Higher Education System Reform : An International Comparison after Twenty Years of Bologna [1 ed.] 9789004400115, 9789004400092

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Higher Education System Reform

Higher Education System Reform An International Comparison after Twenty Years of Bologna Edited by

Bruno Broucker, Kurt De Wit, -HI&9HUKRHYHQDQG/LXGYLND/HLã\Wơ

අൾංൽൾඇ_ൻඈඌඍඈඇ

All chapters in this book have undergone peer review. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Broucker, Bruno, editor. | Wit, Kurt de, editor. | Verhoeven, J. (Jef), 1941-, editor. | Leisyte, Liudvika, editor. Title: Higher education system reform : an international comparison after twenty years of Bologna / edited by Bruno Broucker, Kurt De Wit, Jef C. Verhoeven and Liudvika Leisyte. Description: Leiden ; Boston : Brill Sense, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2019007943 (print) | LCCN 2019010782 (ebook) | ISBN 9789004400115 (ebook) | ISBN 9789004400092 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9789004400108 (pbk. : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Education, Higher--Aims and objectives--Europe. | Higher education and state--Europe. | Educational change--Europe. | Bologna process (European higher education) Classification: LCC LA628 (ebook) | LCC LA628 .H583 2019 (print) | DDC 378/.01--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019007943 ISBN 978-90-04-40010-8 (paperback) ISBN 978-90-04-40009-2 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-40011-5 (e-book) Copyright 2019 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi, Brill Sense, Hotei Publishing, mentis Verlag, Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh and Wilhelm Fink Verlag. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner.

CONTENTS

Foreword Rosalind M. O. Pritchard

vii

List of Figures and Tables

xi

Notes on Contributors

xiii

1.

$Q,QWURGXFWLRQWRWKH6WXG\RI+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ3ROLF\5HIRUPV -HI&9HUKRHYHQ/LXGYLND/HLã\Wơ.XUW'H:LWand Bruno Broucker

2.

+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ6\VWHP5HIRUPLQ)ODQGHUV%HOJLXP  .XUW'H:LW-HI&9HUKRHYHQDQG%UXQR%URXFNHU

 +LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ6\VWHP5HIRUPLQ*HUPDQ\ Sude Peksen and Nadine Zeeman



 

 The Higher Education System in the Netherlands: Overview and $QDO\VLVRI&KDQJHV,QGXFHGE\WKH%RORJQD3URFHVV Christine Teelken



 Higher Education Reforms in Finland: From a Ponderous to a 0RUH$JLOH6\VWHP" Jani Ursin



6.



+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ6\VWHP5HIRUPLQ'HQPDUNLQWKH%RORJQD(UD Palle Rasmussen

 7KH%RORJQD3URFHVV5HIRUPVLQ,WDOLDQ+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ 7RPPDVR$JDVLVWLDQG0DUWLQD'DO0ROLQ  Reforms in the Spanish Higher Education System Since Democracy and Future Challenges Eva M. de la Torre and Carmen Perez-Esparrells 9.

5HFRQ¿JXULQJ3RUWXJXHVH+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ%HWZHHQ1DWLRQDO DQG(XURSHDQ3ULRULWLHV Amélia Veiga and António Magalhães

10. ³3DUWRIWKH)XUQLWXUH´,UHODQG%RORJQDDQG7ZR'HFDGHVRI +LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ5HIRUP Andrew G. Gibson and Ellen Hazelkorn v



119





CONTENTS

11. ,QWHQVL¿FDWLRQRI1HROLEHUDO5HIRUPRI+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQLQ (QJODQGRUµ&KDQJH¶DVµ0RUHRIWKH6DPH¶" Lisa Lucas



12. +LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ5HIRUPVLQ/LWKXDQLD7ZR'HFDGHVDIWHU%RORJQD Liudvika Leišytơ$QQD/HQD5RVHDQG5LPDQWDVäHOY\V



 7KH%RORJQD5HIRUPLQ+XQJDU\ *HUJHO\.RYiWV



 Understanding Higher Education System Reform: Practices, Patterns and Pathways Bruno Broucker, Liudvika Leišytơ.XUW'H:LWDQG Jef C. Verhoeven

vi

221

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FOREWORD

This book sets out to analyse and assess the Bologna Process which has been under development for two decades now. Those who signed the Bologna Declaration in 1999 all hoped that Europe’s cultural identity would be strengthened by their work in the higher education sector. They were also acutely aware that European universities needed to keep up with world-beating American universities; and they believed that they must try to retain their own best people within Europe rather than allowing them to float away in a brain drain to the USA. 7KH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ(8 ZDVVORZWRDGGUHVVWKHKDUPRQLVDWLRQRIKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQ +(  ZLWKLQ LWV WHUULWRU\ ,W DGRSWHG WKH 2SHQ 0HWKRG RI &RRUGLQDWLRQ LQ ZKLFK WKH Council of Ministers agreed on very broad goals, but left it to the Member States to adapt those for their own national and regional purposes. The EU was fearful of causing alienation, and challenging too overtly the power that sovereign states exercised over WKHLU KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ V\VWHPV ,W DLPHG DW HYHQWXDO FRQYHUJHQFH WKRXJK LW VWRSSHG short of integration. Even in its pursuit of convergence, it had to act strategically. Corbett  VKRZVWKDWDWWHPSWVWRLQWURGXFH(XURSHDQUHJXODWLRQLQWR+(VRPHWLPHVPHW with accusations that the EU was going beyond the letter of the law, and was using treaty procedures in domains to which they did not fully or properly apply. The EU pursued its ends in a surreptitious way by involving people in lower level pragmatic DFWLRQHJVWXG\YLVLWVDQGQHWZRUNLQJ UDWKHUWKDQSXVKLQJLWVDFWLYLWLHVWRZDUGVWKH highest legal level. After all, it was easier to implement the cross-national transfer of FUHGLWSRLQWVWKDQWRUDLVHDVSLUDWLRQVWRZDUGVD(XURSHDQYLVLRQ3ULWFKDUG  Nevertheless, there was in fact a serious need for the Bologna Project on a practical level. The following real-life case study shows the pain and disadvantage that can be caused by non-recognition of HE qualifications when an individual moves from home WHUULWRU\WRDQRWKHU(8FRXQWU\,WFRQFHUQVD%ULWLVKQDWLRQDOZKRKDVOLYHGDQGZRUNHG LQ+XQJDU\VLQFHVKHGHVFULEHVVRPHRIWKHGLIILFXOWLHVWKDWVKHH[SHULHQFHGLQ obtaining recognition for her British doctorate in education in Hungary.1 , KDG EHHQ ZRUNLQJ VLQFH  DV D VHQLRU OHFWXUHU LQ 7HDFKLQJ (QJOLVK WR 6SHDNHUVRI2WKHUODQJXDJHV7(62/ DWDQLQVWLWXWLRQRIKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQLQ +XQJDU\$FFRUGLQJWR+XQJDULDQODZHJ$FW&&,9RI2Q1DWLRQDO +LJKHU(GXFDWLRQVHFWLRQ DOOVHQLRUOHFWXUHUVKDYHWRKROGD3K'WKHUHIRUH WKURXJK WKH %ULWLVK 2SHQ 8QLYHUVLW\ , FRPSOHWHG D GRFWRUDWH ZKLFK ZDV DZDUGHGLQ,QHHGHGWRKDYHP\8.GRFWRUDWHQRVWULILHGWKDWLVRIILFLDOO\ recognised as equivalent to a Hungarian PhD. This would both award me identical rights to a Hungarian PhD holder, and allow my Hungarian university vii

R. M. O. PRITCHARD

to use my UK doctorate for policy purposes. For example, when applying for course accreditation from the Hungarian Accreditation Committee, the number of PhD holders of the institutional provider is taken into consideration. In Hungary, PhDs are nostrified by a Hungarian institution of higher education that runs a similar doctoral programme to the discipline of the PhD/doctorate issued abroad. Therefore, I applied for recognition through a Hungarian university and submitted the relevant paperwork: a copy of my thesis, documentation, academic CV and list of publications. In 2012, I was informed that my application had been unsuccessful; that my UK doctorate was not recognised as equivalent to a Hungarian PhD. The underlying issue appeared to be that the requirements for completion of a doctoral degree in the UK and Hungary are different. I was awarded my UK doctorate on the quality of my researchbased thesis. In Hungary, however, students must complete a range of academic activities which may include passing a PhD exam, holding two Hungarianrecognised foreign language certificates, publishing articles and completing a dissertation. In neighbouring Slovakia there is automatic recognition of PhDs from EU countries, and I had assumed that this applied throughout the EU; but such is not the case. In 2014, I was demoted from my position as senior lecturer to that of a foreign language teaching assistant. I could no longer work as a senior lecturer because I did not hold a Hungarian/Hungarian-recognised PhD. This personal story shows that mutual recognition of qualifications is one of the more urgent demands that the EU faces and one, moreover, which it is uniquely well fitted to confront and resolve. The present volume has taken as its objective the comparison of twelve EU countries representing five regions of Europe. It reviews and assesses the extent to which the original goals of the EU Bologna Process have been achieved across those regions.2 It considers the extent to which the following been achieved. Comparability between HE degrees? A system of two main degree cycles? Credit transfer and accumulation? International mobility? European cooperation in quality assurance? And at the highest level of all, has it been possible to promote a European dimension in higher education? Richness is imparted to the book by the Leitmotive of three overarching Grand Discourses. These pervasive themes are Professional Bureaucracy, New Public Management and Public Value. In many ways, the important emerging dialogue over Public Value forms a moral counter-balance to the brutality and commercialism that can occasionally characterise the first two Discourses. Professional Bureaucracy may be exercised by prioritising form over substance at the expense of continuous quality improvement; formal compliance with the letter of the law may mask resistance to the spirit of the law. New Public Management (NPM) in some Central and East European countries may recall Soviet means of control, and lead participants to perceive NPM as little more than another unwelcome form of authoritarianism. By contrast, some other countries are much more consensual, and have consciously implemented “Bologna” on a Public Value basis. viii

FOREWORD

The Bologna Process is profoundly influenced by national sovereignty, and even within countries much diversity may exist. The present book reveals something distinctive about each country or region that is represented within it. Their achievements in relation to Bologna are concisely presented in highly informative VXPPDU\WDEOHV,QUHODWLRQWRWKH(XURSHDQKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQSURMHFWGLVWLQFWLYHQHVV constitutes both strength and weakness. Diversity can be a strength in that it offers variety of situation and is an incentive for mobility of students and staff. After all, if there is no diversity, then there is little to excite the imagination and to expand one’s personal horizons through travel; so one might just as well stay at home thereby avoiding the expenditure of time and money that is inherent in mobility. But on the other hand, distinctiveness is the indispensable basis of identity and national pride; these are inimical to convergence and therefore ultimately to the European SURMHFWZKLFKUHYHDOVLWVHOIWREHIXOORIVWUXFWXUDOWHQVLRQ,WLVRQO\ZKHQ%RORJQD is successfully used as the basis of system change desired by national entities that consonance is achieved between diversity and convergence – for a while at least until new tensions emerge. ,QWKHILQDOFKDSWHURIWKHSUHVHQWERRNWKHFRDXWKRUVFRQFOXGHWKDWWKHQDWLRQDO context seems to dominate the reform of HE systems within Europe, because it matters to many people more than the aspiration towards European cooperation. This situation in HE corresponds to EU developments at macro-economic level. The British Europhile politician, Sir Nick Clegg, discerns a schism in the Eurozone: some countries that share the single currency have moved ahead leaving the non-Eurozone FRXQWULHVEHKLQG,QWKLVVWDWHRIDIIDLUV&OHJJ VHHVDILQDOGHSDUWXUHIURP the ideology of an ever-closer union and the rise of a new approach to membership of the EU based on differential integration. A new European concept will become necessary taking account of historical preferences, outlooks and traditions. The current volume provides a subtle, fine-grained analysis of such background in UHODWLRQWRWKHFRXQWULHVWKDWLWFRYHUV,WLVDQLPSRUWDQWWRROIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRQH of the most ambitious projects that has existed in higher education for many decades. )RUWKLVDQGIRULWVLQWULQVLFLQWHUHVW,FRPPHQGLWWRWKHUHDGHU NOTES 1 2

Personal communication to author; permission has been given to quote it. “Original” because additional goals were subsequently added.

REFERENCES &OHJJ1 How to stop Brexit (and make Britain great again). London: Bodley Head. &RUEHWW$ Universities and the Europe of knowledge: Ideas, institutions and policy entrepreneurship in European Union Higher European Policy 1955–2005. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. 3ULWFKDUG 5 0 2   1HROLEHUDO GHYHORSPHQWV LQ KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ 7KH 8QLWHG .LQJGRP DQG Germany. Oxford & New York, NY: Peter Lang.

ix

FIGURES AND TABLES

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Timeline of the Bologna process in Flanders Main reforms in Danish higher education since 1999 and UHODWLRQVWR%RORJQDWDUJHWV 8QLYHUVLWLHV¶LQWHUQDWLRQDOL]DWLRQ 1XPEHURIVWDJHDQGDSSUHQWLFHVKLSGXULQJWKHDFDGHPLF\HDU ± 1XPEHURIWHDFKLQJSHUVRQQHO 7HDFKLQJKRXUVIXOODQGDVVRFLDWHSURIHVVRU IRUWKHGLIIHUHQW disciplinary fields &RPPRQLQVSLULQJSULQFLSOHVDQGXQLYHUVLWLHV¶UHIRUPVLQ,WDO\ ,QVWLWXWLRQVIDFXOWLHVWHDFKLQJVWDIIDQGVWXGHQWQXPEHUVLQ +XQJDU\EHWZHHQDQG 7KHORZHVWDQGKLJKHVWFUHGLWUHFRJQLWLRQYDOXHVLQ(XURVWXGHQW9, +XQJDU\LQWKHVWRFNWDNLQJDQGLPSOHPHQWDWLRQUHSRUWV &XUUHQWVLWXDWLRQZLWKUHJDUGWRWKH%RORJQDJRDOV 6WXGHQWPRELOLW\LQVHOHFWHGFRXQWULHVDQG 7KHSDWKRI+(V\VWHPUHIRUPLQWZHOYH(XURSHDQFRXQWULHV

xi

19     102       

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Tommaso Agasisti is full Professor at Politecnico di Milano School of Management. His research interests deal with economics and management of public sector, with special focus on analyzing the efficiency and performance of universities, schools and local governments. He is the Associate Editor of the academic journal Higher Education Quarterly. Bruno Broucker, PhD, is guest professor at the KU Leuven Public Governance ,QVWLWXWH %HOJLXP  UHVHDUFK IHOORZ DW WKH /HXYHQ (FRQRPLFV RI (GXFDWLRQ 5HVHDUFK&HQWUHDQGKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQH[SHUWDWWKH,QVWLWXWHRI7URSLFDO0HGLFLQH +HLVPHPEHURIWKHH[HFXWLYHFRPPLWWHHRI($,5±WKH(XURSHDQ+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ Society and has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals and book chapters on higher education governance and reform. Martina Dal Molin LV D 5HVHDUFK )HOORZ DW WKH 1DWLRQDO ,QVWLWXWH IRU 1XFOHDUH Physics and Adjunct Professor at the School of Engineer at university Carlo Cattaneo /,8&+HUUHVHDUFKLQWHUHVWVGHDOZLWKSXEOLFVHFWRUPDQDJHPHQWDQGSHUIRUPDQFH evaluation, with a specific focus of universities and public research centers. Eva M. de la Torre, PhD, is Assistant Professor at the Department of Economics and Public Finance of UAM. She held the position of Technical Expert at the VWDNHKROGHU ERDUG Consejo Social  RI 8$0 +HU UHVHDUFK LQWHUHVW LV LQ KLJKHU education economics. Kurt De Wit, PhD in Sociology, is head of the Data Management Unit of the (GXFDWLRQ3ROLF\'HSDUWPHQWDW.8/HXYHQ%HOJLXP +HSXEOLVKHVRQJRYHUQDQFH UHIRUPVXVHRIELJ GDWDDQG,&7XVHRIVWXGHQWVLQKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQ Andrew G. Gibson LV3K'FDQGLGDWHDW7ULQLW\&ROOHJH'XEOLQ7&' UHVHDUFKLQJWKH VRFLRORJ\RIKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQDQGWKH,ULVK'HIHQFH)RUFHV+HOHFWXUHVLQ7&'DQG has consulted for the OECD on a number of international higher education reviews. Ellen Hazelkorn is partner, BH Associates Education Consultants, and Professor Emeritus, Technological University Dublin. She is joint editor of Policy Reviews in Higher Education, international co-investigator of the Centre for Global Higher (GXFDWLRQ &*+(  /RQGRQ DQG 5HVHDUFK )HOORZ RI WKH &HQWUH IRU ,QWHUQDWLRQDO +LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ%RVWRQ&ROOHJH6KHZDVDZDUGHGWKH($,(7RQ\$GDPV$ZDUG IRU([FHOOHQFHLQ5HVHDUFK(OOHQLVLQWHUQDWLRQDOO\UHFRJQL]HGIRUKHUZULWLQJV and analysis of university rankings, and on higher education policy.

xiii

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Gergely Kováts LV WKH PDQDJLQJ GLUHFWRU RI WKH &HQWHU IRU ,QWHUQDWLRQDO +LJKHU (GXFDWLRQ 6WXGLHV DW WKH &RUYLQXV 8QLYHUVLW\ RI %XGDSHVW &8%  +H LV DOVR DQ DVVRFLDWH SURIHVVRU RI WKH ,QVWLWXWH RI 0DQDJHPHQW DW &8% ZKHUH KH WHDFKHV organization theories and public management and a senior adviser to the Directorate of Strategy and Quality Development. His current research interest is focused on the role of trust in the governance of higher education systems and institutions. /LXGYLND/HLã\Wơ, PhD in Public Administration, is professor of Higher Education, visiting senior scholar at CHEPS, University of Twente and vice director of the Center of Higher Education, TU Dortmund University in Germany. She has widely published on the topics of university governance reforms, university organizational transformation, quality in higher education, professional autonomy and academic productivity in prestigious peer-reviewed journals and handbooks in higher education DQGVFLHQFHVWXGLHV,QVKHUHFHLYHGWKH(PHUDOG/LWHUDWL$ZDUGIRUWKHDUWLFOH on university transformation in The Learning Organization journal. She is a member of editorial boards of Triple Helix, European Journal of Higher Education, and Higher Education Policy. She is co-convenor of the higher education network of WKH((5$DQGVHUYHVRQWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO$GYLVRU\%RDUGRIWKH+XQJDULDQ+LJKHU Education Accreditation Agency. Lisa Lucas, PhD, is Reader in Higher Education and Co-Director of the Centre for Knowledge, Culture and Society in the School of Education, University of Bristol. Her research focuses on policy reform, funding and issues of equity in higher education. António Magalhães is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences at the University of Porto, Portugal, where he acts as Head of Department of Education Sciences. He is senior researcher at the Centre for Research LQ+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ3ROLFLHV&,3(6 +HKDVZULWWHQDQGFRHGLWHGQXPHURXVERRNV and published articles in major journals in the higher education field. Sude Peksen is a research assistant and PhD candidate at the Professorship of Higher Education at the Technical University of Dortmund. She received her Bachelor’s and 0DVWHU¶VGHJUHHLQ6RFLRORJ\IURPWKH8QLYHUVLW\'XLVEXUJ(VVHQLQDQG Carmen Perez-Esparrells, PhD, is Associate Professor at the Department of Economics and Public Finance of UAM. She held the positions of Vice-Rector for ,QQRYDWLRQDW8$0DQGRI$VVRFLDWH5HVHDUFKHUDWWKH,QVWLWXWHIRU)LVFDO6WXGLHV Spanish Ministry of Finance. Rosalind Pritchard is emeritus professor of Ulster University where she served as Head of the School of Education and research co-ordinator. She is a Fellow of the %ULWLVK$FDGHP\RI6RFLDO6FLHQFHVDQGDPHPEHURIWKH5R\DO,ULVK$FDGHP\ xiv

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Palle Rasmussen is emeritus professor of education and learning at the Department of Learning and Philosophy, Aalborg University, Denmark. He has considerable experience from research on higher education as well as on European collaboration in education. Anna-Lena Rose is a PhD student and research and teaching assistant at the 3URIHVVRUVKLSRI+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQDWWKH&HQWHUIRU+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ]KE DW78 Dortmund University, Germany. Christine Teelken is Associate professor at the VU University Amsterdam. Her research interests involve higher education reform, diversity in higher education and quality assessment. She is link convenor at the higher education network of the EERA and published widely in many higher education journals. Jani Ursin 3K' LV D 6HQLRU 5HVHDUFKHU DW WKH )LQQLVK ,QVWLWXWH IRU (GXFDWLRQDO Research of the University of Jyväskylä, Finland. His research has focused on quality assurance in higher education, mergers of Finnish universities and learning outcomes in higher education. Amélia Veiga is Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences at the University of Porto, Portugal, researcher at the Centre for Research DQG ,QWHUYHQWLRQ LQ (GXFDWLRQ &,,(  DQG DW WKH &HQWUH IRU 5HVHDUFK LQ +LJKHU (GXFDWLRQ 3ROLFLHV &,3(6  +HU LQWHUHVWV IRFXV RQ HGXFDWLRQ SROLF\ DQDO\VLV DQG higher education governance. She has published her work in international books and key journals. Jef C. Verhoeven3K'ZDV3URIHVVRURI6RFLRORJ\DWWKH.8/HXYHQ±  and is since 2006 emeritus professor. He established the Centre for Sociology RI (GXFDWLRQ DW WKH .8 /HXYHQ   DQG ZDV KHDG RI WKLV FHQWUH +LV UHFHQW SXEOLFDWLRQVDUHDERXWKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQDQGWKHXVHRI,&7WKHDFFHVVRI&KLQHVH ethnic minorities to Higher Education, and higher education policy. Nadine Zeeman is a consultant Social Affairs at Ecorys, a research based consulting firm in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Her areas of research interest include policy analysis, research governance and research management, and employment and regional involvement. Rimantas Zelvys is Head of the Education Policy Centre at Vilnius University and former Vice-Rector of Vilnius Pedagogical University. He worked as a consultant and expert for the World Bank, the OECD and the European Commission for different educational projects in post-communist countries. His fields of research are comparative education, education policy and management and education reforms. xv

-()&9(5+2(9(1/,8'9,.$/(,â4XDOLW\ revolution, assessment industry and higher education institutions]. .DVYDWXV ± 6WDWLVWLFV)LQODQG 5HWULHYHGIURPKWWSVZZZVWDWILLQGH[BHQKWPO 8UVLQ- /HDUQLQJRXWFRPHVLQ)LQQLVKKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQIURPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRIFRPSUHKHQVLYH FXUULFXOXP IUDPHZRUN ,Q + &RDWHV (G  Higher education learning outcomes assessment: International perspectivesSS± )UDQNIXUWDP0DLQ3HWHU/DQJ 8UVLQ-$LWWROD++HQGHUVRQ& 9lOLPDD- ,VHGXFDWLRQJHWWLQJORVWLQXQLYHUVLW\PHUJHUV" Tertiary education and management, 16 ± 8UVLQ-$LWWROD+ 9lOLPDD- .RKWL\KWHLVLlNRXOXWXVUDNHQWHLWD [Towards joint educational VWUXFWXUHV@ ,Q + $LWWROD  / 0DUWWLOD (GV  5$.( ± 7KHUHOHYDQFHRISXEOLFILQDQFLQJLQ6SDQLVKXQLYHUVLWLHV@ Presupuesto y Gasto Público, 90, 69–190. 3HWHUV0$%HVOH\7 3DUDVNHYD-0 ,QWURGXFWLRQ*OREDOILQDQFLDOFULVLVDQGHGXFDWLRQDO UHVWUXFWXULQJ,Q0$3HWHUV-03DUDVNHYD 7%HVOH\(GV The global financial crisis and educational restructuring. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing. 5HDO 'HFUHWR  GH  GH RFWXEUH SRU HO TXH VH HVWDEOHFH OD RUGHQDFLyQ GH ODV HQVHxDQ]DV XQLYHUVLWDULDVRILFLDOHV>5R\DO'HFUHHRI2FWREHUZKLFKHVWDEOLVKHVWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQ RIRIILFLDOXQLYHUVLW\HGXFDWLRQ@5HWULHYHGIURPKWWSVZZZERHHVEXVFDUSGI%2($ FRQVROLGDGRSGI 5HDO'HFUHWROH\GHGHDEULOGHPHGLGDVXUJHQWHVGHUDFLRQDOL]DFLyQGHOJDVWRS~EOLFRHQHO iPELWRHGXFDWLYR>5R\DO'HFUHH/DZRI$SULORQXUJHQWPHDVXUHVWRUDWLRQDOL]HSXEOLF VSHQGLQJ LQ HGXFDWLRQ@ 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWSVZZZERHHVEXVFDUSGI%2($ consolidado.pdf 7UHDW\RQ6WDELOLW\&RRUGLQDWLRQDQG*RYHUQDQFH76&* 0DUFK 5HWULHYHGIURP KWWSVZHEDUFKLYHRUJZHEKWWSHXURSHDQFRXQFLOHXURSDHXPHGLD VWWVFJBHQSGI



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9. RECONFIGURING PORTUGUESE HIGHER EDUCATION Between National and European Priorities

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7KHUHYROXWLRQUHSUHVHQWVDWXUQLQJSRLQWZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI Portuguese society. The country had as the country had extremely poor educational indicators, namely when compared with other European counterparts. The Portuguese KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ V\VWHP LV ELQDU\ DQG LV FRPSULVHG RI XQLYHUVLWLHV  SXEOLF DQG  SULYDWH  DQG SRO\WHFKQLFV  SXEOLF DQG  SULYDWH  )LIW\ \HDUV DIWHU WKH HVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHELQDU\GLYLGHELQDULVPUHPDLQVDFHQWUDOSROLWLFDOLVVXH,Q short-cycle vocational programmes were replaced by “polytechnic higher education” emphasising vocational features as opposed to the “more conceptual and theoretical FKDUDFWHULVWLFV´ RI XQLYHUVLW\ KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ 'HFUHH/DZ 7  $W WKH same time, the higher education system underwent a steady increase in the number of private institutions. The higher education system expanded in three politically LQGXFHGVWDJHV³0RUHLVEHWWHU´± ³0RUHLVDSUREOHP´±  DQG³0RUHEXWGLIIHUHQW´RQZDUGV 0DJDOKmHV$PDUDO 7DYDUHV ,Q RIWKHUHOHYDQWDJHFRKRUWLVHQUROOHGLQKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQ ,QWKHWUDQVLWLRQIURP³0RUHLVDSUREOHP´± WR³0RUHEXWGLIIHUHQW´  RQZDUGV  WKH %RORJQD UHIRUPV ZHUH LQWURGXFHG XQGHU WKH FRQFHUQ RI consolidating the system. The governments changed the priority from expansion to consolidation as the rapid growth of the system raised critical issues associated with a lowering of quality standards, an increasing number of programmes and institutions with very low enrolments, unbalanced geographical distribution of KLJKHUHGXFDWLRQDQGDQH[FHVVLYHQXPEHURIVWXG\SURJUDPPHVLQVRPHDUHDVHJ HGXFDWLRQPDQDJHPHQW 0DJDOKmHVHWDO  ,Q  WKH OHJDO IUDPHZRUN HVWDEOLVKLQJ WKH QDWLRQDO TXDOLW\ DVVHVVPHQW V\VWHP /DZ   ZDV SDVVHG$W WKH VDPH WLPH WKH IXQGLQJ IRUPXOD IRU WKH DOORFDWLRQ RI WKH VWDWH EXGJHW WR SXEOLF KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ LQVWLWXWLRQV +(,V  ZDV changed to progressively incorporate performance and quality indicators. The aim RI GLYHUVLI\LQJ WKH VWXGHQW SRSXODWLRQ HJ WUDGLWLRQDO VWXGHQWV DGXOW VWXGHQWV OLIHORQJOHDUQLQJVWXGHQWV DQGSURJUDPPHVGURYHWKH³0RUHEXWGLIIHUHQW´ RQZDUGV SHULRG6LQFHVSHFLILFSROLF\LQLWLDWLYHVKDYHEHHQLQWURGXFHGWKDW strengthened the vocational features of polytechnics and provided more flexible

© KONINKLIJKE BRILL NV, LEIDEN, 2019 | DOI:10.1163/9789004400115_009

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access rules to higher education for mature students. The binary divide was further reinforced in response to the need to clarify the structure of the system according to 2(&'UHFRPPHQGDWLRQV2(&'  ,Q WKLV FRQWH[W WKH 3RUWXJXHVH %RORJQD UHIRUP DJHQGD IRFXVHG PDLQO\ RQ WKH adoption of a system of easily readable and comparable degrees, the adoption of a V\VWHPEDVHGRQWZRPDLQF\FOHVXQGHUJUDGXDWHDQGJUDGXDWH WKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI DV\VWHPRIFUHGLWVVXFKDVWKH(&76V\VWHP DQGWKHSURPRWLRQRI(XURSHDQFR operation in quality assurance. However, the promotion of mobility and the promotion of the European dimension in higher education did not gain the same centrality as priorities in the Portuguese reform processes. Actually, the reconfiguration of the Portuguese higher education system may be said a missed opportunity, at least with UHJDUGWRWKHLQWHJUDWLRQLQWKH(XURSHDQ+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ$UHD(+($ 9HLJD  This chapter focuses on the analysis of the reform, taking into account the specificities of the Portuguese context, the rationales of modernization of higher education reforms, and their managerial drivers under the influence of NPM. The reform processes as well as the current state are problematized, highlighting first DQGVHFRQGRUGHUHIIHFWV%DOO RI%RORJQDUHIRUPVLQWKH3RUWXJXHVHKLJKHU education system. The former are related to the attained changes of the structures and processes associated with intended political objectives and the latter are related to the broader changes induced by the policy reforms. REFORM

Context of Reform and Stakeholders Involved The detailed and prescriptive traditions of the Portuguese public administration might explain the implementation of the Bologna Process in Portugal as a lengthy DIIDLU,QWKHJRYHUQPHQWSDVVHGOHJLVODWLRQ'HFUHH/DZ UHJXODWLQJ components of the Bologna Process, making compulsory the use of the European &UHGLW7UDQVIHU6\VWHP(&76 DQGLWVDVVRFLDWHGLQVWUXPHQWVVXFKDVWKHOHDUQLQJ agreement, the transcript of records, the institutional information package and the XVHRIWKH'LSORPD6XSSOHPHQW,QWHUHVWLQJO\HQRXJKWKHSDVVLQJRIWKLVOHJLVODWLRQ ZDVSULRUWRWKHFKDQJHVLQGHJUHHVWUXFWXUHDVWKH\GLGQRWFRQIOLFWZLWKWKH (GXFDWLRQ6\VWHP$FW±/DZRI2FWREHU7RLPSOHPHQWWKH%RORJQD GHJUHHVWUXFWXUHLWZDVQHFHVVDU\WRFKDQJHWKLVODZ±ZKLFKKDSSHQHGLQ± as it was in conflict with the intended system of readable and comparable degrees within the EHEA. This was a difficult task mainly because there was not a consensus, as reflected in the Parliament configuration, for changing the basic law of the education system. Therefore, this process dragged on while some heated public debates took place, to the discontent of higher education institutions as they perceived this delay as damaging their opportunities to play a role in the European higher education ODQGVFDSH9HLJD $PDUDO  

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One of the most debated issues was the proposal to replace the existing distinct degrees of universities and polytechnics with a single one. This was perceived by the stakeholders involved as having serious consequences in the consolidation of the ELQDU\V\VWHP7KH&RXQFLORI5HFWRUVRI3RUWXJXHVH8QLYHUVLWLHV&583 DQGWKH 3RO\WHFKQLF¶V&RRUGLQDWRU&RXQFLO&&,63 DVVXPHGGLYHUVHSXEOLFSRVLWLRQVZLWK regard to the consolidation of the binary system. CRUP recognized the importance of comparability of degrees across EHEA, while reinforcing the different nature of the programmes and degrees of universities and polytechnics. CRUP also emphasized WKH UHOHYDQFH RI WKH ILUVW F\FOH LQ UHVSRQGLQJ WR ODERXU PDUNHW QHHGV ,Q WXUQ &&,63 VXSSRUWHG WKH DGRSWLRQ RI D ILUVW F\FOH GHJUHH ZLWK VLPLODU FKDUDFWHULVWLFV offered by universities and polytechnics. This ‘common’ first degree was expected to be designed to give access to professional careers. With regard to the Master’s GHJUHHV &&,63 SURSRVHG WKH GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ ZRUNEDVHG DQG UHVHDUFK oriented Master programmes. While polytechnics, regarding the first cycle, used the opportunity to put pressure on authorities to become more similar to universities DFDGHPLFGULIW &583SRLQWHGWRDFOHDUHUGHILQLWLRQRIWKHELQDU\GLYLGH$FWXDOO\ the idea of the compatibility of the binary system with the Bologna two-tier degree system emerged as potentially endangering the Portuguese system’s structure and diversity. Meanwhile, when the legal framework accommodating the implementation of the Bologna degree structure was finally passed in 2006, it became clear that the government had intended to preserve and reinforce the binary system by differentiating the scope of degree programmes, emphasizing their academic or YRFDWLRQDO IHDWXUHV 7KH ILUVW F\FOH LQ SRO\WHFKQLFV FRPSULVHV  FUHGLWV WKUHH \HDUV LQFRQWUDVWXQLYHUVLWLHVFDQRIIHUDILUVWF\FOHZLWKWRFUHGLWVWKUHHWR IRXU\HDUV ,QH[FHSWLRQDOFDVHV±ZKHQQDWLRQDORU(XURSHDQOHJLVODWLRQLPSRVHVD longer education period before professional practice or if there is a well-established SUDFWLFHLQ(XURSHDQ+(,V±SRO\WHFKQLFVFDQRIIHUILUVWF\FOHVRIFUHGLWVIRXU \HDUV 8QLYHUVLWLHVFDQDOVRRIIHULQWHJUDWHG0DVWHU¶VSURJUDPPHVFRPSULVLQJ WRFUHGLWVILYHWRVL[\HDUV ZKHQ(XURSHDQODZLPSRVHVDORQJHUGXUDWLRQRU if that corresponds to a well-established European practice. Curiously, this is not a UHVROYHGPDWWHUDVLQWKHGHEDWHRQWKHLQWHQWLRQWRHOLPLQDWHLQWHJUDWHG0DVWHUV in the universities remerged along with the possibility of the polytechnic institutions awarding doctoral degrees. The Bologna degree structure was implemented in a context within which higher education institutions perceived themselves to move more slowly than other (XURSHDQFRXQWHUSDUWV9HLJD $PDUDO :KHQWKHJRYHUQPHQWSDVVHGWKH 'HFUHH/DZ  FUHDWLQJ WKH %RORJQD GHJUHH VWUXFWXUH LW RSHQHG D FDOO IRU proposals of adaptations and new study programmes giving institutions a very short GHDGOLQH WZR ZHHNV  ZLWK WKH LQWHQGHG REMHFWLYH RI RQO\ DFFRPPRGDWLQJ WKRVH already complete. However, the institutions, on the basis of previous experiments on the adoption of the ECTS credit system resulting from their participation in European mobility programmes, and of the passing of legislation regulating the use 

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RI(&76DQGLWVLQVWUXPHQWV9HLJD $PDUDO ZHUHDEOHWRVXEPLWDWRWDORI SURSRVDOV7KLVXQH[SHFWHGIORRGRISURSRVDOVSUHVHQWHGDWVXFKVKRUWQRWLFH grew from the institutional concern to keep on the path of the reforms with other (XURSHDQFRXQWHUSDUWVRIWKHSURSRVDOVZHUHIRUQHZVWXG\SURJUDPPHVDQG RIWKHPZHUHDGDSWDWLRQVRIROGSURJUDPPHVWRWKH%RORJQDVWUXFWXUHRI WKHSURSRVDOVRULJLQDWHGIURPSXEOLFXQLYHUVLWLHVIURPSXEOLFSRO\WHFKQLFVDQG IURPWKHSULYDWHVHFWRU Simultaneously, in the aftermath of the implementation of the Bologna degree structure reforms, and in the steps of a review of the Portuguese quality system by ENQA in 2006, the evaluation system established by the Law of Evaluation of +LJKHU(GXFDWLRQLQZDVUHSODFHGLQ7KHOLPLWHGLQGHSHQGHQFHRIWKH system has been referred to by ENQA as a central weakness: The involvement of representatives of the public universities in the design process indicates clearly that the methods and procedures were not defined and developed in a manner that was sufficiently autonomous and independent of the higher education institutions. Furthermore the procedures for the appointment and nomination of external experts are not sufficiently independent of either WKHLQVWLWXWLRQVRUWKH0LQLVWU\(14$S ,QOLQHZLWKWKLVDQHZV\VWHPZDVLQLWLDWHGXQGHU(XURSHDQLQIOXHQFHWRFRPSO\ with the Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher (GXFDWLRQ$UHD (6*  7KH 3RUWXJXHVH 6WDWH FUHDWHG WKH ³$JrQFLD GH$YDOLDomR H $FUHGLWDomR GR (QVLQR 6XSHULRU´ $JHQF\ IRU $VVHVVPHQW DQG $FFUHGLWDWLRQ RI +LJKHU (GXFDWLRQ ±$(6  E\ 'HFUHH/DZ QR  ZLWK WKH SXUSRVH RI promoting and ensuring the quality of higher education. The Agency is a private law foundation, with legal status and recognized of public utility. The Agency is independent in its decisions which must take into account the guidelines prescribed by the State. Under the influence of a European common grammar on how the quality assurance V\VWHPVVKRXOGEHGHVLJQHGDQGVKRXOGSHUIRUP0DJDOKmHV9HLJD5LEHLUR6RXVD  6DQWLDJR   WKH$JHQF\ EHJDQ RSHUDWLQJ LQ  *LYHQ WKH DIRUHPHQWLRQHG change of priority from expansion to consolidation focusing on the problems raised by a lowering of quality standards, an increasing number of study programmes, an unbalanced geographical distribution of higher education institutions, and the need to rationalize the supply of degree programmes made accreditation a major issue for the system and for the institutions. ,Q  WKH $JHQF\ DVNHG LQVWLWXWLRQV WR GHFODUH ZKLFK GHJUHH SURJUDPPHV they proposed to offer and to demonstrate that they had the adequate resources, namely qualified academic staff, to develop their supply. The comparison between WKHQXPEHURIGHJUHHSURJUDPPHVUHJLVWHUHG DWWKH*HQHUDO'LUHFWRUDWHIRU +LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ2FWREHU DQGWKHQXPEHURIGHJUHHSURJUDPPHVVXEPLWWHG E\ LQVWLWXWLRQV   WR WKH $JHQF\ UHIOHFWHG D GHFUHDVH RI DERXW  GHJUHH programmes. 

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The implementation of the Bologna degree structure together with the introduction of the accreditation system made coordination a relevant political issue focused on the intended rationalization of the supply of degree programmes. On the one hand, the implementation of the Bologna degree structure induced an increase of the overall supply, namely with regard to the number of second and third cycle degree SURJUDPPHV9HLJD0DJHOKmHV $PDUDO 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHDFWLYLWLHVRI the Agency induced the elimination of study programmes, especially in 2010–2011. The reduction of study programmes, attributed to anticipatory strategies assumed by higher education institutions, corresponded to the expected decisions of the Agency 9HLJDHWDO  Under the logic of the modernizing public administration and the rationalization of the supply of higher education programmes, the concern with the quality emerged IURPWKHLVVXHVRI³0RUHLVDSUREOHP´± SHULRG7KHZD\LQVWLWXWLRQV dealt with these drivers is to be understood as a reaction to the fast expansion of the KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ V\VWHP GXULQJ WKH SHULRG ³0RUH LV EHWWHU´ ±  ZKLFK KDSSHQHG ZLWKLQ D ZLGH XVH RI LQVWLWXWLRQDO DXWRQRP\ ,Q DFWXDO IDFW XQWLO  institutions were allowed to create study programmes only under the administrative condition of registering them at the Ministry. Looking at the involvement of main stakeholders, it may be argued that their influence has been diluted in their central role in shaping higher education policies. The process of consolidation of the Bologna degree structure in the aforementioned periods brought the role of the accreditation agency to centre stage. Together with &583DQG&&,63RWKHUVWDNHKROGHUVVXFKDVWKHSURIHVVLRQDODVVRFLDWLRQVEHFDPH members of the advisory council of the Agency, offering advice supporting the decisions of accreditation of study programmes by the management board. This ERG\ LV FRPSRVHG RI &583 &&,63 DQG WKH UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV RI WKH 3RUWXJXHVH $VVRFLDWLRQRI3ULYDWH+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ,QVWLWXWLRQV$3(63 DVZHOODVWKHVWXGHQW unions, professional associations, representatives of researchers, and entrepreneurial associations representing the economic sectors, and trade unions. Content: Rationale, Objectives, Major Elements Rationales and driving factors guiding the reforms of the Portuguese higher education system can be found in the debates about institutional autonomy held since the mid-1990s, highlighting the tension between the institutional autonomy DZDUGHGWRKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQLQVWLWXWLRQVE\WKH$XWRQRP\$FWDQGWKHQHHG IRUPHWDJRYHUQDQFHRIWKHV\VWHP,QWKHFRQWH[WRIJRYHUQDQFHUHIRUPVEDVHGRQ institutional autonomy: the term ‘meta-governance’ [is used] to describe the process of steering GHYROYHG JRYHUQDQFH SURFHVVHV ,Q RWKHU WHUPV LW LV WKH µJRYHUQDQFH RI governance’. The notion of meta-governance is that a number of organisations and processes within the public sector have attained a substantial degree of 

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autonomy – a condition better described as governance – and that there may be DQHHGWRLPSRVHVRPHFRQWURORYHUWKRVHFRPSRQHQWVRIJRYHUQLQJ3HWHUV S Under this framework, the problem of how to guarantee that higher education institutions with a great deal of institutional autonomy pursue the intended political objectives impinges on the need to monitor institutional performance against these political objectives. Therefore, political drivers of reforms are more associated with the governance of the system rather than with a direct response to economic and social factors. Massification of the Portuguese higher education system and its increased diversity made state control inefficient, paving the way to the period RI ³0RUH EXW GLIIHUHQW´  RQZDUGV  0DJDOKmHV HW DO   DQG SXWWLQJ SUHVVXUHRQWKHJRYHUQDQFHRIWKHV\VWHPDQGLQVWLWXWLRQV,QOLQHZLWKWKLVWKH /HJDO )UDPHZRUN IRU +LJKHU (GXFDWLRQ 5-,(6  LQWURGXFHG PDMRU FKDQJHV LQ WKH governance structures and by 2009, all higher education institutions had already DGDSWHGWKHLUVWDWXWHVWRWKLVQHZOHJDOIUDPHZRUN5-,(6DOVRRIIHUHGWKHSRVVLELOLW\ IRU +(,V WR DGRSW D IRXQGDWLRQDO PRGHO HQDEOLQJ LQVWLWXWLRQV WR UXOH WKHPVHOYHV by private law, and thus the use of output-based contracts and the emphasis on accountability, individual responsibility and performance can be seen. Presently, only ILYH8QLYHUVLGDGHGR3RUWR8QLYHUVLGDGHGH$YHLUR,6&7(,QVWLWXWR8QLYHUVLWiULR GH/LVERD8QLYHUVLGDGHGR0LQKR8QLYHUVLGDGH1RYDGH/LVERD RXWRISXEOLF universities have joined the foundational model. Managerialism under the NPM perspectives has been driving the changes LQFRUSRUDWHG LQ WKH QHZ OHJLVODWLRQ 0DJDOKmHV  6DQWLDJR   DQG EURXJKW VLJQLILFDQWFKDQJHVWRWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWKH6WDWHDQGLQVWLWXWLRQV,WLQGXFHG the reconfiguration of institutions strengthening their organisational rationales, such as empowering managerial bodies to the detriment of collegial bodies, centralisation of decision-making processes and the presence of external stakeholders at the central and faculty/department/school levels, the development of ‘strong rectors’; the move to appointed rather than elected posts; the weakening in the representation of the constituencies of higher education institutions; the stronger managerial roles of rectors, deans and heads of departments, and private-sector style human resources PDQDJHPHQW$PDUDO7DYDUHV 6DQWRV 7KLVGULYHUUHVXOWHGLQDERRVWHG FHQWUDOLVDWLRQRISRZHUDWWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOWRSDQGZHDNHQLQJRUVXSSUHVVLRQ RIWKH collegial decision-making bodies. Additionally, one might add that this driver has promoted the presence of external stakeholders in the decision-making bodies, and the adoption of the foundational model. Drivers guiding the changes in the Portuguese higher education system in this period can be found in the governance reform which made coordination instruments increasingly relevant. The introduction of accreditation processes made visible national meta-governance efforts aimed at rationalizing the supply of degree programmes. Actually, research showed that meta-governance efforts both DW WKH QDWLRQDO OHYHO HJ$(6  DQG (XURSHDQ OHYHO HJ WKH VHWWLQJ RI TXDOLW\ 

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DVVXUDQFHDQGDFFUHGLWDWLRQDJHQFLHV LPSDFWHGWKHVXSSO\RIGHJUHHSURJUDPPHVE\ 3RUWXJXHVHKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQLQVWLWXWLRQV9HLJDHWDO  The Portuguese reform rationales and drivers enhancing the European cooperation in quality assurance was concomitant with the adoption of the Bologna GHJUHH VWUXFWXUH$V DUJXHG HOVHZKHUH 0DJDOKmHV HW DO   WKH GHYHORSPHQW of a European common grammar on evaluation induced the cooperation in quality assurance visible in the very setting up of the Portuguese accreditation agency and LQWKHDGRSWLRQRI(XURSHDQ6WDQGDUGVDQG*XLGHOLQHV(6* ,QGHHGWKHUDWLRQDOH pervading the aforementioned reforms underlined the centrality of the concern with the Portuguese higher education system’s rationalization. This concern was shared by institutions that assumed an adaptive stance towards the reform without perceiving the level of institutional autonomy as being under pressure. This, in spite of the fact that the accreditation mechanisms have induced the elimination of study SURJUDPPHVLQWKH³0RUHEXWGLIIHUHQW´RQZDUGV SHULRGRIWKHFRQVROLGDWLRQ of the modernization of the system. Process of Reform ,Q WKH 3RUWXJXHVH FRQWH[W WKH SURFHVV RI UHIRUP PDGH YLVLEOH WKH FKDOOHQJH WR the concept of policy implementation as ideas, objectives, goals and intentionally expected results involve a set of interactions at different levels influencing the GHYHORSPHQW RI SUDFWLFHV ,Q DFWXDOLW\ WKHVH LQWHUDFWLRQV DIIHFW WKH SXUVXLW DQG attainment of the intended political objectives, which might be in line with, or in tension with, the EHEA. The Bologna Process was built and operationalized in WKH LQWHUDFWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH GLIIHUHQW OHYHOV (XURSHDQ QDWLRQDO DQG LQVWLWXWLRQDO  XQGHUOLQLQJWKHLQIOXHQFHRISROLF\LQVWUXPHQWVRQSROLF\HQDFWPHQW%DOO  )ROORZLQJIURP/DVFRXPHVDQG*DOqV WKHVHLQVWUXPHQWVLQIOXHQFHWKHQDWXUH of the policies they intend to serve. The centrality of instruments in shaping policies themselves brings to the fore the heterogeneity of interpretations by national and institutional actors of political objectives and the importance of those interpretations in converging around administrative procedures. This underlines the pragmatic nature of national reforms, assuming a reform version based on the definition of minimum criteria and procedures particularly focused on the comparability EHWZHHQVWXG\F\FOHVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQV$VQRWHGE\*X\1HDYH LWLVHDVLHU to converge around procedural operationalization than to create a common system accommodating visions and priorities. Furthermore, in Portugal, the scope of adaptations of curricular structures and, at the same time, the pragmatic nature of the development of reforms, made critical their internal consistency and the political coherence of the various instruments, such as the Bologna degree structure, the credit system and the Diploma Supplement. The reforms resulting from the European discourse on the enhancement of institutions’ autonomy turned in practice into a reduction of pedagogical autonomy, JLYHQWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIDFFUHGLWDWLRQFULWHULD0DJDOKmHVHWDO ,QWXUQLQ 

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the scope of the governance and management reforms, centralization and hierarchy, DVH[SHFWHGHIIHFWVRIWKHOHJDOIUDPHZRUNXQGHUOLQHGD130PDQDJHULDOLVW view of higher education, echoing in the development of institutional practices OLQNHGWRWKH%RORJQDLQVWUXPHQWV,QIDFWWKHSURFHGXUDOUHRUJDQL]DWLRQHJWKH DGPLQLVWUDWLYHDSSURDFKWRWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKH(&76 KDVIXHOOHGWKHIRUPDO character of the Bologna-induced reforms. At the institutional level, the most obvious consequences of the Bologna Process were thus the setting up of support structures at the organizational level and the development of processes requiring a great deal of interaction between academics and technical-administrative and PDQDJHPHQWVWDII1HDYH 9HLJD9HLJD 1HDYH &XULRXVO\HQRXJK the technical-administrative and management staff involved in academic affairs, international relations and information systems tended to perceive the institutional DQG DFDGHPLF UHIRUPV PRUH SRVLWLYHO\ WKDQ DFDGHPLFV 9HLJD  1HDYH   This reveals that the technical-administrative and management staff appeared as privileged interlocutors in the Bologna Process. This positioning of the technicaladministrative and management staff was a necessary condition to move forward in WKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKH(+($LQDPRUHSUDJPDWLFZD\,QWKH3RUWXJXHVHFRQWH[W these circumstances underlined the reinforcement of procedural mechanisms to the detriment of a perspective subsuming procedures to the political objectives targeted by the EHEA. This has resulted in the emphasis on the form, rather than on the %RORJQD3URFHVVVXEVWDQFH9HLJD $PDUDO DQGLWVPDLQJRDORI(XURSHDQ integration. 5(68/76:+$7,67+(&855(1767$7("

7KH%RORJQD'HJUHH6WUXFWXUH ,Q 3RUWXJDO WKH %RORJQD UHIRUPV UHVXOWHG LQ WKH FRQVROLGDWLRQ RI WKH WKUHHWLHU higher education system, the establishment of the ECTS system and the adoption of quality assurance mechanisms in line with ESG. These transformations impacted the governance and management of the system and institutions; namely the configuration of the binary divide of the Portuguese higher education system, WKHDGRSWLRQRIVWXGHQWFHQWUHGDSSURDFKHVHJVWXGHQWZRUNORDGFRPSHWHQFLHV OHDUQLQJ RXWFRPHV VHPHVWUDOVWXG\ RUJDQL]DWLRQ  DQG WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI TXDOLW\ assurance processes, structures and practices. )URPWRWKH%RORJQDUHIRUPVZHUHGHYHORSHGXQGHU³WKHPRYHIURP a quantity paradigm to a quality paradigm, a clearer definition of the binary divide, a more diversified offer of programmes and the focus on a more diverse public” 0DJDOKmHVHWDOS DQGZHUHDUWLFXODWHGXQGHUWKH130SHUVSHFWLYH reinforcing the rationale of the modernization of the Portuguese higher education V\VWHP,QSHUDJRYHUQPHQWUHTXHVWWKH2(&'FRQGXFWHGDUHYLHZRIWKH higher education system and recommended that the capacity of the system should be expanded. The OECD review also claimed that higher education should support 

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and contribute to the acceleration of the technical change in the production sector $PDUDO 0DJDOKmHV $GGLWLRQDOO\LQWKHDIWHUPDWKRIDQ(14$UHYLHZ LQFRPPLVVLRQHGE\WKHJRYHUQPHQW$(6DJHQF\VWDUWHGLWVRSHUDWLRQLQ  ,W ZDV DOVR LQ WKLV SHULRG WKDW WKH JRYHUQDQFH UHIRUP RI WKH V\VWHP ZDV initiated. From 2006 onwards, the binary divide evolved to increase the diversification of higher education and it is still a central political concern. Actually, the adoption of the three-tier Bologna structure allowed polytechnics to change the name of their first-degree cycle to Licenciatura and to offer programmes at the Master level. At the European level, doctoral education became a European priority at the 0LQLVWHULDO0HHWLQJRIWKH%RORJQD3URFHVVLQ%HUOLQ%HUOLQ&RPPXQLTXp  ,QWKLVFRPPXQLTXpWKHLGHDGULYLQJWKHUHIRUPVRIGRFWRUDOVWXGLHVDUWLFXODWHGWKH VWUDWHJLHVIRUWKHGHYHORSPHQWRID(+($DQGD(XURSHDQ5HVHDUFK$UHD(5$ 7KHVH strategies fed the narrative of the European knowledge society and doctoral degrees were to be more closely linked with careers in R&D. Furthermore, joint doctorates were to be developed more easily as obstacles to countries’ recognizing each other’s TXDOLILFDWLRQVZHUHH[SHFWHGWREHUHPRYHG6LQFHWKH%RORJQD3URFHVVZDV expected to enhance the relationship between higher education and research which, in turn, underpinned “higher education for the economic and cultural development RIRXUVRFLHWLHVDQGIRUVRFLDOFRKHVLRQ´%HUJHQ&RPPXQLTXp 7KH/LVERQ agenda assumed that ‘Modernization is needed in order to face the challenges of globalisation and to develop the skills and capacity of the European workforce to be LQQRYDWLYH¶(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQS 7KLVZDVH[SHFWHGWRKDYHPDMRU consequences on the variety of doctoral programmes and on the enhancement of provision of the third cycle to promote “the status, career prospects and funding for early stage researchers” as “essential preconditions for meeting Europe’s objectives of strengthening research capacity and improving the quality and competitiveness of (XURSHDQKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQ´/RQGRQ&RPPXQLTXp ,QQRYDWLRQZHQWKLJKRQ the EU agenda as reflected in the 2020 strategy: “EU public policies should focus RQFUHDWLQJDQHQYLURQPHQWWKDWSURPRWHVLQQRYDWLRQ« %\LPSURYLQJFRQGLWLRQV and access to finance for research and innovation in Europe, we can ensure that innovative ideas can be turned into products and services that create growth and MREV´ %XFKDUHVW &RPPXQLTXp   (8 PLQLVWHUV RI HGXFDWLRQ UHFRJQLVHG WKH need to improve “cooperation between employers, students and higher education institutions, especially in the development of study programmes that help increase WKH LQQRYDWLRQ HQWUHSUHQHXULDO DQG UHVHDUFK SRWHQWLDO RI JUDGXDWHV´ %XFKDUHVW &RPPXQLTXp  ,QQRYDWLRQ LV EHFRPLQJ D NH\ SROLF\ GULYHU LQ WKH 3RUWXJXHVH FDVH DQG LV manifested in the assumption of the impact of higher education systems on economic development, on the enhancement of competitive advantages of regional systems and on the generation of competences and skills for that purpose. Knowledge for economic and social development involves the strengthening of its impact on the basis of international knowledge production and cooperation, and the enhancement 

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of regional systems with a focus on their competitive advantage. The idea of innovation and its articulation with research and education are configuring the ODQGVFDSHRIGRFWRUDOHGXFDWLRQ,QWKLVFRQWH[WLQLQWKHDIWHUPDWKRIDQRWKHU review by the OECD, the Portuguese government, with the aim of enhancing performance and impact of research activities and institutions in an international landscape and in a multidisciplinary context, again brought in the modernization rationale, while legitimating the binary divide. The political driver of diversification of the higher education system is still prevailing by the reinforcement of the scope of polytechnic education in terms of vocational training and research activities EDVHGRQSUDFWLFHDQGOLQNVZLWKWKHSURGXFWLRQVHFWRU,QDFWXDOLW\KLJKHUHGXFDWLRQ political coordination is opening the possibility that polytechnics offer PhD programmes with the requirement that these programmes are developed by higher education institutions associated with research centres evaluated by the national research-funding agency as ‘Very Good’. Furthermore, considering the argument that PhD programmes should be specially oriented towards carrying out R&D and must have a teaching component only when duly justified, the third-cycle degree programmes, developed on the basis of taught curricular units, are meant to be the exception rather than the norm. Quality System From 2009 onward, one might also consider that the development of the quality assurance system, responding to European and national demands, is bringing to the fore the adoption of a lighter accreditation process and the introduction of an institutional evaluation programme. This programme intends to distinguish between the missions of university institutions and polytechnic institutions, to verify whether WKHLQVWLWXWLRQVIXOILOWKHFRQGLWLRQVGHILQHGLQWKHOHJDOIUDPHZRUNRIKLJKHU education and whether or not the assumptions for the recognition of the public LQWHUHVWDUHPDLQWDLQHG$(6  %\WKHILUVWIXOODFFUHGLWDWLRQURXQGZDVFRPSOHWHGDQGWKHDFFUHGLWDWLRQ DJHQF\HOLPLQDWHG³WKHPRVWVHULRXVFDVHVRIODFNRITXDOLW\« ZKLOHHQFRXUDJLQJ LQVWLWXWLRQVWRGHYHORSDQGFHUWLI\WKHLULQWHUQDOTXDOLW\DVVXUDQFHV\VWHPV´$(6  S   $GGLWLRQDOO\ WKH $JHQF\ UHFRJQL]HV WKDW WKH UHJXODWLRQV UHODWHG WR the accreditation criteria of the teaching staff qualifications allowed for their improvement, visible in a progressive increase of the percentage of doctorate professors and with significant number of publications at the international level $(6 %DVHGRQ(XURSHDQDQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOH[SHULHQFHVWKHDJHQF\LQWHQGV to modify the accreditation system by moving to a sampling method instead of an exhaustive evaluation of all study cycles. Focusing on ‘quality enhancement’ this system intends to apply a more flexible methodology in cases where there is a FRPELQDWLRQRIWKHIROORZLQJDVSHFWV DJRRGWUDFNUHFRUGRIDFFUHGLWDWLRQLQWKH ILUVWURXQGFRPSOHWHGLQ WKHTXDOLILFDWLRQOHYHOVRIWHDFKLQJVWDIIKLJKHU WKDQWKHQDWLRQDODYHUDJH DJRRGOHYHORIUHVHDUFKFHUWLILHGE\WKHHYDOXDWLRQ 

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RI UHVHDUFK FHQWUHV DW OHDVW µ9HU\ *RRG¶  DQG   WKH H[LVWHQFH RI DQ LQWHUQDO quality assurance system certified by the agency. The certification of internal quality assurance systems followed an experimental audit of internal quality assurance systems carried out since 2012. The process is voluntary and aims at certifying the internal quality assurance system of higher education institutions. According to WKHDFFUHGLWDWLRQDJHQF\WZHQW\RQHLQVWLWXWLRQVKDYHEHHQDXGLWHGDVRIDQG fourteen internal systems have been certified and five are in the final certification SKDVHZLWKWZRRWKHUVLQWKHDSSOLFDWLRQSURFHVV$(6  Attractiveness There is also an ongoing debate on the statute of the international student, passed in WKDWFDQEHVHHQLQWKHIUDPHZRUNRIWKHREMHFWLYHUHODWHGWRWKHDWWUDFWLYHQHVV of the EHEA. While this objective is not directly linked to the promotion of mobility, the internationalization strategies of higher education gained visibility in the process RIEXLOGLQJWKH(+($,Q3RUWXJDOWKHDUJXPHQWRIHFRQRPLFSURILWFDUULHGOLWWOH ZHLJKW LQ SXEOLF VHFWRU KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ 5RVD 9HLJD $PDUDO   ,QGHHG WKH3RUWXJXHVHOHJDOIUDPHZRUNGLGQRWDXWKRUL]HSXEOLF+(,VWRVHWKLJKHUIHHVIRU non-EU undergraduate students. Since 2011, the economic factor became important for both public and private institutions as, on the one hand, state funding decreased LQWKHSXEOLFVHFWRU7HL[HLUD DQGRQWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHQXPEHURIVWXGHQWV HQUROOLQJLQKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQLVFRQVLVWHQWO\GHFOLQLQJ)RQVHFD 7KH legal framework drove the idea that public Portuguese higher education institutions have been attracting increasing numbers of foreign students and that attracting these students increases the rationalization of the installed capacity. This measure aimed at facilitating access to Portuguese higher education through a specific regime enabling SXEOLF+(,VWRFKDUJHWXLWLRQIHHVDERYHWKHWKUHVKROGIL[HGE\ODZIRU3RUWXJXHVH students. This legal framework represented a shift towards an economic rationale of internationalization of the Portuguese higher education system, influencing the LQVWLWXWLRQV¶ VWUDWHJLHV 9HLJD 5RVD  $PDUDO   $WWUDFWLQJ PRUH QRQ(8 students and charging them higher tuition fees, as they do not count in the funding IRUPXOD IRU SXEOLF +(,V KDV LQIOXHQFHG LQVWLWXWLRQDO VWUDWHJLHV WR VXSSOHPHQW their revenues. On the one hand, this framework serves the major policy goal of making Portuguese higher education attractive also for non-EU students, and on the other hand, it provides institutions a legitimation basis to deal with financial VWULQJHQF\OHWDORQHWKHLUVXVWDLQDELOLW\,QWKHVWDWXWHRILQWHUQDWLRQDOVWXGHQWV 'HFUHHODZ   ZDV UHYLVHG WR IXUWKHU SURPRWH WKH LQWHUQDWLRQDOL]DWLRQ RI the higher education and science sectors and to set the legal conditions for public higher education institutions to receive refugees, namely by removing current legal constraints to students in situations of humanitarian emergency and by guarantying their access to full social support, including the awarding of scholarships, and their equal treatment to national students. 

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$FFRUGLQJWR6WHSKHQ%DOO DGLVWLQFWLRQFDQEHPDGHEHWZHHQILUVWDQGVHFRQG order effects of policies. The first order effects refer to changes on structures and processes introduced by policy initiatives with an impact on institutional routines and procedures, while second order effects relate to broader changes on patterns of social MXVWLFHLQGXFHGE\SROLFLHV,Q3RUWXJDOWKH%RORJQDUHIRUPVFDQEHHYDOXDWHGXVLQJ this analytical distinction. From the perspective of European political coordination, the stocktaking method, as an instrument of OMC, puts emphasis on first order effects. These effects are part of policy implementation while they undertake continuous assessment of progress of the countries’ performance within the Bologna DFWLRQ OLQHV ,Q WKLV DVVHVVPHQW 3RUWXJDO KDV REWDLQHG WKH KLJKHVW VFRUHV LQ WKH stocktaking exercises. At the national level, governments tend to paint a favourable picture and the same may be said of higher education institutions’ leadership who tend to have a more positive attitude and judgment on the performance of the V\VWHPDQGLQVWLWXWLRQV9HLJD $PDUDO 7KHOHJDOUHTXLUHPHQWRISDVVLQJ legislation to accommodate the Bologna degree structure represents the relevance RIWKHGLVFRXUVHRI3URIHVVLRQDO%XUHDXFUDF\VHHLQWURGXFWLRQ LQHGXFDWLRQ7KLV discourse pervaded the governance reform developed on Bologna’s shoulders, underlying internally-oriented organizational structures. Additionally, incremental change requires an adequate timeframe to get acquainted with first order effects and progress at the national and institutional levels. Under the political driver of governance reforms and the modernization agenda, the rationalization of the system permeated the intended Bologna reforms, focusing on WKHGHJUHHVWUXFWXUHWKHTXDOLW\V\VWHPDQGWKHDWWUDFWLYHQHVVRISXEOLF 3RUWXJXHVH KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ ,Q 3RUWXJDO VHFRQG RUGHU HIIHFWV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKH %RORJQD reforms are visible in the ongoing debate on the nature of the system’s binary divide and the reconfiguration of education and training, on the quality system, and on the internationalization of the sector. Under the influence of the modernization rationale and governance reform driver and of their NPM inspiration, the promotion of mobility and the European dimension in higher education did not emerge as intended objectives of Portuguese Bologna reforms. Actually, the discourse of NPM diffused the idea that management and governance instruments from the private sector must be imported WRWKHJRYHUQDQFHRI+(,V7KLVLVYLVLEOHLQWKHUDWLRQDOHRIPRGHUQL]DWLRQRIWKH Portuguese higher education system emphasizing the relevance of higher education for economic and social development, the adoption of performance based instruments and approaches to quality assurance, and the centrality of internationalization strategies with an eye on the possibility of increasing tuition fees to non-EU students. The evaluation of the Bologna reforms on the basis of their first and second order effects links to the way the Portuguese government justified the reforms to move the national agendas forward. Additionally, in the reform processes interaction between institutions placed at the European, national and institutional levels brought to the fore the relevance of interpretation of policy drivers and rationales. This broadens 

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the scope of policy implementation as other related policy reforms interact with the Bologna Process, i.e., the sector appropriated the Bologna momentum to undertake, for instance, the governance reform referred to above. These uses of Bologna FRQWULEXWHGWRZKDW1HDYHDQG9HLJDS UHIHUWR³DVµHQGVPHDQVUHYHUVDO¶ in which Bologna is itself viewed as an end, rather than as a means with the EHEA as the end result”. Actually, Portuguese Bologna reforms reconfigured the idea of the EHEA, aiming at greater social and economic cohesion, in a mere instrumental character, thus contributing to instil an essentially pragmatic logic of political action and governance. This pragmatic feature of the implementation of the Bologna Process may risk diluting major goals of European reforms, meaning second order effects such as social cohesion and social justice. As a result, the discourse of Public Value was somewhat mitigated under the domination of the concern with efficiency both at system and institutional levels. The prevalence of the rationale of modernization to improve the efficiency of the system is impacting and will impact on the patterns RIVRFLDOMXVWLFH,QWKHJRYHUQPHQWLVWDNLQJRQWKHSROLWLFDODVVXPSWLRQWKDW “strengthening higher education at the professional level through short cycles in polytechnics, as well as in the reinforcement of scientific employment, is a critical FRQGLWLRQIRUWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIUHVHDUFKDQGLQQRYDWLRQFDSDFLW\´3RUWXJDO  7KHSROLF\JRDOVDUHIRFXVLQJRQL VWUHQJWKHQLQJRI5 'DQGLQQRYDWLRQFDSDFLW\ to promote, on the one hand, the linkages between higher education and its social and economic environment and, on the other hand, the impact on the creation of qualified MREV LL  VWLPXODWLQJ WKH GLYHUVLILFDWLRQ RI WKH KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ V\VWHP WRJHWKHU with the diversification of R&D activities, notably by broadening, modernizing and reinforcing the scope of polytechnic education in terms of vocational training, and UHVHDUFKDQGWUDLQLQJDFWLYLWLHVEDVHGRQSUDFWLFHVLLL VWUHQJWKHQLQJWKHFRQGLWLRQV of scientific employment and career development of academic and scientific fields, together with the institutional responsibility to rejuvenate and strengthen WKHVH FDUHHUV DQG LY  FRQWLQXLQJ WR VWLPXODWH WKH LQWHUQDWLRQDOL]DWLRQ RI VFLHQFH WHFKQRORJ\DQGKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQ3RUWXJDO  REFERENCES $JrQFLD GH $YDOLDomR H $FUHGLWDomR GR (QVLQR 6XSHULRU $(6    Plano de Atividades 2017 >$FWLYLW\3ODQ@/LVERD$(65HWULHYHGIURPKWWSZZZDHVSWSWGRFXPHQWRVGRFXPHQWRV planos-de-atividades $JrQFLD GH $YDOLDomR H $FUHGLWDomR GR (QVLQR 6XSHULRU $(6    Plano de Atividades 2018 >$FWLYLW\3ODQ@/LVERD$(65HWULHYHGIURPKWWSZZZDHVSWSWGRFXPHQWRVGRFXPHQWRV planos-de-atividades $PDUDO$ 0DJDOKmHV$ $FFHVVSROLFLHV%HWZHHQLQVWLWXWLRQDOFRPSHWLWLRQDQGWKHVHDUFK for equality of opportunities. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, 15 ± $PDUDO$ 7DYDUHV 2  6DQWRV &   +LJKHU HGXFDWLRQ UHIRUP LQ 3RUWXJDO$ KLVWRULFDO DQG comparative perspective of the new legal framework for public universities. Higher Education Policy, 26± %DOO6 Education reform: A critical and post-structural approach. Buckingham: Open University Press. %HUJHQ&RPPXQLTXp The European higher education area – Achieving the goals. Bergen.



$9(,*$ $0$*$/+­(6 %HUOLQ&RPPXQLTXp Realizing the European Higher Education Area. Berlin. %XFKDUHVW&RPPXQLTXp Making the most of our potential: Consolidating the European higher education area. Bucharest. (14$ Quality assurance of higher education in Portugal: An assessment of the existing system and recommendations for a future system. Helsinki: ENQA. (XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ From Bergen to London – The contribution of the European commission to the Bologna process. Brussels. )RQVHFD0 7KHVWXGHQWHVWDWH,Q*1HDYH $$PDUDO(GV Higher education in Portugal 1974–2009 – A nation, a generationSS± 'RUGUHFKW6SULQJHU /DVFRXPHV3 *DOqV3/ ,QWURGXFWLRQ8QGHUVWDQGLQJSXEOLFSROLF\WKURXJKLWVLQVWUXPHQWV± From the nature of instruments to sociology of public policy instrumentation. Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration and Institutions, 20 ± /RQGRQ&RPPXQLTXp Towards the European higher education area: Responding to challenges in a globalised world. London. 0DJDOKmHV$$PDUDO$ 7DYDUHV2 (TXLW\DFFHVVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOFRPSHWLWLRQTertiary Education and Management, 15 ± 0DJDOKmHV$  6DQWLDJR 5   *RYHUQDQFH SXEOLF PDQDJHPHQW DQG DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ RI KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQLQ3RUWXJDO,Q*1HDYH $$PDUDO(GV Higher education in Portugal 1974–2009 – A nation, a generationSS± 'RUGUHFKW6SULQJHU 0DJDOKmHV$9HLJD$ 5LEHLUR ) 6RXVD 6  6DQWLDJR 5   &UHDWLQJ D FRPPRQ JUDPPDU IRU European higher education governance. Higher Education, 65 ±GRLV 1HDYH* The evaluative state, institutional autonomy and re-engineering higher education in :HVWHUQ(XURSH7KHSULQFHDQGKLVSOHDVXUHLQVWLWXWLRQDODXWRQRP\. Basingstoke: Palgrave. 1HDYH *  9HLJD $   7KH %RORJQD SURFHVV ,QFHSWLRQ µWDNH XS¶ DQG IDPLOLDULW\ Higher Education, 66 ±GRLV 2(&' Reviews of national policies for education – Tertiary education in Portugal. Paris: OECD. 3HWHUV *   0HWDJRYHUQDQFH DQG SXEOLF PDQDJHPHQW ,Q 6 2VERUQH (G  The new public JRYHUQDQFH" (PHUJLQJ SHUVSHFWLYHV RQ WKH WKHRU\ DQG SUDFWLFH RI SXEOLF JRYHUQDQFH SS ±  London: Routledge. 3RUWXJDO0LQLVWpULRGD&LrQFLDHGR(QVLQR6XSHULRU 3URMHWRGH'/TXHDOWHUDRUHJLPH jurídico dos graus e diplomas do ensino superior>3URMHFW'/ZKLFKDPHQGVWKHOHJDOUHJLPH RIGHJUHHVDQGGLSORPDVRIKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQ@/LVERD0LQLVWpULRGD&LrQFLDHGR(QVLQR6XSHULRU 5RVD 0 9HLJD$ $PDUDO$   3RUWXJDO ,Q - +XLVPDQ  0 YDQ GHU :HQGH (GV  On cooperation and competition SS± %RQQ/HPPHQV9HUODJ 7HL[HLUD3 7KHFKDQJLQJSXEOLFSULYDWHPL[LQKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQ$QDO\VLQJ3RUWXJDO¶VDSSDUHQW H[FHSWLRQDOLVP ,Q * 1HDYH  $ $PDUDO (GV  Higher education in Portugal 1974–2009 – A nation, a generationSS± 'RUGUHFKW6SULQJHU 9HLJD$ $QiOLVHGRVLVWHPDGHHQVLQRDSyVRSURFHVVRGH%RORQKD>$QDO\VLVRIWKHHGXFDWLRQ V\VWHPDIWHUWKH%RORJQDSURFHVV@,Q0/5RGULJXHV 0+HLWRU(GV 40 Anos de Políticas de Ciência e de Ensino Superior SS± /LVERQ$OPHGLQD 9HLJD$ $PDUDO$ 6XUYH\RQWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH%RORJQDSURFHVVLQ3RUWXJDOHigher Education, 57 ± 9HLJD$ $PDUDO$   6RIW ODZ DQG WKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ SUREOHPV RI WKH %RORJQD SURFHVV Educação Sociedade & Culturas, 36± 9HLJD$0DJDOKmHV$ $PDUDO$ 0HWD*RYHUQDQFHDQGWKHVXSSO\RIGHJUHHSURJUDPPHV in the context of Bologna: Lessons from the Portuguese case. Journal of European Higher Education Area, 2± 9HLJD$ 1HDYH* 0DQDJLQJWKHG\QDPLFVRIWKH%RORJQDUHIRUPV+RZLQVWLWXWLRQDODFWRUV re-construct the policy framework. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23 ±5HWULHYHGIURP KWWSG[GRLRUJHSDDY 9HLJD$ 5RVD 0 $PDUDO$   ,QVWLWXWLRQDO LQWHUQDWLRQDOLVDWLRQ VWUDWHJLHV LQ D FRQWH[W RI VWDWHLQHIILFLHQF\,Q-+XLVPDQ 09DQGHU:HQGH(GV On cooperation and competition II: Institutional responses to internationalisation, europeanisation and globalisationSS± %RQQ Lemmens Verlag.



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,UHODQGZDVRQHRIWKHRULJLQDOVLJQDWRULHVRIWKH%RORJQD$JUHHPHQWDQGLWKDV been deeply committed to and engaged with all aspects of the European project both before and after this major move to create a European higher education area. ,UHODQG¶VHQWU\LQWRWKH(8LQVLJQDOOHGDVLJQLILFDQWYROWHIDFHLQSROLF\DQG attitudes at every level of society, economy and political life. Membership of the (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ KDV QHDUXQLYHUVDO DSSURYDO ZLWK RYHU  RI WKH SRSXODWLRQ EHOLHYLQJ,UHODQGVKRXOGUHPDLQSDUWRIWKH(8ZLWK\RXQJHUSHRSOHDQGWKRVHZLWK KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ KDYLQJ WKH VWURQJHVW SUR(XURSHDQ YLHZV (XURSHDQ 0RYHPHQW ,UHODQG  As the introduction to this volume sets out, Bologna defined six goals for its signatories, with the overall aim to create a European Higher Education Area by 2010 VLQFHH[WHQGHGWR 7KHVHREMHFWLYHVZHUH DGRSWLRQRIDV\VWHPRIHDVLO\ UHDGDEOHDQGFRPSDUDEOHGHJUHHVLQFOXGLQJWKHDGRSWLRQRID'LSORPD6XSSOHPHQW   DGRSWLRQRIDV\VWHPEDVHGRQWZRWKUHHIURP F\FOHVRIXQGHUJUDGXDWH DQG JUDGXDWH DQG ODWHU GRFWRUDO  KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ   HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI D V\VWHP RI FUHGLWV   SURPRWLRQ RI PRELOLW\   SURPRWLRQ RI (XURSHDQ FRRSHUDWLRQ LQ TXDOLW\DVVXUDQFH4$ DQG SURPRWLRQRI³WKH(XURSHDQGLPHQVLRQLQKLJKHU education”. As one of the first signatories of Bologna, the concepts of Bologna have effectively become embedded within the higher education system to an extent that they are largely omnipresent. This should not disguise tensions that arise on a day-to-day basis at the policy or institutional level but the fact that there were already programme level demarcations between BA, MA and PhD helped smooth any initial road-bumps that restructuring programmes for alignment with learning outcomes and ECTS might have provoked. Led initially by the responsible government ministry, early messaging around Bologna was presented in terms of maintaining competitiveness. While there was no directive on conforming – and indeed, arguably could not be such, given the nature of the governance of higher HGXFDWLRQ LQ ,UHODQG ± LW ZDV LPSOLHG WKDW IDLOXUH WR GR VR ZRXOG OHDYH ,UHODQG vulnerable to competitors who did see Bologna’s value and benefit, or indeed from international students.

© KONINKLIJKE BRILL NV, LEIDEN, 2019 | DOI:10.1163/9789004400115_010

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'(6  S   %\   RI +(,V ZHUH LVVXLQJ WKH 'LSORPD 6XSSOHPHQW automatically and free of charge, across all three cycles of HE, but it was recognised WKDWLWZDVQRWEHLQJXVHGZLGHO\IRUDGPLVVLRQWR+(,VQRUZHUHHPSOR\HUVRURWKHU institutions greatly familiar with it, and so it remained a supplement to existing, DOUHDG\ZLGHO\UHFRJQLVHGIRUPVRIGRFXPHQWDWLRQ'(6  The second goal of implementing two/three main cycles of higher education was one of the easier goals to implement. This could have been said to have been met by ,UHODQGJLYHQWKDWWKLVV\VWHPZDVDOUHDG\LQSODFHLQ,UHODQGIDULQDGYDQFHRI Nevertheless, in the first national report, DES suggested that what was really at issue ZDV ³ZKDW LV UHDOO\ PHDQW E\ WKH ILUVW F\FOH DQG WKH VHFRQG F\FOH´ '(6 E S ,WQRWHGDQHHGWRUHFRJQLVHWKH,ULVKFRQVHQVXVWKDWZKLOHWKHUHZHUHFRQVLVWHQW standards for the second cycle, there was a range of standards for the first cycle. $JDLQWKLVUHSRUWQRWHGZRUNEHLQJGRQHDWWKHVWUXFWXUDOOHYHOVXFKDVWKH'XEOLQ 'HVFULSWRUV DQG WKH FRQFOXVLRQV WR WKH  +HOVLQNL DQG &RSHQKDJHQ %RORJQD &RQIHUHQFHV WKHUHZDVDOVRZRUNEHLQJGRQHDWWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOOHYHOWKURXJK,ULVK academic participation in the “Tuning educational structures in Europe” project, looking at the adoption of a system of HE based on two cycles, with a system of FUHGLWVDQGHDVLO\UHDGDEOHGHJUHHV,WDOVRLGHQWLILHGSRLQWVRIUHIHUHQFHIRUJHQHULF and subject-specific competences for graduates of the first and second cycles, across a range of disciplines in the humanities and sciences. By the time of the next national report, the government could succinctly note that “[t]he cycles are fully in place in ,UHODQG  RI KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ VWXGHQWV DUH LQ RQH RI WKH WKUHH F\FOHV´ '(6 S  For the third objective of a system of credits, as with the second goal the  UHSRUW QRWHG WKDW ³WKH (&76 V\VWHP LV HIIHFWLYHO\ DOUHDG\ LQFRUSRUDWHG LQWR WKH SUHYLRXV DZDUGV V\VWHP´ '(6 E  EXW WKDW LW ZDV QRW LPSOHPHQWHG in all institutions, and sometimes was confined to students in the ERASMUS DQG 62&5$7(6 SURJUDPPHV 7KH 1DWLRQDO 4XDOLILFDWLRQV $XWKRULW\ RI ,UHODQG 14$,  HVWDEOLVKHG D :RUNLQJ *URXS RQ &UHGLWV DJDLQ ZLWK ZLGH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ IURP D YDULHW\ RI +( VWDNHKROGHUV ± LQFOXGLQJ IURP WKH 1RUWKHUQ ,UHODQG &UHGLW $FFXPXODWLRQ DQG 7UDQVIHU 6HUYLFHV 1,&$76  7KH VWDWHG JRDO RI WKH SURSRVHG resulting national framework of qualifications was that it would “facilitate, for example, credit accumulation, credit transfer and processes for the recognition of prior learning, as well as complementing the National Qualifications Authority of ,UHODQG¶VSROLFLHVRQDFFHVVWUDQVIHUDQGSURJUHVVLRQ´LELG  The next national report in 2006, noting that two cycles had become three, REVHUYHG WKDW LQ  LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ DUUDQJHPHQWV KDG EHHQ PDGH WR DOLJQ WKH qualification framework with these cycles through the formal launch of the National )UDPHZRUN RI 4XDOLILFDWLRQV 14)  LQ 2FWREHU  ZKLFK GLUHFWO\ PDSSHG RQ WR WKH (XURSHDQ 4XDOLILFDWLRQV )UDPHZRUN ,PSOHPHQWDWLRQ DUUDQJHPHQWV ZHUH DQQRXQFHGLQ-XO\ZKHUHWKH14$,VHWRXWWKDWDZDUGVDWOHYHOVWRIURP DGYDQFHGFHUWLILFDWHDQGKLJKHUFHUWLILFDWHWRGRFWRUDOGHJUHHV ZRXOGEHPDGHE\ +(7$&DQGWKH'XEOLQ,QVWLWXWHRI7HFKQRORJ\ZKLOHXQLYHUVLWLHVZHUHWRDZDUGV 

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TXDOLILFDWLRQVIURPOHYHOWRLQWKHFDVHRIXQLYHUVLWLHVWKLVIRUPDOLVHGZKDWZDV DOUHDG\WKHFDVH%\LWZDVQRWHGWKDW³>P@XFKRIWKHZRUNWRGHYHORSSROLFLHV at national level in line with the Bologna agenda has been completed” and that by this WLPHWKH14$,ZDVH[DPLQLQJWKHLPSDFWRIWKH14)DQGUHODWHGSROLFLHVRQDFFHVV WUDQVIHUDQGSURJUHVVLRQ'(6SS± ,Q44,SXEOLVKHGDUHSRUWWKH\ FRPPLVVLRQHGWKHHFRQRPLFFRQVXOWDQWV,QGHFRQWRFRPSLOHZKLFKVXJJHVWHGWKDW “the findings of the research indicate that the NFQ has been very positively received among learners, employers and other stakeholders” but that there was “a diverse range of views of how the NFQ should evolve in the future, and what the priorities of 44,VKRXOGEH´DQGWKHUHUHPDLQVDQHHG³WRHQVXUHWKDWWKH14)LVZHOOSRVLWLRQHG WRPHHWWKHIXWXUHQHHGVRI,ULVKVRFLHW\DQGHFRQRP\´,QGHFRQS[  )RUPRELOLW\WKHIRXUWK%RORJQDREMHFWLYHWKHQDWLRQDOUHSRUWQRWHGWKDW in terms of staff and student mobility, incoming students and teachers significantly RXWQXPEHUHGRXWJRLQJVWXGHQWVE\DOPRVWWZRWRRQHIRUVWXGHQWVDQGMXVWXQGHU WKDW IRU VWDII  '(6 E  6XEVHTXHQW UHSRUWV QRWHG WKLV DV DQ RQJRLQJ LVVXH ,UHODQGEHLQJDQ(QJOLVKVSHDNLQJFRXQWU\ZDVLGHQWLILHGDVD³PDMRUDWWUDFWLRQ´IRU LQFRPLQJVWXGHQWV'(6S ,QZDUGPRELOLW\ZDVQRWDQLVVXHKRZHYHU and continued to grow rapidly. The 2006 report noted in passing efforts made to HQFRXUDJHH[WHUQDOVWXGHQWPRELOLW\SULPDULO\DWWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOOHYHO'(6 S 7KLVDQGVXEVHTXHQWUHSRUWVPDLQWDLQHGWKHSDUW\OLQHWKDWWKHUHZHUHH[LVWLQJ VWXGHQW VXSSRUW VFKHPHV HJ '(6   EXW GLG QRW FRQQHFW WKH GRWV EHWZHHQ government responsibility for these schemes with the lack of an uptake of students RUZLWKDQ\RWKHUSROLF\GHILFLWV,WZDVVLPSO\QRWHGDVDQDOPRVWH[LVWHQWLDOTXDOLW\ RI WKH ,ULVK +( V\VWHP FODLPLQJ LW KDV ³WUDGLWLRQDOO\´ '(6  S   EHHQ GLIILFXOWWRLQFUHDVHRXWZDUGPRELOLW\DOLQHUHSHDWHGDOPRVWYHUEDWLPLQPXOWLSOH UHSRUWV ZLWKRXWDQ\UHFRJQLWLRQWKDWSHUKDSVJRYHUQPHQWSROLF\PLJKWKDYHVRPH role to play in maintaining or disrupting what has traditionally been the case. ,QWHUPVRIVWDIIPRELOLW\WKHUHSRUWQRWHGEULHIO\WKDWWKH+($FRQGXFWHG a review of “Erasmus Teacher Mobility”, and that it was hoped that the issues identified would assist in improving staff mobility; the 2006 report repeated the same information verbatim. The questions relating to this sub-objective of staff mobility in WKHUHSRUWUHIHUUHGWR³VWXGHQWDQGVWDII´PRELOLW\ZKLFK'(6FKRVHWRUHVSRQG WRH[FOXVLYHO\LQWHUPVRIVWXGHQWPRELOLW\'(6SS± ZKLFKVXJJHVWHG that the notion of staff mobility no longer featured as a priority for the government. By the time of the next national report in 2012, one of the questions asked for GHWDLOV RI QDWLRQDO VWUDWHJLHV DQG DFWLRQ SODQV IRU PRELOLW\ %\ WKLV WLPH ,UHODQG had launched Investing in Global Relationships: Ireland’s International Education Strategy 2010–2015 '(6   ZKLFK ZDV WKH UHVXOW RI D KLJK OHYHO JURXS RQ international education, reporting to the Minister for Education and Skills as well DVWKH7iQDLVWH'HSXW\3ULPH0LQLVWHU 2QFHDJDLQKRZHYHUWKRXJKWKHQDWLRQDO report noted that staff mobility was referred to in this strategy document, there were no concrete quantitative goals mentioned, and the emphasis remained on student PRELOLW\'(6SS±VHHDOVR'(6SS± &RQWLQXLQJWRUHIHU 

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to “student and staff mobility” across documents and reports led to a concentration on the former at the expense of the latter. The fifth objective of Bologna was the promotion of European cooperation in quality assurance, with a view to having common criteria and methodologies. The first QDWLRQDOFRXQWU\UHSRUWVHWRXWWKHQDWXUHRI,UHODQG¶VWKHQH[LVWLQJTXDOLW\ODQGVFDSH UDWKHUWKDQGHILQLQJZKDWµQHHGHGWREHGRQH¶,QWHUPVRIOHJLVODWLRQWKLVPHDQWWKH 8QLYHUVLWLHV$FWZKLFKUHTXLUHVHDFKXQLYHUVLW\³WRHVWDEOLVKSURFHGXUHVIRU quality assurance aimed at improving the quality of education and related services provided by the university”, a form of self-assessment that recognises university DXWRQRP\ ZKLFK WKLV VDPH OHJLVODWLRQ HQVKULQHG '(6 E S   :KLOH WKLV autonomy is explicitly recognised, the Act does set out the following requirements. ,WPXVWLQFOXGHWKHHYDOXDWLRQDWOHDVWRQFHLQHYHU\\HDUVRIHDFKGHSDUWPHQW and, where appropriate, school of the university and any service provided by the university, by employees of the university in the first instance and by persons, other than employees, who are competent to make national and international comparisons on the quality of teaching and research and the provision of other services at university level. Furthermore, the procedures must include assessment by those, including students, availing of the teaching, research and other services provided by the university, and the procedures must provide for the publication in such form and PDQQHUDVWKHJRYHUQLQJDXWKRULW\WKLQNVILW*RYHUQPHQWRI,UHODQGD  ,W DOVR QRWHG D  UHSRUW SXEOLVKHG E\ WKH &RQIHUHQFH RI +HDGV RI ,ULVK Universities, A Framework for Quality in Irish Universities – Meeting the Challenge of Change ZKLFK UHFRPPHQGHG HVWDEOLVKLQJ WKH ,ULVK 8QLYHUVLWLHV 4XDOLW\ %RDUG ,84%  7KH ERDUG¶V DLPV ZHUH WR LQFUHDVH LQWHUXQLYHUVLW\ FRRSHUDWLRQ LQ GHYHORSLQJ TXDOLW\ DVVXUDQFH SURFHVVHV$V ZHOO DV WKLV LW ZDV WR UHSUHVHQW ,ULVK universities nationally and internationally on issues relating to quality assurance DQGLPSURYHPHQW,WZDVDOVRWRDUWLFXODWHWRJRYHUQPHQWRQEHKDOIRIXQLYHUVLW\ governing authorities, the resource implications of recommendations for quality LPSURYHPHQW DQG DVVXUDQFH &+,8   7KLV ERDUG¶V HVWDEOLVKPHQW E\ WKH universities was interesting in that it addressed a system-level lacuna created by the Universities Act’s emphasis on institutional-level quality processes and procedures, and showed how universities sought to remedy this themselves. Alongside the above, the national report also recognised the role played by the HEA in assisting XQLYHUVLWLHV LQ PHHWLQJ ³WKHLU REMHFWLYHV´ LQ WHUPV RI TXDOLW\ '(6 E S   implicitly setting out here again that quality was regarded as an institutional issue. The next report set out details of the above again, while noting that the HEA and ,84%KDGFRPPLVVLRQHGDMRLQWUHYLHZRIWKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRITXDOLW\SURFHGXUHVDQG SURFHVVHVLQ,ULVKXQLYHUVLWLHVFRPSULVHGRI1RUWK$PHULFDQDQG(XURSHDQ³H[SHUWV´ '(6S 7KHIROORZLQJUHSRUWQRWHGWKDWWKH,84%ZDVLQWKHSURFHVVRI XSGDWLQJWKH³)UDPHZRUNIRU4XDOLW\´LWKDGGHYHORSHGIRU,ULVKXQLYHUVLWLHVZKLFK was to include the formal incorporation of the European Standards and Guidelines '(6 7KLVVKRZHGWKDWDVWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOHJXQLYHUVLW\OHYHO DQGQDWLRQDO capacity for quality was bedding-down, they were being brought into line at the 

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European level as Bologna envisioned. This report also noted that the HEA had DJUHHGWRD,84%UHTXHVWWRKDYHLWVHOIH[WHUQDOO\UHYLHZHGWRVHHWRZKDWH[WHQWWKH ,84%LWVHOIZDVLQOLQHZLWKWKH(XURSHDQ6WDQGDUGVDQG*XLGHOLQHV7KHVXEVHTXHQW national report detailed the most significant changes at the organisational level for quality, with the amalgamation of the various quality authorities announced by JRYHUQPHQWLQ2FWREHUDVSDUWRIDPRUHJHQHUDOSURFHVVRIUDWLRQDOLVDWLRQ DV ZLWK WKH PHUJHU RI WKH WZR UHVHDUFK FRXQFLOV LQWR RQH  7KLV QHZ JRYHUQPHQW organisation was also to take responsibility for the external quality assurance review of the universities, a function which had up to that point been performed by ,84%DQGWKH+($'(6 7KHQH[WUHSRUWQRWHGWKDWLWZDVKRSHGWKDWWKLV “consolidation [would] help to establish agreed learning outcomes, clearer routes of transfer and progression, and binding standards of quality assurance in the upper half RI,UHODQG¶V1DWLRQDO)UDPHZRUNRI4XDOLILFDWLRQV´'(6S  The sixth and final goal of promoting a European dimension in HE a rather EULHIKLVWRU\7KHQDWLRQDOUHSRUWQRWHGYDULRXVFRXUVHVWKDWKDGFRPSXOVRU\ years or semesters abroad as being examples of the promotion of the “European dimension”, and also noted a joint Masters programme spanning institutions across (XURSH'(6ES 7KLVDQGODWHUUHSRUWVHJ'(6S UHIHUUHG to involvement in the Erasmus programme, but were silent on any wider notion of a “European dimension” beyond participation in existing schemes. As such, this – perhaps initially somewhat idealistic – goal appeared over time to be submerged within the more technocratic objectives of European cooperation in terms of QA and mobility schemes. 5$7,21$/(2)7+(5()2506

One way of understanding the pattern of reform initiated by the Bologna Process in ,UHODQGLVSODFHLWZLWKLQWKHFRQWH[WRI,UHODQG¶VZLGHUQDWLRQDODQGSROLWLFDOFRQWH[W Unlike other English-speaking contexts such as the U.K. where ‘managerialism’ has been identified as playing a significant role in changes to the governance of higher HGXFDWLRQ,UHODQGGRHVQRWKDYHDPDMRULWDULDQRUDGYHUVDULDOIRUPRIJRYHUQPHQW ,QWHUPVRIZKDWKDVEHHQGHVFULEHGDVWKH3DWWHUQVRI'HPRFUDF\/LMSKDUW  ,UHODQGKDVD³FRQVHQVXDO´VW\OHRISROLF\PDNLQJZLWKLQFOXVLRQRIVWDNHKROGHUV in the policy-making process accepted by all actors, unlike these other Anglophone PDMRULWDULDQ V\VWHPV ,UHODQG LV LQVWHDG D FRQVHQVXDO GHPRFUDF\ ZKHUH FRDOLWLRQV KDYH EHFRPH WKH UXOH UDWKHU WKDQ WKH H[FHSWLRQ VLQFH WKH ODWH V 7KLV IHHGV into the policymaking process, and sits in the background of previous work on the JRYHUQDQFHRI,ULVK+(:DOVKDQG/R[OH\S VXJJHVWWKDWZKLOHWKHUH DUHPDQDJHULDOHOHPHQWVWR,UHODQG¶V+(JRYHUQDQFHLWLVLQHIIHFWDK\EULGV\VWHP DOVR VKRZLQJ IHDWXUHV RI ³QHWZRUN JRYHUQDQFH´ ZKLFK PDSV RQWR ,ULVK FXOWXUDO norms and a commitment to social partnership. ,QGHHGWKLVSULQFLSOHXQGHUSLQQHGDGRSWLRQRIZKDWZHUHRIWHQVHHQDV³FRUSRUDWLVW principles” which framed discussions around national pay agreements, beginning in 

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WKH ODWH V 0DF&RUPDLF   7KHVH GLVFXVVLRQV LQYROYHG JRYHUQPHQW WKH trade unions and business/farming organisations, and went beyond pay to include matters of taxation, training and labour legislation, housing, planning and social services. Despite being extra-parliamentary, the process has been viewed as positive DQGODLGWKHJURXQGZRUNIRUFROOHFWLYHUHVSRQVHWRWKHILVFDOFULVLVRIWKHVWDWH ,WLVWKLVDSSURDFKZKLFKKDVWKXVQDWXUDOO\IUDPHGGLVFXVVLRQVEHWZHHQ+(,VDQG government around higher education; it explains the breadth of people included on WKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOERDUGVDVZHOODVWKH+($LWVHOI,WDOVRH[SODLQVWKHEDFNJURXQG WRFXUUHQW+(SROLF\DQGDFFHSWDQFHWKDW,UHODQGVXSSRUWVWKHLGHDRID³V\VWHP´ rather than a hierarchy of institutions. The process of “strategic dialogue” fits within WKLVOLQHDJH+D]HONRUQ *LEVRQSS±&RVWHOOR +D]HONRUQ  Throughout the period covered in this chapter, it is evident that the principle of including stakeholders in the policymaking process has been paramount to ensure the acceptance of reforms and other system changes that might in another policy or national context be regarded as controversial. As the HEA’s annual report of 2002 set out, the Department of Education and Science described its role as being that of coordination and information dissemination. While it took the lead in terms of establishing a high level steering group, and chaired the group, as well as a number of sub-working groups, it described its role in terms of “opening of a communications channel within the Higher Education system” for the ³SUHSDUDWLRQRI,UHODQG¶VSRVLWLRQIRUWKH,QWHUJRYHUQPHQWDO&RQIHUHQFHRI0LQLVWHUV ZLWKUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRU+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ´'(6 :KHUHDVLQRWKHUFRXQWULHV (8RU(&SROLFLHVRULQGHHGDQ\H[WHUQDOSROLF\ DUHXVHGE\LQWHUQDOVWDNHKROGHUV DV D VWLFN ZLWK ZKLFK WR EHDW QDWLRQDO RU IHGHUDO SROLF\PDNHUV 8VKHU   LQ ,UHODQGWKLVKDVQRWEHHQWKHFDVH,QIDFWDQWL(8UKHWRULFLVDYHU\PLQRULW\VSRUW due to a collective recognition of the country’s dependence on external trade and )',DVWKHURXWHWRHFRQRPLFSURJUHVV7KLVHQVXUHGWKHUROORXWRIYDULRXVV\VWHP changes were normalised, and with the agreement and input of as many stakeholders as possible to make this a wholly uncontroversial process. Thus as one policy-maker described, implementation was such that the Bologna reforms were effectively “part RIWKHIXUQLWXUH´SHUVRQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ  Another way to understand Bologna is in the context of competition. At the macro level of the process as a whole, one of the underlying reasons for reform was “the threat of competition from the Anglo-Saxon world”, and it was hoped that it would “enhance the international competitiveness of European higher education” YDQGHU:HQGHS $WWKHQDWLRQDOOHYHOZKLOH,UHODQGLVDSDUWRIWKH English-speaking world, it is nevertheless a small player, and still subject to the IRUFHV RI LQWHUQDWLRQDO FRPSHWLWLRQ ,QGHHG GHFDGHV RI HFRQRPLF VWDJQDWLRQ DQG as well as periods of deep recession have led to a society-wide sensitivity to and XQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIOLQNLQJKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQWRHFRQRPLFQHHGV,Q VRPHSDUWLFLSDWLQJFRXQWULHVWKHUHZHUHWHQVLRQVUHJDUGLQJRUHYHQRXWULJKWKRVWLOLW\ WR %RORJQDJLYHQWKDWLQVRPHFDVHVQDWLRQDOO\VSHFLILFSROLFLHVZHUHDWWDFKHGWRWKH enabling legislation, and these were in some cases in competition with other national 

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SROLFLHV8VKHU+XLVPDQ YDQGHU:HQGH LQ,UHODQGWKLVZDVQRWWKH case, so that the Bologna-level macro view of higher education and the nation-level, ,ULVKYLHZZHUHODUJHO\PXWXDOO\FRKHUHQW While Bologna was not mandatory, institutions which did not comply, it was VWDWHGZRXOGILQGWKHPVHOYHVRQWKHZURQJVLGHRIKLVWRU\DQG,ULVKVWXGHQWVDQG JUDGXDWHV ZRXOG VXIIHU WKH FRQVHTXHQFHV $V VXFK WKH ,ULVK UDWLRQDOH IRU UHIRUP QHHGVWREHXQGHUVWRRGLQWHUPVRIµPDNLQJ,UHODQGFRPSHWLWLYH¶ZLWK,UHODQGEHLQJ extremely positive about and committed to the European agenda. This is standard across all governments since the introduction of outward-looking economic policies LQ WKH V ZLWK QR GHYLDWLRQ E\ DQ\ SDUW\ ,W LV DOVR HYLGHQW LQ WKH SRSXODWLRQ despite some variances with respect to various amendments and European treaties DOORIZKLFKHYHQWXDOO\SDVVHG $QGWRGD\EHLQJRXWVLGHWKH(8UHPDLQVDQRJR policy, despite the views about the European Central Bank during the economic FULVLVDQGHVSHFLDOO\LQWKHZDNHRI%UH[LW,QGHHGWKH%UH[LWQHJRWLDWLRQVKDYHVHHQ a united front from all political parties nationally with the European Commission. %\  WKH %RORJQD 3URFHVV ZDV ODUJHO\ FRPSOHWH 0F0DKRQ   RQH SROLF\PDNHUGHVFULEHGWKHJRYHUQPHQWYLHZDV³MREGRQHOHW¶VPRYHRQ´SHUVRQDO FRPPXQLFDWLRQ :LWKWKHHFRQRPLFFULVLVWKDW,UHODQGHQWHUHGLQWKHZDNHRIWKH global downturn, new priorities began to emerge. The government’s National Strategy for Higher Education to 2030+($ NQRZQSRSXODUO\DVWKH³+XQW 5HSRUW´ZDVWKHVWDWH¶VUHVSRQVHWRKRZ,ULVKKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQZRXOGEHUHIRUPHG in response to the fiscal crisis that affected public spending on higher education. While it maintained a long-standing commitment to increasing and widening participation in higher education, there was nevertheless to be a “‘reform’ of university governance to enforce accountability and compliance with state policies [as well as] institutional and programme rationalisation to overcome academic and DGPLQLVWUDWLYHGXSOLFDWLRQ´:DOVK /R[OH\S ±DVSDUWRIDSURFHVV of wide-spread reform of higher education unprecedented since the 1960s. Bologna faded into the background, becoming in effect an ambient part of the infrastructure of higher education rather than an animating principle of reform, and the Hunt Report has been the strategy for the construction of a national system of higher education LQ,UHODQG &21&/86,21

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programmes. However, aside from the hassle involved in doing these reforms, there have been no signs of the discord found in other countries which have led WR RFFDVLRQDO DQG VRPHWLPHV SHUVLVWHQW SURWHVWV RU VWULNHV ,UHODQG KDV EHHQ LQ WKHIRUHIURQWRITXDOLW\DVVXUDQFHSUDFWLFHDQGHQGRUVHPHQWRIWKH(6*44,KDV been active in ENQA, and its CEO has just relinquished the presidency of ENQA. On the other hand, questions can certainly be raised around the extent to which ECTS forms the basis of a true credit accumulation system. One would expect such a system to enable students to accumulate credits over time or to carry credit ZLWK WKHP IURP RQH SURJUDPPH RU LQVWLWXWLRQ WR DQRWKHU ,QVWHDG (&76 UHPDLQV primarily a mechanism for recognition of student study abroad activity. This was certainly important because students would undertake mobility for say a semester but would then find that their home institution would not recognise that education H[SHULHQFHDVHTXLYDOHQW,QIDLUQHVVWKLVLVDUHFRJQLVHGSUREOHPDFURVV(XURSHEXW it does highlight the fact that while Bologna has not been controversial there has not been any move to push beyond the basics. Student mobility is widely supported, though funding for student support is often seen as inadequate, and there are far too many students coming into the country than going out, which creates its own difficulties. One possible reason for this is that mobility has historically been understood and continues to be regarded in terms RI HPSOR\PHQW UDWKHU WKDQ HGXFDWLRQ ,ULVK JUDGXDWHV OLYH DQG ZRUN DEURDG DIWHU their studies, very often in English-speaking countries that are not part of the EU WKH8QLWHG6WDWHV&DQDGD$XVWUDOLD1HZ=HDODQG ,QZDUGPRELOLW\YLD%RORJQD is an additional cost on the system at a time when it is under financial strain due to aUHGXFWLRQLQSXEOLFIXQGLQJEXWDaLQFUHDVHLQVWXGHQWVVLQFH,ULVK support for mobility is moderate at best, if that means sending students out of the country to enhance their language skills, but there is less enthusiasm for the inverse. Nevertheless, a government action plan for education is aiming for an expansion of WKLVVFKHPH+DUULV  Additional Bologna objectives, announced as part of an EU Council meeting (& LQFOXGLQJVWHSSLQJXSPRELOLW\VXSSRUWLQJWKHHPHUJHQFHRID(XURSHDQ University, boosting language learning and promoting the automatic recognition of higher education and upper secondary, as well as learning periods abroad, are ZHOO VXSSRUWHG E\ ,UHODQG ,Q IDFW WKH ,ULVK 7DRLVHDFK ZDV DQ HDUO\ VXSSRUWHU RI WKH (XURSHDQ 8QLYHUVLW\ LGHD VWDWLQJ XSIURQW ,UHODQG¶V LQWHQWLRQ WR EH SDUW RI LW 2¶%ULHQ 6P\WK  Bologna did not require the large changes that were necessary in other jurisdictions, as the requirements of Bologna were either already in place, or necessitated only incremental changes that were on the whole not very radical. Little controversy attached to these changes that were made, given the structure and IRUP ZKLFK SROLF\PDNLQJ LQ ,UHODQG WDNHV$VLGH IURP WKHVH LQWHUYHQWLRQV WKHUH has been little conceptualisation of Bologna’s full potential, however, and the focus LVQRZSULPDULO\WDNHQXSZLWK(UDVPXV(UDVPXVVFKHPHV7KDWVDLGJLYHQWKDW ,UHODQGLVDVPDOORSHQHFRQRP\DQGKXJHO\GHSHQGHQWXSRQWKH(8HVSHFLDOO\LQ 161

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an increasing polarised geopolitical and post-Brexit scenario, Bologna has been and will continue to form part of the country’s strategy in the years ahead. REFERENCES &+,8 A framework for quality in Irish universities: Meeting the challenge of change. Dublin: &RQIHUHQFHRIWKH+HDGVRI,ULVK8QLYHUVLWLHV5HWULHYHGIURPKWWSVZZZLXDLHSXEOLFDWLRQLXTED framework-for-quality-in-irish-universities-meeting-the-challenge-of-change/ &RRODKDQ- &RPLQJWRWHUPVZLWKWKHDFW7KH1DWLRQDO8QLYHUVLW\RI,UHODQG6HQDWH± ,Q7'XQQH-&RRODKDQ00DQQLQJ *27XDWKDLJK(GV The National University of Ireland, 1908–2008: Centenary essays. Dublin: UCD Press. &RVWHOOR) +D]HONRUQ( $VVHVVLQJWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJ,Q+3:HLQJDUWHQ0+LFNV  $ .DXIPDQ (GV  Assessing quality in postsecondary education: International perspectives SS± .LQJVWRQ6FKRRORI3ROLF\6WXGLHV4XHHQV8QLYHUVLW\ '(6 Investment in education, report of the survey team appointed by the minister for education in October 1962. Dublin: Stationary Office. Retrieved from https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/ 3ROLF\5HSRUWV,QYHVWPHQWLQ(GXFDWLRQ5HSRUWRIWKH6XUYH\7HDPDSSRLQWHGE\WKH0LQLVWHUIRU Education-in-October-1962-20mb-PDF-.pdf '(6 Annual report 1999. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. Retrieved from https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Corporate-Reports/Annual-Report/Department-ofEducation-and-Science-Annual-Report-1999.pdf '(6 Annual report 2000. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. Retrieved from https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Corporate-Reports/Annual-Report/Department-ofEducation-and-Science-Annual-Report-2000.pdf '(6 Annual report 2001. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. Retrieved from https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Corporate-Reports/Annual-Report/Department-ofEducation-and-Science-Annual-Report-2001.pdf '(6 Annual report 2002. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. Retrieved from https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Corporate-Reports/Annual-Report/Department-ofEducation-and-Science-Annual-Report-2002.pdf '(6 D  Annual report 2003. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. Retrieved from https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Corporate-Reports/Annual-Report/Department-of(GXFDWLRQDQG6FLHQFH$QQXDO5HSRUWSGI '(6E National report: Implementation of the Bologna process. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. '(6 National report 2005 – 2007. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. '(6   Bologna process national report 2007 – 2009. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. '(6   Investing in global relationships: Ireland’s international education strategy 2010–2015. Dublin: Department of Education and Skills. '(6   National report regarding the Bologna process implementation 2009–2012. Dublin: Department of Education and Skills. ')$QG Ireland in the EU: A history. Dublin: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved from https://www.dfa.ie/media/dfa/alldfawebsitemedia/ourrolesandpolicies/irelandintheeu/irelandin-the-eu-history.pdf '3(5   A report on the implementation of the agency rationalisation programme. Dublin: Department of Public Expenditure and Reform. (& The EU in support of the Bologna process. Brussels: European Commission. Retrieved from KWWSVHFHXURSDHXHGXFDWLRQVLWHVHGXFDWLRQILOHVHDFBERORJQDBSURFHVVBBZHESGI (XURSHDQ0RYHPHQW,UHODQG Ireland and the EU 2018. 'XEOLQ(XURSHDQ0RYHPHQW,UHODQG 5HWULHYHGIURPKWWSZZZHXURSHDQPRYHPHQWLHHPLUHODQGUHGFSROO )DQQLQJ% Irish adventures in nation-building. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

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