0.5-0.9.
Illustration 3.178, KC IV, F6, Pot “Item 26” Very large restricted globular bowl Type 1Ga. Spherical body, rim missing (presumably everted outcurving). Dark ochre ware. Incised and impressed decoration on neck (horizontal band filled with vertical "walking shell” impressions), shoulder and uppermost part of body (15 tall stilted arches filled with mainly horizontal "walking shell" impressions standing on a wide horizontal filled-in band on empty burnished background), covered with red slip; body below coarsely (4:10) but carefully vertically cord-marked and also covered with red slip. Found as a cluster of 15 medium to small potsherds at 30 cm b.s. (in {4}) in the NW- quadrant of F6, with two medium sherds in neighbouring E6, at same depth also in {4}. The excavated sherds all belong to the top part (neck, shoulder and upper body) of which they constitute not quite two thirds or about 20% of the entire pot. The rim seems to have been cut or broken off artificially and no rim-sherd could be found. H (without rim): c. 30; Wn: 16.2; Wm: 31.5; On: 15; Thw: 0.3-0.6; Wgt: 225.
3) Pot "X" (KC IV, E5):
Illustration 3.177, KC IV, E5, Pot “X” Large restricted globular bowl Type 1Ga. Spherical body with short everted outcurving rim, rounded on top. Ochre ware. Rim and upper body inside and outside covered in red slip. Incised curvilinear decoration on shoulder and uppermost body vaguely
204
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) 5) Pot "2188" (KC IV, E4):
background); space between lower border of filled-in horizontal band and outline of arches covered with dark brown-black slip. Lower body coarsely (4:10) cord-marked. Sherds from this pot were found in stratified deposits in F4 at 30-40 cm b.s. {4}, 40-50 cm b.s. {4/5} and 50-60 cm b.s. {5}, with most of the sherds coming from {5} but without a recognisable concentration within the cutting. Sherds were mainly medium-sized to small but no particular pattern of breakage could be seen except for the fact that not a single rim-sherd was discovered; as there were not enough neck-sherds available to be sure of it, the possibility remains that the rim had been cut off artificially. H (without rim): c. 19.5; Wn: 16.8; Wm: c. 27.5; On: 15.8; Thw: 0.3-0.9. 7) Pot "W" (KC IV, F4):
Illustration 3.179, KC IV, E4, Pot “2188” Very large restricted globular bowl Type 1H. Spherical body with faint carination and everted outcurving rim with horizontal rounded lip. Coarse-grained ochre-orange ware containing magnetite grains of up to 2 mm diameter. From below lip down rim, neck and body vertically coarsely (2.5:10) cord-marked. Sherds from this pot were found widely dispersed in stratified deposits in F4 ("N"-baulk, 20-40 cm b.s. {2/4} = only rim-sherds) and E4 (20-30 cm b.s. {2}, 30-40 cm b.s. {4} and 40-50 cm b.s {4/5} = only body-sherds). No particular breakage pattern could be observed. The distribution of the sherds over about 3 m W-E horizontally and three layers vertically, with the majority coming from {4} or {4/5}, suggests that this pot originated from a disturbed pre-Discontinuity context within F4 (a cutting within which there were four human burials, one single vessel ceramic burial and four vessel cluster ceramic burials – all of them more or less disturbed) and was transported E into E4 where there were also three much disturbed human burials, one vessel cluster and two single vessel ceramic burials, making it well-nigh impossible to locate its original position. H: c. 36.5; Hr: 3.5; Hc (from top): 7.5; Wr: 26; Wn: 22; Wc: 31; Wm: c. 42; On: 18.6; Thw: 0.3-1.7.
Illustration 3.180, KC IV, F4, Pot “W” Very large restricted globular bowl Type 1Ia. Slightly flattened spherical body with a minute carination forming a small shoulder-platform; cylindrical neck with everted outcurving rim and rounded lip. Ochre ware. Incised and impressed decoration on shoulder-platform, carination and 6 cm of uppermost body (wide horizontal band filled with "walking shell"? impressions) and upper body to just below equator (6 standing empty curved arches on empty background); lower body coarsely (4:10) but carefully cord-marked. About 100 mostly medium sherds of this pot were found dispersed in F4, almost all in {4}, including ten rim-sherds fitting together (over one-half of rim) of which one came from F3, but only very few were cord-marked and/or showed the junction of the decorated upper body with the cord-marked lower body. It is therefore suggested that the original position of this pot was outside the excavated area whence its upper part was transported into F4 leaving its lower part behind. As the pot is remarkably similar to Pot "A" of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 4, i.e. the W-most of a row of five such burials stretching W-E across F4 and into E4, there could well have been another ceramic burial
6) Pot "2242" (KC IV, F4): Large restricted globular bowl Type 1Ia . Slightly flattened spherical body, rim missing. Reddish-grey ware (outside), light grey-ochre inside, almost black in break. Incised and impressed decoration below neck (broad horizontal band filled with horizontal "walking shell" impressions) and on upper body (6 empty standing curved arches on empty
205
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand further to W to which Pot "W" belonged. Sherds have sharp breaks and could easily be fitted together which indicates transport over a short distance and little weathering; excavated sherds represent approximatively 25% of entire pot. {NB: there are indications (sherds with similar decoration but of different ware) for the existence of at least one more pot of the same type in this particular area in addition to Pot "W" and Pot "A" of the ceramic burial}. H: c. 41; Hr: 4.3; Hc (from top): 4.5; Wr: 22.8; Wn: 17.6; Wc: 19; Wm: c. 52; On: 16.6; Thw: 0.3-1; Wgt: 1,300.
10) Pot "B3" (KC IV, F6):
8) Pot "2227" (KC IV, F3): Large restricted globular bowl Type 1J. Slightly flattened spherical body with high everted outcurving rim. Ochre ware. Rim plain. Decoration on body could not be reconstructed. Four large rim/neck-sherds and a multitude of small body-sherds excavated; body virtually restored proportional to Pot "B" of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 3 which has a similarly high outcurving rim. The sherds were found as a cluster at 40-50 cm b.s. in {4} on the surface of {5} near the S-corner of F3 without visible connections with a human or a ceramic burial; the pot originated possibly from a ceramic burial nearby outside the excavated area. H: c. 28.5; Hr: 7.3; Wr: 21.7; Wn: 14; Wm: c. 28.5; On: 11.6; Thw: ?-1.
Illustration 3.181, KC IV, F6, Pot “B3” Very large restricted globular bowl Type 1Jb. Slightly pear-shaped body with high everted outcurving rim, rounded on top. Dark ochre ware, inside brick-coloured, containing fine magnetite grains; very dark brown in break. Rim plain. Incised decoration on burnished upper body (4 large standing curved empty arches on empty background); lower body coarsely (3.5:10) cord-marked. Four medium/large diagnostic sherds (including rim-sherds) and a number of smaller nondiagnostic sherds found in "E"-baulk of F6 at 20-50 cm b.s. in {4}, next to a very disturbed area (pit filled with a mixture of {4} and {5C}) where Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials 1 and 2 are situated. H: c. 48; Hr: 8.2; Wr: 24; Wn: 15; Wm: c. 44; On: 13.3; Thw: 0.3-0.8. {NB: some excavated sherds of a similar ware but with incised lines implying more gracile designs (arches?) indicate the existence of smaller versions of the same vessel type as Pot "B3"}.
9) Pot "2142" (KC IV, F6): Very large restricted globular bowl Type 1Ja. Almost spherical body with high everted outcurving rim. Heavy buff-grey ware (almost like stoneware). Only one large rim/neck-sherd found; body virtually restored in analogy with Pot "G" of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 7 (F4) and Pot "R2" of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 9 (F3). Rim inside covered with red slip; surface treatment of body not ascertainable. The sherd was found at 30-40 cm b.s. in {4} without visible connections with a human or ceramic burial but its similarity with two pots in vessel cluster ceramic burials suggests that the pot to which this sherd belonged may also have been part of such a burial outside the excavated area. H: c. 41; Hr: 7; Wr: 18; Wn: 13.8; Wm: c. 39; On: 11; Thw: ?-1.6.
11) Pot "D" (KC IV, E6): Large globular vessel Type 1L. Description and measurements like Pot “E", F4 (VCCB 6), of which this virtual "pot" of only one diagnostic shoulder-sherd seems to be a duplicate. This sherd shows not only the horizontal and vertical curvatures of the body which are the same as those of Pot "E", F4, but also parts of the characteristic incised-and-pricked decoration in horizontal oval cartouches differing only in details from that pot; the only visible dissimilarity is that, while on Pot "E" the decorative band below rim is filled with pricked zig-zag lines, on the Pot "D"-sherd it is filled with straight lines seemingly made by the "walking shell"-method. Size of sherd c. 8x7 cm. The sherd was found at 40 cm b.s. clearly not in situ in a much disturbed area in the E-quadrant of E6 in {4} or possibly a pit filled with a mixture of {4} and {5}. 206
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) 12) Pot "Z" (KC IV, F4):
the body was reconstructed in accordance with other pots of the same type, details of decoration other than some on the rim are unavailable. The sherd was found in stratified deposits in F4, in {4}, together with sherds of Pot "Z" and of pot "B2a", both F4. H: c. 26; Wn: 14.5; Wm: c. 25; Thw: 0.4(?)-0.6(?). 14) Pot "B2a" (KC IV, F4):
Illustration 3.182, KC IV, F4, Pot “Z” Very large restricted globular bowl Type 1N. Pear-shaped body with direct vertical rim. Ochre ware, dark ochre-orange inside. Incised decoration on rim (three horizontal rows of large zig-zag incisions and another row of only the upper par of these incisions) and upper body (wide horizontal band filled with smaller horizontal zig-zag lines and below this seven standing filled-in (with medium zig-zag lines) low curved arches on empty (dark brown/black polished or slipped) background; lower body cord-marked in a fine criss-cross fashion (matted?), unique in Khok Charoen. Most of the about 50 small/medium sherds making up much of the upper body of this pot come from an area just above Find 1 of Burial 6 in F4 but some sherds also come from F3, F5, F6, E4 or even TC3; however, they always clearly came from {4}. While these sherds with their characteristic zig-zag decoration, found in places up to 30 m apart, demonstrate the relative significance of this particular vessel type (for, although being of the same style, a number of sherds are evidently from a different pot or different pots), the original position of Pot "Z" remains unknown, having almost certainly been outside the excavated area. H: c. 34; Hr: 8.6; Wr: 12.3; Wn: 18.4; Wm: 33.7; On: 10; Thw: 0.3-0.8.
Illustration 3.183, KC IV, F4, Pot “B2a” Huge restricted globular bowl Type 1Na. Pear-shaped body with direct vertical rim? (top missing). Heavy buff-ochre ware, dark grey in break. Burnished inside and outside; outside covered with red slip. Incised and impressed decoration on rim (horizontal band with four standing low curved filled-in segments on empty background above a wide filled-in band, separated by a narrow empty band) and on uppermost body (four pairs of symmetrically opposed standing and hanging filled-in segments on empty background with filled-in diamond-shaped inserts; in one case this insert is made wider by a diagonal empty bar as a space-filler). Lower two-thirds of body medium (4:10) cord-marked. About 30 mainly large and medium decorated sherds (and numerous cord-marked ones) of this vessel have been found in stratified deposits in F4 and F5 at 30-40 cm b.s. in {4}, presumably remnants of a vessel cluster ceramic burial situated outside the excavated area. Two thicker sherds decorated in the same manner but of a different and heavier dark ochre ware and with dark red slip covering both their outside and inside, one found in F5 and the other in E3 (both in {4}), indicate the presence of at least one more vessel of Type 1Na in or near this S-part of the excavated area. H (including missing part of rim): c. 50; Wn: 29; Wm: 43; Thw: 0.8?-1. Discussion concerning Pot B2a: This vessel, like the other two of type 1N, is somewhat enigmatic inasmuch as, in the absence of finds of any bottom sherds, the shape of its lower body is unknown, although it is assumed to be pear-shaped. This
13) Pot "B4" (KC IV, F4): Large restricted globular bowl Type 1N. Pear-shaped body with direct vertical rim. Reddish-brown ware. Incised and impressed decoration on rim (vertical rectangle filled with horizontal "walking shell" impressions standing on two incised horizontal lines on empty background; traces of a curved incised line next to the rectangle indicate other decorative elements on the rim. Comparisons with other decorated pots show that such vertical rectangles are often used as fill-ins to compensate for miscalculations regarding the dimensions of the main motifs in a particular field). As the virtual reconstruction of this pot is based on only one diagnostic neck-sherd while the remainder of
207
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand assumption was finally confirmed by the excavation of the child-burial 14 in Khok Phanom Di (Higham and Bannanurag 1990: 336-338) in a clearly pear-shaped and round-bottomed urn, decorated with the same motif as Pot “B2a” (Hall 1993:242, 249). To illustrate this similarity, a re-drawing of the colour photograph of Burial 14 (Highm and Thosarat 1998:60, fig.78) is juxtaposed to a reconstructed Pot “B2a”. See illustration below,
square divided in 8 triangles alternatively left plain or filled with shell impressions). There are two small handle-like projections at the shoulder, one on either side opposite each-other. Lower body from carination down coarsely (4:10) but carefully vertically (at places slightly right-leaning) cord-marked. Ring-foot plain. Found near the centre of cutting, at about 1 m N of head of Burial 2, at 40 cm b.s. (exact stratigraphical situation and soil not recorded: most probably at the {5}/{4} interface). Not in situ. Large part of upper body (to about mid-body) and one large sherd of bottom and ring-foot prreserved. Missing rim cut or broken off in a fashion which cannot have been accidental. H (without rim): 24; Hc: 15.8; Hf: 2.3; Wr (base): 12; Wc/m: 31; Wtf: 13.8; Wbf: 14.2; ThwB: 0.2-0.8; ThwBb: 0.2; ThwF: 0.7-0.9 16) Pot "Y" (KC IV, F4): Bottom (including ring-foot) sherd of a vessel similar to Pot "19", a large restricted doubly carinated bowl Type 2B. Decoration presumed to be similar to that of Pot "19" but the only element confirming this similarity is the coarse (4:10) cord-marking down to, and including, the bottom showing that the ring-foot had been added to the body after it had been cord-marked, as is also the case with Pot "19". The ring-foot is so perfectly circular that the use of a compass-like instrument in its fashioning has to be assumed. The 16 medium and small sherds composing this bottom piece come from the W-corner of F4, i.e. the vicinity of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials 4-6, but their exact provenance is unknown. There are three points of impact visible inside the circle formed by the ring-foot indicating that blows with a pointed implement were applied from the outside while the vessel, or at least the bottom part of it, was lying upside-down or was lifted up for this purpose. These blows resulted in the complete shattering of the bottom (and probably the entire pot if it was not already broken). Hf: 1; Wtf: 11.6; Wbf: 11; ThwB: 0.5-0.6; ThwBb: 0.6-0.7.
Illustration 3.184, KC IV, F4, Pot “B2a” compared with photo in Fig. 78 in Higham and Thosarat 1998 15) Pot "19" (KC IV, E3):
17) Pot "A2" (KC IV, F3):
Illustration 3.185, KC IV, E3, Pot “19” Large restricted doubly carinated bowl with ring-foot Type 2B. Rim missing (presumed direct vertical); sloping shoulder platform with sharp carination. Upper body concave truncated conical; hemispherical lower body. Dark buff ware. Outside burnished, incised and impressed decoration on lower part of rim and at base of rim on shoulder (horizontal band filled with fine vertical "walking shell" impressions), on shoulder platform (5 straight lines delimiting similarly filled-in circle segments at the edge of the platform leaving a pentagon-shaped space inside the circle) and upper body (four times the filled-in "Horizontal S or Z"-motif on empty background, interspersed at the four cardinal points by the "Windmill"-motif, i.e. a
Illustration 3.186, KC IV, F3, Pot “A2” Upper body, including rim, of a vessel thought to be similar to Pot "19", a large restricted doubly carinated
208
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) bowl Type 2B. Upper body is probably broken off just above the second carination which forms the dividing line between upper and lower body. Direct vertical rim coming out of a slightly sloping shoulder platform with a rectangular carination. Buff ware. Rim and upper body burnished. Incised and impressed decoration on shoulder platform (horizontal band filled with fine diagonal "walking shell" impressions at base of rim; four almost straight lines delimiting similarly filled-in circle segments at the rim of the platform leaving an empty square inside the circle) and upper body (two similarly filled-in "Opposed Human Figures" motifs on empty background giving the impression of two very elongated lying blank letters "S"). On two opposite corners of the empty square on the shoulder platform there are two minuscule flat handle-like projections on the inner side of each of which there is, on the surface of the platform, a small incised semicircle also filled with fine "walking shell" impressions. This upper body of a large vessel was found on its own upside-down in the S-corner of F3 at 70-80 cm b.s. situated deep in {5}, entirely surrounded by {5} and sealed by {4} 30 cm above, without any sign of a pit but obviously not in situ. Most likely it was dislocated from an original position outside the excavated area, presumably to W. The cylindrical upper part of body with shoulder platform and rim complete but split in half vertically into two large sherds and two small ones on each side at the lower end of the split. Broken off from rest of body quite regularly as if done on purpose; several small semicircular indentations on the lower rim of the piece could be interpreted as being points of impact to sever this part from the rest of body. Hr: 3; Hc (from top): 4.3; Wr: 10.3; Wn: 10.8; Wc: 18; Thw: 0.2-0.7; Wgt: 650. Mortuary items found on the upper surface of upside-down Pot "A2": non-diagnostic bone scraps, possibly human, and 4 small shell fragments (Pseudodon inoscularis?) (item 97).
19) Pot "2216" (KC IV, F3): Large footed bowl Type 4K (upper part of bowl only). Shallow plain bowl with low incurving rim forming a sharp carination. Ochre ware. Bowl, including rim, covered with red slip outside and inside.. One medium diagnostic rim-sherd was found in stratified deposits in F3 at 40-50 cm b.s. in {4/5} and another smaller one in F6 at 30-40 cm b.s. in {4}. The wide distribution of these two sherds indicates that the pot was probably broken up into small sherds which travelled relatively long distances, presumably from outside the excavated area. {NB: of the other two Type 4K footed bowls known from KC IV, namely Pot "A" of VCCB 8 (E4) and Pot "R1" of VCCB 9 (F3), the latter was also surmised to originate from outside the excavated area.} H (of bowl): c. 8; Hr: 0.6; Wr: 22; Wc/m: 23.2; Thw: 0.5-0.8. 20) Pot "2011" (KC IV, F4): Large footed bowl Type 4K(?). Partly conjectural. Shallow plain bowl, rim unknown. Slightly concave foot, base unknown. Ochre ware. Bowl covered with dark red slip inside; outside plain. Foot plain. Sherds from bottom of bowl and foot found in F4 at 20-30 cm b.s. in {4} and two body sherds at 60-70 cm b.s. in {4/5}. Together 7 medium sherds one of which has foot-sherds attached to it; foot added to bottom of bowl without smoothening of the junction. H: c. 16; Hf: c. 7.5; Wm: c. 20; Wtf: 6; Wbf: c. 13; ThwB: 0.5-?; ThwBb: 0.5-0.6; ThwF: 0.4-0.6.
Special and Unique Pottery - 2 (from outside the excavated area) In addition to the above types of pottery which could be reconstructed physically from substantial parts of the respective pots found on the site (or virtually from a few sherds if the shape of the pot is known), there are also a surprising number of pots which could be virtually reconstructed from only a single diagnostic sherd found on site in stratified deposits while the main parts of them remained buried somewhere outside the excavated area. Apart from the lone Class 7 rim-sherd, evidently part of a vessel coming from a Kanchanaburi site, these pots belong to Classes 1, 3, 4 and 6, all known from Khok Charoen itself. As these are virtual reconstructions in which precise measurements are not realisable, only the rounded off (to the nearest cm) estimates of heights and maximum widths are given and, for restricted pots, the narrowest opening ("On") inside rim or orifice in real terms.
18) Pot "A1" (KC IV, F3): Very large footed bowl Type 4I Almost hemispherical shallow body with slightly inverted direct rim, rounded on top. High concave pedestal foot. Ochre ware, orange surface inside, dark brown in break. Burnished inside and outside body and outside foot. Body from 12 cm below rim down to just above top of foot coarsely (3:10) cord-marked in a criss-cross pattern, shallow and possibly smoothed on purpose. Found, inside up, on top of Pot "A2", at 70 cm b.s. in {5} but obviously carried there by natural forces from somewhere W of the excavated area by accident. Only one large (10x20 cm) diagnostic sherd of body including rim, and another medium sherd of the middle part of the pedestal foot; no other sherds of this pot could be found. H: c. 40; Hf: c. 20; Wr: 42; Wm: 43.6; Wtf: c. 10.8; Wbf: c. 28; ThwB: 1-1.2; ThwF: 1-?.
Class 1 pots Type 1Ib Large restricted spherical vessel with everted outcurving plain rim; lip decorated with impressed notches. Surface treatment of body unknown. 1): E3, Pot "Bag 11a" (H: 26, W: 28; On: 12.6; depth and layer not known) 209
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Type 1Ka: Large restricted spherical vessels with short everted straight rim, red slip inside rim and even further down inside body and sometimes outside as well. Body cord-marked throughout, with three or four smoothed horizontal bands over the cord-markings at shoulder. 2): E3, Pot "Bag 11" (H: 22, W: 24; On: 12.6; depth and layer not known) 3): E4, Pot "2257" (H: 212, W: 21; On: 12; 50-60 cm b.s. in {4/5})
Type 4Ia Very large to huge footed bowl with shallow bowl, vertical pointed direct rim and high pedestal foot about half the height of the entire vessel; plain. 16): F3, Pot "2276" (H: 37, W: 50)
Type 1Kb: Large restricted spherical vessels with short everted straight rim, red slip inside rim; deep groove at rim/body juncture. Body cord-marked. 4): F6, Pot "2120" (H: 20, W: 23; On: 12.6; 30-40 cm b.s. in {4}) 5): F3, Pot "2256a" (H: 24, W: 27; On: 13.8; 50-60 cm b.s. in {4/5}) 6): TC2, Pot "2336" (H: 28, W: 323; On: 15.8; 30-40 cm b.s. in {4})
17): E5, Pot "2183" (H: 30, W: 36)
Type 4L: Very large footed bowl with shallow bowl, vertical incurving unrestricted rim and high pedestal foot, presumably about half the height of the entire vessel; probably plain.
Type 4M: Large footed bowl with shallow bowl, slightly incurving rim with "nail-shaped" lip and pedestal foot of unknown height. 18): F4, Pot "2047/2241" (H: 15, W: 17) Type 4N: Large footed bowl with very shallow bowl, direct rim, "nail-shaped" lip with incised decoration on top; pedestal foot probably higher than half the height of the entire vessel.
Class 3 pots (Types A to Ab)
19): TC2, Pot "2360" (H: 22, W: 28)
Type 3A: Large globular bowl. Inverted direct rim, covered inside with red slip; outside cord-marked from just under lip down, presumably over entire body. 7): F3, Pot "2256" (H: 25, W: 36; On: 26) 8): F4, Pot "2375" (H: 24, W: 32; On: 18) 9): E4, Pot "2109" (H: 17, W: 22; On: 13)
{Type 4O: Very(?) large footed bowl with shallow bowl, vertical outcurving unrestricted rim, rounded lip; pedestal foot of unknown height. (does not occur in KC IV)} Class 6 pots
Type 3Aa: Large globular bowl with slightly concave inverted direct rim, top rounded with a median groove, covered with red slip; too weathered to see outside body surface treatment. 10): E6, Pot "2034" (H: 22, W: 30; On: 18.4) 11): H9, Pot "0117" (H: 31, W: 38; On: 24)
Type 6A: Huge unrestricted almost hemispherical bowl with vertical direct rim. Body cord-marked from 1-2 cm below rim down. 20): E3, Pot "30/40" (H: 41, W: 66; 30-40 cm b.s. in {4}) Type 6B: Large unrestricted bowl with vertical direct rim; upper body almost cylindrical, lower body hemispherical. Body cord-marked throughout, inside possibly burnished. 21): E6, Pot "2029" (H: 23, W: 33; 20-30 cm b.s. in {4})
Type 3Ab: Large globular bowl with inverted direct rim, bulbous top; body plain but burnished outside and inside to an unknown depth. 12): E4, Pot "2258" (H: 21, W: 32; On: 24)
Type 6D: Large unrestricted deep vertically semi-elliptical bowl with pre-fired circular hole in round bottom. Vertical direct rim. Body inside polished, outside cord-marked. 22): E5, Pot "2403" (W: c. 11; 50-60 cm b.s. in {5})
Class 4 pots Type 4Fa: Large footed bowl with shallow bowl, vertical slightly incurving rim forming a soft carination and small outcurving lip. Foot presumably low and wide. Body (and foot?) cord-marked, top of rim (and inside body?) covered with red slip. 13): TC2, Pot "2310" (H: 12, W: 24)
Type 6Da: Large unrestricted deep inverted conical bowl with pre-fired circular hole in round bottom. Slightly everted direct rim with small carination/shoulder. Body inside polished, outside cord-marked from shoulder down. 23): F6, Pot "2135" (W: c. 19; 30-40 cm b.s. in {4}) 24): F3, Pot "item 46" (W: c. 18; 35 cm b.s. in {3})
Type 4Fb: Medium footed bowl with shallow bowl and vertical slightly outcurving rim forming a moderate carination. Body cord-marked from carination down. Foot one-third of body height. 14): F3, Pot "2156" (H: 12, W: 18)
Type 6Db: Large sightly restricted spherical bowl with pre-fired circular hole in round bottom. Direct upturned rim with diagonally flattened lip; red slip on lip. Body inside polished, outside coarsely cord-marked, petering out to a polished bottom at 8-5 cm from hole. 25): E6, Pot "2018" (W: c. 22; 0-20 cm b.s. in {2})
Type 4Ga: Large footed bowl with deep bowl and slightly incurving rim with further incurving rounded lip. Body cord-marked. Foot one-third of body height. 15): F6, Pot "item 42" (H: 15, W: 19) 210
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) The Class 7 pot
Artificial rounded/shaped potsherds
Type 7A: Large restricted carinated bowl with short everted straight rim; shoulder decorated with a continued incised zig-zag line on empty background. Shallow lower body plain.
Like in KC III, numerous potsherds deemed to have been artificially shaped have been found in KC IV but while their number is almost the same (53 as opposed to 55), those from KC IV show some characteristics which distinguishes them from those of KC III. Whereas there were three relatively easily distinguishable types of artificially modified sherds in KC III (the rounded, the drop-shaped, and those in the shape of circle segments), there was only one recognisable type in KC IV (the rounded), while the other sherds had too many different shapes for a common denominator by which to designate them. However, like in KC III, great care has been taken to select only those sherds which show unmistakable signs of having been fully or at least partly artificially shaped. The 53 selected sherds are grouped into these two categories.
26): F6, Pot "2098" (H: 10, W: 29; 30-40 cm b.s. in {4}) Discussion The five pots of Type 1Ka or 1Kb and the six Class 3 pots indicate the existence of two discrete pottery complexes of large vessels for an unknown non-burial use in the Khok Charoen area at about the time of the Later phase of KC IV. With the exception of Pot "Bag 11a" which came from the poorly documented Pit I of KC I, all pots of Classes 1 and 3 can be attributed to pre-Discontinuity times, even the very weathered Pot "Bag 11" (also coming from Pit I of KC I) which is too similar to the other Class 1 pots not to belong to the same period. Pot "Bag 11a" itself has its counterpart in KC III, E7, Pot "1069" (also only one diagnostic rim-sherd but not from the KC IV pot) which was found there at 10-30 cm b.s. in {2} so that there is little doubt that the KC IV one also comes from an upper layer and is post-Discontinuity. Sherds of Class 3 pots occurred in both KC III and IV in such a way that they must have been contemporaneous and coming from the same source, while those of Class 4 pots were distributed unevenly between KC III and IV.
1) Sherds which can be called "rounded" even though their shape is not perfectly circular. There are 26 items (including four specimens parts of which have been broken off) in this category with diameters ranging from 2.5 cm to c. 7 cm. 2) Sherds which, without being drop-shaped as in KC III, are somewhat triangular insofar as they all have one straight side (clearly obtained by artificial cutting or breaking), another roughly straight side which could have been a natural break, and a curved edge linking the two which makes them look like circle segments. There are 15 specimens having this shape with the diameter of their imaginary full circles again ranging from 2.5 cm to c. 6.5 cm. In addition there are 13 sherds of a more rectangular or almost square shape rather than resembling a circle segment, measuring approximately from 2.5x4 cm to 5x6 cm.
The two pots Class 6A and 6B and the Class 7 pot seem to have reached KC IV at the same time, the former almost certainly from KC III and the latter from across the Central Plain (Ban-Kao, Sai-Yok or another site in Kanchanaburi), although it is not known how long after its manufacture it had been imported. The four sherds (i.e. pots) Class 6, Types D, Da and Db, can also not have originated in KC IV itself but most likely came from sites connected with KC II.
Soil s.f. {1} {2} {3} Discon. {4} {5} Total
E6 r‐d ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 3 1 0 2 3
F6 r‐d 1 2 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 3 0 1 2 6
E5 r‐d 3 1 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2 0 2 2 7 3
F5 r‐d ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
In the following table the rounded and differently shaped sherds are represented by "r"–"d".
E4 r‐d 4 4 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 0 1 0 6 4
F4 r‐d 0 1 0 3 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2 1 2 5
E3 r‐d ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
F3 r‐d 2 1 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 0 1 2 3 4 5
TC2 r‐d 1 1 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 1
TC3 Total r‐d 1 2 0 25 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 12 15 2 0 26+27=53
Table 3.15, Distribution of artificially modified sherds by squares throughout the deposit The 26 “r” type rounded sherds are illustrated at Appendix H.
position, stratigraphical as well as spatial, of the two types of modified sherds. These two types have been found in equal numbers in pre- and post-Discontinuity layers: 26 and 27 respectively (the 5 rounded sherds in E5 were found during the somewhat hurried excavation of the E-baulk, in the 20-40 cm b.s. spit which straddled the
Discussion The above table presents information concerning the
211
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Discontinuity divide and were counted as three on one and two on the other side) but the distribution within the two periods is not the same for both categories of sherds. While the rounded and differently shaped ones were found concentrated together at the same level in the shallow first post-Discontinuity layer {3} and not in {2} or {1}, both kinds of sherds were found throughout {4}, and in {5} down to depths b.s. of 50-60 cm (in E5 and F4) and rounded sherds alone at 60-70 cm (in E4 and F3). As these depths are surprising for the otherwise sterile layer {5}, any artefact found in it is most likely associated with a burial dug into this layer, either from its own surface or from the layer {4} above it. Indeed, artefacts from Burial 8, situated in the baulk between E5 and E4, have been found in both these cuttings (see supra) and there are also burials in F3 (Burials 13 and 14) and F4 (Burials 6 and 11) with which finds made in these cuttings were associated.
No 1a 1b 2 3 4a 4b 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12a 12b 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Cutting E6 E6 E6 F6 F6 F6 F6 F6 E5 E5 E4 E4 E4 E4 E4 F4 F4 F4 F4 F3 F3 F3 F3 F3
Item 2101 “ 2111 2013 2073 “ 2120 2139 2172 2389 2065 2066 2066 2110 “ 2047 2050 2050 2070 2052 2053 2159 2231 KC1
Soil {4} “ {4} {2/4} {4} “ {4} {4} {4/5} {4} {2/4} {2/4} {2/4} {4} “ {4} {4} {4} {4} {4} {4} {4} {4} ?
Without attempting to elucidate for what purpose these artificially shaped small sherds have been used, the rounded sherds at least must have been sufficiently valuable, symbolically or otherwise, to be put into burials. The possibility must also be taken into account that the distinction between rounded and differently shaped sherds was not as rigid as here proposed and that sherds of the latter category were put into graves for the same reason as the rounded ones. (see also Heider 1957: 65.) Potsherds with vegetal impressions Twenty potsherds showing significant impressions, most of which could be identified as being of rice or millet grains, have been excavated in KC IV and one more pottery fragment was found with rice husks inside the fabric ( as temper?).
Part of pot Body (o) “ (o) Body (o) Rim (i) Lower body (o) “ (o) Lower rim (o) Upper body (i) Shoulder (i) Body (o) Body (i) Body (o) Body (o) Body (o) “ (o) Shoulder (o) Body (i) Lower rim (i) Body (i) Upper rim (i) Body (i) Body (o) Shoulder (o) Thick bottom‐sherd (new longitudinal break)
Type of pot 1A “ ? weather 1F? 4A “ 1 (large) 1F? 1 (large) 1 (large) 1Aa/Ab? 1 (large) 1Ab/bA? 1H? “ 1aA? ? weather 1Ka? ? weather 1Ea? 1 (large) ? weather 1 (large)
Impression (mm) 3ø, shallow 23x3, shallow 12//x1, med. 5x3, deep 4x3, shallow 13//x2, shallow 6x2, deep 5x2, shallow 3ø, deep, char 5x3, shallow 2 ø, deep, char 6x1, deep, char 3 ø, shallow 5x3, deep, char 2 ø, med., char 5x3, deep, char 3 ø, med. 15x1, deep 3 ø , deep 8x2, arched 3 ø, deep, char 3 ø, deep 9x3, med.
Object Millet grain Millet grain dragged along Small stalk? Rice grain Rice grain? Rice grain? Rice grain + husk Millet grain Rice grain? Millet grain P. of vegetal matter Millet grain ? Rice grain Millet grain Rice grain Millet grain Small stalk? Millet grain ? (similar to KC III, No 14b) Millet grain Millet grain Rice grain + husk Rice husks in fabric
Table 3.16 Potsherds with vegetal impressions in KC IV (listed by cuttings from N to S) {NB: "(o)" = outside; "(i)" = inside; "//" (after a measurement) = sherd broken at that spot, figure could be higher; "ø" = diameter; "char." = charred, i.e. black particles in impression indicating burnt vegetal matter; "weather." = weathered to the extent that details may not be recognisable; "med." = medium (size or depth)} Discussion
although on the sherds the cord-markings cannot always be perceived because of weathering. However, contrary to KC III where there was only one really large type of cord-marked pottery (1K) from which most of the sherds with impressions are thought to come, in KC IV there are a number of larger than medium-sized pot-types to chose from as possible source for such flat sherds which makes the identification of these sources and any theories based on them unjustifiably speculative.
Of the 24 impressions on potsherds excavated in stratified deposits in KC IV, 8 are of individual rice grains, one sherd/fragment shows an agglomeration of rice husks (about 20 visible on a 2x3 cm surface) in the fabric itself, and there are 10 impressions tentatively identified as being those of individual millet grains, most probably of Setaria italica or Panicum miliaceum. Like in KC III, sherds bearing these impressions are, with few exceptions, almost flat and therefore most likely from large cord-marked pots,
As far as dating is concerned, only the basic distinction 212
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) between pre- and post-Discontinuity times can be made which shows that 7 of the 9 rice-related impressions are on potsherds found in pre-Discontinuity layers, the origin of one could be in either the last pre- or the first post-Discontinuity layer while that of only one sherd (with fabric containing rice husks) is unknown. Impressions of millet grains are all on sherds found in pre-Discontinuity layers except for two which could possibly have been in the first post-Discontinuity layer. No sherd with an impression of rice or millet grains on it was found unambiguously in a post-Discontinuity context.
No Inner ø mm Width cm
1 55
2 55
3 56
4 60
5 66
6 68
6
9
9
7
9
5
Table 3.17, Fingertip impressions on clay bracelet fragments Discussion As was to be expected, the small Type 3Ea dish was, like those from KC III, made by a small child but children or teenagers were also involved in the manufacture of larger vessels, as shown by their finger impressions on the Type 3A bowl. From the impressions on the rim of clay bracelets the conclusion can be drawn that there is no correlation between the inner width of a bracelet and the width of the fingers which did the pinching of the outer rim or, simply, between the age of the wearer and that of the maker of the bracelets. While some of the smaller bracelets, i.e. those for children, seem to be made by older children, the largest of the series, obviously for an adult, had its rim pinched by the smallest fingers known from impressions anywhere in Khok Charoen. However, as both the widths of bracelets and of fingers, are on a sliding scale and not in clear-cut categories, it is impossible to determine whether they are for or by a small or a bigger child, a teenager or a young or a more grown-up adult. The little knowledge we have about the ethnicity and anatomy of the potters does not allow us to talk about anything but the broadest of categories.
In conclusion it can be argued that the cultivation of both dry rice and millet was well established at the time of the KC IV burials but that the precise area(s) where these crops were grown, i.e. where the pottery was made which bore grain impressions, remains to be discovered. Potsherds with finger impressions As has been said earlier, finger impressions left in still malleable clay during the manufacture of pottery are a valuable source of information about pottery manufacture and the potters themselves although ideally conclusions drawn from them should be validated by solid statistical evidence. In spite of the fact that no such support is available for KC IV, three cases of impressions are on three very different pots (or single diagnostic sherds thereof) and the survey of six clay bracelets with drop-shaped cross-section and pinched rim are presented here for what they are worth.
Other Pottery Objects
1) A small, rather flat hand-made dish Type Ea, Find 10 of Burial 8 (E4, in {4}), showed on its outer surface, below the rim towards the bottom, the impression of the first two digits of three very small fingers, obviously of a young child. No such impressions were noticed on the inner nor on other parts of the outer surface.
Anvils One entire clay anvil (to be held inside a pot while it is shaped outside with a wooden paddle) and two fragments of the handles of such anvils have been found in KC IV but all three are surface finds without any indication of their original position, stratigraphical as well as spatial. As they are in all respects (dimensions, shape, ware, colour, weight) similar to the two anvils found in KC III, excavated from the uppermost layers but also not in situ and without precise origin, they are considered to be of roughly the same age and to belong to the same cultural phase as those of the only 50 m distant KC III. The KC IV anvils are therefore seen as a sequel of the KC III ones and labeled anvils C, D and E.
2) Slightly larger (6 mm-wide) impressions of a child's finger-tips and second digits were clearly visible on the inside of a rim-sherd of a virtually restored large Type 3A bowl, Pot "2109" (E4, in {4}). This means that at least the fashioning of the in-turned rim of the only 4-5 mm-thick wall was done by a child. 3) A large diagnostic sherd going from the rim down to the top of the (missing) foot of Type 4J Pot "X" (F6, in {4}-{5} but not in situ), showing two finger-tip impressions (width 11 mm) below rim and about half-way down the body wall on the cord-markings. They must have been made, for whatever reason, after the finishing of the pot but before it was fired.
Anvil C (the only complete one) = mushroom-shaped, relatively small, of dark ochre ware and very weathered. Height: 6 cm (of which 1.3 cm for the shallow convex top or face); diameter of the very slightly oval top: 5.2-5.7 cm; of the handle: 3 cm at the beginning of the truncated conical part below the top and 2.7 cm at the base. Weight: 145 g. Central cavity in base of 0.5 cm in diameter.
The six fragments of clay bracelets are discussed in the section "Material Culture (funeral)" (see supra). Herewith the figures pertaining to finger-tip impressions, i.e. inner diameter of the bracelets in ascending size and corresponding widths of impressions (both in mm, doubts and double figures eliminated).
Anvil D = the lower part of a large, heavy handle made of dark buff ware and weathered. Diameter of the perfectly round handle: 4.7 cm; height of fragment: 5.5 cm; weight: 170 g. Base smooth.
213
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Anvil E = the main part of a medium-sized handle made of dark buff granular ware and weathered. The shape of the roughly made handle (almost octagonal at its base) indicates that it broke off the top part at the beginning of the truncated conical section below the top and thus represents the entire length of the handle itself. Diameter at top end of handle: 4.3 cm; at the middle: 3.4 cm; at its base 4.3 cm; weight: 145 g. Central cavity in base of 0.8 cm in diameter.
KC IV which could not be identified but which could be of interest if compared with finds made at other sites. Seven of these objects come from {4} and one was found in {5}; none was discovered in post-Discontinuity layers. 1): A small fragment (length 3 cm) of what appears to be a flat clay ring with an off-centre hole of a diameter of about 4 cm. Buff/ochre ware. Weight 7 g. Found in F3 (item 54) at 40 cm b.s. in {4}.
Discussion
2): A "nose"-shaped object of unknown purpose (part of a vessel?). Ochre ware, granular. Length: 3.3 cm; width: 1.5 cm; weight: 12 g. Found in E4 at 50-60 cm b.s. in {5}.
Comparing these five (very probably identically mushroom-shaped) anvils with those of Ban Na Di, the following observations can be made. The Khok Charoen anvils can be divided into three types:
3): A pottery "horn" (almost certainly part of a vessel). Ochre ware, brick-coloured in break. Height: 3.5 cm; largest diameter: 2.2 cm; weight: 14 g. Found in the E-quadrant of E6 at 42 cm b.s. in {4}.
1): A massive anvil with a large top of about 7 cm in diameter and a thick (5-5.5 cm in diameter) but short (about 7 cm) handle, represented by anvils B and D; does not seem to occur in Ban Na Di.
4): A small appliqué pottery knob (handle?). Dark buff ware. Height: 1.5 cm; diameter (irregular): c. 2 cm; weight: 5 g. Found in about the centre of E6 at 35 cm b.s. in {4}.
2): A smaller anvil with a top of a diameter of 6-6.5 cm and a thinner (3.5-4 cm in diameter) but longer (8-10.5 cm) handle, represented by anvils A and E; similar to Fig. 3-30a-d (for anvil A) and Figs. 3-31d and 3-32c (for anvil E) in Ban Na Di (Higham and Kijngam 1984: 152-157).
5): An irregularly shaped segment of a ring-like clay object with flat base of unknown form and purpose. Ochre ware, dark grey-brown in break. Outer diameter: c. 12 cm; inner diameter: c. 6.5 cm; height of fragment: 2.5 cm; weight: 32 g. Found in E4 at 40-50 cm b.s. in {4}.
3): A still smaller anvil with a top of a diameter of 5.5 cm and a thinner (about 3 cm in diameter) and shorter (6 cm) handle, represented by anvil C; similar to Fig. 3-30e-f in Ban Na Di (ibid.).
6): A small odd-shaped fragment of a larger hollow clay object of unknown form and purpose. Buff-ochre ware, dark grey-brown in break. "Outer" and "inner" surface polished, the inner one slightly darker. Vaguely triangular 2.5x2x1.5 cm; weight: 4 g. Found in TC2 at 30-40 cm b.s. in {4}.
As has been said already with regard to the KC III anvils, the fact that a small anvil of the third type, considered to be a late type in Ban Na Di, was found as a surface find in KC IV, whereas the older (in Ban Na Di) larger anvil of the second type was excavated in KC III in a stratified layer, should not be taken to mean that the anvils of KC IV are younger than those of KC III. As an anvil similar to one of those excavated in KC III was also amongst the surface finds in KC IV, it only means that anvils of late styles (in Ban Na Di) were found in KC III as well as IV and that the only surprising aspect on the topic of anvils in Khok Charoen is the absence in Ban Na Di of anvils of the first type, examples of which have been found in KC III (excavated) and KC IV (surface find). However, given that the differentiation between these two almost adjacent parts of the site is meaningless when it comes to surface finds, it could also be that no anvil was ever used or lost in any post-Discontinuity settlement in the area of the KC IV excavations and that even in KC III they were rather rare. Their precise chronology could only be sorted out if more data were available.
7): A small clay tube (unfinished or abandoned bead?). Dark buff ware. Length: 2.5 cm; diameter of tube: 0.9 cm, of hole: 0.2 cm; weight: 4 g. Found in F3 at 30-40 cm b.s. in {4}. 8): A "solid cone, red pigment (not slip) on surface. 1.5 cm diameter, 2 cm long ". Found in E3 at 20-40 cm b.s. in {4} (Ho 1984, I: 308).
Discussion Apart from the putative bracelet fragment and unfinished bead, these unidentified clay objects seem to be connected with still unknown types of pottery vessels or other large ceramic artefacts. Some details of shape and surface treatment suggest ceremonial, rather than domestic, pots or objects belonging to the Later burial phase, i.e. the one directly preceding the Discontinuity which has already shown itself to be rich in imported decorated pottery types, indicating that much remains to be discovered in this particular cultural phase. (NB: a "nose"-shaped object, very similar to No. 2 above, was also found in KC III; see "unidentified pottery objects").
Unidentified Pottery Objects Eight more (smaller) clay objects have been excavated in 214
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) and for several others neither type nor sub-type can be given. These fragments of different sizes and shapes demonstrate nevertheless that there was some raw material available for the manufacture of smaller cutting tools or other implements, an opportunity which was apparently occasionally exploited. The 32 adze fragments are described and illustrated in Appendix C.
Stone Stone adzes Twenty-eight stone adzes were excavated in KC IV which are complete enough to see or accurately calculate their basic dimensions and to determine or guess their type. In only two cases was the association with a burial considered secure, in four others the association was deemed likely or very likely though not secure and in two further cases the nature of the association could not be ascertained. There were, moreover, five soft limestone adzes which, being too brittle to be used as cutting tools, are thought to have been substitutes for real adzes in (pre-Discontinuity) burials, in whatever layer they were found. The remaining 17 adzes, found in stratified deposits, are likely to have been ordinary domestic tools although they could at any time also be associated with a burial. With regard to the raw material from which these 28 adzes were made, the situation is the same as in KC III: a little more than half (15) were made of volcanic rock and the other 13 of limestone in its various forms but their origin is slightly different from that in KC III inasmuch as 5 adzes made of volcanic rock and 3 limestone adzes came from post-Discontinuity layers and 10 of both from below the Discontinuity divide.
Soil {2} {3} Discount. {4} {4/5} {5} Total
2F ‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 1
2G 3 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 6 1 10
8D ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2 1 3
8E ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 1
2E ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 1
2G 2 6 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 8 1 17
8D ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 1 2
total 2 8 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 12 2 1 25
The high number of rough-outs (25), almost as many as the finished adzes themselves (28), should not surprise as the production of polished stone adzes must have been a very time-consuming and often frustrating work in an area where suitable raw material was scarce and pieces of the right size were difficult to come by. Although the distinction between rough-outs which have been rejected shortly after work had began and those which were left unfinished later for unknown reasons is difficult to make, the existence of a relatively large number of them in the confined area of the excavation clearly shows that the adzes were made locally. The problem of the attribution of rough-outs to the Duff adze-types they were destined to be when completed is different from that in KC III, where all rough-outs could only be for Type 2 adzes (of whatever sub-type), as the greater variety of rough-out shapes in KC IV suggests several additional types, the most likely of which is mentioned for each rough-out. The 25 rough-outs are described and illustrated in Appendix C.
The following list of stone adzes excavated in KC IV is, as in KC III, arranged in descending order of layers/soils in which they have been discovered, from {1} down to {5}. 2D 1 3 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2 6
2D ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 1
Rough-outs
In KC IV, four out of 28 adzes are shouldered adzes (all four from pre-Discontinuity layers) while the 24 non-shouldered adzes (from both preand post-Discontinuity layers) are divided in: 7 Type 1A, 6 Type 2D, 1 Type 2F and 10 Type 2G. The 28 entire adzes are described and illustrated in Appendix C.
1A 1 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 4 2 7
2? 1 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 2
Table 3.19, Distribution of adze fragments in KC IV according to known or suggested type (25)
Entire stone adzes
Soil {1} {3} Discont. {4} {5} Total
1A 1 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 2
Total 1 7 ‐‐‐‐‐‐ 16 4 28
Table 3.18, Distribution of entire (or almost entire) stone adzes in KC IV according to type
Soil {2} {3} Discont. {4} {4/5} {5} Tota;
Type 1 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 1 1 2
Type 2 1 11 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 5 17
Type 7 3 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 3
Type 8 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2 1 3
Total 1 14 8 1 1 25
Table 3.20, Distribution of Rough-Outs in KC IV according to main type and layer The computing of information about stone adzes contained in the above tabulations (entire adzes, adze fragments and rough-outs) shows that of the 78 items thus surveyed 55 refer to adzes of Type 2, 11 to Type 1, 9 to Type 8 and 3 to Type 7; adzes of other main types do not seem to have been in use in KC IV. Apportioning these 78 items to main
Adze fragments Leaving out insignificantly small non-diagnostic pieces, 32 adze fragments represent the finds from KC IV. Only very few of them can clearly be attributed to a type, for some the type can be guessed but the sub-type is in doubt
215
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand types and to the periods before and after the Discontinuity we obtain this table (Table 3.21). Item Entire adzes Adze fragments Rough‐outs Discontinuity Entire adzes Adze fragments Rough‐outs Total
Type 1 1 1 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 6 1 2 11
Type 2 7 8 12 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 10 13 5 55
Type 7 3 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 3
Type 8 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 4 2 3 9
Total 8 9 15 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 20 16 10 78
Table 3.21, Distribution of adze elements by level and type Discussion Some conclusions can be drawn with regard to KC IV from this last table although in view of the small numbers involved they can only be taken as very general and tentative. The most interesting realisation is that with regard to stratigraphy, the 55 references to Type 2 adzes are divided equally between pre- and post-Discontinuity times (28:27), for those to Type 1 the majority (9:2) is in pre-Discontinuity times, while the nine references to Type 8 are all situated in pre- and the three to Type 7 all in post-Discontinuity times. This could mean that, while Type 2 adzes were used right throughout the occupancy of the site, stepped and shouldered adzes may have been used only until the Discontinuity and Type 7 adzes only after it.
in an area where they were not supposed to be (e.g. Cambodia or Thailand) was explained by their being either "pseudo-" or secondary Round Adzes, or that they were the Variety G of the quadrangular Type 2 adzes (Duff 1970: 27). There is thus the typologically unsatisfactory situation – like that with regard to the stepped adzes – that similarly shaped adzes of two very different size-ranges and origins are forced into one and the same type because there is no other category available to them. The one entire Walzenbeil, found as an offering in Single Vessel Ceramic Burial 2 in {5}, is 10.3 cm high and the three fragments of this kind of adze, excavated in KC IV in {3} and {4}, are seemingly from adzes of at least the same height, contrasting with the other 2G adzes the height of which does not seem to go beyond 5.9 cm. The classification of the large adzes as belonging to Type 2G must thus be seen in this light; it also supports Watson's opinion that finds of Walzenbeile in Khok Charoen "point to a stage of lithic industry once present in central Thailand which can only have corresponded to an earlier neolithic phase" (Watson 1979: 58). Another significant observation is that one of the supposed rough-outs for polished adzes, No. 19, shows such a striking resemblance (apart from a slight difference in size) to the lead artefact of the Late Hoabinhian, the hache courte or Short Axe (Heine-Geldern 1932: 545, Fig. 2, after Colani 1929) that the possibility of it being a genuine local representative of this industry has to be seriously envisaged, especially as so-called Hoabinhian choppers had been found already by Sarasin almost forty years earlier and again in 1966 by the TBAE itself in the Nguang Chang cave near Fang (Watson and Loofs 1967: 261-262; Watson 1968: 304). The German Geological Mission to Northern Thailand 1966-1968 also found a number of flaked stone tools described as Hoabinhian choppers or "Sumatralithes" (and halves of them) at nine locations right across northern Thailand in an arc going from Mae Hong Son in the West via Chiang Mai to Nan in the East (Koch and Siebenhüner 1969). In view of the surprising quantity of these tools there ("…an immense number of superbly preserved artefacts may be collected. In some places the hilltop is literally paved with tools…"; op. cit.: 276), it must be concluded that the Hoabinhian industry extends much further than its traditional heartland in northern Vietnam and Laos such that finding a typical Hoabinhian hache courte in the Pasak valley should not surprise. That Short Axes were not the result of accidents but had been fashioned on purpose by braking prepared Sumatralithes in half had finally been convincingly demonstrated by a Vietnamese archaeologist (Doàn Dú'c Thành 1982).
There are, however, some refinements to be applied to this simple picture. None of the Type 2 adzes, with one exception (a 2G adze), appears in {5}, i.e. the Earlier phase, while there are two Type 1 and three Type 8 found in {5}; there is no reference to shouldered adzes at all in post-Discontinuity times while there are two to the existence of stepped adzes, and the situation with regard to the various sub-types of Type 2 is far from clear apart from the observation that, with the exception of 2G, they only began to be used in {4}, i.e. the Later phase of the pre-Discontinuity period. If the truism that in stratigraphy finds are always working their way up and never down is accepted (especially for a very disturbed site), one could dismiss the occurrence of any find above the lowest layer in which it had been found as accidental and concentrate on these lowest layers. The picture would therefore be much more simple again inasmuch as adzes of Types 1 and 8 could both be seen as having their beginnings in the Earlier phase and even adzes of Type 2G would go back to this earliest level of KC IV. These 2G adzes are indeed an ambiguous case.
All stones adzes, fragments and rough-outs are described and illustrated at Appendix C.
Heine-Geldern called the first "fully neolithic" (i.e. polished) stone industry in East- and Southeast Asia the Walzenbeilkultur (Round-Axe/Adze culture) which originated in China and Japan, moved via the Philippines to eastern Indonesia and from there into Melanesia and the Pacific, leaving Mainland Southeast Asia practically untouched (Heine-Geldern 1932: 557-561); the occurrence of adzes with round or lenticular cross-section
Grinding stones, whetstones and hammerstones Authentic whetstones, grinding stones and hammerstones found at KC IV are described and illustrated at Appendix D. 216
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) Discussion
many doubtful cases, including in the list which follows. (NB: "lb" = long-bone, "frag." = fragment, "med." = medium-sized, "peculiar" = cut-marks not consistent with bite- or butchering marks).
Amongst the grinding stones with their characteristic shallow concave surfaces, there are some which could possibly also have served as whetstones but in contrast to KC III, typical whetstones (recognisable by narrow grooves criss-crossing their surfaces) have not been found in KC IV. In addition to two hammerstones of sizes similar to those in KC III,. some smaller such stones of unknown purposes have also been excavated in KC IV. However, like in KC III, no grinding stone in KC IV was suitable to have served as a quern, mortar or millstone for the grinding of grains.
Discussion In this diversity of shapes, sizes and bones used, several groupings of shapes can be made which presumably correspond to discrete uses. Thus, relatively large elongated pieces of solid bone (such as No. 3, 4, 17 and 27) are probably broken or unfinished spear-points; objects with a sharp point (such as No. 5, 8, 16 and 26) could have been tools to poke holes into materials softer than bones; the micro-core No. 24 could have been a scraper; small remarkably similar spatulate objects (such as No. 13, 20, 21, 22 and 25) could have been used for an unknown common purpose and the two similar items No. 7 and 15 were likewise probably used for another unknown purpose.
Miscellaneoua Stone Objects This section includes all objects, whether they be artefacts or not, made of stone which could not be attributed to the categories of confirmed adzes, adze fragments, rough-outs, grinding stones, whetstones or hammerstones, i.e. cores, flakes, points, scrapers, worked stones for presumed or unknown purposes and unidentified stone objects.
Considering the stratigraphic position of these tentatively identified artefacts, it appears that, with the exception of Nos. 1-6, they all originate from pre-Discontinuity layers but even these exceptions have a doubtful origin. The first two because the stratigraphy of TC2, being on a slope at the edge of the cemetery, is inherently ambiguous and the other four because the cutting in which they had been found (F4) is one in which there were three human burials, one single vessel and four vessel cluster ceramic burials, all dating from pre-Discontinuity times to which these finds made in the first post-Discontinuity layer most probably also belong. The conclusion is warranted that all bone artefacts excavated in KC IV, be they real or doubtful, come from the Earlier or Later pre-Discontinuity burial phases and none from post-Discontinuity settlements.
These stone objects are also described and illustrated at Appendix D. Discussion The great number of excavated miscellaneous stone objects and in particular that of worked stone objects/fragments with unknown purpose reveals the remarkable diversity of lithic technology in KC IV which includes several artefacts, e.g. a projectile-point (No. 16), unique to the site. One possible exception to the suggested exclusivity of unknown artefacts to KC IV could be the discovery of two almost identical flakes of burgundy chert in KC III and KC IV, the former in {5} and the latter in {3} respectively. These two flakes (No. 12 of KC III and No. 14 of KC IV), shaped like a small scoop without the handle, show in the middle of the broken flat end a semicircular indentation which looks like being half of a hole as if the flake was worked into this shape on purpose to perform a particular task. Short of considering this similarity to be purely accidental it seems to be a small technological enigma.
Fossilised Bone Far more fossilised bone fragments have been excavated in KC IV (60) than in KC III (29) but with a slightly lesser proportion of this this raw material being (probably) used as tools/implements than of fresh bone (42:28 in KC IV as opposed to 14:9 in KC III). See Appendix E for illustrations of bone artefacts. Discussion
Bone
These 60 on the whole small fragments (only 5 weigh 10 g or more and none more than 20 g) of fossilised bone, weighing together 235 g, are different from the fossilised bone fragments found in KC III, inasmuch as they are in various shades of an ochre-grey colour and of dullness of the surface which contrast with the dark brown/black shiny fragments excavated in KC III (only two very small pieces could possibly have come from there). However, there can be no doubt that the KC IV fragments are also fossilised, that they also originate mainly from one or more med./large mammal and that the great majority (42) also shows signs of having been worked.
Bone artefacts As opposed to KC III, where only 9 bone artefacts were identified,, there are 28 in KC IV. However, the distinction between bones or bone fragments with bite- or butchering marks, of which there are a great number, and those which had been worked to obtain a tool or implement is not always easy to make, in particular as it appears that in some cases one does not exclude the other inasmuch as a bone which had been gnawed could also have been fashioned into an implement or vice versa. There are thus 217
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Other
either the pre-Discontinuity burials or the settlements after the Discontinuity but must be a chance find of unknown origin. The find simply shows that this kind of homogeneous 75% copper + 25% tin-bronze was known at that time somewhere in the wider region (presumably on the Khorat Plateau) whence it was carried across the Phetchabun Range into the Pasak valley where it was lost.
Metal In almost all publications on the excavations in Khok Charoen it is stated that no metals have been discovered on the site which is correct if taken to mean that no metal (notably bronze) objects were found either in association with a burial or in a context suggesting that such an object was in any way connected with human activity or with humans themselves, dead or alive. However, while there was absolutely no trace of anything metallic discovered in KC I, II or III, there were four items excavated in KC IV which have some connection with metallurgy but none with local occupational or funerary material culture. These items have been examined by the Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University (N. S. Ware, 26 July 1976); the results of these analyses are given below between paras. 1) and 4).
The two small (about 1x1 cm each) and very corroded metal "shards", one of almost pure copper and the other of 90% copper+10% tin-bronze, were found in the upper part of {4}, well away from any in situ archaeological find or of potsherds, bone fragments or other movable objects which may have been transported there by water action. The assertions, in one of the very few published reports mentioning metals in Khok Charoen, that these bronze pieces looked like fragments of a bracelet, that they were (as also the piece of bronze wire) found together with pottery objects and adze fragments and that they therefore are most likely connected with the local population of that time (Sudhirak 1970: 86), must be considered as tentative interpretations only, superseded by later research. The origin of these two quite dissimilar bronze pieces remains actually obscure; the fact that they have been found near root disturbances leaves a number of possibilities open but that of being part of the material culture of KC IV is not one of them.
1) A piece of bronze wire, about 4 cm long, 1.5 mm in diameter, curly in a jumbled way (i.e. not part of a spiral or a ring). Found situated vertically/diagonally in the lower part of {3}, 4-5 cm above the surface of {4}, in the N-quadrant of E4 at 35 cm b.s. without any other archaeological finds nearby. Analysis: "Bronze wire (approx 75 wt% Cu; 25 wt% Sn) containing trace Ag (≈ 0-1 wt%). Adhering to the wire is an oxide layer containing Cu and Sn in roughly equal proportions with ≈ 10% Si, ≈ 1% Ag and ≈ 0.5% P."
The heavy black "stone" turned out to be a lump of pure iron the existence of which at this depth in this particular spot defies explanation. Containing a significant amount of nickel, it cannot be meteoric iron but is possibly the product of an unknown manufacturing process. However, nothing of the above invalidates the fact that Khok Charoen itself is a Late Neolithic site.
2) A small flake-like piece of unidentified material (bronze?). Found in {4} in the S-quadrant of F4 at 30 cm b.s. again without any other archaeological find (except for No 3, see below) nearby. Analysis: "Metal shard. 3 phases present: – (i) metallic copper 'cores' (99+% Cu, > 0-1% Sn, ≈ 0-6% Pb); (ii) Cu-Sn oxide (the bulk of the sample); (iii) low reflectivity Si-Cu-Sn oxide (as in sample 1 [the piece of bronze wire] but containing no Ag)."
3.7 Habitation Post-holes
3) Another similar small flake-like piece of unidentified material (bronze?) next to No 2 above. Analysis: "Metal shard. Graphitic intergrowth of bronze (≈ 90% Cu, 10% Sn, no Pb or Ag) with oxide (≈ 70% SnO, ≈ 30% CuO). Rim of copper depleted oxide (≈ 90% SnO, ≈ 10% CuO) and patches of silica-rich phase. Possibly a simplectic intergrowth?"
Contrary to KC III where only 5 post-holes were discovered, there were 14 post-holes in KC IV, all except two relatively secure although the large diameter of most of the poles is surprising. However, like in KC III, none of them could be followed through to their presumed depth of 30-40 cm and there is the distinct possibility that post-holes in the upper layers escaped our attention because of difficulties in interpreting drying-out soil surfaces. The post-holes are analysed at Table 3.22.
4) A lump of unidentified heavy, black, shiny material (metal?), vaguely cone-shaped, about 3 cm long and 1 cm in max. diameter. Found at about the middle of "E"-baulk of E4 at 50 cm b.s., sitting directly on limestone bedrock embedded in {5}. Analysis: "Metal 'stone'. Pure iron containing >0-1% Mn; >0-15% Ni. Cannot analyse for C."
Discussion The position of these post-holes in the easternmost corner of the excavated area is not significant, as the latter is itself only an unknown part of a larger un-excavated field. This fact also prevents a reliable recognition of ground-plans of wooden structures.
Discussion As the piece of bronze wire which did not seem to have been part of an ornament or a personal adornment was found unequivocally isolated in a post-Discontinuity context, it can be assumed that it had nothing to do with
Hole No 6 with its unusual shape for a post-hole may be odd but could nevertheless have been a hole connected
218
Khok Charoen IV (including Khok Charoen I) No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Cutting E5 E5 E5 E5 F4 F4 F4 F4 E4 E4 E4 F3 F3 F3
Depth (cm b.s.) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 80
Soil {4/5} {5C} {5} {5} {5} {5B} {5} {5} {4/5} {5} {4/5} {4/5} {4/5} {5}
Diameter(cm) 27 28 29 28 18 26x20 20 20 28x20 32 35 20 32x26 23
Dug from {4/5} {5C} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {4}? {5} {4}? {4}? {5}? {5}
Sealed by {4} {4} {4} {4} {4} {4} {4} ? {3}? {4} {3}? {3} {4}? {5}
Remarks Crooked shape Root disturbance Dug into Burial 15 Dug into VCCB 6 {4} is very thin here doubtful
Table 3.22, Post-holes found in KC IV (NB: depths b.s. and soils are those where the post-holes first appeared; within cuttings numbers progress clock-wise starting from W; the holes are more or less circular unless stated otherwise and the measurements of their diameter are only approximate) with the construction of a dwelling-place, whereas Hole No 14 which has the perfect shape of a post-hole is most unlikely to have served as such because of its depth near the bottom of the deposit, buried under about 50 cm of sterile soil {5}. That all of the possible post-holes appear together at 50 cm b.s. may be explained by the fact that this surface seems to be the result of a "shaving-off" action by water flows common to the eastern part of the excavated area where it also corresponds roughly to the interface between {5} and {4}. Regrettably, for the reconstruction of ground-plans, the cuttings in which post-holes were discovered (E5, F4, E4 and F3) are situated next to and between the former Pits I and II of KC I (later to become E3 and F5 of KC IV) during the test-excavation of which post-holes were spotted but not recorded. However, by showing recognisable alignments or patterns, the other existing 13 holes yield sufficient information to come to some valid conclusions.
burial, sitting directly on its chest; Hole No 11, in turn, was dug straight into VCCB 6. But in F3 the situation is more complicated inasmuch as two ceramic burials (VCCB 9 and 10, dug on either side of a human one (Burial 13), were found together with the latter in a large pit or hollow in {5}, filled with a different {5}-like soil and sealed by {4}. Whatever the explanation for this paradoxical situation, there can be no doubt that Burial 13 was there before the ceramic burials. However, Hole No 12 was well outside this pit or hollow and was clearly sealed by {3}. The remaining ten probable post-holes belonging to the Earlier phase (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 and 13) are situated as follows: Holes 1-4 in E5 which is the only cutting in KC IV without burials; Holes 5-8 in F4 with Burials 6, 6a, 11 and 11a, all of which, except Burial 6, are of the Earlier phase; Hole No 10 in E4, far away from any burial therein; and Hole No 13 in F3 which is a special case not only because of its size but also because of the uncertainty of its stratigraphic situation given the thinness of {4} at this particular place (only a few cm) which makes it difficult to determine whether it was {4} or {3} which sealed it.
All post-holes are in {5}, whether they have been dug from inside that layer and are surrounded by it or whether they are dug from {4} into it, providing evidence that all post-holes are from pre-Discontinuity times, attesting to the presence of settlements during the long period when there were first only human burials and then both human and ceramic burials in that part of the site.
To sum up, the three post-holes thought to belong to the Later phase because they are sealed by {3} are further dated to the later part of this phase as one of them was positioned directly above a ceramic burial, itself of the Later phase. However, there is a distinct possibility that the origin of these holes was in post-Discontinuity times and that any trace of it was obliterated by disturbances caused by the forces bringing about the Discontinuity. The holes clearly sealed by {4} or even {5}, on the other hand, must all be from pre-Discontinuity times and therefore prove the existence of some timber constructions in the Earlier phase, be it early or late therein.
Of the 13 post-holes only three are dug from the surface of {4} and sealed by {3} and belong therefore very probably to the Later phase. They are Holes No 9, 11 and 12; the first two, with a diameter of 28x20 cm (oval) and 35 cm respectively, are in E4 while the much smaller No 12 (diameter 20 cm) is in F3. Human burials in E4 (Burials 8, 12 and 15) belong to both phases: Burials 12 and 15 to the Earlier and Burial 8 to the Later one; the two human burials connected with F3, Burials 13 (feet) and 14 (head) belong to the Later phase. In both cuttings, there are instances of ceramic burials having been cut into or immediately next to an existing human burial. In E4, the VCCB 6 was cut into Burial 12 in such a way that these pots were initially thought to be finds of this particular
Subsistence In the absence of grinding stones suitable for the grinding of grains, it may be assumed that rice and millet, the presence of which is attested by impressions in potsherds
219
Hill of Prosperity, Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand dated to pre-Discontinuity times, were the basis of subsistence of KC IV communities at the time of the burials. In order to find out the extent to which hunting supplemented these staples, two surveys of the excavated faunal bone material (Gonzales 2006; Perera 2007) were used, with special attention to marks.
only few bones may have been found on the site and for the hunting of which there is little or no evidence. As in KC III, a tabulation of hunted animals has been adopted which shows the number of entries in the reports concerning a particular group of hunted animals (left column) as well as the total weight of the finds in g (adjusted to the nearest 10 g, right column). For clarity, common names are used but scientific names are also given where identified.
As in the case of KC III, because of the disturbances of the site by natural forces, faunal bones in stratified deposits have mainly been found in very small parts, fragments or splinters, rarely as complete bones and never in the form of an entire skeleton or of significant parts thereof. It follows that the identification of this bone material was extremely difficult and that therefore many entries in the reports had to be labeled in rather general terms such as, for instance, "mammal" or "vertebrate". So as to arrive at a more differentiated identification of at least species level, certain non-zoological information had at times to be resorted to such as environmental or topographic ones. There were even more difficulties in this respect in the much more disturbed KC IV where these disturbances seem to have been linked more to powerful water action than in KC III, dislocating finds in a most disconcerting manner.
1) Cattle (none identified) = CA 2) Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) = WB -- Wild Cattle (Bovinae) together = WC 3) Pig (Sus scrofa) = PG 4) Small Deer (incl. Muntiacus muntjak, Tragulus napu) = SD 5) Medium Deer (incl. Axis porcinus) = MD 6) Large Deer (incl. Cervus unicolor) = LD -- Deer (Cervidae) together = DE 7) Reptiles (incl. unspecified turtles and one Varanus) = RP 8) Carnivores (dog and unspecified) = CV In addition to animals in these eight categories, there are single-animal entries of the following: hare (Lepus peguensis), a large bird and a fish; there are also several small bone fragments from unspecified vertebrates (together 30 g); these are tabulated as "others" (= OR).
Butchering marks or human gnawing (of which two instances have been documented in KC IV: one on the humerus of a small mammal and the other on a pig's calcaneum) are, of course, the most reliable signs of an animal having been eaten but cut- or percussion marks can indicate the same fact although they may only be indicative of attempts to modify a bone for some practical use. But as the latter would almost automatically imply the former, these marks have been included. Bite- and gnawing marks show the presence of animals of which 20/260 CA
2/100 WB
22/360 WC
36/290 PG
11/60 SD
Of the altogether 162 finds, 144 come apparently from pre-Discontinuity layers (111 from {4} and 33 from {5}) and only 18 from {3}; they include 3 of small, 5 of medium and 3 of large deer, 3 of cattle and 4 of pig.
31/240 MD
27/190 LD
64/490 DE
19/60 RP
5/150 CV
14/30 OR
Table 3.23, Animal species hunted in KC IV Bite- and gnawing marks (except human) on faunal bones in KC IV. Rodents: 112 (of which 79 small rodents), Carnivores: 139 (of which one large and 8 small carnivores), Porcupines: 66
Discussion
as they could well have mainly been killed for other reasons.
Even more so than in KC III, the juxtaposition of the number of entries and the combined weight of the bone material in KC IV they represent clearly shows the smallness of the (widespread) separate samples and therefore also the impossibility of translating these finds into the more meaningful count of individual animals. It nevertheless may give a general overview of the relative importance of categories of animals in the food spectrum of KC IV communities. As far as weight is concerned, it seems that deer, in particular medium and large deer, was the most important, followed by wild cattle, including the water buffalo, and the wild pig. Turtles and carnivores only played a very minor role if they had been eaten at all
In contrast to KC III, as far as bite- and gnawing marks are concerned, there seem to be relatively more carnivores involved while the number of rodent bite-marks was less and that of porcupines about the same. It is not known what species of carnivores roamed the bush of the area (dogs do not appear to have been numerous) although the mention of one large carnivore is again indicative of the occasional tiger.
220
CHAPTER 4 Khok Charoen III and IV Compared: Similarities and Differences 4.1 Topography and Soils
proximity to running water having presumably dictated the choice of the emplacement of all these burial grounds as well as of settlements which may have existed there, the difference between the burial grounds of KC III and IV is very probably only one of convenience which also suggests that the central mound may already have been covered with burials in such a way that there was no more room for new ones. There are indeed signs that some burials in both grounds were contemporaneous.
When comparing these two parts of the site it has to be taken into account that both excavations are only partial excavations of two grounds of burials and/or habitation the extent of which is not known but which is likely to be considerably larger than the excavated portion of them. What is also not known is the position of the excavated surfaces relative to those of the entire burial ground or area of habitation which precludes the comparison of such features as the location of graves of special categories of people, of workshops within a settlement and the like; indeed, the few structures found near the burials themselves cannot be compared for lack of large enough plans of post-holes. Thus, what is left to compare are mainly matters pertaining to material culture, both funerary and domestic, in its wider sense, including geographical determinants, stratigraphy, subsistence and disturbances.
At the time of the prospection of the area to determine suitable spots for a trial excavation and also afterwards to follow it up with the excavations at KC II and III, the space in between was covered by dense brush which prevented us from looking there for surface finds of which there were plenty on the three bare shallow mounds around. In hindsight, this is regrettable as the excavation of this particular patch of no more than about 100x100 m could well have given the answers to most questions regarding the relationship between the three excavated parts of the site, unless these answers lie in the grounds across the stream to the West where surface finds were also made that were neither analysed nor taken into account for the choice of sites to be excavated.
Topography Assuming that the first use of the site was as a burial ground (perhaps because of its relatively safe position in an area prone to flooding) which is suggested by the archaeological evidence, the question to be asked is which part of the area would have been chosen to establish this first cemetery given that the right position of a burial ground relative to geographical features has at all times loomed large in the minds of population groups. At present, the site is delimited by two small streams, one with water all year round and the other carrying water only during the wet season but joining the first in such a way that for some considerable time of the year the site is transformed into a small island. This topographical configuration may have been quite different in the middle of the second millennium BC but the central of several mounds next to a stream, whether an island or not, was probably considered a good choice for a cemetery; if it was an island, the fact that access to it was across a stream conceivably also played a role in this choice. In any case, it was on this central mound that KC III, which turned out to be oldest of the three excavated burial grounds on the site, is situated. This does not exclude the possibility that still older burials exist somewhere between or within these cemeteries as was indeed the case in the KC II one.
Soils Although soils in KC III and IV are basically the same, there are differences in the depths of layers due to localised topographical conditions and duration of deposition. Thus, the post-Discontinuity layer {2} is much thicker in KC III than in KC IV. This can be attributed to the fact that KC IV is not only the highest point of the tract of land now called Khok Charoen but is also situated at its northern end in such a way that it bore the brunt of any powerful water action coming from a northern or western direction. This resulted in the removal, in the KC I/IV and III areas, of the surface layer encountered by these water masses, the greater disturbance of the burials of KC I/IV than those of KC III further south and in a greater deposition of upper soil layers there afterwards. The dislocation of finds in KC IV, especially in the northwestern-most cuttings F6 and E6, also points to these directions where the main thrusts must have come from. The main differences between KC III and IV regarding soils are thus the absence of soil {4} in KC III and the much greater thickness of the post-Discontinuity layer {2} in KC III than in IV, both interpreted as a sign of the greater antiquity of KC III as compared with KC I/IV and II.
As to KC I/IV, the next oldest of the excavated burial grounds, its location on the exposed promontory could be seen as a second best choice in preference to some other place further away from the stream, while the post-Discontinuity cemetery of KC II was again put on a small mound not far from it but outside the "island". The
221
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 4.2 Burials
only one "burial" (KC III, Burial 3) is most probably not an intentional burial as the skeleton has its knees flexed and there were no traces of either personal adornments or grave goods. As, apart from this single case (and some secondary skeletons in double or multiple burials), there is no evidence for any other position than extended supine it can be concluded that this was the customary position for all individuals intentionally buried in KC III and IV, including children, individuals of high social standing, poor or insignificant people without any grave goods and those who died in battle or as a result of an accident.
Human Burials Because of the disturbed nature of the Khok Charoen sites (KC IV being the worst in this respect) and the fact that the excavated areas of both KC III and IV only represent unknown portions of larger graveyards of unknown extension, a comparison of the excavated human burials of these two parts of the site does not necessarily yield useful information with regard to differences between the two but is more reliable in pointing out what they have in common. Amongst the 28 burials (10 from KC III and 18 from KC IV) there were 9 doubtful or inferred burials, 5 double and 2 multiple burials of various combinations, and 4 burials with no grave goods at all. This leaves only 8 "normal" burials, i.e. single burials with pots as grave goods, which may be considered typical for sites of this period in this part of Thailand, although the number of their pots may vary greatly (in KC III from 1 to 13 and in KC IV from 1 to 7). It could therefore be said that the main characteristic these two parts of the site have in common is the variety of their burials, due in part to excavation methods but obviously also reflecting the multiplicity of burial types within two limited graveyards.
The small sample size of burials in KC III and IV makes it almost impossible to identify meaningful differences between them in terms of methods and customs of inhumation. Important differences exist, however, in the orientation of the burials. Whereas there were only two major orientations in KC III: N and E, there were eight in KC IV: N, NE, E, SE, SSE, S, SW and WSW. But while the two orientations in KC III followed each-other closely, apparently within the same stratigraphic layer and without there having been a discernible change in burial furniture, there are two burial phases in KC IV, the Earlier and the Later one, differentiated by the situation of the burials in two separate layers which corresponds roughly to two main orientations.
If the relatively high number of doubtful or inferred burials is broken up into individual burials it appears that two burials (both in KC III, Burials 1 and 7) have been inferred from burial pottery in a situation which plainly justified the assumption of the existence of a burial and even of the supine position of the skeleton. One other burial (Burial 2 of KC III), contained at least two individuals but its status as a real burial is in doubt, although the supine position is consistent with other burials. This is also the case with two other burials (Burials 7 and 10 of KC IV) while two more burials of KC IV (6a and 10a) show all the signs of having been originally buried somewhere but, having been transported by water action to the places where they were found, their original situation cannot be ascertained. Burial 14 of KC IV was only partly excavated and too fragmented to be sure of its position although supine is almost certain, and Burial KC III 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 Average
N-orientation M F 1.70 1.65
Burial KCIV 1 5 6 7
1.54 1.55
1.68 1.68
E-orientation M F 1.67
As far as the skeletons are concerned, the few available heights or height estimates from burials in KC III and IV (adult individuals of known sex only), while statistically totally irrelevant, fit well into the overall picture of what is known in this field in time and space without yielding any other kind of information. However, what appears as the possibility that all people buried in KC III could be slightly taller than those in KC IV is in reality the fact that there are in KC III –– and in KC III alone –– two burials containing unusually tall male adults, with another one found in a natural ditch, while the remaining buried individuals are of "normal" height; it is not known where these three tall men came from and what their ethnic background could have been.
1.54
1.65 1.66
1.55
Earlier phase M F
1.60/65
1.63
M
Later phase
1.60 1.50
1.55
F 1.45
1.45
Table 4.1, Estimated heights of buried individuals (metres), KC III and KC IV imply that there could have been single vessel ceramic burials in this part of the site as there have been in KC IV. It is the bottom sherd of what almost certainly was a large restricted bowl with added ring-foot of Type 2B, lower body cord-marked, rim and upper body covered with the
Ceramic Burials Single Vessel Ceramic Burials One find in KC III (Pot "Y" in E7) was originally taken to
222
Khok Charoen III and IV Compared: Similarities and Differences characteristic incised decoration suggesting relations with sites in southern Thailand in the middle of the second millennium BC. Large parts of two vessels of this type have been found in KC IV, Pot "19" in E3 and Pot "A2" in F3, neither of them in situ. It is most unlikely that this particular type of vessel was ever intentionally buried as none has been found in a vessel cluster, and vessels decorated in a similar way (upper body with the same incised motifs, lower body similarly cord-marked) which have been singly buried in KC IV are all of a distinctly different, more elongated shape. The fact that this find was made in {2}, i.e. the uppermost undisturbed layer, and that it was the only one of its kind in KC III should be interpreted as meaning that it found its way there in late post-Discontinuity times and does not indicate the presence of a ceramic burial.
In view of these uncertainties possible scenarios range from the one that these ceramic burials have been going on from the Earlier burial phase in {5} through the Later one in {4} and up to the Discontinuity, to the one that these ceramic burial pits had all been dug from {4} in the space of one or two generations by one single group of people. In spite of doubts about the timing of the interments of these pots, the latter scenario, or one not too far removed from it, is proposed here as being the nearest to the truth. Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials In KC II the recognition of vessel cluster ceramic burials as such was hampered by the fact that they were thought to be composed of ordinary burial pottery and that it only was their position relative to human burials – which was at times ambiguous - that made them recognisable; hence the doubts about their nature as genuine ceramic burials. However, as was found out later when examining the finds of KC IV, there is another kind of vessel cluster ceramic burial, composed overwhelmingly of special, non-burial pottery vessels, which is undoubtedly real, dates from pre-Discontinuity times and only exists in KC IV.
Nine large elongated round-bottomed vessels, or parts thereof, of Type 1M or 1Ma (one of Type 2B, i.e. of the same shape but with an added ring-foot) have been found in KC IV, three or possibly four of them in such a position in situ that there could be no doubt that they – and presumably the other five as well – had been deliberately buried on their own as single vessel ceramic burials. There is reason to believe that only these and no other pots had been used in this way and, moreover, that these vessels with a sophisticated and codified incised decoration had been especially manufactured for this purpose although it is not yet known where this pottery manufacturing centre could have been. The three or four in situ specimens were all in the eastern corner of the excavated part of KC IV while the other five were scattered throughout E4, E5, F6 and G7, i.e. into its westernmost extension and beyond. It is therefore difficult to estimate the extent of the area in which these burials took place: presumably right across the small promontory where the first test-pits (KC I) were situated.
The situation with regard to vessel cluster ceramic burials in KC III is that there are no such burials of either kind at the level of the (human) burials but one very special vessel cluster ceramic burial had been dug from the first post-Discontinuity level {3} into the burial level {5} at a short distance from the feet of Burial 4 but not connected with it. This ceramic burial was that of three pots one of which was of a type found only in burials of KC III, the second found only in burials of KC IV and the third was a domestic pot of a type known only from KC III and probably in use by settlers who dug the pit for this ceramic burial. While this asks a number of questions concerning the origin of the two other pots (which will be answered in a later chapter) and the reasons for burying the three together in this manner, it also confirms that there were no "ordinary" vessel cluster ceramic burials in KC III like in KC IV.
It is also difficult to estimate the time frame of these single vessel ceramic burials, apart from stating that they all occurred in pre-Discontinuity times, as the stratigraphical evidence appears to be not only ambiguous but at times contradictory. Of the three securely in situ vessels one was found in {5}, the two others in {4} (one of them with traces of {3A}), the one possibly in situ and another one on the opposite end of the area were in {4} but with some sherds in {5} and the remaining four almost certainly in {5}. However, these differences in stratigraphy, unable to be matched with any other feature such as type, size, shape or decoration motifs, are irrelevant because of the confusion regarding the layer sealing the pit in which the vessel is buried. These elongated vessels of a height (as far as available) of between 34 and 48 cm were usually interred upright in pits at least as deep as their height and were, as the example of Single Vessel Ceramic Burial 2 shows, over time compacted to about two-thirds of their height or to about 20 to 30 cm; in a disturbed site like KC IV where layers are often compacted to a few centimetres and are also sometimes swept away entirely, it is somewhat venturous to claim to be certain about which layer sealed which other one when referring to pits dug in an earlier period.
It is thus again only in KC IV that veritable vessel cluster ceramic burials have been found, as was already the case with single vessel ceramic burials; it even appears that these two kinds of ceramic burials are possibly linked as many of the vessels involved share certain decoration motifs and seem to be contemporaneous, at least for some time. There are 12 "clusters" in KC IV, five of which are actually single vessels but of different types and in different circumstances from the typical single vessel ceramic burials. Together they contain 25 pots of 19 types but only 3 pots (of two different types) are also found in burials; the remaining 22 pots are of types which have not been found in any human burial. With regard to chronology, the situation is not unlike that pertaining to single vessel ceramic burials as all but two of these 12 clusters have been found in {4}, one in {5} and the position of the last one is unclear. The typology of the 223
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand vessels also found in burials is of no help as they have their counterparts in burials of both the Earlier and the Later phases in contradiction with the situation in which the respective clusters have been found. There is thus the same choice of possible scenarios as with single vessel ceramic burials, namely that these single vessel burials had a long life from the Earlier phase to the Later one or that being in the same late pre-Discontinuity phase and that indications of an earlier presence in {5} must be due to misinterpretation of the evidence or to the evidence being misleading. Even more so than in the case of single vessel ceramic burials, the latter scenario is to be preferred, especially as there are instances where vessel cluster ceramic burials are dug into a human burial of either burial phase (VCCB 6 into Burial 12 which itself cuts into Burial 15 and VCCB 9 into Burial 15).
However, KC III and IV are quite different in other aspects with regard to shell disk-beads. The manner of the distribution of these beads (only associated with burials in KC III and associated with burials as well as found in large quantities scattered throughout stratified deposits in KC IV) shows that, although the human burials in both parts of the site were of pre-Discontinuity times, KC IV had experienced much greater disturbances through powerful water action than the apparently more sheltered KC III. Another notable difference is that, while in KC III there are no signs of extraneous disk-bead types, such beads in KC IV indicate the existence of a burial, or burials, not far to the northwest outside the excavated area which contained disk-beads of a type (Type c) unique in, and possibly to, Khok Charoen and in particular to KC IV. Within the site, there are shell disk-beads in KC II with a diameter of up to 6 mm (Ho 1984, II: Fig. 11.29, SH.27), i.e. at the lower end of Type c beads, but none were found with diameters of 6-9 mm; the same is true for Khok Phanom Di (Pilditch 1993: 120, Fig. 45, Size 7, B15 MP5). That Type d beads could be unique to KC IV is also suggested by the absence of reports of such wavy shell disk-beads from other sites.
What remains in any case, is the undoubted fact that, unlike KC III, KC IV experienced the influx, during the pre-Discontinuity period, of a most significant cultural impulse from outside, bringing with it the practice of ritualistic ceramic burials, both of the single vessel and of the vessel cluster kind as well as a number of new and sophisticated pottery types; this influence came clearly after the Later human burial phase
Shell bracelets
4.3 Material Culture (funerary)
No bracelets made of shell were found in KC III or KC IV. The lone fragment of a Trochus niloticus shell found in proximity of Burial 8 of KC III but in soil {2}, originated almost certainly from a burial of KC II at a distance of about 100 m. This marine shell seems to have reached Khok Charoen only in post-Discontinuity times.
Personal Adornments Shell Shell disk-beads
Shell pieces
The main distinction between KC III and IV regarding disk-beads is that there are two more types of them in KC IV than in KC III. Of the four types of disk-beads known from the site of Khok Charoen, i.e. Type a (flat, 3 mm diameter), Type b (flat, 4-6 mm diameter), Type c (flat, 6-9 mm) and Type d (wavy, 1 cm diameter), only Type a and b have been found in KC III but all four types in KC IV.
The (presumed) use of pieces of the shell of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti as part of personal adornments seems to have been the same in KC III and IV; in both parts of the site they are worked and worn in the same (presumed) manner but there is a difference in the number and distribution of these pieces. While there were 33 fragments/pieces of this shell excavated in KC III, of which 5 or 6 were associated with burials, there were 148 of them in KC IV, with only 8 securely associated with burials. However, this does not necessarily mean that proportionally less use of such shell pieces as personal adornments was made in KC IV than in KC III as in both parts of the site the spatial distribution (according to cuttings) of pieces found in stratified deposits mirrors the distribution of burials. To distinguish between pieces which could and those which could not possibly have been associated with a burial becomes meaningless in these circumstances. The fact that a number of pieces have been found in post-Discontinuity soils (between 11 and 17 in KC III and 6 in KC IV) is equally irrelevant not only because of the impossibility to determine whether they were in situ or not but also because Pseudodon mouhoti being a local freshwater mussel continued to exist in the area after the
However, the 15 Type c disk-beads in KC IV were all in stratified deposits and none in association with a burial. Of the 174 Type d disk-beads found in KC IV, 55 are thought to be in association with the child-burial 6a but this association may be accidental due to this burial being partly virtual and not in situ, and given that 119 of these beads were found outside it in stratified deposits (109 in the same cutting F4 and 10 more in neighbouring F3). There are therefore only Type a and b disk-beads in KC III and IV left to be compared with the result that in neither of the two parts of the site could a correlation be established between these two types of disk-beads found in burials and burial phase/orientation, soils, and sex, age or social status of the interred individuals; it appears that these two types are practically interchangeable as far as their connection with the other criteria are concerned in KC III and IV. 224
Khok Charoen III and IV Compared: Similarities and Differences Discontinuity and can even be found to this day in the brook surrounding the site.
whether the stratigraphical dating of such delicate objects as skeletal parts of small children in a flood-ravaged site can ever be totally reliable
Exotic shells used as beads and single items of personal adornments
Burial KCIV 10a
In both these categories KC III and IV cannot be compared since only in KC IV were entire shells used as beads and single items made of shell as personal adornments. Disregarding the small land snail which may have been used as a bead, the five molluscan taxa used in this way in KC IV, i.e. 9 Oliva sp., 3 Nassarius spp. and 3 Cypraea (cowrie shells) as beads, and one piece each of Tridacna and Conus as individual items of adornments, are all marine shells and must have been traded or otherwise imported, presumably from the nearest coastal settlement (Khok Phanom Di), up-country into the Pasak River valley to Khok Charoen.
Find
Phase E
Specime n Conus
KPD MP 5
1 2
E
Olive
5
2
1
E
Tridacna
4-5
8
1
L
Nassarius
4
6a
2
E
Cypraea
2-4
Time BC 1650-1600 (1600-1500) 1650-1600 (1600-1500) 1700-1600 (1600-1500) 1700-1650 (1650-1550) 1800-1700 (1700-1600)
Table 4.2, Marine shells associated with KC IV burials and Khok Phanom Di (KPD) Mortuary Phases (MP) (see note on KPD/MP dating below)
These few items seem to have reached KC IV at different times and were associated with only one burial (in one case perhaps two burials) for each taxon: the Oliva shells with the child Burial 10a of the Earlier phase, the cowrie shells with the child Burial 6a and what could be the remnants of another child burial (not well enough documented to be given a number) of the Earlier phase and the Nassarius shells with the main skeleton, that of a young adult female, of the Later phase Burial 8. The two items of adornment, a single bead of Tridacna shell, and an ornamental disk made from the top of a Conus shell, are associated with Burials 2 and 10a respectively, both of the Earlier phase. There are thus at the most five individuals discovered wearing imported shells as part of their personal adornment: three children (Burials 6a, 10a and an unnumbered burial), one young adult female (Burial 8) and one adult individual, probably male (Burial 2). All of these, except for the young adult female in Burial 8, are from burials or stratigraphical situations of the Earlier phase while Burial 8 clearly is of the Later phase. This asks questions with regard to chronology which are as yet unanswered, in particular why it took the Nassarius shells apparently so much longer to reach Khok Charoen than the other marine shell taxa of (presumably) the same origin which had taken more than two centuries to arrive for the Earlier burial phase there, with Cypraea taking even longer than Nassarius?
Far from implying that the Khok Charoen finds could simply be dated by reference to the Khok Phanom Di dates, this table highlights the pitfalls of attempting such a procedure and the need for prudence in the dating of imported artefacts or objects. In the case of Tridacna, for instance, procedures for tracing its sources "have not been and may never be developed" (Moir 1989: 113) meaning that following its way through subsequent archaeological contexts is not as reliable as one would wish. However, in cases concerning relations between Khok Charoen and coastal sites, where the place of its first use is known and there is a relatively modest time span to bridge, such as in that of the Conus disks, it may be possible to do this by taking the following facts into account. Mortuary Phase 5 in Khok Phanom Di, during which these disks seem to have been developed and where one was worn by "The Princess" in burial 15, has consistently been dated to c. 1650-1600 BC (Higham 2004: 19); her grave was cut through lenses 3 and 4 of Layer 7, at 2.56-2.71 m below datum, which are therefore older (Higham and Bannanurag 1990: 41). The still lower/older lens 10 of Layer 8 was dated to 1925-1225 BC (op. cit.: fig. 17) which is within the +/- range of the TL dates for pots of N-oriented KC III burials of c. 1725-935 BC. While both sets of dates may look exaggerated, they nevertheless demonstrate that in cases of gaps of only two centuries or less in a chronological sequence, like in the attempts to calculate the duration of the Discontinuity, the overlapping ranges of possible error do not allow clear-cut conclusions.
Discussion Confronted with a chronological problem of this nature, the best approach is usually to first make sure that the various antagonistic elements are really what they appear to be and are positioned the way they should. In this case, for instance, one ought to ask whether in Khok Phanom Di itself, or perhaps in another site nearby, there could not have been Nassarius shells at a later date than that of MP4 to be transmitted to Khok Charoen almost immediately, whether the ubiquitous cowrie shell must really have come directly from such an old mortuary phase and could not have been elsewhere on its way to Khok Charoen and also
As far as Mortuary Phase 5 in Khok Phanom Di is concerned, there is, moreover, a puzzling discrepancy inits original dating inasmuch as in the article in which Higham publishes his change of mind with regard to the dating of early Bronze, he also rejuvenates MP5 by 100 years so as to end c. 1500 BC (Higham 1997: 832), only to revert to 1600 BC in a later publication (see above). Nothing is said about whether MP2 to 4 underwent a corresponding chronological change; for the eventuality that they did, an
225
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand alternative set of dates is added in brackets to the traditional one in the table above.
buff/ochre) and have inner diameters from 5.5 cm to 7 cm. They were all found in pre-Discontinuity layers (five in {4} and one in {5}) but only one securely, and two only possibly, associated with burials. The widths of fingerprints left on the edges show that young adults to very small children (one with fingers 5 mm wide) must have been involved in the making of these bracelets although they would probably have been worn only by adults.
Stone Stone bracelets Bracelets made of stone found in KC III and IV are divided into two categories according to their cross-section: disk-bracelets (A), and ring-bracelets (B); both categories are sub-divided into (1) bracelets with single-bevel and (2) with double-bevel inside boring. Disk-bracelets are in addition divided again into two types: a = almost equilateral and b = flat right-angled. Bracelets with an inner diameter of up to 5 cm are considered to be most probably those of children.
The small fragment of a clay bracelet found in {5} in KC III is of similar make and size (inner diameter c. 6 cm) to the bracelets of KC IV but of a slightly different type (almost triangular cross-section, no fingerprints visible) and colour (ochre/brick). In spite of having been found near burials in KC III, this unique fragment almost certainly originates from KC IV, having found its way to the KC III part of the site at an unknown time and in an unknown manner. The conclusion seems to be warranted that there are no signs of the existence of clay bracelets in KC III while they seem to have played a role in pre-Discontinuity KC IV, albeit a modest one.
No complete stone bracelet was found in either KC III or IV and in both parts of the site each fragment found was that of a separate individual bracelet. The three main differences between the two parts of the site are, first, that while of the 12 fragments found in KC III, 3 were of ring-bracelets (B) and the remaining 9 of disk-bracelets (A), all 16 fragments found in KC IV were of disk-bracelets and there were no fragments of ring-bracelets; second, that disk-bracelets with single bevel inner boring occur in both KC III and IV (and in burials of both) but those with double-bevel inner boring only exist in KC IV (and only there in burials); and third, that ring-bracelets have only been found in KC III (two in post-Discontinuity soils and one in a pre-Discontinuity burial).
Ivory In an area where there are no signs of the habitual working of ivory, any object made of this material must come from elsewhere, be of considerable value and, if a personal adornment, indicate an elevated social status of the bearer. This is particularly so if that object comes from a big tusk or is worked in a way involving extraordinary labour, skills or sophisticated procedures.
A tentative conclusion could be that, although on the whole disk-bracelets seem to precede ring-bracelets, this can only have been by a relatively short time because of the find of a ring-bracelet fragment in a KC III-burial in {5} and the finds of both types in post-Discontinuity times which point to the possibility that both types may also have been in use after the Discontinuity. Altogether it is clear, however, that stone bracelets did not play an important role in the material culture of Khok Charoen.
No such object has been discovered in KC III but there are several of them in KC IV, all connected with burials. They are a series of possibly up to five flat disk-bracelets with inner diameters of 4 cm to 4.5 cm next to an otherwise seemingly unremarkable child burial, and an ear-plug belonging almost certainly to the main skeleton of a multiple (child) burial, that of a young adult female adorned with exotic shells (Nassarius) and having a greater than usual number of grave goods. While the time of importation of the bracelets is not known but was probably not long before they ended up in the burial (of the Later phase) to which they are attributed, the ear-plug (also in a burial of the Later phase) could have been imported long after its manufacture before it reached Khok Charoen. The question why no such shells or ivory objects have been imported to KC III remains unanswered.
Stone beads There were no stone beads found in KC III. The only such bead in KC IV, a polished black tubular one, was discovered in F3, at 40 cm b.s. on the surface of {4} and far away of any burial; it doubtlessly comes from the only burial (B. 24) in KC II in which identical tubular beads were found but were in turn considered to originate from outside.
Pottery
Clay
Burial-only pottery
Seven fragments of as many individual clay bracelets have been excavated in both parts of the site together, one in KC III and six in KC IV. The six fragments found in KC IV are all of the same type of bracelet (drop-shaped cross-section point towards outside, edge formed by pinching with fingers), of almost the same colour (4 buff and 2 dark
Relatively few types of pottery have been found exclusively in human burials in both parts of the site. They are footed bowls (Class 4, Types A-H and J) and small shallow dishes and bowls (Class 3, Types C-E) for KC III and IV, large cord-marked globular bowls (Class 1, Type K) for KC III alone and one Class 7 pot for KC IV alone. 226
Khok Charoen III and IV Compared: Similarities and Differences
KC IV III
1Aa 3
1Ab 7 1
1B 3
1Ba 2 4
1Bb 2
1C` 4 2
1Ca 1 1
1Cb 1 1
1D 2 1
1Ea 1
!k
KC IV III
4A 19 10
4Aa 5 2
4Ab 1 2
4Ac
4C 2 2
4Ca 1
4D 3 3
4E 2
4Ea 2
4Eb
4Ee 2
2
1
7
2A 1 4F 1 1
2Aa 1
2Ab 1
3C 1 4
4G 6 3
4Ga 1
4H 1
3Ca 8 2 4J 1
3E 6 3
3Ea 1 4
4Ja 1
Table 4.3, Number of pots according to types in burials and as N.-A.B.P. in KC IV (59+34=93 pots) and III (34+22=56 pots) The chart shows the number of pottery types the two parts of the site have in common with each-other. While KC III burial pottery comprises 20 types, that of KC IV has 31. Those in common are 17 types but there are also 3 types which do exist in KC III but not in KC IV (1K, 4Ac, and 4Eb). They are the most interesting in the sense that it can be argued that the site with more (new) pottery types (i.e. KC IV) must be younger than the one with less (i.e. KC III) and that the presence of the same types in both burial grounds can be interpreted as a sign of contemporaneity of the two, these three types unique to KC III could be seen as the first on the entire site.
36 cm) were found in various states of completeness in a confined area (about 200 m2) of KC III, 3 of them associated with one burial (Burial 5, Finds 3, 7 and 9) and the others mainly dispersed in a very disturbed context which seemed to be the result of some localised natural or human action. No substantial parts of a Type 1K bowl have been found in situ in KC IV, although five isolated rim-sherds of the sub-types 1Ka (2) and 1Kb (3), which do not occur in KC III, were excavated in different parts of KC IV as obvious stray finds. The seven large 1K bowls must therefore be seen as not only unique to KC III as a pottery type but also unique as a non-utilitarian ceremonial type of pottery which was of no use domestically but was produced, like footed bowls, solely to be put into burials.
The types in question are a huge globular bowl, cord-marked and decorated with smoothed bands on its shoulder, a small footed bowl and a footed bowl decorated with a simple pricked decoration. All three are somewhat peculiar.
Footed bowls
Large cord-marked globular bowls
Footed bowls have been found in human burials in KC IV and III in relatively great numbers but in different proportions as regards types and sub-types.
Seven pots of the 1K type, strikingly similar in shape (almost perfectly spherical) and size (max. width: 27 cm to KC IV III
4A 13 10
4Aa 4 1
4Ab 1 1
4Ac 1
4C 1 2
4D 3 1
4E 2
4Ea 2
4Eb
4F
1
1
4G 5 2
4H 1
4J 1
4Ja 1
Total 34 20
Table 4.4, Class 4 pots found only in burials (i.e. not as N.-A.B.P.) incised-and-pricked decoration (Burial 1, Find 5) – and sherds found in stratified deposits nearby prove the existence of at least two other pots of the same kind – can be explained if almost identical pots were also found in KC IV (Burial 9, Finds 14 and 24, and Burial 3, Find 7)? The fact that all four burials involved, the two in KC III and the two in KC IV, have some interpretative problems of their own precludes an easy answer to this question.
While Types 4A, 4Aa, 4Ab, 4C, 4D and 4G occur in both KC III and IV, Types 4E, 4Ea, 4H, 4J and 4Ja have been added to the burial-only pottery types in KC IV, whereas Types 4Ac, 4Eb and 4F do not occur any more in KC IV as burial pots. The Type 4Ac small footed bowl (foot missing) is special only on account of its small size and of being the only such pot discovered in the entire site.
The medium/large cord-marked footed bowl Type 4F, the inside of its bowl covered in a dark red slip, is special as being the only one of its kind in KC III where it was found in a burial (Burial 9, Find 6) which is itself remarkable because of having one of the two large decorated tetrapod vessels Type 8A discovered in KC III as one of its grave goods. One single Type 4F footed bowl was excavated in KC IV, not associated with a human burial but as part of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial No. 10, which is therefore
The medium-sized footed bowl Type 4Eb (Burial 7, Find 2) is also a singleton in Khok Charoen but as it bears a simple pricked decoration which is possibly at the beginning of a development leading to more elaborately decorated similar footed bowls in both KC III and IV, this pot is of special significance. It raises the question of how its coexistence with such footed bowls with a sophisticated 227
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand contemporaneous with Burial 9 of KC III and confirms these Type 8A vessels in Burials 8 and 9 of KC III as being of the transition period between KC III and IV.
the site which are still not yet fully understood but will be tentatively explained in a later chapter. There is still the seemingly paradoxical situation that the only two special pots found in KC III, huge tetrapod bowls with an incised decoration reminiscent of the Type 1M vessels in KC IV, were found as grave goods in human Burials 8 and 9 and not buried on their own, singly or in a cluster. However, while this type of decoration, being the oldest on the KC IV ceramic burial vessels, supports the contemporaneity of the KC III burials with the earliest phase in KC IV, the fact remains that the latter have not been found in any burial, human or ceramic, in KC IV and are unique to KC III. It is therefore suggested that these two Type 8A bowls have been placed in the burials in KC III at the time of the earliest single vessel ceramic burials in KC IV but before there were any human burials there; in what way and why this was done remains unknown except that it was most likely by the same people who practised the burying of single decorated vessels no further than 100 m away and using pottery coming from the same workshop or cultural background.
Small shallow dishes and bowls There is no difference at all with regard to these small and often obviously hastily manufactured pots between KC III and IV, except for their (anyway small) numbers. Comparing these Class 3 pots associated with known burials in KC III and KC IV (in brackets after KC III), we find that there are only four types involved and that the distribution is more or less the same in the two parts of the site: 3C=2(1), 3Ca=1(2), 3E=2(3) and 3Ea=1(1). As these pots are practically interchangeable between KC III and IV it follows that the two parts of the site must have been contemporaneous or near-contemporaneous.
Class 7 pots
NB: Class 8 is really a "class of convenience". Perhaps the two pots therein should better be treated as a sub-type of Class 1 or 2 because of the similarity of pots of Type 8A to those of Type 2B: the double carination of the upper part of the 2B pots corresponds to a swelling in the 8A ones which have four feet instead of one ring-foot; one would need more entire pots of this ambiguous Class 8 to come to a conclusion.
The situation regarding Class 7 pots found in Khok Charoen is ambiguous. Shallow round-bottomed carinated bowls with a vertical outcurving rim, with or without foot, are one of the leading pottery types of the Kanchanaburi Neolithic; their inclusion in the pottery typology of KC III and KC IV as a class of their own had become necessary because remnants of them have been found in both parts of the site. As there is no sign of such pots ever having been routinely produced locally, this means that these isolated pots were imported or traded except for one instance where there is reason for doubt. While the finds in KC III (Pot "1133", in a post-Discontinuity context) and KC IV (Pot "2098", one large diagnostic sherd in the uppermost pre-Discontinuity layer) are identical in shape, make and size with pots in Ban-Kao and Sai-Yok and thus clearly indicate their origin, the pot found as a burial gift (Find 2) next to the skull of the Later phase Burial 5 of KC IV is of a kind found only in Ban Kao in different dimensions. It seems to have been made locally, perhaps on an ad hoc basis, after a model which had not been seen by the potter but was only described to her and was somewhat misunderstood.
Intentionally broken burial pottery Several ways of intentionally breaking ceramic vessels associated with human burials have been practiced in either KC III or IV or both. Leaving aside cases where intent cannot be proved (e.g. when, according to its breakage pattern, a pot could just as likely have been broken by natural forces), the following methods are possible. (a) the pot is broken (using a pointed implement) after it has been positioned on or near the interred body and before the burial is covered. (b) same manner of breaking but at a later time when the burial is either naturally exposed or dug into; the pot may be in its original or a changed/disturbed position.
Class 8 pots
(c) the pot is broken in whatever way and its sherds are laid out as a sheet under, or used to cover, parts of the body at the time of interment (if the pot is identifiable and restorable, it is considered to be part of that grave's burial pottery).
The two Class 8 pots in KC III burials (Burial 8, Find 2 and Burial 9, Find 7) are problematical cases. Although they obviously belong into the category of Special and Unique Pottery, they also are theoretically Burial-Only Pottery as they have only been found in these two burials and nowhere else; they are unlike any other burial-only pot, they clearly are foreign to KC III and even their class is unique. However, instead of thereby emphasising the difference between KC III and KC IV, these two pots show that there existed relations between the two parts of
(d) parts of the pot are removed (broken, chiseled or sawn off) prior to the pot being deposited on or near the body and the burial being covered. In KC III, the evidence for method (a) is too weak to be taken into account but there seems to be one instance 228
Khok Charoen III and IV Compared: Similarities and Differences (Burial 5) of method (b), two instances (Burials 5 and 6) of method (c) and there is one (Burial 9) of method (d). In KC IV, there is evidence for all four methods of intentionally breaking burial pottery. Burials 8 and 9, the richest and most atypical burials of KC IV, were the ones which had the most convincing examples of method (a), while only one of them, Burial 8, demonstrated the occurrence of method (b). As to method (c), one isolated incidence has been found in KC IV (Burial 5) and method (d) is represented by two examples (Burials 8 and 13).
Even though its association with Burial 8 is not entirely secure, the position of this object near the tibia of the young female adult below and between the three burial pots (two on the knees and one at the feet) strongly suggests that it had something to do with this burial after all. To find this strange object which is most unlikely to have been made locally with the skeleton of the individual to whom also the finely crafted imported unique ivory ear-plug is attributed may mean that that this young woman was in her lifetime at or near the top of the society in Later Phase KC IV.
To summarise it can be said that while only in KC IV is there proof for the intentional breaking of burial pottery at interment as well as for one case of post-burial interference involving intentional breaking of ancient burial pottery, there is none for the former but also for only one case of the latter in KC III. In both KC III and IV, the use of broken pottery as sheets for, or cover of, bodies or the inclusion of pots with broken- or sawn-off parts as grave goods may only have been isolated cases rather than the manifestations of trends or established cultural traditions. However, the fact that all burials involved are somewhat special, showing in a direct or indirect way (e.g. items of personal adornments, pottery types etc.) connection with sites outside Khok Charoen, it could well be that some burial customs are also the result of outside influence.
4.4 Material Culture (domestic) Pottery Multi-use pottery Although the proportion of Burial-Only to Multi-Use pottery in KC IV burials (37:17) may appear to be significantly different from that in KC III burials (25:5), if the number of pots of newly introduced types in KC IV (or of types which had not been put in burials in KC III) is deducted from both categories, one arrives at a proportion (33:10) which is nearer to that of KC III and realises that the increase in the importance of Multi-Use pots in KC IV is due mainly to the fact that there were no Class 2 pots in KC III at all and that fashion may have slightly changed with regard to the funerary use of 1Aa, 1Ab and 1Cb Type pots.
Stone Artefacts The number of stone adzes as secure burial gifts is minute relative to pottery in both parts of the site, being 1:34 in KC III, with 9 burials containing grave goods, and 2:54 in KC IV, with 15 burials containing such goods, thus roughly the same proportion. Although being statistically insufficient, this small number may be taken to mean that on the whole to bury people with their stone adzes was not, for whatever reason, a widespread custom. In this respect no difference could be noticed between KC III and IV; neither can an obvious difference be demonstrated by the types of the three stone adzes in burials.
Just as in KC III, there is no indication that any of the Class 1, Types A to D, pots were actually used for domestic purposes but were put into burials unused. This could be explained, as also in KC III, by the surmise that the home settlement of people buried in KC IV provided the necessary burial pottery and, if not enough burial-only pots were available, supplemented them by diverting unused domestic pottery for this purpose. However, the excavation of a habitation site contemporaneous with these pre-Discontinuity burials would be needed to confirm this theory.
Potential differences can only be exposed by examining the very few artefacts found in or near burials but not securely associated with them, occurring only in KC IV and not in KC III. These are fragments of unusually large stone adzes, one of which is shouldered (Burial 7, Find 2; Burial 8, Find 23; and Burial 9, Find 27), and a fragment of an oddly-shaped stone object with surfaces polished to a glass-like brilliancy (Burial 8, Find 24). Two observations can therefore be made with regard to differences between the two parts of the site. One is that large polished stone adzes are, without being numerous, not exactly a rarity in KC IV where they appear only in the Later phase, including in ceramic burials. The other concerns the fragment of the unidentified stone artefact with the glassy polish the virtual reconstruction of the shape of which and the guessing of its purpose appear almost impossible: perhaps a ceremonial or ritual implement of some kind.
Domestic-only pottery The crucial difference between KC III and KC IV is in the fields of Domestic-Only Pottery and Special and Unique Pottery. The first category includes vessels of utilitarian use not found in human burials, while the other category had been created to accommodate vessels the purpose of which is unknown or perhaps a ceremonial or ritual one, especially for pots in ceramic burials. This category can in turn be subdivided into those vessels substantial parts of which have been found on site and those only known from isolated diagnostic sherds coming from outside the excavated areas. In KC III, there are only two types of non-burial pots which are most unlikely to have had a ceremonial 229
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand function, although the use of one of them is not known with certainty. These are the Class 5 and Class 6 pots. Class 5 pots (only 5A) are shallow flat-bottomed bowls of various sizes decorated with an appliqué or raised "pie-crust" band at the base of the vertical direct rim (i.e. the rim/body juncture) and often with incised lines on the body below. The analysis of the large quantity of potsherds found not only in KC III but also in KC IV led to the conclusion that a great number of these pots (possibly more than 200) must have been in use there in post-Discontinuity times, presumably as serving dishes, although the centre of diffusion seems to have been somewhere between the excavated areas of the two parts of the site. No Class 5 pot was associated with a burial in KC III or KC IV but one small such dish was found in a KC II burial.
it likely that they, too, could have been part of such burials. Types involved are of Classes 1, 2 and 4 and most of these pots are decorated with incised or impressed motifs in the style of those of the two tetrapod vessels in KC III.
Special and unique pottery - 2 (from outside the excavated area) The types of pottery having existed outside the excavated areas of KC III and IV and of which only sherds but no entire pots or parts thereof were found, are Class 1 Types G-K and N, Class 3 Types A and B (i.e. large restricted globular bowls with direct inverted rims), several types of Class 4 footed bowls, and Class 6D pots.
Class 6 pots Types A-C, mainly huge round-bottomed and thick-walled coarsely cord-marked deep bowls, are also a widespread and long-lasting type of domestic pottery in KC III, either as storage vessels or for the pursuit of some industrial activity. In this case it is the analysis of the many excavated rim-sherds which shows that there could again have been more than 200 of these "Big Bowls" in KC III (none in IV), all in post-Discontinuity times (only 5% of sherds have been found in pre-Discontinuity layers) but again with the bulk of them possibly in the non-excavated area between KC III and KC IV. There was again no sign of association with a burial in KC III or KC IV and also not with a burial in KC II even though some sherds of Class 6A-C bowls were found, as could be expected, in burial layers of that part of the site.
All special Class 1 pots in KC IV were found in pre-Discontinuity layers, and only in two instances was there possible duplication in KC III (but in early post-Discontinuity layers). One is the find of diagnostic sherds of two large Type 1Ia bowls decorated with standing arches and the other that a Type 1Ib pot from the former Pit I of KC I, virtually restored from one single rim-sherd, may have had its counterpart in KC III where a similar but not identical rim-sherd was found in soil {3}. Two more finds suggest that there were pottery types in KC III which are not known from KC IV, namely a virtually restored pot Type 1Jc, also found in {3}, and a very large jar-like vessel of Type 1Nb, partly restored from a great number of small rim- and upper body-sherds, with other finds indicating the presence of at least six more pots of the same type in early post-Discontinuity layers in various cuttings of KC III, some sherds coming from {5}.
The situation in KC IV regarding Domestic-Only Pottery is exactly the reverse. There were only six individual pots which, not having been found in a burial, are neither burial nor multi-use pots and, not being of a kind consistent with a ritual or ceremonial vessel, must be domestic-only pots although their exact function is not clear. Four of these pots are Type 1F carinated round-bottomed bowls and two Type 5B and 5C small flat-bottomed bowls; they were all found in pre-Discontinuity soil {4} and no comparable pots have been excavated in KC III. There were no domestic-only pots in KC IV dating from post-Discontinuity times.
Apart from the latter complex, the place of which in the Khok Charoen setting is not yet clearly understood, the conclusion would thus be that remains of special and unique pots of Class 1 from outside only reached KC IV, only in pre-Discontinuity times and predominantly during the Later phase thereof. The small number (8) of Class 3 rim-sherds from KC III did not seem to be amenable to any meaningful statistical interpretation without some comparative material from elsewhere. While no such sherds have been found in KC II, six Class 3 rim-sherds were excavated in KC IV which, being almost identical to the KC III ones, can be compared and contrasted with the latter. Sherds of vessels of this pottery complex, which is thought to be of the same origin for KC III and IV, were found in both parts of the site in pre-Discontinuity as well as post-Discontinuity layers. However, it could be argued that, with a ratio of 1:7 in KC III and 4:2 in KC IV, more of these sherds were found in pre-Discontinuity layers in KC IV than in KC III and that the largest pots also were in these layers in KC IV while the smaller ones were concentrated in the upper layers of KC III. With regard to the typologically more diverse footed bowls in this section on special pottery from outside the excavated area a comparison between KC III and IV can be attempted although the result is inconclusive.
Special and unique pottery - 1 (on site) In KC III, only the two decorated large tetrapod vessels Type 8A qualify as being special and indeed unique pottery but, having been found only in burials (Burial 8, Find 2 and Burial 9, Find 7), they are at the same time also burial-only pottery. In KC IV, on the other hand, 42 vessels belonging to the category of special and unique pottery have been excavated on the site but none of them associated with a human burial. They were all found in {4} (or originally in that layer), 11 of them as single vessel- and 13 as part of vessel cluster ceramic burials, and 18 in situations making 230
Khok Charoen III and IV Compared: Similarities and Differences
Type 4Fa 4Fb 4Ga 4I 4Ia 4L 4M “ “ “ “ 4N 4O
Cutting
KC III Pot
Soil
H5
“1182a”
{3}
E8 E6 H6 E7 E5 G6 E8
“1489” “1321” “1582” “1069/1383” “1364” “1608” “1425”
{5} {3} {2} {3} {3} {3} {3}
Cutting TC2 F3 F6
KCIV Pot “2310” “2156” “Item 42”
Soil {4} {4} {4}
F3 E5 F4
“2276” “2183” “2047/2241”
{5} {5} {5}
TC2
“2360”
{5}
Table 4.5, Distribution of virtually reconstructed Class 4 pots in KC III and IV according to type
All but one of these sherds (i.e. pots) in KC III were found just above the Discontinuity divide whereas those found in KC IV were below that divide. With regard to types, in KC III all pots, with two exceptions (one 4I and one 4O) were of Type 4M while only one of this type was found in KC IV. All other types, with the exception of Type 4O, were only found in KC IV and only in {5}.
(according to local ethnographic parallels) as being rice cookers/steamers and a better knowledge of their age and distribution could shed more light on the development of rice cultivation in the area in neolithic times.
Other pottery objects
Considering these exceptions insignificant in view of the massive disturbances in these sites, the most plausible conclusions would be that the influx of the remnants of these pottery types occurred at two occasions: one in pre-Discontinuity times involving only KC IV and carrying there remains of footed bowls of Types 4Ia, 4L, 4M and 4N, and the other, to KC III, in post-Discontinuity times, carrying there sherds of Types 4M and one single one of 4O. The case of the huge footed bowl Type 4I is ambiguous as sherds of this type were found in KC IV in {5} and another one (of a different pot) in KC III in {2}. But as one other sherd of the similar Type 4Ia was found in KC IV also in {5}, there may be a case for suggesting that the sherds of this huge footed bowl were transmitted to KC IV well before the Discontinuity.
Anvils Two mushroom-shaped clay anvils (used in pottery manufacture) were excavated in KC III, one in a disturbed situation in {2} and the other in {5}, and three more fragments of very similar anvils were found as surface finds in the KC IV area. These few finds indicate that neither part of the site is likely to have been a pottery workshop and that the place of manufacture of any post-Discontinuity pots must have been outside the excavated areas. Ear plugs
There are four pots in KC III and also four in KC IV, represented by one rim-sherd each, the virtual restoration of which revealed that instead of being the rims of globular bowls with direct inverted rims, these sherds are almost certainly those of hemispheric bowls with a small hole in the bottom. Remnants of at least three types of such bowls have been excavated in KC II and it is thought that sherds in KC III and IV, found, in the former, in layers {1} to {3} and, in the latter, in layers {2}, {4} and {5}, may demonstrate a connection with KC II but the stratigraphic evidence is inconclusive.
There were two clay ear plugs found in Khok Charoen, one at 10 cm b.s. in the uppermost layer {1} in KC III and the other as a surface find in KC II. Although almost identical, they cannot have been from the same person but indicate the presence or passage of individuals presumably akin to mountain tribes people in the wider region still wearing such ear ornaments to this day. Unidentified pottery objects
As unrestricted hemispheric bowls these pots have been classified as being part of Class 6, Type D. The KC II finds warrant the creation of sub-types within Type D according to three or more different shapes and sizes (not attempted by Ho 1984) but the eight "rim"-sherds of KC III and IV do not allow such a subdivision. The matter is of a certain importance as these bowls with holes are interpreted
Several small pottery objects or fragments have been excavated in both KC III (7) and IV (8) which, although unidentified, seem to be connected with still unknown types of pottery vessels, not only for domestic but also for ceremonial use. In KC III, three of these objects were found in {3} and four in {5} whereas in KC IV, seven were found in {4} and one in {5}, showing that much still
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand remains to be discovered regarding the varied pottery of pre- as well as of post-Discontinuity times.
rough-out not in situ in {2} in F6), is possibly derived from yet another prototype originally proposed by Heine-Geldern, the Walzenbeil or Round Axe/Adze, which is believed to be the earliest neolithic axe/adze type; although the excavated adze and fragment may not themselves date from the Early Neolithic, the fact that this type appears to have survived in this region could indicate early neolithic human presence.
Stone Stone adzes and axes Stone adzes At first sight the situation regarding stone adzes in KC III and IV appears to be remarkably similar, in particular when comparing numbers of excavated entire adzes, the material they are made of and how many of them are associated with burials. Adzes excavated Volcanic rock Limestone With burials (secure) “ “ (probably) “ “ (possibly)
KC III 25 13 12 1 3 7
A similar conclusion may be drawn from the find of what looks like a typical hache courte or Short Axe, the lead artefact of the Late Hoabinhian, the heartland of which is considered to have been northern Vietnam and adjacent Laos. This artefact was excavated in KC IV, layer {4}, and originally interpreted as the broken rough-out for a polished stone adze but its striking similarity (apart from its smaller size) with the hoabinhian artefact makes the idea acceptable that it is indeed a remnant of this industry.
KCIV 28 15 13 2 4 5
Grinding stones, whetstones and hammerstones
However, as soon as other criteria are taken into account (e.g. identifiable fragments, rough-outs, adze types, position/distribution, implication for site or regional history etc) a more differentiated picture emerges the salient features of which may be resumed as follows although, because of statistically insufficient numbers and the disturbed nature of the sites, the conclusions reached are only possible interpretations of very fragmentary data.
In KC III, stones used to shape or sharpen other stone artefacts were found exclusively in post-Discontinuity layers, from the earliest such layer to the disturbed topsoil. This may signify – but does in no way prove – that those stone adzes found in pre-Discontinuity burials or layers had not been fashioned locally but came, together with (or like) the interred bodies, from elsewhere. As the majority of such stones excavated in KC IV came from pre-Discontinuity layers it could be argued that, contrary to KC III, there was such a local production in KC IV during the Later phase of burials.
In KC IV far more entire adzes were found in preDiscontinuity layers relative to those in post-Discontinuity layers than in KC III (20:8 as opposed to 10:15); the figures for adzes, fragments and rough-outs together are equally revealing, being 49:36 for KC IV and 20:37 for KC III. This could mean that the manufacture of stone adzes has been going on in both parts of the site ever since the beginning of their use as burial grounds, in spite of the absence of reliable signs of settlements during that time; an ongoing adze manufacture was particularly well attested in KC IV where out of 25 excavated rough-outs, ten came from pre-Discontinuity layers.
The two hammerstones found in KC III came from disturbed topsoil, i.e. their exact original location as well as their dating are in doubt except that they most likely originate in a post-Discontinuity layer. The two similar hammerstones of KC IV were found in the layer preceding the Discontinuity. Another difference is that no whetstones with narrow grooves criss-crossing their surfaces have been found in KC IV whereas there were two in KC III, both in {2}. There are also, in KC IV but not in KC III, a number of other flat stones the surfaces of which had probably been used for grinding, polishing or smoothing, but almost certainly not for grinding grains.
Table 4.6, Comparison of stone adzes found in KC III and KC IV
Amongst the excavated adzes two types were notable for their frequency and significance: Duff's Types 1A (a rectangular stepped adze) and 2G (a rectangular adze with unequal elliptical cross-section). Combined, these two types make up 17 out of 25 adzes In KC III and also 17 out of 28 adzes in KC IV, thus two-thirds of all excavated adzes with an equal proportion in both parts of the site.
Miscellaneous stone objects That the lithic technology of KC IV was more diversified than that of KC III is demonstrated by the numerous miscellaneous stone objects of which there were almost three times as many in KC IV than in KC III. In KC IV, these objects comprise, in addition to cores, flakes and points also several items (mainly fragments) which seem to come from totally new and unknown artefacts, implements or "ritual objects" (e.g. Nos. 3, 6, 14, 17, 18, 33, 39, 46, 51, 52 and 56) as they cannot be visualised and explained by reference to other sites and could be unique to KC IV.
Stone axes A relatively large kind of "Type 2G" adze, only found in KC IV (one entire specimen in the pit of Single Vessel Ceramic Burial 2 and a fragment of an unfinished
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Khok Charoen III and IV Compared: Similarities and Differences Yet another item demonstrating the uniqueness of KC IV lithic industry is the fragment of what can only be interpreted as a projectile-point (No. 16). It is the small flat triangular extremity of a larger artefact made of dark grey-green fine-grained volcanic rock, finely polished on both sides with bevels to produce sharp cutting-edges. As it is difficult to imagine any other implement of which this point could have been a part, and as similar points do not seem to exist in other Southeast Asian sites, the conclusion is warranted that this is also a unique piece in the region.
The question of the origin of the fossilised bone material excavated in KC III must again be asked with regard to that in KC IV with the additional question of the relations between these two adjacent parts of the site and in particular the circumstances leading to the exploitation of two different sets of fossilised faunal bones as raw material in KC III and IV. No coherent answer can as yet be offered. Metal
Other significant differences between KC III and IV include a greater diversity of implements used for grinding, smoothing or polishing and the use of burgundy-coloured chert as raw material for artefacts other than adzes in pre-Discontinuity times in KC IV which in KC III was limited to the time after the Discontinuity.
While no metal was found in KC I, II and III, four small metallic items were discovered in KC IV: a 4 cm-long piece of bronze wire, in layer {2}; two small (1x1 cm) thin copper flakes, in {4} and a 1x3 cm piece of almost pure non-meteoric iron in {5}, directly on limestone bedrock. None of these items was found associated with a burial or with human activity on the site which still has to be classified as a "late neolithic" one although bronze may already have been known somewhere in the wider area.
Bone Artefacts
The two cuttings in which these items were found (E4 and F4) happen to be those in KC IV with the greatest concentration of burials of all kinds: human burials of the Earlier phase (6a, 11, 11a, 12 and 15); human burials of the Later phase (6 and 8), Single Vessel Ceramic Burials 2, 6 and 7 and Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. All of these burials have been more or less disturbed, some clearly by human action, such as the two superimposed Burials 11 and 11a or Burial 12 which cuts into Burial 15 while the digging of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 8 into the former affected both of them; all this in pre-Discontinuity times. In the case of (human) Burial 8, however, there is evidence of grave robbery at an unknown time after the original Later phase pre-Discontinuity burial itself. The piece of bronze wire was found in the N-quadrant of E4 but in a postDiscontinuity layer; it is not unrealistic to suggest that there may be a connection between this post-Discontinuity grave-robbery and the presence of the piece of bronze wire and that the latter has nothing to do with the pre-Discontinuity burial.
Fresh bone Similarly to stone technology, that of fresh (as opposed to fossilised) bone seems to be far more developed and diversified in KC IV than in KC III. While there were nine artificially modified bone fragments in KC III, one of which clearly coming from KC IV, most of the 28 bone artefacts in KC IV could be tentatively identified as spear-points, scrapers, borers, spatulas or other tools with a specific albeit unknown purpose. Fossilised bone The same is true again concerning the use of fossilised bone fragments as raw material for tools or implements. There were 29 dark brown-black shiny fragments of fossilised bone (or blueish-white if charred) excavated in KC III, 13 of which seem to have been modified and used as tools or implements, whereas 60 fragments of fossilised bone were excavated in KC IV, with 42 of them very probably modified and used but these fragments were in various shades of ochre-grey and their surface was more or less dull.
4.5 Habitation and Subsistence
It is therefore suggested that the KC IV fragments come from a separate animal, or lot of animals, which had undergone a different or later process of fossilisation from that of the animal(s) exploited in KC III. The fact that in KC III all but one fragment came from post-Discontinuity layers whereas in KC IV most (48 out of 60) from the pre-Discontinuity soils {4} and {5} indicates that one lot of these bones was used as raw material for artefacts by post-Discontinuity settlers in KC III and another by people living at the time of the pre-Discontinuity burials in KC IV which is difficult to interpret.
Habitation Post-holes Although the recognition and following-up of post-holes as indicators of the existence of houses on poles was difficult in both parts of the site because of the disturbed condition of practically all soil layers including pre-Discontinuity ones, some major differences between KC III and IV can be perceived.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand (four from {4} and ten from {5}). Nine out of these 14 were sealed by {4}, one by {5}, for one it was not possible to determine by which layer it was sealed and three were sealed by {2}. The conclusion is warranted that in KC IV, there was a settlement during the Earlier burial phase (of pre-Discontinuity times) and another one either shortly before or shortly after the Discontinuity. Neither in KC III nor in KC IV does the position of the holes suggest the building of houses above burials, nor the deliberate placing of burials under houses but it must be kept in mind that both, the series of post-holes and the burials, almost certainly continue for an unknown distance beyond the excavated area and that a more extended excavation would probably have clarified the matter. A possible explanation for the relative scarcity and irregularity of post-holes may be that because of the then generally (?) prevailing system of shifting cultivation, settlements were not as permanent as in later times; the only truly permanent features were the communal burial grounds.
Illustration 4.1, Post-holes in KC III site (see table 2.26 for details)
The generally larger diameter of post-holes in KC IV than in KC III could possibly reflect the availability of bigger trees for the construction of houses, i.e. a change in vegetation patterns, or a more efficient technology to fell and work these trees. Subsistence Grains In the absence of querns, mortars or flat stones large enough for the grinding of grains in or near burials of both KC III and IV, it must be assumed either that the milling of grains to produce consumable items of food was not practiced in pre- as well as post-Discontinuity Khok Charoen or that the grinding was done somewhere outside the excavated areas. However, as the latter postulate is not supported by relevant surface finds, only grains which can be consumed hole (after cooking) could have been the staple food. In the circumstances only two such grains need be considered, namely rice or millet (sorghum), the evidence for which is principally to be found in accidental impressions on the surface of pottery items or, especially in the case of rice, in the form of husks as temper in the fabric itself.
Illustration 4.2, Post-holes in KC IV site (see table 3.22 for details)
While rice grains are enveloped by their husks when harvested and are separated from them only by threshing or winnowing, the grains of millet (i.e. the present Sorghum bicolor as developed in the US and now cultivated in the area of Khok Charoen) fall out of the ears when ripe as small (3-4 mm in diameter) clean balls still enclosed in their thin hulls; in the case of the earlier millet species, such as Setaria italica or Panicum miliaceum, these balls are somewhat smaller (2-3 mm). Impressions of rice grains on the outside of wet clay vessels put out to dry before firing can therefore be expected to be shallow or moderately deep, elongated and showing the imprint of the husks, whereas those of millet grains are deep, round
While all five post-holes in KC III were dug into the pre-Discontinuity layers {5}, three of them were dug from {3}, for one the layer from which it was dug was not discernible and only one was possibly dug from {5} itself. It therefore appears that the settlement these post-holes reveal existed most probably in early post-Discontinuity times. In KC IV, all 14 post-holes were also dug into {4}, {5} or even {6} but all apparently from pre-Discontinuity layers
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Khok Charoen III and IV Compared: Similarities and Differences and smooth and of a diameter of 2-3 mm. Unfortunately, the same kind of holes are also left by small magnetite granules which are contained in the fabric of much of Khok Charoen pottery so that it is rarely possible to be absolutely certain about the origin of such holes without taking circumstantial evidence into account. Such evidence may include the nature of the fabric, the presence of charred material (indicating vegetal matter) inside the impression, the position and shape of the impression (e.g. if the orifice of a hole is smaller than its maximum width it cannot be that of a magnetite granule) and the like.
Hunting Obviously, hunting must have played a very important role in the subsistence of the people of Khok Charoen but, here again, the difficulty of linking the archaeological evidence (butchering marks on faunal bones) with the various groups of settlers in Khok Charoen itself or with those who buried their dead there, precludes any meaningful comparison between the two parts of the site and with these latter groups whose habitation sites are unknown. Moreover, the degree of reliability of the archaeological evidence itself is not known, consisting, as it does, of a great number (98 in KC III and 166 in KC IV) of small bone pieces, fragments or splinters weighing together a mere 1.9 kg in KC III and 1.2 kg in KC IV and being dispersed over an area the relevance of which with regard to human activity in the context of the excavation is also not clear. All that can be done here is to present the finds of bones bearing marks suggesting that the animal had been killed (for food) and draw some very tentative conclusions.
The together 28 grain impressions (15 rice, 13 millet) are distributed as follows. In KC III, there are 4 rice and 1 millet in pre-Discontinuity and 3 rice only in post-Discontinuity layers, whereas in KC IV, there are 7 rice and 10 millet in pre-Discontinuity and 1 rice and 2 millet in post-Discontinuity layers. Based on the vagaries of the discovery, in disturbed layers, of sherds from pots made well outside the excavated areas, this picture (that in pre-Discontinuity times rice and millet had been cultivated in both KC III and IV but very little millet in KC III, while in post-Discontinuity times there was rice but no millet in KC III and very little rice and some millet cultivation in KC IV) is unlikely to reflect the true situation. It can, however, be useful for further research if the emphasis is put on the presence rather than the absence of these two cereal crops, i.e. by stating that both millet and rice had been cultivated by settlers in the Khok Charoen area from the time of the earliest cemetery to early post-Discontinuity times.
In this comparison the three main groups of hunted animals (Wild Cattle = C, Wild Pig = P, Deer = D) are represented according to the number of finds in both parts of the site: In KC III, there were 90 (C: 39, P: 25, D: 26) and in KC IV, 122 (C: 22, P: 36, D: 64) such bones. The great majority of faunal bones found in KC III and IV (about 5300 for both combined) without cut- or butchering marks may of course also be from animals which had been hunted and eaten; this includes a mammal within the major groups quoted above, as well as mammals and others which are not included in these groups and animals whose bite- or gnawing marks indicate their presence. In view of the fact that the fauna of KC III and that of KC IV must have been identical at any one point in time, an animal listed as existing in KC III does not imply its absence in KC IV and vice versa. These animals are the following (common names only if subspecies are not identified; number of entries after name): Kouprey (Bos sauveli) (1, in Ban Dong Noi), Macaque (11), Elephant (1), Rhinoceros (2), Tiger (1), Cat (1), Tapir (1), Bandicoot rat (3), Catfish (7), Python (1), Monitor lizard (3), Crocodile (7).
The discovery of Class 6 Type D pots, interpreted as being rice cookers, in all parts of the site could clarify the situation further. If it is true that the change from Type D to Da, Db and Dc represents a development in time, as suggested by the fact that Type D, the small oblong bowl believed to be at the beginning of this development, is found in KC III and IV but not in KC II, while the very large Type Dc at the end of it is only found in KC II, it could be seen as an indication of the growing importance of rice in the area. Other crops
The main conclusion to be drawn is thus that in an area where a natural disaster affected humans so deeply that it resulted in an archaeological discontinuity, the environment was apparently left more or less unchanged. While people moved away from the area of Khok Charoen to return to it only in the late 1950s, almost all of the animals which were hunted then can still be seen there now or are known to have existed within living memory.
The question of whether any other vegetal staple food item, e.g. a tuber, was cultivated in Khok Charoen to supplement the cereals is at present impossible to answer because of lack of direct archaeological evidence. There is, however, the faint possibility that an almost spherical edible tuber (krua-tong) of a diameter of between 10-15 cm which at present grows wild in this region of Thailand (Loofs 1968: 327-328) has, albeit of little nutritional value, formerly been part of the diet of prehistoric settlers, either gathered or cultivated. Holes left by this tuber have indeed been found in both KC III and IV in post-Discontinuity stratified layers (but not below) and have at times been confounded with post-holes.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand 4.6 Disturbances Burial 1 2 6 9
Or. E E E E
KC III Nat./Dir. X xS X
Man? -
Anim. X X -
3 4 5 8
N N N N
xE xE xSE
X -
-
Burial 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 13 7 11 11a 12 15
Ph. La
KCIV Nat./Dir. La La La La La La La La La
ManX X xSSW xESE X xSSW ?
Anim. X ? ?
La Ea Ea Ea Ea
xxNE,E X xW ? X
? -
Table 4.7, Disturbances in burials in KC III and IV by categories Three kinds of disturbances can be recognised in Khok Charoen having affected burials as well as stratified deposits: generated by natural forces, human-made and caused by animals; all three, alone or in combination, have been effective in both KC III and KC IV to different degrees but everywhere disturbances by natural forces, i.e. powerful water action, were the most destructive, followed by those caused by humans and animals (sometimes only presumed). By showing the direction in which skeletons or parts thereof, grave goods, potsherds and other objects directly associated with the burials are dislocated and transported, disturbances caused by water action also reveal much of the history of the site in general. In the following table these directions, if known, are given ("Dir.", after "Nat." = natural forces), as opposed to "Or." = Orientation (for KC III) and "Ph." = Burial Phase (for KC IV; "Ea" = Earlier and "La" = Later Phase). Only those burials are listed which can be compared with each-other.
In a site as disturbed as KC IV, the displacement of movable objects is so widespread that a drawing of all of them would crowd a small map to the point of unintelligibility. A few salient examples have been chosen to demonstrate that even major displacements occurred outside the network of the W-E channeled ones, and occasionally in the opposite direction. Whether this is proof of several floods or the result of turbulence during the Discontunuity alone remains unclear.
Discussion
The individual examples are explained by the letters a to f at the margin of the relevant cutting, at the height of the place to which the displaced object was transported (=x).
"channels" observed in the natural pre-Discontinuity surface of KC IV (except for that of the KC I cuttings where this phenomenon has not been investigated) and the fact that there were many instances of surprising dislocations of artefacts in directions different from the main disturbance; the latter are shown by unmistakable examples of the distribution of sherds from a known vessel or fitting bone fragments over large distances.
The above table has been compiled from observations made of the state of burials at excavation, when they had already gone through disturbances caused by at least two floods followed by periods of being partly or fully exposed to disturbances coming from different directions; it therefore presents a complicated and perhaps misleading picture. While there can be no doubt that the most powerful disturbances, being those caused by the floods resulting in the Discontinuity, came from West, Northwest or Southwest, there is also evidence for disturbances of the same nature coming from easterly or southerly directions, especially as far as the earlier period of KC III and the later one of KC IV are concerned. These matters are discussed in the section "The Discontinuity" (see infra).
These notes follow with reference to the diagram below: a) a sherd of pot Find 7, Burial 9 (1.20m.); b) a sherd of pot Find 25, Burial 9 found in sherds of pot Find 1, the Unclassifiable Burial (1.50m.); c) a sherd of a pot near the head of Burial 6a (1.70m.); d) a sherd of pot Find 18, Burial 8 (7.60m.); e) fragment of a human radius in Pot “C” of VCCB1 (2m..); f) fragment of a human fibula fitting the one found at the same place where the fragment of a human radius was displaced to , i.e. find e), next to a limestone outcrop (3m.).
The fact that the main flood came from a westerly direction is also substantiated by the existence of
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Khok Charoen III and IV Compared: Similarities and Differences In the following illustration, human burials are identified by number; there are no data from the former KC I cuttings E3 and F5.
Illustration 4.3, KC IV, Plan of movement of objects from their original locations due to water action For KC II, an entire section "Extent of disturbances estimated by conjoining sherds" (Ho 1984, I: 49-50) is devoted to the analysis of conjoining sherds in Cuttings D6, F4, F5, J4 and H6, with special attention to the conjoining of layers within cuttings (Tables 3.8-10, 3.16-17 and 3.20). As the only post-Discontinuity cemetery, KC II has undergone disturbances different from the pre-Discontinuity cemeteries and the detailed
observation thereof, as important and useful it is for the understanding of relations of layers within KC II, may not be relevant enough for that of relations between pre- and post-Discontinuity in Khok Charoen in general to be detailed here. While disturbances caused by animals are often difficult to identify and document (except for bite- and gnawing
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand marks), those disturbances involving grave goods are more easily recognisable as being the work of humans especially if pots are broken or shifted in what looks like a purposeful way or if pots have obviously been removed evidencing grave robbery. There is only one instance of such a robbery in KC III (Burial 5, of the Head-to-North phase) and none in the Head-to-East phase, supposed to be slightly later. In KC IV, on the other hand, there is only evidence for grave robbery in the Later phase (Burials 1, 8, 9 and 13) as well as the Unclassifiable Burial.
Type 1G, 1H or 1I and as such could have reached KC IV during the Later period where it was included in a ceramic burial. However, the possibility that it was then used as a burial gift in KC II is difficult to accept as Burial 17 belongs to Phase 3 (Ho 1984, I: 22) i.e. the latest burial phase in KC II and therefore the one most removed from KC IV. Whatever the time this decorated vessel was first brought to the Khok Charoen area, it was almost certainly not when the KC II cemetery was in use. The situation regarding contacts with the outside world in KC III is difficult to assess inasmuch as the only special, unique and obviously imported pots, the two large restricted tetrapod bowls Type 8A, were found in Burials 8 and 9 as burial pots, whereas all other vessels of similar or different shapes with which they must be contemporaneous because of a shared system of incised decoration, were found only in the Later phase of KC IV as single vessel- or part of vessel cluster ceramic burials.
It thus seems that, on the whole and taking into account that there are more burials in KC IV than in KC III, KC IV had experienced more disturbances by humans as well as due to natural causes, in both the Earlier and the Later phase, than KC III. Moreover, signs for the occurrence of other powerful water action events prior to the one which caused the Discontinuity throughout the entire site, also come mainly from KC IV where natural forces causing disturbances come at times from directions different from those in KC III.
Apart from these two tetrapod bowls the implications of which with regard to outside contacts are not clear, there is one unquestionable proof of such a contact in KC III, in this case with a specific site in Kanchanaburi on the other side of the Central Plain. Five potsherds constituting about one-quarter of the body of a carinated bowl Type 7B (Pot "1133") were found at various depths in stratified layers in cuttings H5 and G5 which were to such an extent identical in all aspects to the Sai-Yok bowl "SY. I/245" that they must be from an imported vessel. The date and mode of, and the reason for, this importation are unknown. In Sai-Yok and Ban Kao (Sørensen 1967: pl. 33, 2), these Class 7 bowls are associated with burials although they could possibly have also been used for domestic purposes; there was no association with burials in KC III.
4.7 Contacts The decision to try to complete excavations of the KC I grid, in the form of KC IV, as the concluding season of the TBAE was, in hindsight, quite a fortunate one because had we instead continued to excavate KC III we would perhaps have gained a better understanding of this earliest part of Khok Charoen but we would have missed out on one of the most intriguing aspects of the site as a whole which is the astonishing variety of pottery types and items of personal adornment found in KC IV indicating contacts with a world outside the restricted area around the lower Nam Pasak region. Signs of such contacts had already been noticed while evaluating the results of the KC I and KC II excavations when three pots were identified as being of foreign origin (Ho 1984, I: 51-54, 73). However, all three demonstrated contacts at the time of KC IV but not of KC II; two of them came from the KC I excavation and have been integrated in the KC IV pottery typology (Ho's CBP 111, the large cylindrical vessel Type 2Ca, became Single Vessel Ceramic Burial 1 and CBP 155, the only virtually restorable decorated large doubly carinated bowl Type 2B, not associated with a human burial and also not a ceramic burial, became one of the "special and unique pots" the original position and status of which is not known). The third pot was found in KC II itself as Find 4 of Burial 17 (thus a genuine not restorable burial pot, UBP 73) but its origin is also unknown. It is described as being of Type 2 and "though it belongs to a very common pot type, has a fine incised-rouletted decoration which never occurs on any other Type 2 bowls. The pot is also outstanding in having a very thin and well polished body"; its fabric sample indicates imported ware (Ho 1984, I: 73). With a maximum diameter of about 24 cm (Ho 1984, II: Fig. 11.18) and a weight (without rim) of 875 g but no mention of being cord-marked, this vessel is most likely one of
One single diagnostic rim-sherd of Type 7A was excavated in KC IV (F6, 30-40 cm b.s.), attesting to the fact that here, too, a vessel from across the Central Plain was imported into the area (Pot "2098") but there was also an almost complete Class 7 pot found in a burial in KC IV, although of a shape not known from any Kanchanaburi site (Find 2 of Burial 5, in G7). This pot was very probably produced locally as it differs in shape and surface treatment from the imported pieces but it clearly indicates an influence from abroad. A great number of pots, represented only by a few sherds or often by one single diagnostic sherd, came from outside the excavated areas but not necessarily from far-away places, i.e. perhaps from not further away than somewhere within the area of the Khok Charoen mounds or just across the streams surrounding them. They are classified "Special and Unique Pottery - 2 (from outside)" and all that can be said to summarise this category is that it attests to the presence of several new types of pottery near enough to Khok Charoen for some of their sherds to reach the excavated areas, mainly but certainly not only, during the time preceding the Discontinuity.
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CHAPTER 5 The Integration of Khok Charoen II 5.1 Introduction
contacts with the outside world. Chapters 7-10 analyse the position of Khok Charoen in the context of neighbouring sites (Sub Takien and Dong Din Daeng) as well as sites further afar and finally the entire "Southeast Asian Mainland Tradition". Ho’s ten chapters are summarised in the following section.
The part of the overall site of Khok Charoen which became known as KC II was originally selected for excavation on account of its many surface finds, not at first sight including human skeletal material. This led us to expect the discovery of the hoped-for neolithic settlement not found during the so-called trial excavation of the previous year (later called KC I and which only revealed burials), and its excavation was done with far more care and attention to the recording of finds, drawing of sections etc. than that of KC I. There was also more personnel involved (archaeologists, officials, students and workmen) and there was more financial support. As the largest excavation of the TBAE, KC II could also be seen as its most important one and as the basic excavation of the site of Khok Charoen itself into which later excavation results would have to be integrated.
Chapter 1 The area chosen to be excavated was a harvested millet field adjacent to the western section of the stream with water all the year round at a distance of 150-200 m WSW from the trial excavation. A five metre grid was laid out on a N-S orientation, designated 4 to 7 along the N-S axis and D to J along the E-W axis. Twenty 4x4 m cuttings separated by 1 m baulks (plus three 2x2 m test cuttings) were excavated down to natural bedrock which was reached at depths varying from 30 cm to 1.30 m. As also subsequently in KC III and IV, the excavation itself was done, if at all possible, by natural soil layers and disturbances in them and, if not, by 10 cm spits which revealed such disturbances on their surfaces. Four soil layers could be distinguished with all but one [sic] of the graves coming from post-Discontinuity layers.
In the course of the evaluation of the site in its entirety it turned out, however, that KC II was preceded in time by the two other excavated burial grounds which thus formed its background and, being the latest of the three, its excavation results would therefore have to be integrated into those of the others. Since the KC II excavations were the first to be written up in toto by W Ho in the form of a PhD thesis (Ho 1984), while they were mentioned in more or less detail in a number of other publications before and after this unpublished thesis, this integration has the thesis as its starting point but takes into account several other sources as well.
Chapter 2 Altogether 45 burials were excavated which are divided into the groups of: recognisable human burials, clusters of pots without skeletons, doubtful burials and two pots buried on their own; six types of mortuary practices are thus defined. According to the orientation of those burials that can be ascertained, three burial phases are proposed: Phase 1 (the earliest) = North orientation; Phase 2 = East orientation, and Phase 3 = Southeast orientation. However, the fact is emphasised that, according to dates obtained (1180+/-300 BC and 1080+/-300 BC, for Phase 3 and Phase 2 respectively), the three phases are close in time and together cover only a short span of time; this is confirmed by the fact that there is no obvious distinction of grave goods amongst these three phases of graves. It is furthermore argued that KC I is contemporaneous with the earliest phase of KC II since three of the five burials found in KC I are North oriented.
As it is impracticable to repeat here all the evidence contained in the thesis on KC II, or to rewrite it to make it conform to the format adopted for the report on KC III and IV, the best way of integrating this information into the overall picture of the site seemed to present a summary of the excavations of KC II and their results according to the structure of the thesis. This is followed by a more detailed comparison with KC III and IV in the way these two had been compared with each-other, i.e. by singling out the same topics, namely 1) Topography and Soils, 2) Burials, 3) Material Culture, 4) Habitation and Subsistence, 5) Disturbances and 6) Contacts.
Chapter 3
Summary of the Khok Charoen II Excavations
In the first chapter on pottery the excavated pottery is divided in the categories of Complete Burial Pots (CBP), Unrestorable Burial Pots (UBP) and stratified sherds. A pottery typology of 14 types is elaborated according to the shapes of the rims, of the bodies and of the pedestals, with subdivisions based on details of decoration. A section on Reserved sherds deals with sherds which do not find any parallel in complete pots, and manufacturing techniques are examined.
The aims of Ho’s thesis of ten chapters are "to produce a detailed report on the pottery of the site, to construct a chronology of late prehistory in central Thailand and to define the culture to which Khok Charoen belongs". The first chapter gives the background, the second deals with the burials, the third and fourth with the pottery. Chapter 5 describes non-ceramic artefacts and chapter 6 deals with
239
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Chapter 4
other pottery finds, stone artefacts, some shell disk-beads and faunal remains were discovered which suggested that this test-pit was but a small part of a much larger and very promising site. Although no intact pots were retrieved, the amount of excavated potsherds (90% of which cord-marked) compares very favourably indeed with what had been found in KC II: 27.7 kg per sq.m excavated in STK.1 as opposed to 0.8 kg per sq.m in KC II. The main conclusion of this excavation was that, while some pottery of Sub Takien shows an affinity with that of the later phase of KC II suggesting that STK.1 represents a cultural phase slightly earlier or contemporary with that phase in Khok Charoen, it also has its own distinctive elements, that there was no trace of metal artefacts either from excavations or from chance finds and that the excavated material "does not show any convincing northeastern connexion at all" (Ho 1984, I: 104).
This second chapter on pottery deals with the relation between burial pots and stratified sherds, differences of pottery in two occupation phases, the extent of disturbances estimated by conjoining sherds, imported ware versus local production and foreign versus local mortuary rites. Chapter 5 The chapter on "Finds other than pottery vessels" examines stone adzes and other stone tools or implements, stone ornaments, molluscan fauna and ornaments made thereof. Chapter 6
Chapter 8
This chapter on "Evidence of communication with outside communities with special reference to pottery material" is based mainly on laboratory results with regard to fabric groups roughly 70% of which point to local fabrication while the rest indicates an outside origin.
The pottery of Khok Charoen is compared with other pottery vessels or sherds found in Central Thailand, both from excavated sites and as surface finds. Ten by then known and more or less exhaustively excavated sites are surveyed in sequence of excavation chronology, from Lopburi Artillery Camp (1964-1965), through Khok Charoen (1966-1970), to the two test-pits of Ban Dong Din Daeng and Ban Sub Takien (1983). These sites are grouped into three subregional complexes according to affinities and settlement patterns, with key sites representing time phases in each individual complex, and a spatial as well as chronological picture of the prehistory of the Central Plain is constructed going from Early Metal Age, through High Metal Age, to Protohistoric Period. Sites where no metal was found at all, such as Khok Charoen and indeed Sub Takien, are none the less included in the category of Early Metal Age sites and it is argued that they represent "a period just before the introduction of the use of metal in the region" or that people who were not in possession of bronze objects when they first settled there "remained ignorant of the metal even at the time when neighbouring communities were familiar with the metal" (Ho 1984, I: 111). Pottery finds are divided into diagnostic types characteristic for each of these three Ages.
Chapter 7 The test excavations (by the author of the thesis herself) of two sites in Lopburi Province, Ban Dong Din Daeng (DDD) and Ban Sub Takien (STK), are discussed in this chapter in detail and the excavated material – in particular pottery – compared with that of Khok Charoen, i.e. KC I and II. The site of Dong Din Daeng, situated at 40 km N of Khok Samrong, had been discovered in 1977 through road construction work and many finds made at that occasion are preserved in the Lopburi National Museum (stone adzes, beads, bracelets and ceramics). These finds were supplemented by similar finds made during the excavation of a 1x2 m test pit where they were concentrated in the second of four layers while the fourth was sterile. Due to there being only small sherds discovered during the excavations, but 22 complete pots in the museum, it was concluded that the site was most probably used partly as a cemetery and partly as a habitation area or a refuse area for broken pottery etc. The presence of iron objects means the site was occupied into the High Metal Age while its beginnings may have been contemporaneous with Khok Charoen II.
Chapter 9 This chapter on "Khok Charoen in a wider context" investigates the chronology of the Central Plain, the contacts outside the Central Plain, and Khok Charoen in the context of the Southeast Asian Mainland and south China. This "Southeast Asian Mainland (or SEAM) Tradition" is typified by several features concerning pottery manufacture and decoration, the use of shells as adornments, polished stone adzes and various common ways of burial practices. In this general context, the Late Neolithic Period is included but with regard to the Lopburi area, it is stated that "the Late Neolithic phase is lacking" (Ho 1984, I: 144).
The site of Sub Takien, situated 35 km SE of Khok Charoen at the foot of the Phetchabun Range itself and close to one of the passes from the Central Plain to the Khorat Plateau, was discovered in 1982 and test-excavated the year after with the aim of investigating its possible relationship with Khok Charoen. To this end a 2x2 m pit (STK.1) was excavated down to a maximum of 1.61 m and six soil layers were identified, the lowest one being sterile. From Layers 2 to 5, however, a great amount of potsherds, 240
The Integration of Khok Charoen II Chapter 10
maximum extension of its cemetery (but not of settlements), which suggests that in spite of its much greater number of burials than both KC III and IV, the cemetery of KC II may conceivably have even been smaller than the other two. There are also other sources of possible misinterpretations to bear in mind when evaluating the conclusions of the thesis on KC II in the context of the other two excavated parts of the site. One is that, although written primarily on KC II, this thesis also contains the results of KC I and that "Reference to this material is included as necessary in this study of KC II." (Ho 1984, I: 10). However, the state-of-the-art of this material at the time of writing the thesis being the study by Watson 1979, containing statements later found to be in need of revision, not all such reference can now be considered as necessary or relevant. This is particularly so with regard to propositions concerning contacts and dates based on KC I pottery but also concerning soils and layers in KC I, II and III. Thus, the assertion that "all but one of the graves" of KC II were dug from the earliest post-Discontinuity (Disconformity) Layer III of Soils A (Watson 1979: 56) could be understood to mean that one of the human burials of KC II was of pre-Discontinuity age and that therefore the cemetery spanned the Discontinuity divide while it is clear that the reference was to the "Vessel deposit" (op. cit.: 57) of Pot "111" in Pit I of KC I, later called Single Vessel Ceramic Burial 1 in E3 of KC IV. The burial ground of KC II was (except for the head-only Burial 19 and the two "jar deposits" Burials 46 and 47) entirely and solely of post-Discontinuity times.
This final chapter contains the overall conclusions of the thesis under two headings: 1) The community of Khok Charoen, and 2) The settlements in the area of Lopburi. The community of Khok Charoen is defined as a peaceful self-reliant fair-sized village of shifting-cultivators with some knowledge of rice cultivation who buried their dead in the large communal cemetery of KC II. Animal meat and shell food were probably the main items of their diet. They used locally made stone and wood implements in the way communities of other areas did. Their potting industry was noticeably advanced and they may even have had knowledge of the turntable for shaping pedestal bowls although most of their vessels were made in the pestle and anvil method. Cord-markings on pottery shows that spinning must have been well known but no spindle whorl was discovered. Imported items include finely made decorated pottery some of which were locally imitated for burial use, polished stone ornaments and marine shell bracelets. The people of Khok Charoen maintained the same mode of living without much change while other communities of the Lopburi area had already made advances in the technology of agriculture and industry. There are a great number of archaeological sites, contemporaneous with or slightly later than Khok Charoen, within an expanse of 150x100 km in the Lopburi area in varying states of development due to different local economic resources, to industrial strength and possibly to ethnic preferences. Khok Charoen is seen to be one of the earliest dwelling sites in this region. The chronology and material culture of this Early Metal Age of the Lopburi area (or the Central Plain) are consistent with those of sites along the Mekong and the Red River. Together, these sites form the SEAM Tradition, to distinguish it from a geometric-impressed pottery horizon in the northeast. It was Late Neolithic by the mid-3rd millennium BC, and by the middle of the 2nd millennium bronze was in use. One of the diagnostic characteristics of this culture is the incised-rouletted decoration on ceramics which is particularly developed in the lower Red River region, is found on imported vessels in Khok Charoen and has been copied in a rougher version in other areas. Regional differences within the SEAM Tradition are determined by the rivers and resulted in varied speeds of growth into the High Metal Age and the Protohistoric Period; compared to the Red River or mid-Mekong regions, that of Lopburi appears to be late in developing metal technology.
Topography Considering the state of the Khok Charoen mounds shortly after the devastating floods causing the Discontinuity one could conjure up the following picture, suggested by the disturbances observed concerning the burials of KC III and IV. Both the central mound (excavation of KC III) and the northern mound or "promontory" (excavations of KC I and IV) must then have been desolated barren fields strewn with broken burial pots and skeletal remains and with partly exposed burials here and there. Not really a place for new burials if, according to tradition, another burial ground had to be established in this particular area. But there was a low mound adjacent to the permanent stream to the W of the other two mounds and just outside the "island" formed by two branches of this stream, which was free from such debris and could be used for this purpose. This may have been the reason why the only post-Discontinuity cemetery of Khok Charoen was positioned there.
5.2 Khok Charoen II Compared with Khok Charoen III and IV
Soils The original description of the soils of KC II, not mentioned in Ho's thesis, was that elaborated by Watson (1979: 56-57):
When comparing KC III with KC IV, it had to be taken into account that both were but parts of larger entities of unknown sizes and extensions. This problem does not seem to be as acute with regard to KC II which appears to have been excavated more or less to its limits, i.e. the 241
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Soils A: 1. Layer I
4 burials without grave goods and 9 doubtful or inferred burials, thus leaving only 8 burials out of 28 which, being single burials in supine position with pots as grave goods, could be considered as typical of what was known about burial customs at this time in this part of Mainland Southeast Asia. Another is the presence of non-adult burials of which there was one (a mid-teenaged girl) in KC III and those of seven children and one sub-adult in KC IV. In addition to human burials there were also a number of ceramic burials in KC IV.
- Recent disturbance in currently forming humid soil. OCCUPATION
2. Layer II
- Gravelly soil resembling a 'hill-wash', probably contemporaneous with OCCUPATION at some part of the site.
3. Layer III
- Limy gravelly soil from which all but one [sic] of the graves were dug. Burials with red pedestal bowls, etc. Sherds outside graves small and rolled.
The situation with regard to KC II is different in several respects. This burial ground was almost completely excavated, it was entirely of post-Discontinuity times and it contained, according to Ho (1984: passim), 45 burials, i.e. about double than those of KC III and IV combined although not all of these burials are human ones. The KC II burials are divided into four groups. Group A consists of at least 26 burials with enough skeletal material to show that these were human burials with a definite orientation and some grave goods. Group B comprises 9 clusters of pottery without human skeletons. Group C consists of 8 probably very disturbed burials without coherent skeletons and also lacking clear groups of grave goods and Group D of only two upright vessels, each one covered with a small pot as a lid, buried in two individual pits (Burials 46 and 47). Contrary to KC III and in particular KC IV, no child burials have been found in KC II.
OCCUPATION Soils B: 4. Layer IV - Light brown fine soil. Sherds lime-encrusted, not rolled. OCCUPATION on the surface over this soil, which has been eroded away. Vessel deposit pit cut from this soil. 5. Layer V
- Coarse whitish gravelly soil
6. Layer VI - Natural. As has been pointed out when examining the differences between KC III and IV, both these sites were affected by powerful water action coming mainly from northerly and westerly directions, disturbing burials and removing soil layers, but differently according to their position. While the burials on the highest mound, that of KC IV, were the most disturbed, those of KC III on the central, slightly lower mound were clearly less so although much of the overlaying soil was removed.
The apparent inconsistency with regard to burial numbers (there are 45 burials and yet the jar deposits are called Burials 46 and 47) is due to the fact that some of the initially allocated burial numbers were not used in the final analysis, and that 35A and 35B/C were used instead of the single number 35. The uncertainty surrounding the exact number of confirmed human burials in Group A ("at least 26") refers to the fact that in one burial (Burial 35B/C) sparse remains of more than one body were found relatively close together and it could not be decided whether this was because there were two individual burials or one double burial. Given that there is another confirmed multi-burial in KC II (Burial 31), it seemed almost certain that Burial 35B/C was also a double or multiple burial and that there were only 26 confirmed human burials in KC II but so as to leave the possibility open that there existed another burial, the "at least" was added. Later research showed, however, that the situation regarding Burial 35B/C is far more complicated but still not leading to a satisfactory answer as to the number of individuals buried therein.
The still lower mound of KC II, the burials of which date to the time after the major onslaught, had become the recipient of most of soil {3A} which had been washed away from the surface of KC IV and was deposited, presumably by receding floodwaters, in a thick layer throughout KC II, in particular on its western slope, where it was designated Layer IV (or Soils B, no. 4). However, this soil 4 does not correspond to soil {4} of KC IV but, as in KC III, to the burial layer immediately above bedrock, i.e. soil {5}. In KC II, the earliest burials were found in the post-Discontinuity soil layer {3}.
The KC II Burials
5.3 Burials
Explanatory note concerning KC II Burial Drawings
Human Burials
As explained in Chapter 1, the excavation of the three burial grounds making up the site of Khok Charoen was not a single straightforward campaign but a series of four individual excavations within the framework of the TBAE. Each of them had a slightly different aim and ways
One of the characteristics of the human burials of KC III (10) and KC IV (18), both from only partially excavated pre-Discontinuity burial grounds, has been found to be their diversity. There were 5 double and 2 multiple burials, 242
The Integration of Khok Charoen II to achieve it, resulting in an uneven coverage as regards documentation and the drawing of burials, notably in KC II. While drawing or redrawing these burials and their rich pottery in a style similar to KC III and KC IV, the question arose of how to represent these 237 pots most of which appeared in original sketches or photographs as shapeless heaps of sherds conveying no or very little concrete information. During post-excavation restoration work, almost all of these pots had been reliably identified and drawn, albeit some only summarily. It was therefore thought that it would be more useful to represent these pots as they had been put into the burials, rather than in their broken state as they had been excavated; in this way the relative size of pots to dead body can be seen immediately and conclusions be drawn as to probable reasons for the placements of the pots.
The drawings below are accompanied by the descriptions of the burials and their finds in Ho 1984, I: 162-223; additional descriptions and measurements of the pots alone, as far as available, on pp. 236-263 (for Complete Burial Pottery) and pp.265-273 (for Unrestorable Burial Pottery)." Additions in square brackets […] are by the writer. Note: in the following lists of pots, unless otherwise noted, the Find numbers are those allocated by Ho (Vol. I, pp 161-234), while the pot numbers and pot types are those allocated by the author (Loofs-Wissowa). The following Diagram 5.1 shows the cuttings of site KC II and the location of the burials within the cuttings.
Diagram 5.1, Layout of KC II cuttings, and identification of the individual burials referenced below.
243
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 1
Skeleton entire, but very fragmented. Supine position, feet a little lower than head. Head towards SE. Skull fragmentary, parts of each jaw in situ, showing that head must have been turned to left. Body slightly twisted, ie right side slightly lower. Legs and feet seem to have been pulled or slipped apart a bit (whole skeleton stetches over 2 m). The fact that the two pots near the legs (Finds 4 And 5) were both found in an upside down position may have something to do with this movement. Lower leg bone with tooth-mark indicating that the skeleton had been exposed and disturbed, probably by animals.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 162 Pot descriptions at Ho I, pp. 162-163
Burial 1 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 1, Type 3B. Wr: 11.5:W: 16.5; H: 13.4. Ho Find 2: Pot 2, Type 4A. Wr: 20.1:W: 20.3; H: 11.5. Ho Find 3: Pot 3, Type 1Ca. Wr: 12.0:W: 15.5; H: 12.5. Ho Find 4: Pot 4, Type 1Ca. Wr: 12.0:W: -; H: 12.5. Ho Find 5, Pot 5, Type 4G.
` Illustration 5.1, KC II, Burial 1 layout
244
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 2
All that is left of this burial is a ca. two-thirds complete pot (find 1) and very few skull and other bone fragments. Its lower part must still be just at the west baulk. As a big tree of about 40 cm diameter had grown just at the place of the head (skull fragments have indeed been found on both the eastern and the western side of the large stump that was left in the ground), this burial, and especially its upper part is considerably disturbed, making any further determination of the position of the body very difficult.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 165 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 165
Burial 2 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 6, Type 1D. Wr: 14.2:W: 17.6; H: 15.0.
Illustration 5.2, KC II, Burial 2 layout
245
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 3
Skeleton is entire but badly fragmented. Only long bones and part of pelvis preserved Skull, which was also, and quite well preserved, was removed by animals? Supine position, upper body slightly turned to right, head slightly bent and turned to the right side.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 166 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 166
Burial 3 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 7, Type 1D. Wr: 14.6:W: 14.8; H: 11.1. Ho Find 2: Pot 8, Type 4Da. Wr: 20.0:W: -; H: 14.6.
Illustration 5.4 Pot type 4Da, Burial 3, Find 2
Illustration 5.3, KC II, Burial 3 layout
246
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 4
Skeleton : Only very few small fragments left, indicating a SE orientation. Lower skeleton passes into west baulk. Bone fragments with tooth-marks.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 168 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 168
Burial 4 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 9 Type 1Aa. Wr: 12.4:W: 19.0; H: 17.0.
Illustration 5.5, KC II, Burial 4 layout
247
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 5
Skeleton entire but badly fragmented, consisting only of some small skull fragments and fragments of the long bones of arms and legs. Supine position, head a bit higher than feet 46 cm bs and 60 cm bs for both tibias. Parts of the upper body seem to be disturbed, due probably to the inhumation of the body of Burial 1 whose head must have rested somewhere on right part of this skeleton's abdomen. It is likely that this inhumation took place at a time differently separated from that of Burial 5 for the memory of the exact position oi this grave to have vanished, although the burial ground as such was still known and used.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 169 Pot descriptions at Ho I, pp. 169-171
Burial 5 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 10 Type 4Ka. Wr: 23.0:W: -; H: 12.5.
Illustration 5.7 Pot type 4Ka, Burial 5, Find 1 Ho Find 2: Pot 11, Type 4Ka. Wr: 19.3:W: -; H: 9.5. Ho Find 3: Pot 12, Type 4Ka. Wr: 20.0:W: -; H: 11.0. Ho Find 4: Pot 13, Type 4Ed. Wr: 14.0:W: 18.0; H: 11.5.
Illustration 5.8 Pot type 4Ed, Burial 5, Find 4 Ho Find 5: Pot 14, Type 1D. Wr: 13.1:W: 13.0; H: 11.7. Ho Find 6: Pot 15. Type 1Aa. Wr: 13.0:W: -; H: 10.5. Ho Find 7: Pot 16, Type 4Gd. Wr: 9.7:W: -; H: 5.0.
Illustration 5.9 Pot type 4Gd, Burial 5, Find 7
Illustration 5.6, KC II, Burial 5 layout
Ho Find 8: Pot 17, Type 4Gc. Wr: 8.5:W: -; H: 5.0.
Illustration 5.10 Pot type 4Gc, Burial 5, Find 8
248
The Integration of Khok Charoen II Ho Find 9: Pot 18, Type 4Fb. Wr: 18.0:W: 19.0; H:- . Ho Find 10: Pot 19, Type 6Db. Wr: 29.0:W: -; H: 18.4.
Illustration 5.11 Pot type 6Db, Burial 5, Find 10 Ho Find 11: Pot 20, Type 1K. Wr: 24.0:W: -; H: 28.0.
249
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 6
Skeleton: No skeleton could be found, but small bone fragments throughout the area presumed to be that of this burial could vaguely indicate its former situation and orientatition which would possibly have been head to E. As these bone fragments all show tooth-marks it is surmised that the skeleton has been exposed through erosion? and then disturbed and nearly entirely destroyed by animals.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 173 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 173
Burial 6 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 21, Type 1K. Wr: 27.0:W: -; H: -. Ho Find 2: Pot22, Type 4A. Wr: 19.5:W: -; H: 9.5. Ho Find 4: Pot 23, Type 1K? .
Illustration 5.12, KC II, Burial 6 layout
250
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 7
Skeleton: There is no skeleton to speak of, but numerous bone fragments, in particular long bone fragments, and some teeth indicate clearly the former position of the skeleton. No further definition possible. The very bad and scattered state of grave goods points towards this burial having been exposed for a considerable time, during which presumably, the better part of the skeleton vanished. A supine position is surmised.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 174 Pot descriptions at Ho I, pp. 174-176
Burial 7 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 24, Type 1Ka. Wr: 14.6; W: 15.8; H: 12.5. Ho Find 2: Pot 25, Type 1Aa. Wr: 13.0; W: -; H: 11.9. Ho Find 3: Pot 26, Type 4Ka. Wr: 18.9; W: -; H: 10.7. Ho Find 4: Pot 27, Type 4Ec. Wr: 14.5; W: 15.5; H: 10.5.
Illustration 5.14 Pot type 4Ec, Burial 7, Find 4 Ho Find 5: Pot 28, Type 4H Ho Find 6: Pot 29, Type 2A? Wr: 17.4; W: 19.4; H: 10.5. Ho Find 7: Pot 30, Type 1Ka. Wr: -; W: 17.6; H: 13.0. Ho Find 8: Pot 31, Type 4A Ho Find 9: Pot 32, Type 1K. Wr: 22.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 10: Pot 33, Type 4A. Wr: 20.0; W: -; H: 14.5. Ho Find 14: Pot 34, Type 4Ab. Wr: 23.8; W: -; H: 12.2. Note: pot find numbers are not sequential
Illustration 5.13, KC II, Burial 7 layout
251
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 8
There is no skeleton, but some skull fragments and teeth only. Other parts of skeleton may be in N or W baulks of this cutting. Athough no bones of the body were found. The position of grove-goods suggests an EW orientation, of the burial, A supine position is surmised, though not proved.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 177 Pot descriptions at Ho I, pp. 177-178
Burial 8 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 35, Type 1Ka. Wr: 17.0; W: 16.8; H: 11.5. Ho Find 2: Pot 36, Type 4A. Wr: 16.8; W: 17.5; H: 13.5. Ho Find 3: Pot 37, Type 4D. Wr: 19.8; W: 20.8; H: 12.7. Ho Find 4: Pot 38, Type 1B. Wr: 10.6; W: 12.4; H: 8.5. Ho Find 5: Pot 39, Type 1K. Wr: 24.5; W: -; H: 39.5. Ho Find 6: Pot 40, Type 4Fb. Wr: 17.5; W: 18.2; H: 10.5. Note: “Find 11” on Ho’s list (Vol. I, p. 178) as the seventh pottery find of Burial 8 turned out to be a heap of sherds belonging to Find 5 (Pot 39).. It is therefore not a pot in its own right and should be eliminated.
Illustration 5.15, KC II, Burial 8 layout
252
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 9
Only parts of skeleton found, lower jaw, including teeth, fragments of right arm and tibia, and bones of right foot, enough to indicate that it must have been an adult, Individual in supine position. Orientation may be slightly twisted to left side.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 179 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 179
Burial 9 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 41, Type 1B Ho Find 2: Pot 42, Type 4A Ho Find 3: Pot 43, Type 1B. Wr: 12.5; W: 16.0; H: 12.5. Ho Find 6: Pot 44, Type 4Gc Note: The fifth pottery find mentioned by Ho (Vol. I, p. 179) as Find 8, “Fabric sample”, not being a Pot, cannot be included in a sequence of pots and has no number.
Illustration 5.16, KC II, Burial 9 layout
253
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 10
Skeleton: Fragments of right humerus, femur and tibia and of the left femur, Upper part entirely vanished. Presumably adult individual, supine position
Burial description at Ho I, p. 180 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 180
Burial 10 Ho Find 1: Pot 45, Type 4G. Wr: 21.0; W: -; H: 7.3. Ho Find 2: Pot 46, Type 4Ka. Wr: 14.5; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 3: Pot 47, Type 4A. Wr: 17.8; W: 17.8; H: 12.4. Ho Find 4: Pot 48, Type 1D. Wr: 12.7; W: 12.5; H: 9.8. Ho Find 5: Pot 49, Type 4G. Wr: 15.4; W: 15.5; H: 9.8. Ho Find 6: Pot 50, Type 4C
Illustration 5.17, KC II, Burial 10 layout
254
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 13
Skeleton: This burial consists only of few bone fragments (no skull bones or teeth) two groups of scattered sherds and 2 fragments of bracelets. Some bones bear tooth-mark. As pieces of charred antler? have been found together with the human bones it can be inferred that an antler was put in the grave. somewhere on or near the body.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 182 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 182 (No burials 11 and 12 recorded)
Burial 13 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 51, Type 4H Ho Find 2: Pot 52, Type 1K
Illustration 5.18, KC II, Burial 13 layout
255
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 16
Skeleton entire, but fragmented and in a bad state of preservation uniformly at about 45cm bs. Adult individual, supine position, head towards SE, head turned slightly to right. Legs slightly apart (ca 25cm); left femur and tibia show teeth-marks, as if they had been gnawed by animals, while being at least partly exposed. No feet bones left.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 185 Pot descriptions at Ho I, pp. 185-186
Burial 16 Ho Find 1: Pot 53, Type 4D. Wr: 20.5; W: 22.0; H: 15.0. Ho Find 2: Pot 54, Type 4Da. Wr: 18.0; W: 20.5; H: 15.0. Ho Find 3: Pot 55, Type 1B. Wr: 12.4; W: 14.2; H: 11.0. Ho Find 4: Pot 56, Type 1C. Wr: 11.8; W: 17.0; H: 13.4. Ho Find 5: Pot 57, Type 1D. Wr: 13.8; W: 15.6; H: 13.0. Ho Find 6: Pot 58, Type 1C. Wr: 12.1; W: 17.2; H: 16.0. Ho Find 7: Pot 59, Type 4Ab. Wr: 22.5; W: 23.2; H: 14.3. Ho Find 8: Pot 60, Type 1K. Wr: 24.0; W: -; H: 21.0. Ho Find 9: Pot 61, Type 1K . Wr: 22.0; W: -; H: -. Note Find 10, 11 and 12 not being real pots are not included in the pot sequence and have no numbers.
Illustration 5.19, KC II, Burial 16 layout
Photograph 5.1, Part of Burial 16; showing various pots, and distinctive bangle near Pot 60.
256
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 17
Skeleton: skull fragments and fragments of right humerus, both femurs, and right tibia, plus various others small fragments, very brittle. Rather small individual (ca 1.5 metres tall) supine position, head a little lower than feet. This burial is greatly disturbed by a deep pit which was dug at a time separated from the burial by an unknown time span in the precise centre of this burial, to receive a large pot. Finds 3-4 seem to been smashed at that occasion. The lower end of the skeleton is also disturbed and partly missing.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 188 Pot descriptions at Ho I, pp. 188-189
Burial 17 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 62, Type 4Ab. Wr: 24.6; W: -; H: 15.6. Ho Find 2: Pot 63, Type 1D. Wr: 12.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 3: Pot 64, Type 4Ab. Wr: 19.5; W: 20.0; H: 12.0. Ho Find 4: Pot 66, Type 1Ia Ho Find 5: Pot 67, Type 1F Ho Find 6: Pot 68, Type 4Ka. Wr: 21.0; W: -; H: 6.5. Ho Find 7: Pot 69, Type 1Nc
Illustration 5.21, Pot type 1Nc, Burial 17, Find 7 Ho Find 14: Pot 70, Type 1Ka NB: Our “Pot 65” (see Illustration 5.20 adjoining) is not mentioned in Ho’s list because it was discovered only later as being a smallish pot of Type 1D inside Pot 64 and should therefore be called “Find 3a”.
Illustration 5.20, KC II, Burial 17 layout
257
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 18
This is a mysterious burial inasmuch as there is no skeleton. Only a few very small bone fragments.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 190 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 190
Burial 18 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 71, Type 4Ad. Wr: 14.5; W: -; H: 8.0.
Illustration 5.23, Pot type 4Ad, Burial 18, Find 1 Ho Find 2: Pot 72, Type 1Ja
Illustration 5.22, KC II, Burial 18 layout
258
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 19
Skeleton: An 'odd' burial, inasmuch as it seems to contain a skull only. The position of the skull fragments (at 35 cm bs) and teeth (at 47cm bs) indicated that the head must have pointed to the east lying on its back, but must have been in a near to upright position. No other bones could be found which would show the presence of a body, except some very small fragments in a bad state of preservation 20 - 30 cm SW of the skull fragments at 60cm bs which show tooth-marks and do not necessarily belong to the burial.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 191
No burial pottery Other than pottery find. Finds
Illustration 5.2, KC II, Burial 19 layout
Illustration 5.25, Burial 19, Shell head ornament SH18 (same as KC IV, Burial 10, Find 1)
259
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Skeleton: skull badly fragmented and long bones also very fragmented, but all In situ. No bones of chest. Lower legs and feet in West baulk, not excavated. Apparently adult individual.
KC II, Burial 20 Burial description at Ho I, p. 193 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 193
Burial 20 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 73, Type 1C? Ho Find 2: Pot 74, Type 2A. Wr: 12.0; W: 14.8; H: 11.2. Ho Find 3: Pot 75, Type 2A. Wr: 8.2; W: 10.1; H: 9.5.
Illustration 5.26, KC II, Burial 20 layout
260
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 22
Skeleton: No skeleton visible. Under the baulk to have a NS orientation?
Burial description at Ho I, p. 194 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 194
Burial 22 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot76, Type 3E. Wr: 12.2; W: -; H: 5.0. Ho Find 2: Pot 77, Type 4Gd
(no Burial 21)
Illustration 5.27, KC II, Burial 22 layout
261
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 24
This burial is intricately mixed with what seems to be at least two other burials (B38 and B39). At least Burial 38 was cut into this Burial 24 which appears to be the lowest one. Very few bones have been found of this burial; several teeth, the almost complete lower jar, parts of both upper arm bones, and some very small fragments of leg bones, just enough to determine that the body was laying head to East, in an extended supine position.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 196 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 196-198
According to the evidence, the body was surrounded by 3 groups of pottery vessels: one, of eleven pots (Finds 1-11), five globular bowls and six footed bowls; another, of six footed bolws (Finds 12-17) at right side along body from shoulder to upper leg; and a third, composed of two footed bowls (Finds 18-19) at right foot. Burial 24 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 78, Type 1K. Wr: 24.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 2: Pot 79, Type 4G . Wr: 18.0; W: 18.4; H: 11.4. Ho Find 3: Pot 80, Type 4Ka . Wr: 19.6; W: 19.6; H: 11.5. Ho Find 4: Pot 81, Type 4D . Wr: 16.0; W: 17.5; H: 11.5. Ho Find 5: Pot 82, Type 4D Ho Find 6: Pot 83, Type 4Ad . Wr: 18.0; W: -; H: 9.5. Ho Find 7: Pot 84, Type 1Ba . Wr: 13.0; W: 16.0; H: 13.0. Ho Find 8: Pot 85, Type 1C Ho Find 9: Pot 86, Type 1C Ho Find 10: Pot 87, Type 1Ba . Wr: 16.3; W: 17.5; H: 11.0. Ho Find 11: Pot 88, Type 4Gb. Wr: 13.0; W: -; H: 8.5.
Illustration 5.29, Pot type 4Gb, Burial 24, Find 11 Ho Find 12: Pot 89, Type 4Ab. Wr: 21.8; W: 22.8; H: 12.8. Ho Find 13: Pot 90, Type 4G. Wr: 17.4; W: 18.0; H: 11.5. Ho Find 14: Pot 91, Type 4Gb. Wr: 20.5; W: -; H: 14.5. Ho Find 15: Pot 92, Type 4G. Wr: 18.9; W: 18.9; H: 13.0. Ho Find 16: Pot 93, Type 4Ab. Wr: 18.8; W: 19.0; H: 11.0. Ho Find 17: Pot 94, Type 4D. Wr: 19.4; W: 20.8; H: 14.5. Ho Find 18: Pot 95, Type 4G. Wr: 20.7; W: 11.5; H: 13.7. Ho Find 19: Pot 96, Type 4A . Wr: 21.6; W: 22.5; H: 15.0?
Illustration 5.28, KC II, Burial 24 layout
262
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 25
Skeleton: Not much Find 1: Pot 78, Type 1K is known of this burial, except for a group of six pots. No skeletal remains of any kind have been found, not even skull fragments or teeth, although some disc-beads, usually in this site associated with either head, neck or lower body, have been laying at the foot of the fifth pot (Find 5) of this group.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 200 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 200
Burial 25 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 97, Type 4Ea. Wr: 17.8; W: 18.5; H: 10.5. Ho Find 2: Pot 98, Type 4A. Wr: 19.5; W: 19.7; H: 12.0. Ho Find 3: Pot 99, Type 1D . Wr: 13.2; W: 12.3; H: 9.0. Ho Find 4: Pot 100, Type 4C . Wr: -; W: -; H: 17.5. Ho Find 5: Pot 101, Type 4Gc. Wr: 14.5; W: 15.0; H: 7.5. Ho Find 6: Pot 102, Type 4Ca. Wr: 11.0; W: 16.0; H: 15.0.
Illustration 5.30, KC II, Burial 25 layout
263
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 26
Skeleton: No bones have been found with the burial pots; if anything of the skeleton is left.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 201 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 201
Burial 26 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 103, Type 4Gb. Wr: 16.0; W: -; H: 8.5. Ho Find 2: Pot 104, Type 4Gd. Wr: 11.3; W: -; H: 3.5. Ho Find 3: Pot 105, Type 1K. Wr: 25.0; W: -; H: 28.0. Ho Find 4: Pot 106, Type 1B. Wr: 12.3; W: -; H: 9.9. Ho Find 5: Pot 107, Type 4Gd. Wr: 9.5; W: -; H: 3.0.
Illustration 5.31, KC II, Burial 26 layout
264
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 27
Skeleton: This burial is entirely under the east baulk, only some fragments of what appears to be the right humerus visible. According to their position, the burial must be orientatcd north-south.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 202
No numbered pots
Illustration 5.32, KC II, Burial 27 layout
265
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 28
Skeleton: Only skull fragments, remainder of the skeleton presumably under north baulk.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 203 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 203
Burial 28 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 108, Type 1Ka. Wr: -; W: 19.5; H: 17.0. Ho Find 2: Pot 109, Type 4A. Wr: 20.0; W: -; H: 12.0. Ho Find 3: Pot 110, Type 1Aa . Wr: 12.2; W: -; H: 9.0. Ho Find 4: Pot 111, Type 1Ka Ho Find 5: Pot 112, Type 4A. Wr: 21.0; W: -; H: 4.5. Ho Find 6: Pot 113, Type 1Aa . Wr: 14.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 7: Pot 114, Type 4A
Illustration 5.33, KC II, Burial 28 layout
266
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 29
Skeleton broken in vey small fragments, very brittle, skull and long bones. Nothing of tight upper arm or legs below knees. Apparently adult, normal size individual, Supine position.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 204 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 204
Burial 29 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 115, Type 4A. Wr: 23.2; W: 23.5; H: 14.5`. Ho Find 2: Pot 116, Type 4Da. Wr: 17.0; W: 17.8; H: 13.0. Ho Find 3: Pot 117, Type 4Ka. Wr: 17.8; W: -; H: 10.5. Ho Find 4: Pot 118, Type 1B. Wr: 13.5; W: 14.4; H: 10.3. Ho Find 5: Pot 119, Type 1C. Wr: -; W: 14.0; H: 10.8.
Illustration 5.34, KC II, Burial 29 layout
267
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 30
There is no skeleton visible.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 204 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 204
Burial 30 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 120, Type 3C. Wr: 7.5; W: 9.1; H: 7.5. Ho Find 2: Pot 121, Type 4H Ho Find 3: Pot 122, Type 4D Ho Find 4: Pot 123, Type 4A? Ho Find 5: Pot 124, Type 4A? Ho Find 6: Pot 125, Type 4A?
Illustration 5.35, KC II, Burial 30 layout
268
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 31
Skeleton: complete skull and long bones. There are molars of another skull lying below the Burial 31 skull at 60 cm bs. There are also too many long bones for one normal human being; two?
Burial description at Ho I, p. 204 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 204
Burial 31 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 126, Type 3E. Wr: 10.8; W: -; H: 4.9. Ho Find 3: Pot 127, Type 4Gd. Wr: 9.8; W: 10.4; H: 4.5. Ho Find 4: Pot 128, Type 4Gd. Wr: 11.5; W: -; H: 5.2. Ho Find 5: Pot 129, Type 4Ha. Wr: 14.0; W: -; H: 11.3.
Illustration 5.37, Pot type 4Ha, Burial 31, Find 5 Ho Find 6: Pot 130, Type 1Ka. Wr: 15.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 7: Pot 131, Type 4E. Wr: 15.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 8: Pot 132, Type 4H
Illustration 5.36, KC II, Burial 31 layout
269
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 32
Skeleton: no skeleton found.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 207 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 207
Burial 32 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 133, Type 4A. Wr: 20.2; W: -; H: 13.2. Ho Find 2: Pot 134, Type 4A. Wr: 21.0; W: -; H: 13.0. Ho Find 3: Pot 135, Type 4C. Wr: 25.8; W: 25.8; H: 16.0. Ho Find 4: Pot 136, Type 1K. Wr: 18.6; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 5: Pot 137, Type 4D Ho Find 6: Pot 138, Type 1Aa Our “Pot 139” (see adjacent diagram) is not mentioned in Ho’s list because, as being substantial parts of a rice steamer, it was only discovered later. It should perhaps be added as “Find 6a”, as there is already a find 7 (a stone adze) in this burial 32.
Illustration 5.38, KC II, Burial 32 layout
270
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 33
This burial lies close to Burial 36. Skeleton intact except for the chest bones. With Burial 36 formed a multi-burial, otherwise hard to explain why skull of B36 was inside Find 9 of B33. [As these two burials (33 and 36) have different orientations, it seems that one was cut into the other rather than it was a multi-burial.]
Burial description at Ho I, p. 208 Pot descriptions at Ho I, pp. 208-209
Burial 33 pot finds* Find 1 (Ho 1): Pot 140, Type 1Ab. Wr: 14.0; W: 17.4; H: 14.4. Find 2 (Ho 8): Pot 141, Type 1Cb. Wr: 16.0; W: -; H: -. Find 3 (Ho 13): Pot 142, Type 4A. Wr: 19.5; W: -; H: 14.0. Find 4 (Ho 17): Pot 143, Type 3Ea. Wr: 10.2; W: 13.0; H:8.3 . Find 5 (Ho 4): Pot 144, Type 1Bc
Illustration 5.40, Pot type 1Bc, Burial 33, Find 5 Find 6 (Ho 3): Pot 145, Type 4G *Numbers in brackets are Ho’s original find numbers NB: in the course of a repositioning of Burials 33 and 36 the original find numbers have been changed according to the burial to which these finds were allocated; they are therefore accessible under the original numbers. The only exception is Pot 143, an entire small bowl of Type 3Ea, which was found in E6 at 25 cm b.s., 130E, 135N, corresponding to the right upper leg of the skeleton, albeit about 15 cm higher. There are nevertheless reasons to believe that it is connected with Burial 33, but it does not figure among the latter’s finds. It could be added at the end as “Ho Find 17” (Find 4 in the new system)
Illustration 5.39, KC II, Burial 33 layout
271
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 34
Skeletons The skeleton was in good condition. No grave goods on its right [left] side except one adze. What has been designated as Burial 40 might be part of this grave ; but being separated by perishable goods between the skeleton and the clusters, of bowls now known as Burial 40, Burial 41 is a cluster of 6 pots south of the head of Burial 34. Burial 41 may be a group of funerary deposit related to Burial 34. [More likely a cache]
Burial description at Ho I, p. 210
No confirmed burial pots.
Illustration 5.41, KC II, Burial 34 layout
272
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 35A
Skeleton: Skull fragments found. The burials 35A, 35B/C and together with Burial 31 are not easy to distinguish from one another.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 211 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 211
Burial 35A pot finds Ho Find 1: pot 146, Type 1B. Wr: 14.0; W: 17.2; H:16.0 . Ho Find 2: pot 147, Type 1B. Wr: 11.0; W: -; H: 13.5. Ho Find 3: pot 148, Type 4A. Ho Find 4: pot 149, Type 4D.
Illustration 5.42, KC II, Burial 35A layout
273
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Skeleton: More than one body was found close together.
KC II, Burials 35 B and 35 C
Burials 35 B and 35C pot finds
Burial description at Ho I, p. 212 Pot descriptions at Ho I, pp. 212-213
Ho Find 1: pot 150, Type 1D. Wr: 16.7; W: 15.8; H: 11.0. Ho Find 2: pot 151, Type 4A? Wr: 19.0; W: 19.6; H: 11.5. Ho ind 3: pot 152, Type 4A Ho Find 4: pot 153, Type 4D. Wr: 17.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 5: pot 154, Type 4A Ho Find 6: pot 155, Type 4A Ho Find 7: pot 156, Type 4A Ho Find 8: pot 157, Type 4A. Wr: 20-22.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 9: pot 158, Type 1K. Wr: 18.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 10: pot 159, Type 1Ab? . Wr: 14.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 11: pot 160, Type 1Aa Ho Find 12: pot 161, Type 1B. Wr: 13.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 13: pot 162, Type 1B? . Wr: 13.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 14: pot 163, Type 4B Ho Find 15: pot 164, Type 1Ca
Illustration 5.43, KC II, Burial 35B and 35 C layout
274
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 36
Skeletons Flexed burial without skull fragments survives. Skull fragments in filling of the complete and almost intact pot (Find 9) of Burial 33. The two burials might have been one multi-burial. [It was later discovered that this burial was not a flexed one and that there were skull fragments between the pots around its “head”]
Burial description at Ho I, p. 214 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 214 and pp. 208-209
Burial 36 pot finds Find 1 (Ho 5-33*): Pot 165, Type 4H. Wr: 20.0; W: 20.6; H: 12.9. Find 2 (Ho 11-33): Pot 166, Type 4D. Wr: 11.5; W: 10.9; H: 7.4. Find 3 (Ho 10-33): Pot 167, Type 4E. Wr: 17.5; W: -; H: 11.2. Find 4 (Ho 2-33): Pot 168, Type 4A. Wr: 20.5; W: 21.8; H: 13.8. Find 5 (Ho 9-33): Pot 169, Type 1Ca Find 6 (Ho 6-33): Pot 170, Type 1K. Wr: 22.0; W: -; H: -. Find 7 (Ho 7-33): Pot 171, Type 1K. Wr: 19.0; W: -; H: -. Find 8 (Ho 12-33): Pot 172, Type 6Db. Wr: 36.0; W: -; H: -. Find 9 (Ho 14-33): Pot 173, Type 6Db Find 10 (Ho 16-33): Pot 174, Type 6Db Find 11 (Ho 1-36): Pot 175, Type 4D Find 12 (Ho 2-36): Pot 176, Type 3Da.
Illustration 5.45, Pot type 3Da, Burial 36, Find 12 Find 13 (Ho 3-36): Pot 177, Type 3E. Wr: 20.5; W: 20.8; H: 15.0. * The Ho numbers relate to Ho’s original Find number and Burial number. Therefore Finds 1 to 10 were originally assigned to Burial 33 by Ho. These have now been assigned to Burial 36.
Illustration 5.44, KC II, Burial 36 layout
275
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 37
No skeleton reported. The five groups of pottery may be related to Burial 7 as post-burial offerings. [Another possibility is that there was an un-excavated skeleton under the stone heap.]
Burial description at Ho I, p. 215 Pot descriptions at Ho I, pp. 215-216
Burial 37 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 178, Type 3E. Wr: 9.0; W: -; H: 3.8. Ho Find 2: Pot 179, Type 1Aa. Wr: 28.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 3: Pot 180, Type 1B? . Wr: 14.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 4: Pot 181, Type 4Ad. Wr: 15.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 5: Pot 182, Type 4Ad? Ho Find 6: Pot 183, Type 4D Ho Find 7: Pot 184, Type 3E Ho Find 8: Pot 185 (first pot), Type 3Ea. Wr: 4.0; W: -; H: 3.0. Ho Find 8a: Pot 186 (second pot), Type 3Ea Ho Find 9: Pot 187, Type 1K? Wr: 29.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 10: Pot 188, Type 1C. Wr: 13.5; W: 18.5; H: 15.0. NB: Ho Find 8 ( a small shallow dish), Pot 185, turned out to be two such dishes next to each other. As the pot sequence could not be changed (there were still Finds 9 and 10 afterwards) the second dish became “Find 8a” but does not appear as such in Ho’s list.
Illustration 5.46, KC II, Burial 37 layout
276
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 38
Skeleton: Only one long bone left. It cuts into Burial 24.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 217 Pot descriptions at Ho I, pp. 217-218
Burial 38 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 189, Type 1C. Wr: 13.5; W: 17.5; H: 13.8. Ho Find 2: Pot 190, Type 4Ab. Wr: 22.3; W: 23.3; H: 16.0. Ho Find 3: Pot 191, Type 4A. Wr: 21.0; W: 21.3; H: 15.0. Ho Find 4: Pot 192, Type 4G. Wr: 17.9; W: 18.2; H: 12.0. Ho Find 5: Pot 193, Type 4A. Wr: 18.8; W: 19.6; H: 12.8. Ho Find 6: Pot 194, Type 1Ab. Wr: 11.8; W: 12.4; H: 10.0. Ho Find 7: Pot 195, Type 1Ka. Wr: 14.0; W: -; H: -. Ho Find 8: Pot 196, Type 1C. Wr: 13.2; W: 15.2; H: 13.5. Ho Find 9: Pot 197, Type 4A. Wr: 13.8; W: 19.2; H: 12.0. Ho Find 10: Pot 198, Type 4Fb. Wr: 14.8; W: -; H: 8.5. Ho Find 11: Pot 199, Type 4A Ho Find 12: Pot 200, Type 4Gb Ho Find 13: Pot 201, Type 4Ka
Illustration 5.47, KC II, Burial 38 layout
277
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 39
Skeleton: Skull fragments appear under Find 3. Most of skeleton under baulk.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 219 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 219
Burial 39 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 202, Type 4A. Wr: 18.5; W: 18.5;H: 11.7. Ho Find 2: Pot 203, Type 4D. Wr: 16.0; W: 17.0; H: 10.0. Ho Find 3: Pot 204, Type 4Ab Ho Find 4: Pot 205, Type 4H. Wr: 20.2; W: 21.0; H: 11.0.
Illustration 5.48, KC II, Burial 39 layout
278
The Integration of Khok Charoen II KC II, Burial 40
Skeleton: No skeleton was reported. See Burial 34.
Burial description at Ho I, p. 220 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 220
Burial 40 pot finds Ho Find 2: Pot 206, Type 1Ca. Wr: 11.2; W: 16.2; H: 13.0. Ho Find 3: Pot 207, Type 1Ba. Wr: -; W: 12.7; H: 10.2. Ho Find 4: Pot 208, Type 4A. Wr: 21.5; W: 22.0; H: 13.2. Ho Find 5: Pot 209, Type 4D Ho Find 6: Pot 210, Type 1C. Wr: 12.0; W: 12.6; H: 10.3. Ho Find 7: Pot 211, Type 1Aa Ho Find 8: Pot 212, Type 4D Ho Find 9: not in use Ho Find 10: Pot 213, Type 4D Ho Find 11: Pot 214, Type 3Ca Ho Find 12: Pot 215, Type 6Db. Wr: 24.5; W: 29.5; H: 23.5 Find 12a: Pot 216, Type 1Ba Find 12b: Pot 217, Type 1Ba NB: Pots 216 and 217 have been discovered only later and therefore do not appear on Ho’s list, but the latter continues with Finds 13 and 14. These later pots had to be called Finds 12a and 12b.
Illustration 5.49, KC II, Burial 40 layout
279
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II, Burial 41
Skeleton: No skeleton was reported. Related to Burial 34? [Not likely]
Burial description at Ho I, p. 222 Pot descriptions at Ho I, pp. 222-223
Burial 41 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 218, Type 4A. Wr: 18.4; W: 18.5; H: 17.4. Ho Find 2: Pot 219, Type 4Ab. Wr: 17.8; W: 18.1; H: 10.7. Ho Find 3: Pot 220, Type 4G. Wr: 20.0; W: 19.6; H: 12.5. Ho Find 4: Pot 221, Type 4G. Wr: 18.8; W: 18.8; H: 12.5. Ho Find 5: Pot 222, Type 4Ab. Wr: 19.4; W: 19.8; H: 13.0. Ho Find 6: Pot 223, Type 4A. Wr: 18.1; W: 18.3; H: 11.2. Ho Find 7: Pot 224, Type 4Ab. Wr: 22.5; W: 22.6; H: 14.3. Ho Find 8: Pot 225, Type 4Ab. Wr: 19.2; W: 20.2; H: 12.0. Ho Find 9: Pot 226, Type 4Ab. Wr: 17.4; W: 17.7; H: 12.3. Ho Find 10: Pot 227, Type 4G. Wr: 15.4; W: 16.0; H: 11.0. Ho Find 11: Pot 228, Type 4Ka. Wr: 23.2; W: -; H: 13.8. Ho Find 12: Pot 229, Type 4D. Wr: 17.5; W: 18.0; H: 11.6. Ho Find 13: Pot 230, Type 4Ab. Wr: 16.0; W: 16.2; H: 9.0. Ho Find 14: Pot 231, Type 6Dc. Wr: 22.0; W: 32.4; H: 31.0.
Illustration 5.50, KC II, Burial 41 layout
Illustration 5.51, Pot type 6Dc, Burial 41, Find 14 Ho Find 15: Pot 232, Type 1C. Wr: 11.5; W: 16.3; H: 14.6. Ho Find 16: Pot 233, Type 4D. Wr: 17.4; W: 18.9; H: 12.3. Ho Find 17: Pot 234, Type 6Da
Illustration 5.52, Pot type 6Da, Burial 41, Find 17 KC II, Burial 42
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The Integration of Khok Charoen II Burial description at Ho I, p. 223 Pot descriptions at Ho I, p. 223
Skeleton: No skeleton at all. Only a group of 3 pots in the SE corner of the cutting. Burial 42 pot finds Ho Find 1: Pot 235, Type 1Ba. Wr: 13.2; W: 14.9; H: 12.6. Ho Find 2: Pot 236, Type 1Ba. Wr: 13.1; W: 17.3; H: 13.6. Ho Find 3: Pot 237, Type 4H. Wr: 22.5; W: 22.5; H: 10.6.
Illustration 5.53, KC II, Burial 42 layout
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Mortuary practices
either the left arm or beyond the head which repeats a pattern of at least three Group A burials (Burials 8, 13 and 16) suggesting that this particular configuration could be a feature typical for KC II. On the other hand, Burial 41, with its seventeen interlocking pots forming a compact block, gives more the impression of a vessel cluster ceramic burial or a cache of burial pots in case of emergencies. This would be the only such ceramic burial in KC II and one with a special significance as it includes one large vessel of Type 6Dc, thought to be used as rice cooker. Finally, Burial 37 with no skeleton but eleven typical burial pots (including one of those large cord-marked globular bowls) scattered around in a haphazard manner, shows all the signs of a disturbed burial the skeleton of which has disappeared without leaving a trace of its orientation (unless the skeleton was hidden under a heap of stones which was not excavated); the eleven pots are therefore categorised as non-attributable burial pottery, a category which had not been used in the discussion of KC II finds. The processing of Group B thus resulted in the addition of 7 more human burials to the 26 of Group A and of 41 pots to the 163.
These 45 burials together (including the two jar deposits) are said to show six types of mortuary practices: a) Inhumation in supine position with grave goods; b) Cluster of pottery without skeleton; c) Skull burial with grave goods; d) Multi-burials with grave goods; e) Inhumation in flexed position with grave goods; and f) Burial of a vessel without skeleton or grave goods. For the purpose of comparing KC II with KC III and IV, the classification of burials and types of mortuary practices are revised so as to make them comparable. Group A needed no adjustments. It consists of the following 26 human burials: Burials 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 16, 17, 19, 20, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34, 35A, 35B/C, 36, 38 and 39. Except for Burials 19, 27 and 34, they all have pots as burial gifts, alone or in addition to certain other items, amounting to 163 pots between them. The 9 burials of Group B had to be divided into those which because of their position were more likely to have been associated with a human burial and those which better fitted into the categories of either genuine vessel cluster ceramic burials or non-attributable burial pottery as in KC III and IV. This is also because the writer of the thesis was herself not quite sure of the exact status of the Group B burials. In analogy with other sites in Thailand, notably that of Ban Don Ta Phet where similar funerary deposits without human bones had been discovered, she suggested commemorative or secondary burials. However, as this interpretation was questioned by one of the excavators of Ban Don Ta Phet himself (Glover 1983), she admits the possibility that the vessel clusters in KC II represent post-grave offerings related to nearby graves as most of these clusters are situated only up to 1.50 m distant from the head of a burial. The exact nature of such vessel clusters is still not entirely clear although in KC II all but one of them are now thought of as being associated with human burials the skeletons of which are hidden in baulks or have disappeared.
The burials in Group C (Burials 6, 14, 15, 22, 23, 43, 44 and 45) are described (abbreviated) as follows (Ho 1984, I: 173,183-184, 194-195, 224-226): Burial 6: "No skeleton could be found, but small bone fragments throughout the area presumed to be that of this burial could vaguely indicate its former situation and orientation"; Burial 14: "A rather doubtful 'Burial', consisting only of a patch of bone fragments, presumably human, in a very bad state of preservation. No indication as to orientation etc."; Burial 15: "Doubtful burial; consists only of some small bone fragments (probably human but not necessarily so), which do not give an indication to the probable orientation of the skeleton"; Burial 22: "No skeleton visible. Under the baulk to have a NS orientation? The burial had a stone setting of five stones in a row"; Burial 23: "This funerary deposit consists of only one tooth, some small bone fragments and one stone adze;" Burial 43: "This funerary deposit consists only of some potsherds, a bone fragment, a tektite flake, and a limestone adze. The justification to call this a burial mainly derives from this stone adze"; Burial 44: "Another rather hypothetical burial. The only indication to which are: a pit, the segment of a stone bracelet found at rim of this pit, and three stones, also at the rim of the pit, which may have been put there deliberately"; Burial 45: "No skeleton was reported. The elevation to the rank of 'burial' seems, however, justified by the presence of a 30 cm long-bone fragment (in a very bad state of preservation not allowing its identification) and that of a grave-like distance, going through the South baulk into the northern part of J5, in which this bone fragment is situated".
Group B consisted originally of Burials 18, 25, 26, 30, 32, 37, 40, 41 and 42. Of these, only Burial 40 has enough material for the reconstruction of a skeleton, while Burials 18, 25, 32 and 37 have either small clusters of bone fragments or items which normally occur only in burials, such as disk-beads or a limestone adze. However, six of these nine groups of pots indicating the possible presence of a burial, are directly at (Burials 26, 30, 40, 41 and 42) or very near (Burial 32) a baulk and four of these, moreover, at baulks which mark the limit of the excavated area (Burials 30, 32, 40 and 42). This means that there is a good chance that their skeletons (and additional burial pots) simply remain un-excavated. Taking these and other factors (position and condition of the pots, traces of disturbances and such like) into consideration, the following division is proposed. Burials 18, 25, 26, 30, 32, 40 and 42 are considered to be genuine human burials, even though Burials 18, 26 and 32 do not look as if they deserve such a title. However, all three have as one of their burial pots a very large cord-marked globular vessel at
At the beginning of the section on the KC III human burials the question was asked what finds can safely be interpreted as indicating a burial in the case of a disturbed burial ground with dislocated, fragmentary or missing skeletons. Basically it was that there should be convincing evidence in the form of either skeletal remains or of remains of grave goods in relevant positions to justify the assumption of the existence of a human burial and its 282
The Integration of Khok Charoen II orientation. Applying these criteria to KC II as it was done in KC III and IV, Burials 6 and 22, i.e. those with some pottery as grave goods are the only one in Group C to be retained as "confirmed" burials. Burial 22 is, moreover, a special case. What was not clearly apparent from its short description is that the five stones are set almost in a semicircle rather than a straight row, that the two pots roughly complete this semicircle and that in the centre of it small bone fragments have been found which very probably are from a skull. There is a similar set-up in Group A Burials 8, 17 and 20 in such a way that here again it could be argued that these particular stone settings relative to the buried body could be a KC II speciality. The other six burials (14, 15, 23, 43, 44 and 45) had to be eliminated for lack of sufficient evidence in both fields, i.e. that of skeletal remains and grave goods. The reappraisal of Group C thus resulted in the addition of two more human burials and 5 more pots as grave goods.
KC IV could possibly be seen in Burial 10a, consisting of a cluster of skull fragments and teeth of a four year-old child, intermingled with remnants of personal adornments such as a conical shell disk, diameter 6 cm, made of the top portion of a Conus shell and five Oliva sp. shells. There are reasons to believe that the entire body or skeleton of this child, the remains of which were found in a kind of channel or gully in the surface of the bedrock, just 1 m behind the disjointed fragmentary skeleton of an adult male, had been transported there, like the latter, by powerful water action. A small child's skeleton being a very fragile thing, it is more likely that it disintegrated in the course of this rough transport than that it kept together. Some bone fragments of the post-cranial skeleton were indeed interspersed between the skull fragments, showing that this could not be a skull-alone burial. A similar disk (though with a diameter of 5 cm slightly smaller than that of Burial 10a in KC IV) was found in KC II, Burial 19, Find 4, interpreted as an "ear-pendant or a pendant round the neck" (Ho 1984, I: 67). According to Ho it was made from Trochus niloticus shell but closer inspection shows that it was, like the others, made from Conus (because of its shape the Trochus shell of which many bracelets were made in KC II cannot be used for the manufacture of such disks). The burial is called 'odd' by Ho, inasmuch as it seemed to consist only of a skull with no trace of the post-cranial skeleton; hence the skull burial theory. The skull (sex and age unknown) was surrounded by items of personal adornment including, in addition to the disk, two ear-ornaments also said to be made from the upper part of Trochus shells (unlikely, for the same reason as the disk), over 200 shell disk-beads, two cowrie shells and other shell fragments; a polished stone adze and another stone object were found directly near the skull (Ho 1984, I: 191-192). However, some of these items were discovered at some distance from the skull, notably the disk itself which was lying about 30 cm further down from the skull (Ho 1984, II: Fig. 33), i.e. somewhere in the left chest area of an imaginary body. As an almost identical disk was excavated, well after the writing of the thesis, in Khok Phanom Di, lying on the left upper chest of a female skeleton (Burial 15) called "The Princess", ascribed to the 5th Mortuary Phase (Pilditch 1993: 172), it could be argued that the similarity of the position of the disk (on the upper body and not the head) suggests that the KC II burial was perhaps not a real skull burial and that the body or skeleton itself may have vanished for an unknown reason. However, the fact that in the case of The Princess the disk was right up on the left clavicle and was possibly attached to the head (Pilditch even considers the disk to be part of her head-dress) does not support this argument. Moreover, Ho herself states that no post-cranial bones indicating the presence of a body could be found, "except some very small fragments in a bad state of preservation 20-30 cm SW of the skull fragments at 60 cm b.s. which show tooth-marks and do not necessarily belong to the burial" (Ho 1984, I: 191). Since it is utterly impossible for anybody or any animal to surgically separate the head from a buried body and dispose of the body without leaving a trace, we are compelled to accept the idea of a genuine head burial with all its gruesome implications.
The two jar deposits forming Group D become Single Vessel Ceramic Burials but had to be dissociated from KC II altogether as they are clearly of pre-Discontinuity age and origin and have nothing to do with any burial, human or otherwise, of post-Discontinuity KC II. Summarising the situation at the end of the reordering of the human burials in KC II it appears that the total number of confirmed burials is 36 and that of burial pots 209. Eleven more burial pots could not been attributed to a burial and are therefore classified as N.-A.B.P. and 17 additional such pots seem to form a vessel cluster ceramic burial or a cache. There are thus 237 individual pottery vessels in KC II which can be compared with those from KC III and IV. With regard to mortuary practices, those of types b) (Cluster of pottery without skeleton) and f) (Burial of a vessel without skeleton or grave goods) had been eliminated from the list of such practices in KC II. As to mortuary practices types c) (Skull burial with grave goods) and e) (Inhumation in flexed position), they are more closely examined below because of the rarity and significance of such burial practices in prehistoric Southeast Asia. Skull burials The ceremonious burial of an isolated skull was certainly not an established mortuary practice in Mainland Southeast Asia during the Neolithic nor thereafter. In Khok Charoen itself, there was no sign of a skull burial in KC III. However, one case in KC I where a skull fragment in a baulk ("S"-baulk of Pit I, later cutting E3) which could not be excavated was thought to indicate a skull-alone burial (Watson and Loofs 1967: 255) but it was later realised that this skull belonged to Burial 13 of KC IV which stretched diagonally across the baulk into cutting F3. Although the status of a skull burial has not been claimed nor suggested for it, another instance of such a burial in 283
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand To find a skull complete with this elaborate decoration still adhering to it means that it must have been, when buried, a head freshly cut off from the body which is a very rare mortuary practice done for a very special reason and asks the question in what way the head was separated from the body. The buried skull with its extraordinary adornments is presumably that of an important personage and the likelihood that it was not a common individual who was thus decapitated leaves room for all manner of interpretations. Moreover, as these finds indicate connections with a coastal site, there is also a chronological problem. While such a connection has to be seen as a well established fact (although the chronology is problematical) with regard to the Earlier phase of KC IV, it is more difficult to visualise if extended to KC II except by assuming that the burial took place well before the others and independently from them. The possibility should therefore be considered that this head burial, like the two jar deposits nearby at the southwestern extension of the KC II burial ground, dates to pre-Discontinuity times before this cemetery was established. As at the time of the KC II excavation there was no reason to think of such a possibility, no special care was taken to examine in detail the stratigraphical context of this particular burial which, being situated near the centre of the cutting (G5), did not show up in any section. With a better understanding of the overall history of Khok Charoen, the idea of a general contemporaneity of the three Conus shell disks (of "The Princess" in Khok Phanom Di, of the child's skull fragments Burial 10a in KC IV and of the head-Burial 19, seemingly in KC II) does make eminent sense; its implications are discussed infra in the section "Contacts".
the average male in the cemetery but his orientation (Head-to-North) conformed nevertheless to that of undoubted burials nearby. It is argued that this isolated case does not constitute a special kind of mortuary practice. In KC II, it is Burial 36 which is called a flexed burial (Ho 1984, I: 214) and at first sight there seems to be no doubt that it cannot be anything else. However, after closer inspection it becomes clear that what looked like the disjointed skeleton of an entire flexed body are in actual fact the long-bones of only the upper part of a skeleton in supine position with three burial pots on lower chest and pelvic region which had been pushed through the body by compaction while the lower body remains un-excavated in the N-baulk. The ten more burial pots near and beyond the head include, amongst others, two very large cord-marked globular bowls of Type 1K and the remnants of three huge unrestricted bowls of Type 6Db, interpreted as being rice-cookers. The skeleton is almost certainly that of an adult female. Thus, altogether an interesting burial of what must have been an important individual - but not a flexed one.
Stone settings One of the aspects distinguishing burials in KC II from those in KC III and IV is the greater use of stone settings. Stones have been added in various ways and numbers to 15 burials and perhaps to 10 more with bodies partly or entirely hidden in baulks or at the edge of the excavated area, thus at least half of all KC II burials.
To sum up, the question of whether, amongst the several mortuary practices in KC II, there was that of burying a skull with grave goods, cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. No instance of a skull having been buried on its own, with or without grave goods, is known from the site but there is evidence for the burial of a richly adorned fresh head in between, but not being part of, the post-Discontinuity burials of KC II which poses several still unsolved problems with regard to customs, chronology, the use of marine shells for personal adornments and outside contacts.
Of the 15 burials with confirmed stone settings, seven are oriented (as far as can be ascertained) Head-to-E (Burials 6, 7, 8, 10, 20, 26, 31), two each to SE (4, 17) and S (28, 39), and one each to SSE (16), ENE (29), ESE (33), and N (22). Burial 37 is a special case as instead of its skeleton being considered missing it could have been hidden under a heap of stones (not excavated) near the burial pots in which case its orientation would have been Head-to-N. As in KC II the orientation of burials indicates the burial phase (N being the earliest, followed by E and SE) the impression that the middle phase was the one when stone settings were most prevalent while they were less common in the earliest and the latest phase is confirmed by the ratio of burials with stone settings to those without stones. Indeed, if the odd orientations are integrated into the main ones, i.e. SSE into SE, ESE and ENE into E, and Burial 37 is added to N and these figures (N: 2, E: 9 and SE: 5) are compared with the overall spread of orientations (N: 5, E: 11, SE: 8), the ratio is N= 2:5, E= 9:11, SE= 3:8 which even emphasises this fact. In more general terms, however, such observations are of minor importance given the short span of the existence of the KC II cemetery where the small number of burials in each short-lived phase can only mean that the individuals buried in them came from only very few generations (if that) living in equally short-lived settlements nearby.
Inhumation in flexed position Similar considerations as those regarding skull burials also apply to inhumations in flexed position or simply flexed burials. Of all the 28 confirmed human burials of KC III and IV taken together, only one (KC III, Burial 3) could possibly qualify for such a denomination and even this is a rather doubtful case. The skeleton of an adult male was found lying in supine position but knees flexed and slightly turned to the right in what seemed to be a natural hollow in the bedrock. There were no signs of any personal adornment or grave goods; the only remarkable observation was that this man was of above average height (c. 1.70 m) and had stronger bones and a thicker skull than 284
The Integration of Khok Charoen II Burial pots with artificially cut/broken/sawn-off rims
of pots and the way they are stacked. In the case of other burials with an assembly of pots as grave goods beyond the head, these pots are normally less numerous and are positioned in rows on the ground with pots rarely put into another, whereas here six or seven footed bowls are stacked on top of each-other with more on top of this heap and the entire cluster probably originally partly contained in a large bowl Type 6Dc, i.e. a rice-cooker.
This phenomenon which was already observed in earlier burials has also been found in burials of KC II. The first of 11 pots beyond or next to the head of Burial 24, a large cord-marked globular bowl Type 1K, had its rim neatly sawn or broken off and so had the first of 7 burial pots beyond the head of Burial 28, a large cord-marked bowl Type Type 1Ka, and the middle of the three pots at the left side of the (missing) skeleton of Burial 35A, a medium cord-marked globular bowl Type 1B.
It could therefore be said, although with some lingering doubts, that KC II had one rich vessel cluster ceramic burial of a kind nowhere else found on the site inasmuch as it is composed of pots which may mainly have been made for exclusive use in human burials, i.e. a cache for emergency cases (or used domestically), but apparently not specially made for use in a ceramic burial as in KC IV. It is not clear what conclusion to draw from this observation but it could possibly have to do with changed circumstances regarding pottery manufacture and outside contacts after the Discontinuity.
The only aspect these three pots have in common seems to be that they are associated with burials of single individuals in extended supine position, in two cases as the first pot beyond the head and the other at the left elbow. The orientation is a different one for each burial (E, S and N) and neither the sex, age, or height of the skeletons nor the circumstances of the burials are known. Until such time as more information is available, the reasons for which burial pots in KC II had their rims cut off remain to be elucidated.
5.4 Material Culture (funerary)
Ceramic Burials
Personal Adornments
Single Vessel Ceramic Burials
As in the other parts of the site, personal adornments found in, or in association with, burials were made of shell, stone and, in only two instances, of clay (one bead and one bracelet fragment); no item of personal adornment made of ivory, bone or any other material was found. Shell objects in various forms were the most numerous, followed by those made of stone, again in various forms.
The two "jar deposits" of KC II (Burials 46 and 47) having been found to be of pre-Discontinuity times although situated at the rim of the post-Discontinuity burial ground called KC II, it can now be stated with confidence that KC II itself did not contain any single vessel ceramic burials, that therefore the question of who transmitted the idea of such burials from where and when to KC II is no more relevant and that the custom of burying single vessels was not practiced any more in times after the great flood.
Shell
Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials
Shell Disk-beads
Instead of vessel cluster ceramic burials being so numerous in KC II to require a category of their own (Group B: nine clusters of pottery without human skeletons), it now seems that only one of these nine clusters, Burial 41, has the characteristics one would expect from this kind of ceramic burial, although this does not exclude the possibility of it being the extraordinarily rich assembly of pots as grave goods at the head of a human burial.
Well over 2,300 disk-beads were found in KC II, almost exclusively in 13 burials of single individuals in supine extended position buried with grave goods. However, while five of these yielded only very few disk-beads each (presumably mainly stray finds), significant amounts came from eight burials.
The cluster consists of 17 pots in the space of about 60x90 cm in the SW-corner of cutting E5. The Southern-most pot is partly hidden in the S-baulk (in which there could be more pots) and on the W-side there is a gap of only 15 cm between the W-most pots and the baulk. Cutting E5 being surrounded on its SW-corner by cuttings F5, F6 and E6, there would be at the crossing of the baulks enough room (over 2 m) to diagonally fit in an extended skeleton in the orientation suggested by the axis of the cluster. The reason why it is proposed here to consider this cluster to be an independently buried one is mainly because of the number
The eight burials with a great amount of beads: Bur.5: 360, Bur.9: c. 200, Bur.16: 235, Bur.19: c. 210, Bur.24: 843, Bur.25: 10 (small), Bur.27: c. 200 and Bur.40: >100. Except for Burial 25, all disk-beads are of Type b as established for KC III and IV (flat, 4-6 mm diameter). Burial 25 is the only burial which instead of containing Type b disk-beads has only ten such beads of Type a (flat, 3 mm diameter). Three more Type a beads were discovered in KC II: one in addition to the 235 Type b beads of Burial 16 and two in addition to the c. 210 Type b beads of Burial 19.
The five burials with very few beads: Bur.1: 1, Bur.3: 1(doubtful), Bur.4: 7, Bur.6: 5 and Bur.7: 1.
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Burial No
Orientation
Burial pots
SE SE SE E E? E N SSE ESE? E E N
Disk‐beads a) b) 1 1 7 360 5 1 c.200 1 235 2 c. 210 843 10 c. 200
1 3 4 5 6 7 9 16 19 24 25 27 40
S
>100
12
5 2 1 11 3 11 4 9 0 19 6 1
Remarks Association of bead with burial doubtful Burial partly hidden in baulk Burial very fragmentary, disturbed and dispersed Bur. 10 cutting though and hiding part of this burial Head burial; nest of disk‐beads 50 cm N of head Skeleton missing, disk‐beads at place of head Skeleton hidden in baulk except for right lower arm with disk‐beads at wrist; only one pot at head visible Lower part of skeleton hidden in baulk
Table 5.1, Association of disk-beads with KC II burials
If it is taken into account that in Burial 9 additional burial pots have probably been destroyed by the cutting of Burial 10 and that Burial 27 almost certainly contained more burial pots than the single partly visible one, the only apparent correlation between the number of disk-beads and another component of the burial would be that with the number of burial pots, although the small size of the sample may hide other, more important correlations. This correlation with burial pots, which was less obvious in KC III and IV, may tentatively be explained as pointing towards a more stratified society where only few could afford richly endowed burials and lavish personal adornments. The distribution of disk-beads of Type a remains unexplained and, like in KC III, there were no extraneous disk-beads such as Types c or d. Entire shells used as beads and single items of personal adornments made of shell While no entire shells were found in KC II which were modified for use as beads there are some items of personal adornment made of shell which are not known from KC III or IV and which are probably unique to KC II. The most prominent of these are bracelets and ear-ornaments (?) made from Trochus niloticus shells.
Illustration 5.54, KC II, Burial 19, shell ear ornaments
The identification of the other two items made of shell interpreted as ear-ornaments is even more ambiguous as they are referred to only as "marine gastropod cut shells". They are Find 12 of Burial 17 and Find 4 of Burial 20, both burials with recognisable skeletons, pots as grave goods and similar orientations: Head-to-SE for Burial 17 and Head-to-S for Burial 20, thus presumably of the older burial phases in KC II. The objects themselves are of a diameter of 2.7 cm, of what seems to be a spindle-like shape, but no further measurements are available (Ho 1984, I: 293; II: Fig. 11.29).
The two ear-ornaments said to be made each of a cut Trochus niloticus shell are together Find 2 of Burial 19 (the head-burial) and believed to be ear-ornaments because of their position although nothing is known, nor suggested, concerning the way they may have been fixed to the ears. In their cut form they are both 4.5 cm in diameter and 3 cm high, weighing 45 g and 50 g (Ho 1984, I: 191-192, 291-292; II: Fig. 11.28, SH.23, SH.24). As such, these objects seem to be sui generis in Mainland Southeast Asia but, as stated earlier, they cannot have been made of Trochus niloticus because they do not fit anywhere into the shape of such a shell.
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The Integration of Khok Charoen II but weighing 25 g, being Find 8 of Burial 25; 2) a small ring, cut from a Conus shell (?), with an inner diameter of 1.6 cm and weighing 3 g, being Find 1 of Burial 27; and 3) two small rings cut from the lip of the Cyclophorus floridus snail, inner diameter 1.4 cm, weight 3 g each, being Find 21 of Burial 16 and Find 11 of Burial 17. All these items are puzzling in different ways. 1) The small but heavy Trochus children's bracelet (?) was found in Burial 25 which had no skeleton but 6 burial pots arranged in a way suggesting that they had originally been positioned next to the head of the buried individual. This assumption was supported by the fact that small disk-beads were found at the spot where the head would have been (Find 7), with the small bracelet (Find 8) only a few cm to the SW of them, where the neck would have been, asking the question whether it really was a bracelet or perhaps part of a head or neck adornment. The fate and nature of the body remain unknown but it may be taken as proven that originally Burial 25 did have a body.
Illustration 5.55, KC II, Shell ear-ornaments, Burials 17 and 20 Shell bracelets and rings Bracelets made from Trochus niloticus are recorded from Burials 16 (10), 24 (10+18 fragments) and 40 (10 fragments), three burials richly endowed with burial pots as well as shell disk-beads and, with orientations Head to SSE, E and S, respectively, all three belonging to the later burial phases of KC II. According to the scant available evidence, it looks as if these shell bracelets were worn usually on the left lower arm and in relatively larger numbers than any other known kind of bracelets. They have an inner diameter of 5-6 cm and a weight of 15-20 g each.
Illustration 5.57, KC II, Burial 25, child’s bracelet 2) The situation concerning Burial 27, thought to be hidden under the E-baulk of cutting F5, is similar inasmuch as all that is known for certain is that the right lower arm of a skeleton (supine position assumed) which was slightly protruding from the section must have worn an elaborate adornment made of shell disk-beads. About 200 of these beads Type b were discovered at what seemed to be the wrist (Find 2) and a few cm N of this cluster there was the small Conus ring (Find 1) which could well have been a part of this adornment – unless it was a finger ring (for a small hand). 3) The two still smaller rings cut from the lip of Cyclophorus snails were both found with skeletons having more or less the same orientation and being surrounded by numerous pots as grave goods (Burial 16: SSE, 9 pots and Burial 17: SE, also 9 pots, although one of them had been added at a later time). In Burial 16 the ring was lying next to the right hand and in Burial 17 between the thighs near right femur. They could thus also have been connected with wrist or hand adornments but their small inner diameter seems to preclude their use as finger rings. What exactly these rings may have been used for is not clear but if it had been in the framework of a well established custom or tradition and as the raw material for the manufacture of these rings was practically unlimited and
Illustration 5.56, KC II, shell bracelet In addition to these bracelets unique to KC II, there are three types of smaller rings made from molluscs in KC II which are also not known from KC III or IV. These are 1) a Trochus bracelet with an inner diameter of only 3.5 cm
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand the manufacturing process apparently quite simple, one would have expected to find a great number of them in burials or elsewhere instead of the only two examples discovered.
identified as Pseudodon mouhoti which makes it very likely that those of KC II are of the same taxon which occurs still nowadays in the small stream a few metres distant from the former cuttings of this particular excavation.
Shell pieces
Of the 44 pieces (including 3 complete halves) found in KC II, 34 are classified as Unio, 8 simply as bivalve and two as being from a thicker kind of bivalve, Hyriopsis myersiana. Only 11 pieces were found in stratified deposits while the other 33 (including the three complete halves) were found in burials in the following manner.
The number of shell pieces found in KC II (44) is more comparable to that found in KC III (33) than in KC IV (148) but in all three parts of the site they are almost exclusively of what is called in KC II Unio shells, i.e. shells of the order Unionoida which are notoriously difficult to classify. In KC IV they have been tentatively
Number 2 1 5 2 6 1 12 1 2 1
Burial 4 8 13 16 19 24 24 24 29 38
Find 4 12 1b 24 8 25 30 31 7 14
Remarks/position (bivalve) near left side of skull (Unio) polished, next to stone bracelet fragment with drilled hole (Unio) amongst sherds of pot type 4H(?) at feet (Hyriopsis myersiana) at left ankle (Unio) 50 cm from skull (Immature Unio) on lower right arm, with Trochus bracelet fragments (Unio) on left upper arm (Unio) near right upper leg (2 halves of 2 Unio) at right upper arm (1 half of a Unio)on right arm
Table 5.2, Shell fragments found in KC II It therefore appears that more use of shell pieces as personal adornments in burials was made in KC II than in the earlier KC III and IV and, moreover, that the position of the pieces on the body could have followed certain conventions. Whether this is a reflection of the real situation or simply due to vagaries of excavation methods in the three different excavated burial grounds is not clear but this seems to be the most likely interpretation of the available data.
hand with a non-metal tool, as attested by fairly wide funnel-shaped openings (Ho 1984, I:64), i.e. the same method as was used in the single known attempt to make a hole in a Later Phase KC IV stone bracelet. The altogether 28 discovered pieces of stone bracelets (including the 9 complete bracelets) are divided into four types (op. cit.: 62-63). I) Flat surface, the ratio between height and width of the section of the bracelet is 1:3 to 1:4. II) Double bevels in section, the ratio between height and width is 1:1 or 1.5:1 III) Single bevel, the drilling of the inner diameter was done from one side of the disk only. IV) The outer face of the ring has a concave profile and the inner face a convex one. The ratio of height to width is 1.3:1.
Stone Stone bracelets Compared to KC III with 12, and KC IV with 16 bracelet fragments (of as many individual bracelets), KC II with 19 fragments plus 9 complete bracelets is obviously the part of the site where the wearing of stone bracelets was more widespread than in older parts. However, the technology of both the manufacture of these stone bracelets and the occasional modifying of them by the wearers was not necessarily more advanced in KC II than in KC III and IV, as shown by two fragments of a bracelet into which small holes have been drilled to reconnect them after they had been broken (one further fragment of a different bracelet shows an only half-drilled hole). The most revealing aspect of this fact is, apart from the indication that such stone bracelets were valuable objects the repairing of which was deemed to be worth the effort, the drilling of the holes was apparently not done mechanically but by
Adjusting this typology to that used for KC III and IV, Types I, II and III are considered to be the equivalent of category A disk-bracelets whereas the only representative of Type IV does not fit into either category A or B (ring-bracelets). Tabulating the 19 individual bracelets or fragments thereof found directly associated with burials, it becomes evident in spite of the small sample that there are no fundamental differences between KC II and KC III and IV in the sense that disk-bracelets have always been preponderant in Khok Charoen before and after the Discontinuity (KC III = 9:3, KC IV = 16:0).
288
The Integration of Khok Charoen II association of bracelet types with the orientation of burials could be observed except that all these burials have orientations ranging from E to S, supposed to be the earlier phases of KC II, and none of the late phase with N-orientation. A noteworthy observation is that in KC II only six bracelets (fragments) have been found in stratified deposits while all others were associated with burials. This may be due to the fact that the KC II burials seem to have been mainly disturbed by animals and humans and less by water action which dislocated items of personal adornment and grave goods in a more general way. Two more finds must be referred to here in connection with stone bracelets. Amongst the surface finds of stone adzes in KC II, Ho (1984, I: 59) mentions two adzes, Sur.19 and 29, which have a shape not found in other adzes and are made (Sur.19) of marble, a stone not used for adzes either. She concludes that these two items may have originally been fragments of bracelets or disks with a broad flat surface, re-shaped to function as adzes as their cutting edges are chipped and show traces of wear like other stone adzes. While this is an example of ingenious recycling of raw material from an ornamental object to a tool, it cannot have been from a bracelet. With 3.5 cm, the width of Sur.19 far surpasses that of any known bracelet with a broad flat surface (Type A1b) and the inner diameter of only about 2 cm precludes its use as a bracelet altogether, rather suggesting a disk. Such marble disks not having been found anywhere on the site, this one was most probably imported but the fact that it was a surface find makes it almost impossible to find a clue to its origin. Stone beads There were 12 stone beads or bead fragments excavated in KC II, all tubular with diagonal ends and finely polished. Except for one which is only 1.3 cm and another 2.5 cm long, the length of the entire bead only varies from 3.5 to 3.2 cm for one and 2.5 to 2.4 cm for the other side; their outer diameter is uniformly 0.9 cm and the inner one 0.5 cm. The beads are made of relatively soft dickite, pyroxenite and impure limestone, stones which do not seem to be of local origin (Ho 1984, I: 64).
Illustration 5.58, KC II, Types of stone bracelets (Tabel 5. 3 below shows distribution) Burial 1 4 7 8 13 24 31 33 40 Total
Orient‐ ation SE SE E ESE S E E ESE S
Tp I (A1b) 1 1
Tp II (A2a) 1 1 2
Tp III (A1a) 2 1 1 1 9 1 15
Tp IV (B..?) 1 1
All 12 stone beads or fragments in KC II come from the neck region of one single burial, again Burial 24, which cannot be considered to be representative of the material culture of the only post-Discontinuity cemetery of the site. As no stone bead was found in KC III and the only stone bead found (far away from any burial) in KC IV, a polished black tubular one, is identical to some of those from KC II, it seems reasonable to conclude that this particular bead also comes from Burial 24 and that therefore the only stone beads discovered on the entire site are those from a single neck ornament of a very special burial in the post-Discontinuity cemetery of KC II and that they originate from somewhere outside the area. There was no stone bead manufacturing in Khok Charoen itself.
Table 5.3, Number of stone bracelets per type Thus, even if taking into account that Burial 24 with its unique combination of 9 stone bracelets Type III and at least 10 Trochus niloticus shell bracelets may be a special case which could have somewhat distorted the picture, there would still be an overwhelming number of disk-bracelets in KC II without them. No particular
289
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Stone ear-ornament
the head, this could be taken to mean that it was a stray find as it is unlikely to have been in situ where it was found and one would have expected more such beads if it really had been the remnant of a necklace. It is more likely that this bead came from another burial but its origin is unknown.
A nail-shaped object, consisting of a cylindrical stem with a blunt point topped by a disk, made from one piece of marble or calcite limestone was excavated in KC II (Ho 1984, I: 286, Stn 102; II: Fig. 11.25 a,b). Stem 7.2 cm long, diameter 1.2 cm; disk 0.3 cm-thick, 3.9 cm diameter. Surface of the disk polished and decorated by three bisecting incised lines meeting at the centre at a small shallow depression. Weight 30 g.
The fragment of a clay bracelet with an inner diameter of 7 cm, Find 9 of Burial 31, was found together with Find 2 (stone bracelet fragments) at right arm of a skeleton but the fact that there were parts of at least two skeletons in this burial renders the association of the two kinds of bracelets and their contemporaneity doubtful. It seems therefore that, like in KC III, clay bracelets were scarce if not non-existent in KC II and that KC IV was the only part of the site where they were used. The proposition that fragments of clay bracelets found in mortuary contexts are most likely accidental inclusions (Chang and Voelker 2003: 19, 21), probably correct concerning KC II and III, may well also hold true for KC IV where only one bracelet fragment out of six was deemed to be in secure association with a very disturbed multiple burial but even this was questioned because of a post-burial interference.
This object was found in the N-baulk of G5, 75 cm from E, at 54 cm b.s. in a mixture of {5} and an undefined pre-Discontinuity gravelly layer above it. Although only 45 cm distant from the E-rim of the pit of Burial 16, dug from an early post-Discontinuity layer, it was clearly outside this pit and must have been older than the burial.
Another fragment of a similar clay bracelet with an inner diameter of 3.5 cm, unconnected with any burial, was indeed discovered in H4, Layer 3, but its much smaller inner diameter and different, pointed cross-section shows that it could not be from the same bracelet as the one above (Ho 1984, I: 304, Cer.5, and II: Fig. 11.31; dimensions rectified). Moreover, there being no child burial in the excavated parts of KC II, it is even possible that this "bracelet for a very small child" either originated from another part of the site or was not a bracelet at all.
Illustration 5.59, KC II, Stone ear ornament An object probably connected with a personal ornament A small flat, slightly conical disk in calcite limestone (4.1 cm diameter, 0.5 cm thick, weight 10 g) was found in KC II near Burial 7 which has no counterpart in KC III or IV. Traces of drilling suggest that this disk is the core of a bracelet which in this case would have to be that of a child. However, there is no known child burial anywhere near Burial 7 and the disk's position in the soil, too high to be associated with the burials, shows that it may have been deposited there at a later date. It had already been suspected that in KC II stone bracelets were imported because they reveal a more sophisticated technology than what was available in KC II itself. In view of the fact that the KC II burials are the first ones after the Discontinuity and that, in the absence of concrete signs of a settlement on this part of the site, it is not known where exactly the buried individuals could have come from, to guess the origin of these bracelets or cores would amount to pure speculation.
Bone Unlike in KC III and IV, four objects made of cut and polished bone were found in burials in KC II identified as having possibly been items of personal adornment. They are (Ho 1984, I: 301-302): 1) Find 13 of Burial 1 (Fau.26): a piece of worked ivory/dentine (animal tooth), 1.2 x 0.5 cm, being a bracelet fragment, found at 40 cm b.s., 40 cm NE of right hand of skeleton; association with the burial doubtful. 2) and 3) Finds 1 and 2 of Burial 15 (Fau.15): two pieces of bone, probably long-bone of large mammal, artificially cut or gnawed by rats? Found at 25 cm b.s.; association with burial uncertain. 4) Find 6 of Burial 29 (Fau.1): a piece of cut bone found on right side of skull, being perhaps an ear-ornament.
Clay With regard to items of personal adornments made of clay, only one clay bead and two fragments of clay bracelets have been excavated in KC II, two in questionable association with a burial and one in a stratified layer.
As there are doubts whether the modified animal tooth found near Burial 1 was really associated with this burial (and was really part of a bracelet) and as "Burial 15" had already been taken off the list of confirmed human burials, only one of these four items, the possible ear-ornament in Burial 29, warrants further investigation. However, no further information about that "piece of cut bone", in
The barrel-shaped bead, Find 15 of Burial 7, was found next to Find 1, a cord-marked globular bowl just beyond
290
The Integration of Khok Charoen II particular its shape and size, being available, this investigation has to be postponed until such time as they are. This is the more regrettable as in Southeast Asia ear-ornaments are and have always been important indicators of ethnic groups and their movements and information about these matters coming from the earliest burials in post-Discontinuity Khok Charoen, i.e. KC II, would be especially useful.
out that footed bowls and the jars in Burials 46 and 47 seem to have been used exclusively as Burial-Only pottery; a somewhat inconsistent picture which is the more difficult to quantify as pottery not belonging to KC II, such as pottery from KC I and the pre-Discontinuity jar deposits, are included in the survey (Ho 1984, I: 24, 31, 45; II: Tbs 3.1, 3.2, 4.2). The pottery (as opposed to stratified sherds) of KC II consists of 260 items, all in one way or another connected with burials, i.e. 155 Complete Burial Pots (CBP) and 105 Unrestorable Burial Pots (UBP) (Ho 1984, I: 236-274). However, as 19 CBPs have to be deducted as being from KC I, the number of pots attributable to individual burials (including the one vessel cluster ceramic burial) has to be reduced to 241. For the purpose of comparing the pottery of KC II to that of KC III and IV, the four pots of Burials 46 and 47, i.e. the jar burials with their lids, must also be subtracted as these two ceramic burials are not part of the pottery of KC II. The remaining 237 pots have been found in the 34 burials having pottery as grave goods (including Burials 37 and 41 the pottery of which has to be classified as N.-A.B.P.), with the pottery types listed in order of Finds. These distributions are shown in Tables 5.4 and 5.5 below.
Pottery Pottery finds from KC III and IV were divided into the categories of Burial-Only Pottery, Multi-Use Pottery, Domestic-Only Pottery and Special and Unique Pottery, the latter again into (1) on site and (2) from outside. This division was done differently for KC II where all pottery vessels found in burials are ipso facto labelled Burial Pottery while all other pottery remains are referred to as "stratified sherds". With 160 kg of pottery, burial pottery outweighs the 110 kg of stratified sherds but it was noted that the latter also contain a certain proportion of burial pottery while the rest is composed of "utilitarian utensils" which also occur in burials, except for one single flat-bottomed Class 5 vessel which would therefore be the only Domestic-Only pot. Thus, all other pots should really be classified as Multi-Use pottery although it is pointed No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Burial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 13 16 17 18 20 22 24 25 26 28 29 30 31 32 33 35A 35BC 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Pots 5 1 2 1 11 3 11 6 4 6 2 9 9 2 3 2 19 6 5 7 5 6 7 7 6 4 15 13 11 13 4 12 17 3
Types 3B, 4A,1Ca,1Ca,4G 1D 1D,4Da 1Aa 4Ka,4Ka,4Ka,4Ed,1D,1Aa,4Gd,4Gc,4Fb,6Db,1K 1K,4A,1K 1Ka,1Aa,4Ka,4Ec,4H,2A?,1Ka,4A,1K,4A,4Ab 1Ka,4A,4D,1B,1K,4Fb 1B,4A,1B,4Gc 4G,4Ka,4A,1D,4G,4C 4H,1K 4D,4Da,1B,1C,1D,1C,4Ab,1K,1K 4Ab,1D,4Ab,1D,1I,1F,4Ka,1Nc,1Ka 4Ad,1Ja? 1C,2A,2A 3E,4Gd 1K,4G,4Ka,4D,4D,4Ad,1Ba,1C,1C,1Ba,4Gb,4Ab,4G,4Gb,4G,4Ab,4D,4G,4A 4Ea,4A,1D,4C,4Ge,4Ca 4Gb,4Gd,1K,1B,4Gd 1Ka,4A,1Aa,1Ka,4A,1Aa,4A 4A,4Da,4Ka,1B,1C 3C,4H,4D,4A,4A,4A 3E,4Gd,4Gd,4Ha,1Ka,4E,4H 4A,4A,4C,1K,4D,1Aa,6Db 1Ab,1Cb,4A,3Ea,1Bc,4G 1B,1B,4A,4D 1D,4A?,4A,4D,4A,4A,4A,4A,1K,1Ab?,1Aa,1B,1B?,4B,1Ca? 4H,4E,4D,4A,1Ca,1K,1K,6Db,6Db,6Db,4D,3Da,3E 3E,1Ea?,1B?,4Ad,4Ad?,4D,3E,3Ea,3Ea,1K?, 1C 1C,4Ab,4A,4G,4A,1Ab,1Ka,1C,4A,4Fb,4A?,4Gb,4Ka 4A,4D,4Ab,4H 1Ca,1Ba,4A,4D,1C,1Aa,4D,4D,3Ca,6Db,1Ba,1Ba 4A,4Ab,4G,4G,4Ab,4A,4Ab,4Ab,4Ab,4G,4Ka,4D,4Ab,6Dc,1C,4D,6Da 1Ba,1Ba,
Table 5.4, KC II Burial pottery (i.e. burial-only pottery and multi-use pottery combined)
291
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand KC II III IV KC II III IV KC II III IV KC II III IV
1A 1 2A 3 1 4E 2 2 6Da 1
1Aa 8 3 2Aa 1 4Ea 1 2 6Db 6
1Ab 3 7 1 2Ab 1 4Eb 1 6Dc 1
1B 11 3 3B 1 2 4Ec 1
1Ba 7 2 4 3C 1 1 4 4Ed 1
1Bb 2 3Ca 1 8 2 4Ee 2
1Bc 1 3Da 1 4F 1
1C 11 4 2 3E 5 6 3 4Fb 3 1
1Ca 5 1 1 3Ea 3 1 4 4G 12 6 3
1Cb 1 1 1 4A 33 19 10 4Ga 1
1D 9 2 1 4Aa 5 2 4Gb 4
1Ea 1 1 4Ab 14 1 2 4Gc 3
1F 1 1 4Ac 3 4Gd 6
1Ia 1 2 4Ad 4 4H 7 1
1Ja 1 3 4B 1 1 4Ha 1
1K 15 7 4C 3 2 2 4J 1
1Ka 8 2 4Ca 1 1 4Ja 1
1Nc 1 4D 18 3 3 4Ka 10
4Da 3
Table 5.5, Burial pottery in KC II, IV and III compared
In an earlier chart it was made clear that the difference between KC III and KC IV consists mainly in the much greater number of pots in KC IV (90) as opposed to KC III (56) and, more significantly, of types and sub-types (32 in KC IV as opposed to 20 in KC III). While both these sets of figures are obviously influenced by the number and nature of the burials which happened to have been excavated in the two parts of the site, the fact that 17 of the types in KC III, i.e. 85% of the totality, continued into KC IV demonstrates nevertheless the smooth transition from one population group to the next one.
Pottery Domestic Pottery As far as pottery in general is concerned, no strict distinction has been made between Burial-Only, Multi-Use, Domestic-Only and Special and Unique pottery because vessels of all these categories are found in burials in KC II and are therefore considered to be burial pottery. Information on Domestic Pottery comes from two main sources: non Burial-Only pots in the list of Burial (or better Multi-Use) Pottery and the stratified sherds, the former being identifiable and restorable pots and the latter potsherds only without the possibility to restore individual pots from them. If the 128 footed bowls (=Burial-Only pots) are deducted from the 237 general burial pots, there are 109 pots left which could have been domestic pottery from the settlement from which originated the people buried in the cemetery of KC II. Whereas the "130 non-burial vessels by weight" inferred from the stratified sherds found in the area of the cemetery itself (Ho 1984, I: 24) could be from one of the four periods of occupation postulated by Watson (1979: 56-57) for KC II after the time of the burials. Anyhow, these 239 excavated pots are all we know of the domestic pottery of KC II at the time of the first post-Discontinuity burials and thereafter. The conclusion to be drawn is the same as for the burial pottery, namely that the population group(s) settling in KC II or burying their dead there after the Discontinuity, and for some considerable time afterwards, must have been very similar to those who lived there before the big flood.
The difference, in terms of burial pottery, between the pre-Discontinuity KC III and KC IV and the post-Discontinuity KC II manifests the same phenomenon on a larger scale but with only 74% of types continued. With 237 burial pots coming from 34 burials the number of such pots is not far from double that of KC III and KC IV combined (146) and the number of types has increased to 58, mainly because there were 14 new types in use in KC II but also because 7 types found in KC IV as domestic or intrusive pottery were discovered in KC II in burials. Of these, the eight Class 6 pots, interpreted as rice-cookers, are of particular significance as their presence in burials attest to the ritual significance of rice cultivation in post-Discontinuity times.
5.5 Material Culture (domestic) The burial ground of KC II being the only excavated part of the site which did not show tangible signs, such as post-holes, of an occupation before, during or after the period following the Discontinuity when this field was used as a cemetery, it may be surmised that the settlement which buried its dead there was well separated from it. This precludes a reasoned comparison with KC III and IV relative to domestic material culture as evidently less items of the latter are left in an area reserved exclusively for the dead.
Other Pottery Objects In addition to a barrel-shaped bead (Burial 7, Find 15), a bracelet fragment (Burial 31, Find 9) and another bracelet fragment from a stratified layer, considered to be part of funerary material culture, one more artefact made of pottery was found in a stratified layer in KC II: the fragment of a phallus.
292
The Integration of Khok Charoen II The phallus fragment
Stone Adzes and Axes
This 5 cm long fragment of the fore part of what looks like a somewhat stubby human penis has no counterpart in KC III or IV. It was found in Layer {1} of J7, i.e. almost as a surface find at the SE-most outer edge of not only KC II but also of all the excavations of Khok Charoen and, moreover, isolated from the other finds or burials marking this southeastern rim of the cemetery itself by at least 10 m in all directions. All this points to a late date of this particular item which could even be after the abandonment of whatever settlement there was after the Discontinuity. This hypothesis is supported by the find of an entire clay phallus of a length of 6 cm at Ban Sub Noi site (Ho 1984, II: Fig. Site 6) which is called one of the key sites of "High Metal Age" (i.e. Iron Age) in the vicinity of Khok Charoen (Ho 1984, I: 120).
Stone Adzes The number of entire or almost entire stone adzes found in KC II (22) is again similar to KC III (25) and IV (28) but the subdivision into two groups: 13 green adzes (green rhyolitic/andesitic tuff) and 9 white adzes (white weathered rhyolitic tuff) is difficult to translate. While the green adzes are clearly volcanic rock, the white ones could be on a sliding scale from volcanic rock to limestone but they are all said to be of "little functional use" and of "the kind of rock deliberately chosen for apparently non-practical functions" (Ho 1984, I: 59), i.e. the same as "limestone" adzes in KC III and IV; they are therefore equated with the latter. With regard to association with burials, only those adzes are listed which bear a Find-number but not those which could probably or possibly have been associated with a burial; in the following comparative chart the same system is adopted for KC III and IV.
However, a phallus, almost identical with the KC II one, excavated in the neolithic cemetery of Ban Kao (Sørensen 1967: 54, 123) proves that there were also earlier such finds in the wider region.
KC Complete adzes excavated Of which Volcanic rock “ “ Limestone Found in burial (both together)
III 25 13 12 1
IV 28 15 13 2
II 22 13 9 14
Table 5.6, Types of Adzes found, KC III, IV and II Thus, while in both KC III and IV the overwhelming majority of adzes were found in stratified deposits without apparent association with a burial, about two-thirds of the complete adzes found in KC II came from burials. This strongly supports the assumption that the excavated part of KC II was solely a cemetery without ever having been the site of a settlement; however, a settlement must have sometimes existed near enough for remains of its material culture to reach the burial ground. Of the 15 fragments of green stone adzes (amongst which one rough-out) and 2 of white stone adzes only 3 of the green and 1 of the white adzes are associated with a burial. These figures are interpreted as being an indication that there were also somewhere "habitation activities" going on in the form of the manufacture of stone adzes for everyday use while real or dummy adzes were put into burials (Ho 1984, I: 58). In KC II, stone adzes of whatever material are mainly of the Duff-Type 2, especially varieties D and G, but there are also some of Type 1A; otherwise stone adzes are not assigned to Duff-types. The following chart illustrates the difference between KC II, III and IV as far as the known relevant Duff-types are concerned.
Illustration 5.60, Comparison of Khok Charoen and Ban Kao phallus objects Stone When dealing with stone finds in KC II it should be taken into consideration that their recording, description and classification was done in a manner slightly different from that used for KC III and IV. Although care was taken to present the stone finds of KC II in such a way that they can be compared with those of KC III and IV, some discrepancies may have crept into this comparison but it is hoped that it nevertheless reflects the overall picture without significant distortion.
KC II IV III
1A + + +
2D + + +
2E +
2F +
2G + + +
7A +
8A +
8D +
8E +
Table 5.7, Occurrence of Duff types in KC II, III and IV 293
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand It appears thus that the three types occurring in KC II are the only ones which were alrady in use in KC III and IV while the use of those which had been added in KC IV was not continued in KC II. Shouldered adzes (Type 8A) had apparently been used only in KC III and no longer in KC IV and KC II.
used for polishing. Flat, 10.8x8x1.2 cm, 140 g. Found in Layer {2} in H7. 3) Fragment of a quern made of green stone (sedimentary rock with quartz and jasper inclusions); artificially shaped large lump of dark green rock with flattened base and top with rough surface. 14.5x7.5x7 cm, 760 g. Surface find. 4) A ball-shaped lump of volcanic rock with some of the natural surface remaining and other parts battered. Diameter c. 8 cm, 570 g. Find 8 of Burial 17 (on right side of pelvic region). 5) A large oval pebble with traces of use as a pounding stone. Found in G7, soil {3}.
Rough-Outs One single rough-out of an adze was found in KC II. It is made of the same material as most of the finished adzes, i.e. green andesitic tuff, is roughly of the same shape but has no polished or ground surface; the fact that it was broken sideways may have been the reason why it had been discarded. 7.5x6x1.8 cm, 100 g. Found in G5 in a non-burial context at the interface of soils {1} and {2}.
Post‐Discontinuity Pre‐Discontinuity Total
KC III 10 4 14
KCIV 4 9 13
KCII 5 6 11
Table 5.8, Number and position of grinding stones/whetstones/hammerstones
Stone Axes In addition to adzes and adze fragments two axes have also been excavated in KC II: one as Find 9 of Burial 8 (Stn.65) and the other found in Layer 3 without being connected with a burial (Stn.66). The burial find consists of the lower part (6x5x2.5 cm) of an axe made of a green stone containing quartz-pyroxene and trachytes; the other find, from Layer 1, is a complete large (8.5x6.5x3.5 cm) axe made of brownish igneous rock, consisting of dolerite and feldspar, of the basalt family – not a common raw material for axes or adzes in the Lopburi area. Both these items have been identified by specialists (Ho 1984, I: 283). The axe (of the Walzenbeil or Round Axe type) was displaced vertically by tree roots and its original position cannot be ascertained; it may well be an intrusion or a remnant from an earlier neolithic phase as finds of this type in KC IV have been suggested to be (Watson 1979: 58).
Compared with KC III and IV, these stone implements (thought to be mainly used to shape and sharpen other stone tools, rather than to have anything to do with early agriculture) appear to be rare in KC II. The reason for this is almost certainly that KC II is the excavation of a cemetery with only ill-defined settlements nearby, while there is evidence for wooden constructions in KC III and IV near burials; most of these grinding stones and the like probably came from such settlements or workshops. The oddly shaped dark green quern fragment, discovered on the surface in the KC II area, is very difficult to place in time and space, i.e. whence and when it found its way to where it was lying in the 1960s and thus its direct relation with the domestic material culture of prehistoric Khok Charoen is questionable. It is interpreted by Ho (1984, I: 287, Stn.111; II: Fig. 11.22) as "one of those quern stones usually encountered at Protohistoric sites, for herbs grinding" but no matching fragments of it seems to have been found so far, neither in the vicinity of the site nor farther afield.
In conclusion it could be said that (according to evidence coming mainly from the cemeteries) stone axes may not have played a significant role in stone technology or the use of tools in everyday life in any part of the site, from KC III through to KC IV and to KC II. Nowhere were there any signs of the manufacture of axes nor finds of rough-outs for them and the general lack of traces of use suggests that they may have been imported prestige objects to be used as part of funeral material culture.
Pestles In addition to hammerstones, two similar stones have also been found in KC II which need special attention. They are two artificially cylindrical-shaped pieces of volcanic rock with traces of use as pounders. One, 15.5x4.8x3.4 cm, 410 g, was excavated in F4 at 20 cm b.s. in soil {2} and the other, 10x3 x 2.5 cm, 130 g, in G5, "Layer 4" (equivalent of {5}?), both apparently unconnected with any burial. These two stone implements are sufficiently different from other stones used for hitting or crushing something to warrant their own category. Their identification as pestles can only be tentative as it would imply the existence of mortars in a very hard material (stone or hardwood), remains of which have not been found so far. In any case, this kind of stone tool is not known from KC III or IV and could be interpreted as indicating an advanced state of
Grinding stones, Whetstones and Hammerstones Given that on closer examination such stone implements are often found to have fulfilled several functions, these three categories are here combined and treated as one. Five items falling into this combined category have been found in KC II (Ho 1984, I: 285, 287): 1) A grinding stone (?) made of greyish stone; one side used and polished, one end with battered surface. 4.3x4.2x3 cm, 90 g. Found at the base of Layer {2} in E6. 2) A grinding stone made of green stone; traces of being 294
The Integration of Khok Charoen II agriculture or food preparation. However, if the second "pestle" in KC II really originates from the layer in which it was discovered, this theory is difficult to uphold and another use for these implements has to be proposed.
The excavation of KC II consists of 20 4x4 m cuttings, orientated to N and arranged in four rows of 5, 5, 6 and 4 cuttings. The 34 burials with pottery were situated in 12 cuttings in the NE-part of the rectangle formed by the excavated cuttings while those without burials or containing burials with no pottery were in the SW-part; stratified potsherds were found throughout the thus diagonally bisected rectangle. In order to have some guidance as to where to suggest such a settlement could have been, tables of the distribution of stratified sherds according to pottery types (Ho 1984, II: Tables 3.8-3.16) were perused. These sherds were divided into those of pottery occurring in the burials ("burial pottery") and those of pottery coming from outside the burials ("domestic pottery") with the result that in the 12 northeastern cuttings which contained the burials with pottery (including "Burial 41", i.e. the cache of 17 burial pots), 7,845 g of stratified sherds of burial pottery as opposed to 9,105 g of sherds of domestic pottery were found while in the 8 southwestern cuttings without any burials with pottery these figures are 1,855 g for burial and 2,565 g for domestic pottery.
Miscellaneous stone objects There are only two stone artefacts in this category in KC II. They are called "tanged objects" and both were found in a burial: (1) Burial 16, Find 23: an almost heart-shaped white rhyolitic tuff object with weathered surface; deep horizontal groove and shallow vertical incised lines. 4.2x 4x 2.3 cm, 50 g. Possibly a net sinker. (2) Burial 24, Find 26: a weathered limestone pebble, one end more pointed and thinner forming a stepped shoulder. 7.5x5.5x2.5 cm, 90 g. Maybe a natural stone but of significance to the deceased individual – otherwise it would not have been put in the burial. Both these stone objects are unknown from any other part of the site and could be linked to some technological advance proper to KC II.
Thus, in an area (around and above the burials) where one would expect to find many eroded or otherwise displaced sherds of burial and no or very few of domestic pottery, there were surprising large amounts of both and even considerably more of the latter than of the former, while in and above the area without burials there were unexpected amounts of sherds of burial pottery and also of domestic pottery the origin of which could not be ascertained. It seems that the best way to explain these inconsistencies is to assume that powerful water action caused massive dislocation of potsherds after the time of the burials, that these floods came from a northeastern direction and that they destroyed any settlement which could have existed to the NE of the burials; they also indicate another major flood event well after the Discontinuity.
BONE Artefacts In contrast to KC III and IV which both had what could be termed a bone industry, no bone artefact was excavated in KC II although faunal bone fragments (some possibly artificially cut or polished) were found in association with burials and could have been burial gifts or parts of personal adornments. This could be taken to mean that in KC II no such industry existed. However, in both KC III and IV, there was the dichotomy of fresh and fossilised bone as raw material for artefacts; in KC III there were 8 artefacts in the first and 13 in the second category and in KC IV the number was 28 and 42 respectively, i.e. almost twice as many made of fossilised bone than of fresh bone. If the settlers who buried their dead in KC II did not have access any more to the much valued raw material of fossilised bone because it had been washed away by floods, they would most likely have used fresh bone when appropriate for certain tasks but these artefacts would have been less numerous and would not necessarily have been found in the cemetery.
Subsistence Grains Rice Only one rice grain impression on pottery has been reported from KC II: inside the pedestal of a footed bowl Find 13 of Burial 24 (Ho 1984, I: 258). This burial, situated in cutting D6 at the southeastern-most extension of the excavated area of KC II, is special in many respects. With 19 vessels it has the greatest number of burial pots of all burials in KC II, with 10 shell- and 9 stone bracelets on left- and more shell bracelets on right lower arm it also has the greatest number of bracelets found with any skeleton and was altogether, with 843 disk-beads, a number of cylindrical stone beads, bivalve shells and one cowrie shell, the skeleton with the most personal adornments. The largest of its burial pots, a globular cord-marked bowl Type 1K with a diameter of over 50 cm, the first of a group of 11 pots beyond the head (Find 1), had its rim neatly sawn or broken off and the last of these 11 pots,
5.6 Habitation and Subsistence Habitation As there were no signs of post-holes in the excavated area of KC II, it appears that no huts, sheds or other wooden structures have ever been standing there, neither between (or over) the burials nor at any time thereafter. However, a settlement, contemporary with the burials or not, must have existed near enough to the burials for remnants of its domestic pottery to be found as stratified sherds amongst them, intermingled with sherds from disturbed and broken burial pottery.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand immediately to the left of the skull (Find 11), was marked inside with a cross-like sign in red slip; only two of the 237 burial pots in KC II are marked in this way (the other being Find 1 of Burial 22, an unrestricted bowl Type 3E placed immediately to the right of the skull).
her having been a famous potter; she also must have come from a community near KC II where rice was cultivated at the time of the establishment of the KC II cemetery, most likely from the village where the burial pottery was produced.
Burial 24 was intricately mixed with Burials 38 (Head to E by N) and 39 (Head to S) which had been cut into it from different angles in such a way that it was clear that it was the oldest of the three and amongst the oldest of the cemetery. Given the special aspects of it, the burial was obviously that of an important individual, conceivably even the first person to be buried in this ground. The sparse remaining skeletal material (several teeth, most of the mandible, parts of both humeri and very small fragments of leg bones) only show the position (extended supine) and orientation (Head to E) but not sex, height and age of this person, except that it was not a child. However, from the position of certain burial pots its stature can be estimated to have been the relatively short one of 1.40-1.50 m, i.e. that of a woman. A "tanged object" in stone (Find 26) the function of which is not clear, could be interpreted as being a burnishing stone in analogy with other Thai sites (e.g. Khok Phanom Di) where such stones had frequently been found in burials, although they had not been recorded (or recognised) from KC III or IV. All these observations are not inconsistent with the possibility that the importance of the individual buried in Burial 24 was due to
Another, equally indirect but more crucial sign for the importance of rice as a staple for those who settled in Khok Charoen after the Discontinuity is the appearance of Type 6D pots in burials. To find these large urn-like pots, identified as rice steamers because of a pre-fired hole at the base, in burials almost certainly means that the individuals buried therein had a special relation with rice as food in whatever way that may have been. Altogether, there are eight such pots in burials in KC II: one each of Type 6Da and 6Dc and six of Type 6Db. The two 6Da and 6Dc pots were found in what is called "Burial" 41 but which, because of the absence of any skeletal material whatsoever, is now thought to have been a cache of burial pots in case of an emergency, while the six 6Db pots had been in four burials as grave goods, one each in Burials 5, 32 and 40, and three in Burial 36. It is, however, almost impossible to find a common denominator for them as the burials themselves and the position of the rice steamers in them vary greatly from one to the other.
Burial 5
Head to E
Skeleton Entire but badly fragmented
Position of pot(s) Beyond (W of) right foot
32
E
Not known; may be in E‐baulk?
Beyond (W of) head, underneath the other six burial pots
36
S
Only upper part excavated; badly disjointed, rest in N‐baulk
Three 6Db pots put on top of head, perhaps later deposit?
40
S
Only upper part escavated, very disjointed; legs in N‐baulk
Near (left of) head
Remarks Oldest burial with a 6Db pot (?); not absolutely sure it is one; ten more burial pots Burial pots piled up on top of each other, limestone adze at foot of one of them (footed bowl Type 4A) The other 10 burial pots on top (2) and (8) around them; disturbed by roots and animals? Two burial pots sitting on the 6Db pot, the other 9 around head
Table 5.9, Burials with Type 6Db pots in them From this small sample it seems that the preferred position of these rice steamers as burial goods is at the head of the body and in such a way that they serve as the base for other burial pots. They also seem to occur only in richly endowed burials although sex, age and height of the interred individuals is not known especially as these burials are either incompletely excavated and/or very disturbed. The habit of putting rice steamers as gifts into the burials of certain individuals deemed to deserve this honour seems to be limited to the earlier phases of the burials in KC II. In any case, these rice steamers obviously attest to the importance accorded to rice cultivation in general in the relevant communities and, moreover, to the novelty of this development. Similar ceramic rice steamers (except that the pot for boiling water is fused with the truncated conical upper part containing the rice and that there was a built-in perforated ceramic disk between the two parts) have been found in northern Vietnam, dated to between 4000 and 2000 BP;
they were used specifically for cooking glutinous rice which had become the staple food although non-glutinous rice was already known and became the staple for an increasing population settling in the coastal areas (Nguyên Viêt 1981). Glutinous rice being primarily grown in hilly areas unsuitable for wet rice cultivation, the situation here described corresponds most probably also to that prevailing in the Khok Charoen area before the introduction of wet rice. It also seems to have been that in Ban Chiang Hian, a Northeastern Thai site similar to Non Chai, Ban Chiang, Ban Na Di and Non Nok Tha, in which perforated clay fragments almost identical to those found in Vietnam had been excavated and were therefore also interpreted as being parts of rice steamers (Chantaratiyakarn 1984: 576-589, Fig. 11-2 q, r, and s). The other site of this excavation, Ban Kho Noi, also produced small perforated clay pieces which are thought to be from "rice steamers" (op. cit.: 589, Fig. 11-3 g, h, i).
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The Integration of Khok Charoen II The excavation of KC II did not produce any evidence for the cultivation of other cereals such as millet, however does not prove that there was no cultivation or use of them.
burials of a cemetery like KC III and IV in broadly the same manner whereas those of KC II were disturbed individually in a variety of ways which often can only be guessed (and which do not necessarily exclude each-other). However, if the rule of thumb is applied that a disturbed and fragmented skeleton with relatively intact burial pots indicates disturbance by animals, that badly broken or missing burial pots next to an entire skeleton indicate disturbance by humans and that burials with fragmentary or disintegrated skeletons and burial pots broken by soil compaction are undisturbed, the following generalising table can be established. Of the 36 burials of KC II, 20 had mainly been disturbed by animals, 6 by humans, 1 by a tree, of 3 it was impossible to find out whether they were disturbed or not and only 6 were most likely undisturbed.
Hunting The list of bone remains (Faunal list) of KC II, comprising 26 items (Ho 1984, I: 301-302), deals mainly with faunal bones found in burials, of which there are 15 (although the connection with the burial is not always obvious nor confirmed) but three items, being possibly parts of personal adornments, are now included in the section on Material Culture. All other faunal remains were found in stratified deposits. Of the 26 listed items only six are described in more precise terms than simply "bone" or "animal bone" (long-bone, rib bone or tooth): four are possibly human (tooth, skull and arm), one is a "pig incisor?", from "on top of Layer 4", i.e. in {3A}, and two teeth, from {2} in F7 and {3} in H5, are surprisingly labelled "Horse?". The 8 items (apart from the human remains) having been found in burials can be divided into six which were inside, on or next to a burial pot and two others without exact provenance. Four of those six were "animal rib bones" while the nature of the two others was not mentioned.
Disturbance by animals implies relatively easy access to the interred body, be it a decomposing one or a skeleton, which is only provided if the burial is at least partly exposed or near enough to the surface to be detected by the animal. As more than half of all KC II burials show signs of having been disturbed by animals (in some cases to the extent that entire bodies/skeletons or substantial parts of them have apparently been dragged away), the burial ground was most likely exposed in its entirety for a considerable length of time after it had fallen into disuse. This second but also quite significant discontinuity must have occurred when the entire area of Khok Charoen, including burial grounds and settlements of population groups using them, was abandoned for, literally, greener pastures (fields allowing the cultivation of wet rice) nearby but too far for the continuation of the use of the Khok Charoen mounds as cemetery. The archaeological record does not show when exactly this exodus took place nor how long this local discontinuity lasted but accumulations of potsherds, in particular of corded ware (Ho 1984, II: 19-21), indicate that there may have been a new settlement in the KC II area between Layer II (={2}) and Layer I (={1}), i.e. on the surface of {2}, as already proposed by Watson (1979: 56). As no traces of any occupation thereafter could be detected on the site it can be concluded that this settlement was soon abandoned again and that there was a third and final discontinuity lasting until the 1950s.
This is all the information there is to identify animals which could have been hunted in KC II, at the time of the burials and thereafter: probably wild pig and possibly another unspecified medium mammal (deer?) parts of which were perhaps put habitually into burial pots of graves of certain people. The mention of the horse at that time and in that place must remain unexplained as it is totally out of place with what is known about horses in this part of the world. The nearest in time and space would be the suggestion that the heads on certain prehistoric bicephalous ear-ornaments in the Philippines and the Indochinese Peninsula could be those of wild horses, although this can only be considered a very remote possibility (Loofs-Wissowa 1982: 71-72); in no way does it indicate that the horse was amongst the hunted animals in KC II times.
The six disturbances caused by humans consisted of four instances where a burial was dug into another (Burial 1 into 5, Burial 10 into 9, Burial 33 into 36 and Burial 38 into 24), one where a new burial pot was inserted into a burial (Burial 17) which was already surrounded by 8 burial pots and one other concerning Burial 35B/C which was so thoroughly disturbed that in the absence of any natural force (including animals) which could have been the cause, it must be concluded that it was people in search of something precious or important to them.
5.7 Disturbances The survey of KC II burials shows that the situation with regard to disturbances is quite different here from what it was in KC III and IV. The cemetery of KC II having been established after the Discontinuity and on grounds already overrun and ravaged by the natural forces causing it, any disturbances affecting the burials must be dissociated from those which have fashioned the surface into which they were dug; it then becomes apparent that powerful water action which was the main cause for disturbances in KC III and IV did not play any role in KC II where most if not all disturbances were caused by animals or humans.
Burial 35B/C seems to be an especially complicated case. Parallel to an elongated jumbled heap of 15 pots there was an empty N-S orientated burial pit with a zone of disturbance (broken pottery, some teeth and unidentifiable post-cranial bone fragments) between these two. Skull
Natural forces in the form of floods usually affect all 297
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand fragments were also found in the N-part of the heap of pots and some very brittle unidentified long-bones of a medium/large mammal in the S-part of the burial pit and S of the heap of pots. This heap (with the bone fragment it contains) is thought to constitute Burial 35B while the empty burial pit was seen as being that of Burial 35C but the disturbed zone in between could also mean that some (or all?) of the contents of the latter had been relocated to become the former, the pit of which was not discernible, and that there was in fact only one body involved. Another scenario is that Burial 35B was a burial in its own right whereas everything that was in the pit of Burial 35C was carried away by grave-robbers. As skull- and a few small post-cranial bone fragments were also found at the S-end of Burial 35B but in a position suggesting an E-orientation, there is also the faint possibility of the existence of yet another burial in the same restricted area. Furthermore, the fact that the E-orientated Burial 31, which contains super-numerous long-bones as well as molars and mandible fragments not belonging to the main skeleton, cuts into the foot end of the pit of Burial 35C shows that this burial belongs to a later burial phase than the N-orientated Burials 35B and C.
5.8 Contacts In both KC III and KC IV there is evidence of contacts with parts of present Thailand beyond the Lower Nam Pasak area in the form of imported vessels from across the Central Plain or their local imitations as well as the transmission of decoration motifs, most probably from sites further south. The existence of such contacts is also attested by the finds of certain marine molluscs as part of personal adornments in burials of KC IV and KC II (and possibly also in one of KC III) where they pose problems with regard to the dating of contacts with southern coastal sites which could have been their origin. The best known (and dated) of such sites being Khok Phanom Di, dates from the Mortuary Phases (MP) where the same shells occur at that site have been used in attempts to define periods of relations between the two sites with disappointing results in the sense that these dates ask more questions than they answer. In KC IV, the five shell taxa involved are Conus, Oliva, Tridacna, Nassarius and Cypraea and in KC III, the taxon Isognomon. In KC II, the problem of absolute and relative chronology and contacts based on imported items of material culture is more complicated and is discussed in the chapter on chronology and conclusions; the marine molluscs involved are Trochus, Conus and two more undefined taxa. In Khok Phanom Di, the dates for the use of these molluscs as items of personal adornments range from MP 2 to 5, i.e. c. 1800 to c. 1600 BC (or 1700-1500 BC). If it is assumed that each shell taxon was transmitted to Khok Charoen shortly after it was used in Khok Phanom Di, the dates for KC III, KC IV and even KC II, based on scientific dating and local stratigraphical evidence, would have to be pushed back by two to three centuries unless it is assumed that such precious items as marine shells can be traded many years or even centuries after they have first been discovered and used which seems to be the more likely case. Thus, any of these dates can only be used as a terminus a quo and not to accurately date an event. Similar considerations also apply to the dating of contacts resulting in the transmission of decoration motifs or entire vessels (although there within a shorter time frame) and altogether to the body of the Khok Phanom Di dates which appear to be surprisingly early when compared to what is known of the chronology of Khok Charoen.
The few relatively undisturbed burials are mainly those into which later burials were cut showing that while the burial ground was in use there was not as much disturbance of burials going on as once it had been abandoned. The fact that three of the burials which had been cut into another one had a different orientation from the latter, while in the case of Burials 38 and 24 the two orientations were at least marginally divergent, could – but not necessarily does – mean that there was such a long time span between the earlier and the later burial that the later people must have forgotten, or have been ignorant of, the existence and/or position of previous burials in this particular ground. If this was the case the time difference would have to have been at least two generations, for it is difficult to imagine that anybody forgets where their parents are buried; if not, it is equally difficult to understand why anyone would go ahead with burying their dead there regardless. Although the archaeological evidence is not sufficiently clear, it appears that the time interval between burials cutting into each-other was sometimes minimal as shown by the agglomeration of interlocking burials in cuttings D6 and E6, i.e. concerning Burials 24, 38, 39 and 31, 33, 35A, 35B/C, 36, respectively, which were most difficult to disentangle. Other explanations for this phenomenon include that each orientation could be the sign of a different population group not knowing the burial customs of their predecessors or the arrival of a hostile group which did not care about previous burials (unlikely, as grave goods do not show any difference). Yet another could be that attitudes and customs within the same population group had changed over time to such an extent that what had once been frowned upon is tolerated not long thereafter; there are also examples for such rapid changes in present tribal societies.
Items of personal adornments in KC II burials made of marine molluscs must obviously have been imported. Apart from the altogether c. 2,300 shell disk-beads of uncertain origin these items are first and foremost more than 20 bracelets made of Trochus niloticus shells (10 in Burial 16, 10+18 fragments in Burial 24, 10 fragments alone in Burial 40 and a small child's bracelet in Burial 25). In addition to these bracelets unique to KC II, there are all the items of personal adornments of Burial 19 (the head-burial) such as a conical disk of 5 cm in diameter made of the top part of a Conus shell, very similar to those of Burial 10a of KC IV and of "The Princess" in Khok Phanom Di, and a pair of ear-ornaments made of an unidentified marine shell (Bullata ventricosa?). Two cowrie shells had also been found with this head-burial but 298
The Integration of Khok Charoen II they seem to have been lost (Ho 1984, I: 191). Its personal adornments thus being exclusively made of marine molluscs like those in southern coastal sites, Burial 19 is certain to date from pre-Discontinuity times when there were contacts with these sites rather than to have been contemporary with the other KC II burials and to be taken as proof of the existence of such contacts after the Discontinuity. The case of Burials 17 and 20, where in each an ear-ornament made of unidentified "marine gastropod cut shell" was found (Ho 1984, I: 293), neither of which can be a modified Conus nor a Trochus on account of their shape, is more problematical because of the nature of their grave goods other than personal adornments and in particular their burial pottery.
Burial 17, the lower part of which was hidden in the W-baulk of G6 and excavated separately, is also the only KC II burial showing a deliberate post-burial interference by humans as a pit had been dug into its pelvic region to receive a large globular bowl of Type 1Ka as a (new) burial gift; with 8 pots this type is the most frequent of the 17 types new to KC II but not coming from outside and also not known from KC III or IV. During the excavation of the lower part of the skeleton the foreign Type 1I bowl was discovered, broken into mainly large sherds and intermingled with the sherds of a cord-marked carinated bowl Type 1F, at the rim of this pit in such a way that it seems almost certain that these two pots (Finds 4 and 5) had been forcefully dislodged from their original position on the pelvis to allow the insertion of the locally-made pot Type 1Ka (Find 14).
The only pottery items in KC II considered to be proof of contacts with areas outside the local Lower Nam Pasak region are three pots of foreign origin (Ho 1984, I: 51-54, 73). However all three of them have been shown to only indicate such contacts during the time of KC IV and not of KC II while footed bowls with elaborate incised decorations found in KC II burials are thought to be copies of earlier imported such pots into KC IV (Ho 1984, I: 73). Furthermore, a pot in Burial 17 may also indicate contact at the time of KC IV. A large partly cord-marked globular bowl near the right femur of this particular burial is described as being the only pot of its kind in KC II to have an elaborate incised-dentate decoration on the upper body, to be made of very fine clay and to have very thin walls with a highly polished reddish surface (Ho 1984, I: 271); moreover, the photo of this pot (Ho 1984, II: Fig. 11.18 b and c, UBP.73) faintly shows standing empty arches as a decoration motif on the upper body. This description fits perfectly pots of Type 1I three of which are known from KC IV: one as part (Pot "A") of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 2 in F4, the second (Pot "2242") found broken in a stratified layer at 50-60 cm b.s. in the same cutting and sherds of the third (or perhaps fourth and fifth), a much larger pot of the same type (Pot "W", F4), were found scattered throughout stratified layers in F4, F3 and E4 but mostly in F4. The last two pots are classified as Special and Unique Pottery (on site) Nos. 8 and 9, both of unknown status. The abundance, shape and difference in cord-markings of sherds of Pot "W", F4, demonstrate the existence of at least two more pots of the same type in the area of these three cuttings which could not be restored nor even virtually reconstructed. As pots of this type have not been used as grave goods in human burials in KC III or IV but only occurred in a ceramic burial or in situations where they could have been connected with such a burial, it is almost unthinkable that one of them would be imported into KC II as a result of direct and independent contact with its place of origin. Most probably they were part of the large batch of vessels which found their way into the Khok Charoen area over a relatively short time to be buried there, singly or in clusters and independent from human burials just before the Discontinuity. In any case the question remains of how and when a pot of this type became part of the grave goods of an apparently post-Discontinuity burial or whether this burial could therefore be of an earlier date than thought.
The pot Type 1F is unique in KC II but six pots of this type have been found in KC IV (none in KC III): two in Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials 1 and 10, one near 3 but not belonging to it, and the sherds of three in stratified layers; there cannot be any doubt that all six are also part of the same batch of vessels reaching KC IV in pre-Discontinuity times. In the case of the Jar Burial 46 in KC II, the presence of a Type 1F pot as the lid of the jar was one of the reasons for relegating this burial to the time of KC IV; to decide whether the same should be done with Burial 17 which even has two pots originating from KC IV times, its features were compared with other KC II burials. Apart from the two KC IV pots and the later added 1Ka bowl, Burial 17 had six more burial pots: two each of Types 1D and 4Ab both of which were also burial pots in KC III and IV, and two more pots of Types 1Nc and 4Ka which only exist in KC II. There are also ten footed bowls Type 4Ka there, including the one in Burial 17: four in Burial 5 and one each in Burials 7, 10, 24, 29 and 41 (the last one being now considered to be a cache rather than part of a human burial). The orientation of all these burials is head-to-E (or ENE in the case of Burial 29) with the exception of Burial 17 itself which is orientated to SE, and all of them have either Type 1D bowls (Burials 5 and 10) or Type 4Ab footed bowls (one in Burial 7, two in Burial 24 and 5 in Burial 41) or both (two 1D and two 4Ab in Burial 17) amongst their other burial pots except for Burial 29 which has neither of them. In these seven burials (out of 36) there are thus 4 out of 9 (for entire KC II) 1D bowls and 10 out of 14 footed bowls Type 4Ab while there are only two 1D and one 4Ab in entire KC IV and one 1D and two 4Ab in entire KC III. In whatever way these statistically insignificant figures are computed it is clear that, compared with KC IV and III, there were far more pots of these two types in KC II than before the Discontinuity (and also of Type 4Ka of which there were none) and that there was in KC II itself a substantial concentration of them in these E-oriented six burials. One more burial pot in KC II also shows a connection with the outside world but all attempts to trace its origins have so far been unsuccessful. It is Pot CBP 138 (Ho 1984, I: 260; II: Fig. 11.16), a medium-sized slightly restricted bowl of the sui generis Type 1Bc, low direct rim, slight carination at shoulder, hemispheric lower body; outside 299
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand rim and shoulder decorated with a faint dovetailed line, lower body cord-marked, with a 3 cm high effigy of a bull head below shoulder and traces of stubby appliqué legs to allow the pot to stand upright on a flat surface. It was found tilted towards NE on or at the left lower leg of the skeleton of Burial 33. No exact counterpart to this pot or of its decoration could be found, either in Khok Charoen itself nor in any other site in Thailand, but a pot in the shape of a cow (or bull?), albeit with a diameter almost double that of the pot in Burial 33, found at the site of Non Mak La near Lopburi (Higham and Thosarat 1998: 79, Fig. 99) could indicate the area where similar pots could still be found in some un-excavated burials in the many Neolithic or Early Bronze Age sites known to exist there and whence they may have been exported to nearby settlements. Amongst the 114 vessels from Layer 3 (200 BC - AD 200) of the site of Chaibadan near Khok Charoen, three are sufficiently similar in size and shape (Lertrit 2003: 30, Fig. 4a; 31, Fig. 6b and d) to the bull head pot to have served as its model except that there would be a considerable time gap between them. The most likely solution seems to be that this unique pot was made purposefully ad hoc as a gift to the deceased and that the search for its origin is therefore futile. However, Burial 33 is also special inasmuch as it has as the first of the two pots beyond the head (Find 1) another pot unique for Khok Charoen, namely a large bowl of Type 1Ab with an obviously carefully decorated cross-cord-marked body (Ho 1984, II: CBP 63, Fig. 11.8), as opposed to the often
somewhat casually applied vertical cord-marking normal for this type of bowl. Although incomplete and fragmented, the apparently only about 1.30 m long skeleton of Burial 33 is most likely that of a young teenager who enjoyed a privileged status in the community. What can be safely concluded from these figures is that there must have been sporadic direct or indirect contacts with the outside world during the time of the KC II burials including the last phase thereof, resulting in the importation of a series of entirely new pottery types from neighbouring areas, going on hand-in-hand with the continuous use of traditional types as well as some of those taken over from KC IV which perhaps at times occasioned local conflicts. However, there are no signs, in terms of pottery, of direct contacts with southern coastal sites which seem to have ceased after the Discontinuity and that may not have been re-established during the time of KC II or any time soon thereafter. The question is whether this interruption of contacts due to unusually high floods or similar natural disasters may also have had repercussions on other sites contemporary to Khok Charoen in the wider area, such as those across the Central Plain in Kanchanaburi Province. As there are no convincing signs of northeastern connections in the excavated material of KC II (Ho 1984, I: 104) it must be assumed that contacts between KC II and the area east of the Phetchabun range were relatively few.
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CHAPTER 6 Overall Chronology and Conclusions 6.1 Chronology
Radiocarbon Dating in KC I
If "chronology is the backbone of history" it has to be admitted that the site of Khok Charoen suffers from severe problems with its spine in general and individual vertebrae in particular, as the dating of the various parts of the site spans several decades crucial for the development of dating methods in prehistoric archaeology. At the time of the trial excavation, the most commonly used dating method for neolithic or Early Metal Age sites was still the "archaeological" method, based mainly on comparative stratigraphy of soils, morphology of finds and stylistic analysis of decoration motifs. The first "scientific" dating method hailed as being inherently superior, radiocarbon dating (C14), was still in its infancy and needed frequent adjustments, re-calibrations and refinements to be truly reliable. Its major drawback was that inorganic objects could only be dated by association with an organic one, an association which was sometimes doubtful or mistaken, leading to occasional archaeological misrepresentations and diminishing the reputation of this method's trustworthiness. An analogous process took place in the late 1960s with regard to the next very promising such method, thermoluminescence (TL) dating, supposed to make up for this limitation of radiocarbon dating by directly dating pottery, the most important category of finds in neolithic and Early Metal Age sites. This method, too, went through a long period of improvements but fell into disrepute in the 1970s because of certain incorrect applications and interpretations, resulting in a major blunder concerning the dating of bronze in Southeast Asia. In the end, old-fashioned archaeological dating remained the basis for many sites in the region but was not always easy or straightforward because of the disturbed nature and bad state of preservation of quite a few of them.
The first attempt to date Khok Charoen absolutely was made during the trial excavation or KC I. Comparison with some of the excavated pottery of Non Nok Tha – a recently excavated site in north-eastern Thailand from which carbon dates had just been published (Solheim 1967b) – allowed for a combination of archaeological and scientific dating with the result that "the possibility of a date in the second millennium B.C. cannot be excluded" (Watson and Loofs 1967: 256). Although the original Non Nok Tha dates (much too early in our opinion) were later contested, our more moderate estimation remained the working hypothesis throughout the work on the site, in the field as well as thereafter, and is retained with relatively minor amendments (e.g. "middle" of the second millennium BC) to this day as the most likely date for the first occupation of it, probably as a burial ground. Radiocarbon dating of Khok Charoen directly is greatly hampered by the scarcity of datable material (in particular charcoal) in this flood-ravaged site with its pre-Discontinuity layers less than half a metre thick. With this initial tentative dating also began a long series of similar endeavours to obtain absolute dates for finds made in Khok Charoen by comparing them with scientifically dated finds from new sites in Thailand or adjacent countries and in particular with Non Nok Tha which was seen almost as a pendant to Khok Charoen except for the presence of bronze in the former site. This perceived similarity led to persistent speculations about whether Khok Charoen should be called a Bronze Age site and, in preference to other considerations, dating was often taken as the defining criterion in the debate. However, other sites in Thailand also played an important role in this kind of indirect dating, especially with regard to particular objects or groups of objects. The pottery of the neolithic site of Ban Kao in Kanchanaburi Province which showed similarities with that of Khok Charoen (without the KC IV component) was radiocarbon dated to 1770+/-140 BC and 1360+/-140 BC (Sørensen 1967: 110-111). These dates were then used by Watson (1979: 59-60) to examine various theories concerning phases of the local neolithic and Khok Charoen's place in it but no firm conclusion could be reached because dates of both Non Nok Tha and Ban Kao itself were then challenged and the chronological position of the one pot in KC I quoted by Watson for comparison on account of its incised and pricked decoration (the "deposit pot", later Single Vessel Ceramic Burial 1 of KC IV) was still in doubt. It was hoped that yet another site, Khok Phanom Di at the northeastern corner of the Bight of Bangkok, would prove useful for the dating of maritime molluscs as items of personal adornment and of certain decorated pottery types in Khok Charoen because of its meticulously documented and radiocarbon dated
Archaeological dating was a constant "work in progress" during and after the excavations in Khok Charoen and continued well into the analysis of the finds and the writing of reports. Hence the uncertainty surrounding even the most fundamental elements of the overall dating of the site, the chronological sequence of the constituent parts of it, until it was finally worked out that, based on stratigraphy, KC III must have been the oldest, followed by KC I/IV and eventually, after the Discontinuity, KC II. This, however, was true only for the basic structure of the relative chronology of these three interconnected burial grounds. The intricacy of these local interconnections to which connections with the wider world beyond the Nam Pasak valley has to be added, is demonstrated in particular by the distribution in time and space of types of burial pottery (including ceramic burials) and their decoration.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand phases into which it was thought they could be slotted (Higham 2004). This was not to be because of the utter impossibility to correctly estimate the time it takes for a particular maritime mollusc or decoration motif known in Khok Phanom Di to reach Khok Charoen which could theoretically vary from a few weeks to centuries. However, such dates constitute a sometimes interesting, albeit meaningless, terminus a quo.
to the archaeological reality and as the source of error could not be found and rectified, the matter was not pursued any further. One more radiocarbon date for a bone from KC III (in this case a proximal radius fragment of a water buffalo) was obtained in 2004 from the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory, University of Waikato (Hamilton, NZ) with the result (Wk 15036) of 2881+/-42 BP or 919-835 BC. This particular bone, having been found in the 50-60 cm b.s.-spit of cutting E5 near its N-baulk which there corresponds to the first post-Discontinuity soil {3}, therefore dates the time of settlements or a burial ground in the area of Khok Charoen after the great flood, i. e. KC II, and indirectly also the duration of the ensuing gap in the occupational sequence. Although based on evidence some of which had to be revised later on, Watson (1979: 55) estimated the change in the soil regime (the Discontinuity) as having occurred around 1000+/-300 BC; signs of human presence thereafter, albeit only in the form of the bone of a hunted animal, indicate that the period without human occupation could have been as short as a century or about four generations. In this context it may be taken into account that probably not too many generations could have passed for a community still to remember where their ancestors' burial grounds (KC I/IV and KC III) were situated to return to that particular place to establish their own (KC II) next to them; most likely this was within living memory.
Thermoluminescence Dating in KC II Excavations at KC II produced the first scientific dates for the site of Khok Charoen itself in the form of a TL date for one sherd each of a pot of Type 4A (Burial 1, Find 2), "TL Age" = 1180 BC, "Probable limits of error" = 880-1480 BC and of Type 4C (Burial 10, Find 6), "TL Age" = 1080 BC, "Probable limits of error" = 780-1380 BC. Both these dates (91h1 and 91g2) are from the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Oxford (Zimmerman and Huxtable 1969), revised in 1970 (Ho 1984, I: 132-133), which then still had a rather large margin of error, expressed in "BC" terms by the dater himself. These dates could nevertheless be considered as not only corroborating the suggestion made at the conclusion of the trial excavation preceding KC II that dates for Khok Charoen were possibly in the second millennium BC but that they could even be in the middle of that millennium if the limits of error were to be taken into account. However, this dating was done at a time when the relative chronology of the three parts of the site was not yet clarified and when the large excavation of KC II which followed the test excavation of KC I was seen as the representative of the site; now the dates of 1080 BC and 1180 BC must be taken as being those for the latest cemetery of Khok Charoen preceded by older ones of KC III and KC I/IV. In spite of earlier doubts and criticisms, it was eventually accepted that these two TL dates from Khok Charoen "correctly date the site", i.e. KC II (Bayard 1997: 916).
Thermoluminescence Dating in KC III After these unsatisfactory experiences with the dating of human skeletal material another dating method was used to solve the problem of absolute and relative dating of the two burial orientations in KC III. Two pots of two burials of each orientation were TL-dated in 1976 by the Physics Department, Australian National University (Tests No 265-272). At first sight the results seemed not only to confirm the relative chronological position of the two phases but also to suggest a much longer interval between them than was anticipated according to the pedological evidence. The average age of the four pots from Head-to-North burials was (in 1976) 3303.8 +/- 394.9 years, thus roughly 1330 BC, while that of the pots from Head-to-East burials was only 2351.3 +/- 355.8 years, or about 375 BC; the surprisingly long interval of almost a thousand years was very difficult to accept. However, these conclusions were put into question by the dater himself who stated that "the difference in the mean ages is not significant. There are more than 10 chances in 100 that the measured difference could be found by random sampling of the same population." (Mortlock 1976). These dates, both in absolute and relative chronological terms, had therefore to be treated with circumspection. But keeping in mind that there seem to be far more chances that these measured differences are significant, although their exact values may remain in doubt, and taking the situation of Burials 1 and 1a into account, it was thought justifiable to surmise that the Head-to-North orientation must, after all, be the earlier burial phase in KC III.
Radiocarbon Dating in KC III Like in KC II, the excavated burials in KC III were found to be oriented in different directions, probably indicating distinct burial phases. In KC III there were only two orientations: Head-to-North and Head-to-East and there was only one instance where two burials, the North-oriented Burial 1a being overlaid by the East-oriented Burial 1, indicated the chronological sequence of the two. To test the assumption that Head-to-North was the older burial phase followed by the Head-to-East burials, and to gain some knowledge of the length of the interval between these phases, human bone samples from skeletons of three burials of each orientation were submitted in 1973 to the newly established radiocarbon dating laboratory at the Australian National University, Department of Geophysics and Geochemistry, for bone carbonate, apatite and collagen tests to determine their age. Unfortunately, the dates obtained in no way corresponded 302
Overall Chronology and Conclusions No Single Vessel Ceramic Burial in KC IV cuts directly into a human burial but sherds of one of them (Pot "Q", being SVCB 8), thought to originate just outside the excavated area, have been found in human Burials 9, 6 and 6a in such a way that there can be no doubt that these burials existed already when the sherds were deposited on top of them. However, three Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials (VCCB 6, 9 and 10), considered to be roughly contemporaneous with the SVCBs because of similar decoration motifs, do cut into human burials. VCCB 6 consists of four large pots in a pit dug into the centre of Burial 12 (Types 1L, 2C, 4K and 1E), VCCB 9 consists of another large globular bowl Type 1L in a pit dug partly into the right leg of Burial 13, and VCCB 10 of three pots close together (Types 4F, 1Fa and 1Fb) in a pit on the left side of the feet of the same burial. Burial 12 being of the Earlier phase and Burial 13 of the Later one only indicates that this kind of ceramic burial (i.e. the VCCBs) must be even younger than the Later burial phase but not by how much. The type of incised and impressed decoration of the four decorated pots involved (Types 1L, 2C and 4K of VCCB 6 and Type 1L of VCCB 9) is consistent with that of the two known tetrapod vessels Type 8A in Burials 8 and 9, thus dating the latter to the same period but asking the question of how they came to be burial pots in KC III which is supposed to be older than KC IV.
Thus, while the first four dates are acceptable in that they reflect at least the archaeological reality of greater age in lower layers, the last two dates are so much outside the proposed chronological framework that they look simply wrong. As far as E6 item 7 is concerned this may be explained by the fact that this sherd was of a type unique in KC III, origin unknown but obviously coming from outside, and also that this was the only one of the six tests with only a one-star rating of reliability. It thus seems that the date of 2471 BC can safely be ignored in the context of trying to date the post-Discontinuity pottery of KC III. With the choice of the last sherd (E6 1468), supposed to date the pre-Discontinuity period in KC III, a mishap must have occurred inasmuch as it is almost certainly a stray find from the uppermost pot Type 5A (a domestic-only bowl used exclusively in post-Discontinuity KC III) in the only vessel cluster ceramic burial in KC III, situated in E6. This Type 5A pot being an undecorated bowl, its sherds can easily be mistaken for those of other vessels with undecorated parts. The pit for this ceramic burial of three pots had been dug from {3} through {5} into bedrock in such a way that the top pot was just at the height of the Discontinuity divide and its upper part was much disturbed by water action. The date of AD 399 is therefore that of this pot from {3}, instead of one from {5}, and in view of the three-star rating perfectly acceptable, being well within the expected range and sequence of the other dates for post-Discontinuity pottery in KC III.
This question is complicated by the fact that the two burials in which these two pots were found are of two different orientations but also have aspects in common. Like the three other burials of KC III with E-orientation, i.e. of the Later burial phase, Burials 8 and 9 were dug into, or lying on, the surface of {6} and were covered with {5}. The only items distinguishing Burials 8 and 9 from the other excavated burials of this phase in KC III are their special burial pots unique to this part of the site but decorated in a manner (or being of a type, as in the case of the footed bowl Type 4F) which links them to KC IV and Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burials therein.
Radiocarbon Dating in KC IV A radiocarbon date for human bone material from Burial 6 has been obtained in 2004 from the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory, University of Waikato, Hamilton NZ (Wk-15038): 2853+/-33 BP or 849 BC. As the 68.2% calibrated range of this date is 1050-930 BC and the 95.4% calibrated range 1130-910 BC, a date of around 1000 BC should be taken as secure. Recent standard introductions to archaeology state, however, that such an age now comes with the proviso that most dates in radiocarbon years are underestimates, by hundreds of years to around 3500 years ago and up to a thousand years in the Pleistocene. Since in the case of the Discontinuity in Khok Charoen, the underestimate effect of radiocarbon years compared to their calibrated date would be around 200 years and taking into account that even the calibrated dates usually carry again a +/- figure of a number of years, it becomes evident that one or two radiocarbon dates alone cannot clarify the chronological position of burials or layers within a sequence which itself straddles only a few centuries. In the meantime it could be argued that a date of about 1200 BC is the most likely one for the skeleton of Burial 6, although as a date coming from a reputable laboratory it can only be quoted as 849 BC.
In an attempt to gain more knowledge of the detailed chronology of KC III, six suitable potsherds (three from the middle post-Discontinuity layer {2}, two from the lowest post-Discontinuity layer {3} and one from the only pre-Discontinuity layer {5}) were again TL-dated by the Physics Department, Australian National University, in late 1979 (Tests No. 1081-1083 and 1087-1089) with the following results ("Apparent Age" given in AD/BC years). Sherd no E8 1063 H5 1084 F6 1566 E6 1429 E6 Item 7 Discontinuity E6 1468
Soil {2} {2} {3} {3} {3} ------{5}
Test no 1087 1082 1089 1083 1088 ------------1081
Index ** *** ** *** * --------***
Apparent age AD 679 AD 199 97 BC 791 BC 2471 BC --------------------AD 399
Summary
Table 6.1, Apparent age of selected KC III sherds
From the survey of the radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dates obtained over the years from 303
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand different laboratories for the different parts of Khok Charoen it appears that, as far as this particular period in time is concerned, TL dates can, after all, be more credible than radiocarbon ones. The following tentative construction of a general chronological framework for the site of Khok Charoen is based only on the two scientific dating methods of radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dating. For greater clarity, only the medium values (without the +/- range) of those dates are listed which fit approximately into the broad time frame arrived at through archaeological dating..
AD 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 BC 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
TL 679 399 199 97 791 1244 -
KC III C14 877 -
KC IV TL 1212 -
C14 849 -
TL 1080 1180 -
KC II
that on the grounds of scientific dating the 13th century BC would be acceptable as the time of the earliest occupation of Khok Charoen although on the grounds of archaeological dating some burials could be still older. The next big problem in the chronology of the site is to establish a scientifically based date for the Discontinuity and, if at all possible, for its duration. For the former there are only the two TL dates for KC II available which are contradictory in themselves inasmuch as the younger one (1080 BC) is supposed to date the E-oriented Burial 10 of the middle phase whereas the older date (1180 BC) is that of the SE-orientated Burial 1 of the youngest burial phase in KC II (Ho 1984, I: 21-22). While this apparent contradiction can be explained by the overlapping margins of error which leave the space of 500 years to accommodate the 200 years needed to reverse these two dates, these same generous margins of probability prevent us from pinpointing the date of any event falling within this time span or its duration if it is surmised to be less than that. Watson's initial estimate of the date of the change in the soil regime falling somewhere between 700 and 1300 BC foreshadowed already this difficulty which has been in no way diminished let alone eliminated by any scientific date obtained since the time he made it.
C14 -
What is left is once again only archaeological dating which in this case is best based on the layers in which the objects to be dated were found, provided there is reason to believe that they were in situ there. The definition of soil layers was therefore the primary concern of the excavators as the relative dating of the different parts of the site depended on it. However, soils themselves could not be dated absolutely except by analogy with comparable sites in the wider neighbourhood with a solid coverage of radiocarbon or thermoluminescence dates but which would ipso facto be subject to the same doubts regarding reliability. The site most suited to such an exercise seemed to be Non Nok Tha, on the other side of the Phetchabun mountain range which also experienced flooding, some soils of which had in some respects been likened to those of Khok Charoen and the two seasons of which (1966 and 1968) together are dated by 36 radiocarbon and TL dates for all layers down (including +/- ranges) to 3315 BC. However, the fact that in spite of their number these dates are far from conclusive is clear from the comments of the excavator that "an imaginative person could construct at least four quite distinct sequences" from them (Bayard 1979: 19). Not only did this spell the end of attempts to obtain reliable dates for comparison with Khok Charoen but it also indicated that the entire scientific dating system in Southeast Asian prehistoric archaeology was in disarray and that a rock-solid absolute date was nowhere to be found. This being so even after another thirty years of research, the only way out is to admit that, while the chronological frame concerning millennia is by now relatively secure, that of the centuries between them is still elusive and attempts to remedy to this situation have so far been unsuccessful. In a more recent publication endeavouring to survey the development of the chronology of early bronze since 1966, Bayard himself while agreeing with the gist of this opinion even excludes
Table 6.2, Results of Carbon dating and Thermoluminescence testing, KC III, IV and II This table shows not only the paucity of relatively reliable scientific dates for the dating of the three parts of the site in pre- and post-Discontinuity times as well as the duration of the Discontinuity itself but also the very unequal distribution of these dates in kind, time and space, i.e. KC III, IV and II. Of the altogether eleven dates, only two are radiocarbon dates (849 and 877 BC), one each for KC III and IV, while the other nine are TL dates, six of which for KC III, two for KC II and one for KC IV. With regard to the periods thus dated, nine dates (including the two TL dates from KC II) refer to post-Discontinuity times and only the two TL dates of 1244 and 1212 BC to the time before the Discontinuity. However, if the underestimated two centuries are added to the two radiocarbon dates, they would also fall into pre-Discontinuity times as proposed by archaeological dating albeit later than assumed but the +/- margins of these upgraded dates could probably compensate for the difference. All this to say that one would arrive at a point where it would be possible to claim
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Overall Chronology and Conclusions millennia from being secure signposts in the confusing landscape of Southeast Asian archaeology (Bayard 1997).
achieve this aim, helped by the few instances of burials cutting into another.
With specific regard to the chronological comparison of Non Nok Tha with Khok Charoen and the help expected from the supposedly well-dated former site to reliably date the less well dated latter one, we are thus left in a very unsatisfactory situation. Not only is there no help coming from Non Nok Tha to fit into the chronological framework elaborated by using the available local evidence but the more the dates for Non Nok Tha are analysed and "edited" (e.g. by eliminating dates from individual laboratories or for certain categories of finds), the more the gap between the two sites looks unbridgeable. Using one of these sanitised versions of the Non Nok Tha dates, Spriggs (1997: 943) came indeed to the conclusion that "a reduced but (with one exception) consistent suite of radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dates … suggest initial occupation of the site at about 3000 BC [and] the use of bronze starting at about 2500 BC". There is just no way to reconcile such a chronology, as well-considered as it may be, with that of Khok Charoen which proposes an initial occupation at the earliest at 1500 BC and has no bronze in spite of it having already apparently been in use in Non Nok Tha for a thousand years. However, in the same volume in which the above contributions by Bayard and Spriggs appeared, there also was one by Higham (1997: 868-883) which, containing a "Postscript" and an "Addendum", not only expounds in detail his own conclusion that the beginning of bronze working in Southeast Asia must have been around 1500 BC but also deals especially with the case of Non Nok Tha and brings the general debate of the bronze-question up-to-date (i.e. that of the publication in 1997 of the Proceedings of a Conference in Kioloa, NSW, Australia, in 1988). For an "archaeological" contribution to this debate by the writer, see infra, section on "Pottery Decoration, Chronology".
KC III, The Earliest Burial Ground The only burial of KC III in which a marine mollusc (the Pacific tree oyster Isognomon isognomon) was found is Burial 5. Although it is not certain that it was one of this burial's grave goods, this shell could have been a useful chronological marker if the time of its importation was known. As this is not so, it does not in itself prove that Burial 5 was the oldest burial but it conforms to the other nine excavated burials of KC III in lying directly on or in bedrock, to five of them in having a head to N-orientation indicative of being a burial of the earlier burial phase and to two of them (Burials 3 and 4) in being covered by a layer of the same soil {6} in which they are lying. These three are thus contemporaneous and candidates for the title of first burial in Khok Charoen but there is no further stratigraphical criterion available to determine which of them is that first burial. The depth b.s. of their respective skeletons which is more or less the same for all three (90-100 cm), cannot be used for this purpose because in the circumstances a difference of a few centimetres over a distance of 10 m is meaningless. Each of the three burials has to be scrutinised individually. Burial 3 is not a real burial but the more or less accidental resting place of a dead man in a trench or a natural hollow. There are no burial gifts or personal adornments to give an indication of the man’s background or social status. If the dead tall man was the first human to set foot in the place which became the burial ground KC III, the questions arise of how and why? Who or what killed him? Whatever the answers to these questions would be (if ever they could be found at all), it is somehow difficult to think of this unceremonious interment as the first of nine other burials excavated in KC III, unless one surmises that it was the reason for the location of the other burials.
6.2 Conclusions The Beginnings
Burial 4, being a real burial, is also enigmatic on several accounts. Both skeletons, that of an adult woman and what is left of that of a teenage girl lying on her, are unadorned although the three large footed bowls as burial gifts indicate that the buried individuals could not have been paupers or exiles. The adult woman’s hands, positioned as if to hold something, almost certainly supported the lower back of the girl rather than the upside down footed bowl found on her pelvis, which originally must have stood upright next to her lower right arm and was pushed up from there onto the space left empty by the unexplained disappearance of the girl’s body or skeleton. The fact that the inside of the foot of this footed bowl contains traces of the lowest post-Discontinuity soil {3} proves that, being the highest part of the burial, it must have been at one time in contact with this soil.
Although the stratigraphy-based tripartition of the cemeteries of Khok Charoen into an earliest one (KC III), a slightly later and partly contemporaneous one (KC IV), both before the Discontinuity, and the latest cemetery (KC II) after the Discontinuity, now seems to be secure and will probably stand the test of time, evidence emerged during closer scrutiny of the archaeological material for the existence in all three cemeteries of individual burials dating from a different time than the bulk of burials in that particular cemetery. Given the sometimes ambiguous situation regarding soils within individual cuttings due to natural disturbances, these differences could often not be detected immediately but had to be worked out much later, mainly by comparing grave goods or other non-stratigraphical evidence in attempts to determine which burial or group of burials could be considered the oldest of the entire site; types of burial pottery and the existence of marine molluscs as personal adornments seemed originally to be the most promising means to
These displacements most likely caused by a natural force such as floods coming from a westerly direction while the burial was at least partly exposed. Of the two originally upright standing footed bowls beyond the head of the 305
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand woman, the body of the right (i.e. western) one was broken off its foot and smashed against the left one while its foot remained in its original position , and four small sherds from four large differently cord-marked bowls were found at various parts of the burial: one between these two footed bowls, another on right lower chest, yet another on right upper chest and the fourth under the eastern rim of the footed bowl lying upside-down on the pelvis. This sequence of events can best be explained by assuming two separate floods (or the return movement of a single one), the first of which deposited the extraneous sherds on the body and the second toppled the large footed bowl at the right arm of the woman over to end up on her pelvis and on one of these sherds. The sequence may have been different for the footed bowls beyond her head where such a sherd was found on top of the broken-off body of the western footed bowl. Some of these disturbances could also be the result of adding the supernumerary long-bones to the burial which was obviously done by humans, perhaps in connection with what looks like an extension of the burial pit on its western side.
that of all the excavated burials of KC III it was the only one to have been the object of grave robbery in post-Discontinuity times. Two pits had been dug from the surface of soil {5} at the height of the pelvis and of the left knee, precisely the places where there are signs that a Type 1K bowl may have originally been positioned. The large cord-marked bowl found at the bottom of the vessel cluster ceramic burial in E6 is of the same shape, dimensions and make (including clear signs of an impact on the lower body) as the other six known Type 1K bowls, all believed to have been part of the furniture of Burial 5. It is argued here that this bowl was originally also a burial pot of that burial (the missing one on the pelvis), that it was retrieved by post-Discontinuity people who knew of its existence and that it was transferred by them in whatever way to the bottom of a pit dug near Burial 4. The origin of the pot between this Type 1K bowl and the "pie-crust" bowl on top of the pile in the pit, a small cord-marked globular bowl Type 1Ab, is equally significant. It is the only pot of this type in KC III but has its counterparts in two burial pots (Burial 8, Find 19 and Burial 9, Find 10) and at least six non-attributable burial pots in KC IV. There can be no doubt that this pot, also intentionally broken, was taken from the KC IV part of the site, perhaps in order to create a "time capsule" or some other kind of memorial.
There is a striking similarity between Burials 4 and 5 in spite (or because) of being that of a woman and the other that of a (taller) man. They are both in supine position, arms stretched out with hands turned slightly inwards as if holding something on their pelvis, right leg complete but foot turned sharply up and inwards. In both burials there is a stone near left leg and in both the space between stone and legs is disturbed as if an object was forcibly taken out. The pelvic region of both skeletons shows signs of having been disturbed to tamper with objects there. Whether these similarities are a coincidence or the result of a concerted action by some humans to get at something of value for them (body of the girl here and large vessel there) may never be found out but the possibility of some more foul play in this extraordinary cemetery cannot be excluded.
At to the pot on or at the left knee, which apparently also was an object the grave robbers were after (why else would they have dug a pit there?), it opens a new vista on the purpose of this particular grave robberry inasmuch as the “robbers” were not wanting to dig up any type 1K bowl, but were clearly looking for one specific bowl of this type. They found it in the one on the pelvis (Pot “1529”, no find number) which they put into the “time capsule” near Burial 4 but not without having tried out two other such bowls; the one under the head of Burial 5 (= Find 7) which was later found dispersed throughout cuttings E5 and E7, and the one at the left knee (Pot “1533”, also without find number).
Several more questions about this burial and its history remain to be answered, especially the one whether Burial 4, rather than the equally disturbed Burial 5, was the earliest burial in Khok Charoen. The definite answer depends unfortunately on the almost impossible secure identification of those four tiny cord-marked sherds deposited on Burial 4, most probably by water action coming from the west. As to the west of this is Cutting F6 in which sherds of a type 1K pot from Burial 5 were found, it is quite possible that some of them found their way on to Burial 4, proving thereby that it was there before Burial 5. However, to reach cutting F6 and even E7 where Type 1K sherds have also been excavated, they must have been transported from Burial 5 in a northerly or north-easterly direction whereas those on Burial 4 came from the west or northwest. If opting nevertheless for Burial 4, one would have to wonder why a location next to the feet of this burial was later chosen for a pit containing pottery samples from various phases from the history of Khok Charoen (see below). The answer to that question turned out to be simply that those people who dug this pit after the Discontinuity did not know of the existence of Burial 4.
Pot “1533” was found as a compact heap of sherds 5 m. due east in the southeastern corner of E5, sitting on the same surface of {5} from which the two pits were dug i.e. not in its pit itself; it could be restored and revealed signs of an impact at its bottom. This situation can best be explained by assuming that this pot was lifted out from its place, found not to be the right one and deposited as it was (perhaps broken but kept together) a short distance away from where the action was, namely the continuation of the search for the right 1K bowl via the other pit. As the dimensions of pots “1529” (W: 38 cm, H: 33.5 cm) and “1533” (W: 36 cm, H: 30.5 cm) are almost the same, the most probable reason why one was preferred to the other may well have been that one bowl contained something the other did not, but what it was remains unknown. Burial 5 may thus have had a dramatic history in which these large bowls appear to have played a rôle. This burial of a rich and important man (suggested by its many burial pots) shows all the hall-marks of what could perhaps best be interpreted as an act of revenge or an expression of anger or hatred. The head had its face smashed in and was
The importance of Burial 5 is also emphasised by the fact 306
Overall Chronology and Conclusions pushed so violently against the Type 1K bowl behind it that the back of the head burst open and the skull fragments spread outward in the manner of the petals of half a flower. (The entire chest is also thoroughly broken and damaged beyond recognition).
near the elbow although they looked like being from the same pot, it is possible that the two clusters indicate after all the existence of two different pots, that the one containing the human bones was a remnant of the primary burial and that it had something to do with the elimination of the body therein.
As has been mentioned in the description of this burial in the section on "Human Burials" (Chap. 2) this fact is highly significant as for a skull to break in this way, the surface against which it is thrown or pushed must be even harder, meaning in this case that the thin-walled Type 1K bowl must at that time have been filled with a hard substance which, given this pot's fragility, is difficult to imagine for a primary burial. If this theory is correct, the skeleton cannot have been that of the originally buried individual but of a later one as a secondary burial in the place occupied by the one whose head was resting against an empty Type 1K bowl placed there as a burial gift. At an unknown time after this primary burial, when the bowl was filled with hardened soil, the original body was removed and the new one thrown into the burial in the manner described above but for a skull to open the way it did, it must be dry, brittle and as hollow as possible, meaning that the new “body” was almost certainly a relatively old skeleton.. Eventually, during natural compaction, the bowl full of soil also broke and was later carried away in a northeasterly direction, leaving one-third of it behind under the head while the remaining two thirds were found scattered throughout the adjacent cuttings E5 and E7 in {5} and even to F6 in {3}.
In any case, with 12 pots as burial gifts (i.e. the seven known Type 1K bowls plus one more attested by isolated sherds, one smaller bowl Type 1Ba and three footed bowls Type 4A), the intentional breaking of only the Type 1K bowls amongst them and the bizarre manner of the interment itself, Burial 5 is the most puzzling burial in KC III. However, there is nothing incontestable to single it out as being the first of the three earliest burials in KC III in spite of being the only one to have a marine mollusc in it and having an extraordinary and unique burial pottery which seems to have set into motion a train of events affecting Khok Charoen communities from beginning to end. And yet, the image of a burial laden with at least eight of these huge but useless (burial only) Type 1K bowls, found only in this one burial and apparently coming from nowhere, offers itself to be interpreted as a sign of the beginning of the use of this spot as a burial ground by a new community having just settled in this area. Transition from KC III to KC IV After Burial 5, KC III had apparently been used as a special burial ground, as there were a double burial including an unusually robust male individual (Burial 2), a multiple burial including a teenaged girl with a fatal head-wound (Burial 4), an unadorned interment (Burial 3), two burials of different orientations one of which cuts into the other (Burials 1 and 1a), one disturbed burial of a woman with 11 burial pots and signs of having been interfered with by humans (Burial 6), burial pots with pricked decoration of a burial which could not be excavated (Burial 7), and two burials (one of them being a double burial of, again, two unusually robust tall males) having a large tetrapod bowl Type 8A between their feet (Burials 8 and 9). One gets the impression that this cemetery was meant to be the final resting place of very disparate people who seem to have nothing in common except for not being ordinary. In terms of relative chronology (always assuming Burial 5 to be the first on this hitherto empty ground) the following sequence can be constructed. The next burials were the two N-oriented ones 4 and 1a (and perhaps the interment of 3); they were followed by the E-oriented Burials 1, 2 and 6 of which Burial 1 is the most revealing because by cutting through 1a it shows that either the time span between the two was too long for the existence of 1a to be remembered or that a new group of settlers had arrived who had no knowledge of these older burials. While in the southern part of the excavated area of KC III the N-oriented Burials are deemed to be the oldest, this rule does not seem to apply in the more northern part, where Burials 8 and 9 are differently oriented (N and E, respectively) and the partly excavated Burial 7, apparently N-oriented, has at its feet one burial pot (Type 4Ab) which occurs in an early burial (Burial 4) and another (Type 4Eb) which is unique on the
However, the restored bowl showed evidence, in the form of a well-defined round hole in its lower body with fissures radiating from it, of having been intentionally broken but still keeping sufficiently together to be transported over short distances. Such a hole could not be seen on the other two Type 1K bowls found directly with this burial because the lower part of their bodies was not preserved but the other such pots which could be restored showed the same signs. There is therefore reason to assume that all Type 1K bowls known from the site were originally part of the grave goods of Burial 5 and that they had all been intentionally damaged or marked in this way either before or after they were put into the grave. The empty bowl against which the head of the original body was leaning was then gradually filled with soil without collapsing. Following the hypothetical scenario outlined above, this would still leave us with the question of what happened to the originally buried body of which no traces were found. Although no satisfying answer can be given concerning the body itself, the intriguing Find 9 of this burial may be connected with this problem. This find consists of two parts thought to belong together, namely a cluster of sherds from a Type 1K bowl at the right elbow of the excavated skeleton, and a rim-sherd together with a number of small body-sherds of what seems to be the same pot near (slightly lower than) its right knee, found only after the lifting of the skeleton. Scraps of human bone, including an adult vertebra and five teeth of a 5 year-old child, were discovered within the latter cluster. As none of the sherds of that cluster fitted to any sherd of the cluster 307
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand site and cannot be assigned to any particular phase. The latest burials must have been Burials 8 and 9 having as burial pots Type 8A bowls with the same characteristic incised-and-pricked decoration as the pots in ceramic burials which now appear in KC IV, marking the end of the use of the KC III area as a cemetery.
three generations, it seems not unreasonable to propose that the entire phase of KC III lasted less than a century. Early Influences from Coastal Sites At the time of KC III and the early phase of KC IV sporadic but significant influences reached Khok Charoen from the southern coastal site of Khok Phanom Di (and/or similar sites nearby) which had first been detected as signs of human activity amongst the burials of KC II but obviously preceding them, showing that this particular burial ground was not totally untrodden terrain before it became the post-Discontinuity cemetery. The most convincing proof for this statement is Burial 19 in Cutting G5. This burial consists only of a skull which was found in a near to upright position, face turned to E, top of skull at 35 cm b.s., teeth at 47 cm b.s. (Ho 1984, I: 191), consistent with the supposition that the pit for it was dug from the lowest, pre-Discontinuity soil layer {5} just above bedrock. No bones of the post-cranial skeleton were found, leading to the conclusion that the head was the only part of the body to be in this way interred and, considering that personal adornments were still adhering to it, that it was the freshly severed head and not a skull. These adornments consist, amongst others, of objects not found in KC II burials (a disk made of the top of a Conus shell, ear-ornaments made of the marine mollusc Bullata ventricosa [?] and cowrie shells) while they occur in KC IV and one is unique to the head-burial. There can be no doubt that this head-burial is at least as old as the burials of KC IV and is one of the culturally most important finds of Khok Charoen. It is matched by the child-burial Burial 10a of KC IV with which an almost identical Conus shell disk was found, presumably as remnant of a head adornment, together with Oliva sp. shells. In turn, these two disks are identical to the one on the left shoulder of the woman ("The Princess"), in Burial 15 of Khok Phanom Di (the disk on the right shoulder is a copy made from a Tridacna shell, see Higham and Thosarat 1993: 172), attesting to a direct connection between that site and Khok Charoen. This direct connection produced several significant results, some of which are still not yet fully understood. One is that it implies that at least some transfer of trade goods and in particular luxury items, as well as of ideas concerning pottery manufacture and decoration, was not done through middlemen but by individuals or groups of people travelling directly from Khok Phanom Di to Khok Charoen and back "and this may well have involved men or women moving permanently from one to the other" (Higham 2002: 111). Another of these results is that there is the distinct possibility that in the process of transmitting items of material culture there was also some involvement in the social affairs of Khok Charoen as an example of which one could quote the strange coincidence of the discovery of a headless male skeleton below Burial 4 next to Burial 15 ("The Princess") in Khok Phanom Di (Higham 1997: 841, 846) while not long afterwards the head of an individual bearing adornments like hers was buried in Khok Charoen. This is not to suggest that this head must be the one of the decapitated male in Khok Phanom Di but this parallel is too bizarre for not to ask for an explanation.
In the absence of reliable absolute dates the duration of this earliest phase of the site (KC III) can only be estimated. If in most contemporary societies the memory of one's ancestors does not go much beyond the grand-parents or at the most great grand-parents, i.e. up to a hundred years, after which the location of their graves is generally forgotten, it can be argued that in the case of Burials 1 and 1a this is the most likely time span which separates the two, whether Burial 1 was of the same or of a different community. There are some difficulties in trying to establish a relative chronology based on items of material culture between these two and any of the other burials in KC III because this cannot be done between Burials 1 and 1a themselves. The only such items in Burial 1a are 24 shell disk-beads and a stone adze of which none were found in Burial 1, whereas Burial 1 has only 7 burial pots while there are no such pots in the excavated part of Burial 1a. The seven burial pots of Burial 1 are of types absent or rare elsewhere in KC III (not counting the footed bowl Type 4A, present throughout Khok Charoen), i.e. Types 1C, 1Ca, 3E, 4Aa, 4C and 4D, while in KC IV they are more numerous. Evidence for the existence of pots of these types in KC III is derived from only two burials, both with E-orientation: Burials 1 and 6. In KC IV, they were in four burials: Burials 1, 3, 8 and 9. Burials 8 and 9 are both oriented NE, whereas 1 and 3 are oriented SW and N respectively. The pots of each of these six types were identical in all respects (ware, dimensions, surface treatment) in both parts of the site in such a way that it must be assumed that the burials were contemporaneous and the buried individuals in KC III and KC IV came from the same settlement. This is particularly obvious in the case of the footed bowl Type 4D which bears the same intricate pricked-and-incised decoration as three such pots in Burials 3 and 9 of KC IV, both burials of the Later phase. As no pottery was discovered with any of the four burials of the Earlier phase in KC IV there is no opportunity to compare burial pots of that phase in KC IV with those of the early phase (North orientation) of KC III but, taking the stratigraphical evidence into account, there can be little doubt that the early phase of KC III precedes that of KC IV and that its burial pottery has to be considered the oldest of Khok Charoen. Four types of this pottery can be sorted out as the oldest: 1Ba, 1K, 4A and 4Ab, i.e. those of Burials 5 and 4. All pot-types in the other KC III burials are also found in KC IV; the only type not to be found there is Type 1K of Burial 5. While this fact can be seen as supporting the hypothesis that Burial 5 was the first burial in KC III, it does not help to estimate the duration of the time span during which KC III was used as a cemetery until it was abandoned, presumably at the same time as KC IV as a burial ground for humans. Assuming that the burials in KC III could fit into the time of two or 308
Overall Chronology and Conclusions The Original KC IV
The Impulse from Outside During the Later Phase of KC IV
The "Promontory", the highest and most prominent part of the entire site where the excavations of KC I/IV were situated, is also the area where the complexity of the site of Khok Charoen is most evident.
The period just prior to the Discontinuity is the most decisive in the relatively short history of the site of Khok Charoen but also the one which poses the most problems. It is not clear why the group(s) of settlers who used to bury their dead over several generations in Khok Charoen abandoned their burials and moved away, leaving the field to newcomers, why these newcomers chose this area for their ceramic burials, where they buried their dead and where they had their settlements. What seems to be certain is that at least two distinct but probably related groups of settlers were involved, one bringing with them a series of new vessel types, including the iconic globular bowl Type 1L, only found in vessel cluster ceramic burials, and a slightly later one associated with the elongated gourd-shaped jars Type 1M found exclusively as single vessel ceramic burials. In addition, there must have been an earlier group of newcomers leaving two Type 8A tetrapod vessels in burials of KC III (Burial 8, Find 2 and Burial 9, Find 7) at a time when the cemeteries of both KC III and KC IV were still operational. This vessel type is sui generis but is decorated in a style similar to vessels found in the ceramic burials of KC IV and is obviously of the same cultural background. Although their decoration shows a "family likeness", the three pot-types 8A, 1L and 1M are discrete entities and no pot of a group of any one type has been found amongst that of any other, e.g. no Type 1L vessel was found as a single vessel- and no Type 1M jar was found in a vessel cluster ceramic burial, supporting the assumption that each type was introduced separately and at a different time. To find two Type 8A vessels in KC III can only mean that there was a connection between KC III and KC IV but it does not say whether there was an interval between the introduction of these vessels to KC III and that of Type 1L bowls to KC IV. Moreover, the two KC III burials in which the 8A pots were found, and therefore the pots themselves, are perhaps not even of the same age as is suggested by the fact that in Burial 9 the 8A pot was accompanied by one of the only two cord-marked carinated footed bowls Type 4F in Khok Charoen, while the other was in Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 10 in KC IV. This indicates that at least Burial 9 of KC III must have been contemporaneous with KC IV's vessel cluster ceramic burials as opposed to Burial 8 which, with the Type 8A pot as the only burial gift, was probably older but such small differences in age cannot be clarified by local stratigraphical evidence.
Human burials were found on the Promontory from the westernmost cutting to the southeastern-most ones while single vessel and vessel cluster ceramic burials were concentrated in these southeastern cuttings; many more of these three types of burials towards N and W may, of course, have remained un-excavated. While single vessel ceramic burials have not been found near enough to human burials to date them relative to the latter, three instances of vessel cluster ceramic burials cutting into human burials make it possible to establish a very basic relative chronology within KC IV. NB: orientation of burial in brackets. Cutting F4: VCCB 5, adjacent to Burials 11 and 11a (SSE), is about 10 cm higher than the latter. Cutting E4: VCCB 6 cuts into Burial 12 (SE) which cuts into Burial 15 (S). Cutting F3: VCCB 9 cuts into Burial 13 (N). Given that both, single vessel and vessel cluster ceramic burials, are of the last period preceding the Discontinuity, all human burials into which they had been cut or near which they have been found in a significantly higher stratigraphical position, i.e. Burials 11 and 11a, 12, 13 and 15, must be older than ceramic burials. As these burials belong to both the Earlier and the Later burial phase it can be concluded that all human burials in KC IV are older than the ceramic burials there. As opposed to the burials of the Earlier phase which were surrounded on all sides by {5}, those of the Later phase were dug into {5} but sealed by {4}. The interface between {5} and {4} thus separating the two burial phases is, like the one between {4} and {3}, relatively smooth and even, in contrast to the surface of the bedrock {6} which is quite jagged and bumpy with many natural hollows and ridges while in other places it has disintegrated into a veritable soil layer. The similarity of the {5}/{4} and {4}/{3} interfaces, the latter being that of the Discontinuity after a major flood, can be interpreted as evidence of an earlier flood followed by a renewed use as a cemetery at the beginning of the formation of {4} towards the end of which appear the vessel cluster ceramic burials and, just before the Discontinuity, single vessel ceramic burials. The time laps between these two burial modes, the human and the ceramic one, must have been long enough for the abandoned human burials to be overlaid by a stratum of {4} thick enough to make them unnoticeable to the naked eye as newcomers would presumably not have interred their large decorated vessels there had they seen or known that there were human burials underneath. Burials of the Later phase were thus the last human burials in KC IV before this patch was used exclusively as a burial ground for ceramic burials.
However, amongst the TL-dated pots from the 1976 series of tests to solve the problem of the relative chronology of the two burial orientations in KC III was also the Type 8A bowl of Burial 9, then thought to represent the E-orientation. As its test (Test No. 270) produced three "good" results as opposed to "fair" or "poor" ones, the resulting date of 3220 years (1244 BC) can be taken as being relatively reliable especially as it ties in with another TL dating result of 3190 years (1212 BC) for the Single Vessel Ceramic Burial 2 in KC IV obtained from the same laboratory in 1978 (Test No. 1069). That this Type 8A vessel was TL-dated to be 32 years older than a single 309
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand vessel ceramic burial, a Type 1M jar, may indeed mean that it was put into that KC III burial about a generation before the jar was interred as a ceramic burial in KC IV, itself somewhat younger than the vessel cluster ceramic burials. This would fit well into the theory of there having been a group of newcomers to Khok Charoen preceding the two groups connected with the two different kinds of ceramic burials, although such isolated dates cannot, of course, be taken as solid proof.
burials and that it had been dislocated by the same force which affected the four pots at the western edge of KC III. In KC II these feet are at the deepest at 25 cm b.s. and the top of burials in the same cuttings being at the highest at 40 cm b.s., while in KC III these figures are 54 cm b.s. and 68 cm b.s. respectively. It can therefore be concluded that there was in this SW-part of the site a group of at least five tetrapod vessels probably like, or at least similar to, the known Type 8A bowls much earlier in the N-part, at a time well after the abandonment of the site as a burial ground for human or ceramic burials and that their dispersal was due to another great flood which apart from these feet left little debris behind. The most important conclusion of this stratigraphical, topographical and chronological imbroglio is the realisation that these Type 8A pots in both parts of the site are not contemporaneous, although the fact that there are 100 m2 of un-excavated ground between the two makes it impossible to see whether these were indeed two isolated groups of pots or whether there was perhaps an uninterrupted string of them from KC III to KC IV.
The two Type 8A pots in Burials 8 and 9 of KC III are the only ones of this type complete enough to be physically restored but there is evidence for the existence of at least nine more such pots in the form of 12 isolated feet of them found not only in KC III itself but also in KC IV, in KC II, and one as a surface find. The absence of body-sherds can be explained by water action dislocating large sherds but leaving heavy and compact small objects like these broken-off feet behind although obviously not all four feet must necessarily have broken off and some could also break off after some distance of the pot having been dragged along. It is also quite possible that the importance of these isolated feet for the reconstruction of the ceramic history of the site was not immediately recognised and insufficient attention was paid to spotting sherds which may have been part of Type 8A pots when sorting out the mountains of excavated pottery from the site.
The following sequence of events is thus proposed for the KC III and KC IV burial grounds. After having been used for several generations as a cemetery by settlers who left the area well before the Discontinuity, the site was first visited, at a time of new contacts after what appears to have been a natural disaster with an ensuing short discontinuity, by some people who apparently did nothing more than to introduce a number of large decorated tetrapod vessels which were unlike any pot used by those who had buried their dead there. It seems that these vessels were neither buried nor used for any identifiable purpose and were eventually swept away by floods, leaving only some of their solid feet behind; only two of these large pots survived as grave-goods in Burials 8 and 9 of KC III, i.e. in the northernmost cutting of that excavation where they were sheltered from the floods affecting the KC IV area. After a short span of time but still before the Discontinuity, the area was used as a burial ground for ceramic burials by two groups of people of unknown origin, the first group practising vessel cluster ceramic burials with a large bowl Type 1L as the iconic pottery type, and the second practising single vessel ceramic burials using exclusively Type 1M elongated jars. Both these newcomers were surprised by the catastrophic floods causing the Discontinuity and forced to abandon their ceramic burials but nothing is known about their fate.
In KC IV, the existence of four Type 8A pots is attested by feet found in cuttings E6 and F3 in {5}, and TC2 in {4}. As indicated by the stratigraphical positions of the feet in E6 and F3, the Type 8A pots were earlier than the ceramic burials in these cuttings which are all in {4}, but not connected with any human burial preceding them; the one foot in {4} was on a slope at the edge of the excavated area and possibly not any more in its original layer. The spatial distribution of these feet on the NE-side of the excavated area of KC IV, including the very edge of the "promontory", is a sign that the force which dislocated the pots, undoubtedly heavy floods, came from a westerly direction and pushed the bulk of the body-sherds literally over the edge into the flood plain several metres below; the receding floods would have carried many of these sherds out with them and widespread excavations would be needed to find them. In KC III, where the two preserved Type 8A pots were found in burials dug into {6} and surrounded by {5}, isolated feet of four individual pots were discovered in cuttings G5, H5, and F6, in {2} and {3}, i.e. much higher than the burials in these cuttings and also too distant for having been in any way associated with them. Their stratigraphical position in the post-Discontinuity layers can only be explained by assuming a connection with events which left three such feet stranded in post-Discontinuity KC II, one even with Burial 26 (Find 6) in Cutting F4. This 3 cm-long foot came almost certainly from the same pot as the two other feet of the same length found in stratified deposits in the adjacent cuttings E5 and E6 at the eastern edge of the excavated area, i.e. the one nearest to KC III, meaning that there had only been one Type 8A pot in KC II, that this pot had nothing to do with
The Discontinuity The nature of the "powerful water action" or "erosion flows" which occasioned such widespread disturbances amongst the Khok Charoen burials and were the cause of a gap in the occupational sequence of an unknown duration (the Discontinuity) was for a long time unrecognised. Watson's initial tentative interpretation that this water action could have been the result of an increase in precipitation which reversed local soil accretion to erosion, or local forest and scrub clearance with the same outcome, was soon found to be in need of revision mainly on the grounds that the emphasis was on erosion and on 310
Overall Chronology and Conclusions local conditions only. There are no signs of, nor reasons for, extensive forest or scrub clearance in the only moderately hilly area around Khok Charoen at that time and the only low mountains in the vicinity, the Hang Ta Lat Hills with their main peak at 468 m, stretching to almost 5 km East of the excavations, are not likely to have been able on their own to generate powerful enough erosion flows to devastate the burial grounds of both KC III and IV. The fact, discovered only later during the excavation of KC IV, that the water action causing such disturbances came predominantly from a northern, northwestern or western direction also excludes erosion flows from the Hang Ta Lat Hills as having been the main factor in these events.
flooded locations, at least not within living memory of those who buried their dead there. To the contrary, it may even have been the safety from the ordinary floods which made the mounds attractive as a place for burials. Whatever big floods there could have been, culminating in the one causing the Discontinuity sometime between 1200 and 1000 BC, must have come each time as a terrible surprise. It is tempting to link this situation with the fact that the mythology of most Southeast Asian mountain tribes prominently includes flood-myths not unlike the biblical Deluge (Walk 1949; Li 1955; Porée-Maspero 1955; Corlin 1994; see also Pache 1964: 235-240) but, although almost certainly true, it must remain only a promising possibility until these myths can be dated, if only very approximately, to fit into the chronological framework we are dealing with here. In this connection one might even consider the possibility that the name of the town of Chai Badan (Chaya Badal), meaning "victory over the underworld", explained as referring to the difficult access to the original settlement of that name at the deeply embanked Pasak river, could conceivably also reflect the memory of an ancient flood which played havoc amongst the burials and settlements in places such as nearby Khok Charoen.
However, if the Khok Charoen area is seen in its wider geographical and hydrographical context, it becomes clear that factors other than purely local conditions and forces not primarily connected with erosion must have been the reason for the state in which the Khok Charoen burials have been found. The site, at an altitude of 100 m above sea level, is basically "a low promontory bounded by a small stream, raised above an adjacent flat area suggesting an ancient lake and still subject to seasonal flooding" (Watson 1968: 303). This small stream is connected to rivulets which in turn flow into the Nam Pasak and eventually into the Gulf of Thailand. All along its course until shortly before its junction with the Chao Phraya, the Pasak is contiguous to the Phetchabun Range on its left bank, whereas on its right bank it is bordered near its source by the extension of the Luang Prabang or San Khao Luak Range with mountains which towards the South change into a broken chain of lower and lower hills. Although the Nan and then the Chao Phraya run almost parallel to the Pasak in a North-South direction along the latter's course at an average distance of only about 100 km, the Pasak valley remained separated from the Central Plain by this chain of hills which, however, becomes more and more porous eventually permitting contacts between the two at about 100 m above sea level. One of these openings is now, and very probably also was during the second millennium BC, immediately to the northwest of Khok Charoen which would explain why floods in the Central Plain could affect the site and why they would come from the direction indicated by the damage done to the burials. The 2011 severe floods in Central Thailand, fed by rivers from the northern uplands (the Ping, Wang, Yom and Nan) but not in any way connected with the Mekong, reached as far as the Chai Badan District, showing that this part of the Pasak valley is indeed open to floods coming from a westerly, northwesterly or northerly direction.
There are several indications for floods having reached burials in Khok Charoen in addition to that causing the Discontinuity, although in the disturbed stratigraphy the evidence cannot be followed up with the desired precision. However, if a burial in layer {5} which had clearly been disturbed by water action is overlaid by an intact layer of {4}, it can be argued that there was a flood before the big one. In KC IV such a situation can be observed in Burials 12 and 15. Both are burials of adult males in extended supine position, very low in the deposit (70-82 cm and 75-90 cm b.s. respectively), in and surrounded by {5}, with {4} more than 30 cm above them and no trace of a connection between them and {4}. They were lying head to S (Burial 15) and to SE (Burial 12) in such a way that the feet of Burial 12 cut diagonally into in the right flank of Burial 15. A large gap without bone fragments in both skeletons suggests by its configuration that it was most probably the result of powerful water action. If so, it would mean that there was another flood as early as the time of the first use of the site as a cemetery. Also in the KC IV area, the broken-off feet of Type 8A tetrapod vessels seem to have been the result of a flash flood sometime during the transition period between {5} and {4}. Other signs for perhaps the same flood include Pot "E" (Type 1L) of Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 4. Like other ceramic burials, standing on {5} at 50-60 cm b.s. and surrounded by {4} into which it had been dug, it was exposed by a flood which swept away rim and neck of this pot. Subsequently the upper part of its body had sunk into the lower body and the top was again filled with {4} and yet there were new finds swept in from W on top of this vessel. The difference in colour and weathering of body and foot of Find 5 (a footed bowl Type 4A) of The Unclassifiable Burial in F6 is another sign. This pot was found upright and in situ in a burial trench dug from {4} into {6} and filled with a mixture of both soils. Body and
Although these floods have been an annual event of varying severity for the last thousand years and probably much longer (see also Bishop et al. 1996), filling at times the lowlands around the Khok Charoen mounds like a lake, they would have to rise another five metres (the height of the "promontory", i.e. the site of KC I/IV) and even more, in order to seriously disturb the burials. Such mega-floods cannot have been frequent because cemeteries would not have been located in regularly 311
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand foot were fitting perfectly together but when excavated it was discovered that they were broken and that each part looked different: whereas the body was ochre and smooth, the foot was light grey and covered with lime incrustations. The top part of this footed bowl must therefore have been left exposed for a certain time without being dislocated while the foot remained protected by what was left of the soil covering the pot before the flood but gathered a coat of lime incrustations during that time; the breaking of foot from body and of the body itself into large sherds still fitting together would have happened during the subsequent accumulation of soil on top by compacting but again without dislocation.
transmission of cultural elements from KC III directly to KC II, by-passing KC IV; and on a still more recent level, continuity is clearly visible in the great number of vessel types of KC III and KC IV found in KC II burials, although many new types are added. A particularly interesting and important case of continuity is that of a huge ceramic vessel, with a maximum width of 52 cm the largest Type 1K bowl found on the entire site, which was buried in pre-Discontinuity times before the post-Discontinuity KC II Burial 24 was dug next to it in such a way that it looked like being a burial gift of this burial.
A survey attempting to pinpoint the directions from which floods causing disturbances originated by observing the configuration of burials and the dislocation of objects on the ground, showed a difference between KC III and IV in this matter. Although based on very few data, these floods seem to have come mainly from the E, SE and S for KC III and from SW, W and NW (some also from E and ESE) for KC IV. Even taking into account that floods sometimes have to and fro movements and may also be diverted by topographical features, making their origin difficult to detect, this seemingly basic difference could nevertheless indicate that KC III may have experienced a major flood or floods coming from a southeasterly direction, perhaps the Pasak River valley, as opposed to the Menam plain from which the flood causing the Discontinuity originated. A later flood event involving KC III and KC II well after the Discontinuity, again apparently causing the dislocation of Type 8A vessels which left some of their feet behind, may also be linked with floods coming from an easterly direction although the exact way this could have happened is difficult to conjecture. If the width of the Pasak Valley is disproportionate to the present river within it and various other geographical features suggest that the Pasak once flowed separately to the Bight as an old course of the Mekong (Dobby 1960: 264) it would only need a temporary overflow at the lowest point of the "dam" separating the Pasak from the Mekong or a connection with one of the now insignificant small rivers south of the eastward curve of the latter to let waters of the Mekong pass through and flood the valley. That in this northern part of the Indochinese Peninsula the Mekong can at times rise to surprising heights was shown by the 1966 flood in Chiang Saen when it rose from its deep bed to the plateau 12 m above it and flooded houses there for another 2 m above the plateau. As far as could be ascertained no special study of the hydrographical situation of the area has as yet been published to test the possibility of such events at the turn of the second to the first millennium BC.
The two "jar burials" (Burials 46 and 47) at the western edge of the excavated area of KC II belong to the time of the KC IV burials rather than to those of KC II. The relative dating of them is made easier by the fact that each of them has a pot as lid which is known from KC IV. For Burial 46 it is a carinated cord-marked bowl Type 1F and for Burial 47 a decorated footed bowl Type 4E, foot missing. The outer surface of this bowl being damaged, it was not possible to determine to which sub-type it should be allocated; perhaps it is even a new sub-type or a singleton. Apart from the one in Burial 46, KC II, there are only six Type 1F carinated bowls known from the entire site: one in VCCB 1, four in stratified layers also in KC IV (all in {4} or {5}) and one as a burial pot of Burial 17 of KC II, of unknown origin. As all six (one doubtful) belong to the phase of KC IV just preceding the Discontinuity, the jar in Burial 46, KC II, could belong to any time within this phase. Similar considerations apply to the lid of the jar in Burial 47, KC II. While not being amongst the oldest types of burial pottery on the site, one footed bowl Type 4E with a very simple pricked decoration appears already in KC III but those with the more complex incised-and-pricked decoration come from KC IV and three sub-types are unique to KC II. The lid of Burial 47, KC II, can obviously not date from the time of the KC II burials but goes back to the time of KC IV and possibly even KC III. To assess the situation of KC II burials themselves in terms of how many elements of material and non-material culture of the previous two burial grounds had been continued and what kind of changes had been introduced, the heterogeneous appearance of the KC II cemetery must first be examined. From the number of burials (45), burial groups (4), and types of mortuary practices (6) initially proposed by Ho in her thesis (Ho 1984), it was clear from the outset that KC II was a somewhat complex cemetery. Even though these numbers could be reduced during a process of revising categorisations according to evidence having come to light after the writing of the thesis, this cemetery remains a complicated one several aspects of which are still problematical. The 36 human burials (after the revision) are fairly "ordinary", i.e. single individuals in extended supine position with grave goods in contrast to the cemeteries of KC III and KC IV, there are no child burials and only two double burials. What is problematic is
Post-Discontinuity KC II: How Much Continuity Was There? Continuity can be seen on three levels. On the lowest level, there were cultural influences from outside at a relatively early date, such as those from coastal sites (see above); on the middle level, there was continuity through 312
Overall Chronology and Conclusions the origin and history of some of the burial pots. These 36 human burials have together 209 burial pots; in addition there are 11 burial pots which cannot be attributed to any known or suspected burial (= N.-A.B.P.), and 17 burial pots discovered stacked together in what could be a vessel cluster ceramic burial or (more likely) a cache or stock-pile for emergency cases. Thus, 237 burial pots in KC II can be compared with the pre-Discontinuity burial pottery of KC III and KC IV. There are 15 types surviving from KC III through KC IV into KC II, some of which (1C, 1Ca, 1D, 4A, 4Ab, 4D and 4G) even in much greater numbers in KC II than in KC III and KC IV, especially the plain polished footed bowl Type 4A, the most characteristic burial pot of the entire site, 33 of which have been excavated in KC II, 19 in KC IV and 10 in KC III. Six more types survive from KC IV into KC II where they are also found in greater numbers. This leaves only 11 types out of 42 in KC III and/or KC IV which have not been continued across the Discontinuity divide. This massive transfer from a well-established cultural stage onto a new beginning after a dramatic destruction can at first sight simply be taken as adherence to tradition by those who buried their dead in the new cemetery however, it appears that other forces also have played a part.
KC
Pot
Wr
Wm
H
Bands
III II III III II III III II III II II II III II II II
G5, “1411” Bur. 24, Fd. 1 E6, “1529” E5, “1533” Bur. 6, Fd. 1 E5, “1222” Bur. 5, Fd. 3 Bur.26, Fd. 3 Bur.5, Fd. 9 Bur. 8, Fd. 5 Bur. 16, Fd. 8 Bur. 5, Fd. 11 Bur. 5, Fd.7 Bur. 7, Fd 9 Bur. 16, Fd. 9 Bur. 32, Fd. 4
33 c. 30 28 27 27 26 25 25 25 24.5 24 24 24 22 22 19
43 52 38 36 43 36 c. 36 34.5 28.5 c. 30 c. 35
35 33.5 30.5 35.5 31.5 c. 28 c. 30 32.5 31 28 26.5 c. 30 -
2 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 5 4 4 3+4
Ho Type/No 2d UBP. 80 2D UBP. 44 2d UBP. 50 2a UBP. 21 2d UBP. 48 2d UBP. 46 2d UBP. 47 2a UBP. 23 2d UBP. 52
Table 6.3, Measurements (cm) of Type 1K bowls from KC III and KC II This Table 6.3 demonstrates that the KC II bowls blend in well with the KC III ones to form a coherent sequence in spite of a relatively large difference in the diameter of their rims; the difference is less pronounced as far as the available measurements for the maximum width is concerned (with one notable exception) and still less when comparing heights which are almost uniform. The number of shoulder bands is also consistent with those on the KC III bowls. There can be no doubt, therefore, that the bowls found in the burials of KC II are of the same Type 1K as those in Burial 5 of KC III with all the theories that this realisation implies. A significant difference can be seen in the state of preservation of the bowls which is that whereas all bowls from KC III, with one exception, could be restored and fully measured, none of those of KC II could be restored and only one measured virtually which reflects the apparently post-burial intentional breaking of the Type 1K bowls in post-Discontinuity times in KC II.
In addition to the types of burial pots continued into KC II from KC III via KC IV, or directly from KC IV to KC II, there is also the Type 1K large thin-walled globular bowl which was transmitted directly from KC III to KC II. As has been mentioned earlier, these Type 1K bowls first appeared in Burial 5 of KC III in suspicious circumstances as the buried individual was apparently killed and all Type 1K bowls were deliberately broken while burial pots of other types were left intact. The bowls were found widely dispersed with only two remaining in the burial. There are reasons to believe that all Type 1K bowls found in pre-Discontinuity Khok Charoen, including the one at the bottom of the "memorial pit" in the KC III Cutting E6, originated from Burial 5 in KC III and that therefore any pot of that type found in the post-Discontinuity cemetery of KC II must have come from elsewhere.
The fact that no 1K bowl has been found in KC IV, that apart from Burial 5 the only spot such a bowl was found in KC III was in a pit dug from the first post-Discontinuity layer and that these bowls reappear in burials in KC II could be seen as supporting the theory of Burial 5 having been the "foundation-burial" of Khok Charoen as a graveyard. To explain the sequence of further events one would have to imagine a scenario whereby people from a post-Discontinuity community, most likely the one which buried their dead in KC II but from a time well after the establishment of that cemetery, went to the old KC III cemetery to dig up a 1K bowl from Burial 5 there; they seem to have known what they were after, that the object of their desire was buried in an ancient grave and where they would find it. They then dug a deep pit a few metres away, buried the precious bowl at the bottom of it (followed by a pot retrieved from KC IV and on top again a domestic pot from KC III) and apparently at the same occasion caused the introduction of up to 15 of these bowls into the burial pottery of KC II. The fact that the Type 1K bowl was put at the bottom of the pit to be crushed by the pots above it could also be interpreted as a sign of ascendancy of the anti-bowl faction which prompted the
There would have been up to 23 Type 1K bowls in existence in Khok Charoen, i.e. 7 excavated in KC III, plus sherds of an eighth, and the 15 in KC II, but only 16 yielded at least one measurement for comparison; as rim-sherds are often the only diagnostic sherds left from badly broken large pots, Width at rim (Wr, also RD) was taken as the benchmark of this comparison, complemented by maximum Width (Wm, also VT) and Height (H, also Ht). In Ho's typology, Type 2d was equated with the present Type 1K but in two instances a bowl classified as being of the smaller Type 2a was also deemed to be of Type 1K in view of its similar measurements.
313
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand sending of reinforcements by the pro-bowl people.While this scenario is plausible, much would have to be further clarified to make it fully convincing beyond reasonable doubt, e.g. where did these bowls suddenly come from, given that all those in KC III have been accounted for and that the ones in KC II nevertheless blend well with them in terms of dimensions (with one exception) and shoulder bands, suggesting the same supplier after the Discontinuity, how and when these bowls reached KC II, the criteria according to which they were put into burials there and also what the significance of the one exceptional Type 1K bowl (Find 1 of Burial 24) could be which, with a diameter of 52 cm, is by far the biggest known such bowl and has, moreover, its rim (narrowest opening 24 cm) neatly cut or sawn off.
pot in KC II but also that it may have been deposited there before the Discontinuity and that the situation of the oldest burial itself (Burial 24), dug like all the other KC II burials from a post-Discontinuity layer, was determined by the position of this iconic pot and not the other way around. Another burial, Burial 33, classified as a late burial with SE-orientation, would have shed some more light on this chronological imbroglio if the origin of one of its burial pots was known. It has six burial pots, five of which (Types 1Ab, 1Cb, 3Ea, 4A and 4G) are of types common throughout KC III, KC IV and KC II but one, at the left ankle, is a pot unique in the entire Khok Charoen site. It is a small globular bowl (H: 8.3 cm, Wc/m: 13 cm) with a low vertical direct rim, straight shoulder sloping to the carination and a hemispherical lower body. Outside rim covered in short vertical stippled lines and lower body coarsely (4:10) vertically cord-marked, shoulder decorated with very faint stippled triple lines in the form of a triangular meander (dovetails or batons rompus ornament) with rounded corners; red slip inside rim. There is an appliqué bull head effigy on one side at the height of the carination, c. 2.5 cm high and protruding c. 1.5 cm, also painted red, and there are signs that this round-bottomed bowl was stabilised to stand upright by four stump-like appliqué "legs". It was thus most probably a ceremonial vessel and is definitely not a product of the potters who habitually provided the burial pottery for the Khok Charoen cemeteries. The similarity of the bull head effigy on this pot with the head of a small clay figurine of a bull found in a burial in Ban Na Di (Higham and Kijngam 1984: 170, Fig. 3-36b) suggests the possibility of a connection with this site but the shape of the pot itself and the triangular meander decoration motif are of a kind, both individually and even more so in combination, that no matching pot (with or without appliqué animal head) could be found anywhere; this burial pot in KC II could well be a unique piece made or imported especially for the occasion, with no information regarding its origin or time of manufacture.
Burial 24 is remarkable in many respects. In addition to having the largest known Type 1K bowl in the prominent position as first, i.e. easternmost, pot beyond the head and it also had the largest number (19) of burial pots of any burial in KC II all of which, with the exception of the Type 1K bowl and a Type 1Ka pot, are of types occurring from KC III through KC IV to KC II. This burial pottery also includes one of the only two pots in KC II having a cross painted in red inside the body, a footed bowl Type 4Gb at the left side of the skull (the other pot being Find 1 of Burial 22, a shallow dish Type 3E at the right side of the skull). In terms of personal adornments Burial 24 is also unique in KC II. It has the largest number of shell disk-beads (843, Type b), of bracelets made of Trochus niloticus shell (10,+18 fragments) and of stone bracelets (9, Type III or A1a). The other two burials with Trochus niloticus bracelets are the SSE-oriented Burial 16 (10 bracelets) and the S-oriented Burial 40 (10 fragments). This E-oriented Burial 24 was the lowest of three interlocking burials, below the S-oriented Burial 39 and, on top, the E-oriented Burial 38. Both these burials, neither of which has a Type 1K bowl as a burial pot, must be younger than Burial 24. If the rule of thumb is applied that there could only be an overlap of burials after at least two generations, there would have been an interval of about hundred years between Burial 24 and the last burials of KC II and would make this burial the oldest of the cemetery, a supposition which is supported by the fact that with a depth of 45-85 cm b.s., Burial 24 is also the deepest burial of KC II with Burials 39 (50-c.70 cm b.s.) and 38 (47-? cm b.s.) directly above it (Ho, op. cit.: 196, 217, 219). However, the average thickness of a skeleton itself in KC II burials (without those the thickness of which could not be ascertained and without Burial 24) being exactly 20 cm, the thickness of 40 cm of Burial 24 must be explained. This can only be done by assuming that the Type 1K bowl beyond the head at a depth of 71 cm b.s. and thus clearly positioned at a level below the other ten burial pots between it and the head, is included in the overall thickness of the burial. This leaves an acceptable 26 cm for the skeleton and another 14 cm for a much compacted Type 1K bowl the pit for which must therefore have been dug, according to the N-section drawing of Cutting D6, into the lowest pre-Discontinuity layer of KC II, sitting practically on bedrock. As mentioned earlier, this means not only that this huge Type 1K bowl was the oldest such
Burial 33 cuts into Burial 36 which is therefore older. It has amongst its 13 excavated burial pots three large pots Type 6Db interpreted as rice-steamers and only found in KC II. It also has two footed bowls with incised-and-pricked decoration Type 4D identical with those found in KC III (Burial 1) and KC IV (Burials 3 and 9), and one decorated footed bowl Type 4E which has two counterparts in Burial 8 of KC IV and nowhere else. However, the three burials involved, i.e. Burial 1 in KC III and Burials 8 and 9 in KC IV, do not have any of the three most recent types of decorated footed bowls (4Da, 4Ec and 4Ed) as burial pots and may therefore be older than those burials which have them, i.e. Burials 3, 5, 7, 16 and 29 (SE-, E-, E-, SSE-, and ENE-orientation respectively). The SSE-oriented Burial 16 of KC II just next to the head-burial but dug from a post-Discontinuity level, is more directly significant for questions regarding continuity as its nine burial pots are arranged in what seems to be a symbolic way, demonstrating the buried individual's special status. Beyond the head, in a kind of 314
Overall Chronology and Conclusions semicircle, there are two groups of four and three pots respectively, separated by a stone 45 cm above the head; the group on the right side consists of two decorated footed bowls Types 4D and 4Da and two medium cord-marked globular bowls Types 1B and 1C, while the three pots on the left side contain two globular bowls of the same types as those on the other side and one large plain footed bowl Type 4Ab. The eighth and ninth pots, two Type 1K bowls, had originally been placed under the left and right hands but had been smashed in such a way that sherds of both of them were found all along the right lower body and leg down to a heap near the right ankle. The smashing was apparently done with medium-sized stones one of which was lying on the right lower arm and another inside a large fragment of the Type 1K bowl under the right hand but now 10 cm further to the right. Both feet are missing but at the place of the left foot two fragments of a thick bivalve were found at 40 cm b.s. identified as the local fresh water shell Hyriopsis myersiana (Ho 1984, I: 187, 291). As the left femur and tibia show bite-marks, the left lower side of the skeleton must have been exposed for some time and other parts of it were probably also accessible enough for humans to interfere with the burial. The semicircle of pots beyond the head leaves ample room in its centre above the skull to accommodate a large vessel which may have been taken away and the symmetry of the two groups of pots would have been perfect with another footed bowl in the left one for which there was enough room and which may also have been taken.
exchange of pots was an afterthought at the end of the burial or a deliberate action sometime thereafter, what the reasons for it could have been, and what the original position of the Type 1F bowl was. While the Type 1Ka bowl is a new type in KC II where eight of them occur in six burials (three of E- and three of SE/S-orientation), the Type 1Ia bowl it replaced is unique in Khok Charoen and probably came from outside; the Type 1F carinated bowl is also unique as a burial pot in a human burial but has its counterpart in Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 1 in KC IV. The meaning of, or motifs for, these actions concerning the placements or displacements of burial pots of various origins cannot be elucidated by archaeological means but it would seem rather odd if all this had not been done on purpose; some sort of personal, family or clan feud may have played a rôle in it as has already been hinted at by the state of Burial 5 of KC III. If so, it would mean that relations between KC III and post-Discontinuity KC II could have been direct and personal. It also suggests that the time span separating KC III from KC II should be measured in a generation or two rather than a century or more. In turn, this would signify that the entire history of KC IV would have to be fitted into the same short time span and that therefore much of the history of the entire site would have to be seen as being partly composed of contemporaneous rather than only sequential events. The Abandonment of Settlements in Khok Charoen
There is thus abundant reason to suspect that the buried individual, almost certainly a rather tall male, occupied a special position in KC II society and had possibly something to do with the introduction of Type 1K bowls into the KC II cemetery. With 12 shell bracelets on lower left arm, a shell ring on right side of upper head, another near right hand and altogether 235 disk-beads at various parts of the skeleton, his personal adornment was rich and sophisticated. His was the only burial in KC II to have two (confirmed) Type 1K bowls and these were, moreover, in the prominent position of one at each hand. Above the head was a collection of burial pots which looks like a cross-section of the burial pottery of the entire site, from the earliest types in Burials 4 and 5 in KC III to the latest type of decorated footed bowls unique to KC II, almost in the manner of the "time capsule" in Cutting E6, KC III, with the Type 1K bowl from Burial 5 at the bottom. Here, the Type 1K bowls were openly displayed as if to attest their safe arrival in KC II. However, questions about the identity of those people remain who, well after the burial, seemingly tried to destroy its message by thoroughly smashing the two Type 1K bowls but leaving the other seven burial pots intact and possibly taking one or two pots away at the same time.
Khok Charoen ceased to be a site for human burials with the abandonment of the KC II cemetery. When exactly this happened and which were the last burials is difficult to say as the are no secure dates available. According to the proposed burial phases, the SE-oriented Burials 1, 3, 4, 16, and 17 would be the latest burials of KC II and those amongst them which have the newly introduced footed bowls Types 4Da, 4Ec, 4Ed, 4Ee, 4Gb, 4Gc, 4Gd, 4Ha and 4Ka as burial pots the very last. Most of these new types were found in the E-oriented Burials 5, 7, 8, 10, 24, 25, 26, 29 and 31, the S(?)-oriented Burial 13 and even the N-oriented Burials 9, 22 and 38, i.e. all burials of the middle- or the earliest burial phase and older than those of a SE-orientation, but three of the SE-oriented burials also have one of the new type pots in them (Burials 3 and 16 a pot Type 4Da and Burial 17 one of Type 4Ka). These three would have to be the last in KC II. As Burial 16, the only KC II burial containing two Type 1K bowls, is amongst them, the idea of it being the very last of Khok Charoen is quite ironic if one considers the eventful history of this pot-type. This large thin-walled bowl, a useless vessel good only to be put into burials and about the ownership of which there seems to have been constant quarrelling, was at the very beginning of the history of Khok Charoen and is now the last to be buried and abandoned there while the descendants of people who formerly owned them continue their feuds elsewhere.
Pots from Burial 17 could also be useful for dating KC II. This SE-oriented burial had nine burial pots including a Type 1Ka bowl upright on the pelvis but there are signs that it was put there after a Type 1Ia bowl was pushed down from this position. The latter was found, badly broken, near the right femur, intermingled with sherds of a Type 1F carinated bowl. It is not clear whether this
If all this sounds slightly melodramatic, so be it, as there is nothing to prove that this account is not consistent with the real history of Khok Charoen as one of feuds, rivalry and 315
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand violence from beginning to end. What is most intriguing is that these feuds seemed to concern exclusively one single type of pottery vessel of unknown origin but leaving alone the other most prominent, more numerous and persistent pottery type of entire Khok Charoen: the plain, red-slipped, burnished footed bowl Type 4A, introduced into the site at the same occasion as the Type 1K bowl via Burial 5 in KC III and handed down seemingly peacefully from generation to generation and from one burial ground to the other.
mound large parts of which had not been explored, and even un-excavated parts towards NW in KC II may conceal information crucial for the understanding of the history of that part of the site. The other factor is the lack of knowledge about the habitat of those who buried their dead in Khok Charoen. In the absence of widespread excavations in the wider area all suggestions in this respect (e.g. "fair-sized village" etc.) are only speculation as are those referring to how far away such villages could have been and whether the relationship between habitat and cemetery were stable or changing over time. In view of the above, the following survey can only be taken as an educated guess to throw some light on the complex development of the Community of Khok Charoen.
After the abandonment of the KC II burials there was still some organised human activity going on around the graves of which the breaking of Type 1K bowls are an example although it is not known how long after the burials this was done. Still later, another batch of at least five Type 8A tetrapod vessels, according to the size and make of their feet identical to those found in the KC IV and the northern part of the KC III areas, existed in the area of KC II and the SW of KC III; these pots showed again no sign of having been interred or in any way used and they again seem to have been carried away by a flood, leaving only a few of their solid feet behind. This particular manner of disappearing could be seen as being consistent with free-standing vessels with their feet stuck solidly in dry mud or soil being suddenly hit horizontally by a strong force - most likely a fast moving flood.
In the concluding chapter of her thesis Ho (1984, I: 153-155) defines "The community of Khok Charoen" as a peaceful community of shifting cultivators living in a self-reliant village and burying their dead in a large communal cemetery. Ho only refers to KC II but in the light of the results of the excavations of KC III and KC IV, as well as the re-assessment of that of KC II itself, this statement has to be refined or revised on several accounts. The most direct and best way of doing this turned out to be the analysis of the burial pottery used by the successive communities of the site. The origin of this community is still unknown. Judging from their burials and assuming that Burial 5 of KC III was the earliest on the site, the first settlers had a background of sophisticated pottery technology far surpassing the level of knowledge of present shifting cultivators in Southeast Asia some of whom have no pottery tradition at all. The three pot-types introduced at that occasion, the large globular bowl Type 1K, the much smaller restricted hemispheric bowl Type 1Ba and the footed bowl Type 4A, all three hand-made, have nothing "primitive" about them but seem to have reached the end of a long development leading to a state of perfection, each in its own right, which cannot be improved upon. The Type 1K bowls, of a height and width of c. 30-40 cm and weighing up to 3 kg, have a minimum wall thickness of 5 mm or less (the thinnest was 2 mm), a feat many a present artisanal potter would have difficulty in achieving, while the only multi-use pot, the hemispheric bowl Type 1Ba, as well as the burial-only footed bowl Type 4A, appear to be the iconic type-specimens of their respective category lasting throughout the duration of the Khok Charoen burial grounds. However, the fact that one of the three pot-types, the Type 1K, visibly of a different nature and also imported in greater numbers than the two others, created so much trouble right from the moment it was put into Burial 5 of KC III to the time of the abandonment of the KC II burials and even beyond it, could be taken to mean that this type was of a different origin from the others, that its being put together with the others in the first burial of this new cemetery and the subsequent fighting over it had something to do with this difference. The discovery that one of the broken Type 1K bowls originally contained human bone fragments including teeth of a five year-old child may also have been connected with it. All this points to long-standing antagonism and tensions as a basic
There are only five clearly post-Discontinuity TL-dates from Khok Charoen, all from pottery found in KC III but representative for the entire site: 791 and 97 BC, and AD 199, 399 and 679. What these dates show is that, in spite of not being used any more as a burial ground, the area of KC III was still somehow, perhaps only sporadicly, occupied well after the Discontinuity and at least into the late 7th century. This time corresponds to the earliest manifestations of Indian cultural influence in this part of Thailand centred around the site of Sri Thep, only about 15 km north of Khok Charoen, with its temples, inscriptions, and by then flourishing "Sri Thep School" of art. What connections there could have been between the sophisticated people in Sri Thep and the simple local settlers nearby can only be guessed but whatever they may have been, the latter were now in touch with a wider world and, as far as this area is concerned, with History.
6.3 Material Culture and Subsistence in Khok Charoen The Khok Charoen Community Two factors prevent a better and more precise evaluation of the successive states of the Khok Charoen communities. One is that none of the three burial grounds had been excavated to its limits, although KC II came near to it, which renders all conclusions based on only partly excavated cemeteries to be open to doubts and at best provisional. There may be more still un-excavated than excavated burials In KC III and KC IV, each situated on a 316
Overall Chronology and Conclusions element of the community, or successive communities, of Khok Charoen throughout its short history; it may even have been one of the reasons for their eventual disintegration.
new community came into being which buried their dead in the burial ground now called KC II. Although possibly not visible then, this mound had already been a burial ground, albeit for one burial only situated in its centre, namely the head-burial of an important individual with personal adornments of marine molluscs attesting to relations with a southern coastal site, most likely at the same time as such connections also existed with KC IV (Burials 2, 8 and 10a); this head-burial is listed as Burial 19 of KC II. The so-called jar burials, Burials 46 and 47, are also not part of the cemetery of KC II but, dated to the earlier phase of KC IV by the pots used as lids of the jars, could be considered local versions of the imported Type 1M elongated urns in the single vessel ceramic burials of KC IV.
The other nine excavated burials of KC III reinforce this impression of the heterogeneous nature of the earliest community of Khok Charoen and give more information of their material culture. Burials with N-orientation are thought to be oldest after Burial 5 but only one of them, Burial 4, can be compared with it in terms of burial pots (Burial 1a has no pottery finds, Burial 3 has no finds at all, Burial 7 is not fully excavated and Burial 8 is a special case). This Burial 4 basically continues the Burial 5 model without the Type 1K bowls inasmuch as it has two footed bowls Type 4A, one of the very similar Type 4Ab and no other pottery; this could again be interpreted as an expression of discord or at least difference between two factions of the Khok Charoen community.
To summarise it may be said that, judging from the burials and their pottery, there was not one community but several communities of Khok Charoen which at times changed abruptly, at other times in a smooth transition but which also coexisted with each-other in various ways and in spite of various levels of antagonism between them. The community of KC II seems to have been composed to a great extent of the same people, or their descendants, as that of KC III but presumably in shifting proportions, resulting in changing social power structures. For simplicity's sake the successive (or overlapping) communities responsible for the various burials on the site are listed by consecutive numbers so as to be able to easily refer to them in another context.
Burials 1 and 6, considered to have succeeded Burials 5, 1a and 4 as the next oldest burials in KC III, add greatly to the number of pot-types as burial gifts (so far only four) but again without any Type 1K bowls. These new types (1C, 1Ca, 1D, 3C, 3Ca, 3E, 4Aa, 4Ac, 4C, 4D and 4G) continue through KC IV into KC II, except for the footed bowls Type 4Aa which continues only to KC IV, and Type 4Ac which is limited to KC III but may be a singleton. However, the footed bowl Type 4D (Burial 1, Find 5), being the earliest known footed bowl with incised-and-pricked wavy decoration, heralding the arrival of a new concept regarding burial pottery which can be decorated, is of crucial importance to the chronology of the site as it demonstrates that, from the middle phase of KC III onwards, burials there must have been contemporaneous with the burials of KC IV. The idea of strictly separated cemeteries following each-other in chronological order has therefore to be abandoned and replaced by that of rules or customs of who was buried where and when which cannot in this case be elucidated by archaeological means.
1) The first community was probably rather small and short-lived, leaving only very few burials in the KC III cemetery (Burials 1a, 3, 4, and 5). 2) The following second community was larger, seemingly of a different background and lacking the tension-causing social element of the first community; it also was more outward-looking, entertained a wider net of trade and other relations and, with a discernible Earlier and Later phase, lasted much longer. At times, these relations took the form of direct contacts with the coastal site of Khok Phanom Di, as the result of which people from that site may even have settled permanently in Khok Charoen. This second community buried their dead in both the KC III and the KC IV cemeteries (KC III: Burials 1, 2, and 6; KC IV: all excavated burials) but abandoned them for unknown reasons long before the Discontinuity.
The two burials of the latest phase of the KC III burial ground, i.e. Burials 8 and 9 with their Type 8A burial pots, apparently imported by visitors preceding those who performed ceramic burials in KC IV, are also not really part of what could be called the (excavated) "KC III burials" the number of which is in actual fact reduced to Burials 1a, 3, 4, and 5. A conclusion regarding the nature of the Khok Charoen community would be that, with the arrival of the people who buried their dead in the KC IV cemetery at the same time as in that of KC III, its composition was changing drastically, putting a temporary end to old quarrels (no more Type 1K bowls in either KC III or KC IV) which will flare up again in KC II, but not itself lasting long before all human burials on the site are abandoned and the field is left to yet another two groups of newcomers to bury elaborately decorated pots on their own, single or in clusters. The flood causing the Discontinuity also disperses this last community.
3) The third community is rather enigmatic as it seems to solely consist of a small group of people who introduced a number of large tetrapod vessels of the unique Type 8A. The only two restorable specimens of this type were found in Burials 8 and 9 of KC III, thought to be all that is left of this particular community which vanished as quickly and mysteriously as it appeared. 4) The next community is one which did not bury its dead in a human cemetery in Khok Charoen but used the space left abandoned on the "promontory" to bury clusters of large decorated vessels on their own (vessel cluster ceramic burials) amongst, and sometimes into, the
At a relatively short time after these devastating floods a 317
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand abandoned burials of KC IV. The origin, size and composition of this community is not known but they obviously came from a totally different background with a different artistic tradition. The end of this community came with the Discontinuity and nothing is known of their fate after that.
"1") who began to use KC III as their cemetery, had amongst themselves – or had access to – crafts people skilled in pottery, stone industry and the working of shells to provide them with an adequate tool kit for their daily activities and a surplus for burial gifts. The two shell disk-bead types a and b existed right from the beginning side by side in Khok Charoen as Burial 5 had disk-beads Type b and Burial 1a those of Type a. A valve of the maritime mollusc Isognomon (Burial 5) reveals relations with a coastal site.
5) Sometime during the later phase of the previous community, another similar one added its members to it. These people came from the same background but specialised in a different kind of ceramic burial using only one hitherto unknown type of vessel which they buried singly, also only on the "promontory". This community, too, was dispersed by the Discontinuity.
During the time of the longer-lasting community "2", several new developments took place in the fields of pottery, personal adornments and others. Three types of footed bowls with incised-and-pricked decoration now appear: Types 4D, 4E and 4Ea (Burial 1, KC III, and Burials 3, 8 and 9, KC IV), and the bowl Type 7C (Burial 5, KC IV) attests to connections with Kanchanaburi. Regarding personal adornments (apart from shell disk-beads a and b and pieces of cf. Pseudodon mouhoti), polished stone bracelets are found in KC III (Burials 2 and 6) and KC IV (Burials 9 and 10a), ivory bracelets in KC IV (Burial 4) and a clay bracelet in KC IV (Burial 8). More items of personal adornment made of marine molluscs or entire marine shells are imported from coastal sites to KC IV: A bead made from a Tridacna clam (Burial 2), Nassarius shells (Burial 8), a Conus shell disk and Oliva shells (Burial 10a) and a cowrie shell in Burial 6a which also has disk-beads of Type d, up to then unknown in a Khok Charoen burial. Other novelties include an ivory ear-plug (Burial 8), a greenstone fragment with parts of the original surface showing a brilliant glass-like gloss not known from any other stone artefact on the site (Burial 8), a projectile point made of fossilised bone (Burial 7), and tubular objects of unknown use made of antler (Burials 9 and 13).
6) After the Discontinuity a larger community reconstituted itself from elements of the very first one (community "1") and buried its dead on the KC II mound. As several instances of differently oriented burials cutting into each-other show, this last large community lasted for at least two generations but eventually vanished, presumably for reasons having to do with a change in agricultural practices. 7) Post-burial interferences with a number of burials of KC II point to the existence of a relatively small community in the vicinity to carry out these acts of vandalism but nothing is known about the identity of the members of this community except for suspecting that their activity was related to a long-standing feud between families, tribes or factions in the region. 8) A still more elusive community (of perhaps only a few individuals) was responsible for the importation of several Type 8A tetrapod vessels into the KC II area well after the burials there had been abandoned. Nothing is known about the fate of these people or the pots and also not whether there had been any relations with those people (community "3") who imported the earlier batch of Type 8A vessels to Khok Charoen which were so difficult to place in the context of the transition from KC III to KC IV and the origin of which remains obscure.
The time of community "3" can be seen as a precursor of that of communities "4" and "5" in that no new development took place except for the introduction of one particular type of vessel (Type 8A) the upper part of which was covered with an incised-and-pricked decoration (lower part cord-marked) typical for the other types of imported large vessels (e.g.Types 1L and 1M) used by these two later communities in their vessel cluster- and single vessel ceramic burials in KC IV. With the disappearance of these communities types and decoration styles of their pottery also vanished from Khok Charoen.
Although the burials of those communities which left burials behind showed differences in wealth and social standing of the buried individuals, the impossibility of finding common denominators and the lack of comparative data makes it difficult to propose even the most elementary theory concerning the social organisation of these communities.
The again long-lasting post-Discontinuity community "6", while still using as burial gifts pots of 33 types out of the 37 used for that purpose in KC IV and/or KC III, added 15 new types of burial pots. With the exception of Types 1Bc and 1Nc (both intrusions), and a new small bowl Type 3Da, the other types are of footed bowls (Types 4Ad, 4Gb, 4Gc, 4Gd, 4Ha and 4Ka = new shapes; 4Da, 4Ec and 4Ed = new incised-and-pricked decoration) and of the newly developed rice-steamers (Types 6Da, 6Db and 6Dc). The former group shows a certain inventiveness in pottery making, based on what there had been before the totally new types in the ceramic burials but the rice steamers used as burial gifts attest to the introduction of a new phase in
The Level of Technology of Khok Charoen Communities As far as material culture is concerned a high degree of sophistication, especially in pottery, can be observed in grave goods of the very first burials on the site. Cord-marked pots (Burial 5) also imply knowledge of fibre technology and slipped and burnished pots (Burials 4 and 5) that of advanced surface treatment of pottery. The working of stone was also already well developed in the earliest burials (Burials 1a and 4). This clearly demonstrates that the first settlers in the area (community 318
Overall Chronology and Conclusions the development of material culture. In the field of personal adornments the main innovation is the use of rings of the Trochus niloticus shell as bracelets and altogether greater use of fresh-water shells (Unio) for ornaments or perhaps decoration of textiles (Ho 1984, I: 154). This community eventually abandons the KC II burial ground for an unknown location and none of their characteristic types of burial pots has been discovered since.
earliest settlers colonising the area came from a background where both rice and millet were cultivated, which they continued and that once introduced, rice and millet were grown throughout the time of human settlement in the Khok Charoen area. After the Discontinuity, dry rice cultivation was intensified as shown by the proliferation of rice steamers as burial gifts and there was even the impression of a rice grain on a burial pot (footed bowl Find 13, Burial 24).
By its very nature, community "7" did not advance material culture at all but community "8" may have tried, unsuccessfully, to reintroduce Type 8A vessels into Khok Charoen.
The relative importance of hunting as a source of food in Khok Charoen communities is difficult to assess and impossible to quantify. There is no reliable information coming from the burials and very little from sources other than the counting of faunal bones with butchering-marks resulting from the vagaries of excavations and the fortuitousness of bones found. All that can be said is that wild cattle, wild pig and deer seem to have been the most hunted animals, with rodents, porcupine and macaque thereafter.
The Economic Basis of Khok Charoen Communities The cultivation of dry rice and/or millet was the economic basis of the communities of Khok Charoen whether they were shifting cultivators or settled agriculturists. Until the appearance of rice steamers in post-Discontinuity burials, the available evidence for this cultivation consisted exclusively of impressions of grains in pottery which, in the case of burial pots, is a relatively rare occurrence. However, in KC III seven impressions of rice grains and one of millet grains were found on potsherds in stratified layers in Cuttings E8, E6, F6, G6 and H5, five of which (including the one of millet grains) were on sherds of Type 1K bowls, the only type of a large, finely cord-marked vessel in these cuttings, all originating from Burial 5, the first burial in Khok Charoen. This can only mean that the
Similar considerations apply to the rôle fish and molluscs may have played as food source in these communities as there is no reliable evidence available concerning this matter. However, given the fact that there is a network of permanent streams in the area which, moreover, is subject to seasonal flooding and also the amount of Unio shells or fragments thereof found throughout the site, this rôle may have been quite considerable. Flesh from these shells is still eaten in the area at present but relative to other food stuff consumed its part is now much less important.
Photograph 6.1, General view of the excavation site; girl carrying water with traditional bamboo yoke in right foreground 319
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand
Photograph 6.2, The state of one of the better preserved of the Khok Charoen human remains. The picture of the smashed-up skeleton of the first burial in Khok Charoen epitomises the sometimes deadly struggle for the possession of a particular type of huge ceramic bowls which divided Khok Charoen societies from the beginning to the end of the use of this site as a burial ground.
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CHAPTER 7 Links with the Present, or Ethnographic Parallels 7.1 Introduction
1) Two identical plugs made each of the cut-off bulbous end of an unidentified Conus shell (the original proposed identification as being "cut Trochus niloticus" cannot be right as these fragments do not fit anywhere into the shape of that shell). Together they are Find 2 of Burial 19, KC II, where they were found in such a position that their being ear plugs is not in doubt. Listed in Ho's thesis as She 23 and She 24 (the latter broken into two), they both have a diameter of 4.5 cm, are 3 cm high, and weigh 45 g (She 23), and 50 g (She 24) (Ho 1984, I: 191-192, 291-292; Fig. 11.28).
In this final chapter an attempt is made to record elements and items of material and even non-material culture in present Mainland Southeast Asian societies and beyond which can be traced back to Khok Charoen (whether they originated from there or not) and document other such elements or items found at this site which have survived into later times without reaching the present. This survey must necessarily be fragmentary, based as it is almost exclusively on evidence derived from burials rather than settlements and, moreover, from only partly excavated cemeteries and mainly incomplete or disturbed graves. These limitations are particularly regrettable when comparing aspects of burial pottery, the best source of information concerning relations between sites and for the establishing of ceramic family trees, where the lack of precise and complete data can easily falsify a conclusion.
Burial 19, being a remnant from pre-Discontinuity times rather than part of the ordinary burials of KC II, is unique in Khok Charoen as a head-only burial of an important personality who lived and died at a time when there were connections with the southern coastal site of Khok Phanom Di. This is not only suggested by his/her earplugs made from marine molluscs but specifically by Find 4 (She 18), a disk-like object, also part of his/her head adornments (the cut-off top of another Conus shell, most likely Conus generalis), well known from Burial 15 of the fifth mortuary phase of Khok Phanom Di, dated 1650-1600 BC (Higham 2004: 19). Considering the current uncertain chronology of Southeast Asian archaeology in general, this date, or any other which replaced it since, is best taken as providing a terminus a quo and indicating an age at the earlier phase of Khok Charoen's use as community burial grounds.
In analogy with the description of burials, the chapter is arranged in sections dealing with personal adornments, burial pottery and other items of funeral material culture; this is followed by sections on domestic material culture, subsistence, customs and "other".
7.2 Personal Adornments Ear Ornaments
2) A small mushroom- or T-shaped object in ivory, interpreted as being an earplug for a child of high social standing was found in KC IV, Find 3 of Burial 8. This rich multiple burial belongs to the Later Phase of KC IV but also shows evidence of connections with a coastal site in the form of Nassarius shells as part of the head adornments of the main skeleton. This coastal site was possibly also Khok Phanom Di (Pilditch 1993: 156) but the date of their importation can only be guessed as probably being later than that of the Conus earplugs. The ivory earplug is obviously also not of local manufacture but in view of the material it is made of, its origin was more likely an inland, rather than a coastal site and, moreover, one where the technology of working bone or ivory was more advanced than in Khok Charoen as is shown by the sophisticated workmanship of the plug which must have necessitated metal tools. The object consists of a 2 mm-thick disk of a diameter of 15 mm on top of a 10 mm-high conical "foot" of a diameter of 10 mm where it meets the disk and again 15 mm at its base with two incised fine grooves above the base.
Few ear ornaments are known from Khok Charoen and these belong to only two types: a) plugs, and b) differently shaped objects stuck through a hole in the lobe without hanging down from it (non-pendulous ear ornaments). This excludes ear-rings of various sizes or more elaborate and heavy ear ornaments, primarily designed to artificially extend the lobes down to almost the shoulders, as seen on images of the Buddha. a) Earplugs Earplugs are disk-like or short tubular/conical objects made of a solid material which, once inserted into a hole in the lobe, stay there without being otherwise fixed although they may be replaced from time to time by larger plugs to enlarge the hole to become what may be called "ear-disks". These disks may also be hollow, i.e. more or less thick rings but still inside the hole in the lobe. In Khok Charoen six examples of earplugs have been found: one pair and five single plugs, the pair and two of the single plugs being the only ones found in situ. They are, from the lowest in the deposit up to a surface find, the following.
While no matching ivory earplugs are so far known from Thai prehistory, earplugs made of clay have been
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand excavated at the Neolithic/Bronze Age site of Non Mak La, about 60 km SSW of Khok Charoen, which not only have the same shape but also practically the same dimensions as the one in ivory: 15 mm diameter, 14-15 mm long (Chang and Voelker 2003: 24). Several such small T-shaped clay earplugs, some burnished, have also been excavated in the nearby Neolithic sites of Non Pa Wai and Tha Kae (ibid.). The wearing of ivory earplugs, although not of the same shape, is widespread amongst men of the Mnong Gar Austro-Asiatic speaking mountain tribe in southern Vietnam (Condominas 1965: 24).
The E-oriented Burial 20, of an adult individual wearing the other shell earplug (She 46), does not otherwise appear to be special in any way. Although not entirely excavated (lower legs and feet left in W-baulk, together with any possible burial gifts next to them), it strikes one on the contrary as being rather poor with no other personal adornment found and only three small pots as burial gifts beyond head. No explanation can be suggested why the two almost identical shell earplugs have been found in these two quite different set of circumstances. Although at present no ethnic groups in continental Southeast Asia are known where such shell ear plugs are worn, be it only by certain individuals or at certain occasions, ear plugs of very similar shape and size made of different material are within the range of plugs worn habitually by a number of mainly Austro-Asiatic speaking mountain tribes.
3) Two "ear ornaments" made of "marine gastropod cut shell" have been found in burials in KC II and classified as She 46 (Find 4 of Burial 20) and She 47 (Find 12 of Burial 17) (Ho 1984, I: 293; II: Fig. 11.29). They both have a shape reminiscent of a spindle-whorl (diameter 27 mm) but without a hole which shows that they could not have been pendants but were almost certainly plugs. She 46, broken into two pieces, was found in situ, i.e. where the right ear lobe would have been, while She 47 was found near the bottom of the burial pit. In both cases only one plug could be found although it can be assumed that each buried person (in Burial 17 a small individual of undetermined sex – perhaps an adolescent – and in Burial 20 an adult individual, also of unknown sex) wore two of these plugs.
4) Two small and compact earplugs found in Khok Charoen are not associated with burials. One in KC III, at 10 cm b.s., and the other as a surface find in the KC II area. They both are shaped like a thick disk with slightly convex obverse and reverse faces and concave edge and of the same thickness of 15 mm in the centre and 10 mm at the edge. The only difference lies in their diameter (25 mm vs 27 mm), weight (15 g vs 18 g) and especially the colour of the clay which is dark buff for the first and medium buff-ochre for the second. Although these two earplugs are very similar, they are obviously not from the same person but indicate the presence or passage of several, probably a group or groups of, people wearing the same ear ornaments. The time of this presence cannot be defined with precision but it was probably not earlier than the abandonment of the last prehistoric settlement in this particular area and not later than the earliest signs of human occupation after a prolonged hiatus at the beginning of the second millennium AD, although a still later date is not excluded, and neither is a much earlier one, as identical earplugs jave also been found in Samrong Sen (Mansuy 1923: pl. III).
Oriented Head-to-SE (Burial 17) and Head-to-E (Burial 20), neither of these two burials belonged to the earliest, N-oriented, phase of the KC II burials which is surprising as this could indicate a connection with a coastal site not at the beginning but in the middle or at the end of the only post-Discontinuity burial ground in Khok Charoen. However, Burial 17 (of the latest phase) had been greatly interfered with as a deep pit was dug in the pelvic area to receive a large cord-marked bowl Type 1Ka, apparently to take the place of two pots (one of Type 1Ia, and the other of Type 1F) which were found, badly broken, next to (NW of) the pit. Both these pots are of a type not normally associated with burials: Type 1Ia pots of which isolated sherds have been found in KC III and KC IV belong to the category "Special and Unique Pottery" and the Type 1F pot to that of "Domestic Only Pottery"; four pots of the latter type are known from stratified deposits in KC IV, one is a pot in VCCB 1, also in KC IV, and one was discovered as the lid of the Type 1Mb jar, being Burial 46 of KC II. This burial, like Burial 19 of KC II, does not belong to the ordinary post-Discontinuity burials of the KC II cemetery but is a pre-Discontinuity remnant in the same area. The fact that the individual buried in Burial 17 wore similar shell earplugs as the individual whose head was buried as Burial 19, could be significant, albeit in an unknown way. The reason for which the Type 1Ka bowl was substituted for the two pots originally positioned on the pelvis of the individual in Burial 17 is also not known, although it is clear that this was done after the burial, i.e. perhaps even after the abandonment of the burial ground, as Burial 17 seems to have been at the very end of the use of this area as a cemetery.
b) Non-pendulous ear ornaments One object fitting this description has been excavated in Khok Charoen. It is the nail-shaped marble artefact found in KC II described earlier: an ear-ornament in the form of a 7.2 cm-long pencil-like stem topped by a flat disk of 3.9 cm in diameter. This would have been stuck through a hole in the lobe, disk facing front. While this ear-ornament is unique in Khok Charoen, an almost identical one (length 8 cm, diameter of disk 3 cm) was found as a surface find at Site 13, Ban Thai Don Noi (Ho 1984, II: Fig. Sites 11, 13), another one 1980 during excavations at Site 43, Ta Kae, both in the Chai Badan region, and another two again at the same site in 1983 (op. cit.: Fig. Site 43d). This latter discovery is of particular significance as these object were found in situ, lying on either side of the head of a skeleton, and could therefore correctly be identified as ear-ornaments (Ho 1984, I: 64). At the time the first of these objects came to light in KC II, 322
Links with the Present, or Ethnographic Parallels we heard that an identical artefact had already been found "some years ago" near Lopburi but without anybody knowing its purpose, though with regard to the KC II find we surmised that it may have been used as an ornament (Loofs and Watson 1970: 76). Before this, it had been interpreted as being a "stone chisel" (Charoenwongsa 1967: photograph between pp. 60-61) which, in view of the fragility of the material, seemed most unlikely; this was, however, not necessarily the opinion of the author of this article but of the (anonymous) person who "translated" in this way the Thai caption of the photo which was simply "nail-shaped stone". In an illustration explaining the manufacture of bracelets from Tridacna shells at the site of Tha Kae near Lopburi (Ciarla 1992: 127, Fig. 9), it is suggested that these nail-shaped ear ornaments (not named but drawn) could have been made from recycled waste shell pieces of bracelet production. This would also establish that site as centre of diffusion of these ornaments at least throughout the area around Lopburi. This ear-ornament which is also made of marble or calcite limestone can possibly also be linked to the ethnographic present inasmuch as it seems to have its counterpart in tribal groups which up to recently wore very similar ear-ornaments in ivory, e.g. the Pwo Karen (Lewis 1984: 34-35, 82) and the Lawa (Srisavasdi 1966: 155, 163). However, these similarities are not pronounced enough to surmise a connection between the two, although it remains a possibility.
Whether this includes the Wa and Lawa (Lava), Lua' or L'wa, after whom Lopburi, the former Lawaburi, Lavo or Lvo, is generally thought to be named, depends on whether the theory is to be believed that Lavapura (Lawaburi) was named in honour of a city of the same name in India now called Lahore, rather than after its inhabitants (Seidenfaden 1941: 147-148 quoting Misra 1932), in which case the ethnic Lawa and Wa would be too far away to northwest to have anything to do with the naming of a city in Central Thailand. However, Seidenfaden himself does not seem to have believed in it as he suggests an alternative: "…if the site and region of Lopburi should ever have been occupied by any primitive, or so-called primitive, people prior to the Môn, it seems more reasonable to presume that these were Chaobon or Nia Kuol of whom quite a number are still living in the Menam Sak valley to the north-east of Lopburi" (op. cit.: 147). The Chaobon figure indeed on LeBar's (1964) ethnolinguistic map as occupying an area of almost 1500 square km straddling the Mun River 50 km west of Khorat, as well as two much smaller areas on both sides of the Chao Phraya just south of Lopburi, but their name being synonymous not only with the Niakuoll but also with the Lawa (LeBar 1964: 138), there is not much reason to doubt that Lopburi took its name from the Lawa after all. The mentions of Lavo slaves, the first in 611 in an inscription in Angkor Borei, and in later Khmer texts (Groslier 1981a: 110, 116) also leave the possibility open that Lawa could have lived in Lopburi. Although the Wa are said to be "one of the most important tribes of the whole of Southeast Asia" (Heine-Geldern 1946: 158) their origin and the relationship between Wa, Lua (T'in), Lawa, Lahu and other population groups is still debated (Filbeck 1989: passim) to the extent that it had even been suggested that the Wa could be the ancestors of the Japanese (Satyawadhna 1987: 94). The Wa themselves trace their ancestry back to man-eating ogres living in caves (Obayashi 1966: 44, quoting Scott and Hardiman 1900; Pitchford 1937: 223-232; and Prestre 1946: 176-178) but the location of the legendary ancestral caves has never been clarified. They were probably the first settlers of the eastern Burma/Yunnan border area which to this day is to a great extent populated by them but claim (at least a branch of them) to have come originally from further south as a persistent Wa tradition tells of how they "had journeyed, thousands of years ago, northwards along the river valley 'which flows through Tak' (Mae Ping River), settling for a long time in what is now Chiengmai valley" (Young 1962: 50). The folklore of this region even claims that the Lua' (Wa) were the founders and original inhabitants of the city of Chiang Mai and the builders of Wat Chedi Luang (Kunstadter 1967: 640-641) and that a cannibal Lawa (i.e. "wild Wa") couple and their son living in the Doi Suthep mountain range to the west of Chiang Mai became the guardian spirits of the city. Remnants of shrines to them and other spirits as well as statues of such guardians in the form of ogres of the Ramakien can still be seen in the area (Nimmanhaeminda 1967: 185-190), this choice of guardians probably referring to the legendary man-eating ancestors. Be this as it may, if the journeying along the valley of the Mae Ping is undertaken from
Summary and conclusions Ornaments of the earplug variety have been excavated in various parts of Khok Charoen from the beginning of the use of this area as burial grounds to well after its abandonment and into historical times. They were made from hard materials such as marine shells, ivory or baked clay and had diameters ranging from 1.5 cm to 4.5 cm but conformed always to the concept of a plug as opposed to that of a pendant. This kind of ear ornament is still worn at present by Austroasiatic speaking mountain-tribes people on the Indochinese Peninsula, in particular the Maa (Boulbet 1964) and Mnong (Condominas 1957, 1965). It was also worn by people of Bronze Age civilisations in the wider region, such as Samrong Sen, Cambodia (Mansuy 1923: Pl. III), and Dong-Son, Vietnam (Goloubew 1929: pl. XX; Marschall 1969: 16), who also spoke an Austroasiatic (or proto-Austroasiatic) language. These considerations also apply to the Bronze Age site of Non Mak La, only about 100 km SSW of Khok Charoen, where similar small and compact clay ear plugs have been excavated and dated to between 1500 and 700 BC (Chang and Voelker 2003: 20, 24, Fig. 11). It is therefore suggested that a population akin to present Austroasiatic-speaking Southeast Asian mountain tribes lived in or near the Khok Charoen area already some time during the first millennium AD if not the first millennium BC, even before the arrival of Mon groups in the area.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Chiang Mai southwards one would inevitably arrive in the vicinity of Lopburi which would thus be place from where (this branch of) the Wa started their migration to the north and after whom the town was named.
ear-ring or anneau alourdi, said to be the "Dvaravati native type" (Subhadradis 1972: 60-61), makes its appearance, indicating the ethnicity and social standing of their wearers as Mon commoners. A curious parallelism can be observed inasmuch as gods, kings and local Mon dignitaries depicted in reliefs on stone or brick monuments seem to always wear the Indian-derived pendulous lobe-elongating ear ornaments, Mon commoners wear split ear-rings whereas raksas, demons, ogres and divinities of terrifying aspect wear plain or decorated earplugs or disks of various sizes, as if the earplug was a sign of primitiveness, ferociousness or wildness. In reality it refers to the tribes people originally inhabiting the area who are occasionally depicted as attendants, servants or slaves wearing earplugs, as if to emphasise that they belong to the same category of strange beings.
From the facts, legends and theories surveyed above, the following conclusions can be drawn. According to LeBar (1964: 130, map) the Wa are part of the "Mountain Mon-Khmer", together with the Palaung, Khmu, Lawa, and Bahnar, remnants of whom are found not only in the south of the Indochinese Peninsula but also in the area ranging from central Laos and Central Thailand to northern Burma and Yunnan. There is evidence that both, Wa and Lawa, could have something to do with the naming of Lopburi and that the isolated groups of Mountain Mon-Khmer, the Chaobon, about 60 km east of Khok Charoen and south of Lopburi, could actually be the descendants of the original population of this area at the time of the cemeteries of Khok Charoen. The linguistic map of the Indochinese Peninsula and adjacent parts of China has been considerably refined since Lebar's pioneering work half a century ago but the distribution of Austroasiatic languages, their internal relationships and conclusions concerning material culture based on it have remained broadly the same (e.g. Higham 2004: 28-33).
Bracelets Bracelets made from Trochus niloticus have been found in three richly endowed burials of the later burial phases of KC II and nowhere else on the site, i.e. towards the very end of the history of Khok Charoen and only with three obviously very special individuals. These arm-rings can therefore not be considered to be typical for Khok Charoen or other sites in the wider area. However, identical bracelets (well polished) can now be bought on market stalls or souvenir shops in Bangkok and no doubt also elsewhere in Thailand but it is questionable whether this is so because there was an uninterrupted tradition of wearing such bracelets from late neolithic times to the present or a recent fashion to satisfy tourist demand. As the bracelets found in KC II were obviously imported from a coastal site, only a thorough study of these sites through the ages could provide an answer to this question.
The ethnic and social situation in the area can be reconstructed with the help of ear-ornaments as seen in figurative sculptures of that time. The earliest, earplugs-wearing Austroasiatic or proto-Austroasiatic ("Mountain Mon-Khmer") speaking tribes people had by then been overrun by Mons who became the dominant ethnic group including an aristocracy according to the Indian model. A new kind of ear-ornament, the split
L: Photograph 7.2, Trochus niloticus shell bracelets found in excavation pit, Khok Charoen II R: Photograph 7.3, Trochus niloticus shell bracelets as worn today
Photograph 7.1, Examples of ear ornaments from Dvaravati sculpture: Mon lady (right) with tribal servant
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Links with the Present, or Ethnographic Parallels century in a smaller version as Bencharong porcelain as well as salvers or offering dishes in porcelain, metal or glass into the present, called a phan. They are not only used for mundane purposes but also to present offerings to Buddha statues and for such highly ceremonial acts as the presentation of their credentials to the King by foreign ambassadors.
7.3 Ceremonial Pottery The pottery of Khok Charoen is divided into four categories: Burial-Only, Multi-Use, Domestic-Only, and Special and Unique Pottery. While this categorisation was helpful for the analysis of the Khok Charoen pottery itself, it could not be used when comparing it with the pottery of other sites, where vessels with decorations linking them to Khok Charoen, e.g. Khok Phanom Di, Tha Kae and Non Pa Wai (Higham 2004: 21), were found in human burials. In Khok Charoen they were only found (with two exceptions) in ceramic burials. Pots which are not Multi-Use or Domestic-Only pottery are therefore classified as Ceremonial Pottery, whether or not they have been found in human burials in Khok Charoen.
In other cases a vessel's unusual shape can be followed horizontally to distant relatives of roughly the same age, leaving the problem of its origin unsolved. One of these cases is the large restricted bowl Type 8A, of which there are two restorable specimens in KC III (plus four more attested by isolated feet in KC III, four in KC IV and one in KC II) but without a complete counterpart in any other late neolithic or Bronze Age site. Assuming shape and decoration of these feet-only pots are similar to those of the complete pots, there would have been twelve such Type 8A tetrapod bowls in Khok Charoen which is a considerable number for a medium-sized burial site.
Shapes of pottery vessels There are at least three examples suggesting an astonishing longevity of the shape of certain pottery types in Thailand in spite of changing use. The most common is the medium-sized globular cord-marked bowl with everted rim, ubiquitous at Khok Charoen as Types 1A-B, which "lasted well into the Early Metal Age, and their readily recognizable descendants figure in the Bangkok flower-market at the present day" (Watson 1979: 61). This type antedates Khok Charoen by an unknown but probably considerable time span as amongst the burial gifts of what is believed to be the first burial on the site, Burial 5 of KC III, is already a well-made Type 1Ba bowl (Find 4) which obviously came from an earlier pottery manufacturing centre, wherever that may have been.
The only tetrapod vessels known from prehistoric Southeast Asia are those in the Kalanay Pottery Complex, Central Philippines, where they occur in the form of unrestricted or slightly restricted shallow dishes with four squat solid feet (Solheim 1961: 161) and in that of a bowl decorated with incised-and-pricked curvilinear and geometric motifs having four effigy head feet (Solheim 1964: 15, 65, pl. 4, 7). But in spite of the similarity of the decoration of Kalanay pottery with that of Sa-Huynh in Vietnam (Solheim 1970: pls. II and III) or Samrong Sen in Cambodia, and the well-attested fact of prehistoric relations between the Philippines and the Indochinese Peninsula including Thailand (Loofs-Wissowa 1982; Reinecke 1996), it is more likely than not that the tetrapod vessels in Khok Charoen developed independently from those in the Kalanay complex.
The second example is that of the traditional alms-bowl now used by Thai monks, the form of which can be traced back at least to early Ayutthaya times (Krairiksh 1979: 208-209) via the Northern Thai style or "later Chieng Sen art", 16th-18th century (Bowie 1972: 115), perpetuating the shape and size of the virtually reconstructed large globular bowls Types 3Aa (E6, Pot "2034") and 3Ab (E4, Pot "2258") of KC IV. In Thai temple paintings depicting the creation of the alms bowl ("The Four Kings Bring the Buddha Bowls"), the bowls have the shape of those presently used (United States Information Service 1957: 81). Although this may not be a scientific source of information, it has nevertheless been categorically stated that the so-called Monk's Bowl Type, or patra (bat), is the most notable Thai bowl not to be of Chinese inspiration (Spinks 1965: 171).
The discovery of one entire clay foot and parts of two more feet in the region of Biên-Hoà, southern Vietnam (Fontaine 1975: 100, pl. IV, 1-3), could lend support to this possibility if only we knew which vessel they belonged to. These cone-shaped solid clay objects with a small elongated hole in the centre were thought to be oil-lamps but as they were obviously broken off from a larger clay surface and their length of about 8 cm is not far from the upper end of that of the identically shaped feet of the Type 8A bowls in Khok Charoen (5.8 cm) they, too, could have been the feet of a rather large footed vessel, perhaps similar to the Type 8A ones. The mention that the broken-off lower part of the cone is found quite frequently (op. cit.: 100), can be taken to mean that this type of vessel was not a rarity. These objects having been brought up by agricultural activities, their age is difficult to assess but coming from an area from which radiocarbon dates of the end of the second millennium BC for charred potsherds are available (op. cit.: 82), it does not seem unreasonable to assume contemporaneity or almost-contemporaneity with the Khok Charoen tetrapod vessels. Like with regard to the supernumerary specimens of this type there, the question of why no body-sherds have been found in Vietnam remains to be answered; it could well have been
The third is connected with the fact that with the arrival of Buddhism the category of Burial-Only Pottery came to an end, as cremation of the body replaced burying it and there could be no more grave goods or burial gifts. But the burial pot par excellence, the footed bowl (plain or decorated), survives as ceremonial vessel to this day in Thailand under different names (Stem dish or tazza, Stand dish, Pedestal bowl, Pedestal plate) first in 11th century Khmer, then in 13th-15th century Sawankhalok, as celadon from the same kilns into the 16th century, in the 19th 325
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand because these sherds were not recognised as such and not collected.
continuous wavy lines rather than detached individual elements. 4) "Cartouches" (Ct): horizontal oval cartouches filled (in the case of the two excavated pots bearing this decoration) with stippled zigzag lines but possibly with other decorative elements in other cases. 5) "Windmill" (Wm): a rectangle or square segmented horizontally, vertically and diagonally in the manner of the British flag, with every second of the thus obtained eight right-angled triangles distinguished. In one case, this distinguishing was done in such a way that two triangles of each kind were put together facing each-other point to point which is similar to the "bow-tie" or "butterfly" motif, where two equilateral triangles are positioned in a square as if there had only been an X-like segmentation of it; the latter can therefore be seen as a simplified version of the Windmill-motif.
7.4 Pottery Decoration The excavated material Of the 272 pots (or significant diagnostic parts thereof) excavated in KC III and KC IV only 26 are decorated with incised-and-impressed designs showing recognisable motifs. There were probably more pots decorated in this way in Khok Charoen but without their decoration being evident, be it because their decorated part was incomplete, unclear or altogether missing.
Decoration motifs
6) "Horizontal S or Z"-motif (SZ): a geometric motif, the stylised version of a curvilinear one known as "Opposed Human Figures" (Higham 2004). As there are four excavated pots bearing the angular laying S or Z design (two of each) and only one with that of the curvilinear "human figures" which may have chronological implications, it seemed preferable to call this motif "Horizontal S or Z" and to create a separate category for the curvilinear figure.
All vessels surveyed here, except for the one footed bowl, are of the restricted kind and have the upper part of the body (with or without the rim) decorated with incised-and-impressed motifs while the lower body is cord-marked; however, "upper part" may mean anything from only the uppermost quarter (e.g. some Type 1M jars) to about the upper two thirds of the entire vessel (e.g. the Type 2Ca jar). There are 8 major decorative elements which, singly or in combinations, may allow the tentative establishment of a relative chronological sequence of pots with incised-and-impressed decoration and the gaining of some insights into possible external relations in space and time.
7) "Stylised Scroll" (Ss): a curvilinear motif, described as "possibly symbolic" (Hall 1993: 242) or as "human figure" (Higham 2004) but being, because of the impossibility to see in this handle-like shape that of a human, more likely the stylised representation of one scroll of a double spiral with part of the diagonal line linking it to the other.
1) "Band" (Bd): a horizontal band below neck, rim or bowl (in the case of footed bowls), consisting of two incised parallel lines the space between which is filled with imprints (usually shell edge impressions); can be the upper delimitation of the main decorative field.
8) "Arches" (Ar): free-standing curved or pointed arches on a base line, sometimes also hanging and in one case surrounded by fields filled with shell edge impressions.
2) "Segments" (Sg): minor circle segments standing on their own in a row on a base line, filled with stippling, shell impressions or other imprints, sometimes back to back to create a row of horizontal lentil-shaped motifs.
These 26 pottery vessels of Table 7.1 below with identifiable decoration can be divided into two groups according to their decorative motifs. The first group comprises 19 large to huge restricted vessels of five different shapes and one large footed bowl. In spite of their different shapes, the decoration of these 20 vessels consists of seven of the motifs identified above which all pots show singly or in various combinations while none of them is decorated with the eighth, the arch.
3) "Opposed Segments" (Os): mostly flat circle segments, standing and hanging opposite each-other, leaving an odd-shaped empty space between them the centres of which are adorned with circular, lentil- or diamond-shaped figures; circle segments and figures filled with imprints (usually shell edge impressions). In one case this decorative ensemble seems to have been translated into
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No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Pot F4, “X” F6, “R” E4, “C1” G7?, “Q” E4, “B” CBP 148 Find 1 E3, “111” E3, “19” F3, “A2” Find 2 Find 7 E6, “C” F4, “E” E4, “A1” F3, “B” E4, “A3” F4, “Z” F4, “B2a” E4, “A” F6, “B” F6, “B1” F4, “A” F4, “W” E6, “B” F6, “B3”
Type 1M 1M 1Ma 1Ma 1Ma 1Mb 2Ab 2Ca 2B 2B 8A 8A 1L 1L 1L 1L 2C 1N 1Na 4K 1G 1G 1I 1IA 1J 1Jb
Location (KC) IV, SVCB 2 IV, SVCB 3 IV, SVCB 6 IV, SVCB 8 IV, SVCB 7 II, SVCB 10 IV,F4, Bur.6 IV, SVCB 1 IV, E3 {4} IV, F3, F4 {5} III, E8, Bur. 8 III, E8, Bur.9 IV, VCCB 1 IV, VCCB 4 IV, VCCB 6 IV, VCCB 9 IV, VCCB 6 IV, F4, {4} IV, F4, F5 {4} IV, VCCB 6 IV, F6 {4} IV, F6, {4} IV, VCCB 2 IV, F4, E4 {4} IV, VCCB 1 IV, F6 {4}
Bd + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -
Sg + + + + + + + + + + -
Os + + + + + + + + + -
Ct + + -
Wm + + + + -
SZ + + + + -
Ss + -
Ar + + + + + +
Table 7.1, Incised-and-impressed decoration motifs on non-burial pots in Khok Charoen As opposed to the first group, the six vessels of the second group are all large to huge restricted globular bowls with the shape of their rims being the only difference but they all have arches as their distinctive decorative motif to the exclusion of any of the other motifs apart from the shell edge impression-filled band around neck or shoulder; this latter fact indicates a general contemporaneity of these two groups, their differences notwithstanding, which is confirmed by the circumstances of the discovery of the pots. Thirteen of the 20 pots of the first group were found as single vessel- or parts of vessel cluster ceramic burials in KC IV, four as stray finds, two as burial pots in KC III and one in a burial of KC IV but the origin of these last three is not entirely clear. Two of the six vessels of the second group were also part of vessel cluster ceramic burials and sherds of the remaining four were stray finds. It is therefore certain that all these pots with incised-and-impressed decoration belong to the Later Phase of KC IV (whatever the motifs of their decoration may be), that they all come from outside the excavated areas and that they are not connected with the human burials of KC IV or the people who buried their dead there.
element of this group. The earliest examples are to be found on Khok Phanom Di pots from Zone A (4000-3000 BC) and B (3000-1250 BC) (Vincent 1987: 163-169) which could thus theoretically link them with the first pots (tetrapod bowls Type 8A) in Khok Charoen showing this motif. 2) Segments (Sg)
The following comments on each of these motifs may help to trace their origin although, being to a certain degree speculative, they should be considered to be only tentative.
Circle segments standing on a base line around the shoulder of the vessel are part of the decoration of 10 vessels, on seven in conjunction with horizontal bands, twice with Opposed Segments in addition, several times in connection with other motifs and once entirely on their own. The origin of this motif is difficult to ascertain because of the many combination in which it presents itself such as, for instance, in the form of Opposed Segments. The relative dating of pots decorated in this way is made easer if they have been found together with pots bearing other decorations but vessels decorated with "Segments" only, such as the two tetrapod vessels found in KC III burials (Nos. 11 and 12), from the time before the ceramic burials would be the earliest examples of imported pottery vessels with incised-and-impressed decoration.
1) Horizontal bands (Bd)
3) Opposed Segments (Os)
Two parallel lines below the rim with the interval filled with imprints, present on 16 of the 26 vessels surveyed, is the most frequent and probably the oldest decorative
Opposed segments are closely related to the standing ones but add so to speak a whole new dimension to the conceptual approach of what to do with empty space over 327
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand and above, covering it with a single band or the repetition of a single motif. Here again, according to the sparse available evidence the earliest vessel decorated with the Opposed Segments motif could be one from Zone B of Khok Phanom Di, Burial 14, Pot B (op. cit.: 168). As this pot is very well crafted, highly burnished and decorated with great care, it was most probably based on older models and this kind of decoration could well have originated much earlier. In Khok Charoen this motif is the preferred one for Type 1M jars, i.e. vessels found buried on their own, as well as of all the Type 1L bowls buried in vessel cluster ceramic burials, all belonging to the Later phase of KC IV. A very similar motif appears on a pot from Samrong Sen in the Ludovic Jammes Collection, Lyon (Loofs-Wissowa 1992: 124, Fig. 3), which in turn closely resembles a pot of the Ban Chiang Black pottery (White 1982: 59, Fig. 19). As the exact age of both these pots is uncertain, they cannot be used to support any theory concerning a chronological question, although the date of 3230+/-120 BP for Samrong Sen (Carbonnel and Delibrias 1968) could be considered a solid basis. In any case, the similarity of pots from these two sites, attested also by a number of other examples, must be seen as significant. The same should be said about the observation that the shape of the pottery vessel (cat. 1659) found between the ankles of Burial 110 in Khok Phanom Di (Higham and Bannanurag 1990: 157. Vincent 2003: 53, Fig. 2) is almost identical with that of the two pots just mentioned to illustrate the similarity of their incised decoration, to which could be added several other Samrong Sen pots from the Jammes Collection, e.g. one (Loofs-Wissowa 1992: 125, Fig. 4) with a spiral decoration which also fits well into the Khok Phanom Di, Non Nok Tha, Ban Chiang tradition (Loofs-Wissowa 1980c: 1349).
occurs twice in KC IV, on a Type 1L bowl in Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 1 (No. 13) and on a Type 2B bowl (No. 9) which, having not been buried on purpose, is probably of a later date. At least one Ban Chiang style painted vessel, dated to "about 1000-500 BC (?)", is completely covered by this motif to the exclusion of any other (Subhadradis 1982: 31, Fig. 4; 121). There are also in KC IV two jars decorated with what seem to be variations or simplifications of the Windmill motif: a Type 1Ma (No. 4) and a Type 1Mb jar (No. 6). Both are single vessel ceramic burials and thought to be at the end of the series of such burials, the Type 1Mb jar being possibly a locally made version of a model from somewhere outside of Khok Charoen. This jar, the nearest and so far only equivalent, was found accidentally around 1960 in one of five caves "near the Northeast Highway approximately 147 kilometres from Bangkok", i.e. on the eastern side of the Phetchabun Range about 70 km opposite Khok Charoen, and described as a large pot being decorated in a style "as yet unknown for Southeast Asia" but the form of its neck and rim being "similar to present-day vessels and to those of archaeological finds of the last several hundred years from Malaya, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo" (Chin 1962: 56, and pl. I). While the similarity of the shape of this pot to that of the present and past pottery of Malaysia and Indonesia may be somewhat too generalised, its resemblance to the Type 1Mb jar is indeed striking, in particular if one also considers the windmill-like decoration below the shoulder and the apparently cord-marked lower body. However, the unusual decoration between the two has no counterpart in any other neolithic pottery in the region and may indicate a much younger date than the Khok Charoen jar. Thus, altogether an interesting pointer to a connection with a site to the East of the mountain chain but one which would be difficult to follow up.
4) Cartouches (Ct)
Present tribal groups in Mainland Southeast Asia using triangle-based motifs, including the classic Windmill one, are primarily Austro-Asiatic (Bahnaric) speaking tribes on both sides of the enclave of Austronesian (Chamic) speakers in the highlands of southern Vietnam, southeastern Laos and eastern Cambodia. Prominent amongst them the Mnong Gar (e.g. Condominas 1957: Figs. 32, 35; 1965: 221, 323. Museum of Ethnography of Vietnam 2007: 50-51, 69, 87, 90, 93, 96-98, 110-111, 124, 128), the Maa (e.g. Boulbet 1964: 228, 253, 274; 1975: pl. 51), and the Jeh and Sedang (e.g. Lajoux 1977: 98, 100-101). However, some tribal societies of different linguistic backgrounds on the northwestern side of the Indochinese Peninsula also have the classic windmill motif amongst their preferred motifs, albeit usually in marginal positions, on items of clothing or adornment, and not on other objects. These are in particular the Miao-Yao speaking Hmong, formerly called Meo (e.g. Bernatzik 1947, I: 125-128; II: Pls. III-IV, Fig. 86. Lewis 1984: 54-55, 100, 112-113, 115. Lemoine 1972: 117, 122), and Yao (Butler 1970: 11, 16, 19, 24, 26) and the Tibeto-Burman speaking Lahu (e.g. Lewis 1984: 173, 175, 180-181, 184) and Akha (e.g. Lewis 1984: 211, 213), although in the last tribe, the windmill motif seems to be used only very rarely.
Horizontal ovals filled with zigzag lines. This motif is awkward to classify, not only because it is so utterly different from other motifs in this group of vessels with incised and impressed decorations and as such does even seem to be unique in Southeast Asian neolithic pottery but also because in KC IV it occurs on only two almost identical pots Type 1L (Nos. 14 and 15) but found in two different vessel cluster ceramic burials. This could indicate that these pots were the product of one single potter who made them to order for special customers. However, as long as nothing is known about the reason for, and origin of, the vessel cluster ceramic burials, such an explanation is speculative. 5) Windmill (Wm) The Windmill motif, based on the opposition of dark and light triangles, must be one of the most permanent in the history of the decoration of objects in Southeast Asia, although its earliest appearance under this name is on 18th century English patchworks and quilts (Colby 1976: 47). In its classic form (a square divided into eight triangles) it 328
Links with the Present, or Ethnographic Parallels 6) Horizontal S or Z (SZ).
(e.g. Ha Van Tan 1974: 44-47; 1988: 141; Han Van Khân 1976: 15-19; Lévy 1943: pl. XLV). In both cases the answer is that this left-over is indeed the active part but that it is not a stylised human figure.
This motif is the stylised form of the "Opposed Human Figures" motif the more curvilinear form of which is thought to have been amongst the "mental templates of preferred motifs to place on their ceramic vessels" brought into the Khok Phanom Di community by immigrant women introducing the knowledge of rice (Higham 2004: 33) and is compared with the Neolithic pottery from Tha Kae site where there are "stylised snakes and interesting and harmonious opposition of like motifs. One is similar to the human figure of Khok Phanom Di" (op. cit.: 20-21, Fig. 3a). This implies that the decision to interpret this motif as a human figure was already taken when the similarity with one of the Tha Kae pottery decoration motifs (Siripanish 1985: 176, Fig. 62, 8) was emphasised. The Khok Phanom Di motif referred to, on the flaring rim of a vessel from Burial 11, dated to c. 1500 BC, consists of two semicircular stippled fields into which two figures seem to intrude from either side, two from the inner semicircular frame and two from the outer one (Higham 2004: 16, Fig. 2). These figures emerge from the frame as an elongated scalene triangle the vertex of which is transformed into a smaller isosceles triangle pointing to and touching the frame, and end with a bulbous egg-shaped top; in this form they seem to be sui generis as other such figures do not have the small triangle between "head" and "body" but only consist of a big "head" and a wedge-shaped stooped "body". They do, however, have their counterpart in the decoration on a pot of the Phung Nguyen culture in northern Vietnam, dated to the end of the third to the middle of the second millennium BC (Ha Van Tan 1974: 51, Fig. 40a). In a more elaborate version of the same theme on another pot of the same culture (op. cit.: Fig. 40b), these figures are linked to each-other to form continuous spirals and therewith show the relation with the typical Phung Nguyen decoration motifs based on spirals connected in one direction by diagonal tangents while projections in the other direction fill the thus created empty triangular spaces (op. cit.: 47-48).
In comparative charts of decoration motifs in Mainland Southeast Asia, those connected with double spirals and interlocking S-figures figures are seen to be linked with Phung Nguyen or even before (Trinh 2005: 109-111), through to Go Mun, Dong Son, Samrong Sen, to Non Nok Tha and the black pottery of Ban Chiang (Solheim 1982: 188-189, Fig. 2, 3, and 4). If one considers that another basic decoration motif for the whole region, the meander in various forms, is in reality also a series of angular or "linear" double spirals, as shown on a dish from Go Mun (Ha Van Phung 1977: 57, Fig. 2a) it becomes obvious that there are two parallel developments of the same motif. This is also followed up in these charts from Dong Son to Cambodia, Non Nok Tha and to the black pottery of Ban Chiang where it appears occasionally together with the double spiral-derived motif on the same pot. The inclusion of Non Nok Tha is based on the motif on one of the three large jars from the lowest level of that site bearing an incised and impressed decoration (Solheim 1983: 118, pl. II; see also 1971: 331); the other two and a ring-footed jar from the same level are decorated with double spiral motifs in pure Phung Nguyen style (Solheim 1972a: pl. Ic; 1980: 51, pl. VIIa, b, d). The double spiral motif being very prominent in the Phung Nguyen culture which is older than Khok Charoen, Tha Kae, or the latest phase of Khok Phanom Di where it is less frequent, it stands to reason to suggest that if there was diffusion at all, it was more likely from Phung Nguyen to Khok Phanom Di, via a number of sites in between, such as Ban Chiang (Van Esterik 1974: 179-182), rather than the other way around. Several painted tall pedestal bowls of the Ban Chiang Late Period from Ban Chiang itself (e.g. Chin n.d.: 74-75; 1975: Fig. 16), from Ban Wang (e.g. Thai Life 1981: 70) or from Ban Sang Du (e.g. Strebel 1984: 80) show indeed this motif in the same form as on the pot from Tha Kae as well as a motif similar to that on Pot No. 17. Moreover, it may be more than coincidence that a motif almost identical with that on the Tha Kae pot appears on a ceremonial belt-apron of the Mnong Gar, the same mountain tribe in southern Vietnam which also used the many variations of triangle-based motifs reminiscent of the decorative art of Dongson (Museum of Ethnography of Vietnam 2007: 37).
In the way they are published, these three examples of what is supposed to be basically the same motif are seen from above within a circular space and the figures are therefore curved. If they would be straightened out to fit into horizontal rectangular fields to be seen in side-view as on three pots from Khok Charoen (Nos. 8, 9, and 10), the motif on the vessel from Khok Phanom Di can then be perceived as an outside-angular/inside-curved figure resembling a Z or an S lying on its side, asking the question which of the two, the prominent S/Z frame or what is inside it, is the active element in this decorative ensemble and, if the latter, whether this remaining surface is really meant to represent a human figure. It is almost impossible to recognise a human body in this shape, as representations of humans in prehistoric art show that it is always the bodies with arms, legs and sexual attributes which are emphasised. The Phung Nguyen motifs where these shapes form a continuous frieze similar to those of the S or double spiral motif, also leave a shape like the "human figure" of Khok Phanom Di if seen in the negative, though with a smaller and less bulbous "head"
After the veritable explosion of spiral- or double spiral-based decoration motifs in Ban Chiang one would expect these motifs to play a preponderant role in the decoration of later pottery in the wider area but this is not so. In Thai pottery such motifs are rare, surviving only in the form of bands on the upper body of restricted bowls (e.g. Richards 1977: 88, Fig. 25; 101: Fig. 66). They occur more frequently in Vietnamese pottery, boldly on the shoulder of restricted or on the side of unrestricted bowls (e.g. Frasché 1976: 94, Fig. 70; 100, Fig. 58. Willetts 1971: 123, Fig. 118. May 2000: 117, Fig. 61b), in a more flowery style on the upper body of large restricted bowls 329
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand (Frasché 1976: 98, Fig. 15; 119, Fig. 82) or inside or outside of dishes or open bowls (Frasché 1976: 118, Fig. 23. Brown 1977: pl. 7, Fig. 22, 23; pl. 9, Fig. 28. May 2000: 119, Fig. 62b) and on the body as well as the lid of a circular covered box (Willetts 1971: 110, Fig.81). The decoration of this last item is said to relate to Chinese blue-and-white ceramic (op. cit.: 39) and indeed, an open bowl with everted rim from Jingdezhen (Ching-te Chen) or Fujian (Fukien), dated to the Yuan dynasty and found in Vietnam, has exactly the same decorative band on the inside rim (Guy 1980: 46, 52, Fig. 54). On the other hand, the meander (i.e. "linear spirals"), which was used extensively in the decoration of bronze objects and of ceramic tiles in Vietnam, is rare in Vietnamese pottery, although there are some beautiful examples amongst the Chinese-inspired underglaze-blue decorated vessels of the 15th century (May 2000: 152, Fig. 80; 153, Fig. 83; 155, Fig. 84) A similar situation prevails in Thailand where, after having been frequent in the earlier phases of Ban Chiang, the meander is only very sparingly used in a simplified form on later pottery.
Nguyen model or developed independently (Siripanish 1985: 177, Fig. 63, 13, 17 and 18). Why the outline of such a scroll has become a decorative element on its own and what significance may be attached to it has still to be elucidated but the Opposed Human Figures can now be laid to rest. As an example for the survival of the about 3500 year-old decoration traditions of the double spiral and the meander into present-day Mainland Southeast Asia, the same mountain tribes societies should be mentioned which also use mainly triangle-based motifs in the decoration of objects, be they sacred or profane. In the absence of a developed tradition of decorated pottery, these objects are almost exclusively articles of clothing or adornment, objects made of wood or bamboo (posts, containers, coffins etc.) or basketry, each of which is manufactured in a different way which in turn determines to a certain extent how it could best be decorated. Thus, it is more difficult to weave a spiral motif into baskets made of bamboo-stripes or to engrave one on a solid bamboo tube than an angular one and indeed in Mnong Gar and Maa societies such objets are always decorated, if they are decorated at all, with meander-like motifs (e.g. Condominas 1965: 316. Museum of Ethnography of Vietnam 2007: 54, 69, 125. Boulbet 1964: 229). Woven cloth also includes sometimes decorative meander bands (e.g. Museum of Ethnography of Vietnam 2007: 46. Butler 1970: 17. Lewis 1984: 125) although less frequently than other motifs such as the double spiral or, in particular with the Hmong, opposed double spirals (Lewis 1984: 112-113, 125).
7) Stylised Scroll (Ss). While it has been shown that the supposedly stylised versions of the "human figure" motif are most likely variations of the meander and the double spiral tradition, both coming from or via the Phung Nguyen culture, the origin of the round "head" on a small recumbent "body" as a decorative element in its own right as it appears on the Type 2C Pot No. 17 from Khok Charoen, remains to be explained. Here, these figures are positioned opposed from the upper and the lower line to, and off-set from, each-other within a band in such a way that the remaining blank space around them does not evoke any recognisable form, leaving no doubt that the figures were the active element of the decoration which is clearly shown by comparing this motif (of Pot No.17) with the "left-over" from Pot No.9. This figure also originates in the Phung Nguyen culture where it occurs on its own, sometimes in the form of opposed pairs (Ha Van Phung 1969: 21, Fig. 25), as the sole motif without any allusion of being part of a wider decorative ensemble or of a larger figure. Comparing and contrasting it on a chart showing other Phung Nguyen motifs (Le Xuan Diêm 1971: 24) with those most similar to it, such as double spirals with an extended diagonal central part, it becomes clear that these handle-like forms are the simplified end-scrolls of the double spiral motif, one of the oldest and most widespread motifs in the Vietnamese decorative repertory which can be traced from the Phung Nguyen culture through that of Dong Dao and Go Mun to Dong Son and its iconic Tangentenkreise or "tangent-circles" (Heine-Geldern 1951: 233) and further into eastern Southeast Asia and even New Guinea (Ha Van Tan 1988: 144; Le Xuan Diêm 1971: 24-25; Solheim 1982: 82-83, 88-89). At least three amongst the decorative motifs occurring as a continuous band on the middle part of the body of Tha Kae pottery seem to show the same evolution resulting in the same handle-like form, whether influenced by the Phung
The following images in Illustration 7.2 depict the development of the SZ style in examples of pottery decoration from other parts of Asia, as discussed above.
Band decoration type 1, Phung Nguyen style
Band decoration type 2, Dong Dau style
Band decoration type 3, Pot no. 10, KCIV, F3, Pot “A2”
330
Links with the Present, or Ethnographic Parallels
Band decoration type 11, Jakarta Museum drum
Band decoration type 4, Pot “19” Pot 9 in Table 7.1
Band decoration type 5, Pot “111”, Pot 8 in Table 7.1
Band decoration type 12, Salay drum (E. India)
Band decoration type 13, Ban Chiang style
Band decoration type 6, Non Nok Tha style
Band decoration type 14, Tha Kae style
Band decoration type 7, Khok Panom Di style
Band decoration type 15, Mnong Gar Illustration 7.1, Development of the SZ style in examples from Asia Band decoration type 8, Phung Nguyen style NB: A more ornate version of the same motif by the name of “cloud pattern”(yunwen) was used in the Dian-kingdom in Yunnan to decorate bronze weapons (e.g. Lutz 1986:84, 90); a connection of this motif with war-like activities can therefore be assumed. Band decoration type 9, Phung Nguyen style
8) Arches (Ar). The six pots with arches as their only decoration all come from positions suggesting an origin from outside the excavated areas and at a time after the human burials in KC IV. Pots 21 and 22 were both found near (human) Burial 7 without being archaeologically associated with it: one, the bottom part missing, in an upright position at 30 cm E of the skeleton but in a layer above it, and the other as a single large diagnostic rim- and upper body-sherd at the same depth above the skeleton. Apart from minor differences in their decoration, these two pots were identical and most likely originated from the same source
Band decoration type 10, Hoang-ha drum style
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand to the west of the excavated area. Pot 23 was part of the Vessel Cluster Ceramic Burial 2 and Pot 25 of VCCB 1. Pot 24 was virtually restored from about 100 mostly medium sherds dispersed throughout {4} in F4 and one from F3, again only from the upper part of the vessel which may mean that the bottom was left somewhere west of squares F4 and F3. Pot 26, an almost 50 cm tall restricted bowl, could be virtually reconstructed from four medium/large diagnostic sherds and a number of smaller ones found in {4} in the "E"-baulk of F6 near a very disturbed area; it, too, cannot have been originally part of the pottery of the KC IV cemetery.
Illustration 7.2, Difference between “Beaker” and P’u vessels
The "Arches" motif on several large bowls of Types 1I and 1J, is still not yet classifiable as neither the origin nor the age of these six vessels are known with certainty. None of them could be fully restored, some only virtually from a few diagnostic sherds, and none of them was found in situ. They all came from outside the excavated areas but obviously from not too far away. As the arch does not play a significant role in Chinese decorative art, China is unlikely to have been the country of origin of this motif. The same can be said about early Vietnamese and Thai ceramics but at the neolithic site of Laang Spean, Cambodia, sherds of a vessel decorated with incised standing arches on stippled background have been excavated (Mourer 1977: 35, Fig. 2, No. 12), as well as of one decorated with incised hanging arches, i.e. "Segments" (Mourer 1970: 138, Fig. 5, No. 15), both being motifs known from Khok Charoen. As Laang Spean is situated near Battambang, less than 300 km southeast from Khok Charoen, and layer 3, in which these sherds were found, is dated to 4,000 +/- 90 BP (Mourer 1977: 32; 1994: 150), a connection with Khok Charoen is possible although not probable.
The excavators of Laang Spean also stress similarities with Samrong Sen pottery (Mourer 1977: 43-45), dated to c. 1280 BC (Carbonnel and Delibrias 1968; Mourer 1973: 41) meaning that we would have here a series of possible relationships from Samrong Sen to Laang Spean, Khok Charoen and on to Ban Chiang. Moreover, a small bowl from Laang Spean, decorated in the same way as the ring-footed bowl from this site, shows that the empty horizontal bands on stippled background also have vertical parts which makes them look like a simple meander-like decoration similar to that on some of the black pots in Ban Chiang (Mourer 1994: 188, Fig. 3; 191, Pl. 3, 1). The arch as the only decorative element on the upper part of a vessel briefly appears again in the semicircular form on late 12th century Khmer storage jars (e.g. Brown 1977: 43, Fig. 14) and in the pointed or Gothic form on Baluster jars (e.g. Guy 1989: Fig.9). In both cases, the vertical, slightly left-leaning lines as the only decoration on the lower body could be interpreted as a memory of cord-marking. Given the fact that provincial Khmer kiln sites on the Khorat Plateau are virtually next door to Khok Charoen in the lower Pasak Valley and that these kilns began production at the same time as those supplying Khok Charoen seem to have stopped (Groslier 1981b: 10, 31-33), Khmer vessels decorated with arches on the upper body could easily be seen as perpetuating the tradition of the Type 1I pots in KC IV. However, from the tenth century on, Chinese-trained Khmer potters introduced new pottery techniques (wheel, kiln, glazing), a more sophisticated pottery tradition had begun which continues to this day parallel with the tradition of hand-made pottery in the villages; neither of them uses large arches as decoration (Biagini and Mourer 1971: 197-211). It is therefore most likely that the plain arch was an ad hoc invention without a sequel.
However, layer 3 of Laang Spean also contained enough sherds of a ring-footed bowl with simple pricked and incised decoration for it to be restored (Mourer 1970: pl. between 136-137; 1977: pl. before 39). This ceramic vessel, so far unique for Cambodia, shows an astonishing similarity in shape if not in size to some of the "beakers" of Ban Chiang, notably the one in the Princessehof Museum (Netherlands) which had been chosen to discuss the possibility of a relation with a Zhou dynasty p'u bronze vessel of an almost identical shape (Harrisson 1979). The result was that such a relation is most unlikely because of an important structural difference: whereas the Princessehof beaker is a deep round-bottomed bowl sitting on a ring-foot with flaring base but having at the point of junction with the body the same diameter as the latter (op. cit.: 125), the Zhou bronze vessel is more hyperboloid-shaped, the upper part being the bowl and the lower one the foot, with the bottom of the bowl where the two meet. As the Laang Spean ring-footed bowl is built like the Princessehof beaker (Mourer 1977: 35, Fig. 2, No.7) it qualifies for being likened to the Ban Chiang beakers which in turn fits well into the revised time frame as proposed for the latter site (White 1997: 104).
Summary and conclusions To conclude this section on pottery decoration and their development over time, the following can be said with confidence in spite of many uncertainties still surrounding this topic. The interpretation of the most intriguing of the decoration motifs under review as "Opposed Human Figures", is in both its forms (i.e. the stylised and the still more stylised) not supported by the evidence although the statement that it "links a series of sites in Central and Northeast Thailand and suggests a shared tradition of 332
Links with the Present, or Ethnographic Parallels symbolic decoration that dates from the late third millennium" (Higham 2004: 15) remains valid. These two forms which represent the same object (the stylised end of a double spiral) originate from two different but related motifs, the double spiral and the meander, which have been found in northern Vietnam at around the beginning of the third millennium BC. From there they spread southwards into the Indochinese Peninsula and Indonesia where they appear as elongated opposed S-figures, on flask-shaped bronze urns considered to be ceremonial objects complementary to the bronze drums (Glover 1992: 224-225). One of these urns, found in 1989 in a cave on Phu Keo, Chaiyapun Province, Thailand (op. cit.: 212), shows this motif, in addition to its simple form, also in a way reminiscent of the motifs on neolithic pottery vessels from Tha Kae, said to be similar to the original "Opposed Human Figures" in Khok Phanom Di (Higham 2004: 21, Fig. 3 a and c).
Chronology Of particular interest for the establishment of a reasoned chronology is Pot "19" (Pot No. 9) and similar pots the dating of which is rather complicated. Pot "19" itself was found in the form of the entire upper part of the body and fragments of the bottom of a virtually restorable vessel about one metre north of the head of Burial 2 at 40 cm b.s. in {5} or {4} in Pit I of KC I (Cutting E3 of KC IV) but clearly not in situ. Although it is listed as a burial pot of Burial 2, KC I (Ho 1984, I: 263; II: Fig. 11.17, CBP 155), there is no evidence that Pot "19" was in any way associated with this or any other human burial in Khok Charoen. The characteristic incised-and-impressed decoration suggests a connection with ceramic burials of late pre-Discontinuity KC IV although there is no proof of that either, except for a similarity with Pot "111" in decoration, ring-foot and cord-marking, if not in shape. However, this pot (Pot No. 8) is almost un-classifiable. Being the only one of the six excavated 1M-shaped jars to have a straight direct rim, Pot "111" has more in common with Type 1L than with Type 1M pots, especially with the Type 1L-shaped Pot "A3" (No. 17) which also has a ring-foot and has amongst its decoration motifs the "Stylised Scroll" in its original form, different from the other pots which have it in the very stylised "Horizontal S or Z"-form. While this shows that both versions of this motif can occur side by side, it is not at all helpful to determine the chronological position of the hybrid Pot 111 which, although having been tentatively thought of as being the youngest of the Type 1M jars, may in actual fact be a transitional form between the older vessel cluster ceramic burial pots and the younger single vessel ceramic burial jars and therefore the oldest of the latter.
A further extension of the traditions of the double spiral and the meander into eastern Indonesia and the Philippines is well known and documented (e.g. Bellwood 1978: 273; 1984: 51. Fox 1970: 86-89, 97. Heine-Geldern 1946: 137-138. Krämer 1927: 36-37. Malleret 1961: passim, pls. IV-X. Peacock 1961: 134. Solheim 1961: 158; 1964: 42, 92; 1966: 202, pls. II,V; 1972e: 41; 1980: 51; 1982: 182-189. Tanudirjo 2005: 17, Fig. 3) but is not considered germane enough to the topic of the present report to be examined in more detail here. The same must be said about the fact that three of the motifs considered typical for the Bronze Age in Vietnam (hatched isosceles triangles, spirals linked by tangents, and circle segments on a base line) are also found on bronze bells of the Yayoi period in Japan, dated to the 3rd century BC (Siegmund-Rux 1981: 130) and that the tangent-circles motif itself is thought of having something to do with stylised bird designs as on the Ma-chia-yao pottery from Kansu which in turn was seen as part of the Yang-shao expansion westwards (Chêng 1966: 27, Fig. 14). The role of the neolithic pottery of Kansu, well known for its spiral decoration and its connections with Central Asia, in the diffusion of certain decoration motifs could also be a promising field of further research. This and other such problems or correspondences (not to mention those with Central and South America) resulted in the frustrating statement in a study of the origin and development of Ch'u (Zhou) art motifs and their dispersion from the Chinese sphere into the Pacific by one of the most knowledgeable scholars in this field, Noel Barnard, that practically all motifs known from Phung Nguyen or Dongson, from the hatched triangle to all sorts of spirals or pseudo-meanders, can be found individually or in various combinations in the arts of Japan, Thailand, the Philippines, Borneo, Malaysia, Samoa, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Tonga and the Marquesas from c. 10,500 BC to c. AD 830 (Barnard 1972: 41). There is still much work to do to trace the movements of every one of these motifs in space and time in an attempt to unravel the intricacies of the history of decorative motifs in eastern Asia, the western Pacific and even beyond.
The only other substantial part of a vessel similar to Pot "19" is Pot "A2" of F3 (Pot No. 10). It also consists of the uppermost part of the vessel comprising the direct vertical rim (broken or cut off in Pot "19"), the near-horizontal shoulder platform (sloping in Pot "19") and the part from the first carination (more angular than in Pot "19") down to the second one. Both, platform and shoulder part, bear the same incised-and-impressed decoration as Pot "19", except for the absence of the "Windmill" squares which in the latter separate the "SZ" panels. This large piece, complete but broken in two halves, was found upside-down at 70-80 cm b.s. in {5} in the S-corner of F3 without any other part of this vessel but with a rim-sherd and a pedestal fragment on top of it which could be virtually restored as the unique specimen of a very large footed bowl Type 4I (F3, Pot "A1"), being an item of "Special and Unique Pottery (on site)" of unknown provenance. Scraps of unidentifiable small bones, also on Pot "A2", and long-bone fragments of a young male adult lying nearby on the 80 cm b.s. level suggest a very disturbed burial or an incident resulting in the death of the young man but whatever the reason for this disturbance, it makes a reliable dating of this particular pot according to its stratigraphical position almost impossible. In addition to these two pots (Nos. 9 and 10) found about 7 m apart, one deep in {5} in F3 and the other somewhat 333
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand higher at the interface of {5}/{4}) in E3, neither of them in situ, twelve sherds from similar pots (two probably from these pots themselves), were found in cuttings west, northwest and north of E3 and F3. They evidence the presence of up to seven more pots of this type nearby and the direction from which they had come but are of little help to determine their stratigraphical position as most of these sherds were found in {4}, i.e. in the last pre-Discontinuity layer, one (in F4) in {5} but two (in F6 and E5) possibly in the first post-Discontinuity layer {3}, although water action may have altered the original position of these sherds. Here again, from this situation only the general conclusion could be drawn that the pots from which these fragments were swept southwards cannot have been far away (probably still on the "Promontory") and that they were standing in the uppermost stratum of {4} in such a position that their sherds could easily be carried away by the floods and be distributed over a relatively large area.
certainty the drawing of conclusions from this similarity is limited to suggesting a common manufacturer. Sab Champa, a walled city of the early Dvaravati period (sixth-seventh century AD), situated 15 km east of Chaibadan in the vicinity of Sri Thep, was built, like Sri Thep itself, on an Iron Age- and before that on a Neolithic settlement leading to the surmise that "perhaps New Stone Age life in some parts of Thailand continued until the fifth century A.D. or even later" (Veerapan 1979: 341). Although not necessarily to be taken to this limit, this could indicate that in the Lower Pasak Valley and neighbouring areas "Neolithic" pottery lasted longer than elsewhere in Thailand. This seems also to be true in the case of the Prasat Phanom Wan, a Khmer monument only about 100 km east of Khok Charoen built on an Iron Age burial ground the (undecorated) pottery of which would not look out of place had it been found in Khok Charoen itself (Fine Arts Department of Thailand 2001: 43-48). This "out-of-phase" situation of items of material culture not supposed to be together is apparently not rare in the wider region as in Laang Spean, a site in Cambodia about 300 km southeast of Sab Champa, a sophisticated neolithic pottery complex was found embedded in a culture with a Hoabinhian stone tool assemblage (Mourer 1977: 53). While this does not mean that the Pot "19" twin vessel found near Sab Champa should be dated to the first centuries AD, it may be somewhat younger than assumed. However, the comparison of the four similar vessels , Pots 8, 9 and 10 (middle body conjectural only) and “10a” shows that for dating purposes the decoration motifs of pots have to be considered independently from their shapes. See Illustration 7.3 below.
A vessel identical to Pot "19" of KC IV, labelled "A Neolithic pottery vessel from the area of Sab Champa" (Higham 2004: 23-25, Figure 5) is taken to prove a connection and contemporaneity with the sites of Khok Phanom Di and Ban Non Wat and to demonstrate the wide distribution of the "Opposed Human Figures"-motif from the Bight of Bangkok to North Thailand and eastwards into the upper Mun Valley in the southern part of the Khorat Plateau. This expansion would correspond broadly to that of dentate impressed pottery, Hmong Mien and Daic languages and the advance of rice cultivation into Southeast Asia (Higham 1996: passim). However, as neither the origin nor the age of both these pots (Pot "19" itself and its Sab Champa counterpart) are known with
Illustration 7.3, Images of pots compared in text above Another unsolved problem connected with chronology is the presence of Type 1B pots (Bayard's typology) in Non Nok Tha. With a height and width of about 30 cm, they are the largest of the 847 vessels excavated and analysed from Non Nok Tha and the only ones with incised-and-impressed decoration. Three of them have been found in burials dating to the time of the initial settlement, estimated to have been between 3000 and 2600 BC (Bayard 1984: 88-89), one during the 1966 excavation (in Burial 6) and two during that of 1968 (in Burial 14),
together with pots of Types 1A, 1C, 1F, 1G, 1I , 4A and 5A. While most of the pot-types accompanying these three Type 1B bowls continue to exist during the entire long-lasting time of the Early, Later and Final Phases of Non Nok Tha, there are no more incised-and-impressed decorated pots of Type 1B (or of any other type) above the lowest layer, i.e. from about 2000 BC to AD 200 (ibid.). This is obviously a strange situation, also reminiscent of the one at the time of the earliest burials in KC III and the large globular (cord-marked but undecorated) bowls Type
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Links with the Present, or Ethnographic Parallels 1K. In both cases, the founding of the cemetery was done by people possessing a high degree of skill in pottery making products which, after having been put into the earliest few burials disappear altogether, although in Khok Charoen they reappear for a short time after the big floods. However, the decoration of the Non Nok Tha vessels being very similar in style and execution to those found in ceramic burials in Khok Charoen rather than to the earlier plain Type 1K bowls, one would expect them – and therefore also the foundation of the cemetery – to be dated to a later time than the one of KC III, whereas it is (at present) generally thought to be considerably earlier. Moreover, in view of the similarity of the decorated vessels of Non Nok Tha and those of the ceramic burials in Khok Charoen, a common manufacturer or at least manufacturers from a similar background could be assumed. As their identity, like the identity of the people who brought the Type 1K bowls to Khok Charoen, remains unknown, the topic of when and by whom the settlements and burial grounds of these two sites were founded remains wrapped in a shroud of mystery.
Reserved Sherds In her thesis on the pottery of KC I and II, Ho devoted a section to 'Reserved' sherds, noting that "There are sherds which do not fit any complete parallel in burial pots. They have some special decorations or features which deserve a separate category" (Ho 1984, I: 40). As a number of such sherds also occurred in KC III and IV, this category is continued here under the name of Special and Unique Pottery – 1 (on site) and -2 (from outside the excavated area), q.v..
7.5 Subsistence Digging Sticks Some time prior to our excavations a surface find had been made in Ban Dong Noi, about 3 km W of the site of Khok Charoen, the significance of which only became fully apparent after almost identical finds were made in other parts of Thailand a few years later. It was half of a perforated stone ("ring-stone"), usually ascribed to the latest phase of the Hoabinhian or later, i.e. the "epi-Hoabinhian", dated to c. 3000 BC and thus preceding Khok Charoen by more than a thousand years (see Illustration 7.4 below). In the lowest layer of the Tham Nguang Chang (cave) near Fang, excavated by the TBAE during its first season 1965-1966, two perforated flat pebbles were also discovered among Hoabinhian-type choppers and tentatively described as "resembling mace heads" (Watson 1968: 304). Eighteen fragments of such perforated stones, found in various palaeolithic sites in an area delimitated by Tak, Lampang, Chiang Mai and Fang, were described by Sørensen (1976) and their probable use was discussed. Functions which had been suggested include mace heads, weight-stones for digging sticks, net sinkers, and bark beaters but all of these have been rejected as unlikely by Sørensen. However, these 18 fragments come from stones having an average diameter of 9.9 cm (arrived at from a maximum of 14 cm and a minimum of 5.8 cm) and all have biconical central holes. With a diameter of 14 cm, the Ban Dong Noi find is at the upper end of the range of the northwestern Thai finds and should presumably be dated to the same transitional phase from the end-palaeolithic to the earliest neolithic, i.e. the time of incipient horticulture or agriculture, which would in turn suggest a function of the perforated stones connected with these new activities. Sørensen's objection to accepting the function of such perforated stones as mace heads because of the difficulty in properly hafting them as "the hourglass-shaped perforation offers too little contact between head and shaft" (op. cit.: 173) must be seen as convincing whereas that to the function as weight stones for digging sticks as less so.
As had been suggested in the "Introductory Note concerning Pottery" before dealing with the KC III burials, this shroud could at least be partly lifted if an approach to chronology is adopted which takes pottery decoration into consideration. The comparison of the pottery assemblages of Non Nok Tha and Khok Charoen reveals a different relative chronological position of each of the two constituent parts of these sites. Thus, if the larger constituent part of each assemblage, i.e. the pottery of the majority of human burials, is called A, and the smaller one, i.e. the pottery in ceramic burials in KC IV or the 1B bowls in the Phu Wiang phase, is called B, their chronological sequence from bottom up would be BA for Non Nok Tha and AB for Khok Charoen (but with the younger KC II above it). The realisation that the similarity of motifs of decoration of the three atypical pots at the bottom of the deposit in Non Nok Tha with pottery of the ceramic burials in Khok Charoen denotes contemporaneity is crucial for the study of the relations in time between Non Nok Tha and Khok Charoen. Then the date of the foundation of the Non Nok Tha burials would be the same as that of these ceramic burials which is after the abandonment of the KC IV burial grounds but just before the Discontinuity, c. 1300-1200 BC, and the two sites would be roughly contemporaneous rather than being separated by a thousand years or more, with Khok Charoen being even a few generations older than Non Nok Tha. While this would necessitate a somewhat drastic rethinking of the archaeology of Mainland Southeast Asia, it would have the advantage of minimising the problems related to the question of why Khok Charoen should have no bronze while the so much older Non Nok Tha has it and would also fit in with the above-mentioned revised dates for earliest bronze in Ban Chiang (White 1997) and the re-assessment of the entire situation with regard to bronze working by Higham (1997).
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand halves of which were found together (White 1982: 56, No. 10). The dating of these Thai finds was regrettably far from precise: from c. 5000 BC (ibid.) to "somewhere between 6000 BC and 3000 BC" (Sørensen 1976: 175). A number of circular or oval stones, or fragments thereof, with biconical holes and dimensions like those from Thailand have been found in southern Vietnam, dated to the end of the second millennium BC (Fontaine 1975: 82, 89-91, Pl. VI, Fig. 4) but their function as weights for digging-sticks does not seem to have been recognised. The same is true for other sites in Vietnam where halves of some heavy perforated stone rings with diameters from 9.3 cm to 12 cm and small biconical holes are listed under the heading "stone jewellery" (Nguyên Thi Kim Dung 1996: 204, fig. 4a; 209, fig. 6a; 210, fig. 6b). Two entire perforated stones with biconical central holes have also been excavated at a neolithic burial site in Guangxi Province, Southern China, without attribution of a function; one circular and the other oval, they both have a maximum diameter of 10 cm and are almost certainly weight-stones for digging sticks (Fu 2002: 64-67). The circular perforated stone is of particular interest as it was found together with 105 tektite flakes and 36 cores; most of the flakes had been artificially produced for an unknown purpose, quite possibly as harvesting knives (for millet?) as suggested for those found in Khok Charoen. To suggest that both, digging stick and tektite flakes, were perhaps tools, one for sowing and the other for harvesting, used in the framework of the same agricultural activity, does not seem to be idle speculation. Moreover, as worked tektites ("tektite lithics") have never been found in China before, chances are that new discoveries will soon be made which may clarify this matter.
Illustration 7.4, Digging stick weight (?) from Ban Dong Noi (see text above)
The argument that the digging stick, being nothing more than a branch, would be more likely to break than the stone can be countered by information, gathered by Allchin (1966:19, Fig. 21.14, 215) about the use of digging sticks by Bushman women in southern Africa. The stick itself is described as a stout stick about three feet long, pointed at one end and weighted with a perforated disk-shaped stone about five inches (about 13 cm) in diameter which was kept in place by a long wooden wedge forced in from the direction of the point. As to the manufacture of these weight stones, Allchin refers to the account of an old Bushman woman at the end of the 19th century which goes as follows. A suitable stone is roughly knocked into shape, the perforation is then made with a stone pick by pecking from each side until the two holes met in the middle, enlarged by rotating the pick in the hole and smoothed with strips of sandstone; the whole surface of the stone was then pecked and ground until it was quite symmetrical. The manufacture of such a stone required many hours of hard work and was always done by women.
That there is ample room for misinterpretation is shown by surveys of Melanesian mace heads which at times include perforated stones with biconical holes, reminiscent of weight-stones for digging sticks (e.g. Bühler 1946-1949: 238, called there Steinringe as opposed to Keulenköpfe), whereas they are almost certainly mace heads in the early stages of their fabrication as is clearly demonstrated by step-by-step photos of the making of simple mace heads (Blackwood 1950: plates VIII-IX). Although mountain tribes people practising shifting agriculture in both Thailand and Vietnam now use only stout pointed digging sticks up to 3 m in length and c. 5 cm in width (Condominas 1965: between 208-209) some with socketed iron points (Bernatzik 1947, II: 362, 365), others only about 2 m long (Lajoux 1977: 48-49; Srisavasdi 1966: 60) for dry rice or millet cultivation and separate tools if they also grow tubers, there is enough evidence for suggesting that previously people used sticks weighed with ring-stones for the digging up of any plants growing below the surface which were their staple food. If the Ban Dong Noi find is confirmed to be genuine, e.g. by similar finds in a stratified context, this could not only indicate a pre-neolithic habitation of the area of Khok Charoen of which there are so far no signs, but also the practice of some kind of simple horticulture based on the exploitation of edible tubers.
Such a report could have been made by an eye-witness about 3000 BC in northwestern Thailand, accounting for size, shape, way of manufacture and function of these heavy stone rings as weight stones for digging sticks to dig up edible tubers and the like. In the course of this work force may at times have been used to push the digging stick deeper into the ground which resulted in breaking the stone (rather than the stick). The question (also asked by Sørensen) why only single halves have been found whereas one would expect to find both halves of a broken stone where it broke, is still unanswered. An exception is the broken perforated oval stone (L: 9.3 cm; W: 6.9 cm) from Tham Pha Chan site in northwestern Thailand both 336
Links with the Present, or Ethnographic Parallels Rice
The origin of millets, including Setaria italica, is generally dated to the middle of the sixth millennium BC in northern China where millet became the staple food throughout the Neolithic, and yet on the Indochinese Peninsula foxtail millet was not known before the onset of the second millennium BC and the route it followed to travel there is still largely uncharted. During the third millennium BC cultures based on the cultivation of rice but not derived from the millet-based Yangshao culture of the Yellow River region, developed along the lower Yangtze with the result that millet was from then on of only minor importance in southern mainland China while more or less at the same time the cultivation of dry rice and/or millet began in Taiwan whence it would have reached the Philippines in the process of the Initial Austronesian expansion (Bellwood 1985: 222-223). That would explain the way millet expanded as far as eastern Indonesia but not the presence of millet in prehistoric Central Thailand where there are no Austronesian languages.
The fact that in Khok Charoen the earliest evidence for rice cultivation (in the form of impressions of grains of rice, almost certainly Oryza sativa, on potsherds) comes from the burial pottery of Burial 5, KC III, the oldest burial on the site, must be interpreted as meaning that rice had already been cultivated in the area before the establishment of the cemeteries. How long before and by which way domesticated rice reached Khok Charoen is not known with certainty as the topic of the origin and spread of rice cultivation is constantly under review (Chen 1999), nor does it matter much in the framework of this report as it can be taken as obvious that at least from then on the cultivation of dry rice was the economic basis (or part of it) of the communities burying their dead there. The excavation of the settlements of these communities having not been possible, the only information about any further development of rice cultivation was what could be gleaned from the burials themselves. From that no development of any kind could be seen during pre-Discontinuity times but it appears that, if not immediately after the Discontinuity at least during the second phase of KC II, there was an increase in the awareness of the importance of rice as the basic life-sustaining food, evidenced by the fact that now the newly developed ceramic rice steamers are even put in human burials as grave goods.
Outside the conceptual framework of Austronesian-speakers being the agents of the diffusion of millet to Southeast Asia there are two alternative possibilities. One is that on the basis of the finds of Late Jōmon shell-knives, interpreted as millet-cutting implements, Kokubu (1964: 231-232) reconstructed an island-hopping route from southern Japan to Taiwan and the Philippines on which millet has been diffused; the other is that there are reasons to believe that millet was cultivated in Taiwan well before the Austronesian expansion. The mythology of highland Taiwanese contains allusions that millet existed before the appearance of humans (Pache 1964: passim), and oral tradition mentions the former existence of millet-growing population groups of very small dark-skinned people (Yamada 2007, based on Yamada 2006). As neither of these alternatives can be linked to Thailand, where there are no traces of any direct influence from Taiwan, the most likely direction from which millet was introduced is from southern China. However, in the absence of significant archaeological research in this matter, the way it was introduced and which, millet or rice, was more important in Khok Charoen, is still to be ascertained.
Millet The earliest evidence for the cultivation of millet in Khok Charoen also comes from impressions of grains on potsherds of the same pots of Burial 5, KC III, on which the impression of grains of rice were found, proving the contemporaneity of rice and millet cultivation in the area well before there were any burials there, that the vehicle of its introduction was in actual fact the very first burial on the site and that from then on it also was a part of the economic basis of local communities, although the importance of this part relative to that of rice cannot be ascertained. As no seeds as such were discovered, the genus of millet can also not be accurately determined. Most likely it was Setaria italica (foxtail millet) or perhaps Panicum miliaceum which would fit in well with finds made at three prehistoric sites only about 50 km south-southwest of Khok Charoen in the Khao Wong Prachan Valley and spanning the same period from the second millennium BC to the later centuries of the first millennium AD: Non Pa Wai, Nil Kham Haeng, and Non Mak La (Weber et al. 2010). Of the 3,294 rice and millet seeds recovered from these sites, millets represent the most common food taxa and the majority of the millet seeds were Setaria italica, although Panicum seeds were also identified. A similar situation could have prevailed in Khok Charoen but there is no possibility to check on this matter in the way it was done at these other sites.
In this connection, the above discussion about digging-sticks and earlier quoted origin-myths of the Wa may be of some interest as one of those myths gives a detailed account of how the ancestors of the Kawa (i.e. the Wa within the Chinese border), learned the slash-and-burn cultivation of millet by using bamboo digging-sticks, the sawing and harvesting at the right time and even the making of fire for cooking, all this under the guidance of "Heaven" (Obayashi 1966: 46-48, quoting Chung-Kuo K'o-Hsio-Yüan, Wên-Hsio-Yên-Chiu-So 1962, (see “Anon” in the Bibligraphy)). Rice is nowhere mentioned. This would strengthen the hypothesis that millet reached Central Thailand via Yunnan, eastern Burma and northernmost Thailand, rather than by a more eastern route, and that it may have once been the basic staple food.
Contrary to that of rice, the investigation of the way millet reached the Pasak River Valley is of some interest because of its association with theories concerning the spread of languages and the location of present speakers of them.
Some further circumstantial evidence could be taken into consideration when attempting to assess the relative 337
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand importance of rice and millet in Khok Charoen. Ever since the resettlement, in the 1950s, of this area which had been left unoccupied for over a thousand years, it became known for being a good place to grow "millet" and that is indeed what the new settlers there do now as a cash crop. That in reality most millet grown now is a sorghum, S. bicolour or "commercial sorghum", does not invalidate the observation that the local soil is one where grasses like millets and sorghums grow well and did very probably so in the Neolithic. Another, tentatively proposed possible evidence is that the relative frequency of artificially sharpened tektite flakes with traces of use excavated in Khok Charoen, is perhaps best explained by suggesting that they served as cutting instruments for the notoriously difficult harvesting of millet (Loofs 1977: 123-126, see below).
enough for this purpose. No obsidian or fine-grained glassy volcanic rock from which tools of the required sharpness could be manufactured is known from the Khok Charoen area, and from the small size of the stone adzes found at the site, it could be inferred that even stone hard enough for use as reaping knives was a scarce raw material. This is also borne out by the fact that limestone adzes (too soft to have been used) were often found in burials, suggesting that the real thing was considered too precious to be wasted as a burial gift. People in this area must thus have been looking for a raw material for the manufacture of cutting implements, and tektites would have appeared to them as literally heaven-sent. Although in Khok Charoen a number of tektite flakes or fragments have been found in or near burials, no case of the reliable association of any of them with the buried individual could be observed which does not mean that, in these flood-ravaged burial fields, such an association did nowhere exist.
7.6 Folklore Two items related to traditional beliefs which have been found in Khok charoen should be mentioned here: Tektites and phallus-shaped objects. Both are believed to this day to be protective against accidents or evil forces.
At present in Thailand, tektites or flakes thereof, called significantly sakèd daaw ("star flake") in Thai, are much sought-after amulets, to be worn around the neck often together with Buddhist amulets, for protection against evil spirits or other bad influences and against physical dangers: "If I wear this sakèd daaw, nobody can beat me, nobody can hit me, nobody can stab me" as a villager said which was enthusiastically endorsed by the District Chief who was present at this interview: "Tektites protect because they are parts of stars" (Loofs 1977: 119).
Tektites It became evident during the test excavations of KC I that we had discovered a new tektite field on the northwestern rim of the Australasian Strewn-Field because of the number of surface finds of tektites or fragments thereof, all eagerly collected by local farmers because of their supposed protective qualities if worn like an amulet. Tektites were also known to have come from industrial excavations such as road building. During the excavations at KC II, KC III, and KC IV, six whole tektites, 30 tektite fragments, and 75 tektite flakes were discovered; ten of the latter which looked like having been modified were submitted to Cambridge University to be examined according to the Semenov method with the result that eight of them showed indeed signs of wear, i.e. use as cutting instruments (Loofs 1977: 121-122). The question of what object it may have been that had been cut in this way could not be answered by the flakes themselves but experiments have shown that it could well have been, but not necessarily was, stalks of unripe millet cut by using a hand-held sharp flake (Loofs 1977: Pl. IVb) or by some kind of sickle made of several flakes.
Phallus-shaped objects Two phallus-shaped objects in clay have been found in, or in the vicinity of, Khok Charoen: one in the top layer of KC II (but probably from a later date) and the other in the nearby Iron Age site of Ban Sub Noi. Yet another such find from the Neolithic cemetery of Ban Kao shows that beliefs connected with the phallus almost certainly existed already in the Neolithic. These objects are shown at Illustration 5.59, Chapter 5. It has also been reported that Bronze Age inhabitants in the Ban Chiang region "believed in the phallic cult, the symbols of which occur on some of the pots and potsherds. Carvings of sex organs made of animal horns were also found between the legs of human skeletons dug up around the Pho Si Nai Monastery" (Chin n.d.: 29) and the same custom seems to have been observed in Iron Age burials in Cambodia where, at the Prohear burials, the skeletons of males "often are identified by phallic-shaped stone pestles between the legs" (Reinecke et al. 2009: 51). The occurrence of such objects in durable material in this area in late prehistoric times may be taken to mean that there could also have been such objects carved in wood which have not survived. In turn, it should not be considered to be pure speculation to link this observation with the habit in many parts of Thailand, and in particular in the northern part, to place wooden penis-like objects in spirit houses near curves or crests in the road or other dangerous places to ward off evil forces (Rajadhon 1968: 287-288).
The harvesting of millet presents some problems in the sense that the gathering of the grains needs to be done with diligence (Loofs 1977: 123-126). The stem of the millet plant with the ears of grain on top can only be broken off by hand when the seeds are completely ripe and dry but then they would scatter all around and be difficult to retrieve. Most millet growers prefer therefore to harvest before the top is ripe and to dry the ears for a few days on a flat surface in front of the house which can be easily swept but in this case a really sharp cutting tool is needed to cut the still rather tough and fibrous stem. Nowadays iron sickles or simply knives are used but in pre-Metal times it must have been difficult in this area to find tools sharp 338
Links with the Present, or Ethnographic Parallels Modern examples are common in Thailand of phallic objects being used a good luck charms, as is also common throughout SE Asia. The following Photograph 7.4 shows a traditional Thai spirit house, intended to provide a home for earth spirits (phrapuum) displaced when land is taken over for agriculture or occupation (Mulder, 1996:43). However, as noted by Rajadhon (op. cit.) shrines are erected containing phallic objects to ward off evil forces. Photographs 7.5, 7.6 and 7.7 show two such shrines; it should be noted that adjacent to the rough shrines there are more elegant spirit houses of the style shown in Photograph 7.4. This contiguity implies that the structures have completely different purposes, according to Thai thinking.
Photograph 7.6, Close-up of objects in the wayside shrine on Photograph 7.5. The largest phallus is painted red.
Photograph 7.4, Traditional Thai spirit house
Photograph 7.7, Another Thai wayside shrine, showing phallic objects, and other votive objects in the background, plus incense sticks in the vessel at the front. Note the traditional spirit house at the left of the photograph.
Photograph 7.5, Wayside shrine housing phallic objects with a spirit house and hill in the background, with a path apparently leading to the hill. The writing on the rock says “Lord father”, “Pointed(?) Hill”
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand least in Southeast Asia, cultural as well as technological innovations are added to the existing pattern and objects instead of replacing them, as has also been suggested some time ago by the writer (Loofs-Wissowa 1984: 448-449). The excavations in Khok Charoen where "Stone Age" meets "Metal Age" are an example of how well founded this proposal turns out to be on the ground. Here, the only perceptible difference between the life style of communities in the two Ages is one in degree and not in kind or, as William Watson, the initiator of the Thai-British Archaeological Expedition, remarked disapprovingly that much archaeological work in Thailand at that time was done "in the apparent unshaken belief that the appearance of this technique [bronze metallurgy] even at isolated points in a given region betokens a fundamental and widespread change in economic and social life, as it certainly did in the densely populated centres of Asian bronze-age civilisation." (1979: 53). It is hoped that the present report, as incomplete and unconventional it may be, lends further support to this simple but useful fundamental insight which could therefore be seen as a major outcome of the excavations of the Hill of Prosperity.
7.7 Concluding Remarks Southeast Asia, like probably no other region on earth, shows the inadequacy of the classical approach to archaeological research as being exclusively the science of the sequence of events in a vertical layer-upon-layer way. Such a sequence, meaning the successive replacement of one set of circumstances (type of tools or other items of material culture, art forms, beliefs, physical aspects of inhabitants etc.) by another set, only results in a series of static "stage models" or whatever new names have recently been given to them. It may show the cultural development of a large region like Southeast Asia in general but does not explain this region's ever-growing cultural diversity over time at any one of those stages. To understand the origin and unfolding of this diversity, constant "lateral" transformations must be taken into account (Hutterer 1976), a somewhat cumbersome process which could be simplified by adopting the concept of the "Addition Principle" as opposed to the "Sequence Principle" when dealing with local archaeology, i.e. the realisation that according to the archaeological record, at
Photograph 7.8, Thai monks blessing the excavations at Khok Charoen; the novice at the left holds the ball of sacred thread connecting the monks’ bun (merit) to the site.
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Bibliography Abbreviations used in this Bibliography AP APAO BCAI BEFEO BIPPA BSEI EFEO JMBRAS JRAS JSS
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand ---, 1969a. "Reworking Southeast Asian prehistory." Paideuma 15: 125-139. ---, 1969b. "New directions in Southeast-Asian prehistory." Anthropologica 11, 1: 31-44. ---, 1970. "Recent archaeological work in Thailand and the Philippines." Boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa 88: 223-228. ---, 1971. "New light on a forgotten past." National Geographic 139, 3: 330-339. ---, 1972a. "Prehistoric archaeology in Eastern Mainland South-east Asia and the Philippines." AP XIII: 47-58. ---, 1972b. "Northern Thailand, Southeast Asia and world prehistory." AP XIII: 145-158. ---, 1972c. "The 'new look' of Southeast Asian prehistory." JSS 60, 1: 1-20. ---, 1972d. "Early man in Southeast Asia." Expedition 14, 3: 25-31. ---, 1972e. "An earlier agricultural revolution." Scientific American 226: 34-41. ---, 1976. "Reflections on the new data of Southeast Asian prehistory; Austronesian origin and consequence." AP XVIII, 2: 146-160. Solheim II W. G. and M. Ayres, 1979. "The late prehistoric and early historic pottery of the Khorat Plateau, with special reference to Phimai." in Early South East Asia, R. B. Smith and W. Watson edit., 63-77. Oxford: OUP. Solheim II W. G., 1980. "Early pottery in Northern Thailand and conjectures on its relationships." in The diffusion of material culture, H. H. E. Loofs-Wissowa edit., 35-52. Honolulu: University of Hawaii at Manoa. ---, 1982. "A look at 'L'art prébouddhique de la Chine et de l'Asie du sud-est et son influence en Océanie' forty years after." AP XXII, 2: 165-205. ---, 1983. "Chinese and Southeast Asian art styles and their relationships." AP XXV, 1: 111- 121. ---, 1984. "The dating of sites and phases in Northeastern Thailand." Journal of the Hong Kong Archaeological Society 10: 112-116. Sørensen, P., 1962. "The Thai-Danish Prehistoric Expedition 1960-1962 II." Folk IV: 28-45. ---, 1963. "North-South indications of a prehistoric migration into Thailand." East and West 14, 3-4: 211-217. ---, 1964. "Ban Kao. Preliminary report on the investigations of the Thai-Danish Prehistoric Expedition 1960-62 in the hamlet of Ban Kao, Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand." JSS LII, 1: 74-97. ---, 1967. Ban Kao. Neolithic settlements with cemeteries in the Kanchanaburi Province.Part 1: The archaeological material from the burial. Archaeological Excavations in Thailand, II, Copenhagen: Munksgaard. ---, 1974a. "The neolithic cultures of Thailand (and North Malaysia) and their lungshanoid relationship." in Early Chinese art and its possible influence in the Pacific Basin, N. Bernard edit., 459-506. Taipei. ---, 1974b. "Prehistoric iron implements from Thailand." AP XVI, 2: 134-173. ---, 1976. "A note on perforated stones." AP XVIII, 2: 166-176. ---, 1979. "The Ongbah cave and its fifth drum." in Early Southeast Asia, R. B. Smith and W. Watson edit., 78-97. Oxford: OUP. ---, edit., 1988. Surface finds and minor excavations. Archaeological Excavations in Thailand, IV. London: Curzon.
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Bibliography Spinks, C. N., 1965. The ceramic wares of Siam. Bangkok: The Siam Society. Spriggs, M., 1997. "The dating of Non Nok Tha and the 'Gakushuin factor'." in Ancient Chinese and Southeast Asian Bronze Age cultures, 2, F. D. Bulbeck edit., 941-948. Taipei: SMC Publishing Inc. Srisavasdi, Boon Chuay, 1966. The hill tribes of Siam. Bangkok: Bamrung Nukoulkit Press. Stock, D., edit., 1981. Khmer ceramics 9th-14th century. Singapore: Southeast Asian Ceramic Society. Strebel, J., 1984. Ban Chiang. Die Entdeckung einer alten Kultur. Wiesbaden: Johann Strebel. Subhadradis, Diskul, 1972. The sculpture of Thailand. New York: The Asia Society. ---, 1982. The Suan Pakkad Palace Collection. Bangkok: Princess Chumbhot of Nagara Svarga. Sudhirak, Nikom 1970. "Technical report: Prehistoric excavations by the Thai-English Archaeological Expedition at Ban Khok Charoen, Amphoe Chaibadan, Changwat Lopburi, BE 2513 (in Thai)." Silpakon Journal 14, 2: 84-98. Tankittikorn, Winai, 1991. The settlement before Muang Srithep (in Thai). Bangkok: Fine Arts Department. Tanudirjo, D. A., 2005. "Long-continuous or short-occasional occupation? The human use of Leang Sarru rock shelter in the Talaud islands, Northeastern Indonesia." BIPPA 25: 15-19. Thai Life, 1981. "Excavations at Ban Waeng." Thai Life (National Identity Board, PM's Office) 1, 1: 68-70. Thompson, G. B., 1996. The excavation of Khok Phanom Di. A prehistoric site in Central Thailand. Vol IV, The Botanical evidence (The biological remains Part II). London: The Society of Antiquaries of London. Trinh Duong, 2005. "Cou Chan Tien: the beginnings of the Pre-Dongson period in the Ma and Chu river basins." BIPPA 25: 109-111. Trotter, M. and G. C. Glesser, 1952. "Estimation of stature from long-bones of American whites and negroes." Am. J. Phys. Anthrop.(Washington) 10: 463-514. ---, 1958. "A re-evaluation of estimation of stature based on measurements of stature taken from life and long-bones after death." Am. J. Phys. Anthrop.(Washington) 16: 79-123. United States Information Service, 1957. The life of the Buddha according to Thai temple paintings (Thai and English). Bangkok: United States Information Service. Van Esterik P., 1974. "A preliminary analysis of Ban Chiang painted pottery, Northeast Thailand." AP XVI, 2 (1973/1974): 174-194. Van Heekeren H. R., 1948. "Prehistoric discoveries in Siam." Proc. of the Prehist. Soc. II: 24-32. ---, 1962. "A tentative investigation of the Sai Yok neolithic pottery in Thailand." Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden 15: 42-49. ---, 1962a. "A brief survey of the Sai-Yok excavations 1961-1962 season of the Thai-Danish prehistoric Expedition." JSS L, 1: 15-18. ---, 1963. "Thai-Danish Prehistoric Expedition 1960-1962." JSS LI, 1: 79-84. Van Heekeren H. R. and E. Knuth, 1967. Sai-Yok. Stone Age settlements in the Kanchanaburi Province. Archaeological Excavations in Thailand, I, Copenhagen: Munksgaard. Veerapan, Maleipan, 1979. "The excavation at Sab Champa." in Early South East Asia, R. B. Smith and W. Watson edit., 337-341. Oxford: OUP.
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Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand Vincent, B. A., 1987. "The ceramic material." BIPPA 7: 162-175. Vincent, B., 2003. "Rice in pottery: new evidence for early rice cultivation in Thailand." BIPPA 23: 51-58. Wales H G Quaritch 1937. Towards Angkor: in the footsteps of the Indian Invaders. London: Harrap. Walk, L., 1949. "Das Flutgeschwisterpaar als Ur- und Stammeselternpaar der Menschheit der Menschheit. Ein Beitrag zur Mythengeschichte Süd-und Südostasiens." Mitt. Öster. Ges.f. Anthrop. Ethnol. und Prähist., 88/89: 62-115. Watson, W. and H. H. E. Loofs, 1967. "The Thai-British Archaeological Expedition. A preliminary report on the work of the first season, 1965-1966." JSS 55, 2: 237-272. Watson, W., 1968. "The Thai-British Archaeological Expedition." Antiquity 42, 168: 302-306. ---, 1979. "Khok Charoen and the early Metal Age of Central Thailand." in Early South East Asia, R. B. Smith and W. Watson edit., 53-62. Oxford: OUP. Weber, S. et. al., 2010. "Rice or millet: early farming strategies in prehistoric Central Thailand." Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. (Springer) Published online. White, J. C., 1982. Discovery of a lost Bronze Age: Ban Chiang. Philadelphia: The University Museum, University of Philadelphia, and the Smithsonian, Washington. ---, 1997. "A brief note on new dates for the Ban Chiang cultural tradition." BIPPA 16, 103- 106. White, J. C. and W. Henderson, 2003. "Pottery anatomy: review and selection of basic nomenclature as a step toward a searchable rim form database for the Sakon Nakhon Basin." BIPPA 23: 35-49. Willetts, W., 1971. Ceramic art of Southeast Asia. Singapore: The Art Museum, University of Singapore. Yamada, H., 2006. "Oral traditions about Little People among Austronesian peoples of Taiwan and Ainu (in Japanese)." Studies on indigenous peoples of Taiwan 10: 3-37. ---, 2007. "Mythical Little People of Taiwan: Do they imply the existence of negritos?" Cosmos 23: 111-122. Young, G., 1962. The Hill Tribes of Northern Thailand. Bangkok: The Siam Society. Zhan Zengyi and Wang Dadao, 1975. "Excavation of an ancient cemetery at Lijiashan, Jiangchuan County, Yunnan." Kao Gu Xue Bao 2: 97-154. Zimmerman, D. W. and J. Huxtable, 1969. "Recent applications and developments in thermoluminescent dating." Archaeometry 11: 105-108.
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APPENDIX A Khok Charoen III, Details of “Pie-Crust” Sherds Found at the KC III Site
an objective determination of their original colour seems impossible and is also not the aim of the system here proposed. This system based only on the six relevant colours (brick, brown, buff, greenish, grey and ochre) and their 25 combinations, has been elaborated with the sole aim of being able to determine the uniqueness of each sherd. As stated, 25 different colours were identified in the “Pie-crust” sherds. These abbreviations used for these colours are given below.
Introduction A total of 166 individual sherds from Class 5 Pottery were found in the site KC III. As noted on page 74 of this report, “After close examination of not only the bands themselves but also of rim shapes, types and colour of wares and differences in surface treatment inside/outside, it was found out that in only four cases was there reason to believe that two sherds (or in one case three) came almost certainly and in four more cases very probably from the same pot, even though no two sherds fitted together. This led to the surprising conclusion that at least 157 pots of Class 5 (without Type 5D) could have existed in KC III.”
1. BFF 2. BRG 3. BRI 4. BRO 5. BYL 6. DBB 7. DBF 8. DBK 9. DBR 10. DBW 11. DGC 12. DGG 13. DGR 14. DOB 15. DOC 16. DOK 17. GBF 18. GRE 19. GRY 20. LGB 21. OBR 22. OCH 23. VBY 24. VDB 25. VGB
This Appendix provides details and images of the 166 apparently unique individual “Pie-crust” sherds. The Appendix comprises a) a list of the abbreviations used to identify the colours of the individual sherds, b) images of the 12 identified styles of “Piecrust” decoration found on the sherds, and c) images of the 166 individual sherds, with data identifying the KC III cutting, soil level, estimated pot diameter and sherd colour. a) Abbreviations for sherd colours used in the identification of the sherds The determination of the original colour of an ancient ceramic vessel is subjective at the best of times, i. e. when entire, not, or not much damaged pots are available for comparison. However, in the present case where we are dealing with small sherds of pots which have been in the ground for over a thousand years during which they had also been subjected to floods and were perhaps at times exposed,
353
Buff Brown-Grey Brick Brown Buff-Yellow Dark Buff-Brown Dark Buff Dark Buff-Black Dark Brick Dark Brown Dark Grey-Charcoal Dark Grey-Green Dark Grey Dark Ochre-Buff Dark Ochre Dark Ochre-Brick Grey-Buff Green(ish) Grey Light Grey-Buff Ochre-Brick Ochre Very Dark Buff-Yellow Very Dark Buff Very Dark Brown-Green
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand b). The 12 “Pie-Crust” decoration styles Twelve distinct styles of “Pie-crust” decoration were identified. These are illustrated below in Table A.1. Style
Image
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Table A.1, Illustration of the 12 “Pie-crust” decoration styles 354
Appendix A: KC III “Pie-Crust” Sherds c). Images of the 166 Pie-Crust Sherds, Table A.2 (The annotations below each image are: Sherd number, cutting of origin, soil, estimated diameter and colour) Note: All sherd images are shown half actual size
STYLE 1 DECORATION
1. E5, {2} 17, BRI
STYLE 2 DECORATION
5. E5, {3}, 19, BRI
(4 EXAMPLES)
2. E5, {2} 17, BRI
3. E5, {3}, `17, BRI
4. E8, {2} 17, BRI
7. G5, {2}, 16, DGR
11. E5, {5}, 26, LGB
(5 EXAMPLES)
6. F5, {2}, 18, DGR
13. E7, {2}, 17, CCH
STYLE 3 DECORATION
(25 EXAMPLES)
8. E5, {1}, 17, GRE
9. E5, {2}, 17, GRY
10. E5, {3}, 15, BRI
11A. E5, {2}, X, BFF
12. E6, {5}, 16, BRI
14. E7, {2}, 20, BRI
15. E7, {2}, 13, GRY
15A. E7, {2}, X, DBF
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16. E8, {2}, 12, BRI
17. F6, {2}, 13, BRI
18. F6, {2}, 15, BRI
19. G5, {5}, 15, DBF
20. G5, {2}, 8, DBR
21. G5, {3}, 17, BFF
22. G6, {3}, 10, BRI
23. G6, {5}, 13, BRI
24. H5, {2}, 13, BRI
25. H5, {2}, 13, DBR
26. H5, {2}, 17. BRI
27. H5, {2}, 17, BRI
28. H5, {2}, 16, BFF
29. H5, {2}, 14, DBR
30. H5, {2}, 14, BRI
31. H5, {3}, 17, BRI
32. H5, {2}, 13, BFF
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Appendix A: KC III “Pie-Crust” Sherds
STYLE 4 DECORATION
(24 EXAMPLES)
33. E5, {2}, 12. OCH
34. E5, {2}, 12, DOC
35. E5, {3}, 16, DBW
36. E6, {3}, 14, COL?
37. E6, {3}, 15, GBF
38. E6, {5}, 14, BRI
39. E7, {2}, 12, DBF
40. E7, {2}, 15, DBF
41. E7, p{2}, 13, BRI
42. E7, {1}, 8, BRI
43. E8, {2}, 12, DBF
44. E8, {2}, 13, DBF
45. E8, {5}, 20, OCH
46. F5, {2}, 17, OCH
47. F5, {2}, 9, GRY
48. F5, {2}, 13, BRI
49. F6, {2}, 9, DBR
50. F6, {1}, 14, DBR
51. F6, {3}, 18, BRI
52. G5, {2}, 11, DBF
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53. H5, {3}, 13, DBF
STYLE 5 DECORATION
54. H5, {3}, 12, VDB
55. H5, {3}, 14, BFF
56. H6, {2}, 20, DBR
(35 EXAMPLES)
57. E5, {3}, 15, OCH
58. E5, {3}, 14, BRI
59. E6, {2}, 18, DBR
60. 36, {5}, 16, BRI
61. E7, {1}, 17, DBF
62. E7, {2}, 15, DBR
63. E8, {1}, 17, DBF
64. E8, {2}, 15, DBF
65. E8, {2}, 15, BRI
66. E8, {3), 10, BRI
67. E8, {3}, `11, DBF
68. E8, {3}, 13, BRI
69. E8, {5}, 13, BFF
70. F5, {1}, 18, DBF
71. F5, {2}, 10, BRI
72. F5, {2}, 17, DBF
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Appendix A: KC III “Pie-Crust” Sherds
73. F5, {3}, 18, OCH
74. F6, {1}, 11, DBR
75. F6, {2}, 15, VDB
76. F6, {3}, 10, OCH
77. G5, {2}, 16, OBR
78. G5, {2}, 19, DOC
79. G5, {2}, 13, DBR
80. G5, {2}, 13, OBR
81. G5, {2}, 13, DBR
82. G5, {3}, 16, OBR
83. G5, {3}, 18, DBF
84. G6, {3}, 8, BFF
85. G6, {3}, 8, BRI
86. G6, {3}, 13, VDB
87. H5, {2}, 10, OCH
88. H5, {3}, 15, BFF
89. H6, {2}, 20, OBR
90. H6, {2}, 16, DOC
91. H6, {3}, 17, DOB
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STYLE 6 DECORATION
(30 EXAMPLES)
92. E5, {2}, 17, VDB
93. E5, {2}, 17, BRI
96. E5, {5}, 6, VDB
97. E6, {2}, 16, DOC
94. E5, {3}, 13, BRI
95. E5, {5}, 13, DBF
98. E6, {2}, 12, DBF
99. E6, {3}, 13, DOC
100. E6, {5}, 15, OCH
101. E7, {1}, 15, DOB
102. E7, {2}, 21, BRI
103. E8, {3}, 15, BFF
104. F5, {2}, 16, BFF
105. F6, {2}, 15, DOC
106. F6, {3}, 17, BRI
107. G5, {1}, 16, DOB
108. G5, {2}, 15, DOB
109. G5, {3}, 16, BRI
110. G6, {1}, 17, DBF
111. G6, {3}, 15, DOC
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Appendix A: KC III “Pie-Crust” Sherds
112. G6, {3}, 17, BRI
113. H5, {2}, 13, DOC
114. H5, {3}, 13, BRI
115. H5, {3}, 12, DOC
116. H5, {3}, 17, VDB
117. H5, {3}, 15, DBF
118. H6, {2}, 17, DBF
119. H6, {3}, 14, OCH
120. H6, {3}, 17, DBF
121. H6, {3}, 20, DBF
STYLE 7 DECORATION
(15 EXAMPLES)
122. E5, {3}, 18, BRI
123. E5, {3}, 21, OBR
124. E6, {1}, 16, BYL
125. E6, {2}, 15, DOC
126. E6, {2}, 17, BRI
127. E7, {2}, 16, VBG
128. F5, {2}, 12, DOC
129. F5, {2}, 18, BRI
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130. F6, {1}, 19, DOC
131. G5, {2}. 13, OCH
132. H5, {2}, 16, VDB
134. H6, {2}, 15, BYL
135. H6, {3}, 21, OCH
136. H6, {3}, 14, VDB
STYLE 8 DECORATION
137. E5, {2}, 8, VDB
STYLE 9 DECORATION
140. E5, {2}, 13, BFF
(3 EXAMPLES)
138. E7, {2}, 16, DOC
139. E7, {2}, 20, OCH
(3 EXAMPLES)
141. E5, {3}, 17, DGC
142. F5, {3}, 12, BYL
362
133. H6, {1}, 19, VDB
Appendix A: KC III “Pie-Crust” Sherds
STYLE 10 DECORATION
(7 EXAMPLES)
143. E5, {1}, 17, BRO
144. E5, {2}, 12, BRO
147. E6, {3}, 10, BRG
148. F5, {3}, 14, BRG
STYLE 11 DECORATION
145. E6, {1}, 14, DOB
146. E6, {1}, 11, VBY
149. H5, {2}, 16, OCH
(9 EXAMPLES)
150. E7, {2}, 15, DBF
151. E7, {2}, 13, VDB
152. F5, {2}, 17, DBF
153. F5, {2}, 9, DBF
154. F5, {5}, 17, VDB
155. G5, {2}, 12, BRO
156. G5, {3}, 11, DBF
157. H5, {2}, 14, BFF
158. H5, {2}, 15, DBF
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STYLE 12 DECORATION
(6 EXAMPLES)
159. F6, {2}, 13, BRI
160. F6, {2}, 11, DBB
163. H6, {3}, 9, DBB
164. H6, {3}, 13, BFF
161. G5, {2}, 16, DOK
Table A.2. Images of the 166 Pie-Crust sherds.
364
162. H6, {2}, 10, OCH
APPENDIX B Details of Shell Pieces Found at KC III and KC IV The following images are those of fragments of shells found in KC III and KC IV burials, as well as in stratified deposits. KC III Finds Of the 14 fragments of immature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti excavated in KC III, four were found in burials: 1 = Bur. 8, Fd. 1; 2 = Bur. 9, Fd. 1 (see Find illustrations); 3 = Bur. 9, Fd. 2; and 4 = Bur. 9, Fd. 3. The ten fragments found in stratified deposits illustrated below are therefore numbered 5-15, according to the cutting in which they were found, commencing with E7.
Illustration B.1, KC III, Fragments 5 to 14 of immature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti excavated in designated cuttings. Notations show Cutting number and soil stratum KC IV Finds In KC IV, far more pieces of immature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti (92) have been excavated and again only very few of them (7) were found in burials but in positions which indicate their probable use as (part of) personal adornments. They are: 1 and 2 = Bur. 8, Fd. 5; 3 = Bur. 8, Fd. 6; 4, 5 and 6 = Bur. 8, Fd 6a; 7 = Bur. 15, Fd. 4. They are all shown as Findillustrations. The 85 remaining fragments, found in stratified deposits and illustrated below, are numbered 8 to 92 according to the cutting in which they have been found, commencing with E4 (NB: TC = Test Cutting)
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Illustration B.2, KC IV, Fragments 8 to 47 of immature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti excavated in designated cuttings. Notations show Cutting number and soil stratum
366
Appendix B: KC III and KC IV Shell Pieces
Illustration B.3, KC IV, Fragments 48 to 78 of immature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti excavated in designated cuttings. Notations show Cutting number and soil stratum
367
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand
Illustration B.4, KC IV, Fragments 79 to 92 of immature cf. Pseudodon mouhoti excavated in designated cuttings. Notations show Cutting number and soil stratum, TC = Test Cutting
368
APPENDIX C Khok Charoen III and IV, Stone Adzes, Adze Fragments and Rough-outs Descriptions and Illustrations No.
Rock
1
Dusty white limestone
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Grey-green f-g.v.r. Grass-green f-g.v.r. White limestone White limestone Dark blue-green f-g.v.r. Dusty white limestone White-bluish limestone Dusty white limestone White limestone Off-white limestone Grey-blue-green f-g.v.r. Charcoal-col. f-g.v.r. Grey-blue-green f-g.v.r. Dusty white limestone Hard limestone Dark green f-g.v.r. Dusty white limestone Charcoal-col. f-g.v.r. Dusty white limestone Dark grey med- grain rock Dark grey-green f-g.v.r. Charcoal col. f-g,v,r, Charcoal col. f-g,v,r, Grey-green f-g.v.r.
Dufftype 2D
Height (cm) 2.7
Width (cm) 2.7
Wgt (g) 10
Soil
Remarks
{1}
Grainy surface, unused?
1A 2D 1A 1A 2G 2D 2D 1A 2D 1A 1A 2D 2G 1A 8A 2G 2D 2G 1A 2G 2G 2G 2G 2G
3.5 7.2 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.4 3.5 3.3 4.0 3.2 3.3 3.3 4.0 6.2 5.5 2.8 5.4 4.7 2.6+ 3.2+ 3.4
2.9 3.1 2.5 2.0 3.8 2.4 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.7 2.6 2.9 1.3+ 1.9 3.2 3.1 3.5 2.6 4.1 2.5 3.4 3.0 2.9
17 48 6 4 18 4 6 5 2 7 11 ? 14 4 10 20 26 30 11 ? 21 13 18 ?
{2} {3} {3} {3} {3} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5} {5{ {5} {5} {5} {5}
Highly polished, used Polished, edge broken Soft, rounded, unused? Very light, edge broken Polished, edge broken Hard, grainy surface Very soft, unusable Very brittle, pitted surface Soft, very brittle, unusable Soft, polished, unused? Finely polished Partly polished, broken Polished, used Grainy surface, broken Like sandstone, unused Polished, used Hard, probably used Polished, used Hard, probably used Partly polished, used Highly polished Highly polished, broken Highly polished, broken Finely polished, unused
Table C.1, Summary description of entire adzes (=EA) excavated in KC III, numbered EA 1 - 25 NB: "f-g.v.r." = fine-grained volcanic (metamorphic) rock The 25 Entire Adzes are illustrated below
Illustration C.1, KC III, Entire stone adzes EA1 to EA2 (Scale: approx. 80% full size, see Table C.1 above for precise dimensions)
369
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand
Illustration C.2, KC III, Entire stone adzes EA3 to EA8 (Scale: approx. 80% full size, see Table C.1 above for precise dimensions)
370
Appendix C: KC III and KC IV Adzes, Adze Fragments and Rough-outs
Illustration C.3, KC III, Entire stone adzes EA9 to EA16 (Scale: approx. 80% full size, see Table C.1 above for precise dimensions)
371
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand
Illustration C.4, KC III, Entire stone adzes EA17 to EA22 (Scale: approx. 80% full size, see Table C.1 above for precise dimensions)
372
Appendix C: KC III and KC IV Adzes, Adze Fragments and Rough-outs
Illustration C.5, KC III, Entire stone adzes EA23 to EA25 (Scale: approx. 80% full size, see Table C.1 above for precise dimensions)
373
Hill of Prosperity: Excavations at Khok Charoen, Thailand No.
Duff-type
1
• Grey-blue-green f-g.v.r.
2?
Height cm 2.1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Dark blue-green f-g.v.r. Grey-green f-g.v.r. Light grey-blue f-g.v.r. Grey-green f-g.v.r. Dark grey-green f-g.v.r. Charcoal-col. f-g.v.r. White limestone White limestone Dark blue-green f-g.v.r. Grey-blue-green f-g.v.r. Grey-blue-green f-g.v.r. Grey-blue-green f-g.v.r. Grey-blue f-g.v.r. White hard limestone Dark grey-green f-g.v.r. Grey-blue med. f-g.v.r. Dark grey-green f-g.v.r. Grey-green f-g.v.r. Charcoal-col. f-g.v.r. Dark grey-blue f-g.v.r. Charcoal-col. f-g.v.r.
2? 2G 2G 1A 2? 2? 1A 2? 2G 2? 2? 2G 2G 1A 2? 8D 2G 2? 2D 2G 2?
2.8 5.3 3.2 3.6 2.0 2.3 2.1 3.4 3.1 2.5 2.6 1.6 2.9 2.5 2.2 3.5 2.0 1.9 2.8 3.5 3.5
• Rock
Width cm 1.7
Weight g 4
Soil
Remarks
{2}
Polished, cutting edge
1.0 1.1 2.6 1.9 1.3 1.9 2.2 1.8 2.1 0.9 1.6 3.4 1.9 2.5 1.7 3.5 2.9 3.0 2.3 1.6 2.2