Health and Physical Education Class 12 0513086293, 7554003654, 7066149006, 9789352721344

Table of contents :
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
PREFACE
SYLLABUS
CONTENTS
Planning in Sports
Sports and Nutrition
Yoga and Lifestyle
Physical Education and Sports for CWSN (Children with Special Needs–Divyang)
Children and Sports
Women and Sports
Test and Measurement in Sports
Physiology and Sports
Sports Medicine
Kinesiology,Biomechanics and Sports
Psychology and Sports
Training in Sports

Citation preview

Strictly according to the latest syllabus prescribed by the Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi

[For Class XII]

Dr V K Sharma MA, MPEd, PhD

Professor, Dept of Physical Education DAV College, Cheeka (Kaithal)

Haryana

New Saraswati House (India) Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi-110002 (INDIA)

Second Floor, MGM Tower, 19 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 (India) Phone : +91-11-43556600 Fax : +91-11-43556688 E-mail : [email protected] Website : www.saraswatihouse.com CIN : U22110DL2013PTC262320 Import-Export Licence No. 0513086293 Branches: • • • • • •

Ahmedabad (079) 22160722 • Bengaluru (080) 26619880, 26676396 Bhopal +91-7554003654 • Chennai (044) 28416531 • Dehradun 09837452852 Guwahati (0361) 2457198 • Hyderabad (040) 42615566 • Jaipur (0141) 4006022 Jalandhar (0181) 4642600, 4643600 • Kochi (0484) 4033369 • Kolkata (033) 40042314 Lucknow (0522) 4062517 • Mumbai (022) 28737050, 28737090 Nagpur +91-7066149006 • Patna (0612) 2275403 • Ranchi (0651) 2244654

Revised and updated edition 2018 ISBN: 978-93-5272-134-4 Published by: New Saraswati House (India) Pvt. Ltd. 19 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 (India) The moral rights of the author has been asserted.

© Reserved with the Publishers All rights reserved under the Copyright Act. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transcribed, transmitted, stored in a retrieval system or translated into any language or computer, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, magnetic, optical, chemical, manual, photocopy or otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. Product Code: NSS3HPE120PEDAC17CBN This book is meant for educational and learning purposes. The author(s) of the book has/ have taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. In the event the author(s) has/have been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for any corrective action.

PREFACE Nowadays, in the rapidly changing cultural environment, physical education is confronting a plethora of problems, challenges and opportunities. So, there is a need for teachers working in the field of physical education to keep themselves abreast of the developments which are changing the face of this area of s cholastic study. Along with this, in recent years, while there has been an almost exponential increase in the number of books in the field of physical education, there is still a lack of qualitative and valuable books so far. Keeping the above-mentioned points in mind, the present book has been revised to meet the exact demands as well as requirements of class XII students. It is written in a systematic manner so as to provide the widest possible exposure to the topics. Diagrams and photographs have been given to enhance clarity and better understanding of the concerned topic. I feel proud and privileged and would like to thank New Saraswati House (India) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi for showing keen interest in publishing this book. I hope that students and teachers would find this book useful in several ways. Their valuable suggestions for further improvement of this book are most welcome. —Author

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SYLLABUS THEORY

Max. Marks 70

UNIT I. PLANNING IN SPORTS    

 

Meaning and Objectives of Planning Various Committees and its Responsibilities (pre; during and post) Tournament – Knock-Out, League Or Round Robin and Combination Procedure to Draw Fixtures – Knock-Out (Bye and Seeding) and League (Staircase and Cyclic) Intramural and Extramural – Meaning, Objectives and its Significance Specific Sports Programme (Sports Day, Health Run, Run for Fun, Run for a Specific Cause and Run for Unity)

UNIT II. SPORTS AND NUTRITION   





Balanced Diet and Nutrition: Macro and Micro Nutrients Nutritive and Non-Nutritive Components of Diet Eating for Weight Control – A Healthy Weight, The Pitfalls of Dieting, Food Intolerance and Food Myths Sports Nutrition and its Effect on Performance (Fluid and Meal Intake, Pre, During and Post Competition) Food Supplement for Children

UNIT III. YOGA AND LIFESTYLE  









Asanas as Preventive Measures Obesity: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications for Vajrasana, Hastasana, Trikonasana, Ardhmatseyendrasana Diabetes: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications for Bhujangasana, Paschimottanasana, Pawan Muktasana, Ardhmatseyendrasana Asthma: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications for Sukhasana, Chakrasana, Gomukhasana, Parvatasana, Bhujangasana, Paschimottanasana, Matsyasana Hypertension: Tadasana, Vajrasana, Pawan Muktasana, Ardh Chakrasana, Bhujangasana, Shavasana Back Pain: Tadasana, Ardhmatseyendrasana, Vakrasana, Shalabhasana, Bhujangasana

UNIT IV. PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS FOR CWSN (CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS-DIVYANG)  

 

Concept of Disability and Disorder Types of Disability, its Causes and Nature (Cognitive Disability, Intellectual Disability, Physical Disability) Types of Disorder, its Cause and Nature (ADHD, SPD, ASD, ODD, OCD) Disability Etiquettes

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 

Advantage of Physical Activities for Children with Special Needs Strategies to Make Physical Activities Accessible for Children with Special Need.

UNIT V. CHILDREN AND SPORTS      



Motor Development and Factors Affecting it Exercise Guidelines at Different Stages of Growth and Development Advantages and Disadvantages of Weight Training Concept and Advantages of Correct Posture Causes of Bad Posture Common Postural Deformities - Knock Knee; Flat Foot; Round Shoulders; Lordosis, Kyphosis, Bow Legs and Scolioses Corrective Measures for Postural Deformities

UNIT VI. WOMEN AND SPORTS     

Sports Participation of Women in India Special Consideration (Menarch and Menstural Dysfunction) Female Athletes Triad (Osteoporosis, Amenorrhoea, Eating Disorders) Psychological Aspects of Women Athlete Sociological Aspects of Sports Participation

UNIT VII. TEST AND MEASUREMENT IN SPORTS 

  

 



Computation of Fat Percentage Slaughter – Lohman Children Skinfold Formula: Triceps and Calf Skinfold (Male 6 to 17 yrs - % body fat = (0.735 × sum of skinfold) + 1.0 (Female 6 to 17 yrs - % body fat = (0.610 × sum of skinfold) + 5.0 Measurement of Muscular Strength – Kraus Weber Test Motor Fitness Test – AAHPER General Motor Fitness – Barrow three-item general motor ability (Standing Broad Jump, Zig-Zag Run, Medicine Ball Put – For Boys: 03 Kg and For Girls: 01 Kg) Measurement of Cardio Vascular Fitness – Harvard Step Test/Rockport Test Computation of Fitness Index: Duration of the Exercise in Seconds × 100 5.5 × Pulse count of 1-1.5 Min after Exercise Rikli and Jones–Senior Citizen Fitness Test 1. Chair Stand Test for Lower Body Strength 2. Arm Curl Test for Upper Body Strength 3. Chair Sit and Reach Test for Lower Body Flexibility 4. Back Scratch Test for Upper Body Flexibility 5. Eight Foot Up and Go Test for Agility 6. Six Minute Walk Test for Aerobic Endurance

UNIT VIII. PHYSIOLOGY AND SPORTS  

Gender Differences in Physical and Physiological Parameters. Physiological Factor Determining Component of Physical Fitness

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

Effect of Exercise on Cardio Vascular System



Effect of Exercise on Respiratory System



Effect of Exercise on Muscular System



Physiological Changes due to Ageing



Role of Physical Activity Maintaining Functional Fitness in Aged Population

UNIT IX. SPORTS MEDICINE    

Concept, Aims and Scope of Sports Medicine Sports injuries: Classification, Causes and Prevention First Aid – Aims and Objectives Management of Injuries: Soft Tissue Injuries: (Abrasion, Contusion, Laceration, Incision, Sprain and Strain) Bone and Joint Injuries: (Dislocation, Fractures: Stress Fracture, Green Stick, Communated, Transverse Oblique and Impacted)

UNIT X. KINESIOLOGY, BIOMECHANICS AND SPORTS      

Introduction to Axes and Planes Types of Movements (Flexion, Extension, Abduction and Adduction) Major Muscles involved in Running, Jumping and Throwing Newton’s Laws of Motion and their Application in Sports Projectile and Factors Affecting Projectile Trajectory Friction and Sports

UNIT XI. PSYCHOLOGY AND SPORTS 



   

Understanding Stress and Coping Strategies (Problem Focussed and Emotional Focussed) Personality; its Definition and Types – Trait and Type (Sheldon and Jung’s Classification) and Big Five Theory Motivation, its Type and Techniques Exercise Adherence; Reasons to Exercise, Benefits of Exercise Strategies for Enhancing Adherence to Exercise Meaning, Concept and Types of Aggressions in Sports

UNIT XII. TRAINING IN SPORTS 





  

Strength – Definition, Types and Methods of Improving Strength – Isometric, Isotonic and Isokinetic Endurance – Definition, Types and Methods to Develop Endurance – Continuous Training, Interval Training and Fartlek Training Speed – Definition, Types and Methods to Develop Speed – Acceleration Run and Pace Run Flexibility – Definition, Types and Methods to Improve Flexibility Coordinative Abilities – Definition and Types Circuit Training – Introduction and its importance

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praCtICaL

max. marks 30

01. Physical Fitness – AAHPER

–10 Marks

02. Skills of any one Team Game of choice from the given list*

– 10 Marks

03. Viva

– 05 Marks

04. Record File**

– 05 Marks

* Athletics, Basketball, Football, Handball, Hockey, Kho Kho, Rifle Shooting, Volleyball and Unified Basketball [CWSN (Children With Special Needs-Divyang)] ** Record File shall include: Practical-1 : Modified AAHPER administration for all items. Practical-2 : Conduct Barrow 3 Item Test on 10 students. Practical-3 : Procedure for Asanas, Benefits and Contraindication for any two Asanas each lifestyle disease. Practical-4 : Procedure for administering Senior Citizen Fitness Test for 5 elderly family members. Practical-5 : Any one game of your choice out of the list above. Labelled diagram of field and equipment Rules, Terminologies and Skills). Note: 1. It is suggested that Unit No. III and VII may be taught by following the Principle of Learning by Doing. 2. Content is designed to complete the syllabus between 120-140 period.

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CONTENTS 1. Planning in Sports 1.1 Meaning and Objectives of Planning ............................................................................. 14 1.2 Various Committees and Their Responsibilities (pre, during and post) ..................... 15 1.3 Tournaments – Knock-out, League Or Round Robin and Combination ...................... 19 1.4 Procedure to Draw Fixtures – Knock-out (Bye and Seeding) and League (Cyclic and Staircase) ..................................................................................................... 25 1.5 Intramural and Extramural – Meaning, Objectives and Their Significance .............. 36 1.6 Specific Sports Programmes (Sports Day, Health Run, Run for Fun, Run for a Specific Cause and Run for Unity) ............................................................................. 40 2. Sports and Nutrition 2.1 Balanced Diet and Nutrition: Macro and Micro Nutrients .......................................... 47 2.2 Nutritive and Non-nutritive Components of Diet......................................................... 53 2.3 Eating for Weight Control – A Healthy Weight, the Pitfalls of Dieting, Food Intolerance and Food Myths .......................................................................................... 59 2.4 Sports Nutrition and its Effect on Performance (Fluid and Meal Intake, Pre, During and Post Competition) ....................................................................................... 66 2.5 Food Supplement for Children ....................................................................................... 70 3. Yoga and Lifestyle 3.1 Asanas as Preventive Measures .................................................................................... 75 3.2 Obesity: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications for Vajrasana, Pada Hastasana, Urdhva Hastasana, Trikonasana, Ardhmatseyendrasana ............. 77 3.3 Diabetes: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications for Bhujangasana, Paschimottanasana, Pawanmuktasana, Ardhmatseyendrasana................................. 81 3.4 Asthma: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications for Sukhasana, Chakrasana, Gomukhasana, Parvatasana, Bhujangasana, Paschimottanasana, Matsyasana ...... 84 3.5 Hypertension: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications Tadasana, Vajrasana, Pawanmuktasana, Ardha Chakrasana, Bhujangasana, Shavasana .......................... 89 3.6 Back Pain: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications Tadasana, Ardhmatseyendrasana, Vakrasana, Shalabhasana, Bhujangasana ........................... 93 4. Physical Education and Sports for CWSN (Children with Special Needs–Divyang) 4.1 Concept of Disability and Disorder ................................................................................ 99 4.2 Types of Disability, their Causes and Nature (Cognitive Disability, Intellectual Disability, Physical Disability) .................................................................................... 101 4.3 Types of Disorder, their Causes and Nature (ADHD, SPD, ASD, ODD, OCD) ........ 103 4.4 Disability Etiquettes .................................................................................................... 109 4.5 Advantages of Physical Activities for Children with Special Needs.......................... 110 4.6 Strategies to Make Physical Activities Accessible for Children with Special Needs... 111

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5. Children and Sports 5.1 Motor Development and Factors Affecting it .............................................................. 114 5.2 Exercise Guidelines at Different Stages of Growth and Development ...................... 118 5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Weight Training .................................................. 119 5.4 Concept and Advantages of Correct Posture............................................................... 121 5.5 Causes of Bad Posture .................................................................................................. 125 5.6 Common Postural Deformities (Knock-knee, Flatfoot, Round Shoulders, Lordosis, Kyphosis, Bow legs and Scoliosis)................................................................................ 127 5.7 Corrective Measures for Postural Deformities............................................................ 132 6. Women and Sports 6.1 Sports Participation of Women in India ...................................................................... 140 6.2 Special Consideration (Menarche and Menstrual Dysfunction)................................... 145 6.3 Female Athlete Triad (Osteoporosis, Amenorrhoea and Eating Disorders).............. 146 6.4 Psychological Aspects of Women Athlete .................................................................... 149 6.5 Sociological Aspects of Participation in Sports ........................................................... 150 7. Test and Measurement in Sports 7.1 Computation of Fat PercentageSlaughter-Lohman Children Skinfold Formula: Triceps and Calf Skinfold (Male 6 to 17 yrs - % body fat = (0.735 × sum of skinfold) + 1.0 (Female 6 to 17 yrs - % body fat = (0.610 × sum of skinfold) + 5.0 ............................ 156 7.2 Measurement of Muscular Strength: Kraus-Weber Test ........................................... 157 7.3 Motor Fitness Test: AAHPER ...................................................................................... 159 7.4 General Motor Fitness – Barrow Three-item General Motor Ability (Standing Broad Jump, Zig-Zag Run, Medicine Ball Put – For Boys: 03 kg and For Girls: 01 kg)...... 164 7.5 Measurement of Cardiovascular Fitness – Harvard Step Test/Rockport Test ......... 165 7.6 Computation of Fitness Index: Duration of the Exercise in Seconds × 100 5.5 × Pulse Count of 1-1.5 min after Exercise ............................................................. 168 7.7 Rikli and Jones: Senior Citizen Fitness Test .............................................................. 168 8. Physiology and Sports 8.1 Gender Differences in Physical and Physiological Parameters ................................. 177 8.2 Physiological Factors Determining the Component of Physical Fitness ................... 179 8.3 Effects of Exercises on Cardiovascular System .......................................................... 184 8.4 Effects of Exercises on Respiratory System ................................................................ 186 8.5 Effects of Exercises on Muscular System .................................................................... 187 8.6 Physiological Changes due to Ageing .......................................................................... 188 8.7 Role of Physical Activity in Maintaining Functional Fitness in Aged Population ... 190 9. Sports Medicine 9.1 Concept, Aims and Scope of Sports Medicine ............................................................. 194 9.2 Sports Injuries: Classification, Causes and Prevention ............................................. 197

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9.3 First Aid – Aims and Objectives .................................................................................. 207 9.4 Management of Injuries: Soft Tissue Injuries: (Abrasion, Contusion, Laceration, Incision, Sprain and Strain) Bone and Joint Injuries: (Dislocation of Joints, Fractures: Stress, Greenstick, Communated, Transverse Oblique and Impacted) ..................................................... 209 10. Kinesiology, Biomechanics and Sports 10.1 Introduction to Axes and Planes .................................................................................. 219 10.2 Types of Movements (Flexion, Extension, Abduction and Adduction) ...................... 220 10.3 Major Muscles Involved in Running, Jumping and Throwing ................................... 222 10.4 Newton’s Laws of Motion and their Application in Sports......................................... 224 10.5 Projectile and Factors Affecting Projectile Trajectory ................................................ 225 10.6 Friction and Sports ....................................................................................................... 228 10.7 Aerodynamics Principles .............................................................................................. 229 11. Psychology and Sports 11.1 Understanding Stress and Coping Strategies (Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused) ......................................................................................................... 233 11.2 Personality, its Definition and Types – Trait and Type (Sheldon’s and Jung’s Classification and Big Five Theory) ............................................................................ 239 11.3 Motivation, its Types and Techniques ......................................................................... 245 11.4 Exercise Adherence, Reasons to Exercise, Benefits of Exercise ................................ 249 11.5 Strategies for Enhancing Adherence to Exercise........................................................ 252 11.6 Meaning, Concept and Types of Aggressions in Sports .............................................. 254 12. Training in Sports 12.1 Strength – Definition, Types and Methods of Improving Strength – Isometric, Isotonic and Isokinetic.................................................................................................. 260 12.2 Endurance – Definition, Types and Methods to Develop Endurance – Continuous Training, Interval Training and Fartlek Training ..................................................... 263 12.3 Speed – Definition, Types and Methods to Develop Speed – Acceleration Run and Pace Run ....................................................................................................................... 266 12.4 Flexibility – Definition, Types and Methods to Improve Flexibility.......................... 269 12.5 Coordinative Abilities – Definition and Types ............................................................ 272 12.6 Circuit Training – Introduction and its Importance................................................... 274  Sample Paper ................................................................................................................ 281  Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 283

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11

Planning in Sports

leaRning Objectives 1.1 Meaning and Objectives of Planning 1.2 Various Committees and their Responsibilities (Pre, During and Post) 1.3 Tournaments–Knock-out, League or Round Robin and Combination 1.4 Procedure to Draw Fixtures: Knock-out (Bye and Seeding) and League (Cyclic and Staircase) 1.5 Intramural and Extramural: Meaning, Objectives and their Significance 1.6 Specific Sports Programmes (Sports Day, Health Run, Run for Fun, Run for a Specific Cause and Run for Unity)

Planning plays a vital role in every field of life. Physical education and sports play a significant role in the holistic development of an individual. In fact, overall development of an individual is really a difficult task without participation in regular programmes of physical education and sports. As a matter of fact, unachievable heights can be attained by involving in high quality programmes of physical education and sports. But proper and effective planning is required in the field of physical education and sports, for we cannot derive maximum benefits Planning in sports from the programmes of physical education and sports, without it. In most of the schools in India, there is lack of adequate planning in the field of sports. Generally, for participation in various tournaments, teams are selected at the eleventh hour. Players are not given proper training. They hardly get a few days to do practice. They are not properly motivated towards sports. How can we expect their holistic development to happen? In fact, a well-planned programme of physical education and sports is the need of the hour in our schools. PLANNING

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1.1 Meaning and Objectives of Planning

Meaning of Planning

Planning is the process of putting thoughts together and organising activities required to achieve a desired goal. Planning comprises the process of setting goals, developing strategies and outlining tasks and schedules to accomplish the goals. In simple words, planning is deciding in advance as to what is to be performed and when, where, how and by whom it is to be performed. In fact, planning is the process which helps us in reaching our goal efficiently and smoothly. It can also be said that a plan is a predetermined course of action to achieve a specified goal. The following definitions may be helpful to understand the clear-cut meaning of planning. 1. According to Mitchell, “Planning is usually interpreted as a process to develop a strategy to achieve desired objectives, to solve problems and to facilitate action”. 2. According to Allen, “A plan is a trap laid to capture the future”. In conclusion, it can be said that planning is an intellectual process of thinking in advance about setting goals and developing strategies which are required to attain the goals efficiently. However, in the field of physical education and sports there are various types of planning. Planning is related to organising various types of sport tournaments such as knockout tournaments, league tournaments, combination tournaments, challenge tournaments, etc. Planning is also related to sports training such as short-term and long-term training. Planning is necessary to make the best use of what is available so as to achieve the immediate and long-term aims. There are also training session plans, namely, weekly plans, meso-cycle plans, micro-cycle plans and annual plans. Planning is necessary for optimum development of all the factors on which the performance depends. It is also necessary for the regulation and evaluation of training process. Planning is also required to conduct an athletic meet. Planning is significant in every facet of life. If you want to reach the top or apex position, you will have to undertake proper planning. The attainment of good performance in the field of sports depends on effective planning.

Objectives of Planning

There are various objectives of planning, which are stated below: 1. To Reduce Unnecessary Pressure of Immediacy: When tournaments or competitions are conducted or organised without proper planning, there will be immense pressure to achieve certain results immediately. In such a hurry or immediacy, the job cannot be performed efficiently and smoothly. So, reducing unnecessary pressure of immediacy is an important objective of planning. If the organisers prepare a good plan beforehand, there will not be any unnecessary pressure. Perfect planning will naturally negate unnecessary pressure. 2. To Maintain a Good Control Over All the Activities: To maintain a good control over all the activities is another objective of planning. Planning and control are connected with each other. If tournaments or competitions are organised with a perfect plan, good control over all the activities related to that tournament will be easier. Planning helps in holding a good control in organising a tournament.

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3. to facilitate Proper coordination: This objective of planning is related to facilitate proper coordination among the various members of committees, which are formed for organising the competition smoothly. Without proper coordination among the officials of the tournament it will not be easy to conduct or organise a sports tournament. A proper planning helps in ensuring proper coordination. 4. to Reduce the chances of Mistakes: To reduce the chances of mistakes is also a significant objective of planning. A proper plan reduces the chances of mistakes and oversights. Although mistakes and oversights in any field cannot be avoided completely but they can be reduced up to some extent through proper planning. A number of mistakes in organising an event will not leave a good impression on the participants. 5. to increase efficiency: To increase the efficiency of sports officials in conducting sports events/competitions is one of the main objectives of planning. With the help of proper planning, the sports officials become more efficient. They perform their duties efficiently and effectively. It is one of the important aims of planning to increase the capability and efficiency of officials. 6. to enhance creativity: To enhance creativity is another significant objective of planning. As a matter of fact, a proper planning increases creativity among officials, coaches or physical education teachers. In fact, planning helps in innovative and creative thinking among sports officials because many new ideas are brought to the table by officials when they make a plan. 7. to enhance sports Performance: One of the significant objectives of planning is to enhance the sports performance of athletes or players. Without proper planning it is impossible to improve the performance of sportspersons. For example, a well-planned training in the field of sports is essential to enhance sports performance.

1.2 vaRiOUs cOMMittees and tHeiR ResPOnsibilities [PRe, dURing and POst] While organising sports events, various committees are formed for systematic and smooth conduct of competitions/tournaments. In fact, organising and conducting of sports events involve a lot of planning and preparation. Generally, there is a committee of management, which usually consists of one representative from each institution concerned. This General Committee takes complete responsibility for the success of a competition. It also forms various committees and delegates a variety of work among them. Sports committees for effective planning The General Committee is headed by an Administrative Director under whom the Executive Committee performs its duties. The Organising Committee for games/sports events works under the Executive Committee. PLANNING

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various committees for Organising track and field Meet/sports Administrative Director

Executive Committee Organising Committee for Games/Sports Publicity Committee

Boarding & Lodging Committee

Grounds & Equipment Committee

Reception Committee

Decoration & Ceremony Committee

Committee for Committee Entertainment & on Entries & Refreshments Programmes

Announcement Committee

First Aid Committee

Transportation Committee

Committee for Officials Finance Committee

The Organising Committee is mainly responsible for the successful and smooth conduct of the sports meet/sports events. Various committees are formed under this Organising Committee. The description of various committees and their responsibilities are stated below. 1. Publicity committee: The committee for publicity announces the date, venues and sports events, provides advance information to the institutions, undertakes printing, etc. Its main responsibility is to advertise sports events. 2. transportation committee: This committee is responsible for providing the facilities regarding transportation of various teams to the venue of sports events or to the place of boarding and lodging as the case may be. Its main duty is to make necessary arrangements for transportation. 3. boarding and lodging committee: Boarding and lodging committee is responsible for making necessary arrangements for providing accommodation and serving meals to the sportspersons and officials. 4. decoration and ceremony committee: The decoration and ceremony committee is responsible for the decoration of sports arena or stadium. It is also responsible for making necessary arrangements for the opening ceremony, victory ceremony and closing ceremony of the games/sports meet. This committee also makes arrangements for trophies, medals and certificates. 5. grounds and equipment committee: This committee is responsible for preparing the grounds or laying out the track and field. It also makes necessary arrangements of equipment related to the game/athletic meets. This committee is also responsible for providing equipment according to specifications.

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6. Committee for Refreshments and Entertainment: This committee takes charge of supplying refreshments and drinks to guests, officials, competitors, etc. It also makes some arrangements for entertainment programmes during the opening ceremony and closing ceremony of the sports events. 7. Reception Committee: The members of this committee are responsible for welcoming the chief guests at the opening and closing ceremonies. It is also the duty of this committee to welcome other guests and spectators.

8. Committee on Entries and Programmes: This committee sends entry forms to the various institutions early and receives them on time, allots numbers to the competitors and arranges the seats for guests and spectators. While organising games it also prepares fixtures of teams participating in the competition. It prepares the complete programme related to games/sports events and gets it printed. In fact, this committee prepares souvenirs and circulates them among guests, managers of the teams and officials. 9. Committee for Officials: This committee selects various officials such as referees, judges, recorders, clerks of the course, starters, marshalls, track umpires, time keepers and lap scorers for athletic meets and referees, umpires, time keepers, recorders, judges, etc., in case of games as per the requirement.

10. Announcement Committee: This committee is solely responsible for making various announcements during the sports meet or games. This committee gives information regarding the opening and closing ceremonies, which and when an event is going to take place, the names of officials, who are conducting the events and also gives running commentry of games/sports event.

11. First Aid Committee: First aid committee is headed by a well-qualified doctor. This committee provides first aid to the injured or affected athlete/sportsperson immediately. This committee makes all necessary arrangements for providing help much before the sports events are organised because athletes or sportspersons may get injuries during the competitions.

12. Finance Committee: This committee is related to financial management. It prepares the budget and maintains the account of income and expenditure.

Pre, During and Post Tournament Responsibilities of Committees Nowadays participation in the field of games and sports is on the rise when compared to yester decades. So, it becomes the primary duty of the officials to organise any sports tournament or sports event in a magnificent and splendid way. So, for smooth conduct of any sports event/tournament, it is essential for the officials of the tournament to know the pre-, during and post game, responsibilities or duties. The responsibilities of officials of the various committees can be classified as stated below. Pre-Tournament Responsibilities The pre-tournament responsibilities/duties of the various committee officials are performed before the commencement of the tournament or sports event. The main pre-game responsibilities are as follows. Planning

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(a) To prepare the budget of the tournament/sports event with the authority because without sufficient budget it may be difficult to organise the tournament in a splendid and systematic way. (b) To prepare the schedule or programme of the sports tournament i.e., the dates and venue of the tournament.

(c) To prepare sports grounds/courts/track, sports equipment which are essential for organising a sports tournament.

(d) To form the various committees for organising sports tournament.

(e) To send the information to the various teams about dates and venues of the tournament.



(f) To make necessary arrangement regarding boarding and lodging of sportspersons and officials.

(g) To arrange prizes and certificates for winners. (h) To send the entry forms to the various institutions early and receive them on time for timely preparation of fixtures. During Tournament Responsibilities For organising a sports tournament/event smoothly, the following responsibilities or duties during the game or tournament are essential to be followed by the officials of the various committees. (a) To ensure proper arrangement during inauguration of sports tournament. (b) To check that the sports ground/field/court and related sports equipment are in order.

(c) To ensure that the sports events/tournament is being organised as per schedule.

(d) To check the arrangement of refreshments to players and officials.

(e) To make necessary announcements regarding the progress of the tournament.



(f) To impart first aid to the injured athletes/sportspersons.

(g) To prepare proper scoresheet for record. (h) To provide and update information to the electronic and print media.

(i) To maintain proper discipline.

Post Tournament Responsibilities The following responsibilities are performed by the officials after the tournament. (a) To give away the prizes and certificates to the winners. (b) To provide detailed results and other necessary information to the media.

(c) To provide security refunds to the departing teams.

(d) To collect all the records/files related to the sports tournament.

(e) To make the payments to the officials and other concerned persons.



(f) To prepare reports related to the expenditure of the tournament.

(g) To present mementos to the chief guest or guest of honour, etc.

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1.3 tOURnaMents–KnOcK-OUt, leagUe OR ROUnd RObin and cOMbinatiOn

tournament

Competing in physical activities has been the natural tendency of human beings since the beginning of the Stone Age. Then, there were no rules and regulations. ‘Might is right’ was the main principle in those days. With the passage of time, some rules came into existence, and competitions began to be held in civilised ways. Now, the competitions or tournaments are held according to set rules and regulations. The tournaments are organised at various levels such as zonal, district, state, national and international levels. Olympic games and World Cups are National and international tournaments organised in a splendid and magnificent way. These sports competitions or tournaments provide recreation to the spectators, which helps them in reducing stress and tension of their day-to-day life. These tournaments are helpful in the holistic development of participants. In fact, a tournament is that series of sports in which one team finally wins and rest of the teams lose the matches. Before organising a tournament, it is very essential to prepare a good plan. There are various methods to organise a tournament. To select the best method depends upon various factors such as the number of participating teams, the type of facilities of ground equipment, the number of officials available and the duration of the tournament.

importance of tournaments Tournaments are very important in the field of sports. Players participate in tournaments with a great zeal and zest. The tournaments are significant not only to the players but to the coaches and physical education teachers also. The importance of tournaments is described below. 1. development of sports skills: By participating in tournaments sportsmen develop various skills of sports. The maximum number of participation in tournaments not only develops technical skills of the sports but also tactical skills. Sportspersons acquire efficiency in skills and finally, they show marked improvement in the game. 2. Propaganda of sports: Tournaments are helpful in publicising the sports. When a tournament of a new sport is organised, the spectators come to know about that sport. Thus, it creates interest in that sport. 3. Helpful in the selection of Players: In a tournament, good players can be selected easily by observing their performance in the tournament. The players who give good performance, can be selected for upper level tournaments. So, a tournament is an appropriate way to select a good team of players. PLANNING

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4. Development of National and International Integration: Sports tournaments are helpful in developing national integration as well as international unity and brotherhood. A tournament is one of the best means of enhancing international peace. 5. Development of Social Qualities: Social traits such as tolerance, sympathy, cooperation, group cohesion, brotherhood, discipline, etc., are developed among participants through sports tournaments. Other ethical values such as fair play, justice, honesty, respect for others are also developed through sports tournaments. 6. Source of Recreation: Sports tournaments provide ample recreation to the spectators. To maximise recreation, organisers do not hesitate to make a large expenditures. That is why, a large number of people go to watch the Olympic games and World Cups of various games and sports. So, a tournament is a good source of recreation.

Types of Tournaments

There are four types of tournaments, which are mentioned below. 1. Knock-out Tournament 2. League or Round Robin Tournament 3. Combination Tournament 4. Challenge Tournament 1. Knock-out Tournament Most of the tournaments are organised on the basis of knock-out. In this type of tournament, a team which is once defeated, automatically gets eliminated from the tournament. Only the winning teams continue in the tournament. It means that the defeated team does not get a second opportunity. Opportunities are given to the winning teams or players. For example, if four teams participate in the knock-out tournament, the winning team is declared in the following way. Teams I R II R A B – Winner B D – Winner C D – Winner D In the 1st round, teams A and B as well as teams C and D play their matches. If team B and team D become the winners of the Ist round, these teams, i.e., teams B and D get opportunity to play in the IInd round and team A and team C will be eliminated from the tournament. Finally, if team D wins, then it is declared the winner of the tournament. Advantages of the Knock-out Tournament 1. The knock-out tournaments are less expensive because the team that gets defeated, is eliminated from the competition. 2. The knock-out tournament is helpful in enhancing the standard of sports, because each team tries to give the best performance to avoid defeat. 3. Owing to less number of matches, the tournament gets completed in less time. 4. Minimum number of officials are required in organising such types of tournaments.

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Disadvantages of Knock-out Tournament

1. There may be many chances of elimination of good teams in the Ist or IInd round. So, good teams may not reach the final round.



2. There are more chances of weak teams to enter the final round.



3. Spectators may lose interest in the final match if weak teams reach in final round.

2. League or Round Robin Tournament League tournament is also called ‘Round Robin Tournament’. Mr Berger was the first person to imagine the league tournament and owing to that, this tournament is also called ‘Berger System’. According to this tournament, each team plays with every other team once if it is a single league tournament. If it is a double league tournament, each team plays with every other team twice. In these types of tournaments, every team plays with every other team irrespective of victory or defeat. It can be called the best type of tournament because it provides maximum number of opportunities to the teams to display their best performance. In fact, there is no element of chance and the real winner is picked up easily at the end. Types of League Tournament There are two types of league tournaments, which are mentioned below.

1. Single League Tournament: In the single league tournament, every team plays with every other team once and the number of matches is determined with the help of the following formula.



N (N − 1) 2



Here, ‘N’ means the number of teams taking part in a tournament. For example, if 7 teams are taking part in a tournament, the number of total matches that will be held is given below. 7 (7 − 1) 7 (6) 42 = = 21 matches. = 2 2 2



2. Double League Tournament: In the double league tournament, every team plays with the other team twice. The number of matches is determined with the help of following formula.



N (N – 1)

If 9 teams are taking part in a double league tournament, the total number of matches that will be held is given below.

N (N – 1) = 9 (9 – 1) = 9 (8) = 72 matches.

Advantages of League Tournament: Following are the advantages of a league tournament.



1. Only strong or deserving team gets victory in the tournament.



2. Every team gets maximum opportunities to show its efficiency or performance. Planning

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3. Sports and games can be made more popular through league tournament owing to maximum number of matches.



4. In such type of tournament, the sports officials do not face any difficulty while selecting or determining the appropriate players or team. They have enough time to watch the efficiency and performance of a player.



5. A team need not wait to win against the other team for playing a match.



6. Ample number of opportunities are available to the players to improve their performance.



7. The spectators also get good opportunity to watch the games for many days.

Disadvantages of the League Tournament: Following are the disadvantages of the league the tournament.

1. It requires more time.



2. It costs more.



3. The teams coming from far and wide generally face more problems because such tournaments waste their time and money.



4. It requires making more arrangements for sports officials and teams.



5. Moral of most of the teams becomes low due to their defeat again and again. In such situations, these teams are unable to show good performance. That is why, the spectators are devoid of wholesome recreation.

3. Combination Tournaments Combination tournaments are conducted when the matches are to be played on group basis or zonal basis. As a matter of fact, these tournaments depend on the suitability of the activity, the number of participating teams and the areas and distance from which they come to participate. For example, in case of national-level competition, it becomes difficult for all the state teams to reach the designated place for tournament. To avoid such a type of difficulty, at least four zones can be made and a tournament can be organised at a central place in each zone. After that the winner of each zone can participate at the national level. Depending upon the number of teams in each zone and the availability of time, the tournament can be organised on the basis of knock-out or league and after that at national level the tournament can also be conducted either on knock-out or league basis. Usually, the following combinations of tournaments are used.

1. Knock-out cum Knock-out

2. League cum League



3. Knock-out cum League

4. League cum Knock-out

The description of the above-mentioned combination tournaments is given below. 1. Knock-out cum Knock-out In this type of tournament, the total number of teams are divided into four equal zones. First of all the teams of each zone play on knock-out basis. In this way, a team becomes the winner from each zone. All the four winner teams again play their matches on knock-out basis. The team that wins in the final becomes the winner of the inter-zonal tournament.

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Example: Zonal Tournament on Knock-out basis 1 1 2 2 Zone A

3 Winner–A Zone B

3

Winner–B

4 4 1 1 2 2 Zone C 3 Winner–C Zone D 3

Winner–D

4 4 Example: Inter-zonal Tournament on Knock-out basis

Winner–A Winner–B Winner–C

– Winner

Winner–D 2. League cum League In this type of tournament, total number of teams are divided into four zones. All the teams play their matches in their respective zones on league basis. One team from each zone becomes the zonal winner. It is called the zonal or group tournament. After that all the zonal winner teams again play the matches on league basis and one team becomes the winner of the inter-zonal or group tournament. Example: Group or Zonal Tournament on League basis

1—2 Zone A 1—3 2—3 Winner–A Zone B 1—4 2—4 3—4 1—2 Zone C 1—3 2—3 Winner–C Zone D 1—4 2—4 3—4

1—2

1—3 2—3

1—4 2—4 3—4 1—2

1—3 2—3

1—4 2—4 3—4

Winner–B

Winner–D

Example: Inter-group or Zonal Tournament on League basis A—B

A—C B—C



A—D B—D C—D

—Winner

3. Knock-out cum League All the teams are divided into four zones. First of all the teams play their matches in their respective zones on knock-out basis and one team becomes the winner from each zone. After that, the four winner teams again play their matches on league base and one team becomes the winner of the inter-group or zone tournament. Planning

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Example: Group or Zonal Tournament on Knock-out basis 1 1

2 2 Zone A 3 Winner–A Zone B 3 Winner–B 4 4 1 1 2 2 Zone C 3 Winner–C Zone D 3 Winner–D 4 4 Example: Inter-group or Zonal Tournament on League basis



A —B A—C  B—C — Winner A—D B—D C—D

4. League cum Knock-out Tournament All the teams are divided into four zones. All the teams play their matches in their respective zones on league basis. One team from each zone or group becomes the winner. It is called the zonal tournament. After that, the four winner teams play their matches on knock-out basis and one team becomes the winner of the inter group or zonal tournament. Example: Group or Zonal Tournament on League basis 1—2

Zone A 1—3 2—3 Winner–A 1—4 2—4 3—4 1—2 Zone B 1—3 2—3 Winner–B 1—4 2—4 3—4 1—2 Zone C 1—3 2—3 Winner–C 1—4 2—4 3—4 Zone D 1—2 1—3 2—3 Winner–D 1—4 2—4 3—4 Example: Inter-group or Zonal Tournament on Knock-out basis

Winner—A Winner—B Winner—C Winner—D

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— Winner

1.4 Procedure to Draw Fixtures: Knock-out (Bye and seeding) and League (Cyclic and Staircase)

Essential Points for a Knock-out Tournament

To prepare the fixtures for a knock-out tournament is a significant step. The following points must be taken into consideration while preparing fixtures. 1. The total number of teams participating in the tournament. 2. The total number of byes. 3. The number of teams in each half or quarter. 4. The number of byes to be given in each half or quarter. 5. The total number of rounds. 6. The total number of matches.

Method of Preparing Fixture in a Knock-out Tournament

In a knock-out tournament, the total number of matches can be calculated by subtracting one from the total number of teams. For example, if 8 teams are participating in the tournament, then the number of total matches will be, 8 –1 = 7. It means that there will be only 7 matches in the tournament. These teams, i.e., 8 teams should be divided into two halves. It is possible only if the total number of teams is the power of 2 such as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64, etc. It is very easy to draw the fixtures in such a case. The total number of teams is divided into equal halves and then matches are decided by draw of lots. If the total number of teams is not the power of 2 such as 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, etc., then byes are given. The teams, which are given byes, do not play in the first round. Byes are given in the first round because of which the number of teams playing in the later rounds is reduced to a power of 2. In fact, a bye refers to a dummy team that does not play in the first round but participates in the second round. The number of byes in a fixture is the actual difference between the number of teams participating in the tournament and the next highest number which is the power of 2. Example 1: How many byes will be given if 15 teams are participating in a tournament? Solution: Total number of teams = 15 Next highest number of power of two = 16 Difference between the total number of teams and the next highest number in power of 2 = 16–15 =1 Hence, 1 bye will be given. Example 2: How many byes will be given if 19 teams are participating in a tournament? Solution: Total number of teams = 19 Next highest number, which is in power of 2 = 32 Difference = 32–19 = 13 Hence, 13 byes will be given.

Method of Calculating Teams in Each Half

If the number of teams is in the power of 2, it becomes easy to divide the teams into two halves. But if the number of teams is not in the power of 2, the following procedure is applied. Planning

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Upper Half = It means

N +1 , where ‘N’ is the total number of teams. 2

Lower Half = It means

Total number of teams + 1 2

Total number of tearms − 1 2

N −1 , where ‘N’ is the total number of teams. 2

Example 1: How many teams will be kept in the upper half and the lower half if 11 teams are participating in a tournament?

Solution: Total number of teams = 11

Teams in the upper half =

N + 1 11 + 1 12 = = = 6 teams 2 2 2



Teams in the lower half =

N − 1 11 − 1 10 = = = 5 teams 2 2 2

Example 2: How many byes will be given in total in the upper half and the lower half if the total number of teams is 11? Solution:

Total number of teams = 11 Next highest power of 2 = 16 Difference = 16 –11 = 5 Byes

Number of byes in the upper half =



Number of byes in the lower half =

NB − 1 5 − 1 4 = = = 2 byes 2 2 2

[NB stands for the total number of byes] NB + 1 5 + 1 6 = = = 3 byes 2 2 2

Method of Fixing Byes The total number of teams (in case of 11 teams) from 1 to 11 is written on a plain paper. After that lots are drawn and the names of teams are written against their numbers. Then the total number of teams is divided into two halves. After that the byes are fixed in the upper and lower halves in the following order.

1. The first bye is given to the last team of the lower half.



2. The second bye is given to the first team of the upper half.



3. The third bye is given to the first team of the lower half.



4. The fourth bye is given to the last team of the upper half.



5. The next bye or byes will be given in the same order as described above.

If the total number of teams is 11, the following method is applied to fix the byes.

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Teams I R II R III R IV R 1 IInd Bye 4 –Winner 2 1 –Winner Upper Half 3 8 –Winner 4 2 –Winner 5 – Winner 5 6 IVth Bye   10 –Winner

7 IIIrd Bye

6 –Winner 8 3 –Winner Lower Half 9 9 –Winner 10 Vth Bye 7 –Winner 11 Ist Bye

Number of Matches in a Knock-out Tournament The number of matches in knock-out tournament is (N-1), where ‘N’ denotes the number of teams partcipating in a tournament. For example, if 11 teams are participating in a knock-out tournament, the number of matches will be as follows.  N -1 = 11-1 = 10 matches Number of Rounds in a Knock-out Tournament If the number of participating teams in the power of 2, (in case of 16 teams), the number of rounds will be 2  ×  2  ×  2  ×  2  =  4 rounds. If the number of participating teams is not in the power of 2, the number of rounds will be based on the next highest power of 2. Suppose, there are 10 teams, the next highest power of 2 is 16. The number of rounds will be 2  ×  2  × 2  ×  2 = 4 rounds. If the number of teams is 19, the number of rounds will be 2  ×  2  ×  2  ×  2  ×  2  =  5 rounds, because the next highest power of 2 is 32. Number of Teams in Each Quarter If the number of teams is less, the teams are divided into upper half and lower half only. On the other hand, if the number of teams is more, teams are divided into upper and lower halves and these halves are further divided into two parts. It means that the upper half has two quarters, i.e., I quarter and II quarter and the lower half has III quarter and IV quarter. For determining the number of teams in each quarter, the total number of teams is divided by 4. If the remainder remains zero, there will be 4 quarters with equal number of teams. If the remainder remains 1, the first quarter will comprise 1 extra team, whereas, the remaining quarters will have equal number of teams. If the remainder remains 2, then each quarter (I and III) will have 1 extra team and the II and IV quarters will comprise the same number of teams. If the remainder remains 3, each quarter (I, II and III) will have 1 extra team. This procedure can be easily understood with the help of the following table. Planning

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Number of Teams

Ist Quarter

IInd Quarter

IIIrd Quarter

IVth Quarter

28

7

7

7

7

29

7+1

7

7

7

30

7+1

7

7+1

7

31

7+1

7+1

7+1

7

32

8

8

8

8

33

8+1

8

8

8

34

8+1

8

8+1

8

Fixtures on Knock-out Basis

Example 1: Draw a fixture of 11 teams on knock-out basis. Solution: Total number of teams = 11 N + 1 11 + 1 12 = = = 6 teams Number of teams in the upper half = 2 2 2 N − 1 11 − 1 10 = = = 5 teams Number of teams in the lower half = 2 2 2 Total number of byes = 16 -11 = 5 Byes NB − 1 5 − 1 4 = = = 2 byes Number of byes in the upper half = 2 2 2 NB + 1 5 + 1 6 = = = 3 byes Number of byes in lower half = 2 2 2 Number of rounds = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 4 rounds

Number of matches = N -1 = 11-1 = 10

Teams



I R II R III R IV R

1

Bye IInd

4 – Winner 1 –Winner 2



Upper Half 3

8 –Winner 4 5 2 –Winner 5 – Winner 6 Bye IVth   10 – Winner 6 – Winner 8 3 – Winner 9 – Winner Lower Half 9

28



7



10 Bye Vth



11 Bye Ist

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Example 2: Draw a fixture of 19 teams on a knock-out basis. Solution: Total number of teams = 19

Total number of matches = 19 – 1 = 18

Number of teams in the upper half =

N + 1 19 + 1 20 = = = 10 teams 2 2 2



N − 1 19 − 1 18 = = = 9 teams 2 2 2

Number of teams in the lower half =



Total number of byes = 32 – 19 = 13 byes



Number of byes in the upper half =

NB − 1 13 − 1 12 = = = 6 byes 2 2 2



Number of byes in the lower half =

NB + 1 13 + 1 14 = = = 7 byes 2 2 2



Number of rounds = 2  ×  2  ×  2  ×  2  ×  2 = 5 rounds

Teams in each quarter



= I Quarter



= II Quarter = Q + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5 teams



= III Quarter = Q + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5 teams



= IV Quarter = Q = 4 = 4 teams



Number of byes in each quarter = I quarter = 3–6 Byes (Upper half) = II quarter = 3 = III quarter = 3–7 Byes (Lower half) = IV quarter = 4



Teams I R II R III R IV R V R



= Q + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5 teams

1 Bye

4 2 Bye

Q.1. 3 Bye

12

5 4 1 5

16

Upper Half 6

2 7



Q.2. 8 Bye



6

13 9 Bye 7 10 Bye

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11 Bye

8 12 Bye



Q.3. 13 Bye 14 9 14 3 15 Lower Half



16 Bye 10 17 Bye



Q.4. 18 Bye 11 19 Bye

17

15

Consolation Tournament In a knock-out tournament, the team once defeated is eliminated or it can be said that such team does not get second opportunity to play after losing a match. In a knock-out tournament, a good team can be eliminated if by chance it plays with another equally good team in the first round. It may be a setback to that team. Therefore, a consolation tournament is organised but it depends solely on the organisers, whether they organise it or not. In a consolation tournament, one additional chance is given to the defeated teams. In this tournament, the winner is declared from the defeated teams. The consolation tournament is of two types which are discussed below. 1. First Type: In this type of consolation tournament, each team gets two opportunities to play the matches. The teams that are defeated in the first round get the opportunity to play in this type of tournament. Byes are given to those teams which did not get byes in the regular knock-out tournament. Example: Draw a fixture of 9 teams.

Solution: Total number of teams = 9



Number of total byes = 16 – 9 = 7

Regular Rounds   Teams I R II R III R IV R

30

1 3 5

1 Bye 2 2 Bye 4 3 4 4 5 Bye

7 8

6 Bye 6 7 Bye 8 Bye 9 9 Bye

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Consolation Round

(Encircled teams are defeated teams in the Ist round)



Total number of defeated teams = 5



Number of byes = 8 – 5 = 3 byes   Teams I R II R III R

1 Bye 1 3  5 5   –7 Winner 7 Bye 7 8 Bye 2. Second Type: In this type of consolation tournament, the teams defeated in all the rounds are given an additional opportunity to take part in the competition. Example: Draw a fixture of 8 teams. Solution: Regular Round Teams I R II R III R 1 1 2 1 3 3 4 –1 Winner 5 5 6 5 7 7 8 In the above fixture of 8 teams, the teams numbers 2, 4, 6 and 8 are the losers of the I round, 3 and 7 are the losers of the II round and the team number 5 is the loser of the III round. Consolation Round

I R II R III R IV R 2

2 — 3 3 4 7 — 5 –7 Winner 6 6 — 7 7 8

Seeding Method There is always a possibility in a knock-out tournament that strong teams may be paired with weak teams or all strong teams might have been grouped in the upper half or the lower half. In this way, some strong teams have the possibility to be eliminated in the preliminary round. So this may be a setback to the strong teams. To avoid such a situation, seeding method is used. In this method, the strong teams are selected to keep them at appropriate place in the fixture. For the selection of strong teams, the organisers must be well Planning

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aware of the previous performance of teams. If two teams are to be seeded, then one team is kept on the top of the upper half and the second team is kept in the last of the lower half. If 4 teams are to be seeded, the first two teams will be kept at the places mentioned above. The third seeded team will be kept on the top of the lower half and the fourth seeded team will be kept at the lowest place in the upper half. Generally, the number of seeded teams shall be in the power of 2, i.e., 2, 4, 8,16, etc. All the teams except the seeded teams are kept in the fixture by lots. Example : Draw a fixture of 11 teams, out of which 4 teams are to be seeded. Solution:

Number of teams = 11

Number of byes = 16 –11 = 5

Number of teams in upper half =

N + 1 11 + 1 12 = = = 6 teams 2 2 2

Number of teams in lower half =

N − 1 11 − 1 10 + = = 5 teams 2 2 2

Number of byes in upper half =

NB − 1 5 − 1 4 + = = 2 byes 2 2 2

Number of byes in lower half =

NB + 1 5 + 1 6 = = = 3 byes 2 2 2



Number of matches = N – 1 = 11-1 = 10 matches



Number of rounds = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 4 rounds

Number of seeded teams = 4 Fixtures

Teams I R II R III R IV R

1

Bye (Seeded)



2

Upper Half

3



4



5



6

Bye (Seeded)



7

Bye (Seeded)

Lower Half

8



9



10 Bye



11 Bye (Seeded)

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–Winner

Special Seeding In special seeding, the seeded players participate directly in the quarter-final or semi-final. They need not wait for longer duration. Example: I f 20 players are participating in a Table Tennis Tournament on knock-out basis, and four players are to be kept in special seeding, draw their fixtures. Solution: Teams I R II R III R IV R V R

1

Seeded-Q-Final

2

Q.1 3

4 Upper Half 5 6 7

Q.2 8

9

10 Seeded-Q-Final

–Winner

11 Seeded-Q-Final 12

Q.3 13

14 15 Lower Half 16

17

Q.4 18

19 20 Seeded-Q-Final

Procedure of Fixture in a League or Round Robin Tournament The following methods are used for fixtures in a league tournament: 1. Cyclic Method 2. Staircase Method 3. Tabular Method Planning

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1. Cyclic Method: In the cyclic method, if the number of teams is in even number, team number 1 is fixed on the top of the right hand side and then move other team numbers are in ascending order consecutively downward and then moves upward on the left side. If the number of teams is in odd number, the bye is fixed on the top of the right side as seen in the given below. The rest of the procedure remains the same. Teams are rotated in the clockwise direction. If the number of teams is in even number, the number of rounds will be (N–1). On the other hand, if the number of teams is in odd number, the number of rounds will remain the same, that is, equal to the number of teams. Example 1: Draw a fixture of 6 teams on league basis according to the cyclic method. Solution: Total number of teams = 6

Total number of matches =

= Fixtures

N (N − 1) 2 6 (5)

=

2

=

30 2

6 (6 − 1) 2

=15 matches

Number of rounds = N – 1 = 6 – 1 = 5 rounds

Example 2: Draw a fixture of 5 teams on league basis according to the cyclic method. Solution: Total number of teams = 5

N (N − 1)

Total number of matches =

=

2 5×4 2

=

20 2

=

5 (5 − 1) 2

=10 matches.

Total number of rounds = N = 5 rounds. Fixtures

Example 3: Draw a fixture of 8 teams on league basis according to the cyclic method. Solution: Total number of teams = 8



34

N (N − 1)

8 (8 − 1)

8 × 7 56 = = 28 Matches 2 2 2 2 Number of rounds = N – 1 = 8 – 1 = 7 rounds.

Total number of matches =

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Fixtures I R

II R III R IV R V R VI R VII R



8 1

7 1

6 1

5 1

4 1

3 1

2

1



7 2 6 8 5 7 4 6 3 5 2 4 8 3

6 3 5 2 4 8 3 7 2 6 8 5 7 4 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 2. Staircase Method: In the staircase method, fixtures are made just like a ladder or a staircase. This method is the easiest because no bye is given to any team and there is no problem of odd and even number of teams. Example: Draw a fixture of 9 teams on league basis according to the staircase method. Solution: Fixtures 1-2



1-3 2-3 1-4 2-4 3-4 1-5 2-5 3-5 4-5 1-6 2-6 3-6 4-6 5-6 1-7 2-7 3-7 4-7 5-7 6-7 1-8 2-8 3-8 4-8 5-8 6-8 7-8 1-9 2-9 3-9 4-9 5-9 6-9 7-9 8-9

Method of Deciding the Winner in a League Tournament

If a team gets maximum points in a tournament, it is declared the winner of the tournament. The following way is used to give the points. Winner of the match = 2 points Loser of the match = 0 point Draw = 1 point If the points are equal in case of two teams, a match is held again. But if it remains a draw, the team which won the maximum number of matches is declared as the winner. If the tie still remains, the team that scored maximum number of goals is declared as the winner. If the tie still remains, a match is held again between these teams. If there is a draw again, the winner is declared by a toss. In addition to this, other methods are also used to declare the winner. 1. British Method: Divide the total points obtained by the total possible points. For example, if a team plays 8 matches in a tournament and wins 6 matches and 2 remain draw, the percentage of points will be Total points = 12 + 2 = 14 Possible points = 16 Total points obtained × 100 Percentage of points = Total possible points Planning

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Percentage of points

=

14 × 100 = 87.5 16



2. American Method: Divide the number of games won by the total number of games played. If a team plays 8 games and wins 5 games in a tournament, then Matches won × 100 Percentage = Matches played Its percentage will be

=

5 × 100 = 62.5 8

In this way the percentage of other teams may be calculated. In this method, tie is not counted.

1.5 Intramural and Extramural: Meaning, Objectives and their Significance

Meaning of Intramural The word ‘Intramural’ is derived from the Latin words ‘Intra’ and ’Muralis’. ’Intra’ means ‘within’ and ‘Muralis’ means ‘wall’. It means that the activities which are performed within the walls or within the campus of an institution are called ‘intramurals.’ These activities are organised only for the students of a school or an institution. No student of other schools can participate in these activities. In fact, intramural competition is one of the best means to motivate all the students of an institution for taking part in the games and sports. ‘A game for each and each for a game’ may be considered the motto of intramurals. There is no doubt that regular physical education programmes develop good habits, skills, knowledge and other social qualities in the students but the effective programmes of intramurals may enhance further development. Various competitions of sports and games such as at the levels of block, zone, district, state as well as at national are held every year for the students but all the students cannot participate in these competitions. It is usually seen that approximately 5 per cent students of a school are selected to participate in such competitions. Have we ever thought about the remaining percentage of students of a school? The intramural programmes can solve this problem because these programmes offer ample opportunities for voluntary participation and competition among the students in the same institution. These activities are the most pleasurable as well as enjoyable for the students. They get maximum educational benefits from such competitions. So, a large number of students must be involved in a wide range of intramural activities.

Origin of Intramurals It is well known that children have a tendency to play. It is an innate or inborn instinct in them. They used to take part in such activities within the walls of their school in the ancient period also during their leisure time. Probably, it was the beginning of intramurals. With the passage of time, these activities were developed in a systematic way and termed as intramurals. In the USA, the intramural of baseball was organised in 1864. After that in the beginning of the 20th century, some progressive physical education

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teachers showed interest in intramurals and they realised that through intramurals, physical education can be developed more extensively. In 1925, every high school started the mission to establish intramural department in the USA. As a result of such focus on developing intramurals, the programmes of physical education are not considered complete and successful if intramurals are not organised in every school or institution. But in India, we lag behind in this field. As a matter of fact, there are various reasons behind the failure of intramurals taking off in India. The foremost reason is the materialistic approach of most of the people involved.The maximum number of parents want their children to devote maximum time on studies. Such parents are not concerned with the physical and social development of their children. The second reason is the lack of good programmes of intramurals in schools. In fact, most of the schools do not show any interest in organising intramurals for each and every student. In fact, intramurals must be organised even for less abled or differently abled students. In a democratic society, they have equal rights to participate in such programmes. Only then can the real benefits of intramurals be achieved.

Significance of Intramurals In simple term, intramural means, ‘A game for each and each for a game’. So, it can be said that intramural activities are significant for every student of each class of an institution. The following points can express the significance of intramurals for students.

1. Intramurals are significant for physical, mental, emotional and social development of students.



2. These programmes also lay stress on moral and ethical values of students.



3. Intramurals are necessary for the development of health of children.



4. These programmes are also important to tone down the fighting instinct of children.



5. These programmes refresh the children and make them agile.



6. Intramurals provide maximum recreation to the students.



7. They provide ample opportunities to the students to participate in games and sports.



8. They are also essential for developing leadership qualities among the students.

Objectives of Intramurals There are various objectives of intramurals which are described below.

1. To Provide Opportunity to Every Student to Participate in Games and Sports: To provide ample opportunities to every student in games and sports is one of the major objectives of intramurals. Generally, a few students are able to participate in zonal-level and district-level games and sports. So, mass participation of students from a school is impossible at such levels of competitions. But in intramurals each and every student can take part in games and sports. In fact, every student is free to participate in the games and sports of his/her choice. So, it can be said that providing ample opportunities to all the students to participate in games and sports is the major objective of intramurals.



2. To Develop Leadership Qualities Among Students: To develop the leadership qualities among students is another significant objective of intramurals. Intramural Planning

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activities are helpful in developing leadership qualities among the students who participate in these activities. Although all the students do not become leaders, intramural activities help in developing leadership qualities among those students who have some innate qualities of leadership. Other students develop the qualities of followers which are equally important. 3. To Develop Cooperation: A person cannot succeed all by himself in the field of sports and games. In fact, cooperation is essential to achieve an apex position in games and sports. We cannot think about winning, especially in team games if the players do not cooperate with each other. Intramural activities help in developing cooperation among students. 4. To Provide Recreation: To provide recreation to the students is another vital objective of intramurals. In fact, intramural activities provide a number of opportunities for recreation to the students. Students participate in intramural activities according to their interests. Hence, they get a lot of joy, fun and pleasure by participating in such intramural activities/competitions. 5. To Develop Feeling of Sportsmanship: To develop the feeling of sportsmanship is another vital objective of intramurals. Sportsmanship means to show respect and courtesy to opponents and officials. It also means to be humble in victory and gracious in defeat. The intramural competitions encourage such qualities among students who participate in such activities. 6. To Provide an Opportunity to Learn a Variety of Games and Skills: To provide the opportunity to learn a number of games, their fundamental skills, rules and regulations and impart technical and tactical knowledge is another important objective of intramurals. Though there is no doubt that regular programme of physical education provides the previously mentioned opportunity but intramural activities provide additional opportunity to be efficient in various games. In fact, students get a number of opportunities to participate in various types of games in intramurals. 7. To Provide an Opportunity to Get an Experience of Organising Competitions: To provide an opportunity to the students to get an experience in organising competitions is also an objective of intramurals. In intramural competitions, a number of committees are formed for their smooth organisation in which students are also involved directly or indirectly. So, by taking up these responsibilities, students also get an experience in organising games and sports. 8. To Identify Talented Sportspersons: This is also a significant objective of intramurals. It is a well-known fact that every nation of the world wants to win medals at international level such as World Cup and Olympics. It is easier said than done. In the previous century, the Germans adopted ‘catch them young’ technique. Intramural competitions aid to identify the talented sportspersons due to participation of all the students in such competitions. 9. To Provide an Opportunity to Develop Personality: Providing an opportunity to students to develop their personality is another objective of intramural activities. These activities provide a number of opportunities that help develop physical, mental, social and emotional aspects of personality.

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Activities for Intramural Competition

There are a number of activities which may be included in intramural competitions. The activities for intramurals should be selected very carefully. Mainly, the selection of activities should be based on two factors viz. interests of students and availability of facilities in the institution or school. Along with these, we should not forget the recreational aspect of intramurals. All the intramural activities must provide recreation to the students. These activities should aid in achieving the goals of education and contribute to general development of the students. Hence, the selection should be made out of the following categories of activities: 1. Major Games: Volleyball, Hockey, Cricket, Basketball, Kabaddi, Swimming, Athletics, Cycling, Wrestling, Lawn tennis, Football, Softball, Badminton, etc. 2. Minor Games: Shuttle Runs, Kho-Kho, Circle games, Tag game, Roller skating, Potato Race, Sack Race, Three-Legged Race, etc. 3. Rhythmics: Lazium, Dumb bell, Marching, Folk dance, Group dance, Solo dance, Mass PT, Rhythmic gymnastic, etc. 4. Creative Activities: Painting, Drawing, Sculpturing, Making models. 5. Combative Activities: Boxing, Judo, Taekwondo, Karate, etc.

Meaning of Extramurals

The word ’Extramural’ is derived from the Latin words ‘Extra’ and ‘Muralis’. ‘Extra’ means ‘outside’ and ‘Muralis’ means ‘wall’. It means that the activities, which are performed outside the walls of an institution or a school. It points towards the activities that are organised by an institution/school and also the students of two or more schools participate in them. In fact, in extramural competitions, the students of other schools also participate in sports-related activities. Extramural competitions are also called inter-school competitions. Extramurals are fixed well in advance so that the students of other schools may prepare well for such competitions.

Significance of Extramural Competitions

Extramural competitions are significant in the field of physical education because without extramural competitions, the programmes of physical education remain incomplete. The following points show the significance of extramural competitions. 1. Provide Opportunities to Schools to Show their Sports Capabilities: Extramural competitions provide ample opportunities to schools to showcase their sports capabilities. If the students of a school have good sports capabilities and show good performance in extramurals, it will add a feather to the cap of that institution. This will enhance the image of that institution. 2. Enhance the Standard of Sports Performance: Through extramural competitions, the standard of sports performance can be enhanced. Especially the losing individual or team can make strenuous efforts to improve their sports performance in the next extramural competition. 3. Provide Appropriate Knowledge of Sports Techniques: Extramurals are essential to provide appropriate knowledge of new techniques of sports. The teams that are not familiar with the appropriate as well as advanced techniques of various sports and games, can imbibe such knowledge by participating in extramurals. Planning

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4. Plan and Implement the Programmes of Physical Education More Effective: Extramurals are essential for planning and implementing the programmes of physical education more effective. Extramurals also help in broadening the base of sports.



5. Improve the Opportunities to Participate in Sports: Extramural competitions provide opportunities to the students of various schools to participate in sports. Many schools that usually do not take part in such competitions are motivated and consequently such schools tend to participate in extramurals.

Objectives of Extramurals

1. To Improve the Standard of Sports: It is one of the objectives of inter-school or extramural competitions to improve the standard of sports. By participating in extramurals, the students become technically and tactically efficient in respective sports. They become skilful. They develop abilities to perform well in competitions. In this way, extramurals improve the standard of sports.



2. To Provide Enriching Experience to Students: Experience has its own value in any field. Extramurals provide experience to students who participate in such competitions. By gaining experience through continuous participation, students exhibit good performance in competitions.



3. To Develop Sportsmanship and a Feeling of Fraternity: To develop sportsmanship and a feeling of fraternity in students is another important objective of extramural competitions.



4. To Broaden the Base of Sports: Many students from various schools participate in extramurals. Other schools, that do not participate in extramurals, get motivated to do so. Such motivation broadens the base of sports.



5. To Provide Knowledge of New Rules and Advanced Techniques: To provide knowledge of new rules, regulations, advanced techniques and tactics of sports and games to the students is another objective of extramurals. Students come to know about new rules and regulations of the games and sports. They learn new techniques as well as tactics which enable them to perform efficiently and thus helps in improving their performance.

1.6 Specific Sports Programmes (Sports Day, Health Run, Run for Fun, Run for a Specific Cause and Run for Unity) Specific sports programmes are such programmes of sports, which are not usually related to competitions. These sports programmes have various objectives such as creating awareness among people regarding unity, health and diseases like AIDS, Swine flu, etc., and raising, funds for charitable institutions or organisations. Such programmes may be organised for promoting and maintaining the cause of health among people. These sports programmes are described subsequently.

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sports day

In the contemporary age, specific stress is laid down on the holistic development of children in schools. Owing to this, emphasis is laid on other co-curricular activities in addition to education. Along these lines, sports day is organised so that the all-round development of children could be attempted. Various sports activities in which physical and recreational activities are included, are conducted on sports day. Generally, sports day is organised by each and every school. A specific day is fixed for conducting sports day in a year. On that day, ample opportunities are provided to every child to take part in activities. School authorities also lay Global sports programme stress on the maximum participation of children. These activities are vital for children. By participating in these activities, students develop leadership qualities in them. Their interest in such activities is enhanced. The activities, that are conducted on sports day, provide ample opportunities for recreation to children. The health condition of children is also improved as they take part in such activities. Various social qualities such as honesty, brotherhood, friendship, cooperation, tolerance, unity, feeling of respect and group cohesion are instilled in children as they take part in sports activities such as minor games and other recreational activities. Procedure of Organising sports day First of all, a specific day should be fixed for organising sports day. The appropriate place should also be selected as early as possible. In fact, a proper plan should be prepared for organising the sports day. After that an administrative or organisation committee should be constituted. This committee conducts all the programme of sports day systematically. Other committees are constituted by this committee for organising the sports day in a smooth and efficient way. The various committees, such as decoration committee, playground committee, programme committee, reception committee, refreshment committee, first aid committee, prize distribution committee, etc., are formed for organising sports day successfully.

Health Runs

Health runs are organised by the health department, sports department or social organisations. Usually, their purpose is to ameliorate the standard of health in a country along with raising funds for charity. Health run is a great physical activity that offers significant health benefits. Health run does not require any specific preparation. For health runs the requirement is only a pair of shoes and light clothes. There is no competition involved but registration of participants is required in advance. The date and time are also fixed well in advance. There is no age limit in health runs and the distance course of running is also fixed. But, before

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participating in the health runs, everyone should take a note of the following suggestions to make the running experience safe and effective. 1. Avoid tension. Make sure that your arms, shoulders, neck and fingers are relaxed. Hands should be unclenched. 2. Your breathing should be rhythmic and deep. Exhale with controlled force. When you pick up the pace don’t let your breathing get shallow. 3. Don’t bend your body from the hip level. 4. Run softly and your strides should be normal. 5. Your arms should swing equally. 6. Always consume adequate amount of fluid before and after the run, especially in heat. 7. Consult a doctor as a precautionary measure if you are over 60 years old and do not exercise regularly.

Run for fun Run for fun is also organised with an objective to spread the message of remaining healthy and fit among the masses. It may be organised to motivate people to exercise regularly and stay healthy. It is also organised in the same way as the health runs. Run for fun is more related to having fun and frolic during running. In fact, run for fun is a friendly race that involves either road running or cross country running and in which people take part for their own enjoyment and recreation rather than competition. Generally, run for fun is organised to raise Run for fun funds for a charity. The sponsors only deduct the organisational expenditures. Run for fun can include novelty such as wearing costumes and defining age categories for children, teenagers and adults.

Run for a specific cause Run for a specific cause is the run which is related to a good and noble cause. It can be organised for various categories of participants. The distance of the run may vary for different categories of participants. Prizes can be given to the position holders. Its main purpose is to raise funds for specific cause but the cause should be noble. In fact, we all run for different reasons. Generally, the main reason is to stay fit and to have a healthy balance in life. Most of the social non-profit organisations organise marathon

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Running for a specific cause

races or runs for various noble causes such as for helping the patients of cancer, mentally and physically challenged people and people suffering from arthritis, AIDS, leukemia and so on. For instance, the Mumbai and Chennai marathons are organised for such noble causes. Every year a lot of people including children, adults and old ones take part in such runs and in this way help in raising funds for the needy people.

Run for Unity Such a run is organised with a specific purpose, i.e., to consolidate unity and peace among the people of different religions. Its purpose may be national and international integration and brotherhood. In some countries, run for unity is organised to celebrate their independence. It may be in the form of relay race of long distance. Every participant runs for some distance. In the form of relay, they feel united. The run may be in the form of a marathon race usually organised in different metro cities for example, Mumbai. A Run for unity lot of people from the corporate world participate in this race along with film stars and marathon runners from other countries. The cash prize is given to the first three position holders. Such runs promote harmony, peace and solidarity among people of different religions. Such a run brings a sense of togetherness among people.

Exercises Very Short Answer Questions Carrying 1 Mark (20 to 30 words) 1. What does the word ‘tournament’ mean? 2. What is knock-out tournament? 3. What do you understand by seeding? Or What is ‘seeding’? 4. What do you mean by league tournament? 5. What do you mean by a ‘bye’? Or What is a ‘bye’? Or Explain the procedure for giving ‘bye’. 6. What do you mean by planning? 7. What are specifi c sports programmes? 8. What are consolati on tournaments? 9. What do you mean by extramural?

[AI 2013] [AI 2011]

[Delhi 2011] [Delhi 2012]

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10. What do you mean by single league tournament? 11. What do you mean by double league tournament? 12. Enlist the various types of tournaments. 13. What do you mean by intramural? 14. Define planning. 15. What do you mean by combination tournament? 16. What is special seeding? 17. What is health run? 18. What do you mean by league cum league tournament? 19. In which conditions knock-out tournaments are better than round robin?  [CBSE Sample Paper 2015] 20. What do the organisers intend by stating that, “Only such students shall participate in the Intramurals who have not represented the school in any Football Championship in the past and minimum 10 substitutions shall be compulsory in a 90 minute game”?  [CBSE Sample Paper 2015] 21. What does the school intend by stating that, “Only such students shall participate in the Basketball Intramurals who have not represented the school in basketball in the past and minimum 10 substitutions shall be compulsory”? [AI 2015] 22. Enlist two objectives of intramurals. 23. Write the formula for giving ‘bye’. [AI 2016] 24. What is seeding in fixture for tournaments? [Delhi 2016] 25. Round Robin Tournament is of two types. Name them and give one major difference between them. [AI 2017] 26. Fixtures are the schedule, fixed for the matches. What is a ‘Bye’?

Short Answer Questions Carrying 3 Marks (80 to 90 words) 1. What is the importance of tournaments? Discuss any three points. 2. Explain about knockout tournament with an example. 3. Briefly explain the advantages and disadvantages of knock-out tournament. 4. Briefly explain about types of league tournament. 5. Briefly mention the advantages of league tournaments. 6. Briefly mention the disadvantages of league tournament. 7. Explain any three objectives of intramurals. 8. Briefly explain any three objectives of extramurals. 9. Briefly explain about any three specific sports programmes. 10. Mention the activities that are included in intramurals. 11. List the steps to form committees for tournaments. 12. Distinguish between Intramural and extramural programmes. 13. Draw a fixture of 11 teams on knock-out basis. 14. Explain the procedure of placement of teams in each quarter on knock-out basis. 15. Draw fixture of 19 teams on knock-out basis.

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16. Explain seeding method and special seeding in knock-out tournament. 17. Explain the cyclic method of league tournament. 18. Explain the staircase method of league tournament. 19. Explain the combination tournament in brief. 20. Explain the methods of deciding the winner in league tournament. 21. Briefly explain the significance of extramural competitions. 22. Discuss the objectives of planning in sports. 23. Discuss about knock-out cum league and league cum knock-out methods. 24. Discuss in detail about sports day.       Or Explain different steps to be followed for organising a health run in your school. [AI 2011] 25. Draw a fixture of 11 football teams participating in a tournament on the basis of knock-out.  [AI 2016] 26. How are various committees formed for tournaments? Write briefly. [AI 2016] 27. Draw a fixture of 6 teams on league basis following the Cyclic Method. [Delhi 2016] 28. Discuss the pre-game responsibilities of officials of various committees. 29. Mention during-the-game responsibilities of officials of various committees. 30. Your school is organising “Run for Unity”, explain the responsibilities of accreditation, technical and finance committee. [Delhi 2016] 31. What are specific sports progroammes? Explain with suitable examples. [AI 2017] 32. Write three differences between intramurals and extramurals. [Delhi 2017]

Value Based Question 33. Once upon a time, during an athletic meet in stadium, 8 girls were on the starting line, ready for the race. With the sound of pistol, all the 8 girls started running. Hardly they had covered 10 to 15 metres, when accidentally one girl slipped and fell. Due to pain the girl started crying. As soon as the other 7 girls heard her cry; all of them stopped running, stood for a while, turned back, and ran towards her. Suddenly, the girls returned, pacified her, joined their hands together, lifted her, walked together and reached the finishing line. The officials were shocked to see such scene and unity. Quite a many eyes were filled with tears. [CBSE Sample Paper 2015] Based on the above passage, answer the following questions: (1 × 3 = 3) 1. What values do they teach? 2. What quality the girls have shown by running together? 3. What was so special about the race? Long Answer Questions Carrying 5 Marks (150 to 200 words) 1. What do you mean by knock-out tournament? Draw the fixtures of 21 teams on knockout basis.  [AI 2013] 2. What do you mean by knock-out tournament? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of knoc-kout tournament. 3. Describe the method of preparing fixture in knock-out tournament in detail. 4. What do you mean by tournament? Elucidate the importance of tournaments in detail. 5. What is league tournament? Explain the types, merits and demerits of league tournament. Planning

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6. What do you mean by intramurals? Mention the significance of intramurals for school children. 7. What do you mean by extramurals? Elucidate the significance of extramurals. 8. Discuss the objectives of extramurals in detail. 9. Enlist the committees for organizing sports events and explain any eight committees in detail. 10. What do you mean by specific sports programmes? Explain about health runs and run for unity in detail. 11. Define and classify ‘fixtures’. Draw a league fixture for 16 teams. [AI 2011] 12. What do you mean by combination tournament? Discuss league cum knock-out and knock-out cum league with the help of examples. 13. What do you mean by planning? Elucidate the objectives of planning in sports in detail. 14. What is a league tournament? Draw a fixture of six teams using round robin method. [AI 2012] 15. What do you mean by specific sports programmes? Explain any three. [Delhi 2012] 16. While specifying all calculations, prepare a ‘knock-out fixture’ for 21 teams.  [CBSE Sample Paper 2015] 17. Draw a knock-out fixture of 21 teams mentioning all the steps involved. [AI 2015] 18. Being the captain of the school, prepare five important committees with their responsibilities to conduct one day run for health race. [Delhi 2015] 19. What do you mean by Tournament? Draw a fixture of 9 teams using round robin method.  [CBSE Sample Paper 2016] 20. What is the meaning of Tournament? Draw knock-out fixture for 27 teams. [AI 2012] 21. Elucidate the committees and their responsibilities of inter school CBSE Basket Ball Tournament.  [AI 2015] 22. Define combination tournament. Draw fixture of 16 teams using league cum knock-out method. 23. Elucidate the pre, during and post game responsibilities of officials of various committees for organising a sports tournament smoothly. qq

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2 2

Sports and Nutrition

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2.1 Balanced Diet and Nutrition: Macro and Micro Nutrients 2.2 Nutritive and Non-nutritive Components of Diet 2.3 Eating for Weight Control–a Healthy Weight, the Pitfalls of Dieting, Food Intolerance and Food Myths 2.4 Sports Nutrition and Its Effect on Performance (Fluid and Meal Intake, Pre, During and Post Competition) 2.5 Food Supplement for Children

No doubt that everyone wants to remain fit and healthy. Food and nutrition play a very vital role in our growth and development. These are helpful for maintaining good health. The requirement of nutrition is essential for every individual but it is indispensable for the individuals who actively participate in games and sports. With the help of appropriate nutrition, sportspersons can enhance their performance. Even some supplements are also essential to provide proper nutrition to sportspersons.

2.1 BALANCED DIET AND NUTRITION: MACRO AND MICRO NUTRIENTS

Meaning of a Balanced Diet A balanced diet refers to the intake of edibles which can provide all the essential food constituents necessary for growth and maintenance of the body, in definite amount in which they are required by the body. A balanced diet means eating the right amount of foods from all food groups. “A diet which consists of all the essential food constituents, viz., proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals and water in correct proportion is called a balanced diet.”

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In other words, “Balanced diet is that diet which consists of various constituents of food in accurate and appropriate quantity and quality according to the requirement of an individual.” In fact, every individual does not require same type of diet. The diet differs from individual to individual. The following points sum up a balanced diet. 1. A balanced diet must contain all the essential constituents in adequate amount. 2. There must be definite proportion between the different constituents of food. 3. The food should be easily digestible. 4. Cooking of food is necessary because it sterilizes foodstuff and makes it palatable and easily digestible.

Meaning of Nutrition Every individual in this world wants to lead a healthy life. Food is the main basis for maintaining health. So, the knowledge of ‘food and nutrition’ is essential for every individual. Generally, food and nutrition are considered synonymous with one another, when actually it is not so. In fact, food comprises all those substances that human beings consume for their survival. Food is a mixture of various substances which are essential for life; whereas nutrition is a dynamic process which comprises consumption of food to remain healthy. In fact, nutrition is essentially the process of nourishing or being nourished. The process by which a living organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and replacement of tissues is called nutrition. ‘Nutrition’ is defined as the science of food and its relationship with health. In other words, it can be said that nutrition is the science of foods which comprises the dynamic process in which the consumed food is digested, nutrients are absorbed and distributed to the tissues for utilisation and wastes are disposed of the body.

Macro Nutrients Macro nutrients constitute the majority of individuals’ diet. Hence, it can be said that they are taken in large amounts. They supply energy and are needed for growth and maintenance of the body. They include carbohydrates, proteins, fats and water. The explanation of these macro nutrients is given below. 1. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are the most important source of energy. They contain the elements of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The very first part of the name ‘carbo’ means that they contain carbon. The second part of the name ‘hydr’ means that they contain hydrogen. The third part of the name ‘ate’ means that they contain oxygen. In all carbohydrates, the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1 just like water, i.e., H 2O. Carbohydrates are actually the organic compounds that are important for different digestive operations in our body. There are lots of Macro nutrients

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differences between carbohydrates and the other elements important for nutrition such as proteins and fats. Generally, it is seen that a diet rich in carbohydrates needs less amount of water in comparison to diet rich in proteins and fats. There are two main types of carbohydrates, i.e., simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates. Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Sucrose, Maltose and Lactose are called simple carbohydrates. These carbohydrates are soluble in water. These are crystalline. These are sweet in taste and are called sugar. Starch, dextrines, glycogen and cellulose are called complex carbohydrates or polysaccharides. These are not sweet in taste. They are insoluble in water. They are not crystalline. The main difference between the types of carbohydrates is actually the difference between their chemical compositions. Simple carbohydrates have smaller chain of chemical compositions in comparison to the complex ones. 2. Proteins: Proteins contain—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur. Proteins are very large molecules, so they cannot be directly absorbed into our blood. So they are turned into amino acids by our digestive system. There are 23 amino acids. Out of these, 9 amino acids must be available in the diet. These amino acids are used by the body to create blood, muscles, nails, skin, hair and tissues in internal organs. Proteins form new tissues, repair the broken tissues, regulate balance of water and acids, transport oxygen and nutrients and make antibodies. Excessive use of proteins in diet, especially animal proteins can result in heart diseases, osteoporosis, stroke and kidney stones. Body requires only 0.36 grams of protein per pound of the ideal body weight. If proteins are not taken in appropriate amount in diet, then we may suffer from deficiency diseases. Marasmus and kwashiorkor are protein deficiency diseases in children. 3. Fats: Fats contain carbon, oxygen and hydrogen in the percentage of 76, 12 and 12, respectively. Fats are necessary for many body functions. Fats keep us warm and protect our organs. Fats also help in the production of hormones. Fats can be classified according to their structures. Different types of fats have different characteristics and they react in different ways inside the body. There are three different groups of fats in diet, that is, saturated fats, polyunsaturated fats and mono-unsaturated fats. The intake of saturated fats increases the chances of heart diseases, due to the increase of cholesterol in the blood. Such fats are found in fast foods, pastries and biscuits. The polyunsaturated fats and mono-unsaturated fats help in lowering the blood cholesterol. The polyunsaturated fats are slightly better than mono-unsaturated fats. Fats are essential in diet but the quantity of intake should be limited. 4. Water: Water is a compound which is made up of hydrogen and oxygen elements in the ratio 2 : 1. Our blood also contains 90% of water. Water helps in the transportation of nutrients to the cells of the body. It is also important for the excretion of waste products. It also regulates the body temperature. It is vital for various chemical reactions taking place in our body. It is essential for the body’s metabolism. UNICEF says that water is not included in macro nutrients but USDA, that is, United States Dietary Association, includes it as a part of macro nutrients. As a matter of fact, macro nutrients are consumed in large amount. Water must be taken in large quantity, therefore, it can be considered a part of macro nutrients. SPORTS

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Micro Nutrients Minerals and vitamins are included in micro nutrients. Micro nutrients are required in very small amounts. These nutrients are extremely significant for normal functioning of the body. The main function of these nutrients is to enable various good chemical reactions to occur in the body. Minerals are further divided into two categories, namely, macro minerals and micro minerals or trace minerals. The explanation of micro nutrients is given below. Micro nutrients 1. Minerals: Minerals are essential in our diet. About 4 per cent of our body weight is made up of minerals. Minerals are required for healthy teeth, bones and muscles. Minerals are also used by body for various activities such as transmission of nerve impulses, formation of hormones, maintenance of heartbeat, etc. Minerals can be classified into macro, i.e., major minerals and micro-elements or trace minerals. Our body requires more amount of macro minerals than trace minerals. Macro minerals or macro-elements such as calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, potassium and sulphur are required by our body in more amounts, i.e., 0.1 gram of each of these minerals per day. On the other hand, trace elements or micro minerals such as copper, iron, iodine, fluoride, cobalt, chromium, selenium and zinc are required in less amounts, i.e., 0.01 gram of each trace element per day. (a) Macro minerals: Some macro minerals are described below.  Calcium. Calcium is among the top macro-minerals in terms of growth and development of our bones and teeth. It makes the teeth and bones strong and healthy. It helps in blood clotting. Its deficiency may cause rickets. It is found in various products such as cheese, milk, orange juice, eggs, yogurt, green leafy vegetables and cereals.  Potassium: Potassium is one of the most important minerals in diet. It is helpful in keeping the nervous system and muscular system fit and active all the time. It helps in maintaining the amount of water in blood and tissues. Its main sources are banana, tomatoes, green leafy vegetables, peanuts, citrus fruits, beans, etc.  Sodium: It helps in muscular activities. It also helps in the transmission of nerve impulses. Its main sources are table salt, pickles, butter, etc.  Magnesium: It repairs and maintains body cells. It is found in meat, brown rice, beans, whole grains, etc.  Phosphorus: Phosphorus helps in the formation of bones and teeth. It keeps the muscles and nerve activities normal. It is found in rich quantity in egg, fish, cod liver, milk, unpolished rice, etc. (b) Micro minerals. Some micro minerals are described below.  Iodine: It helps in the production of hormones in the thyroid gland. It is also significant for proper growth and development of the body. Lack of iodine can

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cause goitre (swollen thyroid gland) and mental retardation. It is found in iodised salt, fish and sea food.  Iron: It is essential in the production of haemoglobin. Its deficiency causes anaemia. It is found in liver, meat, egg, dry fruits, spinach, banana, and green leafy vegetables.  Chromium: It stimulates insulin activity. Minerals Its deficiency may cause diabetes. It is found in soyabean, blackgram, carrot, tomato, groundnuts, bajra and barley.  Copper: It helps iron in the formation of haemoglobin. It is found in eggs, pulses and green leafy vegetables.  Cobalt: It protects us from anaemia and is found in green leafy vegetables, milk and meat. 2. Vitamins: Vitamins are chemicals, which are required in very small amount to keep our body healthy. If a particular vitamin is not present in our diet, it may cause a deficiency disease. For example, if vitamin C is not included in diet, it will cause scurvy. In fact, all the vitamins are organic chemicals. There are two groups of vitamins which are mentioned below. (a) Fat Soluble Vitamins: Fat soluble vitamins are those vitamins which are soluble in fat. These vitamins are composed of the elements of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. These vitamins are vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E and vitamin K. The brief description of these vitamins is given below.  Vitamin A: It was the first vitamin that was discovered in 1913 by Elmer McCollum. This vitamin is found in various forms such as retinol, retinal and retinoic acid. This vitamin is formed by the elements of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. It is helpful in the formation of bones and teeth. It also promotes normal vision. It also provides resistance to infections. Its deficiency leads to night blindness, keratomalacia and xerophthalmia. Its sources are cod liver oil, animal liver, egg yolk, milk, milk products, mango, papaya and yellow vegetables. Its daily requirement is approximately 2 mg.  Vitamin D: It is formed by the elements of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It is a white crystalline substance. It helps in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus. It maintains the normal functioning of parathormone, the hormone secreted by parathyroid glands. It also maintains the level of calcium and phosphorus. Its deficiency may cause rickets, osteomalacia, tetany, dental cavities and osteoporosis. Sunrays, milk, butter and fish liver oils are the main sources of this vitamin.  Vitamin E: This vitamin is essential for blood coagulation. It strengthens the cell membrane. It keeps the skin healthy. It helps in curing cancer. It maintains normal functioning of reproductive organs. It is also used to prevent heart attacks and treat Alzheimer’s disease. Its deficiency may cause degeneration of muscles, paralysis and slow growth. Its main sources are green leafy vegetables, pulses, liver, egg and whole cereals. SPORTS

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Vitamin K: The main function of this vitamin is to clot the blood. It also helps in the prevention of haemorrhage and excessive bleeding in wounds. Its deficiency may cause anaemia. Its main sources are tomato, potato, spinach, cabbage, soyabean, fish, cauliflower, wheat, egg and meat. (b) Water Soluble Vitamins: These vitamins are soluble in water. These vitamins contain the elements of nitrogen and even sulphur. These vitamins are vitamin B and vitamin C. Earlier, the chemical names of all the vitamins (fat soluble and water soluble vitamins) were not known but now their chemical names are available. Their temporary names are used even today for the ease of understanding. The description of these vitamins is given below.  Vitamin B Complex: Vitamin B consists of eight soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism. Earlier, they were thought to be a single vitamin but later, research showed that they were chemically distinct vitamins. Now, they are referred to as vitamin ‘B’ complex. A brief description of these vitamins is given below. (i) Vitamin B1 or Thiamin: This vitamin is also called thiamin. This is a colourless vitamin. Its taste is salty. Its smell is just like yeast. It helps in metabolising carbohydrates. It maintains the health of liver, kidneys, intestines, stomach, brain, etc. It also maintains the health and efficiency of nerves and muscles. It helps in the assimilation of vitamin A in our body. Deficiency of vitamin B1 causes numerous ailments such as skin diseases, headache, lack of concentration, sleeplessness, loss of appetite, indigestion, lower heartbeat and also retardation of muscular efficiency. Due to the acute shortage of vitamin B1, an individual may fall prey to ‘beri-beri’ disease. Its deficiency may cause constipation, irritation and anger. Development of the body stops, if there is any shortage of vitamin B1. (ii) Vitamin B2 or Riboflavin: This vitamin is yellow in colour. It is usually destroyed in sunlight and also if the food is cooked for a longer time. It helps in preserving and maintaining the characteristics of youth, tightness and smoothness of skin, activity, health of body tissues, etc. It is essential to keep the eyes, nose, mouth, lips and tongue in healthy state. The deficiency of this vitamin causes stunted growth, unhealthy skin and inflammation in eyes. Its deficiency also decreases immunity power of white blood corpuscles. (iii) Vitamin B3 or Niacin: This vitamin helps in the growth of body. The deficiency of this vitamin causes grey hair. (iv) Vitamin B5 or Pantothenic Acid: The deficiency of this vitamin causes pellagra disease. This vitamin also helps in maintaining the body weight of an individual. 

(v) Vitamin B6: This vitamin is vital for the formation of haemoglobin. It also keeps the skin healthy.

(vi) Vitamin B12: Its colour is red. This vitamin is usually destroyed if food is cooked for a longer time. Its deficiency may cause anaemia.

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(vii) Vitamin B9 or Folic Acid: It is tasteless, odourless and yellow in colour. Simple cooking can destroy this vitamin. It is very essential for reproduction, growth and development of body. This vitamin is helpful in blood formation. The deficiency of folic acid may cause loss of leucocytes. (viii) Vitamin B7: Its chemical name is biotin. Its deficiency may lead to impaired growth, depression, muscle strain, etc. Vitamin C: This vitamin is also known as ascorbic acid. It is a water soluble vitamin. It is a white crystalline substance. Vitamin C helps in healing the wounds. It increases metabolic rate and is helpful in absorbing calcium. It is also a highly effective antioxidant. It is also essential for the formation, growth and repair of bones, skin and connective tissues. It also maintains healthy teeth and gums. The deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy. Adults may feel tired, weak and irritable due to the deficiency of vitamin C. This vitamin is usually found in lemons, pineapples, guava, amla, ber, oranges, tomato, green chillies and apples.

2.2 NUTRITIVE AND NON-NUTRITIVE COMPONENTS OF DIET

Nutritive Components of Diet

Nutritive components of diet are those components which provide energy or calories. There are various nutritive components of diet which are described below. 1. Proteins: The word ‘Protein’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Protias’. Its meaning is ‘the best substance from foodstuffs’. Protoplasm is formed by protein, which is the base of living cells. The maximum amount of protein is found in the tissues of our body. Besides this, protein is also found in blood, secretion of endocrine glands, bones, teeth and in delicate tissues. If water is extracted from our body, the maximum percentage of protein will be left behind in our body. Protein is a compound, which is formed by the combination of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. Among energy producing food substances, protein is the only constituent in which chemical elements of nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur are found. That is why protein is also called nitrogenous food. Our physical growth and development will be retarded, if we take less amount of protein in our food. Proteins promote cell growth and repair. Apart from this, protein also plays an important role in the mental development of an individual. Proteins are known as the building blocks of life. Sources of Protein: From the point of view of sources, protein can be divided into two categories. (a) Animal Protein (b) Vegetable Protein (a) Animal Protein: Protein, which we get from animal products, is called animal protein. This protein is found in eggs, milk, milk products, meat and fish. Egg is the best example of rich protein because sufficient amounts of amino acids are found in eggs. (b) Vegetable Protein: Protein, which we get from vegetables, is called vegetable protein. Vegetable protein is usually found in various types of pulses and beans, soyabean, mustard, green peas, nuts, groundnuts, dry fruits and food grains. SPORTS

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2. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrate is also an essential nutritive component of food. Carbohydrate is also a compound which is formed by the chemical composition of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrate acts like a fuel in our body. Carbohydrate provides energy. We also need carbohydrate for the formation of fats. People who indulge in hard work, need maximum amount of carbohydrate. However, if excess amount of carbohydrate is taken in food by an individual, it always changes into fats and after that it is accumulated in fatty tissues. Lack of carbohydrate in the body reduces the weight of an individual. The skin becomes loose and wrinkles start appearing on the face. A person becomes lean and thin. On the other hand, if an individual takes the right amount of carbohydrate in his food, his body weight starts increasing. He experiences high body temperature. In such a condition an individual becomes lethargic. Sources of Carbohydrates: Generally, carbohydrate is found in rice, maize, jowar, bajra, pulses, gram, dry pea, dates, grapes, potato, banana, gur, sugar, etc. 3. Fats: Fat is an essential nutritive component of food. Fat is also a compound. It is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Fat provides heat and energy to the body. It also helps in the regulation of body temperature. It is helpful in making the body soft and smooth and protects the body from the extreme effects of hot and cold climates. For the purpose of energy, fat is considered better than carbohydrate. If fat is used with carbohydrates in food, fat can be digested easily as well as rapidly. If excess fat is not used by the body, it is accumulated in the body due to which various organs of the body do not work efficiently. If fat is available in less quantity in the food, carbohydrates to some extent, change into fat. Sources of Fat: Following are the sources of fat. (a) Animal Sources: Animals are good source of fats. We get various products from animals such as ghee, butter, cheese, curd, fish oil, milk, meat and eggs. (b) Vegetable Sources: We also get fats from various vegetables such as unprocessed starchy vegetables such as sweet potato, whole corn, dry fruits, coconut, soyabean, foodgrains, mustard oil, cotton seed, etc. 4. Vitamins: Vitamins are important nutritive component of food just like protein, carbohydrate and fat. Vitamins are vital for healthy life. Vitamins protect us from various types of diseases. In fact, vitamins increase immunity in our body against diseases. They also contribute in the general development of body. If our diet lacks in various vitamins, we may suffer from different deficiency diseases. Although, we need these vitamins in less quantity, they are essential for leading a healthy life. Types of Vitamins: Vitamins can be divided into two categories. (a) Fat Soluble Vitamins: These vitamins are easily dissolved in fat. These vitamins are stated below.  Vitamin A  Vitamin D  Vitamin E  Vitamin K (b) Water Soluble Vitamins: These vitamins are soluble in water. The following vitamins fall in this category.  Vitamin B complex  Vitamin C

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(a) Fat Soluble Vitamins: The detail of these vitamins is given below.  Vitamin A: Dr McCollum discovered vitamin A. This vitamin is yellow in colour. Usually, this vitamin is not destroyed at normal temperature but it can be destroyed by oxidation process. The ultraviolet rays of the sun can also destroy this vitamin. It may be destroyed at normal temperature in the presence of oxygen. Due to the deficiency of vitamin A numerous diseases can attack a person. Night blindness and xerophthalmia are main diseases that are caused by the deficiency of vitamin A. Vitamin A is essential for the normal growth of an individual. Due to the deficiency of vitamin A, skin may become dry. There may be wrinkles on the skin. Teeth lose their brightness and usually become yellow. This vitamin also has a negative effect on kidneys, nervous system and digestive system. Sometimes, there can be kidney stones. Due to the deficiency of vitamin A, poisonous substances develop in spinal cord. This vitamin also protects the body from communicable diseases. Sources: Vitamin A, is mainly found in ghee, milk, curd, egg yolk, fish, tomato, papaya, green vegetables, orange, spinach, carrot, pumpkin, etc.  Vitamin D: This vitamin is white and odourless. Vitamin D is helpful for the formation and maintenance of good teeth and healthy bones. It enables the body to accumulate calcium and phosphorus, which help in the formation of the bones and teeth. Deficiency of this vitamin causes rickets, ill-shaped teeth, and softness of bones. The intake of this vitamin should be increased in order to cure bones and teeth diseases. Sources: Vitamin D is mainly supplied by egg yolk, fish, sunlight, vegetables, cod liver oil, milk, cream, butter, tomato, carrot, etc.  Vitamin E: Vitamin E is helpful in increasing fertility among men and women. Its deficiency causes the death of the child in the womb of the mother. Abortions and miscarriages happen in expectant mothers with the result that sometimes they lose their reproductive ability. Its deficiency also causes weakness in muscles and hampers the normal functioning of the heart. This vitamin is also essential for proper functioning of adrenal and sex glands. Sources: Green vegetables, organ meats (kidney, liver and heart), cotton seed, sprouts, coconut oil, egg yolk, dry and fresh fruits, milk, meat, butter and maize are rich sources of Vitamin E.  Vitamin K: Vitamin K is derived from the word ‘coagulation’, which means clotting of blood. This vitamin is helpful in the clotting of blood. Due to the deficiency of this vitamin, blood does not clot easily and generally blood continues to flow for longer time in the event of an injury. The requirement of this vitamin is more for pregnant ladies. Its deficiency also causes anaemia. Sources: This vitamin is mainly available in cauliflower, spinach, cabbage, tomato, potato, green vegetables, wheat, egg, meat, etc. (b) Water Soluble Vitamins  Vitamin B Complex: There are 8 vitamins under vitamin B complex. Important forms of vitamin B are stated below. (i) Vitamin B1 or Thiamin: This vitamin is also called thiamin. This is a colourless vitamin. Its taste is salty. Its smell is just like yeast. It helps SPORTS

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(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii) (viii)

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in metabolising carbohydrates. It maintains the health of liver, kidneys, intestines, stomach and brain, etc. It also maintains the health and efficiency of nerves, muscles. It helps in the assimilation of vitamin A in our body. Deficiency of vitamin B1 causes numerous ailments such as skin diseases, headache, lack of concentration, sleeplessness, loss of appetite, indigestion, lower heartbeat and retardation in the muscular efficiency. Due to the acute shortage of vitamin B1, an individual may fall prey to ‘beri-beri’ disease. Its deficiency may cause constipation, irritation and anger. Development of the body stops, if there is any shortage of vitamin B1. Sources: Wheat, groundnuts, green peas, orange, pig meat, liver, eggs, green vegetables, rice and sprouts seeds are rich sources of vitamin B1. Vitamin B2 or Riboflavin: This vitamin is yellow in colour. It is usually destroyed in sunlight and in cooking the food for a longer time. It helps in preserving and maintaining the characteristics of youth, tightness and smoothness of skin, activity and body tissues, etc. It is essential to keep the eyes, nose, mouth, lips and tongue in healthy state. The deficiency of this vitamin causes stunted growth, unhealthy skin and inflamed eyes. Its deficiency also decreases immunity power of white blood corpuscles. Sources: This vitamin is richly found in egg yolk, fish, pulses, peas, rice, yeast, wheat and in green vegetables. Vitamin B3 or Niacin: This vitamin is very helpful in growth of body. The deficiency of this vitamin causes grey hair. Sources: Milk is the major source of this vitamin. Along with this, vitamin B3 is found in egg yolk and dry fruits. Vitamin B5 or Pantothenic Acid: The deficiency of this vitamin causes pellagra disease. This vitamin also helps in maintaining the body weight of an individual. Sources: Yeast, milk, polished rice and nuts are rich sources of vitamin B5. Vitamin B6: This vitamin is vital for the formation of haemoglobin. This vitamin also keeps the skin healthy. Sources: This vitamin is richly found in meat, fish, egg yolk, yeast, rice, wheat and peas, etc. Vitamin B7 or Biotin: Biotin helps release energy from carbohydrates and aids in the metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates from food. Sources: Egg yolk, milk, fresh vegetables, yeast breads, cereals, etc. Vitamin B12: Its colour is red. This vitamin is usually destroyed in cooking for a longer time. Its deficiency may cause anaemia. Folic Acid: Folic acid is tasteless, odourless and yellow in colour. Simple cooking can destroy this vitamin. It is very essential for reproduction, and growth and development of body. This vitamin is helpful in blood formation. The deficiency of folic acid may cause loss of leucocytes. Sources: Folic acid is found in yeast, spinach and liver.

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Vitamin C: Vitamin C is also called ascorbic acid. It is odourless and white in colour. Due to the presence of Vitamin C, wounds are healed rapidly. It is significant in increasing the metabolic rate. It is helpful in absorbing iron and calcium. The deficiency of this vitamin causes ‘scurvy’. The individuals, who do not take fresh fruits and vegetables, often suffer from this disease. Vitamin C is also helpful in maintaining the health of the connecting tissues, and in the formation of bones and red blood corpuscles. Generally, blood oozes from the gums due to the deficiency of vitamin C in the body. During illness and growth period of children this vitamin is very helpful. Sources: Lemons, pineapples, grapes, apples, oranges, green vegetables, turnip, cabbage, spinach and sprouty pulses are rich in vitamin C. This vitamin is found in high quantity in amla, green chillies and tomatoes. 5. Minerals: Minerals are very important nutritive components of food. As mentioned earlier, they are helpful for health and general development of the body, proper functioning of the muscles, formation of teeth, clotting of blood and in maintaining the balance of acid and base in the body. Let us read about benefits of some minerals. (a) Calcium: Calcium is helpful in the formation of teeth and bones. It helps in clotting of blood. It also maintains the balance between acid and base. Its deficiency causes numerous diseases such as asthma, rickets and skin diseases like scabies, eczema, chilblains, etc. Milk, cheese, yolk, orange and green vegetables have rich amount of calcium. (b) Phosphorus: Phosphorus is helpful in the formation of teeth and bones. It is found in egg, fish, meat, milk, liver and in unpolished rice. (c) Iron: Iron has an important role to play in the human body. It plays an important function in the formation of haemoglobin. It is also helpful in metabolising fats, carbohydrates and proteins. Its absence in the body may cause anaemia. The main source of iron is liver. Besides this, it is found in enough quantity in meat, egg, dry fruits and green vegetables. (d) Iodine: For the formation and normal functioning of thyroid gland, iodine is essential. The deficiency of iodine may cause goitre. Its deficiency may hinder the general growth and development. A child may remain a dwarf. The skin becomes rough and fatty. Its deficiency may stop the growth of hair. Generally, iodine is not taken in sufficient quantity by those people who live too far from the sea. It is found in rich quantity in sea fish. Iodized salt is the main source of iodine for vegetarians and those who don’t eat sea food regularly. (e) Sodium: Sodium maintains the balance of acid and base. It also maintains the balance of water in the body. It also helps in the contraction of muscles. Sodium is available in enough quantity in common salt. Besides this, it is found in milk and milk products, meat, eggs, etc. (f) Potassium: Deficiency of potassium weakens the muscles of the body and the individual becomes lethargic and may contract Addison’s disease. It is mostly found in carrot, beetroot, onion, tomato, orange, mango, banana, apple, etc. (g) Sulphur: It is helpful for the formation and functioning of cells of body. It is also helpful in the formation of hair and nails. It is found in egg, radish, pulses, carrot, peas, spinach, tomato, cabbage and cereals. 

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Non-Nutritive Components of Diet

Non-nutritive components of diet are those components that do not provide energy or calories. Roughage or fibre, water, colours, flavours, pesticide residues, etc., are among tens of thousands of non-nutritive components of diet or food. As a matter of fact, there are a lot of non-nutritive components of diet that can be identified easily. However, there are also many non-nutritive components of diet that have been discovered recently. There may be thousands of phyto-chemicals which can both help us or harm us. Some of them are considered to check the cancer initiators or promoters in the body. The explanation of non-nutritive components of diet is given below. 1. Fibre or Roughage: Fibre or roughage has no nutrient value. Hence, it is included in the non-nutritive components of diet. It is the undigested part of the food or it can be said that it cannot be digested by the human intestinal tract. It consists of water and improves intestinal function by adding bulk to food. It satisfies the appetite. It helps to correct the disorders of large intestine. It prevents constipation. Roughage or fibre can be divided into two categories, i.e., soluble and insoluble fibres. Soluble fibres can dissolve in water, whereas, insoluble fibre can’t. The soluble fibre reduces blood sugar fluctuation and lowers cholesterol. Insoluble fibre is a good stool softener. Usually 30 grams of fibre is recommended for an adult per day. Both types of roughage or fibre are equally significant for human beings. Fibre is helpful in decreasing the risk of heart disease and in preventing certain types of cancer. Sources. Whole wheat, fresh fruits, root, vegetables, oats, connective tissues of meat and fish are very good sources of roughage. 2. Water: Water is also an essential component of diet. Even blood comprises 90% of water. Water in the blood helps in the transportation of the nutrients to various cells of the body. Water is also significant in the excretion of waste products. It also regulates the body temperature. Our body loses approximately 2% of our body weight as water per day. We recover this loss of water by drinking water and by intake of food substances. Water also functions as a lubricant, keeps the skin moist and protects the body from shock. Generally, about 20% of water intake comes from food and remaining intake comes from drinking Role of water in nutrition

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water. It is excreted from the body in various forms such as urine, faeces, sweat and water vapour in the exhaled breath. 3. Colour Compounds: Food or diet is made more appetizing and attractive by the wide reflection of colours made possible through pigments. Natural pigments are found in fruits and vegetables. The colours derived from animal products and grains are less bright. There are various colours derived from fruits and vegetables such as red, orange, yellow, green, blue and cream. 4. Flavour Compounds: Flavours are derived from both nutritive and non-nutritive components of food. Sometimes it becomes very difficult to know the source of a specific flavour. An acidic food provides sour taste while an alkaline one provides a bitter taste. 5. Plant Compounds: In addition to colour compounds and flavour compounds, there are some plants which contain other non-nutritive substances. When these substances are ingested they may have beneficial or harmful effects. There are many compounds that inhibit cancer. There are also a number of harmful substances in plants which have harmful effects if ingested in excess. Caffeine is one such example. If it is taken in excess quantity then it may increase heart rate, secretion of stomach acid, lead to excessive urination.

2.3 EATING FOR WEIGHT CONTROL—A HEALTHY WEIGHT, THE PITFALLS OF DIETING, FOOD INTOLERANCE AND FOOD MYTHS

Meaning of Healthy Weight Usually an individual who has healthy weight leads a healthy life with a reduced risk of diseases. It means that if an individual has a healthy weight, he can lead a healthy life. On the other hand, if an individual has an unhealthy weight be it underweight or overweight, he/she is not able to lead a healthy life. According to National Institute of Health, “A healthy weight is considered to be the one that is between 19 and 25 (BMI). If the BMI is between 25 and 29 an adult is considered overweight. If the BMI is 30 or greater, the person is considered to be obese.” In simple words, it can also be said that a healthy weight is that weight which lowers an individual’s risk for various health problems such as heart diseases, stroke, high blood pressure, diabetes, etc.

Measurement of height

Measurement of weight

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There are usually two popular methods to find out or calculate the healthy weight, i.e., height and weight chart and body mass index chart (BMI chart). Height and weight chart tells us about healthy body weight, whereas another method is based on BMI using which one can come to know whether one has healthy body weight or not. 1. Method to know healthy weight through height and weight chart Chart of Height and Weight

Male Height in cm

Low Weight (kg)

Female

Medium Maximum Weight Weight (kg) (kg)

Height in cm

Low Weight (kg)

Medium Weight (kg)

Maximum Weight (kg)

157.5

50.7–54.4 53.7–57.1 57.1–63.9

147.5

41.7– 44.4 43.5–48.5 47.1–53.9

160

52.1–55.8 54.8–60.3 58.5–65.3

150

42.6–45.8 44.4–49.9 48.0–55.3

162.5

53.5–57.1 56.2–61.6 59.8–67.1

152.5

43.5–47.1 45.8–51.2 49.4–56.7

165

54.8–58.5 57.8–63.0 61.2–68.9

155

44.9–48.5 47.1–52.6 50.8–58.0

167.5

56.2–60.3 59.0–64.8 62.6–70.0

157.5

46.2–49.9 48.5–53.9 52.1–59.4

170

58.0–62.1 60.7–66.6 64.4–73.0

160

47.6–51.2 49.9–55.3 53.5–60.7

172.5

59.8–63.9 62.6–68.9 66.6–75.2

162.5

49.0–52.6 51.2–57.1 54.9–62.6

175

61.6–63.7 64.4–70.7 68.4–77.1

165

50.3–53.9 52.6–58.9 56.7–64.4

178

63.4–68.0 66.6–72.5 70.3–78.9

167.5

51.6–55.8 54.4–61.2 58.5–66.2

180

65.3–69.8 68.0–74.8 72.1–81.1

170

53.5–57.6 56.2–63.0 60.3–68.0

183

67.1–71.6 69.8–77.1 75.3–83.4

172.5

54.8–59.4 58.0–64.8 62.1–69.8

185.5

68.9–73.4 71.6–79.3 76.1–85.7

175

57.1–61.2 59.8–66.6 63.9–71.6

188

70.7–75.7 73.4–81.6 78.4–87.9

178

58.9–63.5 61.6–68.4 65.7–73.9

190.5

72.5–77.5 75.7–83.9 80.7–90.2

180

60.7–65.3 63.5–70.3 67.5–6.2

193

74.3–79.3 78.0–86.1 82.5–92.5

183

62.6–67.1 65.3–72.1 69.4–78.4

2. Method to Calculate BMI. If you want to know your body mass index, then divide your body weight in kg by your height in metre square, viz., Body Mass Index = or =

60

Weight in kg Height in m 2 Weight Height × Height

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Healthy BMI for both women and men

The WHO criteria for underweight, healthy or normal weight, overweight and obesity by BMI are as follows: Category

BMI

Underweight Normal weight

< 18.5 18.5 – 24.9

Overweight

25 – 29.9

Obesity Class I

30 – 34.9

Obesity Class II

35 – 39.9

Obesity Class III

> 40

So, you can understand your weight category by having a glance at these criteria.

Methods to Control Healthy Body Weight Stress should be laid on the following points for proper methods to control healthy body weight. 1. Set an Appropriate Goal: For losing body weight, you should set an appropriate goal, i.e., how much weight you want to shed or lose. While setting the goal, you should know about your capacities and limitations. Your goal should be achievable. You may set your goal for one month. Take a pledge that you will lose 1 kg per month depending on how much excess weight you have. After that you can further set your goal for weight control. SPORTS

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2. Lay Stress on Health Not on Weight: It is a well-known fact that losing weight for health rather than appearance can make it easier to set reasonable goals. From the point of view of health, you should make efforts to achieve or maintain a body mass index between the range of 18.5 and 24.9. If your BMI or waist measures beyond these limits you may be at a risk of contracting various diseases. So, from the point of view of health try to maintain these limits. 3. Cut Your Calories: Keep a plan ready to get back on the track if your body weight begins to exceed the required level. It is a simple plan to follow. Just cut or subtract only 100 calories a day. In this way, you can return to your set goal. 4. Active Lifestyle: An active dynamic lifestyle plays a pertinent role in controlling weight. School children should prefer to walk to school instead of going by car or motorbike. Instead of elevators, they should take stairs. If they want to switch off the TV, they should not use a remote control but should do this physically. They should not watch TV for more hours. Instead of watching TV for more hours they should play outdoor games. In this way, they can lead an active lifestyle, which will be beneficial in their weight control. 5. Bring Out Support: No doubt, you can lose or maintain your weight without anybody’s support, but if you get support from other people it makes the process of losing weight easier and more pleasant. Tell people who are close to you about your intention that you are serious and committed to losing weight. Tell them that you would appreciate their support. In fact, having a support of a partner really works wonders for many persons. Promising to meet a partner for the regularly scheduled gym time is a great way to stick to a workout routine. Such type of support can be sought for lifetime. It will help you in maintaining your weight. 6. Yogic Exercises: Yogic exercises can help in controlling as well as maintaining proper weight. For example, pranayama and yogic asanas, are helpful in controlling weight. As a matter of fact, research studies have proved that stress and tension tend to increase weight. Meditative asanas are beneficial in relieving stress and tension. Therefore, yogic exercises can also be used for keeping a good control on weight. 7. Avoid Fatty Foods: If you want to lose or maintain weight, you should avoid fatty foods in your diet. Fats are known to have maximum number of calories. These extra calories will be accumulated in your body. So avoid fatty foods, if you want to remain healthy. 8. Avoid Junk and Fast Foods: Try to avoid junk and fast foods such as pizza, burger, chips, cookies, pastry, chocolate, cold drinks, etc., if you want to lose weight. These foodstuffs are also rich in empty calories. Intake of such foodstuffs leads to the condition of overweight. 9. Avoid Overeating: To control or maintain weight, you should not overeat. It means that you should eat food as per the requirement of your body. Suppose, you require 2,000 calories per day, then you should take the food that consists of only 2,000 calories. If you take 2,100 calories per day, the 100 calories will be accumulated daily as fat in your body. So, you should avoid overeating.

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10. Don’t Eat Smaller Meals Frequently: You should not form a habit of eating smaller meals frequently. So, avoid eating smaller meals frequently to avoid adding excess fat to the body. 11. Avoid Rich Carbohydrate Food: To lose weight, avoid rich carbohydrate foods. But it does not mean that you should not take carbohydrates at all. Carbohydrate is necessary to increase the level of energy. So, you should just reduce the amount of carbohydrate in your diet. For this purpose try to avoid sugar, rice, potatoes, toffees, chocolates and other sweets. 12. Don’t Skip Meals: Don’t skip your meals, such as breakfast, lunch and dinner. If you skip your meal, the next time you will definitely indulge in overeating which may lead to obesity. In fact, skipping meals increases hunger and it results in greater food consumption in the next meal that you take. 13. Regular Exercise or Physical Activity: Exercise helps to control your weight by using up excess calories. On the other hand, if you do not exercise, the excess calories will be stored as fat. In fact, your body weight is regulated by the number of calories you take in and use each day. In reality, whatever you eat, contains calories and whatever you do, uses calories. Even calories are used while breathing, sleeping and digesting food. Regular exercise or physical activity is a vital part of weightloss or weight control programme for lifetime. Research studies consistently indicate that regular physical activity/exercise such as aerobic exercise and strengthening exercise for at least 30 minutes, combined with healthy eating habits, is the most healthy way to control weight for a lifetime. Whether you are making endeavours to lose weight or maintain it, you should never forget the significant role of exercise/ physical activity. 14. Balancing the Intake of Calories and Expenditure of Calories: For maintaining a healthy weight, you should always try to strike a balance between your intake of calories and expenditure of calories. For implementing this, try not to eat more calories than your body burns each day. Always stick to your eating plan even on a holiday or a function. If your intake of calories is more than what you need, the excess calories are stored as fat. Too much stored fat raises your BMI and makes it hard to return to your aimed weight. Lay stress on the following points for balancing the intake and burning of calories. (a) When you take more calories than you require to do your day’s activities, your body stores the extra calories and as a result of this you gain weight. (b) When you take less number of calories than your expenditure of calories, you lose weight. (c) When your intake and expenditure of calories remain same, your body weight also remains the same. By laying stress on the above-mentioned points, a healthy body weight can be achieved. It is usually said that you may lose your body weight for short period but it is difficult to maintain it for a lifetime. Indeed, it requires a strong willpower, dedication, firm SPORTS

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determination, persistent endeavours and motivation to control weight and maintain a healthy weight.

The Pitfalls of Dieting Nowadays everybody wants to remain slim and trim. People who are overweight use various methods to lose weight. Most of them adhere to dieting. In the beginning, dieting produces good results or success. But after initial success it adds more weight later on. Even research studies indicate that 90% of the dieters gain all of their weight back and sometime more than that. In fact, we are all aware that shedding or losing weight is not as simple as it sounds. Eat less and exercise more to burn calories. We know this scientific fact but it is difficult to implement. In fact, there are some pitfalls/dangers of dieting that keep us away from losing or reducing weight. The major pitfalls of dieting are stated below. 1. Extreme Reduction of Calories: For dieting, intake of calories is reduced extremely. Research studies indicate that 1800 calories a day cannot meet all the nutritional requirements of an individual. If you reduce intake of calories it will result in a huge loss of weight. It can be dangerous for you. It will definitely lower your metabolism and as a result of this your body weight will not be reduced in a healthy manner. 2. Restriction on Some Nutrients: Generally some nutrients like carbohydrates and fats are restricted in dieting. In reality, your body needs all types of nutrients. If you don’t take all the nutrients in required amounts, the proper functioning of the body will be impaired. 3. Skipping Meals: It is a fact that if you have good metabolic rate, you can maintain or lose weight. If your metabolic rate is slow you gain weight very easily. So, if you skip meals, it will lower your metabolism to conserve energy. So, skipping meals works against your weight-loss plans. Research studies also show if you skip one meal, you take more calories during the next meal. 4. Intake of Calories through Beverages: If you want to lose your weight, most probably, you lay stress on not to eat more and not on what you drink. In fact, beverages, coffee with cream and sugar, sweetened juices and sodas really contribute to weight gain. 5. Underestimating the Calories: It is a fact that most of the persons who go on dieting usually underestimate the number of calories they consume. So, it is essential to be more aware of the amount of calories you take in your diet. 6. Intake of Labelled Foods: Most of the persons who go on dieting usually go for such food products that carry the label ‘lean’, ‘sugar free’, ‘low calories’ or ‘no fat or fat-free’. Such type of food is not always the best for losing weight. In addition, it does not meet all the nutrient requirements of your body. As a matter of fact, three chocolate biscuits contain 140 calories whereas three non-fat cookies contain 120 calories. This difference is insignificant. Apart from this, when you eat such products you think that these products have very few calories and so you tend to eat more, as a result of which, you end up consuming more calories.

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7. Not Exercising: If you go on dieting and do not exercise, it will work against the weight-loss programme. Instead of losing weight you are likely to gain weight. As a matter of fact, exercise has a positive effect on metabolism and also helps to burn some extra calories. Exercise increases metabolic rate which ultimately reduces body weight. So, dieting is beneficial only if you exercise alongside.

Food Intolerance Food intolerance is more common than food allergy. Food intolerance is a term used widely for varied physiological responses associated with a particular food. In simple words, food intolerance means the individual elements of certain foods that cannot be properly processed and absorbed by our digestive system. Some persons can tolerate a reasonable amount of the food but if they eat too much or too often they get symptoms Food intolerance of food intolerance because their body cannot tolerate unlimited amounts. Food intolerance comes on gradually not frequently. It is not life threatening. Causes of Food Intolerance Food intolerance is caused by part or complete absence of activity of the enzymes responsible for breaking down or absorbing the food elements. These deficiencies are usually innate. Sometimes food intolerance can be diet-related or can be due to illness. Symptoms Food intolerance can cause nausea, stomach pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, flatulence, gas, cramps, heartburn, headaches, irritability, nervousness, etc. Management of Food Intolerance Individuals can try minor changes of diet to exclude food causing adverse reactions. Sometimes it can be managed adequately in such a way without the need for professional assistance. If you are unable to know the food which causes problem you should seek expert medical help. Guidance can also be provided by your general practitioner to assist in diagnosis and management. For managing food intolerance, fructose intolerance therapy, lactose intolerance therapy and histamine intolerance therapy can be applied.

Food Myths There are various food myths which are prevailing not only in India but all over the world. What to eat, when to eat and how often to eat are such questions which usually confuse most of the individuals. We believe in such myths because they sound like they could be true. Nowadays, we have scientific knowledge and on the basis of that knowledge we should not believe in food myths. The most common food myths which are still prevalent in our contemporary society are stated subsequently. SPORTS

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1. Potatoes Make You Fat: Earlier, people used to think that carbohydrate-rich foods such as rice, potato, etc., increase body weight. So, for losing or reducing weight they used to eliminate carbohydrate-rich foods from the diet. Now, we know that carbohydrates are the body’s preferred energy source. Potatoes do not automatically make you fat. So, there is no problem in taking potatoes in moderate quantity. 2. Fat-free Products Will Help You in Losing Weight: Fat-free labelled products can lead to weight gain, In fact, these foods have more calories. Approximately, these products have the same number of calories (may be slightly less) in comparison to other regular food. In addition, most of the persons eat more quantity of labelled food under the misconception that it comprises less calories. However, they ultimately consume more calories which can cause weight gain. 3. Eggs Increase Cholesterol Levels So Avoid Them: Eggs are, undoubtedly good source of health. An egg provides you various nutrients such as protein, vitamins A, B, D, zinc, iron, calcium, phosphorus, etc. It also fulfils the daily requirement of cholesterol by our body. So, taking one egg daily causes no problem in the level of cholesterol. 4. Drinking While Eating Makes You Fat: The actual fact behind this misconception is that enzymes and their digestive juices will be diluted by drinking water while eating. It will slow down your digestion which may lead to excess body fat. In contrary, there is a scientific fact that drinking water while eating improves digestion. 5. Don’t Take Milk Immediately After Eating Fish: Many people believe that you should not take milk immediately after eating fish. They think that it will make you sick. Some people even think that spots can appear on your skin if you consume milk after eating fish. As a matter of fact, there is no scientific reason in taking milk immediately after eating fish. Indeed, these products may be taken together. 6. Starve Yourself If You Want to Lose Weight: Eating a good diet is more important than not to eat when you are on a weight-loss programme. Include such food items in your diet which suppress appetite and increase metabolism so that you don’t eat too much. So, there is no need to starve yourself if you want to lose weight. 7. Exercise Makes You Eat More: Exercise burns calories which may increase your hunger. Research studies conducted in this area have not shown that the individuals who do exercise, consume more calories than those who don’t exercise. So, there is no truth in this statement.

2.4 SPORTS NUTRITION AND ITS EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE (FLUID AND MEAL INTAKE, PRE, DURING AND POST COMPETITION)

Meaning of Sports Nutrition Sports nutrition is the study and practice of nutrition and diet as these relate to performance in the field of games and sports. It has a direct relationship with the type and quantity of fluid and food intake by a sportsperson. In fact, it deals with the nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, water, etc.

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Sports nutrition

Intake of Nutrition Before, During and After the Competition or Training

Most of the sportspersons are concerned about what to eat before, during and after the competition or training because intake of nutrition plays a very significant role in enhancing the performance in sports and games. However, it is also a fact that optimal health and sports performance are achieved by having proper diet every day and not just the day before, during and after the competition or training. It is also essential to take a variety of foods daily in order to consume all the nutrients needed for good health and maximum performance. Intake of such nutrients cannot be ignored. The explanation of the intake nutrition (fluid and meal) before, during and after the competition or training is stated below. Nutrition Before the Competition What a sportsperson consumes before a competition or training is really very important for a good sports performance. As a matter of fact, at least a week before competition, an athlete/sportsperson should take complex carbohydrate foods which usually help in enhancing the glycogen stores. Miller suggests that 500–600 g per day may make muscles store over 20 per cent more glycogen. The fuel for muscles is usually provided in the meals at least 3–4 days prior to competition. Therefore, it is very important to take a high energy meal not only on the day of competition, but also several days before. In fact, the intake of nutrition also depends on the intensity and type of activity being performed. Glucose is usually preferred as the best energy source, especially for the activity of high intensity. So, before competition, the diet or meal should be rich in carbohydrate and low in fat, protein and fibre. Such type of diet may include bread, cereals, potatoes, pasta, rice, fruits and vegetables for quick energy. The day before competition, the meals should consist of rich carbohydrate such as pasta, toast bread, brown rice or whole grains, etc. High fat and protein should be avoided because they slow down digestion. Approximately, two hours before the competition, a high carbohydrate/energy drink can be considered sufficient. Taking fluid helps in preventing dehydration during competition. In fact, a little dehydration may cause poor performance. Just before the competition, a sportsperson should not feel hungry. He/she should be properly hydrated. SPORTS

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Nutrition During the Competition Nutrition during the competiton is essential to stay hydrated and to maintain blood sugar levels so that sportsperson may not undergo fatigue. So, a sportsperson should frequently take fluids during competition. In fact, staying hydrated is the most significant factor for maintaining performance during competition. He/she should not wait to feel thirsty. In fact, the amount of fluid intake depends on the climate and the intensity of the competition. If the duration of the competition is more than 60 minutes, a sportsperson should take small amount of carbohydrate at a regular interval during competition. In this way, the blood sugar level will be enhanced and glycogen stores will not be depleted rapidly. Half cup to one cup of fluid after every 10–20 minutes during the competition is better. If the duration of competition is more than one hour, one should take small snack after a short break. If the duration of the competition is less than 60 minutes, a sportsperson should drink water frequently after every 10–20 minutes. All the events do not require extra energy during competition. Indeed, a number of research studies have shown that sports drinks may be beneficial during high intensity level activities lasting 60 minutes or longer or less intensity level activities lasting for prolonged periods of time. Nutrition After the Competition Nutrition after the competition is essential for proper recovery. Such nutrition is extremely important, as it will determine the recovery and energy level of the sportsperson for the next day’s competition. First of all the preference should be given to replacement of any fluid loss. This can be easily done by the intake of water or fluid replacement drink. It is equally significant to take some carbohydrate immediately within 15 minutes after competition to start restoring glycogen. For this purpose fruits, juices and sports drinks may be included. High carboydrate drinks may be used. Meals after the competition should be taken within two hours of the competition for the best glycogen restoration. About 100–200 g carbohydrate along with lean protein like meat or chicken should be taken. Intake of protein with carbohydrate after competition will definitely help in building, maintaining and repairing muscles. At least 20 g of protein is required after competition to enhance muscle recovery. It can be derived from the food like cheese, egg, milk, yoghurt, etc. After two hours of competition, a sportsperson should take a complete balanced meal. In this meal, carbohydrate in the form of grains, rice, potatoes, cereals and vegetables and fruit and protein in the form of meat, fish, soyabeans, bread, peas and egg should be included. Various studies have shown that intake of carbohydrate approximately 2 g per kg of body weight and 40 g of protein within 2 hours after competition speed up the replenishment of glycogen stores and recovery time.

Effects of Diet on Performance Any diet which has all the constituents of food in sufficient amount, necessary for the maintenance and growth of body is essential for all the individuals whether they do simple work or engage in highly competitive sports. The requirement of diet varies a lot from one individual to another that to fix a standard diet for a group of persons would be meaningless. Generally, the daily requirement for an active person may vary from 3000 calories to 8000 calories, depending upon his/her size, weight, age, physical condition and the severity of the work done on each day.

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Various claims have been made to ascertain the role of diet on the performance of sportspersons. Many researchers who have investigated the role of diet on sports performance say that a well-balanced diet is essential to ensure good performance. Some studies indicate that diet can improve sports performance, whereas some studies do not claim any significant effect of diet on sports performance. A number of studies indicate that a particular diet can improve the sports performance. As a matter of fact, a Diet and sports performance well balanced diet may not guarantee success in sports but it is a given fact that imbalanced diet definitely affects the performance adversely, whether in sports or in other type of work. To know the role of a particular diet, it would be better to know the role of essential nutrients on performance. These essential nutrients are described below.

Fat

Fat is considered as a major source of fuel for light to moderate levels of activity. Various types of sports require different proportions of fat to muscles to maximise performance. A minimum amount of fat is desirable for a distance runner, high jumper and a gymnast. These athletes require nominal fat. Adding weight to their body will hinder their performance. Distance swimmers need a certain amount of fat distributed near the skin surface to diminish the heat loss to the water. Research studies show that extra weight of fat that has to be carried by a runner definitely diminishes the performance.

Carbohydrate

Carbohydrate is also a major fuel for muscular contraction. Research studies suggest that carbohydrate is helpful in increasing the endurance of sportspersons. Carbohydrate should not be given to athletes in excessive amount. It may be risky for them. Again, a low level of carbohydrate usually results in exhaustion. Balance is the key.

Protein

Protein is necessary for the growth and development of various tissues of the body. Now, it has been understood that some amount of protein is consumed as fuel for muscular work. If fat and carbohydrate are available, then they are chosen preferentially over protein as the source of energy. The results of various studies have shown that work performance is neither improved nor decreased by protein supplementation or deprivation. Recent studies suggest that protein helps in the growth of lean tissues but does not have any significant effect on performance.

Vitamins

Vitamins are essential in the normal diet for good performance in work and sports but there is no clear evidence that extra amount of vitamins improves the performance. In fact, the SPORTS

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body cannot store a large amount of vitamins; most of the excess amount of vitamins is excreted through the urine. So, an excess of vitamins only gives extra work to the excretory organs. There are only three vitamins which have received the attention of researchers. These are: 1. Vitamin C: Low level of vitamin C intake does not reduce the work performance significantly. Approximately, 60 mg of vitamin C intake by non-athletes and 300 mg to 500 mg intake by successful athletes do not have any harmful effect on kidneys. 2. Vitamin E: Vitamin E has been claimed to have beneficial effects in the treatment of many diseases and especially heart diseases. Several studies conducted on the use of Vitamin E have shown little or no effect on the performance. It has been established that excess amount of Vitamin E intake does not improve the performance in sports. 3. Vitamin B-complex: Deficiency of vitamin B-complex has shown decrease in the sports performance. Several studies related to excess amount of vitamin B-complex intake show both improvement in performance and no influence on performance. In fact, there is a need of further research and studies to establish the effect of this vitamin on the performance of athletes.

Minerals It is a well-known fact about minerals that their deficiency can decrease the performance, especially during the exercise in hot climate. Sweating reduces the amount of sodium and chloride in the body. Excess amount of salt intake can lead to potassium loss and increased water retention. This condition can be harmful for the persons with hypertension. Still, there is no clear indication by research studies that an excess amount of intake of minerals improves the performance of athletes.

Water Water is essential for life. The deficiency of water in the body has shown decreased performance. There can be the risk of central nervous system disorders. On the other hand, the excess amount of water intake does not have any improvement in sports performance because it has no calorific value. It can be concluded that there is a significant effect of diet on sports performance. Successful sportspersons also require a well balanced diet to display a good performance in sports. Hence, a well-balanced diet is essential for every sportsperson.

2.5 FOOD SUPPLEMENT FOR CHILDREN Nowadays, most of the parents remain under stress and tension thinking about their children’s unhealthy lifestyle. We are well aware of the fact that fast foods have become the favourite foods of majority of the children. On the other hand, highly nutritious foods rarely find place in the list of favourite foods of children. This trend may lead to the growth and development problems. The main reason being lack of proper nutrition. Parents have found a solution to this problem in the form of food supplements. So, it is essential for all of us to know about food supplements.

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Food Supplements

Meaning of Food Supplement: Food supplement means a nutrient that is added to your diet to nourish your body as you are not taking this nutrient in adequate amounts in your regular diet. Food supplements generally include vitamins, minerals, fibre, fatty acids or amino acids, among other substances. These supplements may be in the form of a tablet or powder which can be added to water or milk for consumption. Need of Food Supplements for Children: There is no doubt about the fact that food supplements play a vital role in proper growth and development of children. Though, it is not essential to consume food supplements but then this becomes necessary when there is a lack of adequate nutritious diet. In fact, it can be said that food supplements are unnecessary if a child takes a balanced diet regularly. Moreover, there are various food supplements which have no practical effect. For example, food supplement like omega-3 fatty acid has been shown to be of no benefit for healthy children. It means that if a child takes a balanced or nutritious diet regularly, there will not be any extra benefit for him/her in taking a food supplement. Even some food supplements may prove to be harmful. A research study indicates that individuals who consumed vitamin E supplement had a higher risk of prostate cancer than individuals who did not consume vitamin E. Similarly, calcium supplement too has been found to put individuals at a greater risk of heart attacks. In addition, food supplements may not contain all the nutrients that a child needs.

Precautions While Taking Food Supplements For good growth and development in children, there are a wide range of food supplements. The market is flooded with various types of food supplements for children. These supplements provide essential nutrients that the body requires. These food supplements may act as a boon to children who are not taking balanced or healthy diet. However, before taking such food supplements, you should take the following precautions. 1. First, ensure that there is a lack of essential nutrient in a child’s diet. Consult a doctor whether the child needs to take food supplements or not. 2. Before buying a supplement, ensure that it is free from preservatives, and contains no fillers or any added sugar. 3. Food supplements may be harmful if they are taken in excessive dosage, especially the minerals and fat-soluble vitamins which can get accumulated in the body. Some of the food supplements may cause harm due to their rapid absorption in the blood stream. SPORTS

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4. Don’t pay heed to the words of salesmen or advertisements which claim that these supplements will improve the functioning of a child’s brain. After taking the above-mentioned precautions into consideration, food supplements may be taken by children for their proper growth and development. In fact, the secret of healthy children is a healthy or balanced diet with exercise and not food supplements. Children who develop healthy eating habits in childhood are more likely to continue these habits throughout their life. So, it is better to encourage children to eat healthy food instead of taking food supplements. They should eat healthy and nutritious foods. If they eat such food, they will not require any food supplements. It should be kept in mind that food supplements cannot take the place of healthy as well as nutritious food.

Exercises Very Short Answer Questions Carrying 1 Mark (20 to 30 words) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

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What do you mean by balanced diet? What do you mean by nutrition? Define nutrition. Define balanced diet. What do you mean by macro nutrients? What do you mean by micro nutrients? Enlist the macro nutrients. Enlist the micro nutrients. What do you mean by nutritive components of diet? What do you mean by non-nutritive components of diet? What do you mean by vitamins? What do you mean by healthy weight? Define healthy weight. What do you mean by food myths? What are fats? Why does the weightlifters diet include lots of protein? What do you mean by sports nutrition? Enlist two non-nutritive components of diet. Enlist two sources for calcium and iron separately. What are micro nutrients? Explain the importance of fluid intake during competition. What is food intolerance? What do you mean by food supplement? What do you mean by food intolerance? Fats are derived from two sources. Name them. SARASWATI HEALTH

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[AI 2013]

[Delhi 2013] [CBSE Sample Paper 2015] [AI 2015] [AI 2016] [AI 2016] [Delhi 2016] [AI 2017] [Delhi 2017]

Short Answer Questions Carrying 3 Marks (80 to 90 words) 1. Clarify the meaning of balanced diet in brief. 2. What do you mean by macro and micro nutrients? 3. What do you mean by nutritive and non-nutritive components of diet? 4. Briefly explain about vitamins. 5. Enlist the forms of vitamin B and explain any one of them in brief. 6. What is roughage? Explain in brief. 7. Explain in brief, the importance of water. 8. What do you mean by colour compounds? 9. Briefly explain any two food myths. 10. What do you mean by macro nutrients? Explain about any two macro nutrients. 11. What do you mean by micro nutrients? Discuss about macro and micro minerals. 12. What do you mean by vitamin? Explain about fat soluble and water soluble vitamins. 13. Discuss protein as the nutritive component of diet. 14. What do you mean by water soluble vitamins? Explain about them in brief. 15. Discuss about mineral as nutritive component of diet. 16. Discuss water and roughage as a non-nutritive components of diet. 17. Enlist the non-nutritive components of diet. Explain about any two components of diet. 18. Discuss any four pitfalls of dieting. 19. Discuss the causes and management of food intolerance. 20. What do you mean by food myths? Briefly explain about four myths. 21. In sports such as Boxing and Wrestling, do players tend to lose weight sharply? Explain the pitfalls of dieting. [CBSE Sample Paper 2015] 22. What type of nutrition would you take before taking part in competition? Explain in brief. 23. Briefly mention about nutrition during competition. 24. Discuss in brief about nutrition after competition. 25. Critically explain the use of dietary supplements in heavy dose for longer duration. Justify your answer with two suitable examples. [AI 2015] 26. Briefly explain the functions and resources of three fat soluble vitamins. 27. Write briefly about protein as an essential component of diet. 28. Discuss any four pitfalls of dieting.

[AI 2016] [CBSE Sample Paper 2016]

29. Mention the difference between macro and micro nutrients. 30. What do you understand by food myths? Or Discuss briefly about various food myths.

[Delhi 2016]

31. Elucidate the need of food supplement for children. 32. Discuss the precautions for taking food supplements. SPORTS

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Long Answer Questions Carrying 5 Marks (150 to 200 words) 1. What do you mean by macro nutrients? Explain about any four macro nutrients. 2. What do you mean by micro nutrients? Explain in brief about minerals as micro nutrients in detail. 3. What do you mean by nutritive components of diet? Explain about any three of them in brief. 4. What do you mean by non-nutritive components of diet? Explain any four non-nutritive components in brief. 5. Discuss the role of nutrition on the performance of a sportsperson. 6. “Diet or nutrition can enhance the performance of a sportsperson”. Give your comments about this statement in detail. 7. What do you mean by healthy weight? Discuss about the methods to control healthy body weight for lifetime. 8. Elucidate about the various pitfalls of dieting in detail. 9. What do you mean by food intolerance? Explain the causes, symptoms and management of food intolerance in detail. 10. What do you mean by food myths? Explain any six food myths prevailing in contemporary society. 11. “Vitamins are essential for our metabolic process”. What happens if we devoid our diet of vitamins? [Delhi 2012] 12. Vitamins are very essential for the normal working of the body and are divided into two groups. Explain about them. [AI 2015] 13. Diet or nutrition for sportspersons is important. What should be the aims of preparing diet for sportsperson? 14. What is balanced diet? Explain the component of diet. [AI 2014] 15. Discuss how five major components of diet can enhance the performance of a sportsperson? 16. What do you mean by food supplement? Describe the precautions for taking food supplements. 17. Are food supplements essential for children who participate in sports? Give your views. 18. What are the nutritive and non-nutritive components of diet? Explain. [AI 2017] 19. What do you mean by ‘Healthy weight’? Explain the methods to control healthy body weight to lead healthy-living. [Delhi 2017] 

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Yoga and Lifestyle

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3.1 Asanas as Preventive Measures 3.2 Obesity: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications for Vajrasana, Pada Hastasana, Urdhva Hastasana, Trikonasana, Ardhmatseyendrasana 3.3 Diabetes: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications for Bhujangasana, Paschimottanasana, Pawanmuktasana, Ardhmatseyendrasana 3.4 Asthma: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications for Sukhasana, Chakrasana, Gomukhasana, Parvatasana, Bhujangasana, Paschimottanasana, Matsyasana 3.5 Hypertension: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications for Tadasana, Vajrasana, Pawanmuktasana, Ardh Chakrasana, Bhujangasana, Shavasana 3.6 Back Pain: Procedure, Benefits and Contraindications for Tadasana, Ardhmatseyendrasana, Vakrasana, Shalabhasana, Bhujangasana

Indeed, it is an astonishing fact that a yogic tradition, which is more than five thousand years old, has recently become a popular way of life. Presently, people consider that yoga is a significant means to achieve a healthy as well as a positive lifestyle. In fact, the power of yoga lies in its simplicity, flexibility and diversity. As a matter of fact, yoga helps in improving our flexibility, lowers our stress level and increases our confidence and finally contributes to a healthier lifestyle on the whole. There are Yoga various lifestyle diseases like obesity, diabetes, asthma, hypertension, back pain, migraine and depression which can be prevented and treated up to some extent with the help of certain yogic exercises.

3.1 ASANAS AS PREVENTIVE MEASURES According to Patanjali, asana means, “sthiram sukham aasanam” i.e., “that position which is comfortable and steady”. In Brahamanopanishad, “To sit in a comfortable position YOGA

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or posture for everlasting period is called asana”. Asana is that state of body in which the body may be positioned easily. As a matter of fact, the ability to sit comfortably for an extended period of time in any position is called asana. In asanas, body is kept in various positions in such a way that the activities of organs and glands of body become more efficient and eventually the health of mind and body is improved. In fact, asana is a means through which physical and mental development is achieved. Prevention of diseases and delay in ageing are the desired effects that can be achieved through yogic exercises. There are different types of asanas which include meditative asanas, relaxative asanas and corrective asanas. Regular practice of the above-mentioned asanas significantly affects various systems or organs of our body. Asanas can be used as preventive measures because they provide the following physiological benefits, which ultimately help us in avoiding various lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, obesity and cardiovascular diseases.

Benefits of Asanas for Prevention of Diseases (a) Bones and Joints Become Strong: As a result of performing asanas regularly, the bones, cartilages and ligaments become strong. Along with this, the height of children is enhanced. The joints are able to bear more pressure. Asanas also enhance the flexibility of joints. The flexibility of spine is also enhanced. Postural deformities can also be prevented and corrected. Arthritis is also cured by performing asanas. Due to spinal injuries, problems like back pain, sciatica and cervical pain develop. By performing asanas these problems are greatly controlled. (b) Muscles Become Strong: By performing asanas regularly, muscles of the body become strong. The efficiency of muscles increases. Fat does not accumulate in the body. (c) Circulation of Blood Becomes Normal: As a result of practicing asanas regularly, the stroke volume as well as cardiac output increase because cardiac muscles start working more strongly and efficiently. Blood circulation is improved and blood pressure normalises and stabilises. The level of blood cholesterol reduces. By performing asanas, the lactic acid and acid phosphate are excreted from muscles quickly and easily which reduces fatigue. (d) Respiratory Organs Become Efficient: By doing asanas regularly, the respiratory organs become efficient. The vital air capacity increases up to 6000 cc. The size of the lungs and chest also enhances. As a result of doing asanas, the will power becomes strong and various diseases such as cough, asthma and cancer of trachea can be prevented. (e) Efficiency of Digestive System Increases: By performing asanas regularly, all the organs of digestive system of our body begin to work effectively. The absorption of food becomes efficient. The storage of bile in gall bladder in concentrated form is enhanced, appetite increases, stomach and intestines are also strengthened. Constipation, indigestion and gas trouble are reduced.

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(f) Nervous System Strengthens: As a result of regular practice of asanas, our nervous system strengthens. The working efficiency of synapse enhances. The neuro-muscular coordination increases. Activities of our body will be done expending less energy. The secretion of adrenaline remains good. The secretion of adrenaline depends on sympathetic nervous system. The reaction time also reduces. Mental power also improves. Memory improves and feeling of disappointment reduces. Regular practice of asanas reduces anxiety and stress. It also reduces sleep disorders.

(g) Glandular Activity is Stimulated and Regulated Properly: By doing asanas regularly, the glandular activity is stimulated and regulated properly. Glands start producing hormones in sufficient quantity which are collected and kept so that they may be utilised at the time of need. The demand of insulin reduces. Indeed, regular practice of asanas improve diabetes management. Asanas help in maintaining a balanced development of our body.

(h) Efficiency of Excretory System Enhances: Regular practice of asanas enhances the efficiency of all the excretory organs. As a result, the waste products such as lactic acid, acid phosphate, urea, uric acid, sulphates, etc., are excreted quickly and properly which in turn help in delaying fatigue. (i) Immune System is Strengthened: By carrying out regular practice of asanas, our immune system is strengthened. We, as a result, become less prone to various communicable diseases.

In conclusion, it can be said that regular practice of asanas is helpful in preventing various diseases, especially the ones that are related to our lifestyle.

3.2 OBESITY: PROCEDURE, BENEFITS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS FOR VAJRASANA, PADA HASTASANA, URDHVA HASTASANA, TRIKONASANA, ARDHMATSEYENDRASANA Nowadays, obesity has become an enormous as well as a fatal health problem. This problem is not only seen in India but is prevalent in the other countries also. Even in the United States of America, one out of three adults and one out of five children and teenagers are facing the problem of obesity. In India, we witness a similar situation. Majority of the people, since childhood, fall prey to obesity in most of the countries of the world. In fact, “Obesity is that condition of the body in which the amount of fat increases to extreme levels.” In other words, obesity can be defined as “the condition when an individual weighs 20 per cent more than the ideal weight.” An adult with a BMI more than or equal to 30 than the ideal BMI is usually considered to be obese. In case of obesity, the body weight of the individual is always more in comparison to height. Considering the number of health risks associated with obesity, it has been declared a disease. It has been observed that obese persons usually fall prey to diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, arthritis, osteoarthritis, flatfoot, respiratory problems, varicose veins, liver malfunction, etc. YOGA

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Generally, the questions arise: What should be the ideal body weight of an individual? Who is obese and who is not? Different methods are used in different countries to know if an individual is obese. According to the first method, just by observing, it can be inferred whether he/she is obese or not. But this method cannot be considered a right method to determine if an individual is obese because the opinion about the shape of the body changes with the passage of time. For example, chubbiness used to be liked by people in yesteryears, whereas being slim and trim is appreciated nowadays everywhere. According to the second method, if an individual’s body weight is more in proportion to his/her height (according to height and weight chart), the individual will be overweight or obese. But this method cannot be accepted as the best method. The third method is a more scientific method. In this method, the body fat percentage is calculated. If the body fat percentage of a person is more than the required levels, he/she may be considered obese. This is the most accurate method to determine obesity, but it is not easy to apply this method. In comparison to other methods, the weight and height chart is still preferred to determine obesity because it is easily available, cost-effective and easy to use. Another method to check obesity is using BMI (Body Mass Index). If you want to know your body mass index, then divide your body weight in kg by your height in metre square viz. Body Mass Index =

Weight in kg (Height in m)

2

=

Weight in kg Height × Height

The WHO Criteria for Overweight and Obesity by BMI Category Underweight Normal weight Overweight

BMI

Category

BMI

< 18.5

Obesity Class I

30 – 34.9

Obesity Class II

35 – 39.9

18.5 – 24.9 25 – 29.9

Obesity Class III

> 40

With the help of the above table, an individual may know which category of weight he belongs to. Obesity can be prevented as well as cured if the following asanas are performed regularly.

1. Vajrasana Procedure: It is a meditative asana. Kneel down on the ground or floor with your knees, ankles and toes touching the ground. Your toes should be stretched backwards. Now place your palms of your hands on the knees. The upper body should be straight. At this time, the breathing should be deep, even and slow. Then expand your chest forward and pull your abdominal portion inwards. Benefits 1. It is helpful in improving concentration. 2. It is helpful in curing dysentery, back pain and chest diseases. 3. It enhances memory power.

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4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

It cures the problems related to menstruation. It cures mental stress. It strengthens the pelvic muscles. It removes postural defects. It prevents hernia and gives relief from piles. It is the best asana for people suffering from sciatica and sacral infections. 10. It helps in reducing hip fat. 11. It gives relief from constipation, acidity and increases the efficiency of the digestive system. Contraindications 1. A person suffering from joint pain should not perform vajrasana. 2. The individuals who have any spinal column problem Vajrasana should not perform vajrasana. 3. The individuals who have some difficulty in movement should do vajrasana with a lot of care.

2. Pada Hastasana Procedure: Bend forward until the fingers or palms of the hands touch the floor on either side of the feet. Try to touch the knees with the forehead. Do not strain. Keep the knees straight. Exhale while bending forward. Try to contract the abdomen in the final position to expel the maximum amount of air from the lungs. Benefits 1. Pada hastasana makes the body very flexible. It stretches the back and leg muscles. 2. It helps to eliminate excess belly fat. 3. It improves digestion and reduces constipation. It cures many stomach ailments. 4. It makes the spine flexible and tones the nerves. 5. It improves blood circulation.

Pada Hastasana

Contraindications The individuals who have back pain should avoid this asana. At least, they should not bend forward fully. They can bend themselves only as far as comfortable.

3. Urdhva Hastasana Procedure: You must begin by assuming Tadasana. Stand with your arms at your sides. Then, gently raise them to the ceiling. Make sure that your arms are parallel to each other. YOGA

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You can also bring your palms together over your head. While you do this, make sure your shoulders are not hunched. If your palms are apart, then they must face each other. Your arms must be straight at all times such that they are activated all throughout, till your fingertips. Move your gaze upwards. Your shoulders must be away from your ears, and your shoulder blades must be pressed firmly on your back. Your thighs should be engaged in such a way that they pull the kneecaps up. Straighten your legs, but do not lock your knees. Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

It gives the belly a good stretch. It improves digestion. It gives the armpits and the shoulders a good stretch. It relieves stress and anxiety. It enhances body posture. It increases the capacity of the lungs. It improves blood circulation in the body. It eases sciatica. It helps in tightening the abdomen.

Urdhva Hastasana

Contraindications In case of shoulder or neck injuries or experiencing dizziness while staring upwards, this asana should be avoided.

4. Trikonasana Procedure: First of all stand with your legs apart. Then raise the arms sideways up to the shoulder level. Bend the trunk sideways and raise the right hand upward. Touch the ground with left hand behind left foot. After some time, do the same asana with opposite arm in the same way. Benefits 1. It strengthens the legs, knees, arms and chest.

2. It helps in improving digestion and stimulates all the abdominal organs. 3. It increases mental and physical equilibrium.

4. It reduces stress, anxiety, back pain and sciatica. 5. It helps in increasing height.

6. It helps in reducing the excess body weight. 7. It enhances blood circulation.

8. It is also helpful in reducing excess fat around the waistline.

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Contraindications 1. If you are suffering from diarrhoea, low or high blood pressure, back injury or migraine, avoid doing trikonasana. 2. The individual having cervical spondylosis should not perform this asana.

5. Ardhmatseyendrasana Procedure: The left heel is kept under the right thigh and right leg is crossed over the left thigh. After that hold the right toe with left hand and turn your head and back to the right side. In this position move the trunk sideways. Then, perform the same asana in the reverse position. Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4.

It keeps gall bladder and the prostate gland healthy. It enhances the stretchability of back muscles. It alleviates digestive ailments. It regulates the secretion of adrenaline and bile and thus is recommended in yogic management of diabetes. 5. It is also helpful in treating sinusitis, bronchitis, constipation, menstrual disorders, urinary tract disorders and cervical spondylitis.

Ardhmatseyendrasana

Contraindications 1. Women, who are two or three months pregnant should avoid this asana. 2. The individuals, who suffer from peptic ulcer, hernia or hypothyroidism should perform this asana only under expert guidance. 3. The individuals who have the problem of sciatica or slipped disc may benefit from this asana but they need to take great care while doing this asana.

3.3 DIABETES: PROCEDURE, BENEFITS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS FOR BHUJANGASANA, PASCHIMOTTANASANA, PAWANMUKTASANA, ARDHMATSEYENDRASANA Diabetes is really a very dangerous condition. If diabetes is not controlled, it can lead to renal failure, loss of vision, amputation of limbs and cardiovascular diseases. Diabetes is such a disorder that it causes sugar to build up in our blood stream instead of being used by the cells in our bodies. In fact, our body uses a hormone (insulin) to control the level of sugar in our blood. When our body does not produce sufficient amounts of insulin or when insulin does not work properly, diabetes occurs. There are two types of diabetes— Type I and Type II. In Type I diabetes, the pancreatic gland does not produce insulin. Hence, injection of insulin is required daily for its treatment. In Type II diabetes, the body does not produce sufficient amount of insulin hormone or the hormone is produced sufficiently but it is not used properly by the body. There are frequent cases of Type II YOGA

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diabetes, whereas, the cases of Type I diabetes are rare. The feeling of tiredness, urge to urinate frequently, numbness in hands and feet, blurred vision, excessive weight gain or weight loss, unhealing wounds, etc., are common symptoms of diabetes. People with obesity usually fall prey to diabetes. Diabetes can be prevented as well as cured if the following asanas are performed regularly.

1. Bhujangasana Procedure: In this asana, the shape of the body remains like a snake that is why it is called bhujangasana. In order to perform this asana, lie down on the belly on the ground. Keep your hands near the shoulders. Keep your legs close together. Now, straighten up your arms slowly, raise the chest. Your head should turn backwards. Keep this position for some time. Then, get back to the normal position. For good results, perform this asana 3 to 5 times. Bhujangasana Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

It alleviates obesity. It provides strength and agility. It cures the disorders of urinary bladder. It cures the diseases of liver. It improves blood circulation. It makes the vertebral column flexible and thin. It cures gas disorders, constipation and indigestion. It strengthens the muscles of hands.

Contraindications 1. This asana should be avoided by individuals who suffer from hernia, back injuries, headaches and recent abdominal surgeries. 2. Pregnant women should not perform this asana.

2. Paschimottanasana Procedure: Sit on the ground with legs forward. Then, hold the toes of your feet with the fingers of both hands. Then, breathe out slowly and try to touch the knees with your forehead. After that breathe in slowly, raise your head upwards and come to the prior position. Perform this asana at least 10 to 12 times. Paschimottanasana

Benefits 1. It alleviates gas trouble. 2. It prevents the early ossification of bones.

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

It is a good remedy for constipation. It helps to overcome several menstrual disorders. It gives relief in sciatica, backache and asthma. It reduces obesity. It is helpful in treating abdominal diseases. It is helpful in curing skin diseases. Vertebra becomes flexible and healthy.

Contraindications 1. If you are suffering from enlarged liver or spleen or acute appendicitis, you should never do this asana. 2. Avoid doing this asana if you suffer from asthma or any respiratory diseases. 3. If you have any back or spinal problem, make sure that you perform this asana only under expert guidance.

3. Pawanmuktasana Procedure: Lie down on your back on a plain surface. Keep your feet together and place your arms beside your body. Take a deep breath. When you exhale bring your knees towards your chest. At the same time press your thighs on your abdomen. Clasp your hands around your legs. Hold the asana when you breathe normally. Every time you inhale, ensure that you loosen the grip. Exhale and release the pose after you rock and roll from side to side about 3 times.

Pawanmuktasana

Benefits 1. It eases the tension in lower back. 2. It enhances the blood circulation in pelvic area.

3. It helps in reducing the fats of thighs, buttocks and abdominal area. 4. It strengthens the abdominal muscles. It also massages the intestines and organs of the digestive system which helps in releasing the gas and thus improves digestion. 5. It relieves constipation. Contraindications 1. If you are suffering from heart problems, hyper acidity, high blood pressure, slipped disc and hernia you should avoid this asana. 2. Pregnant women should avoid doing this asana. 3. If you have had an abdominal surgery recently you should avoid performing this asana. 4. Individuals suffering from piles should avoid this asana. YOGA

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4. Ardhmatseyendrasana Procedure: The left heel is kept under the right thigh and right leg is crossed over the left thigh. After that hold the right toe with left hand and turn your head and back to the right side. In this position move the trunk sideways. Then, perform the same asana in the reverse position. Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4.

It keeps gall bladder and the prostate gland healthy. It enhances the stretchability of back muscles. It alleviates digestive ailments. It regulates the secretion of adrenaline and bile and thus is recommended in yogic management of diabetes. 5. It is also helpful in treating sinusitis, bronchitis, constipation, menstrual disorders, urinary tract disorders and cervical spondylitis.

Ardhmatseyendrasana

Contraindications 1. Women, who are two or three months pregnant should avoid this asana. 2. The individuals, who suffer from peptic ulcer, hernia or hypothyroidism should perform this asana only under expert guidance. 3. The individuals who have the problem of sciatica or slipped disc may benefit from this asana but they need to take great care while doing this asana.

3.4 ASTHMA: PROCEDURE, BENEFITS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS FOR SUKHASANA, CHAKRASANA, GOMUKHASANA, PARVATASANA, BHUJANGASANA, PASCHIMOTTANASANA, MATSYASANA Asthma is a disease of lungs in which the airways become blocked or narrowed causing difficulty in breathing. In asthma, the airways also swell up and produce extra mucus. It usually triggers coughing, wheezing or whistling and shortness of breath. The coughing usually occurs at night or early in the morning. The excessive amount of mucus in the passage further narrows the airways because it is sticky and thick. For some people it can be a minor nuisance, whereas for others it can be a major problem that can hinder their daily activities and usually leads to a life threatening asthma attack. Asthma is such a disease that it cannot be cured or treated but its symptoms can be controlled. Asthma can be allergic and non-allergic. Asthma may be due to genetic factor. There are substances that cause allergies (allergens) like irritants in the air including smoke from cigarettes, wood-fires, strong fumes, sprays, perfumes or scented soaps, etc., respiratory infections such as cold, flu, sore throat and sinus infections, exercising in cold air (exercise-induced asthma) and some medications such as beta blockers, asprin, non-steroid anti inflammatory drugs, etc. Asthma can be prevented as well as cured if the following asanas are practised regularly.

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1. Sukhasana

Procedure: Sit down with the legs straight in front of the body. After that bend the right leg and place the foot under the left thigh. Then bend the left leg and keep the foot under the right thigh. Place the hands on the knees. Chin should be in. Keep the head, neck and back straight, close the eyes. Relax your body. Benefits 1. It facilitates mental and physical balance without causing strain or pain. 2. It stretches and lengthens spine. Sukhasana 3. It calms your mind. 4. It enhances your peace of mind. 5. It reduces anxiety, stress and mental fatigue. 6. It helps in improving body posture. 7. It provides gentle massage to knees, calf muscles and thighs. 8. It spreads a sense of calmness throughout your body and mind. Contraindications 1. If your knees and hips are injured or inflamed, you should avoid this asana. 2. If you have a slipped disc problem, you should take proper care while performing this asana.

2. Chakrasana

Procedure: In this asana, the figure of the body becomes like a chakra, therefore, this asana is called chakrasana. First of all, lie down on your back. Fix your hands firmly on the ground. Then raise the middle portion of your body upwards. Raise it as high as possible, so that your body is in semi-circle position. Then keep your head downwards between your hands. In the beginning, keep this position for one minute and then after some days do it for 3 to 5 minutes. Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

It cures back pain. It cures any pain in kidneys. It is helpful in removing obesity. It prevents the problem of hernia. Chakrasana It stimulates pituitary and thyroid glands. It cures infertility, asthma and osteoporosis. It gives relief from stress and reduces depression. The semi-circular position makes the dorsal side of the body to stretch making the chest to expand. Thus, more fresh oxygen is made available. YOGA

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Contraindications 1. 2. 3. 4.

If you suffer from headache or high blood pressure you should not perform this asana. Don’t perform this asana in case of shoulder impingement. Do not perform this asana if you have tendonitis in the wrists. Individuals who suffer from serious spinal column ailments such as cervical and lumbar spondylitis should avoid this asana.

3. Gomukhasana Procedure: Sit down on the ground with legs stretched forward. Now fold the left leg at the knee and sit on the left foot. Fold the right leg and keep the right thigh on the left thigh with the help of your hands. Now lift your buttocks and bring the heels of both feet together so that they should touch each other. Now fold your left arm behind your back over the shoulder. Fold the right arm behind the back under the right shoulder. After that bend your fingers of both the hands and clasp each other. At this time your head and back should be erect. Then, repeat the same in reverse position. Benefits 1. It makes the leg muscles strong and elastic. Gomukhasana 2. It helps in keeping the shoulder joints healthy, flexible and strong. 3. It improves the function of lungs. 4. Regular practice of this asana helps in the treatment of sciatica. 5. It improves the function of kidneys by stimulating it thus helps the individuals who suffer from diabetes. 6. It also reduces stress and anxiety. 7. It helps in staying fit and strong. Contraindications 1. The individuals who suffer from shoulder, knee or back pain should avoid this asana. 2. Avoid this asana in case of any knee injury. 3. Avoid this asana in case of recent or chronic knee or hip injury or inflammation.

4. Parvatasana Procedure: Sit in padmasana or lotus pose. Stretch your arms sideways and bring them over your head slowly. After that let your palms touch each other. Then stretch your hands well without bending your elbows. Keep your spine erect.

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Parvatasana

Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

It helps in enhancing height. It reduces the extra fat in the back and waist. It tones the abdominal muscles and thus stimulates the organs of abdominal region. It is extremely beneficial in case of asthma. It helps in reducing back pain. It improves the function of spinal cord. It gives relief from tension in shoulder and back.

Contraindications 1. Avoid this asana in case of hip or back injury. 2. One should not perform this asana in case of shoulder injury.

5. Bhujangasana Procedure: In this asana, the shape of the body remains like a snake that is why it is called bhujangasana. In order to perform this asana, lie down on the belly on the ground. Keep your hands near the shoulders. Keep your legs close together. Now, straighten up your arms slowly, raise the chest. Your head should be backwards. Keep this position for some time. Then, come to the former position. For good results, perform this asana 3 to 5 times.

Bhujangasana

Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

It alleviates obesity. It provides strength and agility. It gives relief from disorders of the urinary bladder. It cures the diseases of liver. It improves blood circulation. It makes the vertebral column flexible and thin. It cures gas disorders, constipation and indigestion. It strengthens the muscles of hands.

Contraindications 1. This asana should be avoided by people who suffer from hernia, back injuries, headaches and recent abdominal surgeries. 2. Pregnant women should not perform this asana.

6. Paschimottanasana Procedure: Sit on the ground with legs forward. Then, hold the toes of your feet with the fingers of both hands. Then, breathe out slowly and try to touch the knees with your YOGA

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forehead. After that breathe in slowly, raise your head upwards and come to the prior position. Perform this asana at least 10 to 12 times. Benefits 1. It cures gas trouble. 2. It prevents the early ossification of bones. 3. It is a good remedy for constipation. 4. It helps to overcome several menstrual disorders. 5. It gives relief in sciatica, backache and asthma. 6. It reduces obesity. 7. It is helpful in all abdominal disorders. 8. It is helpful in removing skin diseases. 9. Vertebra becomes flexible and healthy.

Paschimottanasana

Contraindications 1. If you are suffering from enlarged liver or spleen or acute appendicitis, you should never do this asana. 2. Avoid doing this asana if you suffer from asthma or any respiratory diseases. 3. If you have any back or spinal problem, make sure that you perform this asana only under expert guidance.

7. Matsyasana Procedure: For performing this asana, sit in padamasana. Then, lie down in supine position and make an arch behind. Hold your toes with the fingers of your hands. Stay for some time in this position. Benefits 1. It is helpful in curing back pain, knee pain and tonsillitis. 2. It also cures the defects of eyes. 3. Skin diseases can be cured if we practise this asana regularly. Matsyasana 4. This asana is helpful for the treatment of diabetes. 5. It helps in relieving tension in the neck and shoulders. 6. It provides relief from respiratory disorders by encouraging deep breathing. 7. It improves posture. 8. It is the best asana to get relief from asthma.

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Contraindications 1. Avoid doing this asana if you have high or low blood pressure. 2. People suffering from migraine and insomnia should also refrain from performing this asana. 3. The individuals who have neck injury or lower back problems should not perform this asana.

3.5 HYPERTENSION: PROCEDURE, BENEFITS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS FOR TADASANA, VAJRASANA, PAWANMUKTASANA, ARDHA CHAKRASANA, BHUJANGASANA, SHAVASANA Hypertension means increased blood pressure. It has become a worldwide health problem because a great number of people are facing the problem of hypertension throughout the world. Though it is a fact that blood pressure increases with the advancement of age. In yesteryears, hypertension used to be considered a middle-age problem but nowadays, youngsters also suffer from this problem due to their faulty lifestyles. In fact, the main function of the heart is to supply pure blood to the various parts of the body through arteries. When the heart contracts, it pushes the blood through blood vessels and consequently the blood pressure increases in arteries. This pressure is known as systolic blood pressure. It is represented by the first number. The pressure between two heartbeats is called diastolic blood pressure. It is represented by the bottom or the second number. These two numbers of blood pressure are measured in mmHg. Unit means millimeter of Mercury. The normal blood pressure of an adult is considered 120/80 mmHg. A person whose blood pressure readings are beyond 140/90 mmHg, is said to be having hypertension. Hypertension can be prevented as well as cured if the following asanas are practised regularly.

1. Tadasana Procedure: Stand up in attention position. Lift your arms upwards. Stretch your hands upwards. Raise your heels, and come on your toes. Also pull up your body upwards. After some time breathe out slowly and come to the previous position. Repeat the same exercise 10 or 15 times. Benefits 1. It is helpful in developing physical and mental balance. 2. It reduces obesity. 3. It cures constipation. 4. It cures digestive problems. 5. It improves body posture. 6. It alleviates sciatica. 7. It is an excellent asana for those who wants to enhance their height. 8. It is beneficial in treating hypertension.

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Contraindications 1. If you have low blood pressure you should not do this asana. 2. In case of headaches or insomnia you should avoid doing this asana. 3. Individuals, who suffer from blood circulation problems such as faulty valves, should not perform this asana.

2. Vajrasana Procedure: It is a meditative asana. Kneel down on the ground or floor with your knees, ankles and toes touching the ground. Your toes should be stretched backwards. Now, place your palms of your hands on the knees. The upper body should be straight. At this time, the breathing should be deep, even and slow. Then, expand your chest forward and pull your abdominal portion inwards. Benefits 1. It is helpful in improving concentration. 2. It is helpful in curing dysentery, back pain and chest diseases. 3. It enhances memory power. 4. It alleviates the problems related to menstruation. 5. It removes mental stress. 6. It strengthens the pelvic muscles.

Vajrasana

7. It cures postural defects. 8. It prevents hernia and helps to relieve piles. 9. It is the best asana for people suffering from sciatica and sacral infections. 10. It helps in reducing the hip fat. 11. It gives relief from constipation, acidity and increases the efficiency of the digestive system. Contraindications 1. A person suffering from joint pain should not perform vajrasana. 2. The individuals who have any spinal column problem should not perform vajrasana. 3. The individuals who have some difficulty in movement should practise vajrasana with a lot of care.

3. Pawanmuktasana Procedure: Lie down on your back on a plain surface. Keep your feet together and place your arms beside your body. Take a deep breath. When you exhale bring your knees towards your chest. At the same time press your thighs on your abdomen. Clasp your hands around

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your legs. Hold the asana when you breathe normally. Every time you inhale, ensure that you loosen the grip. Exhale and release the pose after you rock and roll from side to side about 3 times. Benefits 1. It eases the tension in lower back. 2. It enhances the blood circulation in pelvic area. 3. It helps in reducing the fats of thighs, buttocks and abdominal area.

Pawanmuktasana

4. It strengthens the abdominal muscles. It also massages the intestines and organs of the digestive system which helps in releasing the gas and thus improves digestion. 5. Relieves constipation. Contraindications 1. If you are suffering from heart problems, hyper acidity, high blood pressure, slipped disc and hernia you should avoid this asana. 2. Pregnant women should avoid doing this asana. 3. If you have had an abdominal surgery recently you should avoid doing this asana. 4. Individuals suffering from piles should avoid this asana.

4. Ardha Chakrasana Procedure: Stand straight with both feet together. Hold your hips with your hands. Bend backwards without bending your knees with slow inhalation. Remain in this pose for some time. Do it 2 or 3 times. Benefits 1. It helps to make ankles, thigh, shoulders, chest, spine and abdomen stronger. 2. It relieves stress and tension. 3. It improves digestion. 4. It cures menstrual disorders. 5. It cures pain in legs. 6. It reduces fat in the waist and thigh.

Ardha Chakrasana

7. It helps to alleviate upper back pain. 8. It relieves stress in the neck and shoulders.

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Contraindications 1. Avoid performing this asana if you have migraine, headache, low blood pressure, diarrhoea and insomnia. 2. Avoid doing this asana if you have peptic ulcer and hernia. 3. Avoid this asana in case of hip or spinal problems. 4. Pregnant women should avoid doing this asana.

5. Bhujangasana Procedure: In this asana, the body posture remains like a snake and that is why it is called bhujangasana. In order to perform this asana, lie down on the belly on the ground. Keep your hands near the shoulders. Keep your legs close together. Now, straighten up your arms slowly, raise the chest. Your head should be backwards. Keep this position for some time. Then, get back to the former position. For good results, perform this asana 3 to 5 times.

Bhujangasana

Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

It alleviates obesity. It provides strength and agility. It gives relief from the disorders of urinary bladder. It removes the diseases of liver. It improves blood circulation. It makes the vertebral column flexible and thin. It cures gas disorders, constipation and indigestion. It strengthens the muscles of hands.

Contraindications 1. This asana should be avoided by individuals who suffer from hernia, back injuries, headaches and recent abdominal surgeries. 2. Pregnant women should not perform this asana.

6. Shavasana Procedure: Lie down in supine position. Legs should be straight. Keep the arms away from the body. Leave all the limbs loose as well as relaxed. Gradually, breathe in deeply. Close your eyes and think that your whole body is becoming loose. Feel a complete relaxation in your body. Remain in this position for 10 to 12 minutes.

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Shavasana

Benefits 1. It strengthens the nervous system. 2. It controls high blood pressure. 3. It relieves mental tension. 4. It gives new vigour to both mind and body simultaneously. 5. It regulates blood circulation and gives relief in various aches and pains. 6. It cures many psychosomatic problems. 7. It helps to cure many cardiac problems. 8. It relaxes and calms the complete body. 9. It improves concentration and memory. 10. It increases energy levels. 11. The body relaxes and goes into a deep meditative state, which in turn repairs the cells and tissues and releases stress.

3.6 BACK PAIN : PROCEDURE, BENEFITS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS FOR TADASANA, ARDHMATSEYENDRASANA, VAKRASANA, SHALABASANA, BHUJANGASANA The pain which is felt in the back usually originates from the bones, joints, muscles, nerves, etc. It may be in the cervical, thoracic or lumbar region. It may be spontaneous or can be chronic. It can be constant, affecting one region or radiate to other parts such as arms, hips or legs. It may give a feeling of burning sensation. Sometimes numbness may be felt in the legs or arms. In fact, back pain is not only the problem of our country but it is also prevalent all over the world. As a matter of fact, nine out of ten persons experience back pain at least once in their life. That is why it is said that back pain is a common complaint or problem throughout the Back Pain world. Due to this problem the affected persons are not able to do their work smoothly and efficiently. Even there are a number of cases when people start absenting themselves from their work. Though it is not a serious problem, it may be painful, especially when it radiates to arms or legs. Back pain may result owing to bad personal health habits and personal risk factors such as overweight, lack of physical activity or exercise, excessive smoking, lack of flexibility or undue stress on back. Back pain can be prevented as well as cured if the following asanas are performed regularly. YOGA

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1. Tadasana Procedure: Stand up in attention position. Lift your arms upwards. Stretch your hands upwards. Raise your heels, and come on your toes. Also pull up your body upwards. After some time breathe out slowly and come to the previous position. Repeat the same exercise 10 to 15 times. Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

It is helpful in developing physical and mental balance. It reduces obesity. It cures constipation. It cures digestive problems. It improves body posture. It alleviates sciatica. It is an excellent asana for those who wants to enhance their height. It is beneficial in treating hypertension.

Contraindications 1. If you have low blood pressure you should not do this asana. 2. In case of headache or insomnia you should avoid this asana. 3. Individuals, who suffer from blood circulation problems such as faulty valves, should not perform this asana.

Tadasana

2. Ardhmatseyendrasana Procedure: The left heel is kept under the right thigh and right leg is crossed over the left thigh. After that hold the right toe with left hand and turn your head and back to the right side. In this position move the trunk sideways. Then, perform the same asana in the reverse position. Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4.

It keeps gall bladder and the prostate gland healthy. It enhances the stretchability of back muscles. It alleviates digestive ailments. It regulates the secretion of adrenaline and bile and thus is recommended in yogic management of diabetes. 5. It is also helpful in treating sinusitis, bronchitis, constipation, menstrual disorders, urinary tract disorders and cervical spondylitis.

Ardhmatseyendrasana

Contraindications 1. Women who are two or three months pregnant should avoid this asana. 2. The individuals, who suffer from peptic ulcer, hernia or hypothyroidism should perform this asana only under expert guidance.

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3. The individuals who have the problem of sciatica or slipped disc may benefit from this asana but they need to take great care while doing this asana.

3. Vakrasana Procedure: Sit down and stretch your legs straight. Fold the right leg and keep the right leg’s heel touching the left leg’s knee. Place your right hand behind your back and left arm over the right knee; hold your right ankle. Push your right knee as far as possible and while exhaling, twist your trunk to the right side. Take sufficient support of left arm. Now, repeat the same procedure with the left side. Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Vakrasana

It improves the function of both spinal cord and nervous system. It prevents and controls diabetes. It strengthens kidneys. It helps in reducing chronic back pain and shoulder pain. It gives relief in stiffness of vertebrae. It reduces belly fat.

Contraindications 1. Avoid this asana in case of high blood pressure. 2. Individuals who suffer from peptic ulcer should not do this asana. 3. This asana should not be performed who suffer from serious back injury.

4. Shalabhasana Procedure: In order to perform shalabhasana, lie down in prostrate position. Spread the thigh backwards. Hold your fists and extend arms. Keep your fists under the thigh and then raise your legs slowly as high as you can. For best results hold this position for 2 or 3 minutes and then lower your legs slowly. Repeat the same action for 3 to 5 times.

Shalabhasana

Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

It provides relief to persons who have mild sciatica and slipped disc problem. It strengthens the muscles of the spine, buttocks and back of the arms and legs. It improves posture. It stimulates abdominal organs. It helps in relieving stress. YOGA

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6. It alleviates lower back pain. 7. It helps in removing constipation. Contraindications 1. People with a weak spine should avoid this asana. 2. The individuals with a weak heart, high blood pressure and coronary problems should avoid this asana.

5. Bhujangasana Procedure: In this asana, the body posture remains like a snake that is why it is called bhujangasana. In order to perform this asana, lie down on the belly on the ground. Keep your hands near the shoulders. Keep your legs close together. Now, straighten up your arms slowly, raise the chest. Your head should be backwards. Keep this position for some time. Then, get back to the former position. For good results, perform this asana 3 to 5 times.

Bhujangasana

Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

It alleviates obesity. It provides strength and agility. It gives relief from disorders of urinary bladder. It cures the diseases of liver. It improves blood circulation. It makes the vertebral column flexible and thin. It cures gas disorders, constipation and indigestion. It strengthens the muscles of hands.

Contraindications 1. This asana should be avoided who suffer from hernia, back injuries, headaches and recent abdominal surgeries. 2. Pregnant women should not perform this asana.

Exercises Very Short Answer Questions Carrying 1 Mark (20 to 30 words) 1. 2. 3. 4.

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What do you mean by Asana? What do you mean by obesity? Mention any five benefits of Vajrasana. What are the contraindications of Vajrasana? SARASWATI HEALTH

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5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Discuss the procedure of Trikonasana. Mention any five benefits of Pada Hastasana. What do you mean by Diabetes? Briefly state any five benefits of Bhujangasana. Mention the contraindications of Pashchimotanasana. What is Asthma? Briefly discuss the procedure of Sukhasana. Mention any five benefits of Parvatasana. What do you mean by Hypertension? Briefly state the procedure of Ardha Chakrasana. Briefly mention the benefits of Shavasana. What do you mean by Back Pain? Mention any five benefits of Shalabhasana. Mention any five benefits of Urdhva Hastasana.

Short Answer Questions Carrying 3 Marks (80 to 90 words) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Discuss the benefits of asanas for prevention of diseases in brief. What is obesity? How can we come to know that we are obese? Discuss the procedure and benefits of Vajrasana in brief. Describe the benefits and contraindications of Urdhva Hastasana. Discuss the benefits and contraindications of Ardha Matseyendrasana. What do you mean by diabetes? Name the asanas which are helpful for preventing diabetes. Discuss the procedure of Pawanmuktasana. Explain about asthma. Eluciadate the benefits and contraindications of Sukhasana. Discuss the procedure of Gomukhasana. Briefly discuss about hypertension. Describe the benefits and contraindications of Tadasana. Mention the benefits of Shavasana. What do you mean by Back pain? Discuss the procedure of Vakrasana. Explain the procedure of Urdhva Hastasana. Discuss the benefits and contraindications of Urdhva Hastasana.

Value Based Questions 18. Raju was suffering from severe back pain. Even he was not able to perform his daily routine work properly. He consulted the doctor but all in vain. His condition was becoming worse. Then he heard about yogasana from one of his friends. He met a certified yoga instructor. The yoga instructor suggested him to perform Tadasana, Vakrasana, Shalabhasana and Bhujngasana relularly under his guidance as well as supervision. Approximately after three months of regular practice of the asanas he got rid of back pain completely. YOGA

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On the basis of the above passage, answer the following questions. (1 × 3 = 3) 1. What was the problem of Raju? 2. Comment upon the values shown by the yoga instructor. 3. Name the asanas which are used for relieving back pain. 19. Many persons like to use asthma as an excuse for not being able to do well in sports. Try telling them about Dawn Fraser who was the first woman to break 60 sec in 100 m Free Style swimming, the first woman to win four Olympic gold medals and the first swimmer to win the same event in three consecutive Olympics was asthmatic. On the basis of the above passage, answer the following questions. (1 × 3 = 3) 1. What do you mean by asthma? 2. Describe her achievements in the field of swimming. 3. Mention the qualities, which might have helped her to win medals at three Olympics consecutively.

Long Answer Questions Carrying 5 Marks (150 to 200 words) 1. Discuss asanas as preventive measures in detail. 2. What do you mean by obesity? Discuss the benefits and contraindications of Pada Hastasana and Vajrasana. 3. Discuss the procedure, benefits and contraindications of Trikonsana and Ardha Matsyendrasana. 4. What do you mean by diabetes? Discuss the procedure, benefits and contraindications of Bhujangasana. 5. What do you mean by Asthma? Explain the procedure, benefits and contraindications of Chakrasana. 6. Elaborate the procedure and benefits of Tadasana and Pawanmuktasana. 7. What is hypertension? Discuss the benefits and contraindications of Vajrasana and Ardha Chakrasana. 8. What do you mean by Back Pain? Discuss the procedure and benefits of Shalabhasana. 9. Explain about any two asanas which are beneficial in preventing as well as curing asthma.

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4 4

Physical Education and Sports for CWSN (Children with Special Needs–Divyang)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 4.1 Concept of Disability and Disorder 4.2 Types of Disability, their Causes and Nature (Cognitive Disability, Intellectual Disability, Physical Disability) 4.3 Types of Disorder, their Causes and Nature (ADHD, SPD, ASD, ODD, OCD) 4.4 Disability Etiquettes 4.5 Advantages of Physical Activities for Children with Special Needs 4.6 Strategies to Make Physical Activities Accessible for Children with Special Needs

In modern world, every differently-abled individual has the right to participate in the programmes of physical education and sports. Sports for differently-abled are played by individuals with a disability, including physical, cognitive and intellectual disabilities. Most of the sports for differently-abled are just modified forms of the normally existing sports in order to meet the needs of individuals with certain disability and thus they are usually referred to as adapted sports. Nowadays, sports for differently-abled individuals are organised officially. These are called organised An athlete in paralympics sports for the sportspersons with a disability which is generally divided into three main disability groups: the deaf (hearing impairment), persons with physical disabilities and persons with intellectual disabilities. Physical education and sports provide ample opportunities to differently-abled persons to lead a fruitful and energetic life.

4.1 CONCEPT OF DISABILITY AND DISORDER There is no one on this planet who does not want to be physically fit, mentally alert, socially well adjusted and emotionally balanced. Every individual wants to remain healthy PHYSICAL EDUCATION

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and attain harmonious development. Nobody wants any hindrance or obstacle in the way of his/her life. We all want to enjoy life, which is full of joy and pleasure. However, there are people who are unable to meet their desires and longings due to a disability or disorder. Generally, it is seen that these two words, i.e., disability and disorder are used interchangeably. However, it is not right. So, it is essential to understand the exact meanings of these two terms.

Meaning of Disability Disability is an impairment that may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, etc. It affects everyday activities of the individual to a considerable amount. It may be present in an individual from birth or occur during one’s lifetime. Disability has different meanings in different societies of the world. Disability is an injury that restricts the functions or movements of an individual. It is the consequence of an impairment caused to an individual. It can be said that it is essentially a medical condition which does not permit an individual to perform any activity or movement in a normal way. Disability means inability to do work. In fact, it is the state of an individual, when he/she cannot work efficiently. “Disability is the reduction of functional ability to lead daily fruitful life.” According to World Health Organisation, “A disability is a restriction or lack (resulting from impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being.” “Disability is an impairment that may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory or some combination of these. It substantially affects a person’s life activities and may be present from birth or occur during a person’s lifetime.” “ A disability is a functional limitation or restriction of an individual’s ability to perform an activity.” It means that it is an impairment that creates obstructions in normal functions or movements of an individual. It limits and restricts the activities of a person.

Meaning of Disorder Disorder is usually used for mental disabilities. Disorder is any ailment that disturbs the health of an individual. Most probably, disorders create hindrance in an individual’s performance and reduce his efficiency. In the beginning, disorders seem to be ordinary but they usually grow or spread in a harmful manner in an individual. Most probably, a disorder cannot be detected on time, as a result of which, a simple disorder is changed into a disability. It can be said that a disorder disrupts the normal functioning of an individual. Disorder can be defined as blip in the usual functioning of a person.

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4.2 TYPES OF DISABILITY, THEIR CAUSES AND NATURE (COGNITIVE DISABILITY, INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY, PHYSICAL DISABILITY)

Types of Disability Disability occurs to individuals in many ways and with varied severity. Some individuals are disabled right at birth while other individuals get disabled owing to some events during the course of their lives. Mainly, there are three types of disabilities such as cognitive disability, intellectual disability and physical disability. These disabilities are described below. 1. Cognitive Disability: Indeed, it is a neurological disorder that creates hindrance or obstruction for an individual to store, process and produce information. This disability can affect an individual’s ability or capability to read, compute, speak and write. So, this type of disability can also be called invisible disability because unlike other disabilities, you may not be able to assess the condition by just looking at the individual. Generally, the individuals who have this type of disability, usually have following symptoms. (i) Memory Disorder: An individual who has auditory problems or difficulty in remembering something that he/she heard, said or saw some time ago. (ii) Hyperactivity: An individual with cognitive disability may not have attention for a long period. He/she finds it difficult to stay at one place. As a matter of fact, he/she usually loses concentration frequently. (iii) Dyslexia: An individual with cognitive disability may exhibit dyslexia. It means he/she may have difficulty in writing, reading, speaking, etc. 2. Intellectual Disability: Intellectual disability is a disability characterised by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning (reasoning, learning, problem solving) and in adaptive behaviour, which covers a range of everyday social and practical skills. Indeed, this disability is related to the individual’s thought processes, communication, money, learning, problem solving and judgement. It also includes psychiatric disability which is related to the individual’s social disabilities such as behaviour, emotions and thinking. The intellectual disability begins before the age of 18 years. 3. Physical Disability: A physical disability is a limitation on an individual’s physical functioning, mobility, dexterity or stamina. Other impairments such as respiratory disorders, blindness, epilepsy and sleep disorders, which limit other facets of daily life are also included in physical disabilities. Physical disability may either be motor deficiency (mobility impairment) or a sensory impairment. Motor deficiency is related to spinal cord, causing paralysis to some or all the limbs i.e., hands and legs. It may also be related to brain damage, which may occur before birth, during or after birth or after a stroke. Sensory impairment is related to an individual’s visual or hearing impairments. In simple words, a physical disability is one that affects a person’s mobility or dexterity. PHYSICAL EDUCATION

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Causes of Disability There are various causes of disability that are stated below. 1. Genetic Causes: Some disabilities are known to be inherited such as spinal muscular atrophy and muscular dystrophy. Abnormalities in genes and genetic inheritance cause intellectual disability in children. Sometimes, diseases, illnesses and over exposure to X-rays may cause genetic disorder. 2. Poverty: Poverty is one of the major causes of disability. Generally, it is seen that poor persons are the most vulnerable to disability because they live and work in unsafe environment with poor sanitation. They don’t have good living conditions. They usually have little access to education, safe drinking water and proper nutrition. Owing to these conditions they fall prey to such diseases that lead them towards disability. Many babies may be born with disabilities. This may be because they did not get enough nutrition during gestation. 3. Mental Health Problems: Mental health problems such as depression, bipolar disorder, etc., may lead to disability. As a matter of fact, the causes of mental health problems are very difficult to diagnose. They tend to be some of the most misunderstood disabilities. 4. Accidents: Nowadays, life is so fast that accidents may occur anywhere, anytime and to anyone. These accidents may happen at workplace, on the roads or in the air. These accidents may lead to disability. 5. Infectious Diseases: Infectious diseases may also cause disabilities. If the immunity power of a child is low, he is susceptible to fall sick or contact more serious illnesses. If a child is not immunised well, he becomes vulnerable to infectious diseases like mumps, which can cause hearing impairment or polio, which can cripple the child. 6. Disturbance in Endocrine Glands: Disturbance in endocrine glands may also lead to disability. Owing to such disturbance, a child may suffer from various physical and mental deficiency. 7. Malnutrition: Malnutrition is another significant cause of disability, especially in our country. If a child does not get appropriate nutrition, he may be physically weak. Even deficiency of calcium leads to malformation of bones. Deficiency of iodine may diminish the growth of body. Similarly, deficiency of vitamin ‘A’ may cause blindness in children. Deficiency of vitamin B12 may lead to loss of memory and cause paralysis.

8. Poor Approach to Health Care: Many disabilities can be prevented easily if there is proper access or approach to health care facilities. Sometimes, good health care facilities are not available during difficult labour and birth. It may cause a baby to be born with a disability such as cerebral palsy. Professionally trained persons could handle such emergencies. They can prevent babies from being born with such disabilities. Proper immunisation can also help in preventing many disabilities. Usually people who live in remote areas, do not have proper access to health care facilities, and thus, sometimes babies suffer disabilities.

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9. Nuclear Accidents: Many persons have suffered after being exposed to radiation because of accidents in nuclear power plants in USA and Ukraine in 1979 and 1986, respectively. It also happend in 1945 in Japan during IInd World War. At such places, there has also been an increase in the number of children born with cognitive disabilities such as Down Syndrome. 10. Toxic Materials Pesticides and Insecticides: Toxic materials like lead and mercury, etc. found in various products, use of insecticides and pesticides and other harmful chemicals may cause disabilities in people and birth defects in babies. As a matter of fact such toxic materials may cause damage to brain which ultimately leads to disabilities. 11. Illnesses: The illnesses like cancer, heart attack, diabetes, etc., cause a number of long-term disabilities. Arthritis, back pain, musculoskeletal disorders, etc., are also significant causes of disability. Some illnesses to pregnant woman may cause physical or learning problems to her baby when born. 12. Lack of Education: Lack of education may lead to disability. Generally, labourers are not educated. They fall prey to certain diseases which can be avoided by using scientific methods or by taking precautions. But due to ignorance they do not adopt such precautionary methods. Hence, their chances to get a disability are on the rise. 13. Wars: It is usually seen in wars that the most of the civilians are killed or disabled along with the soldiers. Bomb explosions cause people to become deaf, dumb and lose their limbs. Not only the physical health but mental health of the individuals is also badly affected by nuclear, biological and atomic weapons. 14. Medicines and Vaccines: No doubt medicines and vaccines are essential to protect health and prevent disability but there are a number of practitioners in the medical field who are not qualified or registered. They don’t take proper care while dealing with patients. The use of unclean syringes may cause serious diseases like hepatitis or HIV/AIDS. Improperly stored as well as wrong vaccines may cause allergic reactions, poisoning and deafness to child. 15. Dangerous Working Environment: If individuals work in factories, mines or in agricultural fields under improper working environment, they may be exposed to dangerous machinery, tools or chemicals and wide variety of health hazards. In such conditions they may get disabilities on the long-run.

4.3 TYPES OF DISORDER, THEIR CAUSES AND NATURE (ADHD, SPD, ASD, ODD, OCD) The types of disorder, their causes and nature are stated below.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a group of behavioural symptoms that include inattentiveness, hyperactivity and impulsiveness. In fact, it is a medical condition that PHYSICAL EDUCATION

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affects how well can someone sit still, focus and pay attention. Generally, ADHD affected children have differences in the parts of their brains that control activity and attention. It means that such individuals may have some problems focussing in some activities. They may be hyperactive or may be unable to control their impulses. Symptoms of ADHD There are different symptoms of ADHD in children and adults which are stated below.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Symptoms in Children 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

They usually forget about daily activities. They have difficulties in organising routine activities. They usually indulge in daydreaming. They do not like to perform the activities that require sitting still. They are easily distracted. They usually bounce when sitting. They become restless. They have some problem in playing quietly. They usually talk excessively. They do not pay attention and usually make careless mistakes.

Symptoms in Adults Symptoms may change with the advancement of age. In adults, following symptoms may be observed. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

They may have anxiety attacks. They may be impulsive. They may have problem in controlling anger. They usually have low self-esteem. They usually remain unorganised. They are easily frustrated. Mood swings and depression are common in such adults. They have problem in concentrating, especially while reading.

Causes of ADHD The exact cause of ADHD is unknown but some factors that may have some role to play in ADHD are stated below. 1. Genetic Factor: Research studies have indicated that there is a strong genetic link in ADHD. It is not a disorder that is passed socially. Research studies indicate that

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parents, siblings and children of people with ADHD may be up to five times more likely to have the disorder than people who are not related to someone with ADHD. 2. Brain Injuries: When a baby’s brain is damaged before or after birth, it could make the baby more likely to develop ADHD later on. 3. Low Birth Weight: It is observed that children with low birth weight are more likely to develop ADHD. 4. Trauma and Brain Diseases: Trauma during birth and brain diseases may lead to ADHD. 5. Lack of Discipline in the Family: Research studies conducted in this field also indicate that lack of discipline in the family and chaotic family life may be the cause of ADHD in a family. In fact, lack of harmony in family, lower socio-economic status and hostile relationships between parents and children are also causes of ADHD. 6. Diet: There are a number of evidences which show that taking a particular type of food or food additives play a significant role in causing ADHD. 7. Exposure to Toxic Substance: Exposure to some toxic substance may also lead to disorder. Smoking, alcohol or drug abuse during pregnancy may cause ADHD to the offspring.

Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) Sensory processing disorder is a condition in which the brain has difficulty in receiving and responding to information that comes in through the senses. In fact, it refers to the way the nervous system receives messages from the senses and then turns them into proper motor and behavioural responses. Generally, all the activities such as reading a book or riding a bicycle requires accurate processing of sensation. It is some sort of neurological traffic jam that prevents certain parts of the brain from receiving the information required to interpret sensory information accurately.

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Sensory processing disorder may affect a sense such as touch, sight, taste or movement. It may also affect multiple senses. In this disorder, the person may scream when touched or may vomit or dive under the table after hearing the sound of a leaf blower outside the window. In some cases, the person with SPD may remain unresponsive to anything around him. Even he may fail to give any response to extreme heat or cold or pain. PHYSICAL EDUCATION

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Causes of Sensory Processing Disorder The accurate cause for sensory processing disorder is still unknown. However, some of the potential causes are stated below: 1. Genetic Cause: Research studies indicate that children born to adults who have autism spectrum disorders (ASD) may be at the higher risk for developing SPD. Scientists allude that the cause of SPD are coded into the child’s genetic material. 2. Low Birth Weight: Low birth weight is also considered one of the causes of sensory processing disorder. 3. Environmental Factor: Usually, children who are adopted often experience sensory processing disorder due to some restrictions in their early lives or poor prenatal care. 4. Physical Cause: Research studies have indicated that individuals with SPD have abnormal brain activity when exposed to certain stimuli. Individuals with SPD have differences in brain structure which provide a biological basis for the onset of this disorder.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Autism spectrum disorder is a disorder that affects development. Here, the word spectrum refers to the range of symptoms and their severity. Generally, the young children with ASD have difficulties with communication, language, social skill and behaviour. In other words, autism spectrum disorders are characterised by social interaction difficulties, communication challenges and a tendency to engage in repetitive behaviours. As a matter of fact, children with ASD may behave differently A child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or repeat same activities over and over again like touching the same object repeatedly. However, all the children with ASD don’t have the same problems or behaviours. Usually, the affected children with ASD may show symptoms. They avoid eye contact and prefer to be alone. They don’t like to be embraced. They repeat words and actions. They feel difficulties in expressing their needs and emotions. They are very sensitive to taste, smell and sound. Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder Research studies show that there is no single cause of this disorder. However, the available data related to this field suggest that this disorder results from different sets of casual factors such as genetic and environmental. 1. Genetic Factors: Genetic problems seem to play a significant role in ASD. These problems can happen in two ways. The first is that something happens during fetal development that alters a gene. The second way is that the child inherits problematic gene/genes from one or both parents.

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That is why a child is more likely to have ASD if a parent is affected with ASD. It is a fact that at least 10% children with ASD have a form of genetic disorder such as Down Syndrome. 2. Environmental Factors: In fact, there is no solid evidence to show that ASD can be caused by anything in the environment like diet or exposure to certain drugs or toxins. However, it is also averred that mothers exposed to high levels of pesticides and air pollution may also be at a higher risk of having a child with ASD. 3. Brain Development: It has been observed that the brain of children with ASD develops differently in growing children. In such children, brain grows at a faster rate during the first three years of childhood. Such children have more cells than they require. Even the connections between the cells are not proper. It may be one of the causes of ASD. It is important to keep in mind that these factors, by themselves, don’t cause autism. Rather, in combination with genetic factors, they appear to increase risk.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) Oppositional defiant disorder is a set or group of behavioural disorders called disruptive behaviour disorders. It is called by this name because children who have these disorders always tend to disrupt those around them. Oppositional defiant disorder is one of the most common mental health disorders found in children and adolescents. Physicians define this disorder as a pattern of disobedient, hostile and defiant behaviour directed toward authority figures. Individuals affected by this disorder A child with ODD (oppositional defiant disorder) usually behave like rebel, argue with adults, refuse to obey and are obstinate. They exhibit angry outbrusts and have hard time in controlling their anger or aggression. It has also been seen that even children of best behaviour can be uncooperative and hostile at times. Such children argue with parents and defy authority from time to time, specially when they are tired, hungry or under stress and tension. The children affected with ODD show various symptoms. They refuse to comply with requests. They deliberately annoy and upset other individuals. They also try to blame other individuals for their mistakes. They show resentment and have revengeful attitude. They have difficulty in making friends and have low self-esteem. They have negativity in their behaviours. They display angry and irritable moods as well as vindictive behaviours. Causes of Oppositional Defiant Disorder In fact, there is no specific or clear-cut cause of oppositional defiant disorder. It is widely believed that a combination of various factors such as biological or genetic, physical, psychological, social risk factors play a significant role in the development of ODD. The various causes/factors of ODD are described subsequently. PHYSICAL EDUCATION

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1. Biological or Genetic Factors: Children are more susceptible to developing ODD if they have a parent with a history of ADHD or ODD. Also, children may be affected with ODD if their parent had depression or biopolar disorder, or exposure to toxins or poor nutrition. 2. Physical Factors: The presence of ODD traits have been linked to the existence of abnormal amounts of some brain chemicals. These brain chemicals, known as neurotransmitters, are responsible for proper functioning of our body activities and it is best for our well-being to have them in a state of balance in our brain. When an imbalance exists and messages are not communicated properly with other parts of brain, the symptoms of ODD may occur. 3. Psychological Factors: Children may develop ODD if they don’t have good relation with parents or have neglectful parents or have inability to develop social relationships. 4. Social Factors: Oppositional defiant disorder may be due to inconsistent discipline, divorce, poverty, chaotic environment in the family and exposure to violence.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Obsessive compulsive disorder is a mental health disorder that affects people of all ages and walks of life. It occurs when an individual gets caught in a cycle of obsessions and compulsions. It can be said that persons with OCD are plagued by constant thoughts of fears that cause them to perform rituals or routines. The disturbing thoughts are called obsessions and rituals are called compulsions. In simple words, OCD is a type of mental disorder that causes repeated unwanted thoughts. To get rid of the unwanted thoughts, he/she performs the same task/activity again and again. For example, a person may fear that everything he/she touches has germs on it. So, to get rid of that fear he/she washes his/her hands again and again. Persons suffering from OCD might understand that their obsessions are unreasonable, but trying to stop or ignore them causes anxiety and stress. There are OCD—washing hands repeatedly some symptoms of OCD, which may range from mild to severe. Some of the obsessions and compulsions are mentioned below. Main obsessions (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii)

A fear of harm to yourself or loved one. A fear of contamination by germs. A forceful or driving need to perform things perfectly or correctly. Having excessive doubt on any individual. A fear of being embarrassed. A fear of getting dirty. A fear of making mistakes.

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Main compulsions (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii)

Repeating things or always moving items to keep them in exact order. Bathing or washing hands several times. Checking things over and over again. Repeating specific words. Hoarding. Constant praying. Persistently counting while doing usual tasks.

Causes of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) The exact cause of obsessive compulsive disorder is still unknown. Research studies suggest that there may be a problem with the way one part of the brain sends information to another part. Serotonin is the chemical in the brain that sends messages from one part to another. Insufficiency of serotonin may help in causing OCD. Stress and anxiety do not cause OCD but they may worsen the symptoms of OCD. Recent studies have indicated that there may be considerable genetic basis for OCD. Depression is also thought to be the cause of OCD but the experts’ opinion is split.

4.4 DISABILITY ETIQUETTES Disability etiquette is a set of guidelines dealing specifically with how to approach persons with disabilities. Before knowing about disability etiquettes, it is essential to understand certain basic things such as if someone has a disability don’t assume he/she needs help. In fact, adults with disabilities want to be treated as independent persons. So, offer help only if the person with disability seems to need it. Physical contact should be avoided. Always speak directly to the person with a disability, not to his/her friend. Persons with disabilities are the best judge of what they can or can’t do.

General Disability Etiquettes The general disability etiquettes are stated below: 1. Always put the person first, i.e., say ‘person with disability’ rather than ‘disabled person’. Always avoid the outdated words like handicapped, retarded, physically challenged or differently-abled. For example, refer to ‘person who are blind’ rather than ‘blind person’. 2. In case of introduction to a person with a disability, it is appropriate to shake hands. 3. When you meet a person with a visual impairment, always identify yourself and others who may be with you. 4. Leaning or hanging on a person’s wheelchair should always be avoided because such act is generally considered annoying. In fact, the chair is the part of the personal body space of the person who uses it. 5. Always listen carefully as well as attentively when you are having conversation with a person who has difficulty in speaking. Have patience and wait for the person to finish PHYSICAL EDUCATION

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6. 7.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

rather than correcting or speaking for that person. Generally, ask short questions that require short answers. When talking with a person who is on a wheelchair or a person who uses crutches, keep yourself at eye level in front of the person to facilitate the talk. To get the attention of a person who is deaf or having hearing impairment, tap the person on the shoulder or wave your hand. You should look directly at the person and speak clearly. Never patronize person who use wheelchairs by patting them on the head or shoulder. Always introduce yourself to persons who are blind using your name. If you need to leave a person who is blind, inform him that you are leaving and ask him if he needs anything before you leave. Always avoid asking personal questions to an individual who is differently-abled. Always give additional time to a person with any disability to do or to say something. Always have conversation at a normal tone of voice. Don’t talk in high pitch to such individuals. Don’t pretend to understand if you are facing problem in doing so.

4.5 ADVANTAGES OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES FOR CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS Physical activities can play a significant as well as positive role in the life of children with special needs. In fact, there is a wealth of evidence to support physical activities for children with disabilities. During the past three decades a number of studies have revealed that physical activities result in improved functional status and quality of life among children with special needs. In fact, physical activities can provide significant benefits for the children with special needs. Following are the advantages/benefits of physical activities for children with special needs. 1. Physical Improvements: Children, who suffer from cognitive disabilities are most likely to suffer from physical impairments as well. These children have substantial problems with motor skills in hopping, jumping, etc. Involvement in physical activities can help these individuals to develop fundamental motor and physical fitness skills. These activities improve the levels of well-being and physical health. Physical activities enhance the hand-eye coordination, flexibility, strength, endurance and even cardiovascular efficiency. These activities help children with disabilities to fight back against problems such as obesity and other lifestyle diseases. In fact, physical activities help in maintaining healthier bone density and better overall fitness. 2. Mental Improvements: Physical activities are not only good for a child’s body but these are beneficial for their mind too. In fact, physical activities improve general mood and wellness of children with special needs. 3. Self-esteem: Physical activities are beneficial for children with special needs because such activities develop a sense of self-esteem and self-confidence. As a matter of fact,

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4. 5.

6.

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interaction and involvement with other students in physical activities help to give children a sense of accomplishment and confidence. Reduce the Level of Anxiety, Stress and Depression: Physical activities may help in reducing the level of anxiety, stress and depression of children with disabilities. Cognitive Benefits: Physical activities lead to cognitive skill improvement in children with disabilities. These activities allow them to discover and access strengths that cannot be challenged in the classroom setting. Improved Social Interaction: Physical activities provide ample opportunities for improving social interaction among children with special needs. Social relations are developed during involvement in physical activities. Better Emotional and Psychological Health: Physical activities are beneficial for children with special needs because such activities improve emotional and psychological health. Reduce Risk of Health Complications: Physical activities are beneficial for children with special needs because these activities reduce or decrease the risk of various health complications like high blood pressure, diabetes and at the same time improve appetite and quality of sleep.

4.6 STRATEGIES TO MAKE PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES ACCESSIBLE FOR CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS Children with special needs or with various types of disabilities such as mental disability, hearing impairment, speech or language impairment, blindness, autism or poor body mechanics, health impairment, etc., have the right to develop their abilities in a democratic society through the process of education. So, the following strategies should be taken into consideration to make physical activities accessible for the children with special needs. 1. Medical Check-up: First of all, it is essential to have a medical check-up of all the children with special needs or with various disabilities. Because without medical check-up, the teachers of physical education cannot come to know about the type of disability the child is facing. Indeed, if we really want to make physical activities accessible for the children with special needs, we need to understand the type of disabilities of the children. 2. Physical Activities Must Be Based on Interests of Children: Indeed, physical activities must be based on the interests, aptitudes, abilities, previous experience and limitations of children with special needs. So, the teachers of physical education should have a deep knowledge of limitations, interests and aptitudes of children. After that physical activities can be made accessible for children with special needs more easily. 3. Equipment Related to Physical Activities Should be According to the Needs of Children: The equipment/objects related to physical activities should be according to the needs of children. These equipment should vary in size, shape, colour and weight. These equipment should be according to the capability and level of children. A child PHYSICAL EDUCATION

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with visual impairment should use bright coloured ball. A yarn should be tied to the ball to bring the ball back to children. So, various types of equipment must be provided to children with special needs. 4. Specific Environment Should be Provided: The area of physical activities should be limited as movement capabilities of children with special needs are limited. Specially, in case of children who have autism, they must be provided specific playing area because they may need some time to relax. Light and sound are also vital for making good environment for such children. 5. A Variety of Different Instructional Strategies Should be Used: For performing various types of physical activities, a variety of different instructional strategies such as verbal, visual and peer teaching should be used. It can give children the opportunity to start learning on their own and become more independent. Pictorial books are also vital in terms of instructions regarding physical activities. 6. Rules Should be Modified According to the Needs of Children with Disabilities: In the beginning, rules of the physical activities should be simple but later on these rules can be modified according to the needs of the children. They can be provided extra attempt or time to perform a physical activity. They can also be given additional resting time before doing the next physical activity. 7. Children’s Previous Experience Must be Taken into Consideration: For making physical activities more accessible for children with special needs, the concerned teacher of physical education should have comprehensive understanding and knowledge of children’s previous experience about physical activities. In conclusion, it can be said that the above mentioned strategies are significant to make physical activities accessible for children with special needs.

Exercises Very Short Answer Questions Carrying 1 Mark (20 to 30 words) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

What do you mean by disability? Define disability. What do you mean by disorder? Define disorder. What is intellectual disability? What do you mean by physical disability? What do you mean by cognitive disability? How accidents may cause disability? “Malnutrition may cause disability”. Explain this statement. Does genetic factor cause ADHD? What do you mean by Sensory Processing Disorder? What is OCD? What do you mean by disability etiquettes?

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Short Answer Questions Carrying 3 Marks (80 to 90 words) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Elaborate the meaning of disability. Briefly discuss the concept of disorder. Discuss about cognitive disability. Explain any three causes of disability. Discuss about Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Mention the symptoms of ADHD in children. Explain about Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD). Discuss the causes of SPD. Elucidate about Autism Spectrum Disorder. Discuss the causes of ASD. What do you mean by Oppositional Defiant Disorder? Discuss the causes of ODD. Discuss any three advantages of physical activities for children with Special Needs.

Value Based Question 14. Girish Sharma is a badminton champion who had lost his one leg in a train accident when he was only two years old. Now, he has proved that no matter whatever the circumstances are, you can still be champion in your life. The determined boy never let his disability to become an obstacle in achieving his goals. Girish, who also rides bicycle, is the proud winner of Gold medal in Paralympic Asia Cup for disabled in India. On the basis of above passage, answer the following questions: (1 × 3 = 3) 1. Describe the values of Girish Sharma. 2. Mention about his disability. 3. Describe his sport and his achievements in this field. Long Answer Questions Carrying 5 Marks (150 to 200 words) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Elaborate the concept of disability and disorder in detail. What do you mean by disability? Discuss the types of disability. Elucidate the causes of disability. What do you mean by disorder? Discuss Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and its causes in detail. What do you mean by Sensory Processing Disorder? Discuss the causes of SPD. What is Autism Spectrum Disorder? Discuss its causes in detail. What is Oppositional Defiant Disorder? Discuss its causes in detail. What is Obsessive Compulsive Disorder? Elaborate the causes of OCD. What do you mean by disability etiquettes? Mention any five general disability etiquettes. Discuss the advantages of physical activities for children with special needs in detail. Discuss the various strategies to make physical activities accessible for children with special needs in detail.  PHYSICAL EDUCATION

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55

Children and Sports

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

Motor Development and Factors Affecting It Exercise Guidelines at Different Stages of Growth and Development Advantages and Disadvantages of Weight Training Concept and Advantages of Correct Posture Causes of Bad Posture Common Postural Deformities - Knock-Knee; Flatfoot; Round Shoulders; Lordosis, Kyphosis, Bow Legs and Scoliosis 5.7 Corrective Measures for Postural Deformities

Sports are good for children of all ages. Children can enjoy and enhance their physical activity by taking part in organised sports and games. However, the sports activities should be appropriate for the children. Engaging in sports which do not match their developmental abilities can lead to disappointment. This can even result in early dropout. As a matter of fact, children and sports are closely related to each other. Children can’t stay away from sports activities whatever the circumstances are. In fact, they have innate tendency to take part in sports. The most important thing is that children’s motor development should be according to the requirement of sports.

Playing any sport is important for children

5.1 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT AND FACTORS AFFECTING IT

Meaning of Motor Development

Motor development refers to the development of a child’s bones, muscles and his/her ability to move around and manipulate his/her environment. In simple words, motor development means the development of various motor abilities from birth till death. In other words, motor development is the progressive change in movement throughout

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one’s life. As a matter of fact, the ability to move is essential for human development. Various motor movements or motor skills are essential for everyday life activities such as sitting, walking, running, climbing, catching or holding, jumping, skipping, throwing, etc. Motor development can be divided into two types, i.e., gross motor development and fine motor development. 1. Gross Motor Development. It involves the development of large muscles in the child’s body specially while sitting, Motor development walking, running, climbing, etc. 2. Fine Motor Development. It involves the small muscles of the body, especially during the small movement of the fingers and hands. For example, holding of javelin, discus and pole, catching a cricket ball, smashing a volleyball, gymnastic exercises with or without apparatus, etc.

Motor Development in Children

Motor development in children can be studied effectively under the following three stages of childhood. 1. Early childhood (3 to 6 years) 2. Middle childhood (7 to 10 years) 3. Late childhood (11 to 12 years) 1. Early Childhood: The period of early childhood starts from 3rd year and continues till 6th year. The motor development during this period takes place rapidly. This stage is also known as the preschool years. In this period, a child becomes perfect in various fundamental movements such as running, jumping and throwing and acquires the ability to unite or combine these movements. In this period, children’s stride length increases and they develop a more mature running pattern. During this period, proficiency in Motor development in early childhood climbing on ladders becomes efficient. They can hop and gallop skillfully. The motor development at the end of early childhood achieves a satisfactory level. So, the systematic training of children in various sports such as gymnastics and swimming can be started because their basic movements like rolling, hanging, pushing, pulling, etc., become efficient. They can combine these movements efficiently under changing and difficult conditions. They become efficient in various movement combinations such as running and jumping, catching and throwing, running and throwing, etc. Thus, they become efficient in all such movements but still competitions at this stage should be avoided. CHILDREN

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2. Middle Childhood: The period of middle childhood starts from 7th year and continues up to the 10th year. During this period, children become active and agile. They have strong desire to engage in various physical movements and activities. During this period, children have a desire to compete with children of their own age group. They also have an urge to improve upon their previous performance. During this period, most of the children achieve mature patterns of fundamental motor skills. Their posture and balance become better. They try to become efficient in the variation of movements which they had already learnt. In fact, the same movements are performed differently for different aims such as jumping for distance or height, throwing for distance or height, etc. They become efficient in movement coupling, movement precision and movement flow. The speed-related abilities develop at a faster rate. Coordinative abilities also show a higher level of development in this age group, whereas flexibility develops at a very slow rate. During this period, rules should be flexible, instruction time should be short and there should be minimum competitions. Stress should be given on movement correction. 3. Late Childhood: The period of late childhood begins from 11th year and continues up to 12th year or till the beginning of puberty. Strength begins to differ but the differences are small. Boys and girls are able to compete evenly. Most of the children master most intricate or complex motor skills. They are ready to learn strategies and more complex play combinations. Running and jumping movements, qualitatively as well as quantitatively, develop at a Motor development in late childhood faster rate than in the middle childhood period. Coaches or teachers of physical education should continue to encourage skill development with an increasing stress on strategies and tactics.

Factors Affecting Motor Development There are various factors which are liable to affect motor development in children. These factors are stated below. 1. Biological Factors: Biological factors are related to the genes. These factors are also known as heredity or genetic factors. The genes which we get from our parents are responsible for various types of development including motor development. The percentage of fast twitch fibres and slow twitch fibres depends on biological factors. In fact, these factors are likely to affect the rate and ability of motor development. These factors are related to body weight, size and strength. 2. Environmental Factors: Environmental factors such as physical and social factors are likely to affect the motor development of children. Research studies indicate

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that motor development takes place at a faster rate in children who are encouraged to explore their surroundings. They are given more opportunities to take part in sports activities. Those children, who are not encouraged or motivated towards motor activities have slow rate of motor development. In fact, encouragement, love and security push a child to take risks to explore fearlessly, which leads to better motor development. 3. Nutrition: Nutrition is also liable to affect the motor development. Indeed, nutritious food promotes good motor development. Sensory motor development is dependent upon nutrition. If children get nutritious food they become stronger which ultimately leads to good motor development. On the other hand, if children do not get proper nutrition they are found to be less energetic and owing to this their motor development takes place slowly. 4. Physical Activities: Taking part in regular physical activities enhances the motor development at a faster rate. However, the physical activities must be according to the capabilities of children. Motor development becomes slow in those children, who do not take part in physical activities regularly. Not doing even minor physical activities results in delayed motor development in children. 5. Opportunities: It is a well-known fact that children who get ample opportunities to do more and more physical activities or motor activities are likely to have better motor development. In fact, opportunities to participate in motor activities give a better chance for developing sensory motor abilities. If proper opportunities are not given to children, then motor development cannot take place in those children properly or motor development will be slow in such children. 6. Sensory Impairments: Sensory impairments such as visual impairments, hearing impairments, etc., are likely to affect the motor development in children. Due to hearing impairments, following instructions about any type of motor activity becomes more difficult. In the same way, visual impairments also slow down the process of motor development. So, it can be concluded that if there are no sensory impairments in children, then they will have better motor development. 7. Postural Deformities: Postural deformities in children definitely affect their motor development. Any postural deformity, viz., spinal curvature deformities, flatfoot, knock-knees, bow leg, etc., creates hindrances or obstacles in the path of motor development of children. In the absence of postural deformities, motor development in children takes place at a faster rate. 8. Obesity: Obesity and being overweight have negative effect on the motor development of children. It means that children who are overweight or obese are not enthusiastic to do any motor activity and may even feel uncomfortable to do it. Motor development in such children takes place slowly. Such children take more time to perform motor movement.

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5.2 EXERCISE GUIDELINES AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Exercise or physical activity has the potential to improve the physical and mental health of the nation, reduce the maximum causes of mortality and improve life expectancy. It can save money by significantly easing the burden of chronic diseases. Exercise is important for us to remain active throughout our lives. It is significant for infants’, children’s and teens’ growth and development. This continues through preschool, school, adolescence, adulthood and older years. There is a consistent evidence of a dose-response relationship, i.e., the greater the volume of exercise or physical activity undertaken, the greater the health benefits that are obtained. Exercise or physical activity is also helpful in reducing the risk of depression, dementia and Alzheimer’s. It also improves self-perception, selfesteem, mood and sleep quality. It can be said obviously that exercise or physical activity is essential for proper growth and development of individuals. There are following guidelines related to exercise or physical activity in various stages of growth and development, i.e., infancy, early childhood, later childhood, adolescence and adulthood. 1. Infancy (1 to 2 years): During this stage of growth and development, physical activity or exercise should be encouraged. Gross motor activities or exercises should be promoted. Exercises to develop head control, sitting, crawling, etc., should be encouraged. Infants should be indulged in some exercises such as moving arms, legs and reaching to various objects. Infants should be provided objects, toys and games that encourage them to move and do things for themselves. They should be provided with safe environment for performing these activities or exercises. Watching TV and other electronic media should be avoided by the infants. Infants should not be restrained in high chair for prolonged periods. They should be encouraged to walk instead of using a stroller to carry them around. Simple exercises like throwing, catching and kicking a ball may be most suitable exercises during the stage of infancy. 2. Early Childhood (3 to 7 years): During this stage of growth and development such exercise or physical activity should be encouraged which helps in developing competence in movement skills (throwing, jumping, catching or kicking the ball). Emphasis should be laid down on participation and not on competition. During this stage, activities related to fine motor skills, i.e., coordinative abilities should be emphasised. Structured as well Early childhood exercise as unstructured physical activities should also be performed daily for at least sixty minutes by children during this stage of growth. Recreative as well as enjoyable methods should be used to encourage them for participation in various physical activities. Stress should also be laid on clean and safe environment during this stage of growth. They may be allowed to watch quality programmes on TV for one to two hours.

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3. Later Childhood (8 to 12 years): During this stage of growth and development children should indulge in activities such as, stunts, throwing, jumping, catching, running, etc., so that they can acquire body-control, strength and coordination. However, activities related to endurance should be avoided. Stress should also be laid down on organised or team games which aim to develop social-consciousness in them. During this stage, children should be Later childhood exercise introduced to competitive sports and taught the basic rules of sports competition, i.e., enjoying the game, fair play, simple strategies and tactics. They can also be introduced to the concept of sports training and the exercises that build endurance (aerobic exercises like running, swimming and cycling, etc.), strength (resistance exercises) and agility, coordination and balance (fast work and rapid movement exercises). 4. Adolescence (13 to 19 years): During the stage of adolescence, moderate to vigorous intensity exercise/physical activity is recommended for at least 60 minutes and up to several hours every day. They should also indulge in muscle strengthening exercises at least three days per week. They should also include bone strengthening exercises. Adolescents or teenagers should reduce sedentary behaviour. Physical activity or exercise such as running, gymnastics, push-ups, jumping rope, playing hockey, basketball, swimming, tennis, and resistance exercises (weight training) should be included. 5. Adulthood (Above 19 years): Adults should try to be active always. They should do brisk walking, bike riding, dancing, and swimming with moderate intensity. They should also indulge in running, aerobic exercises, weight training, push-ups, sit-ups, etc., for muscle strengthening. They should minimise the amount of time spent being sedentary. As a matter of fact, adults require such exercises or activities that help to increase their muscular and bone strength. So, they should perform resistance exercises at least two days a week to tone their muscles and bones. These exercises increase skeletal muscles strength, power, endurance and mass. Bone strengthening exercises/activities produce an impact or tension force on the bones that promotes bone growth and strength. For bone strengthening, they should include running, jumping rope and weight training exercises.

5.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WEIGHT TRAINING Weight Training Weight training includes those exercises that are designed to strengthen specific muscles by causing them to overcome a fixed resistance, usually done with the help of bar-bells or dumb-bells. In fact, weight training refers to the exercise phase of the activity where CHILDREN

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weights in the form of bar-bells and dumbbells are used to condition and alter the sizes of various segments of the body. This is, undoubtedly, the most popular phase. Here the underdeveloped individual strives for average or about average size in terms of muscular bulk and body weight and size; the athlete strives for increased strength and condition to become a better performer in chosen sports. Weight training method is used to develop physical fitness. Germany probably was the first nation to use systematic weight training while preparing athletes for the track and field events at the 1936 Olympic games. Since then, the use of weight training across the world has become the rule rather than exception. Weight training involves bodily movements similar to those in calisthenics. These movements are made progressively harder by increasing the resistance in the form of graduated weight against which specific muscle groups have to be exercised. According to Logan, “Through the judicious use of weight training, we can Weight training effectively improve strength, local muscular endurance, and power, which are vital for athletes”. No doubt that weight training is one of the most common methods of increasing strength. But a question arises; should children engage in weight training before adolescence? The controversy centres on whether weight training is capable of increasing the strength among adolescents? Recent researches indicate that adolescents can gain strength by weight training. Weight training can be started at the age of 12, but it should be supervised by an experienced coach. Children must learn correct techniques and procedures. Children are prone to injuries when they compete with each other to see who can lift more weight.

Advantages of Weight Training There are following advantages of weight training. 1. Helps in Getting Good Shape: Weight training is an extraordinary training because it can tone up the body by involving appropriate schedules (and sometimes appropriate diet). Fat people can become slim and trim, people can put on weight if so desired. The weak can become strong and the strong can become stronger. The slower can become faster and the ponderous can become more dynamic. In fact, weight training helps individuals in getting their entire body in good shape. It is beneficial not only for upper body but also for lower body. 2. Best Means of Providing Fitness: Weight training has a major advantage over other means of fitness. It involves less time, exceptions being throwers and competitive

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3.

4.

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weightlifters who need longer sessions. Optimum gains can be made by spending just one hour, three times a weak in weight training gymnasium. Weight training enhances all the components of health-related fitness such as muscular strength and body composition. Helpful in Enhancing Athletic Performance: A perfect weight training programme is helpful in enhancing athletic performance. The advantages of strength training for athletic performance are enormous. Weight training is one of the most significant components of conditioning programme for runners, throwers, jumpers, wrestlers, boxers and players of football, basketball and other games. Best Means to Develop Strength: Today weight training Arm curling is considered as the best means of securing strength but it requires proper guidance of coaches and expert physical trainers. The weight training exercises are valuable but have to be done carefully and systematically. In fact, there is no other better means to improve strength, speed and endurance for application to all sports and to all walks of life than training with weights. Increases Bone Density: Weight training helps in increasing bone density. Research studies which have been conducted in this field indicate that the risk of osteoporosis is lower for the individuals who do weight training exercises at least three times a week. Reduces Stress and Tension: Weight training is also advantageous for reducing stress and tension. In fact, it acts like an outlet for stress and tension.

Disadvantages of Weight Training Although weight training has various advantages, it has some disadvantages too, which are stated below. 1. Risk of Injuries: While performing weight training, there is always a risk of sustaining injuries, especially when performing exercise without any companion. In case you are alone and you are not able to do the required repetitions of exercise, you may get injured. So, you should always have a companion or a supervisor supervising you in case any worst happens. In addition, you should perform weight training under an expert physical trainer. 2. Less Flexibility: Weight training reduces the level of flexibility if flexibility exercises are not done along with weight training. However, this is a minor or small disadvantage in comparison to many advantages of weight training. If flexibility exercises are done continuously, then such disadvantages can be ignored.

5.4 CONCEPT AND ADVANTAGES OF CORRECT POSTURE Posture plays a very significant role in our daily activities. In fact, posture is the position in which we hold our body upright against gravity while standing, sitting, walking, running or lying down. The force of gravity acts upon our body constantly. If the muscles of our body are weak, we may suffer from postural deformities such as kyphosis, lordosis, scoliosis, bow legs, CHILDREN

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knock-knee, flatfoot, etc. Owing to these postural deformities, our working efficiency usually gets reduced. Therefore, it is essential for us to know about correct posture, bad posture and how to correct posture with the help of various exercises.

Concept of Correct Postures Correct posture means the balancing of body in accurate and proper manner while sitting, standing, reading, writing or doing any other action. The first impression of an individual is based on how he stands, sits and walks. In a proper posture, the whole body weight is balanced on both feet without any effort and the entire body appears to be in a vertical line. In this position, all the limbs of the body perform their function efficiently. A posture is dynamic and changes acccording to the activity. Views of Avery, “A good posture is one in which the body is so balanced as to produce least fatigue”. It means that a good/correct posture is the position of the body held without any sense of effort. The body weight should be equally distributed over both the legs and feet as to produce least fatigue. Correct posture may also be defined as that assumed position which enables the body to perform or function effectively. As a matter of fact, human body wages a constant battle against the force of gravity. Even while we are asleep, we change our positions a number of times to avoid discomfort. This discomfort is largely caused by pressure on the soft tissues between the bony structures and the supporting surface upon which the body is resting. Although it is possible to keep the body in such a position so as to negate the force of gravity for the longest time, yet we cannot remain free from this force for a longer period. Humans constantly counteract the force of gravity. Throughout our waking hours, much of energy is expended solely in maintaining antigravity, dynamic posture. If the antigravity muscles do not have sufficient strength and endurance, certain negative changes may occur. For example, if the body is allowed to submit to the force of gravity, the connective tissues of the muscles antagonistic to the extensor muscles will tend to shorten. Due to this, there may be less flexibility. Normal functioning will be inhibited, which may in turn encourage additional undesirable changes. The downward pull of gravity is a force that is capable of causing changes in various parts of the body when the biped position is assumed. These changes affect the skeletal system, because they change the alignment of the bony levers at various joints. Consequently, these changes cause many changes within the muscular system. In fact, posture is the result of our adaptation to the force of gravity upon our biped position. Unfortunately, when one speaks of posture, the connotation is usually that of an assumed, static, erect standing position. It is a more suitable and accurate concept of posture, because it provides the basis for a more functional approach to posture. Development of strength and endurance in the muscles and flexibility in the joints are the prerequisite for improved functioning. Such development is necessary if one has to assume a correct posture. There is no one single standard of correct posture, which can

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be applied to every one. Morrison and Chenoweth say, “There is no definite form, shape or standard for any part of the body or for the body as a whole. It is impossible, therefore, to have a definite standard as regards posture”. Daniels says, “Single rigid body mechanics specifications for all, regardless of body type and other factors which influence the human form, are scientifically unsupportable”. Now, it has been accepted that a correct posture is largely an individual matter. As a matter of fact, there is no one single best posture for all individuals. Each person must accept the body that he/she has and make the best use of it. For each person the best posture is the one in which the body segments are balanced in the position of least strain and maximum support, but even then there are some general norms regarding postural positions. These are stated below: 1. Correct Posture of Standing: In the standing position, both the heels of the feet should meet each other. Toes of the feet should be 3 in. to 4 in. apart. The whole body should be erect, with straight knees, chin inside, chest forward, and belly backward and pressed inside, with equal body weight on both feet. The entire body should be balanced in this position. From the side, the line of centre of gravity must pass through the ear, shoulder, hip, knee and ankle. In such a position, the muscles and ligaments remain free of stress. 2. Correct Posture of Sitting: When we sit in a chair, our hips should be as far back in the chair as possible. Head, spinal column, shoulder and hips should be in straight line and erect. Legs should touch the ground and should not be in a hanging position. Thighs should be in a horizontal position. While we read, the book should be on the table but the book should not be too far away or near the eyes. The approximate distance between the book and the eyes should be at least 30 cm. If we do not follow this rule then eyesight problems may occur. For writing, a table with slight inclination towards the outside is appropriate.

Advantages of Correct Posture

Correct and incorrect standing postures

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Correct and incorrect sitting postures

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Our working efficiency and ability depend upon good posture. How a person progresses in his/her life, is in some way related to his/her posture. The importance of posture can be understood properly if we go through the following points. 1. Physical Appearance: It is natural that every individual wants to have a good physical appearance. In fact, physical appearance depends on the posture of the individual. A good posture leaves a lasting impression upon others. For a good physical appearance, people do not hesitate to spend a large amount of money. Money spent on enhancing physical appearance is not entirely a waste as apart from adding value to appearance it also boosts confidence. 2. Grace and Efficiency of Movements: Physical posture plays a vital role in the field of sports and games. Sports and games involve various types of movements. Walking, running, jumping and throwing depend upon the abilities of an athlete to undergo these movements. An athlete requires a variety of efficient movements. The apex points can be achieved in the field of sports if the movements of the sportsman are efficient and graceful. The balance and coordination depend upon physical posture. Without a correct posture, grace as well efficiency of movements cannot be attained. 3. Physical Fitness: Physical fitness is essential to live a productive life. Physical fitness can be achieved, if you have good a posture. The balance, coordination, flexibility, etc., are the components of physical fitness. These components can be attained easily by an individual who has a correct posture. 4. Hygienic Value: An erect, straight and vibrant body helps in the proper and efficient functioning of various organs. Correct posture is important not only for good physical appearance but also for good health. A correct posture instantly gives confidence. From the health point of view correct posture assists in reducing back-pain, headaches and spinal problems. 5. Social Value: A correct posture is appreciated everywhere. The individuals, who have good postures, are usually admired in the society. So, a correct posture has a social value also because everyone appreciates a person who has a correct and confident posture. 6. Economic Value: A correct posture has an economic value to its credit. A person of good posture makes less expenditure of energy while performing any type of activity in comparison to the person with a bad posture. In fact, gravitational force acts more upon the body of a person who has a bad posture. A person of bad posture requires more efforts in maintaining his balance. He/she wastes also energy in simple tasks such as sitting, standing and walking. 7. Prevents Disorders and Diseases. According to Dr Mohser, “As a result of poor or bad posture constipation, diarrhoea, flatulence, disturbance of the circulation, nervous irritability and most marked of all fatigue out of proportion to the effort expended, lessen the efficiency of individual and often make life a burden.” In fact, poor posture badly affects functioning of our body systems. A correct posture prevents lower backpain, neck strain, constipation, diarrhoea, disturbance in blood circulation, irritation, etc. It means that we are not easily affected by various disorders and diseases if we have a good posture.

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8. Change in Mental Attitude: Posture usually affects the outlook, happiness, self-confidence, determination of an individual. Self-confidence, happiness and determination are the results of a correct posture and on the contrary anxiety, unhappiness and pessimism are the outcomes of a bad posture. These traits change the attitude of a person towards life. A correct posture always boosts self-confidence and self-esteem. 9. Fatigue: A correct posture reduces the fatigue because all the systems of an individual’s body perform their functions more efficiently. An individual feels less fatigue due to less stress on muscles and joints. 10. Improves Speech: A correct posture helps to improve speech because it gives freedom to diaphragm. If there is too much stress on diaphragm, an individual cannot speak clearly and efficiently. 11. Improves Concentration Power: As a matter of fact, a good posture helps in breathing properly. When an individual breathes properly his concentration power as well as thinking ability are improved. When in fact, our brain requires 20 per cent of oxygen to perform its job appropriately. When the percentage of oxygen increases in our blood, more oxygen is supplied to brain which increases its working capability and normal function.

5.5 CAUSES OF BAD POSTURE Generally, there are various causes of a bad or poor posture, but the gravitational factor is the major cause. Gravitational force acts upon our body, when we sit, lie down, stand, walk, run or perform any other activity. Our body adapts according to the action of gravitational force. A good posture helps us to align with this force properly. Following are the causes of bad or poor posture among human beings. 1. Improper Diet: If we do not take a proper diet, the bones and muscles of our body become weak. We experience fatigue after some time. Consequently, we adopt faulty or bad posture. Due to an improper diet, a person suffers from deficiency diseases like rickets and pigeon’s chest that causes bad posture. 2. Diseases: Various diseases like rickets, polio and infantile paralysis may result in a bad or poor posture in a child. Chronic illness may also lead to a poor posture. These diseases may result in undue curvature of the vertebra. 3. By Birth: A person may have a bad posture from birth. Kyphosis, clubfoot and dislocation of hip are such deformities which might be present from birth. 4. Due to Accidents: Accidents may cause injuries to the body. These injuries may further lead to physical deformity or poor posture. In accidents, muscles of the body may be damaged permanently. This may also lead to poor posture. Severe burns may also cause physical deformities. 5. Fatigue: If we work continuously for longer duration, we experience fatigue and we become lazy and lethargic. So, we adopt a bad posture, if we continue doing that work. Even after work, when we take rest, we tend to adopt a wrong posture which ultimately results in a poor or bad posture. CHILDREN

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6. Fashion: To be in sync with modern fashion, we choose clothing that creates hindrances in the smooth functioning of the body. Owing to these fashions, children cannot walk, stand or sit properly. They adopt a bad posture when they perform any work. They forget the natural posture of body. Even tight and high-heeled shoes may change the gait of an individual. 7. Imitation: Imitation also plays a major role in forming wrong posture. Children usually imitate others as they look for role models. Hence, they also adopt poor postures. They forget their own natural posture. 8. Lack of Fresh Air and Light: Lack of fresh air and light are also responsible for wrong postures. Lack of fresh air may cause kyphosis. 9. Lack of Rest and Sleep: Lack of rest and sleep may make one slump and thus lead to poor posture. 10. Lack of Proper Exercise: Lack of proper exercise may also result in poor posture. So, exercise should be done regularly in a proper way under good supervision. If exercise is done in a wrong way then an individual may adopt a wrong posture. So, one should also know the proper method of exercise and preferably do exercise under guidance. 11. Lack of Awareness: Lack of awareness regarding good posture may also cause bad posture. If one is conscious or aware of postural defects, he will always keep in mind that he has to adopt a good posture while performing any task. 12. Unsuitable Furniture: Unsuitable and uncomfortable furniture may also cause wrong or bad postures. Generally, school or college authorities do not keep in mind that unsuitable furniture may be dangerous for students. In fact, while making furniture, the age of the students should be kept in mind. School furniture must be carefully constructed to satisfy general health standards. The height of the bench should be such that the feet of a person are able to rest comfortably on the floor. A good back must give support to the spine at the thoracic region. Desks should be of the right height so that a child can write without lifting the shoulder or stooping down. 13. Improper Way of Carrying Weight: Improper way of carrying weight can cause structural deformities of the body and especially of the feet. Abramson and Delagi state that bearing weight does bring about changes in the formation of bones. Muscles of the foot suffer from abnormal stress. If it is repeated for a longer time, it may cause poor or bad posture of the foot. 14. Obesity: Obesity enhances the chances of extra stress on the muscular and skeletal structures of the body. It may cause flatfoot, bow legs, knock-knees, etc. 15. Habits: If an individual adopts bad habits of sitting, walking or standing, it usually affects his posture. In fact, such habits may lead to the postural deformities of spinal curvature such as kyphosis, lordosis and scoliosis. 16. Other Reasons: Improper daily schedule, more mental work, long sitting hours and over-work also cause bad posture.

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5.6 COMMON POSTURAL DEFORMITIES Various types of postural deformities are discussed below: 1. Spinal Curvature 2. Flatfoot 3. Knock-knees 4. Bow Legs 5. Round Shoulders

1. Spinal Curvature This type of deformity is related to the spine. This deformity is caused by carrying excessive weight beyond one’s capacity. In other words, we can say that weak muscles cause the formation of spinal curvature. The normal lumbar spine is characterised by a moderate anterior hyperextension curve, when viewed laterally. There is no absolute standard for the determination of the degree or extent of the anterior convexity of the normal lumbar curve. There are three types of spinal deformities. (a) Kyphosis

(b) Lordosis

(c) Scoliosis

(a) Kyphosis Kyphosis implies an increase or exaggeration of a backward or posterior curve or a decrease or reversal of a forward curve. It is also called round upperback. Depression of chest is common in kyphosis. (i) Causes of Kyphosis: Kyphosis is caused by malnutrition, illness, crowded areas, unavailability of pure air, insufficient exercise, rickets, carrying heavy loads on shoulders, unsuitable furniture, weak muscles, shyness among girls, habit of doing work by leaning forward, etc. (ii) Precautions: If specific precautions are not followed, it may result in Kyphosis. So, the teachers and parents should pay specific attention so as to avoid this disorder. From the very beginning, they should teach appropriate posture of sitting, standing and walking to children so that their posture may remain balanced. Proper and adequate exercise is not only helpful in maintaining proper posture but also controls the problem of kyphosis.

Kyphosis

(iii) Remedies: The following exercises should be performed for the remedy of kyphosis. 1. Sit in a chair such that your hips should touch the back of the chair. While looking upward, hold your hands behind the back in such a way that your shoulders may remain stretched backward. Remain in this position for some time. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Always keep a pillow under your back while sleeping. Bend your head backward in standing position. Perform Dhanurasana, the yogic asana regularly. Lie down on your back. Keep your hands near the shoulders. Now, straighten up your arms slowly and raise the chest. Head should be kept backwards. Maintain this position for some time. CHILDREN

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6. Hold out your arms at the shoulder level and bend your elbows. Snap your elbows back to the starting position. Repeat this exercise at least 8 times for the best results. (b) Lordosis Lordosis is the inward curvature of spine. In fact, it is an increased forward curve in the lumber region. It creates problem in standing and walking. The body seems to be stiff. Lordosis can be corrected in the early stage. (i) Causes of Lordosis: Generally, imbalanced diet, improper environment, improper development of muscles, obesity and diseases affecting vertebrae and spinal muscles are the causes of lordosis. In addition to these causes, not performing exercise and eating excessive food are also the major causes of lordosis. (ii) Precautions: 1. Balanced diet should be taken. 2. Obesity should be kept away specially in early age. 3. The body should be kept straight while carrying weight. Lordosis 4. Excessive intake of food should be avoided. (iii) Remedies: For the remedy of lordosis, the following exercises should be performed. 1. While maintaining a standing position, bend forward from hip level. Repeat this exercise 10 times. 2. Lie down on your back and raise your head and legs simultaneously for 10 times. 3. Perform sit-ups regularly. 4. Halasana should be performed regularly. 5. You should lie down in supine position, i.e., on your back, then should raise your legs at 45° angle. Remain in this position for some time. 6. Toe-touching exercise should be done for at least 10 times. 7. Sit down and extend your legs forward.Ty to bring your knees to touch your forehead. Repeat this exercise 10 times. (c) Scoliosis Postural adaptation of the spine in lateral direction is called scoliosis. In fact, these are sideways curves and may be called scoliotic curves. Indeed these curves are identified as either convexity right or right convexity. A simple or single curve to the left or convexity left is commonly called a ‘C’ curve. Scoliotic curves may be found in ‘S’ shape. (i) Causes of Scoliosis: Scoliosis may be due to many reasons but the main reasons are diseases in the joints of bones, under-developed legs, infantile paralysis, rickets, carrying heavy loads on one shoulder, unhealthy conditions, such as inadequate lighting arrangement, uncomfortable desks, partial deafness and wrong standing posture. It may be caused by congenital or acquired abnormalities of vertebrae, muscles or nerves.

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(ii) Precautions: 1. Balanced diet should be taken. 2. Studying should be avoided in sideways bending position. 3. Avoid walking for long time while carrying weight in one hand. (iii) Remedies: Scoliosis can be remedied by doing the following exercises. 1. Bending exercise should be done on the opposite side of the ‘C’ shaped curve. 2. Hold the horizontal bar with hands and let your body hang for some time.

Scoliosis

3. Hold the horizontal bar with your hands and swing your body to the left and right sides. 4. Swim by using breaststroke technique.

2. Flatfoot

Our feet act as the base of support for the body while standing, walking, running and jumping. Flatfoot is commonly found among newborn babies but it becomes a postural deformity if it still persists during later childhood. The children with flatfoot deformity cannot become efficient sportspersons. Such children feel pain in their feet when they run. They face problem while standing and walking. It is easy to observe whether a person Normal foot Flatfoot has flatfoot deformity or not. Dip your feet in water and walk on the floor. If there is not a proper arch of footprints on the floor then you have the deformity of flatfoot. In fact, there should be proper arch of the feet for healthy feet. (i) Causes of Flatfoot: The main cause of flatfoot is weak muscles. Weak muscles of the foot cannot bear the body weight. Hence, the feet become flat or without arches. Along with this, rapid increase in body weight, improper shoes, and carrying heavy weight for a longer period are also the causes of flatfoot. (ii) Precautions: 1. The shoes should be of proper shape and size. 2. Don’t walk barefeet for a long duration. CHILDREN

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3. Obesity should be avoided. 4. Don’t force or encourage babies to walk at an early stage. 5. Children in early childhood should avoid carrying heavy weight. 6. High heeled shoes should be avoided. (iii) Remedies: The following exercises should be done to rectify or treat flatfoot deformity. 1. Walking on heels. 2. Walking on inner and outer side of feet. 3. Walking on toes. 4. Stand up and down on the heels. 5. Jumping on toes for some time. 6. Skip on rope. 7. Perform Vajrasana, the yogic asana.

3. Knock-knees Knock-knees is one of the major postural deformities. In this deformity, both the knees-knock or touch each other while in normal standing position. The gap between the ankles goes on increasing. The individual faces difficulty in walking and running. He cannot walk or run in a proper manner. Owing to this deformity, people cannot be good players and may not be selected in defence services. (i) Causes: Generally, the lack of balanced diet, especially vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus is the main cause of knock-knees. It may also be caused due to rickets. Chronic illness, obesity, flatfoot and carrying heavy weight in early age may be other possible causes of knock-knees.

Knock-knees

(ii) Precautions: 1. Balanced diet should be taken. 2. Babies should not be forced or encouraged to walk at an early age. (iii) Remedies: To rectify or treat this deformity, the following points should be taken into consideration. 1. Horse-riding is the best exercise for remedying this deformity. 2. Perform Padmasana and Gomukhasana regularly for some time every day. 3. Cod liver oil may be beneficial in reducing this deformity up to some extent. 4. Keep a pillow between the knees and stand erect for some time every day. 5. Use of walking calipers may also be beneficial.

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4. Bow Legs Bow legs is also a postural deformity. It is opposite to knockknees position. If there is a wide gap between the knees when standing with feet together, the individual has bow legs or genu varum. In this deformity, knees are wide apart. There remains a wide gap between knees when a bow legged person keeps his feet together. This deformity can be observed easily, when an individual walks or runs. (i) Causes: The main cause of bow legs is the deficiency of calcium and phosphorus in bones. Long bones of legs become soft, hence they are bent outward. The chances of bow legs also increase when children become overweight. This deformity may be due to the deficiency of vitamin D. Improper way of walking and forcing Bow legs the babies to walk at a very early age may also lead to bow legs. (ii) Precautions: 1. Don’t let the children be overweight. 2. Don’t force or encourage babies to walk at an early age. 3. Balanced diet should be given to children. There should not be any deficiency of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D in the diet. (iii) Remedies: The following measures should be taken for the remedy of bow legs. 1. Vitamin D should be taken in required amount. 2. Balanced diet should be taken. 3. Bow legs can be corrected by walking on the inner edge of the feet. 4. One should walk by bending the toes inward.

5. Round Shoulders In this postural deformity, the shoulders become round and sometimes they seem to be bent forward. (i) Causes: 1. Round shoulders may be due to heredity. 2. Sitting, standing and walking in bent position may also result in round shoulders. 3. Wearing very tight clothes can lead to round shoulders. 4. Sitting on improper furniture can cause round shoulders. 5. Lack of proper exercise especially of shoulders Round shoulders may also lead to round shoulders. 6. Becoming habitual to press the chest, especially at the time of bench press may cause round shoulders. CHILDREN

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(ii) Precautions: 1. Don’t sit, walk or stand in bent position. 2. Avoid tight-fitting clothes. 3. Avoid sitting on uncomfortable furniture. (iii) Remedies: The following exercises should be done for the remedy of round shoulders deformity. 1. Keep your tips of fingers on your shoulders and rotate your elbows in clockwise and anticlockwise direction. 2. Hold the horizontal bar for some time. 3. Perform chakrasana and dhanurasana regularly.

5.7 CORRECTIVE MEASURES FOR POSTURAL DEFORMITIES Our environment contains many forces that act upon our body and sometimes due to these forces, we suffer from postural deformities. Most likely, the postural deformities may be due to the pull of gravity, congenital (by birth) malnutrition and prolonged illness. Postural deformities are of two types, i.e., functional and structural. In functional deformities, only the soft tissues, i.e., the muscles and the ligaments are affected. In this case, the correction of postural deformities is possible through various corrective measures. On the other hand, structural deformities occur when our bony structure is affected. Physical activities and other corrective measures in such cases cannot play any significant role. In fact, in such cases, surgery can be helpful for securing the desired improvement. The role of physical activities as well as other corrective measures in functional deformities is very effective, especially during elementary school years. Indeed physical activities or corrective exercises in various forms can serve to counteract the effect of gravitational force. The correction of postural deformities should be a part of school education. The programme for the correction of postural deformities in a school should be included to serve more than just an exercise for correcting a specific deformity. Students should also be encouraged to engage in exercises for increasing general strength, endurance, balance and flexibility. Methods of relaxation should also be undertaken. Along with the exercise, posture consciousness should also be developed among such students who have postural deformities. There are a number of physical activities or corrective exercises which can be used as a corrective measure for postural deformities. Various corrective measures related to specific postural deformities are stated below.

Corrective Measures for Kyphosis 1. Lie on the back, i.e., in supine position with knees drawn up and feet flat on the ground. Both hands should be at sides. Then move your arms sideways in horizontal position. Palms should face upward. Raise your arms upward over the head, palms

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still facing upward. Hold this position for some time. After that bring your arms back in horizontal position. Repeat the exercise at least 10 times.

Corrective exercises for kyphosis

2. Lie down in the prone position, i.e., on the chest with hands on your hips. After that, raise your head and trunk several inches from the ground. Your chin should be in during this exercise. Hold this position for some time and then come back to the previous position. Repeat this exercise at least 10 times. 3. Sit in a normal position, with a stick held in horizontal position over head, hands well-spread. After that lower the stick and then raise it behind your head and shoulders. While doing this exercise, keep your head and trunk straight. Repeat this exercise 10–12 times.

Corrective Measures for Lordosis 1. Lie down in prone position, with hands under abdomen. Then keep hips and shoulders down, press your hands up on the abdomen and raise the lower back. 2. Bend knees forward while allowing hips to bend back behind, keeping the back straight and knees pointed in the same direction as feet. Descend until thighs are just parallel to the floor. Extend knees and hips until legs are straight. Come back to the starting position and then repeat the exercise. 3. Lunge forward with knee on a mat. Place the foot beyond the knee. Place both hands on knee. Straighten hips of rear leg by pushing hips forward and hold this stretched position. Repeat with the opposite side. 4. Sit on a chair with feet wide apart. Bend and position your shoulders between your knees. Then reach the floor under the back of the chair. Hold this position for some duration. 5. Lie in prone position on the floor. Keep the palms of your hands on the floor as per the shoulders’ width. Push torso up keeping pelvis on the floor. Hold this position for some time. 6. Sit down with knees extended, feet together and hands at sides. After that bend forward, touching the fingers to toes. Hold this position for some time. Then come back to the original position and repeat the exercise. CHILDREN

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Exercises for lordosis

Corrective Measures for Scoliosis Scoliosis exercises are designed to correct the rotatory curvature of the spine. These exercises help in a limited way to decrease curve angles. In fact, exercises do not play a very significant role in the correction of scoliosis. The affected people are advised to participate in physical education programmes, organised sports and normal recreational activities. They may wear scoliosis braces. Some exercises, which are described below, may be beneficial to some extent.

Exercises for scoliosis

1. Lie down in prone position, i.e., on the chest. Right arm should be upward and left arm at side. After that, move right arm towards the left over head; press down with left hand and then slide the left hip up. 2. Stand erect with feet few inches apart. After that raise the left heel and left hip. Extend right arm in an arch overhead to the left. Press left hand against the ribs on the left side. 3. Stand in the erect position with feet several inches apart. Keep left hand’s finger tips on left shoulder and bend the upper body on the right side if there is an opposite ‘C’ curve in the spine. But if there is no opposite ‘C’ curve which means if there is just ‘C’ curve, bend the upper body to the left side. The tips of the fingers of the right hand should be on right shoulder. Repeat the exercise for some time as per the ‘C’ curve.

Corrective Measures for Knock-knees Generally, the deformity of knock-knees cannot be corrected through exercise during later childhood and adulthood. But, this deformity can be corrected up to some extent

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through exercises, particularly when it is detected. The favourable results of exercise can be achieved during the phase of early childhood. The following exercises should be performed.

Exercises related to knock-knees

1. Horse-riding is one of the best exercises for correction of knock-knees. 2. Keep a pillow between the knees and stand straight for some time. Both the feet should touch each other. 3. Use of walking calipers may be beneficial. 4. Perform padmasana and gomukhasana regularly.

Corrective Measures for Bow Legs The role of exercises in case of bow legs is approximately the same as that in knock-knees. The deformity of bow legs can be corrected up to some extent during the early phase of childhood. During later childhood and adulthood, exercises don’t play a significant role. The following exercises may be beneficial for the correction of bow legs. 1. Stand erect with feet joined together. Wrap a soft piece of cloth on both legs at knee level. Tighten it with the help of a partner. Try to squat as far as possible. Hold that position of squat for some time. Come to the original position and repeat the exercise 4 to 6 times.

Garudasana

2. Walk for some distance on the inner edge of the feet. 3. Walk by bending the toes inward. 4. Perform ardhmatseyendrasana, garudasana and ardha chakrasana.

Corrective Measures for Round Shoulders

Ardhmatseyendrasana

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Exercises for round shoulders

1. Keep your tips of fingers on your shoulders and rotate your elbows in clockwise and anticlockwise directions for some time. 2. Hold the horizontal bar regularly for some time. 3. Perform chakrasana and dhanurasana for some time.

Corrective Measures for Flatfoot The deformity of flatfoot can be corrected with the help of the following exercises. 1. Jumping on toes for some time. 2. Rope skipping. 3. Stand up and down on the heels. 4. Walk on the toes. 5. Sit down properly. Try to grip small wads of paper with your toes. These pieces of paper should be picked up by gripping forcefully using toes.

Exercises for flatfoot

Conclusion: The above-mentioned corrective exercises or physical activities should be done regularly for long duration to get good results. These corrective measures should be employed immediately after the detection of deformities. In the later stage, it would be difficult to correct these deformities.

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Exercises Very Short Answer Questions Carrying 1 Mark (20 to 30 words) 1. What do you mean by motor development? 2. What do you mean by gross motor development? 3. What do you mean by fine motor development? 4. What do you mean by weight training? 5. What type of resistances can be used for developing strength among children?

[AI 2015]

6. What do you mean by correct posture?

[AI 2013]

7. What are postural deformities? 8. What is kyphosis?

[AI 2011, Delhi 2013]

9. What is scoliosis? 10. What do you mean by spinal curvature deformities? 11. What are bow legs? 12. What is flatfoot? 13. What are round shoulders? 14. What is Knock-knee?

[Delhi 2011]

15. Explain the causes of scoliosis.

[Delhi 2012] [AI 2015]

16. What is “an abnormal curvature of spine at front” termed as? 17. Explain the correct sitting posture.

[AI 2016]

18. Suggest any two free hand exercises for correcting round shoulder.

[Delhi 2016]

19. Suggest two exercises for correcting flatfoot. 20. Which type of exercises should be given to Infants?

[Delhi 2017]

21. What is lordosis? 22. State the common postural deformities.

[AI 2017]

23. Name the motor development stages in children.

[AI 2017] [Delhi 2017]

24. Define motor development.

Short Answer Questions Carrying 3 Marks (80 to 90 words) 1. Elucidate the meaning of motor development. 2. What do you mean by gross motor development and fine motor development? 3. Mention any two advantages of weight training. 4. Elucidate two disadvantages of weight training. 5. Enumerate about the motor development in early childhood. 6. Elucidate the motor development in middle childhood. 7. Explain any two factors affecting motor development. CHILDREN

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8. Explain the motor development in late childhood. 9. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of weight training. 10. Mention the corrective measures related to lordosis. 11. Mention the corrective measures related to scoliosis.

[AI 2011]

12. Discuss the corrective measures for common postural deformities? 13. Elaborate the three causes of bad posture. 14. Explain the advantages of correct posture.

[CBSE Sample Paper 2015]

15. What do you mean by ‘round shoulders’? Suggest any four physical activities for correcting round

[AI 2015]

shoulders. 16. Write about the deformities of spinal curvature. 17. What are the causes of bad postures? Write in brief.

[AI 2016] [Delhi 2016]

18. Explain the correct posture of standing. 19. Explain the correct posture of sitting. 20. Explain the causes of kyphosis and lordosis. 21. Discuss the causes of knock-knees and bow legs. 22. Discuss any three advantages of correct posture.

[Delhi 2013]

23. Mention the corrective measures related to knock-knees and bow legs. 24. Mention the corrective measures related to round shoulders and flatfoot. 25. Briefly discuss flatfoot. 26. Explain the meaning and concept of correct posture. 27. What are the advantages of maintaining a correct posture? 28. Suggest four corrective measures for flatfoot.

[Delhi 2011] [AI 2011] [Delhi 2012]

29. Mention the corrective measures related to kyphosis. 30. Mention exercise guidelines for early childhood and later childhood.

Value Based Questions 31. Sports are good for all age groups. Competitive sport is a showcase of power at the international arena. Supremacy over the other country is indirectly shown by standing at the top of medal tally. To achieve their target few countries are imparting very strict training to growing children. Over the years many organisations have raised their voice against the intensity with which training is scheduled for making an international athletes. On the basis of the above passage, answer the following questions:

(1 + 2 = 3)

(a) Elaborate any two physiological benefits of exercise in children. (b) What are the disadvantages of giving high intensity training to the growing children? 32. Ramesh was an intelligent student of our class but he suffered from kyphosis which is one of the

major deformities of spine. Most of the students used to laugh at him and passed indecent remarks on him. Owing to that, he remained under tension and stress. One day, our teacher came to know

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about his problem. He rebuked the children for their misdeeds and suggested them not to repeat such things in future. He advised Ramesh to take some corrective exercises to treat the deformity of kyphosis. After performing corrective exercises for some months, he has got rid of kyphosis. (1×3 = 3)

On the basis of the above passage, answer the following questions: 1. Comment upon the qualities of the students of the class. 2. Discuss the values possessed by the teacher. 3. Mention some corrective exercises as remedy for kyphosis.

Long Answer Questions Carrying 5 Marks (150 to 200 words) 1. What do you mean by motor development? Explain the motor development during childhood. 2. Discuss the factors affecting motor development in detail. 3. What is weight training? Discuss its advantages and disadvantages. 4. Suggest at what age children should be exposed to weight training and justify your answer. [CBSE Sample Paper 2015] 5. Weight training is one of the oldest methods for development of strength. What are its advantages and disadvantages? [AI 2015, 2017] 6. Elucidate the meaning of motor development in childhood. Discuss in detail about various factors affecting motor development. 7. Elucidate the exercise guidelines at different stages of growth. 8. Explain any five common postural deformities. [CBSE Sample Paper 2016] 9. Mention any five advantages of correct posture. 10. Mention the causes, precautions and remedies of bow legs. [Delhi 2013] 11. Discuss the physical exercises as corrective measure for kyphosis, lordosis and scoliosis. Or Discuss the physical exercises as corrective measures for the deformities of spinal curvature. 12. Staying healthy and active is in direct proportion to the good or bad posture one adopts. Comment. [Delhi 2011] 13. Suggest corrective measures for flatfoot and lordosis. [AI 2013] 14. Elucidate the causes of bad posture. 15. Describe the causes, precautions and remedies of scoliosis. 16. What are the causes of flatfoot and knock-knees? Suggest physical activities as corrective measures for these deformities. [Delhi 2017] 17. What do you mean by correct posture? Explain the standing and sitting postures. What are the causes of a bad posture? [AI 2017] 

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Women and Sports

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 6.1 Sports Participation of Women in India 6.2 Special Consideration (Menarche and Menstrual Dysfunction) 6.3 Female Athlete Triad (Osteoporosis, Amenorrhoea and Eating Disorders) 6.4 Psychological Aspects of Women Athlete 6.5 Sociological Aspects of Participation in Sports

In the field of games and sports, people do not acknowledge women’s sports to be at par with men’s sports. Right from the beginning of Olympic Games, the role of women in sports and games has been neglected. However, from the last decade of previous century, there is an increasing interest of women in sports both as participants and spectators. The provision of sports facilities to both women and men in sports shows a new trend. More people, than in the past, now want to see women on the playfields. However, few discriminations still persist in terms of salaries, coaching facilities, cash awards, television time, etc. Indeed, a lot of efforts have been taken vis-ã-vis women participation in sports and even greater steps are yet to be taken.

6.1 SPORTS PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN INDIA Here, we will discuss in detail women’s participation in the field of sports. As a matter of fact, women’s participation in sports has a long history. In ancient Olympics, women were not allowed to even watch sports competitions. Even in the first modern Olympic Games which were held in 1896 in Athens, there was no participation of women. In fact, women started participating in the modern Olympic Games from 1900 onwards. They participated only in two sports events. In this Olympics, only twenty-two women participated. In 1904 Olympic Games, only six women participated in three events. With the passage of time, the number of women participants in Olympics increased and exactly after 100 years, i.e., in 2000 Sydney Olympics, the number of women participants increased up to 4,069. In this Olympics, a total of 10,500 sportspersons from 199 countries took part and out of which

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38.2 per cent were women. This number of women participants was a record during that time. In 2008 Olympic Games, which were held in Beijing, a total of 10,700 sportspersons from 205 countries took part and out of which 4,637 were women whose percentage was 42.4, whereas only 23 women of India participated in the London Olympics. In 2012 London Olympic Games, 10,960 sportspersons from Indian sports women 205 countries participated, out of which 4,862 were women whose percentage was more than ever before. For the first time women boxing was included in the Olympic programme. In 2008 Olympics, 26 female sportspersons participated from India. Only four Indian women participated in the Olympics held in 1952 in athletics. Karnam Malleshwari became the first Indian woman to secure a bronze medal in weightlifting in Sydney Olympic Games in 2000. In 2012 London Olympic Games, Saina Nehwal and MC Mary Kom added feather in the cap of India by securing one bronze medal each. Though PT Usha could not win any medal in the 1984 Olympics in 400 m hurdle race, yet her performance was remarkable and extraordinary. In fact, there is a long list of Indian woman sportspersons who have won various positions in the World Cups, Commonwealth Games, Asian Games, SAF Games, etc. Among these, Anju B George, Sania Mirza, Krishna Poonia, Seema Antil, Garima Chaudhary, Jwala Gutta, Geeta Phogat, Heena Sidhu, Ankita Das, NS Chanu, Deepika Kumari are the prominent sportwomen. But on the other hand, it is also a matter of concern for all of us to know that sport is such a field where gender inequality is strongly evident. As a matter of fact, this problem has more socio-psychological connotation than anything else. It is a matter of regret or pity that men and women are considered differently, especially in the field of sports. It is usually observed that women are not provided equal opportunities in comparison to their male counterparts. In fact, men are still given preference over women. Indeed, our social environment makes it easier for men to participate in sports and makes it harder for women to do so. The general social environment has not only inhibited women from participation in sports but has also ostracised them when they did participate. This difference can be seen in the facilities and programmes which are arranged for girls in schools and colleges in comparison to boys. About participation of women in sports, Hart mentioned in his book a comment from an Australian racing driver for a woman lady driver of Holland, “Why don’t they stay in the kitchen where they belong”? Even Mary Kom’s father objected to her boxing because he felt that it would spoil her face and ruin her marriage prospects. The women wrestlers from Haryana had to contend with verbal attacks from local villagers. WOMEN

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Every woman athlete in our country would understand the humiliation of PT Usha, one of the country’s greatest athletes of all time, who broke down in front of television cameras during National Open Athletic Championship in 2009, after being denied accommodation according to her status. She had to share a room with five other women. Even the women players of cricket team and hockey team playing for India continuously aver that while their performances have equalled and even bettered those of their male counterparts, the treatment in terms of facilities and monetary benefits is not up to the mark. Discrimination against women’s participation in sports can be seen even in the field of media. Our women’s Kabaddi team won the World Cup. The concerned matches were not given air time on electronic and print media. How many people know about Mithali Raj and other cricket players? It is shocking to know all such incidents of discrimination. However, it is heartening to know that time is changing and situations are improving. A number of sportswomen have been defying the odds, i.e., social and psychological hurdles related to the participation of women in sports but there is still a lot to be achieved. No doubt the number of participation of women in sports is showing an increasing trend year by year but this number is still lesser in comparison to men. There may be a number of reasons for less number of women participating in sports. In fact, women will have to defy all the social hurdles with their Herculean efforts to enhance their participation in sports. The mind-set of people will have to be changed, especially of parents, families, schools, colleges, teachers, and administrators. Sportswomen also have to believe that impossible things can be made possible with a firm determination and strong will power.

Reasons for Less Participation of Women in Sports At a global level, the number of women participants in the field of sports was very limited before 1970. During ancient times, the situation was worse. At that time, women were not allowed to even watch the Olympic Games. But the number of women participants at the international level has increased extensively during the last four decades. It is evident in the Olympics, World Cups, Asian Games, Commonwealth Games, European Championships, etc. But even then the number of women participants in sports is still less in comparison to men, especially in India. The following reasons may be responsible for low participation of women in sports. 1. Lack of Legislation: In 1972, a legislation was passed in the United States of America in which a provision was made to provide financial aid to all the educational institutions. As a matter of fact this legislation was passed to prevent discrimination and to provide equal opportunities to women to participate in sports at all levels. Equal facilities were mandated to be provided in sports to women as in the case of men. As a result of this resolution, the participation of women in sports was enhanced evidently. In India, there is a lack of such legislation. Here, this type of financial aid is not provided to educational institutions from the Central Government. For providing sports facilities less budget is allocated in comparison to that in western

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countries. After having a glance on sports budget and other facilities provided in women’s colleges and schools, it can be observed clearly that there is less expenditure in developing sports facilities in comparison to that in men’s colleges and schools. In fact, there is lack of facilities for women in many colleges and schools. 2. Lack of Time: Majority of women usually have less leisure time than men because they take on greater responsibility for household work. Some of them have full time jobs to earn a living. Therefore, due to lack of time they do not participate in such activities. 3. Lack of Self-confidence: Owing to social pressures, women tend to have less self-confidence in comparison to men. Indeed, self-confidence is also linked to sports competitions. 4. Male-dominated Culture of Sports: As culture of sports is perceived to be male dominated, some women seem to hesitate to take part in sports activities. 5. Lack of Interest of Spectators and No Coverage of Women’s Sports: Lack of interest of spectators is one of the major reasons for less participation of women in sports. It is not surprising that there is less number of spectators in sports competitions of women because there is also less number of spectators in sports competitions or tournaments of men. A cricket match may be termed as an exception where there is always a huge number of spectators but this is not true for women’s cricket match. Generally, there is no broadcast of women sports competition on TV channels. Everyone is just concerned about men’s cricket. How many times do we watch any sports played by women in India on TV? We hardly watch women’s Cricket World Cup, women’s Kabaddi World Cup, women’s Hockey World Cup, etc., on TV. A designated space on women’s sports is not given in newspapers even. Directly or indirectly these reasons are responsible for less participation of women in sports. As a matter of fact, if there is less number of spectators in any sports competition, the players, whether men or women, will not be properly motivated to participate in sports. This decreases their enthusiasm to participate. 6. Lack of Female Sportspersons as Role Models: There are a few of sportswomen as role models, such as PT Usha, Karnam Malleshwari, Sania Mirza, Saina Nehwal, MC Mary Kom, Mithali Raj, PV Sindhu, etc., but they are not popularised on TV or other media. In fact, they did not get their due place on TV as role models. Even proper space is not allocated to the achievements of such women players in various newspapers and magazines. If the number of such apex women sportspersons is increased and they are popularised on TV and other media, then the participation of women in the field of sports will definitely be enhanced. 7. Lack of Fitness and Wellness Movements: Due to a lack of fitness and wellness movements, women’s participation in sports is less. We are well aware of the fact that sports and games play an effective as well as significant role in the development of fitness and wellness. Nowadays, women are aware of the benefits of fitness and WOMEN

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wellness. Yet some women are not aware of the various programmes and movements related to fitness and wellness. They need to be alert about their health and fitness. In fact, it is essential for every individual to know about health, wellness and fitness. Participating in sports activities will definitely make them aware and alert. To get a perfect sports ready body is not a bed of roses; it can only be achieved with the help of regular participation in sports. 8. Lack of Awareness Among Women: A lot of false notions prevail due to lack of awareness and some become victims of baseless and imaginative misconceptions rampant in our society. For example, it is considered in our society that physical, social and psychological characteristics or qualities of women who participate in games and sports show a marked change. It is also considered that women who participate in sports face a number of problems at the time of child birth. However, this is far from being true. There are various misconceptions prevailing in our society such as bones of women who participate in sports become weak and their femininity is also at risk. In fact, these are only thoughts which are not based on any fact. These wrong ideas limit women from participating in sports. 9. Less Number of Women Coaches: Less number of women coaches in India is also one of the reasons of less participation of women in sports. If the number of women coaches is enhanced there will definitely be an increase in women’s participation in sports and games. As a matter of fact, women may feel comfortable in the company of female coaches and they will take part in sports wholeheartedly without any hesitation. 10. Attitude of Society Towards Women’s Participation in Sports: The attitude of society plays a vital role towards women’s participation in sports. Indian society still looks down upon women’s participation in sports. Indeed, not only in case of India but there are a lot of countries in the world which have a negative point of view regarding women’s participation in sports. In male dominated society, the views of male sportspersons about female sportspersons are definitely regressive. It is said, “Why don’t they stay in kitchen, where they belong”. Masculinity and femininity are given a definition by our society. There is actually no link of masculinity and femininity with the participation in sports. 11. Lack of Personal Safety: Personal safety on the roads, streets, public transport, and in and around sports venues is a common as well as persistent problem for women who want to participate in sports. They may be an easy target of bullying and abuse. Travelling to and fro from sports stadiums or complexes may be dangerous for women. Usually, they do not feel safe. Due to this reason, parents discourage them to take part in sports. 12. Lack of Proper Access to Facilities: There is a lack of proper access to facilities provided to women in the field of sports. Facilities in terms of equipment, training, coaching, etc., are not usually provided to women as done in case of men. Hence, the

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participation of women remains low. Even the programmes related to games and sports in girls’ schools and colleges are less in comparison to boys’ schools and colleges. Generally, women do not have adequate playing facilities near their homes, which makes it more difficult for them to participate in sports.

6.2 SPECIAL CONSIDERATION (MENARCHE AND MENSTRUAL DYSFUNCTION) As a matter of fact, the female participation in the field of games and sports has shown remarkable increase during the yester decades. This change has been noticed not only in India but across the world. But, on the other hand, a large part of the population still has an opinion that sports and games are not directly linked to women. Women are not expected to be muscular, robust, aggressive and dominant. Many people opine that women have different anatomical and physiological structures and capacities which are not suitable for sports activities. They even say that participation in sports leads to various problems during menarche, menstruation, pregnancy and menopause. In order to evade the misconceptions and myths, let us study the relationships of these biological processes and women’s participation in sports.

Menarche Menarche is the first period or first menstrual bleeding that a young girl has. Menarche usually occurs approximately at the age of 12; however, it can happen as early as during 8 or 9 years of age or as late as during 16 years of age. Women’s reproductive system is complex and sensitive to physiological stress. Such type of stress is usually associated with conditions like delayed menarche, amenorrhoea, etc. These problems are experienced by some women who are engaged in intensive sports activities. However, women with delayed menarche may succeed in sports such as gymnastics. Those women who have early menarche have an advantage in sports such as swimming and rowing because they get more adipose tissue or adequate weight.

Menstrual Dysfunction Menstrual dysfunction is a disorder or irregularity in women’s menstrual cycle. In other words, it can be defined as an ‘abnormal bleeding’ during the menstrual cycle. Normal menstrual cycle varies from 21 to 35 days. Its flow lasts approximately two to seven days. Menstrual irregularities seem to be higher in women athletes in comparison to non-athletic women. Menstruation and Sports Participation Earlier, most of the people used to believe that participation in sports during menstruation could be physiologically harmful. Recent studies conducted in this field show that there has WOMEN

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been no basis or evidence of dysmenorrhoea (painful menstruation) of any consequence as a result of intensive participation in sports. In fact, there have been recent reports to indicate complete absence of menstruation in women who usually get trained for long duration in running. However, it is not applicable for all the women sportspersons or in all the sports. Some studies indicate that sport participation is beneficial in relieving pain and preventing dysmenorrhoea. Even research studies show that a small number of women participating in sports experience dysmenorrhoea in comparison to non-participants. Some studies also indicate that there is no specific effect on sports performance during all phases of the menstrual cycle, because international records have been set in all the stages of menstrual cycle. Research studies also show that women’s strength decreases a few days prior to menstruation and continues to remain at slightly lower level throughout the menstrual period. In conclusion, it can be said that there is no impediment or barrier to a sportswoman to engage even in competitive sports on any day of the month. Menstruation is not a problem in the way of achieving top sports performance.

6.3 FEMALE ATHLETE TRIAD (OSTEOPOROSIS, AMENORRHOEA AND EATING DISORDERS) Female athlete triad is a syndrome in which osteoporosis, amenorrhoea and eating disorders are included. It is simply known as ‘triad’. The triad is a serious disorder or illness with lifelong health consequences and can be fatal. In fact, it is a syndrome of three interrelated conditions. If a woman athlete is suffering from any one condition of the triad, it is likely that she may also be suffering from the other two conditions of the triad.

Triad–a syndrome in women athletes

As a matter of fact, sports and physical exercises are part of a balanced and healthy lifestyle. It is observed that the individuals who indulge in sports activities are healthy, alert, physically fit and are less likely to experience depression. Some women who take part in sports activities intensely may be at risk of female athlete triad. A woman athlete may show one, two or all the three conditions of the triad. With the increase in women’s participation in sports, the chances of women athlete triad are also enhanced.

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Symptoms of Triad The symptoms of triad may include fatigue, frequent injuries, loss of endurance and power, irritability, increased healing time for injuries, enhanced chances of fracture, cessation of menstruation, low self-esteem, etc. The gravity of these symptoms may vary. Along with this, the occurrence of these symptoms depends on the conditions of triad.

Osteoporosis Osteoporosis refers to decreased bone mineral density. It is a skeletal disorder. A reduction in bone mass may cause fracture. In fact, low oestrogen levels and poor nutrition, especially low calcium intake can lead to osteoporosis. It is one of the significant triad of female athlete. As a matter of fact, healthy athletes tend to have higher bone mineral density than their non-athletic counterparts as physical and weightbearing exercises have beneficial effects on bone density in women. But, in case of osteoporosis, weakening of bones occur due to the loss of bone density and improper bone formation. This condition may be deleterious to athletes as it may lead to stress fractures and other injuries. Indeed, there are various factors which usually lead to osteoporosis among women athletes. Such factors are stated subsequently. 1. Insufficient Calcium in the Diet: The main cause of osteoporosis is the insufficient intake of calcium in the diet. In fact, 100 mg calcium should be included in daily diet by a woman athlete. In addition to calcium, vitamin D should also be included because it is essential for absorbing calcium in our body. 2. Amenorrhoea: Women suffering from menstrual dysfunction or amenorrhoea for more than six months are likely to face osteoporosis because the secretion of the hormone called ‘oestrogen’ is decreased in this condition. This hormone is necessary for the absorption of calcium in our body. If calcium is not absorbed in our body, there will be less amount of calcium in our body which may lead to osteoporosis. 3. Eating Disorders: Eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia may also cause osteoporosis because the calcium intake may be less or insufficient. In fact, not getting sufficient amount of calcium can also have a lasting effect on how strong a woman’s bones are in the later part of life. So, eating disorders may also lead to osteoporosis among women athletes.

Amenorrhoea

Amenorrhoea is a menstrual disorder or illness in women where girls of 18 years and above either never began menstruating or there is an absence of menstruation for three months or more than that in women with a history of normal menstrual cycle. WOMEN

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Amenorrhoea can also be defined as the cessation of woman’s menstrual cycle for more than three months or more. Types of Amenorrhoea There are two types of amenorrhoea i.e., primary amenorrhoea and secondary amenorrhoea. 1. Primary Amenorrhoea: Primary amenorrhoea is characterised by delayed menarche which is the onset of first period during puberty. 2. Secondary Amenorrhoea. A woman who has her natural menstrual cycle at specific time and then stops menstruating for three months or more is said to have secondary amenorrhoea. There are various factors which may inspire or enhance the chances of amenorrhoea.These factors are stated below. 1. Hormonal Changes: Some hormonal changes such as change in the output of gonadotropic hormones may lead to amenorrhoea. In fact, the gonadotropic hormone stimulates the growth of gonads and secretion of sex hormones. This hormone actually plays a vital role in stimulating oestrogen release from ovaries. If it does not release oestrogen, the menstrual cycle gets disrupted or stops in women causing amenorrhoea. 2. Intensive Exercises: There are maximum chances of amenorrhoea in female athletes, especially in long distance runners, swimmers and gymnasts. In fact, such athletes do intensive exercise or training which usually leads to decrease in oestrogen which is mainly responsible to regulate the menstrual cycle in females. As a result, a woman’s periods may become irregular or stop. Intensive exercises may lead to primary amenorrhoea and secondary amenorrhoea. 3. Intake of Less Calories: If a woman athlete takes less number of calories in comparison to her requirement, she may suffer from amenorrhoea. In fact, intake of insufficient calories can lead to decrease in oestrogen hormone which helps to regulate the menstrual cycle. Consequently, menstrual cycle may become irregular or stop altogether.

Eating Disorders Most of the girls with female athlete triad try to lose their body weight as a way to improve their performance in the field of games and sports. In order to lose weight, they may practice unhealthy weight-control methods, including restricted food intake, self-induced vomiting, consumption of appetite suppressants and diet pills and use of laxatives. Many girls deny their eating disorders due to embarrassment, shame, fear of losing control of their dieting regimen and a mistaken belief that excessive weight loss enhances sports performance. These eating disorders can be fatal. There are following types of eating disorders.

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1. Anonexia Nervosa: In this eating disorder, the female athletes think only about food, dieting and body weight all the time. They have distorted body structure. Other individuals usually feel them that they are becoming thin but they do not believe this. In front of the mirror they see themselves as obese. 2. Bulimia Nervosa: It is also an eating disorder in which a female athlete eats excessive amount of food and then vomits it in order not to gain weight. In this disorder, an individual binges on food and feels a loss of control. Then, to prevent weight gain, tries to vomit the food.

6.4 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF WOMEN ATHLETE Over the past several decades, the role of women has changed drastically. However, gender beliefs and stereotypes still do exist across the world especially in sports. Most of the people in our society consider that sports are not meant for females but only for males. Social tradition, customs and cultures have great influence upon the psychology of women. In a male dominating society, males are expected to be aggressive, independent, dominating, robust and confident, whereas females are expected as well as considered to be emotional, sensitive, cooperative, sympathetic, loyal, etc. It is a well-known fact that participation of women in sports is increasing year after year. With this enhancement in female participation in sports, there is also renewed interest in the psychological characteristics of the female athletes and the effects of athletics on women. The various psychological traits of women athletes are stated below. 1. Gender Role Orientation: It is an established fact that there has been an increase in the level of women’s participation in the types of sports that have been traditionally limited to only males, e.g., wrestling, weightlifting, kick boxing, body building, etc. However, many sports have been still considered inappropriate for women. For a long time it was considered that women should not take part in athletics because of the potentially harmful masculinising effects of sports. Physical fitness experts argued that, “Competitive sports tend to develop behaviour patterns which are contrary to feminine nature.” 2. Competitiveness: It is evident that in the field of sports, both men and women are competitive in their own fields. In fact, women are more goal oriented and perform magnificently in artistic activities such as gymnastics. However, a number of research studies indicate that females who take part in sports are more competitive in comparison to the females who do not participate in sports. 3. Confidence: As mentioned earlier, due to social pressures, women tend to have less confidence than men. Participation in sports, competitive environment, awards and recognitions increase confidence levels of sportspersons. However, a significant difference may exist between sportswomen and non-sportswomen. WOMEN

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4. Self-esteem: Most of the research studies indicate that training plays a vital role in performance. Self-esteem improves with good performance. In the field of sports, intensive training helps in enhancing self-esteem. Research studies also show that those people who engage in sports have high self-esteem in comparison to non-participants. 5. Self-image or Body Image. It has been seen that sportpersons are found to be more positive about their self-image or body image. The main reason behind it is that they need to maintain a good physique in order to perform well in their field of sports. They need to be healthy. In fact, negative body image develops when people feel that their body features do not match with the ideals set by society and media. Some athletes may suffer from bulimia nervosa or anorexia and indulge in over exercising. However, sports participation is helpful in enhancement of positive body image. It provides good shape and well balanced physique and finally it improves self image. 6. Depression: Most of the psychological research studies conducted in this field show that sports participation is helpful in getting out of depression. In fact, sports activities are linked to decreased likelihood of symptoms related to stress and depression. The sportsman spirit developed as a result of participation in sports encourage a ‘never give-up’ mindset. Female athletes have a more positive body image and experience higher level of psychological well-being than females who do not play sports. 7. Aggression: Aggression is a forceful, goal-directed action that may be verbal or physical. Participation in sports has many positive aspects which usually involve aggressive behaviour. Various studies of aggression show that athletes who participate in contact sports, i.e., football players, judos or wrestlers are more aggressive than the athletes who participate in less contact sports. However, females who participate in contact sports show more aggression in comparison to females who do not participate in sports at all.

6.5 SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PARTICIPATION IN SPORTS If we have a look at the ancient period, women’s participation in sports was banned. In some places, women were not allowed to watch male sports events. In the first modern Olympic Games which were held in 1896, there was no participation of women. Women participated for the first time in 1900 Olympics. After that they continued to participate in Olympics. Number of events or games kept on increasing. In the same way, the number of women participants also showed an increasing trend. Indeed, in terms of sports participation, women have taken tremendous strides in the past few decades. Women have started to take part even in competitive sports and sports which were considered for men only. It is all

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appreciable but participation rates of women are much lower than those of men. There are various reasons for this gap in participation of women in sports. In fact, there are various factors which are responsible for low participation of women in sports. These factors can be biological, psychological, sociological and cultural. Here, our main concerns are sociological factors of sports participation. These factors are stated below. 1. Family: Family is a significant social factor which is said to be generally responsible for early sports socialisation. Some research studies indicate that the socialising process at home for both genders is different. Males get more support and encouragement to get involved in sport activities. They are furthermore provided with role models who encourage and support participation in sports and games. However, in many households, females are not encouraged to get involved in sports activities. Some sports sociologist argue that females are encouraged only in such sports which are more feminine. They are usually encouraged to participate in activities like gymnastics, baseball and athletics. Some parents show interest in sending their girls for sports activities whereas other parents merely think that participating in sports is a wastage of time and money. So, they curtail their daughters’ participation in games and sports. Some parents understand the value of sports and they always try to motivate their daughters to participate in sports. In fact, motivation starts at home/ family. Harris says, “Interest in sports by children usually preceded by the parents interest”. McPherson and Kenyon found that parents were the main socialising agents in the early years of both males and females. With the advancement of the age, significance of the family support seems to decrease and peers, coaches and teachers become the main supportive agents. 2. School: If the pressure to participate does not come from home it may come from coaches, peers and particularly teachers who are the main driving forces in the education sector. School is thus important as it moulds the lives of our developing teenagers. In some schools there is still discrepancy as to which gender (male/female) should participate in which game. It depends upon school whether females are encouraged to participate in sports or not. On the other hand, in some schools, it is compulsory for males as well as females to play at least one sport. The culture of sports is nurtured in some schools and the reputation of some schools is dependent on the success of females and males as sports personalities. It can be said that participation in sports depends upon the interest of school. If right amount of stress is laid down from the beginning, there will be more participation. 3. Culture: It has been seen that cultural belief can affect the progress of particular areas in life. In fact, cultural beliefs have a great impact on the involvement of females in sports. “A woman’s place is in the kitchen” is still a common phrase and many WOMEN

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cultures still firmly believe in it. There is a notion that females become aggressive and robust due to sports training and participation. The above phrase confirms the fact that masculine and feminine behaviours are culture bound. It is also believed that participation of women in sports has always been seen as the presence of women in a man’s world. However, there are various cultures which encourage female participation in sports. 4. Attitudes and Prejudices of Society: Attitude and prejudices of society play a significant role in sports participation. Some females avoid certain sports for fear of being perceived masculine. Such attitude and prejudices of society inhibit females to participate wholeheartedly in sports.

Exercises Very Short Answer Questions Carrying 1 Mark (20 to 30 words) 1. What do you mean by women’s sports participation? 2. What do you mean by menarche? 3. What is menstrual dysfunction? 4. What do you mean by Female Athlete Triad? 5. Mention the symptoms of triad in brief. 6. What do you mean by eating disorders? 7. What is osteoporosis? 8. What do you mean by amenorrhoea? 9. Briefly state about secondary amenorrhoea? 10. What do you mean by bulimia? 11. Suggest any four ways through which women participation in sports across age group can be enhanced. 12. What is anorexia nervosa?

Short Answer Questions Carrying 3 Marks (80 to 90 words) 1. Briefly discuss about any three reasons of less participation of women in sports. 2. Discuss the concept of women’s participation in sports in India. 3. Discuss menarche and menstrual dysfunction. 4. What do you mean by triad? Discuss its symptoms. 5. Write a short note on eating disorders. 6. What is osteoporosis? Discuss any two factors which may lead to osteoporosis in female athlete.

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7. What do you mean by amenorrhoea? Discuss any two factors which enhance the chances of

amenorrhoea. 8. Discuss any three psychological traits of women athlete. 9. Briefly discuss about sociological aspects of sports participation. 10. Why is women participation much less? 11. How can women’s participation in sports and games be encouraged in India? Explain.

[AI 2017]

12. Write in brief about osteoporosis. What are the causes of osteoporosis in women?

[AI 2017]

13. What is osteoporosis? Explain the factors that lead to osteoporosis in women.

[Delhi 2017]

Value Based Questions 14. Jwala was a good boxer from her schooldays. She used to come to school from a remote village.

Most of the aged persons of the village used to object her taking part in boxing. Even they used to say her father not to allow her for sports, but he wanted her daughter to be an international level boxer. He did not listen to them. He tried to give every facility to her daughter. Now after ten years of hard training she has been selected for World Cup Boxing Championship. She is sure to win laurels for her country. On the basis of above passage answer the following questions:

(3 × 1 = 3)

1. Do you agree with the views of most of the villagers? Answer in brief. 2. What values are shown by Jwala’s father regarding her sports participation? 3. What lesson do you learn from the above passage? 15. Recently Sarita Devi refused to accept the bronze medal during the ceremony. The International

body (AIBA) which regulates boxing has taken a stringent action against Sarita Devi and the Coaches. 1. Do you agree with the decision of Sarita Devi? Justify your answer. 2. What values do you think Sarita Devi has not shown by her behaviour during the medal distribution ceremony?

(1 + 2 = 3)

16. Women’s tennis was not taken seriously before Billie Jean King came along. In 1973 she played a

match against Rubby Riggs an older but highly accomplished player at that time, which was dubbed the battle of sexes. Against all bets, she won the match that helped dispelled some of the myth that men are biologically more athletic than women. She was an inspirational athlete. On the basis of above passage answer the following questions:

(3 × 1 = 3)

1. Who was Billie Jean King? 2. Which myth was broken by her? 3. Describe the values she had during her sports career. WOMEN

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Long Answer Questions Carrying 5 Marks (150 to 200 words) 1. Elucidate the sports participation of women in India in detail. 2. Elucidate the reasons of low participation of women in sports and games. 3. “Equal opportunities should be provided to women in sports and there should not be any

discrimination”. Explain your views in the light of this statement. 4. What is menstrual dysfunction? Elaborate the various types of disorders/problems related to

menstrual dysfunction. 5. What is Female Athlete Triad? Discuss its elements/conditions among women athletes. 6. What is osteoporosis? Explain various factors which usually lead to osteoporosis among women

athletes. 7. What is amenorrhoea? Elucidate its types and factors which may inspire the chances of

amenorrhoea. 8. Discuss in detail about Female Athlete Triad.

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Test and Measurement in Sports

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 7.1 Computation of Fat Percentage Slaughter-Lohman Children Skinfold Formula: Triceps and Calf Skinfold (Male 6 to 17 yrs - % body fat = (0.735 × sum of skinfold) + 1.0) (Female 6 to 17 yrs - % body fat = (0.610 × sum of skinfold) + 5.0) 7.2 Measurement of Muscular Strength: Kraus-Weber Test 7.3 Motor Fitness Test: AAHPER 7.4 General Motor Fitness: Barrow Three-item General Motor Ability (Standing Broad Jump, Zig-Zag Run, Medicine Ball Put – For Boys: 03 kg and for Girls: 01 kg) 7.5 Measurement of Cardiovascular Fitness: Harvard Step Test/Rockport Test 7.6 Computation of Fitness Index: Duration of the Exercise in Seconds × 100 5.5 × Pulse Count of 1 – 1.5 min after Exercise 7.7 Rikli and Jones: Senior Citizen Fitness Test A. Chair Stand Test for Lower Body Strength B. Arm Curl Test for Upper Body Strength C. Chair Sit-and-Reach Test for Lower Body Flexibility D. Back Scratch Test for Upper Body Flexibility E. Eight Foot Up and Go Test for Agility F. Six-minute Walk Test for Aerobic Endurance

As a matter of fact, it is significant for individuals to set objectives which they want to fulfil in a physical education and sports programme. It is also essential to determine whether or not the objectives have been achieved. For example, if you want to improve your cardiorespiratory fitness, you will have to participate in a fitness programme. After a certain period, if you do not measure and evaluate your cardiorespiratory fitness, you may remain in dark. Leonardo Da Vinci has rightly said, “If you are enamoured of practice without scientific ways, you are just like a pilot who goes into a ship without rudder and compass and does not know his destination”. TEST

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Tests and measurements in physical education are the instruments or devices for getting essential details regarding the needs, capacities, abilities and attitudes of students or sportspersons. Tests are used to collect information or data about a specific skill, strength, endurance, knowledge, behaviour, attitude, etc. In fact, test refers to any specific instrument, procedure or technique used by an administrator to elicit results from the person who takes the test. There are various types of test such as Johnson Basketball Ability Test, AAHPERD Youth Fitness Test, Kraus-Weber Test, Harvard Step Test, Sit-and-Reach Test, etc. Measurements are related to physical measurements such as size, height, weight, vital capacity, achievements, etc. Indeed, measurement refers to the process of administrating a test to obtain a quantitative data. It can also be said that measurement aids the evaluation process in which various tools and techniques are used in the collection of data. Through tests and measurements, the effects of teaching or coaching can be determined, the progress can be known and future plannings can be made.

7.1 COMPUTATION OF FAT PERCENTAGE Slaughter-Lohman Children Skinfold Formula: Triceps and Calf Skinfold (Male 6 to 17 years - % body fat = (0.735 × sum of skinfold) + 1.0 (Female 6 to 17 years - % body fat = (0.610 × sum of skinfold) + 5.0 Fat percentage of children, i.e., boys and girls can be easily calculated with the help of Slaughter-Lohman children skinfold formula that is given below. A. Triceps and calf skinfold (Males 6 to 17 years)

Body fat percentage = (0.735 × sum of skinfold) + 1.0 B. Triceps and calf skinfold (Females 6 to 17 years)

Body fat percentage = (0.610 × sum of skinfold) + 5.0 Before using the formula it is essential to take the measurements of triceps and calf with the help of skinfold calipers. The following procedure is applied for measurements. 1. Triceps Skinfold: First of all ensure that the adult’s or child’s right arm is hanging loosely. Stand behind the subject and pull a vertical skinfold about half an inch about the already marked site, with the thumb and index finger pointing downward centering the mark. Keep the skinfold caliper perpendicular to the length of the fold, centering the mark. Then release the caliper and note the reading on the dial after approximately four seconds. Record the measurement to the nearest millimetres.

Procedure for using skinfold calipers for measurements

2. Calf Skinfold: The calf skinfold is measured on the inside of the right leg at the level of maximal calf girth. The right foot is placed

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flat on the elevated surface with the knee flexed at a 90° angle. The vertical skinfold should be grasped just above the level of maximal girth and the measurement is made below the grasp. The measurements are taken in millimetres. Now, the measurements of triceps and calf can be computed to calculate the fat percentage. Example 1 Suppose the measurements of triceps and calf of a male of 16 years are 12 mm and 9 mm, respectively. Calculate his body fat percentage by using Slaughter-Lohman children skinfold formula. Body fat percentage = (0.735 × sum of skinfold) + 1.0 ( Sum of skinfold = Triceps + calf = 12 + 9 = 21 mm) Now, Body fat percentage = (0.735 × 21) + 1.0 = 15.435 + 1.0 = 16.435% Example 2 If the measurements of triceps and calf of a female of 17 years are 13 mm and 10 mm, respectively. Calculate her body fat percentage by using Slaughter-Lohman children skinfold formula. Body fat percentage = (0.610 × sum of skinfold) + 5.0 ( Sum of skinfold = triceps + calf = 13 + 10 = 23 mm) Now, Body fat percentage = (0.610 × 23) + 5.0 = 14.03 + 5.0 = 19.03%

7.2 MEASUREMENT OF MUSCULAR STRENGTH: KRAUS-WEBER TEST

Meaning of Muscular Strength

Muscular strength is one of the important components of physical fitness. Muscular strength is the extent of force the muscle or a group of muscles can exert against resistance for short duration as in anaerobic activities. Muscular strength is essential for performing daily routine work easily and smoothly such as lifting weight, climbing stairs, etc. It is also essential for maintaining good posture, avoiding injuries and remaining independent, especially in old age. It can be measured with the help of Kraus-Weber Test.

Kraus-Weber Test

Here, measurement consists of six tests. All these tests are commonly categorised under the Kraus-Weber Test. These tests are supposed to measure the minimum muscular fitness of an individual. In fact, they measure the level of strength and flexibility of certain key muscle groups below which the functioning of the whole body of a healthy individual seems to be endangered. These tests are graded on a pass-fail basis. But partial movements on each test can be scored in a scale from 0 to 10. TEST

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Administration of Kraus-Weber Tests The administration of these tests are described below. 1. Test No.1: The subject lies down in the supine position, i.e., flat on his back and hands behind his neck. The examiner holds the subject’s feet to keep him on the ground. The subject is asked to perform one sit-up. If he performs one sit-up, he passes this test. If he cannot raise his shoulders from the table or ground, his score remains zero. 2. Test No.2: The lying position of the subject for this test remains same i.e., supine position except that his knees are bent and ankles remain in touch with his buttocks. He is asked to perform one sit-up. If he is able to perform full sit-up, he passes this test. If he is unable to raise his shoulders from the table or ground, he scores a zero. 3. Test No.3: The subject lies in the supine position, i.e., lies flat on his back with his hands behind the neck. He is asked to raise his feet 10 inches from the ground. His knees should be straight. The examiner counts till 10 seconds. The subject passes this test if he holds that position for 10 seconds. Scoring from 0–10 depends on the number of seconds the subject holds the appropriate position. 4. Test No.4: The subject lies in the prone position, i.e., on his stomach with a pillow under his lower abdomen and his hands behind his neck. The examiner holds his feet down. The subject is asked to raise his chest, head and shoulders, while the examiner counts till 10 seconds. He passes this test if he is able to hold the exact position up to 10 seconds. Scoring from 0–10 depends on the number of seconds the subject holds the exact position. 5. Test No.5: The subject’s position remains the same, but the examiner holds his chest down. The subject is asked to raise his feet.

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His knees should be straight. The examiner counts till 10 seconds. Scoring from 0-10 depends on the number of seconds the subject holds the position. 6. Test No.6: It is also known as floor-touch test. It measures the flexibility of the trunk. The subject stands erect, bare-foot, hands at sides and feet together. He is asked to lean down slowly to touch the floor with fingertips for 3 seconds. In this test, bouncing or jerking is not allowed. The examiner holds the subject’s knees in order to prevent any bend, in case it occurs. Scoring from 0–10 depends on the number of seconds the subject holds the position. These tests were applied on schoolchildren of USA and European countries. The results of these tests revealed that 57.9 per cent of USA children and 8.7 per cent children of European countries failed in one or more of the tests. After that specific stress was laid on schoolchildren’s physical fitness in USA. Such tests must be applied in India to know the level of physical fitness of school-going children if we really want to improve their level of physical fitness.

7.3 MOTOR FITNESS TEST: AAHPER

Meaning of Motor Fitness Motor fitness refers to the capability of an athlete to take part effectively in his/her particular sport. It can also be said that motor fitness is a person’s ability to do physical activities.

AAHPER Motor Fitness Test Earlier, the name of this alliance was AAHPER, i.e., American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation but now it is known as AAHPERD, i.e., American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. It is one of the oldest professional organisations in the USA. Its motor fitness tests have been the major instruments for measuring motor fitness in American schoolchildren for over 50 years. The first version of this test was published in 1958 and then revised in 1965 and after that many changes in the test battery were made in 1975 in AAHPERD Youth Fitness Test. In this test, the following items were included. 1. Pull-ups (for boys) and flexed-arm hang (for girls) 2. Flexed-leg sit-ups 3. Shuttle run 4. Standing long jump 5. 50-yard dash 6. 600-yard run-walk 7. Soft ball throw for distance TEST

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In 1976, the final test manual was prepared. The following items were finalised in this test battery. 1. Pull-ups (for boys) and flexed-arm hang (for girls) 2. Flexed-leg sit-ups 3. Shuttle run 4. Standing long jump 5. 50-yard dash 6. 600-yard run-walk

Administration of AAHPERD Youth Fitness Test

1. (a) Pull-ups (Boys): This test measures the total number of repetitions done without taking rest on a horizontal bar. The total number of pull-ups are noted. In this test, the chin must reach above the bar while doing pull-ups. (b) Flexed-arm Hang (Girls): This test is administered on an adjustable horizontal bar. The height of the bar should be adjusted so that it is approximately equal to the standing height of the student. The correct position of hands is shown in the adjoining figure. With the help of two girls, the subject’s body is lifted off the ground until her chin is positioned above the bar. She is required to hold the bar in the same position for maximum time. Her time is noted in seconds. She may be allowed to undertake one trial.

Pull-ups

Flexed-arm hang for girls

2. Flexed-leg Sit-ups: The student lies on the back with legs in flexed position i.e., in bent knee position. His/her hands should be behind the neck. Elbows must touch the knees while doing sit-ups. The total number of repetitions of sit-ups is noted in one minute only. 3. Shuttle Run: Two blocks of wood 2 × 2 × 4 inches are used in this test. Two parallel

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Flexed-leg sit-ups

lines are marked on the ground 30 feet apart. The two blocks are placed behind one of the lines. The subject starts race behind the other line. On declaring start, the subject runs to the blocks, picks one of them, runs back to the starting line, places the box behind the line, then runs back and picks up the second block, which he carries back to the starting line. The time is noted down. Two trials may be allowed. The best time of the two trials is noted down for record.

30 feet

Shuttle run

4. Standing Long Jump: A take-off line is marked on the ground. Subject stands just behind the take-off line with the feet several inches apart. The subject swings the arms and bends the knees to take a jump in the long jump pit. Three trials are given to the subject. The distance is measured from the take-off line to the heel or other part of the body that touches the ground nearest to the take-off line. All jumps are measured and the best one is recorded. The measurement is noted in feet and inches.

Standing long jump

5. 50-yard Dash: The subject takes the starting position behind the starting line. The starter commands, “Are you ready?” and “Go”. The word ‘Go’ is accompanied by a downward sweep of the starter’s arm as a signal to the timer. Two subjects can run at the same time if there are two stopwatches. The score is recorded in seconds to the nearest 10th of a second. 6. 600-yard Run-walk: The subject takes the position of standing right behind the starting line. At the signal of “Ready” and “Go” the subject starts running 600-yard distance. During the course of running he may walk. In this test, many students can run at the same time. Time is recorded in minutes and seconds.

50-yard dash

Track of 400 m for 600-yard run and may be used for 1 or ½-mile run [600 Yards = 548.64 m]

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This test faced a number of criticisms because it was related to performance-related physical fitness test. Therefore, in 1988 AAHPERD introduced the ‘Physical Best Test’ in which the following items were included. 1. 1½ mile walk/run 2. Skinfold measurements (body fat) 3. Sit-ups 4. Pull-ups (for boys) and flexed-arm hang (for girls) 5. Sit-and-reach test ‘Physical Best Test’ includes fundamental methods of evaluating and improving the aerobic endurance, body composition, flexibility, muscular strength and muscular endurance of the children.

Administration of Physical Best Test 1. 1–1½-mile Run/Walk or 12-minute Run: This test can be conducted or administered in two ways. First, students are asked to run 1½ mile. Their timings are recorded using a stopwatch. If this method is not suitable, then students are asked to run for 12 minutes. In this method, their distance is noted down. The first method is known to be the best method to know the cardiovascular fitness. In this test, students are required to cover the distance of 1½ mile walk/run in shortest time possible. Throughout the test, students are encouraged to exercise at the fastest pace that they can sustain for the 1½ mile distance. 2. Skinfold Measurements: In this test, skinfold calipers is used to measure the thickness of fat from various parts of the body. After measuring the thickness of different parts of body, the measurements are put in an equation form (different equations for girls and boys) to calculate the body density. After calculating body density, the result is put in another equation to calculate the body fat percentage. All the measurements must be done on the right side of the body and must be noted in millimetres.

Skinfold calipers

(A) Mens’ or Boys’ Measurements: The following three parts are measured for men or boys. A = Abdominal skinfold B = Chest skinfold C = Arm skinfold

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Equation for body density: Body density = 1.1017 – (0.000282) × (A) – (0.000736) × (B) – (0.000883) × (C) where,

Chest skinfold

A = Abdominal skinfold

Arm skinfold

B = Chest skinfold C = Arm skinfold Equation for fat percentage: Fat percentage =

Abdominal skinfold

4.570 × 100 Body density

Men measurements

(B) Women’s or Girls’ Measurements: The following two body parts are measured for women or girls.

Arm skinfold

A = Arm skinfold B = Iliac skinfold Equation for body density: Body density = (1.0764 – (0.00081) × (A) – (0.00088) × (B) where, A = Arm skinfold

Iliac skinfold

B = Iliac skinfold Equation for fat percentage: Fat percentage

4.570   − 4.142  × 100 =   Body density 

Women measurements

Example for girls Body density = 1.0764 – (0.00081) × (21 mm) – (0.00088) × (17 mm) = 1.0444 gm/cc

 4.570  Fat percentage =  − 4.142  × 100 = 23.4%  1.0444  3. Sit-ups: The sit-up test measures the maximum number of repetitions that can be done in one minute. The total number of repetitions are noted. 4. (a) Pull-ups (For boys): This test measures the total number of repetitions performed without taking rest. The total number of repetitions are noted. The chin must reach above the bar while doing pull-ups. (b) Flexed-arm hang (For girls): This test is administered on a horizontal bar. The height of the bar should be adjusted so that it is approximately equal to the TEST

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standing height of the student. With the help of two girls, the subject’s body is lifted off the ground until her chin is positioned above the bar. She is required to hold the bar in the same position for maximum time. Her time is noted in seconds. She may be allowed to undertake one trial. 5. Sit-and-Reach Test: This test is used for measuring flexibility. It is a very simple test to administer. After proper warming-up students sit with their legs extended in front of them. The distance of the feet should be according to the width of shoulders. From this position they reach forward with their palms facing downward flexing at their waist. The purpose is to reach as forward as possible. Note down the distance they cover beyond their toes in centimetres.

7.4 GENERAL MOTOR FITNESS: BARROW THREE-ITEM GENERAL MOTOR ABILITY Motor abilities play a very vital role in achieving apex position in games and sports. Motor fitness involves speed, agility, power, coordination, strength and so on. These components of fitness are necessary for competing at top levels. For measuring general motor fitness, the three-item test battery of Barrow is used. In fact this motor ability test was developed by Dr Harold M Barrow in 1953. In this test, battery of three items such as standing broad jump, zig-zag run and medicine ball are used to measure the general motor ability of an individual. The details of administration of these tests are described below:

1. Standing Broad Jump (for measuring leg strength) Equipment and material: A mat of 5 × 12 feet and a measuring tape, if the mat is unmarked. Procedure: A take-off line is marked on the ground. Subject stands just behind the take-off line with the feet several inches apart. The subject swings the arms and bends the knees to take a jump in the long jump pit. Three trials are given to the subject. The distance is measured from the take-off line to the heel or other part of body that touches the ground nearest to the take-off line. All jumps are measured and the best one is recorded.

Standing broad jump

2. Zig-Zag Run (for measuring agility and speed) Equipment and material: Stopwatch, five obstacles and space enough to accomodate the 16 × 10 feet course. Procedure: The subject begins from a standing start on the command to run. The subject runs the prescribed pattern stated to him as quickly as he can without gasping. Three

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16 Feet

10 Feet

complete circuits are run. The stopwatch is started when the command to run is given and stopped immediately when the subject crosses the finish line. The time is recorded to the nearest tenth of a second. Before running the zig-zag run, the subject should warm up properly. The subject should wear proper fitting shoes with good traction to avoid blisters and slipping. Demonstration of the pattern of the course should be given by the administrator before the beginning of the run.

Zig-Zag run

3. Medicine Ball Put (for measuring arm and shoulder strength) Equipment and material: A medicine ball and measuring tape. Procedure: The subject stands between two restraining lines which are 16 feet apart. In case of girls, a medicine ball of 1 kg is provided, whereas in case of boys a medicine ball of 3 kg is provided to be put. After that he/she attempts to put the medicine ball out as far as possible without crossing the restraining line. He/she should hold the medicine ball at the junction of the neck and shoulder then the ball should be put straight down the course. Three trials are given to him/her. The best of three trials is recorded. The distance is computed to the nearest foot. A put in which the subject commits a foul is not scored. However, if all the trials are fouls, he/she should try until he/she makes a fair put.

Medicine ball put

7.5 MEASUREMENT OF CARDIOVASCULAR FITNESS: HARVARD STEP TEST/ROCKPORT TEST Cardiovascular Fitness Before proceeding to various tests of cardiovascular fitness, it will be essential for us to understand the meaning of cardiovascular fitness. In fact, cardiovascular fitness is the ability of the heart and lungs to supply oxygen-rich blood to the working muscle tissues and the ability of the muscles to use that oxygen to produce energy for movements. This type of fitness is required to sustain physical activity or it can be said that cardiovascular fitness is essential for us to perform aerobic activities. There are following tests to measure the cardiovascular fitness. TEST

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A. Harvard Step Test Harvard Step Test is a cardiovascular fitness test. It is also called Aerobic Fitness Test. It was developed by Brouha and others in 1943. It is used to measure the cardiovascular fitness or aerobic fitness by checking the recovery rate. Equipment Required. A gym bench or box of 20 inches high for men and 16 inches for women, a stopwatch and cadence tape. Procedure The athlete stands in front of the bench or box. On the command ‘Go’ the athlete steps up and down on the bench or box at a rate of 30 steps per minute (one second up one second down) for 5 minutes (150 steps). Stopwatch is switched on simultaneously at the start of the stepping. After that the athlete sits down immediately after Harvard step test completion of the test, i.e., after 5 minutes. The total number of heartbeats are counted between 1 to 1.5 minutes after completion of the last step. The heartbeats are counted for 30 seconds period. Again the heartbeats are noted for 30 seconds after the finishing of the test. After that, for the third time, the heartbeats are noted after 3 minutes of completion of the test for 30 seconds period. The same foot must start the step up each time, and an erect posture must be assumed on the bench. Calculation of the Score. The athlete’s fitness index score is calculated with the help of following formula. Fitness index score = (100 × test duration in seconds) divided by (2 × sum of heartbeats in recovery periods). For example, if the total test duration was 300 seconds and the number of heartbeats between 1 to 1.5 minutes was 90, between 2 to 2.5 minutes was 80 and between 3 to 3.5 minutes was 70 then the fitness index score will be: 100 × 300 = 62.5 2 × 240 (Here, the sum of the heartbeats are 90 + 80 + 70 = 240 which are counted for 30 seconds each time i.e., between 1 and 1.5 min, 2 and 2.5 min and 3 and 3.5 min after completion of the test.) Fitness Index Score Male

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Rating

Female

> 90.0

> 86.0

Excellent

80.0–90.0

76.0–85.9

Good/Above average

65.0–79.9

61.0–75.9

Average

55.0–64.9

50.0–60.9

Below average

< 55

< 50

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Advantages 1. Minimum equipments are required for conducting this test. 2. It requires minimal cost. 3. It is simple to set up and conduct. Disadvantages There are differences in bio-mechanical characteristics among individuals. But the height of the box or bench remains same for tall individuals and short individuals. It will be easy for tall individuals and difficult for short individuals. The same difference can be seen in case of body weight. Those individuals who are overweight, it will be difficult for them. So, it is not implemented equally to all individuals.

B. Rockport One Mile Test Rockport One Mile Test is also known as Rockport Fitness Walking Test. This test is suitable for sedentary individual. The objective of this test is to check or observe the development of the individual’s VO2 max i.e., maximum volume of oxygen. Equipment Required. 400 m track, stopwatch, and weighing scale. Procedure While conducting or administering this test, it should be a windless day. First of all, take the body weight of the individual on a perfect weighing machine. The weight should be taken with minimum clothes on body of the individual. Then mark the starting point on a 400 m track (one mile = 1,609 metres). The individual has to run the distance of one mile i.e., 1,609 metres in minimum time. So, record the time of one mile with a stopwatch. Immediately after finishing the one mile walk/run, record the heart rate (beats per minute) with manual or monitor method. The monitor or ECG/EEG can be used to get a more accurate heart rate. Calculation of VO2 max The calculation of VO2 max can be determined with the help of the following formula. = 132.853 – (0.0769 × Body weight) – [0.3877 × Age + (6.135 × Gender) – 3.2649 × Time] – (0.1565 × Heart rate) where, Body weight is in pounds (lbs). Gender: Male = 1 and Female = 0 Time is in minutes and 100th of minute. Heart rate is in beats per minute. Age is in years. After calculating the VO2 max, the comparison of the individual can be done with the results of previous tests. It is expected that with appropriate training between each test, the analysis would surely indicate the improvement of the individual. Advantages 1. Minimum equipment are required. 2. It is simple to set up and conduct. TEST

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3. It can be conducted by the athlete. 4. This test can be conducted on more than one individual at a time. Disadvantage

Specific facilities are required for this test.

7.6 COMPUTATION OF FITNESS INDEX Duration of the exercise in seconds × 100 5.5 × Pulse count of 1 – 1.5 min after Exercise Calculation of the Fitness Index Score The athlete’s fitness index score is calculated with the help of two formulae. 1. Fitness index score (long-term) =

100 × test duration in seconds 2 × sum of heartbeats in recovery y period

2. Fitness index score (short-term) 100 × test duration in seconds 5.5 × pulse count between 1 to 1.5 minutes after exercise Here, the fitness index score is calculated with short-term formula.

=

For example, if the total number of test duration of a girl was 300 seconds and the number of pulse count between 1 to 1.5 minutes was 80 then her fitness index score will be: =

100 × 300 30000 = 68.18 = 5.5 × 80 440 Fitness Index Score Male

Rating

Female

> 90.0

> 86.0

Excellent

80.0–90.0

76.0–85.9

Good/Above average

65.0–79.9

61.0–75.9

Average

55.0–64.9

50.0–60.9

Below average

< 55

< 50

Poor

It means her fitness is on average.

7.7 RIKLI AND JONES: SENIOR CITIZEN FITNESS TEST Even in old age, people want to be fit and be able to continue to do their work without pain as long as possible. It requires proper fitness regime during old age. In the beginning, there were not enough tests to assess functional fitness. This test is also known as Fullerton Functional Test of senior citizens. Rikli and Jones developed the Senior Citizen Fitness Test in 2001. This test has proved to be beneficial for senior citizens. It helps the early identification of at-risk participants. Along with this, it is significant to plan safe and

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effective physical exercise programmes for senior citizens because individual’s health and fitness level can be known better with the help of this test. The Senior Citizen Fitness Test includes the following test items.

A. Chair Stand Test Purpose: The main purpose of this test is to measure the lower body strength, particularly the strength of legs which is usually required for various tasks such as climbing stairs, getting in and out of vehicles, bath tub or chair. Equipment Required: A chair with a straight back and a seat of at least 44 cm and a stopwatch. Instructions for Participants 1. The participant should sit in the middle of the chair. 2. He should keep his hands on the opposite shoulder crossed at the wrists. 3. The feet should be flat on the floor. 4. His back should be erect. 5. Repeat standing up and sitting down for 30 seconds.

Chair stand test

Procedure: Keep the chair against the wall. The participant sits in the middle of the seat. His feet should be shoulder width apart and flat on the floor. The arms should be crossed at the wrists and held close to the chest. From the sitting position, the participant should stand up completely and then sit down completely at the start of the signal. This is repeated for 30 seconds. Count the total number of complete chair stands. In case the participant has completed a full stand from the sitting position when the time is finished the final stand is counted in the total. Scoring: The score is the total number of completed chair stands during the given 30 seconds. The following table shows the recommended ranges for this test for different age groups. Recommended Ranges for Chair Stand Test Norms for Men

Norms for Women

Age

Below Average

Average

Above Average

Age

Below Average

Average

Above Average

60-64

19

60-64

17

65-69

18

65-69

16

70-74

17

70-74

15

75-79

17

75-79

15

80-84

15

80-84

14

85-89

14

85-89

13

90-94

12

90-94

11

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B. Arm Curl Test The arm curl test is a test to measure the upper body strength. It is a part of the senior citizen fitness test. It is designed to test the functional fitness of aged people. Purpose: The main purpose of this test is to assess the upper body strength and endurance which is required for performing household and other activities involving lifting and carrying things. Equipment Required: A 5-pound weight for women and a 8-pound weight for men, a chair without arms and a stopwatch. Procedure: The aim of the test is to find out the maximum number of arm curls that one can complete in 30 seconds. Arm curl is performed with the dominant arm side. The participant sits on the chair, holds the weight in the hand using a suitcase grip. It means the palms Arm curl test should be facing towards the body. The arm should be in a vertically downward position. The upper arm should not move but lower arm should move freely. Curl the arm up through a complete range of motion gradually keeping the palm up. When the arm is lowered through the complete range of motion, gradually return to the starting position. The arm should be completely bent and then completely straightened at the elbow. This complete action should be repeated by the participant as many times as possible within 30 seconds. Scoring: The score is the total number of arm curls performed within the given 30 seconds duration. The following table shows the recommended ranges for the test for different age groups. Recommended Ranges for Arm Curl Test Norms for Men

Norms for Women

Age

Below Average

Average

Above Average

Age

Below Average

Average

Above Average

60-64

22

60-64

19

65-69

21

65-69

18

70-74

21

70-74

17

75-79

19

75-79

17

80-84

19

80-84

16

85-89

17

85-89

15

90-94

14

90-94

13

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C. Chair Sit-and-Reach Test Purpose: To assess the lower body flexibility, which is important for good posture, normal gait patterns and various mobility tasks such as getting in and out of bath tub or car. Equipment required: Ruler, a chair with straight back approximately 44 cm high. Procedure: The participant sits on the edge of the chair (kept against a wall for safety purpose). One foot should remain flat on the floor while the other leg should be extended forward with the knee in straight position. Chair sit-and-reach test Heel should be on the floor and ankle should be bent at 90°. Place one hand on the top of the other with tips of the middle fingers at the same level. Instruct the participant to inhale and then as he exhales, reach forward towards the toes by bending at the hip. His back should be straight and head up. Avoid any jerk or bounce and never stretch too much. Keep the knee straight and hold the reach for 2 seconds. The distance is measured between the tip of the finger tips and the toes. If the finger tips touch the toes then the score is zero. If they do not touch, measure the distance between the fingers and the toes (negative score). If they overlap, measure the distance (positive score). Scoring: The score is noted down to the nearest 1/2 inch or 1 cm as the distance reached either a negative or positive score. The following table shows the recommended norms in inches for this test for the different age groups. Recommended Ranges for Sit-and-Reach Norms for Men (in inches)

Norms for Women (in inches)

Age

Below Average

Average

Above Average

Age

Below Average

Average

Above Average

60-64

4.0

60-64

5.0

65-69

3.0

65-69

4.5

70-74

2.5

70-74

4.0

75-79

2.0

75-79

3.5

80-84

1.5

80-84

3.0

85-89

0.5

85-89

2.5

90-94

– 0.5

90-94

1.0

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D. Back Scratch Test Purpose: This test helps to assess the upper body (shoulder) flexibility, which is essential for a person to perform various jobs such as combing hair, putting on overhead garments, reaching for a seat belt, etc. Equipment Required: A ruler. Procedure: This test is performed in a standing position. Keep one hand behind the head and lower it down gradually over the shoulder and reach as far as possible at the middle of your back. Your palm should touch your body and the fingers should be downwards. Then carry your other arm behind your back with palm facing outward and fingers facing upward and try to reach up as far as possible in order to touch or overlap the middle finger of the other hand. Fingers should be Back scratch test aligned. Measure the distance between the tips of the fingers. If the finger tips touch then the score is zero. If they do not touch measure the distance between the fingertips (negative score). If they overlap measure the distance (positive score). Let the participant practise twice and then two trials be conducted. Scoring: Record the best score out of the two trials to the nearest centimetre or 1/2 inch. The following table shows the recommended norms (in inches) for this test for different age groups. Recommended Ranges for Back Scratch Test Norms for Men (in inches)

Norms for Women (in inches)

Age

Below Average

Average

Above Average

Age

Below Average

Average

Above Average

60-64

>6.5

6.5 to 0

3.0

3.0 to 1.5

7.5

7.5 to –1.0

3.5

3.5 to 1.5

8.0

8.0 to –1.0

4.0

4.0 to 1.0

9.0

9.0 to –2.0

5.0

5.0 to 0.5

9.5

9.5 to –2.0

5.5

5.5 to 0

10.0

10.0 to –3.0

7.0

7.0 to –1.0

10.5

10.5 to –4.0

8.0

8.0 to –1.0

5.6

5.6 to 3.8

6.0

6.0 to 4.4

5.7

5.7 to 4.3

6.4

6.4 to 4.8

6.0

6.0 to 4.2

7.1

7.1 to 4.9

7.2

7.2 to 4.6

7.4

7.4 to 5.2

7.6

7.6 to 5.2

8.7

8.7 to 5.7

8.9

8.9 to 5.3

9.6

9.6 to 6.2

10.0

10.0 to 6.2

11.5

11.5 to 7.3

mental Health>Reference — https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/obsessive-compulsive-disorder — https://www.thoughtco.com/special-education-lesson-plans-4132494 — www.wrightslaw.com/topics.htm — www.sparkpe.org/.../the-benefits-of-physical-education-for-children-with-special-nee...

5. Children and Sports — Singer, R.N., “Motor Learning and Human performance,” Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, 1975. — Hooks, G., “Application of Weight Training to Athletics,” Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice Hall Inc., 1962. — Cratty Bryant, J., Movement Behaviour and Motor Learning,” Philadelphia: Lea and Fibiger, 2nd ed., 1967. — Gallahue, D.L., “Understanding Motor Development: Infants, Children, Adolescents,” Indianapolis, Bench Mark Press, 1989. — https://www.boddunan.com/articles/healthfitness/66-diseases/18767-common-posturaldeformities.html

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— http://www.theraphycouch.com/Media/Ap.Bones.Deformities.htm — http://www.kheljournal.com/archives/?year=2016&vol=3&issue=1&part=D — http://study.com/academy/lesson/factors-influencing-moter-development.html — https://ezinearticles.com/?cat=Health-and-Fitness:Fitness-Equipment — http://www.kibin.com/...the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-weight-training-JWEs...

6. Women and Sports — Plowman, S., “Physiological Characteristics of Female Athletes,” Research Quarterly 45:34962. 1974. — Zaharieva, E. “Olympic Participation by Women-Effects on Pregnancy and Childbirth,” Journal of American Medical Association, 222:992-95, (1972). — Women and Sports: A National Research Conference Proceedings. University Park, Pennsylvania University, (1972). — Harris, D.V., “The Female Athlete,” Journal of Physical Education and Research 46:31-34 (1975). — Gerber, E., “Women in Sports: Reading Mass,” Addison-Wesley. — www.ijikc.com.in/sites/ijikc/index.php.ijikc/article.view/220 — http://bjsm.bmj.com>Archive>Volume44,Issue Suppl1 — https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/women%27s_sports — www.naaree.com/indian-sports-women-gender-discrimination-against-women-sportsp... — http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2011/07/gender-discrimination-in-sports/ — https://womenatwork.in>Insights — www.chiro.org/rc_schafer/monograph_10shtml — www.kidshealth.org/en/teens/triad.html — http://athletescan.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Coaching-Female-Athletes1.pdf — https://www.thoughtco.com>...>sociology>introduction to sociology

7. Test and Measurement in Sports — De Vries, H.A., “Physiology of Exercise for Physical Education and Athletics,” 2nd Edition, W.C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 1974. — Morehouse, E. and Miller, T., “Physiology of Exercise.” The C.V. Mosby Company, 4th ed. (1963). — www.skyndex.com/resources/Slaughter-Lohman Children-Skinfold-Formula.html — https://archive.org/details/followupstudyofb00russ — https://www.brianmac.co.uk/harvard.html — www.topendsports.com/testing/tests/step-harvard.html — www.humankinetics.com/products/senior-fitness-test-manual-2nd-edition — www.um.es/desarrollopsicomotor/wq/2010..../senior%20Fitness%20Test_Rikli02.pdf Bibliography

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8. Physiology and Sports — De Vries, H.A., “Physiology of Exercise,” Staples Press, London (1967). — Kasch, F.W., “The Effects of Exercise on the Aging Process,” Physician and Sports Medicine, 4:64-72, (1976). — Evelyn C. Pearce, “Anatomy and Physiology for Nurses,” Mosby Publication, 16 ed. (1976). — Woodburne, R.T., Essentials of Human Anatomy,” Oxford University Press, (1973). — Morehouse, E., and Miller, T., “Physiology of Exercise,” The C.V. Mosby Company, 4th ed. (1963). — Getchell, B., “Physical Fitness: A way of Life” 2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons. Inc, New York (1979). — Fox, E.L., “Sports Physiology,” W.B. Saunders Co. Philadelphia, (1979). — Katz, A.M., “Physiology of Heart,” Raven Press, New York, (1977). — Frank W. Dick, “Sports Training Principles,” Lepus Books, London, (1980). — www.msdmanuals.com>Home>older peaple’s Health Issues>The Aging Body. — www.work.chron.com>marketing-and-pr>Public Relations

9. Sports Medicine — Brad Walker, “The Anatomy of Sports Injuries,” UK. — Williams, J.G.P., “Sports Medicine,” Edward Arnold Pub. Ltd. London. — https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sports-medicine — www.nsmi.org.uk/ — www.webmd.com/men/features-seven-most-common-sports-injuries — https://medlineplus.gov/sportsinjuries.html — https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/first_aid — www.maxhouse.com/first_aid2.htm — www.1staid.ca/four-main-objectives-first-aid/ — www.nhs.uk/conditions/sports-injuries/Pages/Treatment.aspx

10. Kinesiology, Biomechanics and Sports — Rasch, P.J. and Burke, R.K., “Kinesiology and Applied Anatomy,” 3rd edition, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia. (1968). — Wuest, D.A. and Bucher, C.A., “Foundation of Physical Education and Sports,” Mosby Publications, USA. — Adrian, M. and Cooper, J.M., “The Biomechanics of Human Movement,” Indianapolis, Benchmark Press, (1989). — https://www.topendsports.com/biomechanics/aerodynamics.htm — Frank W. Dick, “Sports Training Principles,” Lepus Books, London, (1980). — Cooper, J.M. and Glassow, R.B., “Kinsiology,” C.V. Mosby, St. Louis (1972).

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— https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projectile — www.topendsports.com/biomechanics/friction.htm — www.teachpe.com>Biomechanics>Forces — www.physical-solutions.co.uk/wp---/Understanding-Planes-and-Axes-of-Movement.p... — www.classtalkers.com/health-science/the-six-types-of-body-movements/ — www.livewell.jillianmichaels.com>Fitness & Exercise

11. Psychology and Sports — Bunch, M.E., “The Concept of Motivation”, Journal of General Psychology: pp. 58, 189, 205 (1958). — Clifford, T.M., Richard A. King, Weisz, J.R., Schopler, J., “Introduction to Psychology,” 7th Edition, Mcgraw Hill Book Co. (1986). — Leather, J.D., “Sports Psychology,” Prentice Hall, N.J. (1972). — Buss, A.H. “The Psychology of Aggression,” New York, Wiley (1961). — http://alevelphysicaleducation.co.uk/aggression/ — https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/coping_(psychology) — www.humanstress.ca>stress>Trick your stress — www.kidshealth.org/en/teens/body-image.html — www.appliedsportpsych.org/resources/health.../psychological-benefits-of-exercise/ — www.thebrainflux.com/psychological-benefits-of-exercise/ — https://sp1keeps.wordpress.com/ .../aggression-and-its-effect-on-sport-performance/ — www.ash-college.ac.il/upload.../Aggression%20sport.doc

12. Training in Sports — Frank W. Dick, “Sports Training Principles,” Lepus Books, London (1980). — Morgan, R.E. and Adamason, G.T., “Circuit Training,” London: G. sell and Sons. Ltd. (1961). — Weihe, W.H, “The Physiological Effects of High Altitude,” The Macmillan Co., New York (1964). — Goddard, R.F., “The Effects of Altitude on Physical Performance,” Chicago: The Athletic Institute (1966). — https://edurev.in/...Training...Sports...Physical..Education/55236f94-7f40-4e30-8bf9... — http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/circuit_training — https://blogsportlyzer.com/en/types-of-endurance-training-explained/ — https://www.brianmac.com.uk/mobility.htm — www.fitday.com/fitness-articles/fitness/.../the-5-components-of-physical-fitness.html

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