Heroes of the Age: Moral Fault Lines on the Afghan Frontier 9780520916319

Table of contents :
Contents
Maps
Acknowledgments
Significant Persons
1. Introduction
2. The Making of Sultan Muhammad Khan
3. The Reign of the Iron Amir
4. The Lives of an Afghan Saint
5. Mad Mullas- and Englishmen
6. Epilogue
Notes
Glossary
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

Heroes of the Age

Comparative Studies on Muslim Societies General Editor: Barbara D. Metcalf 1.

Islam and the Political Economy of Meaning, edited by William R. Roff

Libyan Politics: Tribe and Revolution, by John Davis 3· Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadr Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background, by Yohanan Friedmann 4· Shari' at and Ambiguity in South Asian Islam, edited by Katherine P. 2.

Ewing 5· Islam, Politics, and Soc(al Movements, edited by Edmund Burke, III, and Ira M. Lapidus 6. Roots of North Indian Shr'ism in Iran and Iraq: Religion and State in Awadh, 1722-1859, by J. R.I. Cole 7· Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan, by David Gilmartin 8. Islam and the Russian Empire: Reform and Revolution in Central Asia, by Helene Carrere d'Encausse 9· Muslim Travellers: Pilgrimage, Migration, and the Religious Imagination, edited by Dale F. Eickelman and James Piscatori 10. The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey, edited by Raymond Lifchez 11. The Seed and the Soil: Gender and Cosmology in Turkish Village Society, by Carol Delaney 12. Displaying the Orient: Architecture of Islam at Nineteenth-Century World's Fairs, by Zeynep ~elik 13. Arab Voices: The Human Rights Debate in the Middle East, by Kevin Dwyer 14. Disorienting Encounters: Travels of a Moroccan Scholar in France in 1845-1846, The Voyage of Muhammad a~-~affar, translated and edited by Susan Gilson Miller 15. Beyond the Stream: Islam and Society in a West African Town, by Robert Launay 16. The Calligraphic State: Textual Domination and History in a Muslim Society, by Brinkley Messick 17. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760, by Richard M. Eaton 18. Rebel and Saint: Muslim Notables, Populist Protest, Colonial Encounters (Algeria and Tunisia, 1Boo-1904), by Julia A. Clancy-Smith 19. The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution: The ]ama'at-i Islami of Pakistan, by Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr 20. The Prophet's Pulpit: Islamic Preaching in Contemporary Egypt, by Patrick D. Gaffney 21. Heroes of the Age: Moral Fault Lines on the Afghan frontier, by David B. Edwards

Heroes of the Age Moral Fault Lines on the Afghan Frontier DAVID B. EDWARDS

University of California Press BERKELEY

LOS ANGELES

LONDON

University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California University of California Press, Ltd. London, England © 1996 by the Regents of the University of California Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Edwards, David B. Heroes of the age : moral fault lines on the Afghan frontier I David B. Edwards. p. cm.-(Comparative studies on Muslim societies; 21) Includes bibliographic references and index. ISBN 978-0-520-20064-7 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. Afghanistan-History. I. Title. II. Series. DS358.EJ8 1996 958.1-dc:zo 95-31423 CIP Printed in the United States of America o8

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The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39·48-1992 (R 1997) (Permanence of Paper). @>

Contents

List of Maps

vii

Acknowledgments

ix

List of Significant Persons 1.

INTRODUCTION

Beginnings Recollecting the Past Contested Domains 2.

THE MAKING OF SULTAN MUHAMMAD KHAN

Myth and History Fathers and Sons Men and Women Friends and Enemies Coda: Jandad's Punishment 3.

THE REIGN OF THE IRON AMIR

Mapping the State The Once and Future King The Armature of Royal Rule Kingship and Honor Coda: The Death of the King 4.

THE LIVES OF AN AFGHAN SAINT

Twice-Told Tales Fathers and Sons Identity and Place Discipline and Power Benefit and Gratitude

xiii

1 6 14 28 33 43 50 56

63 73 78 82 88 94 112 123 126 128 133 138 142 146

VI

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Contents

Purity and Politics Pirs and Princes Coda: The Journey to Koh-i Qaf

Re: Posting on the Internet Embedded Codes

:155 :158 :167 :172 :175 :176 :18:1 :196 20:1 2:16 220 22:1 227

Notes

235

5. MAD MULLAS AND ENGLISHMEN

A Passage to India The Events of :1897 and Their Explanation Waging Jihad The Fault Lines of Authority Tales of Jarobi Glen Conclusion 6.

EPILOGUE

Glossary Bibliography

279

Index

297

Maps

Afghanistan Eastern Afghanistan and the north-west frontier of Pakistan 3· Proclamation and map issued by Amir Abdur Rahman 4· North-West Frontier Province, circa 1897 1. 2.

xvi xvii 79 173

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Acknowledgments

This project has evolved over a long time, and consequently there are many people and institutions to thank. The first is my grandmother, Florence Kruidenier, who became the first member of our family to visit Afghanistan in the l~te 1950s. A widow and world traveler, Grandma Flo captured the imagination of a small boy back in Iowa with her postcards and traveler's tales. There is one story in particular on which I hang much significance, a story about my grandmother staying up until dawn watching from the balcony of her hotel room as the camel caravans unloaded their wares. By the time I made it to Afghanistan, much that she had led me to expect was no longer the way it had been. Trucks had replaced most of the camel caravans, and those that remained never went into the city. But for all that, I've never regretted the journey nor doubted that it was my grandmother's caravan that carried me to Kabul. I remain grateful to her for that inspiration to travel and for the first-time feeling of the tidal power of stories to move and shape the imagination. Two men exerted a different sort of influence that must also be acknowledged. Both are now gone, and both are missed. Louis Dupree, along with his wife, Nancy, treated my wife and me with kindness during our first stay in Kabul, and their unselfconscious joy in being there inspired me to more fully enjoy the opportunities of the moment. Sayyid Bahauddin Majrooh was a mentor during my time in Peshawar. For nearly two years we were neighbors, and I had the chance to spend many hours with him. A philosopher, a poet, a Sufi, a reporter, and sometimes a clown, he was also a devoted Afghan mujahed, and his brutal murder left a void that will not soon be filled. In Pakistan a number of individuals helped me in a variety of ways. The most important of these individuals are Shahmahmood Miakhel, whose ix

X

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Acknowledgments

contribution to my work is discussed in the introduction, and Muhammad Nasim Stanazai, a good friend since 1983 who has helped immensely with translations and interpretations. Other friends, colleagues, and associates from Pakistan whom I would like to thank include Bruce Lohoff, formerly the head of the U.S. Education Foundation in Pakistan; Akbar S. Ahmed, who helped facilitate my research clearance; John Dixon, head of U.S.I.S. in Peshawar; Anwar Khan, the former head of the Area Studies Centre at Peshawar University, and Azmat Hayat Khan, the present head; Abdul Jabar Sabet, Abdullah Tora, and Wasil Nur, all formerly employed at the Centre; Rasul Amin and Hakim Taniwal, first of the Afghan Information Center and later of the Writers' Union for Free Afghanistan; the late Khalilullah Khalili, who spent generous amounts of his time educating me on things Afghan; and Dr. Zahir Ghazi Alam and his son, Zalmai, who lived with us for more than a year and became our extended family. Among mentors, colleagues, and friends in the academy, I would like to acknowledge the support and inspiration of Jon Anderson, Lois Beck, John Bowen, Michael Brown, Bob Canfield, Steve Caton, Paul Dresch, Nancy Dupree, Dale Eickelman, Ken George, Susan Harding, Peter Just, Bob Jackall, Barbara Metcalf, Sherry Ortner, Bill Schorger, and Aram Yengoyan. Special thanks are also due to Bill Darrow, who provided crucial editorial suggestions on the first draft of the manuscript, and Margaret Mills, whose critical reading of this and other work has been invaluable to me. Jane Kepp and Anne Just also supplied helpful editorial assistance, and Mary Kennedy helped draft some of the maps that appear here. My research in Peshawar was made possible by a Fulbright-Hays dissertation fellowship and a grant from the National Science Foundation. In the intervening years I have also received a Mellon Fellowship from Washington University and, most recently, a National Humanities Fellowship. I thank all of these institutions for their assistance as well as the University of Michigan, which provided financial support during my graduate career, and Williams College, which has generously supported my research since I arrived in 1989. During the writing of this book, I had the good fortune to be a fellow for a year and a half at the Center for Humanities and Social Sciences at Williams, and I want to thank JeanBernard Bucky for his support, along with that of the other faculty fellows who shared and enriched my time there. I also want to acknowledge the debt I owe family members. My parents, Charles and Sue Edwards, have offered sometimes bemused but always unflagging support over the years in which this project has developed. So, for a far shorter period of time, have my children, Nick and Melody, who

Acknowledgments

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xi

I hope will someday experience Afghanistan under something like the conditions that I first came to know it. My wife, Holly, to whom this book is fondly dedicated, has been enmeshed in this project from its beginning. My experiences are hers, and whatever value might reside in these pages is her doing as much as it is my own. Finally, I want to express my gratitude for the cooperation and kindness of the many Afghans who took the time to talk to me and, in many cases, agreed to tell their stories for the benefit of my tape recorder. There was nothing of compelling interest to be gained by speaking with me, and in some instances there was potentially some danger. Nevertheless, dose to one hundred people chose to do so and, in the process, made my study possible. I can't say what motivated most people to talk with me, but I know that in at least some instances my informants believed that there was value in keeping oral histories alive. As a non-Muslim and an American, I might not have been their first choice for undertaking this assignment, but they still recognized the importance of someone doing it. This study uses only a fraction of the histories I collected, and it subjects those I did use to a form of interpretation that not all my informants might agree with or appreciate. Nevertheless, I hope that all Afghans who come into contact with this study will recognize the good faith with which it was undertaken and the sincere concern its author feels for Afghanistan, its people, and its future.

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Significant Persons

Chapter 2

Samiullah Safi

Son of Sultan Muhammad Khan and narrator of the story recounted at the beginning of chapter 2

Sultan Muhammad Khan

Son of Talabuddin Akhundzada, the hakim of Pech Valley

Talabuddin Akhundzada

The hakim of Pech Valley who is killed in the story recounted at the beginning of chapter 2 Talabuddin Akhundzada's brother

'Ali Dost Paindo

Talabuddin Akhundzada's cousin and rival who (along with his seven sons) is blamed for killing Talabuddin

Faizullah

Paindo's brother (unnamed in story)

Chapter 3

Abdur Rahman Khan

King of Afghanistan from 188o to 1901

Dost Muhammad

Grandfather of Abdur Rahman Khan and king of Afghanistan (1819-}9; 1842--63) xiii

xiv

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Significant Persons

Muhammad Afzal Khan

Son of Dost Muhammad Khan, father to Abdur Rahman, and king of Afghanistan (1866-67)

Muhammad Azam Khan

Eldest son of Dost Muhammad, full brother of Muhammad Afzal, and king of Afghanistan (1867-69) Son of Dost Muhammad, half brother of Muhammad Afzal and Muhammad Azam, father of Muhammad lsaq Khan, and king of Afghanistan (1863-66; 1869-79) Son of Muhammad Azam and rival to Abdur Rahman Khan

Sher 'Ali Khan

Muhammad Isaq Khan

Chapter 4 Mulla of Hadda

Major religious figure in Afghanistan in the late nineteenth century. Born Najmuddin Akhundzada, he is also referred to in various stories and accounts as Hadda Sahib, the Hadda Mulla, and Mulla Najmuddin.

Akhund of Swat (Abdul Ghafur)

Teacher of the Mulla of Hadda and the progenitor of the mianguls of Swat, one line of which became the ruler (wali) of Swat

Abdul Baqi

· Attendant of the Mulla of Hadda

Hazrat Sahib of Butkhak

Disciple of the Mulla of Hadda

Sufi Sahib of Batikot (and Faqirabad)

Disciple of the Mulla of Hadda

Mulla Sahib of Kajuri

Disciple of the Mulla of Hadda

Sayyid Ismail Pacha of Islampur

Disciple of the Mulla of Hadda

Haji Sahib of Turangzai

Disciple of the Mulla of Hadda

Ustad Sahib of Hadda

Disciple of the Mulla of Hadda and heir to the center at Hadda

Significant Persons

I

XV

Shaykh Sahib of Sangar

Disciple of the Mulla of Hadda

Mia Sahib of Baro

Disciple of the Mulla of Hadda

Mulla Sahib of Tagao Manki Mulla

Disciple of the Mulla of Hadda Religious scholar who was the Mulla of Hadda's principal rival on the frontier

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Index

Abdul Baqi, Maulana, 126-28, 129, 14243, 147· 169, 170 Abdul Ghafur. See Akhund of Swat Abdul Qudus Khan, 42 AbdulVVahhab,163 Abdur Rahim, 105--6 Abdur Rahman Khan: Abdur Rahim's servant and, 105--6; akhundzada status under, 52; authority claims by, 94--97, 116, 165, 217, 247n14; autobiography of, 28, 89, 115, 239n24, 246n7; constant vigilance of, 83, 115, 245n2; contempt for mullas of, 116-17, 15~2, 166, 261n53; on courtiers, 107-8, 249n37; death and funeral o( 123-25, 215, 261n56; distinctive moral station o( 26-27, 170; dreams of, 95--97, 247n16; Durand Line's creation and, 27-28, 87-88, 246n5; 1897 uprising role o( 28, 178, 197--99, 218, z67n~7,48, z68n~9,51; exiles of, 91--93, 10o--101, 105-7, 248n35; Ghilzai suppression under, 236n9; Hazrat Sahib and, 16o--62, 16465, 166--67; hierarchical ethos of, 87, 103-4, 245n4, 250n59; as infidel, 160, 164; Ishaq Khan's rivalry with, 108-10; Khan of Khiva and, 99, 100; king of Bokhara and, 91--92, 94--95, 1oo--101; kingship views of, 83-84, 86-88; langar suspicions of, 158-59, 162; Manki Mulla and, 259~3; military of, 103-5; Muhammad Azam and, 98-99, 1o6-7, 248n24; Mulla of Hadda's conflict with, 116,159--6o,163--64,261n4~ z68n51; nation-state's emergence and, 27-28, 84,

245nn3,4; Parawana Khan and, 105, 248n3o; proclamation, text o( 78-82; relationship to father, 9Q-93, 247n21; Safi uprising against, 261n52; Saidullah and, 264n29; spy network of, 115; stable regime of, 5, 111-12; tyrannical rule of, 62,11Q-11,119-20,121-22,166, 247n15, 250n~8,52; on women, 108, 249n38. See also Kingship; The Life of Abdur Rahman Khan; Proclamation of Abdur Rahman Khan Abu-Lughod, Lila, 242n18 Achilles, 242-43n2o Afghan Information Center, 17-18 Afghanistan: as artificial nation-state, 3-4, 5-6; boundary delineation of, 27-28, 31, 87-88, 227-28, 246n5; colonialist retreat from, 5, 86, 235n5; conflicting cultural principles in, 4; contemporary identity issues in, 228-30, 27onn7--9; frontier of, 5, 235n4; ideological/political conflict in, 6-7; Islam's significance to, 9-10, 23233; source of civil strife in, 2-3, 216-17, 233-34; Sufi practices in, 135-36, 254n10; tribe-state relations in, 8--9, 18. See also Pakhtun society; Refugees; Tribes Afridi, Ajab Khan, 16 Ahmad, Qazi Hussain, 225, 269n5 Ahmad Khan, 107 Ahmad Shah Durrani, 84 Ahmadzai tribe, 236n9 Akhund (religious scholar): defined, 253n8; at langars, 258n35 Akhund of Swat, z6on45; education and leadership of, 255nn12,13; miracle story 2 97

I

Index

Akhund of Swat (continued) of, 132; Mulla of Hadda and, 133, 13637, 138, 155; progeny of, 255n14 Akhundzada (son of religious scholar), 33, 51-53,240n4 Akka Khel Mulla~ i94 'Ali Dost, 46-47, 61 Amanullah Khan, 235n5 Ambeyla uprising of 1867, 265n36 Amir bil maruf (commanding people to proper practice and faith), 156 Analogies: "lifting the veil," invasion as, 207-9, 268n63; miracle stories as, 188-89; moral determinacy of, 189, 190; oratorical use of, 187 Anderson, Jon, 241n8 Andiwal (friend), 71-72, 243n23 Anthropological studies: of Afghan Islam, 22, 238n2o; miracles in, 131; narrativity focus of, 2, 25, 238nm:8,21, 239n22; social-order emphasis of, 11, 16-17; tribestate relations in, 7-8. See also Research Army. See Lashkar Authority: of akhundzada, 52-53, 240~ benefit/gratitude principle and, 102-4162-63; charismatic, 182-83, 186-87; colonialist threat to, 2, 31; to declare infidelity, 165-66, 261n55; divine source of, 16, 94-97, 116, 165, 247n14- 250n56; langar's relations of, 152-53, 259n38; miracles and, 13o-31, 217-18; moral dimension of, 4, 10, 236n11; mullas' advancement of, 156; patriarchal ties to, 97-101, 247n21; vulnerability of, 21516, 217-18. See also Honor; Islam; Kingship Ayodhya mosque, 140 Azim Jan, 16o

Badal (exchange or feud), 64-65, 241n13. See also Rivalry ethos Barth, Fredrik, 238n2o, 255n1:4, 259n36, 26o~

Bedmanai Pass, 202, 215 Benefit/gratitude. See Gratitude Bengal Sappers, 203 Bird, Corrie, 175 Black Turban Group, 222 Bled 1-makhzen (land of governance), 7 Bled s-siba (land of dissidence), 7 Blinding, 59-63 Blood, Bindon, 175, 176, 202, 263n3

Boesen, Inger, 243-45n26 Bokhara, king of, 91-92, 94-95, 1oo-1o1, 107,247n:l5

Book of Advice on the World and Religion (Pandnama-i dunya wa din). See The Life of Abdur Rahman Khan Bourdieu, Pierre, 242n18 British: on Abdur Rahman's role, 198, 199; arms/organization of, 196, 197; retreat by, 5, 86, 235n5; Durand Line creation by, 27-28, 31, 87, 246n5; 1897 uprising analysis by, 31, 178, 2o6, 214-15, 265n36; "lifting the veil" metaphor of, 207-8, 209; Mohmand expedition of, 201-6, 21o-11; as moral threat, 2, 31; on Mulla of Hadda's defeat, 195, 196; on talebs, 265-66n39. See also Jarobi Glen stories; Uprising of 1897 Buddhist center (Hadda), 139-40 Bustan (The Scented Garden, Sa'di), 36, 239n1 Buyid dynasty, 242n17 Buyid Iran, 102 Caroe, Olaf, 242n1:9 Caton, Steven, 236n11 Chakdara post: tribal siege of, 174-75, 177, 185,218--19 Chamkani tribe, 193 Charismatic authority, 182-83, 186-87. See also Authority Charitable donations, 258n34 Chilla (ascetic retreat), 143, 256n22 Churchill, lord Randolph, 190 Churchill, Winston: analogies, use of, 187, 189, 190; on imperial power, 175, 207; on political oratory, 31-32, 186-87; on role of mullas, 178-81; on tribal uprisings, 31, 184; as war correspondent, 176, 263n3 Cleverness: and honor, 69-70, 242n2o Colonialists. See British Courtiers: Abdur Rahman and, 107-8, 124-25, 249n37 Cuckold (daus), 58--59 Curzon, lord George, 82-83, 111, 119, 245nn1

Daily Telegraph (london), 176, 189 Dala (cuckold), 58--59 Dangam tribe, 243n21 Dar al-harb (land of war), 28

Index Dar al-islam (land of Islam), 27-28 Data Ganj Bakhsh, 257n26 Daud, Muhammad, 7, 18 Daus (cuckold), 58-59 Deane, Harold, 194, 264n21, 265039 Democratic Era, 18 Deoband madrasa (India), 136 Divine sovereignty: as kingship principle,

I

2 99

France, 120 Frase!'-Tytler, W. K., 246n5 Friedl, Erika, 262n58 Friendship,71-72,24Jn2J;feudsand,6465 Frontiers and Wars (Churchill), 26301 "Fundamentalists": as Internet term, 229, 270n9

86-87,94-9~11~122,247n14,247n16

Dost Muhammad, 90,91 Dreams: as divine inspiration, 95-97, 217, 247n16; father-son communication in, 167, 262n57 Dupree, Louis, 237015 Durand Line, 27-28, 31, 87-88, 227, 228, 246n5 Durrani tribe, 26 Dushmanan. See Enemies Education, Ministry of, 14 1897 uprising. See Uprising of 1897 Elles, General, 202 Enemies (dushmanan): honor's vulnerability to, 75-77; peacemaking delegations to, 68-69, 211-12; tarburs as, 46, 64; types of, 64--65, 241013. See also Revenge; Rivalry ethos Ettehad-i haft gana (Seven Party Unity), 22 Ettehad-i se guna (Three Party Unity), 22 Evans-Pritchard, E. E., 256n17 Faizullah, 46 Fanaticism, 31, 181-82, 184 Faqir (religious mendicant), 144, 187-88, 25?025,264n29 Father-son relationship: of Abdur Rahman, 90-93, 247n21; birth, 57; dream communication in, 167, 262n57; and identity, 5o-51, 54-56, 138, 240n3; kingship's patriarchal obligations and, 97-98, 101-2, 247n21; obedience/subordination in, 55, n7-18, 24on6, 247n21; pir-disciple tie and, 136-)7, 138,153-54, 259n38; political negotiation and, 98-99; of Sultan Muhammad, 53-55, 56. See also Kinship Fazil Aziz, 128, 251-53n7, 259n4o, z6on47 Feuds. See Rivalry ethos Firdausi, 21 First Anglo-Afghan War, 255nn Foucault, Michel, 120, 208, 268n61

Gailani, Sayyid Ahmad, 22 Geertz, Clifford, 20, 238n18, 256n18 Gellner, Ernest, 254010, 256n17 Ghilzai tribe, 164, 236n9 Gilseqan, Michael, 131-32 God. See Divine sovereignty Goldziher, Ignaz, 237013 Gratitude: Abdur Rahman's stories of, 105-7, n7-18; disciple-pir relations and, 152-55, 259n38; and ingratitude depictions, 107-10, 248n35• 249n37; as kingship principle, 103-4, 165; obligation's relation to, nB-19; punishments for ingratitude, 104-5, no-n, 250n048,52; Qur'anic principle of, 102J; saint's reversed notion of, 162--63, 166. See also Obedience Great Britain. See British Gregorian, Vartan, 245nn1,3 Guest house. See Hujra Gulistan (The Rose Garden, Sa'di), )6, 2)901 Gul Salak, 34 Habibullah Khan, 52, 162, 248n)O, 25101, 257n25,262n57 Hadda, 1J8-J9, zoo; Buddhist site at, 13940; langar at, 148, 149-50 Hadda Sahib. See Mulla of Hadda Haji Muhammad Amin, 153 Haji Sahib of Turangzai, 153

Harakat-i inqilab-i is/ami afghanistan (Movement for Islamic Revolution of Afghanistan), 22 Hazrat of Shor Bazaar, 262n59 Hazrat Sahib ofButkhak, 128,146, 155; infidelity pronouncement and, 164--65, 166--67; langar resources o( 158-59, 162--63; punishment/imprisonment of, 16o--62,166 Hekmatyar, Gulbuddin, 22, 147, 225, 269n5,270n9 Hera Mundi, 226, 269n6

JOO

I

Index

Heroes (qahraman): lacking alternative moralities, 76-77, 93; in myth of nationhood, 4; nostalgic focus on, 13; as praiseworthy and dangerous, 21, 215-16. See also Abdur Rahman Khan; Mulla of Hadda; Sultan Muhammad Khan Historical texts. See Stories History: alternative versions o£ 214-15; mythic qualities and, 44-45, 48, 16768; stories' moralizing o£ 2, 25, 47, 73, 219; structural portrayal of, 233. See also Stories Hizb-i Islami Afghanistan party, 22, 129, 147, 230, 270n9 Honor (namus): claims to greamess and, 145; and cleverness, 69-70, 242n2o; defense of land and, 69, 243n21; individual/social sacrifices for; 7o-73; inviolable possessions of, 58, 240n2, 241n8; Islam's conflict with, 116, 2oo-2o1, 259n39, 264n29; Islam's reconciliation with, 192-93; kingship dynamics versus, 93, 114-15, 117-21; as moral code, 4, 217, 218-19, 232; obedience principle and, 117-18; Pakhtun claims to, 228-29, 27on8; patrilineal legacy of, 5o-51, 5455, 240n,3; and retribution, 48-50, 59, no-21, 240n2, 241n9; revenge story o£ 33-43; self-interested acts versus, 73, 74; Sultan Muhammad as exemplar, 20, 23, 6o; volunteerism and, 66-67, 118-19, 242n18; vulnerability-independence dilemma of, 75-77, 24,3n25, 243-45n26; women's threat to, 61, 62-6,3, 24345n26. See also Sultan Muhammad Khan Hospitality. See Melmastia Hujra (guest house): hospitality/protection obligations of, 46-47, 67-68; langar versus, 151-52; violated sanctity of, 68-69, 71 Al-Hujwiri, 'Ali bin Uthman, 257n26 Hukumat. See State Ibn Khaldun, 8, 10, 236n11 Identity: association of place with, 141-42; Durand line's articulation of, 27-28; feuds and, 65, 241n15; honor's demangs on, 45, 71-73; hospitality/protection principles of, 67-68, 242n19; Internet discourse on Islamic, 229-30, 270n9; Islamic leveling of, 191-92; land and, 69-

70, 243n21; nation-state conception of, 87, 245D4; Pakhtun issues of, 228-29, 270n8; patrilineal foundation of, 5o-51, 54-56, 138, 240n3; refugee issues o£ 9, 11, 229-31, 236n9; rifle symbolism of, 74; tribal notion of, 4 245D4 Imam (religious leader), 134, 253n8 Imperialists. See British India: Durand line boundary, 27-28, 8?88, 246n5; Mutiny of 1857 in, 1, 17778; religious schools in, 136 Infidelity (kufr): of Abdur Rahman, 160, 164; claims to divine power as, 17o-71, 262n6o; justified declarations of, 16566, 261n55 Internet: Afghan-Pakistani animosity on, 224-27, 231-32; Islamic identity debate on, 229; Islamic reform movement on, 22o-23; legacy of Durand line on, 227-28, 27on8; newsgroup sources on, 269nt Interviews, 14-16, 19, 43-44 129-30, 251n1 Isakhel, 51 Islam: colonial threat to, 2, 31; on crime and punishment, 121-22; declaration of faith in, 249n45; Durand line and, 2728; gratitude principle of, 102-3; honor's conflict with, 116, 20o-2o1, 259n39, 264n29; honor's reconciliation with, 192-93; kingship's reliance on, 94-97, 102-3, 116, 165-66, 217, 247nn14,16, 250n56; miracle stories' revelation of, 13o-31; as moral code, 4, 218-19, 2,3233; in Peshawar refugee camp, 11; political significance of, 9-10; religious titles of, 25,3-54n8; resistance parties, 9, 22; scholarship on Afghan, 22, 237n15, 238n2o; scriptural/mystical division in, 135, 254n1o; source of authority in, 156-58, 162-63, 26on45, 261n54; state's tension with, 116-17, 162-67, 26on48, 26tnfi49,52,55; tribal conflict with, 156, 163-64; as unifying ideology, 191-92. See also Mulla of Hadda; Sufi order Islamic Party. See Hizb-i Islami Afghanistan party Islamic reform movement (1994-): 1897 uprising and, 223-24; Internet postings on,22o-23,224-27 Islamic Society (jam'iyyat-i islam1), 22

Islam Observed: Religious Development in

Index Morocco and Indonesia (Geertz), 20, 238m8

]abha-yi nejat-i milli (National Liberation Front), 22 Jahanzeb, Miangul, 255n14 Jalalabad, 139, 235n4 Jama'at-i Islami party, 22o-21, 269n2 James, Lionel, 197 Jandad Khan, 36, 41-42, 73-74, 119, 12o ]ang-i safi (War of the Safis), 18 Jarobi Glen stories: depiction of Mohmands in, 212-13, 214; elements of, 214-15; as metaphorical invasion, 2079, 268nn61,63; metaphysical perspectives on, 206-7, 213; of H. Woosnam Mills, 202-4; of Rohani, 204-6; of Shahround, uo-11, 269nn64,65; three sources for, 29, 201 Java, 20 Jewett, Arthur, 257n25 Jihad: declaration of, 198, 199; forms of, 143, 256n23. See also Uprising of 1897 Jirga (tribal assembly), 46, 47-48 Kabul, 5, 9, 22, 26, 136, 255n11 Kafir (infidel). See Infidelity (kufr) Kakar, Hasan, 164, 245n3, 246n7, 261nn49,52 Karabagh Mulla, 194 Karmal, Babrak, 236n9

Kashf-al-Mahjub (The Unveiling of the Veiled, 'Ali bin Uthman al-Hujwiri), 257n26 Khalili, Khaliullah, 251m Khalqi party, 18-19 Khan, Sultan Mahomed, 89, 246n7, 248n3o Khani Khel, 193 Khan of Khiva, 99, 100 Khans: greatness claims by, 144-45; guest house of, 67-68, 151. See also Sultan Muhammad Khan Khushhal Khan Khattak, 21 Khyber district, 177 Kingship: benefit/gratitude principle of, 102-3, 104-5, 118-19, 163, 166; divine sovereignty principle of, 86-87, 94-97, 117, 122, 165, 247nm4,16; dynamics of honor versus, 93, 114-15, 117-21; Islamic legitimation of, 165-66, 251n62; jihad declarations and, 198, 199; as moral

I

)01

code, 4, 83-84, 218, 232; nostalgic stories of, 13; obedience principle of, 11718; patriarchal bond of, 97-98, 101-2; punishment prerogative of, 119-20, 121. See also Abdur Rahman Khan; Proclamation of Abdur Rahman Khan Kinship: political negotiation and, 98-101; rivalry ethos of, 63-65, 66, 157, 158, 241m3, 26on44; in tribal versus kingly culture, 102, 117-18. See also Fatherson relationship Kiramat. See Miracles Kohat district, 177 Koh-i Qaf: Mulla of Hadda's journey to, 126-28,167-70 Koran. See Qur'an Kot (Ningrahar Province), 260"44 Kufr. See Infidelity Kunar Province: religious families in, 5153,240n4 Land: Durand Line's division of, 27-28; tribal defense of, 69-70, 243n21 Landai (verse form), 243-45n26 Langar (eating area): authority relations of, 152-53, 259n38; description o£ 14950, 152, 258n33, 259n36; at Hadda, 148; as jihad resource, 194-96; mystical operation of, 15o-51; provisioning of, 15859, 162, 258n34; social leveling at, 150, 258n35; at tombs, 257n3o Lashkar (tribal army), 196, 197, 266"44 The Last Wali of Swat (Jahanzeb), 255m4 LeRoy Ladurie, Emmanuel, 239n22 Lewanai faqir (mad faqir), 187. See also Saidullah Lewis, Bernard, 98, 247n14

The Life of Abdur Rahman· Khan: Amir of Afghanistan (Abdur Rahman): authenticity of, 89, 246n7; boundary analogy in, 88; divine control theme of, 94-97; father-son relationship in, 9D-93; gratitude/obligation principles of, 105-7, 117-19; as historical source, 239n24; ingratitude depictions in, 107-10, 248n35, 249n37; kinship model of negotiation in, 98-101; role of Islam in, 116 "Lifting the veil": as metaphor for invasion, 207-9, 268n61; performance of miracles as, 144, 169-70, 209, 257n26, 268n63 Lindholm, Charles, 72

302

I

Index

Literature and Violence in North Arabia (Meeker), 237n13 Lockhart, Sir William, 193 London Times, 175

Macintyre, Alasdair, 76 Mad Fakir. See Saidullah Mahaz-i milli islami afghanistan (National Islamic Front of Afghanistan), 22 Mahsud Dara valley, 34 Majrooh, Sayyid Bahauddin, 17-18, 157 Makhzen Afghani (Niamatullah), 260~8 Maktabis, 270n9 Malakand: Islamic reform movement in, 22o-23; tribal siege of, 172, 174-75, 185 Malakand Field Force, 202 Mama (maternal uncle): role of, 57-59 Manki Mulla, 156-58, 259n43, 260~, 266~5 Marriag~64,x68,240n3,262n58

Martin, Frank: on Amir and women, 249n38; on Amir's death, 123-24, 215, 26xn56; on Amir's jihad role, 267n47, 268n51; on infidel pronouncements, 261n55; on punishment methods, 62, 250n52; on spy network, 115 Marxist revolution (1978), 3, B-9 Massond, Ahmad Shah, 13, 235n7, 237n14 Maternal uncle (mama): role of, 57-59 Maududi, Maulana Ala, 269n2 Meeker, Michael, 23 7nt 3 Meiklejohn (British colonel), 172, 174 Melmastia (hospitality), 67, 68, 69, 71, 242n19 Merk, W. R. H., 265n35 Metaphors. See Analogies Mia 'Ali Sahib, 23 Miakhel, Shahmahmood, 23-24 Miangul Abdul Khaliq, 255n14 Mianguls of Swat, 194, 266n45 Mia Sahib of Baro, 261n53 Middle East: oral history studies of, 238nx8; ritual expression in, 23~13 Mills, H. Woosnam: Jarobi tale of, 29, 201, 202-4; "lifting the veil" metaphor of, 207 Mills, Margaret, 247n16, 262n58 Minister (wazir), 62 Miracles (kiramat): analogical function of, 188-89; charisma's association with, 182-83; disciples' attribution of, x8o,

262n6o; experienced as stories, 131-32; moral determinacy of, 189, 190; as mystical unveiling, 144, 169-70, 209, 257n26, 268n63; Saidullah's claims to, 184-86, 187-88; as source of authority, 13Q-31,217-18 Miracle stories: as historical source, 24-25, 13o-32, 239n24; ideal and real in, 16769, 188-89; of langar operation, 15o-51. See also Jarobi Glen stories; Mulla of Hadda's stories Mira Khan, Qazi, 26~47 Mitchell, Richard, 237n15 Mohmand Field Force, 202 Mohmand tribe: battlefield ideals of, 214; feud among, 241n15; Isakhel branch of, 51; in Jarobi siege, 29; Mulla of Hadda with, 194, 199-200; Sufi versus Afghan depictions of, 211-13, 214 Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error (LeRoy Ladurie), 239n22 Moral codes, 4, 10, 236n11, See also Authority; Honor; Islam; Kingship Morocco,7,20,141,256nx8 Mottahedeh, Roy P., 102, 242n17 Mountain of Qaf. See Koh-i Qaf Movement for Islamic Revolution of Afghanistan (harakat-i inqilab-i islami afghanistan), 22 Muhammad, 110, 140, 233, 247n16, 249~5

Muhammad Afzal Khan, 9Q-91, 98, 107 Muhammad Azam Khan, 91, 92-93, 9899,1o6,248n24 Muhammad Azam of Bannu, Mulla, 26on46 Muhammadi, Muhammad Nabi, 22 Muhammad Ishaq Khan, 108-xo, 250n56 Muhammad Sharif, Mulla, 260~6 Muhammadzai lineage, 26, 50 Mujadidi, Hazrat Sibghatullah, 22 Mulla of Hadda: Abdur Rahman and, 26, 116,159"-60,163-64,198,261~9,

267n~8,49,51; Akhund of Swat and, 133, 136-37, 155; ascetic retreats of, 143; as authority figure, 156-57, 16869, 217-18, 261n54; Churchill on, 179, x8o; deputies of, 149, 258n32; disloyal fuctionsand,19~218,266~5;educa­

tion of, 135, 136; Hadda location of, 139-41, 256n17, 260n45; identity/place connection of, 141-42; imprisonment of,

Index 26:m53; interviews about, 24, 129-30, 25101; Islam/honor reconciliation by, 192--93; in Jarobi battle, 29, 202-6, 21o11, 212; jihad army of, 265n38; jihad challenge from, 191, 192--93, 265n34; jihad communications network of, 191, 193-94, 265nn36,37; in Kabul, 136, 255n11; langar resources of, 194-96; library of, 129; miraculous power of, 144, · 169-70, 215; in Mohmand isolation, 199-200; in prayer-ritual debate, 15658, 259n43, 260046; Prophet, linkage to, 140; Safi tribe and, 261n52; spiritual genealogies of, 137, 256015; Sufi versus Mohmand depiction of, 211-14, 269nli5; surviving reputation of, 201, 209-10; tribal origins of, 133-34 Mulla of Hadda's stories: of benefit/gratitude, 146-48, 257nn28,29; of discipline/ power, 142-43, 256nn2o,21; as historical source, 24-25, 130, 239n24; of identity/ place, 138-39, 256016; of journey to Koh-i Qaf, 126-28, 167-70; moral ambiguity o( 17o-71; of pir-disciple relationship, 133, 251-53n7; of pir's authority, 155, 259n4o; of state-religion relations, 158-62, 26on47. See also Jarobi Glen· stories Mullas (religious leaders): Abdur Rahman's distrust of, 116-17, 159-62, 166, · 261n53; attribution of miracles to, 180, 262n6o; Churchill's analysis of, 178-81; defined, 253n8; legitimacy determination by, 251062; spiritual rivalry between, 156-58, 260045; tribal.interaction with, 19, 156, 163-64, 168-69, 211, 262n59; village dependence of, 134, 254n9, 258n34. See also Mulla of Hadda; Pirs; Saints Mulla Sahib of Kajuri, 148, 150 Mulla Sahib ofTagao, 261053 Muqtada (leader), 261054 AI-Muqtadir, 242017 Mursalat (skills of a scribe), 35-36 Musa Khel, 134 Mushk-i Alam, Mulla, 135-36 Musil, Alois, 237013 Muslim Youth Organization (sazman-i jawanan-i musulman), 7, 235n7 Mutiny of 1857,1,177-78 Myth: historical narrative and, 44-45, 48, 167-68

I

303

Najibullah (leader of Parcham party), 236n9 Najmuddin Akhundzada. See Mulla of Hadda Namaz. See Prayer ritual Namus concept, 58, 240n2, 241n8. See also Honor Nanawatai (protection custom), 67-68, 71, 242n19 Naqib Sahib, 262n59 Narrative texts. See Stories Nasab (lineage, parentage, identity), 240n3. See also Father-son relationship; Identity; Kinship National Islamic Front of Afghanistan (mahaz-i milli is/ami afghanistan), 22 National Liberation Front of Afghanistan (jabha-yi nejat-i milli afghanistan), 22 Nation-state: Abdur Rahman's association with, 27-28,84- 245nn3,4; Abdur Rahman's map o( 84-88; fundamental artificiality of, 3-4, 5-6, 216. See also State Nawab of Dir, 36, 56-57, 24004 Nawafil prayers, 209, 268n63 Newsgroups. See Internet Nikagan (patrilineal ancestors), 5o-51 Nuristani tribe, 34 Obedience: in father-son relationship, 5456, 117-18, 153, 24on6; kingship's reliance on, 103-5, 117-18; in pir-disciple hierarchy, 152-55, 259n38. See also Gratitude Odysseus, 242n2o Oral histories, 239n24. See also Stories Oratory, 186-87 Organization for the Enforcement of Islamic Law; 221 Oxus River, 85 Pacha Sahib of Islampur, 147, 148, 258n32, 261053 Padshahs of Kunar, 24004 Paighur (public ridicule), 75-76, 24345n26 Paindo, 46-48, 61, 70 Pakhtu (language), 15 Pakhtun society: birth of sons in, 57; cleverness as virtue in, 69, 242n2o; fatherson relationships in, 54-56, 24on6; feuds in, 65-66, 2410n15,16; friendship ideal o( 71-72, 243n23; hospitality/pro-

I

Index

Pakhtun society (continued) tection principles of, 67-68, 242n19; male progenitor in, 137; mama's role in, 58-59; marriage of widows in, 61, 241n11; mulla's role in, 168, 262n59; Pakistani versus Afghan Pakhtuns, 22829, 27onn7,8; patrilineal descent in, 5o51, 240n3; Peshawar as hub of, 237n16; rifle symbolism in, 74; rivalry/revenge ethos of, 46, 63-65, 157-58, 241nn9,13; social-order vision of, 245D4i Sufi protocols versus, 153-55, 259n38; women's landai composition in, 243-45n26 Pakistan: Islamic reform movement in, 22o-27, 269n2; Pakhtun identity in, 228-29, 27onn7,8; scholarship on Islam in, 238nzo. See also Peshawar Palam Mulla of Dir, 194 Pamir Mountains, 85 Pandnama-i dunya wa din (Book of Ad- . vice on the World and Religion}. See The Life of Abdur Rahman Khan Panjshir Valley resistance, 7, 13, 235n7 Parawana Khan, 105, 248n3o Pasanai (upper}: defined, 251n6 Paternal cousins. See Tarburs Patrilineal descent. See Father-son relationship Pech Valley, 18-19, 34 Persian (language), 15 Peshawar: as ethnographic source, 16-17, 129; ideological/political instability in, 6, 9, 11; location of, 235n4; as refugee destination, 15, 237n16; resistance parties in, 9, 22 Peshawar Library, 263n5 Peters, Emrys, 65 Pir Baba, 240D4, 264n29 Pir Gailani, 262n59 Pirs (masters of Sufi order}: attribution of miracles to, z6zn6o; defined, 253n8; disciple's relationship with, 136-37, 139, 152-55, 259nn38,39; identity for, 14142; langar role of, 148, 15o-51, 258n35; location choice of, 158, 256n17, z6oD45; manifestation of greatness by, 145; spiritual exercises under, 135, 143-44255n13, 257n24; spiritual genealogies of, 137, 145, 256n15; use of authority by, 156. See also Mullas; Saints Pirzada, Shams ul-Haq, 150 Pitt-Rivers, Julian, 6o

Poetry: ritual expression and, 237n13 Political parties, 9, 22 Prayer ritual (namaz}: debate over, 15657, 259D43, z6on46 Primrose League of Bath, 175 Proclamation of Abdur Rahman Khan (1898}: on divine control, 94, 247n14; on gratitude/obedience, 103, 104-5; hierarchical ethos of, 87, 1o3-4, 24546D4; as historical source, 239n24; kingship principles in, 83-84; map/icon image on, 84-88; on patriarchal obligations, 97-98, 101; protagonist's voice in, 113-14, 115; text of, 78-82; translation of, 245n1 Prophet Muhammad. See Muhammad Protection. See Nanawatai (protection custom} Public ridicule (paighur), 75-76, 243n26 Punishment: blinding as, 61-63; as cultural transgression, 5~, 120, 25on61; as kingly prerogative, 62, 104-5, no11, 119-20, 250nD48,52; saint's reversal of, 166-67; in tribal culture, 12o-21 Purdah (veil}. See 0 Lifting the veilN Qaderiya ordel# 143-44 Qahraman-i zaman (hero of the age): etymology of, 21, 216. See also Heroes Qaum. See Tribes Qissa Khani (Street of the Storytellers), 12, 14 Qur'an: in Abdur Rahman's proclamation, ;1.1~ akhundzada's privileged access to, 52; delegations with, 38, 68-69, 91, 211; gratitude principle of, 102-3 Quwwat ui-Islam mosque (Delhi), 140 Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 22, 225, 269n5 Rabinow, Paul, 141 Rafiq Jan, 12, 237D13 Refugees: identity issues of, 9, 11, 22931, 236n12; interviews with, 14-16; Peshawar as destination of, 15, 237n16; storytelling preoccupation of, 12-13; violence among, 231 Religious families. See Akhundzada Religious titles. See Titles Research: geographic/historical center of, 5, 235D4i interview modality of, 14-16, 19, 43-44, 129-30, 251m; sources for, 16-17, 183; storytelling focus of, 12-13

Index Resistance parties, 9, 22 Revenge, 59, 64-65, 66, 121, 241m3. See also Rivalry ethos Rifle symbolism, 41, 74 Rivalry ethos: badal dynamic of, 64-65; feud elements of, 16, 66, 67, 70, 241n15; versus hierarchical ethos, 1034, 250n59; kinship foundation of, 6365, 66, 157, 158, 241n13, 26ofl44; and uprisings, tcfi-97, 266fl44 Rohani, Ahmad Gul: Jarobi tale by, 2046, 208-9, 211, 213, 214-15, 257028 The Rose Garden (Gulistan, Sa'di), 36, 239fl1 Rosen, Lawrence, 256nt8 Rule. See Kingship Rustam (mythic figure), 21 Sa'di, 239n1 Safi, Samiullah: at Afghan Information Center, 17-18; alternative episode by, 74-75; blinding interpretation of, 596o, 75; on friendship transgression, 71; interviews with, 19-20, 43-44; political role of, 18-19; storytelling style of, 44. 45, 47, 239n24; Sultan Muhammad's story told by, 33-43, 46, 112-13, 250n6t Safi tribe, 18, 34, 261 Sahibzada Muhammad Shwaib, 255n12 Sahlins, Marshall, 2 Said Akba~; Mulla, 194. 267D47 Saidullah: background stories of, 264n29; biographical sources fo~; 264n28; mad faqir status of, 187, 188, 264n29; miraculous claims of, 184, 188, 190; Mulla of Hadda and, 194, 265n37; in siege of Chakdara, 177, 2:1:8-:1:9, 263n5; as uprising catalyst, 179, 185 Saints (awliya): as axial figures, 20; location choice of, 256m7; manifestation of greatness by, 145; miracles of, 131, 144, 169-70. See also Mullas; Pirs · Salisbury, Lord, 190 Sapii; Edward, 238n21 Sarsaya (charitable donation), 258n34 Sayyid Abdullah Pacha, 251-53n7 Sayyid Ismail Pacha of lslampu~; 251:-53n7 Sayyids (descendants of Prophet Muhammad), 23 Sazman-i jawanan-i musulman (Muslim Youth Organization), 7, 235n7

I

"The Scaffolding of Rhetoric" (Churchill), t86-87, 190 The Scented Garden (Bustan, Sa'di), 36, 239fl1 Scribe skills, 35-36 Serkano Mia Sahib, 24 Seven Party Unity (ettehad-i haft gana), 22 Sexuality: women's representation of, 76, 243-45n26 Shabqader battle, :1:95, 265n38 Shahadat (declaration of faith), 249D45 Shahidan (Islamic martyrs), 198 Shah Khusrau, 42 Shah Mahmud, 62 Shahmund, 251m; Jarobi tale by, 29, 21o-14, 269nn64,65; on legacy of honor, 51, 240n3, 249D40 Shahnama (Firdausi), 21 Shaykh Sahib of Sangar, 261n53 Sher 'Ali Khan, 92, 93, 98, 99, 106, 107, 250n59 Shinwari tribe, 164 Sial (equal, rival), 63. See also Rivalry ethos Soc.culture.afghanistan (Internet newsgroup), 221, 269n1 Soc.culture.pakistan (Internet newsgroup), 221, 269n1 Sons. See Father-son relationship Spiritual genealogies, 137, :1:45, 256n15 Stanazai, Nasim, 245n1 . State (hukumat): legitimacy challenges to, 4; religion's tension with, 116-:1:7, 16267, 26ofl48, 261nfl49,52,55; tribes' relation with, 7-10, 18 States and Frontier Regions, Ministry of, 14 Stories: cultural value of, 20, 238m8; historical/mythic qualities of, 44-45, 48, 167-68; as historical source, 14-15, 237n15, 239n24; miracles as, 131-32; moral ambiguity of, 49-50, 17o-71, 217, 219; moralizing process of, 2, 25, 47, 73, 219; refugees' preoccupation with, 12-13; of saint's self-denial, 145· See also The Life of Abdur Rahman Khan; Mulla of Hadda's stories; Sultan Muhammad Khan's story

The Story of the Malakand Field Force: An Episode of Frontier War (Churchill), 263m

J06

I

Index

Street of the Storytellers (Qissa Khani), 1:2,1:4 Sufi Muhammad, Maulana, 221:-22, 223 Sufi order: in Afghanistan, 1:35, 254111:0; forms of jihad in, 1:43· zs6n23; jihad communication network of, 1:91:, 1:9394, 265nn36,37; "lifting the veil" metaphor of, 1:44, 2CJ8-9, 268n63; mystical mastery in, 1:44, 21:5, 257n26; obedience ethos of, 1:53, 1:.54-55, 259n38; spiritual exercises of, 1:35, 1:36-37, 1:43-44, 255n1:3, 257"24. See also Pirs Sufi Sahib of Batikot, 1:46, 1:49, 1:94, zs8nn33,J5 Suleiman Khel, 1:33, 1:34 Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, 222-23 Sultan Muhammad Khan: birth of son of, 36-37, 57; blinding of mother by, 37, 59""6o, 61:, 62, 71; cleverness of, 69, 70, 242n2o; cultural transgressions by, 596o, 61:, 1:1:9, 1:20, 1:21:, 25on61:; enemies' feud with, 38-41:; as exemplar of honor, 20, 6o, 21: 7; exile of, 56-57; father-son relationship of, 34-35, 53-5.5, 1:1:7-1:8; friendship sacrifice by, 40, 71-72; identity for, .54-.55· s6, 1:41:; patrilineage of, 33-34, .51:-52; punishment of son by, 41-43; revenge responsibtlity of, 58-.59; scribe skills of, 35-36, 57; vulnerability-independence dilemma of, 76-77, 1:25, 243n25; wife of, 57, 240n7; on women's role, 38, 4o-41:, 63, 1:o8 Sultan Muhammad Khan's story: Abdur Rahman's story and, 90o-93; alternate versions of, 46-48; as atypical feud story, 65-68, 241n1:6, 242n1u7,18; contradictory closings of, 73-75; defense of land in, 39, 69-70; as historical source, 239n24; Islamic principles in, 116; moral ambiguity of, 47-50, 7o-73, 170; mythic/historical elements of, 44-45, 48; obligation's insignificance in, 66-67, 118-19; text of, 33-43; textual persona of, 112-13, 114- us; violated hospitality/protection principles in, 67-68, 69, 71 . Swat: British relations in, 176-77; 1897 tribal uprising in, 172, 174-75, 177, 263n1; Islamic reform movement in, 221, 222-24; Charles Lindholm's research in, 72; rivalry in, 26on44 Swat Sahib. See Akhund of Swat

Tajiks, 237n14 Talabuddin Akhundzada: as akhundzada, 33, 51-.52, 134; father-son relationship of, 34-35, 53-5.5, 11:7-18; revenge for murder of, 6o-61; tarburs feud with, 46-48 Talebs (religious students), 194, 265n39 Tarburs (patrilineal parallel cousins): Abdur Rahman and Ishaq Khan, 108-1:0; rivalry between, 53-54, 64-65, 1.57-58, z6oJ144; Talabuddin and Paindo, 46-48 Tariqat system. See Sufi order Tashkent, 115 Three Party Unity (ettehad-i se guna), 22 Tirah district, 177 Titles, 14o-41:, 253n8, 256nt8 Torah, 42-43 Tribes (qaum): Churchill's analysis of, 178, 179"-81; common descent equals in, 63; differentiated land of, 27-28; in 1897 uprising, 196-97, 266"44; "factionalism within, 9, 11, 178, 236n9; genealogical connection in, 5o-51, 99-100, 102, 137, 256nt5; Hadda's proximity to, 139, 256n17; Islamic influence on, 9-10, 1:56, 163-64; jihad ambivalence of, 197, 218-19; jihad challenge to, 192--93, 265n36; kingship perspective of, 122; langar meeting ground for, 152, 259n36; mullas' interaction with, 19, .52-53, 168, 254n9, 262n59; punishment prerogative of, 12o-21:; purdah significance to, 207, 2o8, 268n61; as religious debate sponsors, 157; reputation concern of, 113; rivalry between, 53-54, 63-64, 66, 103, 1:.57-58, 196-97· 26o"44. 266"44; self-determination/ reciprocity ethos of, uS-19, 153; state's relation with, 7-10, 18; Sufi versus Mohmand depiction of, 211-13, 21,4. See also Pakhtun society Turangzai Sahib, 2.51-53n7 Turkistan, 109-10, 248-49n35 2oth Punjab Infantry, 203

The Unveiling of the Veiled (Kashfal-Mahjub, 'Ali bin Uthman alHujwiri), 2.57n26 Uprising of 1867, 265n36 Uprising of 1897: Abdur Khan's role in, 28, 178, 197--99, 218, 267nD47,48, z68nD49,.51; Churchill's perspective on,

Index 31, 178-81, 184; communications network in, 191, 193--94, 265nn36,37; as historic legacy, 30, 223-24; langar resources for, 194--96; miracles and, 18890; Mulla of Hadda's army in, 265n38; newspaper account of, 172, 174-75; participants in, 28; reasons for failure of, 196-201, 218, 266n044,45; research sources on, 29, 183; Saidullah's role in, 177, 184-85, 263n5; talebs' role in, 194, 265n39; tribal view of, 192--93, 2oo2o1, 265n35. See also Jarobi Glen stories Uprisings of 1_978, 8-10 'Ushr (charitable donation), 258n34 Ustad Sahib of Hadda, 146, 149, 204

I

Walis of Swat, 24004 War of the Safis (jang-i safi), 18 Wazir (minister), 62 Wazir Fateh Shah, 61-62 Weber, Max, 182 Westmacott, General, 203 White, Hayden, 2, 4, 73 Whorf, Benjamin, 238n21 Women: Abdur Rahman's view of, 249n38; men's vulnerability to, 108, 243n2 3; public ridicule, association with, 37, 75-76, 243-45n26; as peacemaking delegation, 38, 68-69, 211; surveillance powers of, 62-63 Women of Deh Koh (Friedl), 262n58 Yaghistan (land of the rebel), 27

"The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality" (White), 2 Veil. See "Lifting the veil" Victoria (queen of England), 175 Villages, 134-35, 254n9. See also Tribes Violence. See Punishment VOA (Voice of America), 221

Zahir Shah, 13, 16, 251n1 Zakat (charitable donation), 258n34 Zhobul, Maulavi Abdul Hakim, 256nn16,21, 257n29, 258nn33,J5 Zikrs (spiritual exercises), 136-37, 14344, 255013, 256n23, 257n24