Harbour Archaeology: Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Ancient Mediterranean Harbours, Caesarea Maritima, 24 -28.6.83 9780860543282, 9781407341736

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Group Photo of Workshop Participants
List of Contributors and Participants in the First International Workshop on MEDITERRANEAN HARBOURS OF ANTIQUITY and their addresses
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Geographical Components in the Study of Ancient Mediteranean Ports
Notes on Riverine-Maritime Trade at Ebla
The Ancient Harbours of Israel in Biblical Times (From the Neolithic period to the End of the Iron Age)
Paleogeography of Ancient Harbour Sites of the Larnaca Lowlands, Southeastern Cyprus
Ancient Gythion, the Port of Sparta: History and Survey of the Submerged Remnants
The 'Harbour' at Halieis
The Ancient Harbour of Palairos
The Building of the Roman Harbour at Kenchreai: Old Technology in a New Era
The Contribution of Geomorphology and Photointerpretation to the Definition of the Port Installations at Tharos (Sardegna)
From the Etruscan Ports of Graviscae and Martanum: Elements for a New Methodology in the Field of Maritime Archaeological Research
Towards a Study of Roman Ports
The Roman Port and Fishery of Cosa: A Center of Trade in the Late Roman Republic
Survey of Building Techniques at the Roman Harbours of Carthage and Some Other North African Ports
Herod and Vitruvius: Preliminary Thoughts on Harbour Engineering at Sebastos; the Harbour of Caesarea Maritima
The Piscinas at Caesarea and Lapithos
Byzantine Coin Finds from the Sea: A Glimpse of Caesarea Maritima's Later History
The Destruction of the Roman High Level Aqueduct and the Herodian Harbour at Caesarea
Some Logistic Aspects of the Excavations of Caesarea Harbour

Citation preview

HARBOUR ARCHAEOLOGY PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN HARBOURS CAESAREA MARITIMA 24-28.6.83

Edited by

AVNERRABAN University of Haifa

Publication No. 1 Center for Maritime Studies, Haifa University, Israel In collaboration with C.A.H_.E.P., Caesarea Ancient Harbours Excavation Project

BAR International Series 257

1985

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

�-s257,1985 :'Harbour Archaeology'. © University of

Haifa, 1985

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543282 paperback ISBN 9781407341736 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543282 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

E d i ted b y

AVNER RABAN Un ive r s i ty o f Ha i f a

©

UNIVERSITY OF HA IFA

P ho to type se t : Mordecha i A vn i , U n iv er s i ty o f Ha ifa P re s s G raph ic d e s ign : Z araza F r iedman Copy e d i t ing : Naom i Abk in

T h i s v o lume i sp ub l i shed w i th t h eg enerou sa s s i s tance o fJ oan a nd R ichard J .S cheuer , t r ue f r iend so ft h e C en te rf or Mar i t ime S tud ie sa tU n iver s i ty o fHafa a nd c ons tan tb enef ac tor so fp ioneer ing L and a nd Mar ine A rchaeo log ica lR e searcher s .

T he p a r t i c ipan ts o ft h e Work shop w i th t h e i rh o s t s : S tand ing ( f rom l e f t t or i gh t ) : P rof M .P e r ry , V ice P re s id en tO f UH ;P rof 0 .S ch i ld ,R ec tor o f UH ;D r .A .M . McCann ;D r .R .R .S t ieg l i tz ; P rof V .G o ld sm i th ; Mr s . N . K a rmon , CMS ; Mr . S . Wachsmann ; Mr s . R . P lonsky , CMS ; Mr . K . R aveh ; P rof R . S tef f y , I NA ;D r . N . S couf opou los -S tavro lake s ;P rof R .L . V ann ;D r . N .C .F l emm ing ;P rof F .J . F ros t ; Mr s . F l emm ing ;P rof J .P . O le son ;P rof G .E . R ickman ; Mr . A . F l ind e r ;D r . T .H i l lard ;P rof R .L . Hoh lf e ld e r ; Mr s . & Mr . R .A . Y ork e ;D r . A . R aban . Knee l ing ( f rom l e f t ) : D r . E . S pan ier , CMS ;M i s sR . P o l lak , CMS ;D r . M . I nbar ; Mr s . N . W in tmann , UH ;D r . E .L ind e r , CMS .

L i s t o fC on t r ibu to r s a nd P a r t ic ipan t s i nt he F i r s t I n te rna t iona l Work shop o n MED ITERRANEAN HARBOURS OF ANT IQU ITY a nd t he ir a ddresses :

Mr . S teven B re i ts te in — C en te rf or Mar i t ime S tud ie s , U n iver s i ty o f Ha if a , Ha if a3 1999 , I s rae l P rof Mo she D o than — C ha i rman , D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy , U n iver s i ty o f Ha if a , Ha if a3 1999 , I s rae l D o t t . I ng . A l es sand ro F ioravan t i— C or so R epub l ica 6 0 , 0 1023 B o l sena ( V i terbo )I t a ly P rof N icho la sC .F lemm ing — E n ton M i l lL odge ,M i l lL ane ,E n ton , G oda lm ing ,S ur rey GU8 -5AH ,E ng land Mr . A lexand er F l ind er — S tud io O ne , 2D ownsh i re H i l l , Hamp s tead , L ondon NW 3 -1NR , E ng land Mr . B envenu to F rau — V ia l eD e l le R epubb l iche Mar inare 1 0 , 0 0 121 O s t ia L id o , R ome , I t a ly D r . F rank F ros t— D ep t . o fH i s tory , U n iver s i ty o fC a l if orn ia , S an ta B arbara , C a l if 9 3106 , U .S .A . P rof J ohn A . G if fo rd —

D ep t . o fA n thropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fM iam i , C ora lG ab l e s , F lor ida 3 3124 , U .S .A .

D r . L i sa ( Shuey ) G if f ord — R ock R oad 4 ,K en tf ie ld , C a l if orn ia 9 4904 , U .S .A . P rof V i c tor G o ld sm i th — D ep t . o f Mar ine G eo logy , I s rae l O ceanog raph ic & L imno log ica l R e search , P .O .B . 8 030 , Ha if a3 1080 , I s rae l D r . T homa s G r if f i ths — D ep t . o fP hy s ica lE duca t ion , U n ive r s i ty o f Mary land , C o l l ege P ark , MD 2 0742 , U .S .A . D r . E lp ida Had j idak i— D ep t . o fH i s tory , U n ive r s i ty o fC a l if orn ia , S an ta B arbara , C a l if . 9 3106 U .S .A . D r . Y ehuda Hayu th — I s rae lS h ipp ing a nd A v ia t ion ,R e search I n s t i tu te , P . OB . 1 860 , Ha if a3 1018 , I s rae l D r . T homas H i l lard — S choo l o fH i s tory , P h i lo sophy a nd P o l i t ic s , Mac Q uar ie U n ive r s i ty , N ew S ou th Wa l e s , A us tra l ia P rof R ober t L . Hoh lf e ld er — A nc ien t H i s tory , B ox 2 34 , U n iver s i ty o fC o lorad o a t B ou ld er , B ou ld er , C o lorado 8 0309 , U .S .A . D r . Mo she I nbar — D ep t . o fG eog raphy , U n iver s i ty o f Ha if a , Ha if a3 1999 , I s rae l P rof Y ehuda Karmon — 2 0N eve S ha 'anan S t . , J eru sa l em 9 3707 , I s rae l D r . E l i sha L ind er — D ep t . o f Mar i t ime C iv i l iza t ions , U n ive r s i ty o f Ha if a , Ha if a3 1999 , I s rae l D r . A nne Marguer i te McCann — 2 00 E a s t6 6S t . ( Ap t . B2 104 ) , N ew Y ork C i ty , N .Y . 1 0021 , U .S .A . D r . W i l l iam M . Mur ray — D ep t . o fH i s tory , U n iver s i ty o fS ou th F lor ida , T ampa , F la 3 3620 , U .S .A . Mr . Y aacov N i r— G eo log ica lI n s t i tu te , 3 0 Ma lche iI s rae lS t . , J e ru sa l em 9 5501 , I s rae l P rof J ohn P .O leson ,A ss .P rof o fC la s s ic s— U n iver s i ty o fV i c tor ia , V i c tor ia ,B r i t i sh C o lumb ia V 8 W2 Y2 , C anada D r . A vner R aban — C ha i rman , C en te rf or Mar i t ime S tud ie s , U n iver s i ty o f Ha if a , Ha if a3 1999 , I s rae l Mr . Kur tR aveh — K ibbu tz N ach sho l im , D .N . Hof Hacarme l2 0815 , I s rae l P rof G eorge E .R ickman — D ep t . o fA nc ien tH i s tory , S t . S a l va tor 's C o l lege , U n iver s i ty o fS t .A nd rew 's , F if e , S co t land Mr . R ichard J .S cheue r— 1 040 6 t hA ve . , N ew Y ork C i ty , N .Y . 1 0018 ; U .S .A . P rof Y iga lS h i loh — T he A rchaeo log ica lI n s t i tu te , T he Hebrew U n iver s i ty , J e ru sa l em , I s rae l

D r . S teven S id ebo tham — D ep t . o fH i s tory , 4 01 J ohn Ew ing Ha l l , U n iver s i ty o fD e laware , N ewark D e . 1 97 11 , U .S .A . P rof N ik iS tavro lake s— 2 5 Wa te rv iew D r ive , P or tJ ef f e r son , N .Y . 1777 , U .S .A . D r . R ober tR . S t ieg l i tz — 9 4 -09 7 1A venue , F ore s tH i l l s , N .Y . 1375 , U .S .A . P rof R ober tL . V ann — S choo lo fA rch i tec ture , U n iver s i ty o f Ma ry land , C o l l ege P ark , Mary land 2 0742 , U .S .A . Mr . S he ly Wachsmann — I s rae lD ep t . o fA n t iqu i t ie s , P .O .B . 5 86 , J e rusa l em 9 1004 , I s rae l Mr . R ober tA . Y orke — S i lve rB i rchs , B a shu r s tH i l l , I t ch ing F i e ld , W e s tS us sex RH 13 -7NY , E ng land

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Y .KARMON •G eog raph ica l C omponen t s i nt h eS tudy o f Anc ien t Med i te r ranean P or t s

1

R .R . S T IEGL ITZ N o te s o n R ive r ine - Ma r i t ime T rade a tE b la

7

A . RABAN T he Anc ien t Ha rbou r s o fI s rae l i nB ib l ica lT ime s

1

J .A . G IFFORD P a leogeography o f Anc ien t Ha rbou rS i te so ft h e L arnaca L ow land s , S ou theas tern C yp ru s

4 5

N . SCOUFOPOULOS -STAVROLAKES A nc ien t Gy th ion , t h e P or t o fS pa r ta : H i s tory a nd S u rvey o ft h eS ubmerged R emnan t s

4 9

F .J . FROST T he "Harbour" a t Ha l ie i s

6 3

W. M . MURRAY T he Anc ien t Harbou ro fP a la i ro s

6 7

R .L . HOHLFELDER T he B u i ld ing o ft h e R oman Ha rbou ra tK enchra i : O ld T echno logy i n aN ew E ra

8 1

A . F IORAVANT I T he C on tr ibu t ion o fG eomorpho logy a nd P ho to I n terpr e ta t ion t ot h e D ef in i t ion o ft h e P or t I n s ta l la t ion sa tT ha r ro s ( Sa rd in ia )

8 7

B . FRAU F rom t he E t ru scan P or t s o fG rav i scae a nd Ma r tanum : E l emen t s f o ra nN ew Me thodo logy i nt h e F i e ld o f Ma r i t ime A rchaeo log ica l R e sea rch

9 3

G .E . R ICK MAN T oward s aS tudy o fR oman P or t s

1 05

A .M . McCANN T he R oman P or t a nd F i shery o fC o sa : AC en ter o fT rade i nt h e L a te R oman R epub l ic

15

R .A . YORKE & D .P . DAV IDSON S urvey o fB u i ld ing T echn ique sa tt h e R oman Ha rbour so fC a r thage a nd s ome o ther No r th A f r ican P or t s

1 57

J .P . OLESON H erod a nd V i t ruv iu s : P re l im ina ry T hough t s o n Ha rbou r E ng ineer ing a tS eba s to s , t h e Harbou ro fC ae sa rea Mar i t ima

1 65

A . FL INDER T he P i sc ina sa tC ae sa rea a nd L ap i tho s

1 73

R .L . HOHLFELDER B yzan t ine C o in F ind s f r om t h eS ea : AG l imp se o fC ae sa r ea Ma r i t ima ' s L a ter H is tory

1 79

Y . N IR T he D es truc t ion o ft h e R oman H igh L eve l Aqueduc t a nd t h e H erod ian Ha rbou r a tC ae sarea

1 85

S . BRE ITSTE IN S ome L og is t ic A spec t s o ft h e E xcava t ion s o fC ae sa rea Ha rbou r

1 95

P reface T he d i sc ip l ine o fm a r ine a r chaeo logy i sh a rd ly r e cogn ized a s at r ue s c ience .B e ing y oung a nd f o r t he o u t s ider r a ther a dven turou s , o ne w ou ld s u spec t i tt o b e i mma ture a nd s omewha t n on r e l iab le .T he f ac ti st ha ts ome t r ea sur e -hun t ing a c t iv i t ie si nt h eC a r ibbean a r es t i l lp re sen ted t o t he g en e ra l p ub l ic a s a r chaeo log ica l p ro jec t s a nd h av ing u n ive r s i t ie s a nd r e sea rch i n s t i tu te s g a in ing p ub l ic i ty f r om t h e f a ce v a lue o ft h e f i nd ing s r a the r t han f r om t h e s c ien t if ic q ua l i ty o f t he ir u nd erwa ter e ndeavou r s j u s t p rove s h ow f a r w e a r e f r om b e ing t aken s e r iou s ly a s t r ue s c ien t i s t s . Ma r ine a nd u nderwa ter a rchaeo log ica lp ro jec t sb e ing ma in ly c onf ined t ow reck s i te si sj u s tt h e n a tura l o u tcome o f t ha t a t t i tude . B e ing r a ther a t trac t ive a nd e a s i ly s t imu la t ing f o r t h e i mag ina t ion o ft h eg enera lp ub l ic a nd m ed ia ,w reck e xcava t ion i sa l so mor es imp le t od ea lw i th t han s unken h arbou r so ra ny o the rl a rge m an -made s t ruc ture s .T he se l a s tt ype so fs unken s i te s a l so d emand ar a the r c omp l ica ted c o l labo ra t ion o fu nder s tand ing o fe ar th s c ience s , b io logy , e ng ineer ing a nd s ome o the rd i sc ip l ine st ha t mu s tb ec ommuna l ly u t i l ized i no rde rt oc a r ry o u ta p rope rs c ien t if ic s t udy . No w onder t herefo re t ha tv ery f ew o fs uch s t ud ie sw e re u nder taken s of a r . I ti samaz ing h ow l i t t le w e k now a bou t a nc ien t m a r i t ime t e chno logy a nd h ow o f ten w e a r e i n c l ined t od i sm i s s "w i ld" t h eor ie s a bou t n av iga t iona l a ch iev emen t s o f t h e a nc ien t , c l a im ing t ha t : " I t w a s i mpo s s ib le i nt ho se r emo te d ay s" .Y e t ,j udg ing f r om t h eg eog raph ica l magn i tude a nd t h er a te o f a ccuracy o f t he ma r i t ime v oyage s o ft h e h umb le n av iga to r s o ft h e P ac if ic ' s o u t r igge r s , n o p red ic t ion c an o ve r -e s t ima te t h e ma r i t ime p o ten t ia lo ft h ea nc ien tc i v i l iza t ion s . As t a r t ing p o in t f or l e a rn ing h ow much t h i sp o ten t ia lw a sa c tua l ly u t i l ized n ece s s i ta te s af u l ls c a le s t udy o ft h e p hys ica l r ema in s o f t h e se a c t iv i t ie s . H a rbour s , h a rbour i n s ta l la t ion s a nd t h e i r r a te o f s oph i s t ica t ion may b e t h e b e s t e v idence f o r t h i s s t udy . Y e t ,a pa r tf r om t h ep ioneer ing w ork o ft h eF rench s cho la r sP o ideba rd a nd L auf fay a tT y r ea nd S idon a nd s evera l u nderwa te r s urvey s i na nc ien t G reek a nd R oman h arbour s n o f u l l s c a le e xcava t ion p ro jec t w a s e ve r c a r r ied o u t i n o rde r t o t r y a nd e xp lo i t t h e v a luab le s ou rce o f k now ledge c oncea led w i th in t h e r emnan t s o fa nc ien t h a rbour s . I t s e em s t ha t t h e i mpor tance o f t h e se s i te s i sb e t te r a cknow ledged b y t h e i n te rna t iona l c ommun i ty o fE a r th S c ien t i s t s . T he w o rk s o fG . S chm ied t a l ong t h e c oa s t s o fI t a ly a nd t h e s y s tema t ic s urvey s o f N .C . F l emm ing t h roughou t t h e Med i ter ranean p rov ed t h e v a s t i mpo r tance o f m an -made m a r ine i n s ta l la t ion s f o r t h e s t udy o f t h e r e cen t g eo log ica l a nd g eomo rpho log ica lh i s tory o fo ur p l ane t ,p ar t icu la r ly c oncern ing a ccura te d a ta f o rr e cen tc ru s t mov emen t sa nd e u s ta t ic c hange so fs e al e v e l s .A s a" by -produc t" n ew d a ta h ave b een d i sc lo sed c once rn ing t he t e chno logy o fa nc ien th a rbour c on s t ruc t ion a nd t h e r a te o fu nde r s tand ing t h e a nc ien te ng inee r sh ad o fc oa s ta lp roce s se s ,a sj udged f r om s ucce s sfu lp r even t ive m ea su r e st ha t w ere e x e rc i sed i ns ome o ft h e h yd rau l ic a nd ma r ine i n s ta l la t ion s . T he r e cen ta r t ic le b y D .J . B lackman o nt h e" Anc ien t Ha rbour si nt h e Med i ter ranean" ( i nt h e I n te rna t iona l J ou rna l o f N au t ica l A rchaeo logy a nd Unde rwa te r E xp lora t ion , 1 , 1 9 82 ) i sa r a the rf a ir s u mma t ion o ft h es ub jec tb a sed o nt h es t a te o ft h es t ud ie su pt ot h e8 0 ie s . Howeve r ,i t i sb a sed more o n i c onog raph ic a nd h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s a nd much l e s s o n t h e d a ta f r om t h e f i e ld r e s earch . As u rvey o ft h e e x ten s iv e l i s t o fr e f e r ence s t o t h i s a r t ic le ( pp . 9 7 104 ) , w h ich i n c lude sa s many a s3 20 e n t r ie s ,t e ache su st ha tt h ew ork sp ub l i shed w ere c a r r ied o u tb ys c ho la r s o f av a r ie ty o f d i sc ip l ine s , s uch a s : Anc ien t L i te ra tu r e s cho la r s , Num i sma t i s t s , H i s to r ian s , A rchaeo log is t s , A r t H i s to r ian s , E x Adm i ra l sa nd G eo log i s t s , O ceanog rapher s , G eog raphe r s , C iv i l E ng ineer s a nd A rch i tec t s . S ad ly e nough n one o f t h e se s cho lar s r ep re sen t as c ien t if ic i n s t i tu te t ha t i sc ur r en t ly a c t ive i ns t udy ing a nc ien t h a rbou r s s e r iou s ly . Mo s t o ft h e s t ud ie s wh ich a r ec i ted i nt ha tl i s tw e r e made b ys cho la r sn o mo re a c t ive i nt h i sf i e ld o fr e sea rch ( s uch a s B lackman , J .W . S haw , J .S chaf er , R .A . Y o rke , N .C . F lemm ing a nd H . F ro s t . ) .

T he c en ter f o r Ma r i t ime S tud ie s o ft he Un iver s i ty o f Ha i fa w a s e s tab l i shed i n 1 9 71 w i th a c har ter t op romo te a nd t oi n i t ia te r e sea rch o fh uman ma r i t ime h er i tage . Con t inu ing t he f i e ld w ork w h ich b egan ad ecade e a r l ie rb yt h e Unde r sea E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty o fI s rae lt h e C .M .S . s oon a dop ted t h e i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a pproach , c omb in ing t h e a cadem ic e duca t iona l p rog ram a nd t he r e sea rch m e thod so fe a r th s c ience s ,a r chaeo logy ,h i s tory a nd u nderwa te rt e chno logy . T he t opog raph ic f e a tu re s o f t h e L evan t ine c oa s t l ine , a nd t he f a c t t ha t t h i s p a r t o f t h e Med i ter ranean w a s ma in ly a tt he b ackwa te ro f ma r i t ime a c t iv i ty i nt h er e cen tp a s td i c ta ted o u r w o rk .T he s t ra igh ts ha l low c oa s ta nd l a ck o fo f f shore r e e f sa nd n av iga t iona ln a r row s make t h e q ue s tf o rw e l lp re served w reck s av e ry h aphaza rd a nd t ed iou ss ea rch -comb ing o fl a rge a rea so f s e abo t tom . Y e t , i ts t i l l o f f er s t he s cho lar s ag ood r epe r tory o fa nc ien t h a rbou ri n s ta l la t ion s , ma in ly j u s to f ft he c oa s ta nd n o tc overed w i th l a ter o r mode rn s t ruc tu re s— a si ss oo f ten t h e c a se i no the rc oa s t s . S o ,a nc ien th a rbour ss uch a st he 4 000 y ea ro ld o ne a t Akko ;t he f i r s tk nown h a rbou ro ft he S ea P eop le s a t Do r ; t he i n tac t P re -He l len i s t ic h a rbou r o ft h e P hoen ic ian s 4A t l i t ; a nd t he mo s t s oph i s t ica ted h a rbou r— t h eh i s to r ica lH erod ian h a rbou ra tC ae sa rea — w ere s t ud i ed a nd a r e s t i l lu nde rc u r ren tr e sea rch b y ac omb ined g roup o fs c ien t i s t sa nd s t uden t so fa rchaeo logy ,e a r th s c ience s a nd ma r ine e ng ineer ing . T he s cope o ft h e f i e ld s t udy a tt h e s unken h a rbou r s i te o f C ae sa rea i ss o g rea t t ha t t h e C .M .S . h a s i n i t ia ted ac o l labora t ive p ro jec t b y c a l l ing i no the r s c ien t if ic i n s t i tu t ion s t o p a r t ic ipa te . S o , i n 1 978 C .A .H .E .P . ( Cae sa rea Anc ien t Harbou r s E xcava t ion P ro jec t )w a se s tab l i shed w i th t h e Un iv er s i ty o fC o lorado a tB ou lder ,t h e Un iver s i ty o fV ic tor ia ,B r i t i sh C o lumb ia a nd t h eS choo lo fA rch i tec tu re a tt he Un iver s i ty o f Ma ry land ,a s c ur ren tp a r tner s .W i th in t h ef r amework o fC .A .H .E .P . ' s 1 983 w o rk ing s ea son a nI n te rna t iona l Work shop w a so rgan ized a nd t ook p lace a tt h es i te .F or aw eek 3 0w o r ld l e ad ing s cho la r si nt h e f i e ld o fa nc ien th a rbour r e sea rch p re sen ted t h e i rs t ud ie s ,e x changed i d ea sa nd e xpe r i ences ,a nd h ad t he o ppo r tun i ty t o v i s i t a nd d ive a t mo s t o f t h e a nc ien t h a rbour s i te s a l ong t h e Med i ter ranean c oa s to fI s rae l .T he a r t ic le si nt h i sv o lume a r et he p r in ted c on t r ibu t ion o fs ome o f t he p a r t ic ipan t s i n t h i s w ork shop . A f ew o ther s c ou ld n o t c ome , y e t k ind ly s en t t h e i r c on t r ibu t ion t ow ha tw ea l ld ob e l ieve t ob et h ef i r s ts t ep t owa rd s ab e t ter i naugu ra t ion o ft h e i n terna t iona lc ommun i ty o fs c ien t i s t sa nd s t uden t so fa nc i en th a rbou r sa nd h i s tor ic c oa s t l ine s . T he c omp lex i ty o ft h i s s ub jec t , a nd t h e t e chn ica l a nd l o g i s t ic p rob lem s wh ich a r e i nvo lv ed c r ea te at r ue n ece s s i ty f o r a c t iv e c o l labo ra t ion b e tween t h e i nd iv idua l s t uden t s o ft h i s f i e ld w h ich a r en ow s ca t tered among i n s t i tu t ion ss c ien t if i ca l ly a nd g eog raph ica l ly f a ra pa r t . Mode rn s t udy c anno t b e c onduc ted p rope r ly u n le s s a n i n te rd i sc ip l ina r ian a pp roach i si mp lemen t ed . T h i s u nd er s tand ing i sn ow g row ing a l l o ve rt h e w or ld a nd i n terd i sc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch p ro jec t s h ave b ecome mo re a nd mo re c ommon .T he i s sue o fa nc ien th a rbou r si so ne wh ich g a in sf r om i t . T he t e chno logy a nd t h e k now -how e x i s t a nd a r e n ow a va i lab le , y e t t he s i te s a r e r ap id ly d e s t royed b yt he e x ten s ive l a nd r e c lama t ion p ro jec t sa nd t h ef a s td ev e lopmen to ft ou r i s tr e so r t s a l l o ver t h e Med i ter ranean c oa s t l ine s . May t h e c on ten t o ft h i s v o lume h e lp t o i lu s t ra te t h e r i chne s so fo u rc u l tura la nd h i s to r ica lh er i tage t ha t mu s tb es t ud ied a nd s aved b efo re i ti sl o s t

. t

f o reve r .

A vner Raban

YEHUDA KAR MON

G eog raph ica l C omponen t s i nt he S tudy o f Anc ien t Med i te r ranean P o r t s T he t e rm " geog raph ica l" , a s u sed h e re , h a s t o b e r ega rded a s d i f f e ren t f r om t h e t e rm " phy s ica l" .T he p hy s ica lc ond i t ion so f ap or ta r ec r ea ted b yt h ec onf igu ra t ion o ft h ec oa s t l ine a t ac er ta in s po t ,b yt he c ur ren t s ,w ave sa nd w ind sp reva i l ing i nt h ea r ea ,a nd a r eo f ma in c oncern f o r t he a r ch i tec t a nd e ng inee r w ho p l an t h e l a you t o f t h e p or t a nd i t s i n s ta l la t ion s . T he g eog raph ica l s i tua t ion i so fi mpor tanc e p r imar i ly f o rt h e s e lec t ion o ft h e p o r t ' s l o ca t ion , a nd s e cond ly f o r i t s c omme rc ia l s ucce s s a nd s i ze . Among p or t -geog rapher s t h e r e e x i s t d i f f e ren t o p in ion s a s t o w h ich c omponen t i s mor e i mpor tan t — af avourab le s i te o r ag eog raph ica ll o ca t ion w i th in a na r ea w h ich g ene ra te s ag r ea t amoun t o ft r af f ic . B o th c ond i t ion s v ary o ve r t ime , a cco rd ing t oc hange s i nt e chno logy , a nd p o l i t ica l e conom ic c ond i t ion s . H i s to ry h a s s hown t ha t i n ar e g ion o fs t rong t r af f ic d emand , p or t sw i l lb ec on s truc ted ,e ven i ff a vou rab le c ond i t ion so ft h ec oa s ta r em i s s ing .A l r eady i ne a r ly a n t iqu i ty ( a t l e a s t a s e ar ly a s i nP hoen ic ian t ime s ) a r t if ic ia l m ean s w er e u sed t o c r ea te p or t f a c i l i t ie s , a nd o n t he o the r h and , e xce l len t n a tu ra l s i te s f o r p or t s w e re n o t u t i l ized u n le s s t h e e conomy o ft he r eg ion ( o ro fa ne x te rna lp ower w h ich w a sa b le t of ound ac o lony )d emanded i t . S ome e xce l len t n a tu ra l p or t s d ec l ined o r w e re a bandoned a l toge the r d ue t o c hang e s i nt he e conomy o rp o l i t ica l c onf igu ra t ion . I n a l l modern s t ud ie s o f ma r i t ime t r an spo r ta t ion t he G e rman t e rm s "H in ter land" a nd "Vo r land" ( ang l ic ized i n to F or e land )f o rm t h eb a s ic c oncep t ion so fs t udy .H in ter land d eno te s t he a r ea w here t r aff i c d emand o r ig ina te s , w h ich i sc onnec ted t o ap o r t b y m ean s o fi n land c ommun ica t ion s .A c tua l ly t h ef o re land m ean st he w id th o ft h eo cean s ,b u ti n an a r row s en se i t m ean s t h e p or t s ,t o w hom ac e r ta in p or t h a s f r equen t s h ipp ing c onnec t ion s , a nd t h e r ou te s l e ad ing t ot h e se p or t s . T he Med i te r ranean S ea i st h e mo s t a nc ien t a r ea o fi n ten s ive m a r i t ime t r aff ic ,a nd t he f o re land f o r mo s to fi t sp or t sw a sc on s t ra ined t oi t ss ho re s( w i th af ew e xc ep t ion s o n t he A t lan t ic s hore s o f t h e I be r ian P en in su la , F rance a nd t h e E ng l i sh C hanne l ) . S ome c oun tr ie sp o sse ss ing p or t so nt h e Med i te r ranean s ho re , f o re xamp le E gyp ta nd P a le s t ine ,a l so u sed t h ef o re land o ft h e R ed S ea a nd t h e I nd ian O cean ,b u tc on s truc ted s pec ia lp or t sf o rt h i s p urpo se . I n a n t iqu i ty t he Med i te r ranean p rov ided e xce l len t c ond i t ion s f o r ma r i t ime t r aff i c . T he mo s t i mpor tan t c ond i t ion i st h e l a ck o fn o t iceab le t i da l c hange s i nt h e s e a l e ve l , e xcep t f o r s ome e x trem i t ie s( t he Ad r ia t ic S ea , t h eS t ra i to fG ib ra l tar ,t h e Go lf o f Gabe s )o rn a r row s t ra i t sl i ke Me s s ina ,K ha lk i s( Evv ia ) . One s hou ld c on s ide rt h ei mmen se d i f f icu l t ie so fc on s t ruc t ing p o r ts i n t i da l r e g ion s( t he No r th S ea ,E ng l i sh C hanne l , I nd ian O cean )i no rder t ou nde r s tand t h eg r ea t a dvan tag e o ft he Med i ter ranean . A no the r a dvan tag e o ft h e S ea i st h e l o ng , d ry s ummer , a nd e spec ia l ly t h es t orm f ree s e a son so fs p r ing a nd a u tumn . B u tt h ec yc lone so ft h ew in te rp reven t s a i l ing i n t ha t s ea son . B e for e t h e u se o f t h e c ompa s s a nd o the r m ea su r ing i n s t rumen t s d eve loped s i nce t he M idd le A g e s ,o r ien ta t ion w a sb a sed u pon o b se rva t ion so ft h es ky a tn i gh t , a nd d ay t ime s cann ing o ft h eh o r izon .T he e l onga ted a nd a lmo s tc l o sed c onf igu ra t ion o ft h eS ea e nab led t h es h ip 's c r ew t oa lmo s tc omp le te ly s a i lt h el e ng th o ft h e Med i te r ranean w i thou tl o s ing s i gh t o ft h e ma in land o rt h ei nnumerab le i s land st ha td o tt h es ea . E xpe r ience a nd h andbook s p o in ted o u t t he d om inan t moun ta in s a nd p romon tor ie s . A lr eady i n G reek t ime s t h e mo s t p ronounced moun ta in sw e re a ccen tua ted b yt h ec on s t ruc t ion o ft emp le so nt h e ir s umm i t ,a nd i n Ch r i s t ian t ime st h e se w er er ep laced b y mona s ter ie sw h ich c a r r ied t h en ame o fA yo sI l ia s( t he

p rophe tE l ia s )c ommemo ra t ing h i ss t and a ga in s tt h ep r ie s t so fB aa lo n Moun tC a rme l , w h ich b ecame t h e a r che type f o r s uch amoun ta in* . T he r im o ft h e Med i ter ranean S ea c on s i s t s o f h i gh moun ta in s , w h ich may r e ach h e igh t s o f 1 000 m a nd mor ew i th in ah o r izon ta ld i s tance o f af ew k i lome te r s . T he se moun ta in ss u r round t h e s e a o ver at o ta l l e ng th o ft hou sand s o fk i lome te r s , e xc ep t f o r t h e c oa s t s o fL ibya , E gyp t , S ina ia nd S ou the rn I s rae lw h ich a r ei nho sp i tab le ,s t ra igh ta nd a r id . C oa s ta lp la in sa r ef ew a nd n a r row . T he re a r e f ew g r ea t r i ve r s e mp ty ing i n to t h e Med i te r ranean , a nd e ven t h e se a r e n av igab le o n ly f o rs hor ts t re tche s .T he e x i s tence o fr i ve r si st h ep r ima ry a s se to fo the rr eg ion si n t h e w or ld , w here m ar i t ime t r an spo r t c an b e c omb ined w i th r i ver ine n av iga t ion . On ly t h r ee r i ve r sp i e rce t h e moun ta in b a r r ie r : t h eR hone ,t h eA x io s( Va rda r )a nd t h e Ma r i tza ,i na dd i t ion t ot h e N i le w h ich i st h e ma in g a te t oE a s t A f r ica . T he se r i ve rv a l ley s f o rm t h e m a in a xe s f o r p ene t ra t ion d eep i n land . O the r sd i s sec tt h e moun ta in sa nd l e ad u pt oh i gh w a te r shed so f f er ing t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fc on t inua t ion i n to o ther r i ve rs y s tem s .T he se r i ve r sa nd t he ir v a l ley sa re a l so g a te s f o r i n land t r a f f ic . T he r i ve r se mp ty i n to t h es e av i ad e l ta s( due t ot h ea b sence o ft i de s ) ,w h ich i nt he i rn a tu ra lf o rm a r ec ove red b ys wamp sa nd l a goon s .T he s wamp so ft h es ma l le rr i ver sh ad a l ready b een d ra ined i na n t iqu i ty a nd u sed f o r i r r iga ted a g r icu l tu re a nd u rban d eve lopmen t . Mo s t o ft h e se t own s b ecame p or tc i t ie s , ma in ly d ue t ot h er i ch a g r icu l tu ra lh in te r land a nd t h ep os s ib i l i ty o fi n land p a s sag e . T hey w e re c on s t ruc ted e s sen t ia l ly i n ac l ockw i se d i rec t ion f r om t he d e l ta ,b ecau se t h e p reva i l ing c ur r en t s i nt h e Med i ter ranean f l ow c oun te r -c lockw i se . As pec ia lf e a tur eo ft h e Med i ter ranean a r et he t hou sand so fi s land s . H ere t he a fo remen t ioned c ond i t ion s f o r e x i s tence o f ah a rbour s i te a r e d i f f e r en t , b ecau se w i thou t ah a rbou r t h e p opu la t ion o ft h e i s land s s imp ly c anno t e x i s t . HINTERLAN D

T he h in ter land o f ap or t i st ha t r e g ion w h ich p rov id e s t h e p o r t w i th e xpor t s , s uch a s r aw ma te r ia l s ,a g r icu l tu ra lp roduce , a nd i ndu s t r ia lg ood s ,w h i le r e ce iv ing t h rough t h ep or ta l lt h e g ood si tmay n eed .T he a r ea o f ah in ter land may r ange f r om as ma l li s land ,t ot he p o r tc i ty i t se lf t oge the rw i th i t ss u r round ing s ,u pt o aw ho le r eg ion i n c lud ing f a raway l a nd locked c oun tr ie s .I n t h el a t ter c a se st h ea c t iv i ty o ft h ep or ti n c lude sg ood si nt r an s i t .T he s i z eo f ah in te r land d epend s u pon p o l i t ica l c ond i t ion s ( ho s t i le b ounda r ie s , t r an s i t d u t ie s e t c . ) a nd e spec ia l ly o n t h e c ond i t ion s o fi n land t r an spo r t . T he d ec i s ive f a c tor i st he d i rec t ion o fr ou te so rr oad se mana t ing f r om t h ep or t .R ou te st ha tr un mo r eo rl e s sp a ra l le lt ot h ec oa s td on o te n la rge t h eh in te r land c on s ide rab ly . W i th t h ed i f f icu l t t r a ff i c c ond i t ion s i n t h e moun ta inou s r e g ion s , s e a t r an spo r t i sa lway s p ref e rab le t o l a nd t r an spor t . F or ad i s tance a l ong t he c oa s t o fa bou t 5 0 km as h ip , w i th f avourab le w ind s a nd c ur ren t s , w ou ld n eed a bou t 8 10 h ou r s , o r w i th o a r s a bou t o ne d ay . F o r t he s ame d i s tance a c a ravan c on s i s t ing o fb ea s t so fb u rden w ou ld n eed a tl e a s tt wo d ay s ,n o tc oun t ing t h en eed f o r a n ima l d r ive r s a nd f o r u n load ing a nd l o ad ing . P lace s b e tween a ny t wo p o r t t own s w ou ld c hoo se t h en ea re rp or t ,s ot ha tt h eh in te r land o fe ach p o r tw ou ld c ove ra bou th a lf t h ed i s tance t ot h e n ex t p or t . T he s i tua t ion o fr ou te sl e ad ing a way f r om t h es ea i sd i f f eren t . One c an r e cogn ize t h r ee t ype so f h in te r land : c on t inen ta l o rs em icon t inen ta l ; r e g iona l a nd l o ca l . T he c on t inen ta lr ou te su t i l ize g ap so rp a s se s t h rough t h e moun ta in b a rr ier s i no rd er t or each i n land p la teau so r moun ta in v a l ley s . A sa l ready m en t ioned a bove ,t h e se a re f ew ,a nd t h ep or t s a tt h eg a te st ot h e se r ou te sp o s se s st h ew ide s th in te r land ,a nd al a rge p ar to ft he i rt r a ff ic c on s i s t s o fg ood s .i nt r an s i t . T he mo s t i mpor tan t o ne s may b e m en t ioned h e re : *I ti sp o s s ib le t ha tt h eg r ea th e igh to ft h el i gh thou se o nP ha ro ss e rved a s as u r roga te f o rt h em i s s ing moun ta in so nt h ef l a t c oa s to fA lexand r ia ;f o r aw a rn ing l i gh ta tn i gh t amuch l owe rb a se w ou ld h ave s u ff i ced ,b u tb yd ay t h et owe rc e r ta in ly c ou ld b e s e en f r om ad i s tance o fa bou t 5 0 km , t hu sg u id ing as h ip t owa rd s t h e p or t i n as e a w i thou t l a ndma rk s .

2

l . The Rhone Valley, passing along the gap between the Alps and the Massif Central, provides _ access via low passes to the tributaries of the Seine and Rhine, which lead to western Europe. The ancient ports to this gate are, by their present names, Marseille, Arles and Avignon. 2. The Po Delta- Brenner pass route, leading to the Danube and central Europe. The ancient ports are Adria, Ravenna, and in Byzantine times Venice. 3. The route from the northern Adriatic to the Drau river, the Danube, Vienna and south­ eastern Europe. The ancient ports are Aquileia and Tergeste (Trieste). 4. The Vardar- Morava route over the pass of Skopje, leading to southeastern Europe. The ancient port is Thessaloniki. 5. The most important international routes lead toward Mesopotamia, Persia, India and China. In view of the vast dimensions of these areas there are a number of inland centres with various connections to the sea. In the north a number of Anatolian ports lead to routes in Kurdistan or Mesopotamia. In the south the mam inland centres are Aleppo and Damascus, the latter being the main crossroad of the Middle East. The main gates to these centres are the Phoenician ports, and Antiochia. 6. The main gateway to Africa is Egypt and its port of Alexandria. 7. In North Africa the main gateway to the Sahara and inner Africa is Tunis (Carthage). Another port which facilitates the bypassing of the Atlas Mountains is Gabes, which has tidal problems but has an excellent auxiliary port on the island of Djerba. The hinterland of the ports of Spain can be regarded a semi-continental, because of the large size of the peninsula; but there is no connection to Europe due to the mountain barrier of the Pyrennees. All these ports have routes leading up to the plateaus. Almost all of them are situated near the deltas of rivers. The port of Cadiz lies outside the Mediterranean and therefore lies in a tidal region in a protected lagoon. The nearby Guadalquivir river is navigable up to Seville or even Cordoba. Along its banks there was also the ancient city of Tarshish. The gap between the Pyrennees and Massif Central leads via the pass of Toulouse and the Garonne to Aquitain. The ancient port is Narbonne. Similar semi-continental conditions are found in Anatolia, where a large number of ancient ports served as gateways to the Anatolian plateau. The meeting point of the western routes from ports like Ephesos and Miletos was Sardes, the terminus of the Persian imperial road. The regional hinterland is found mainly in the peninsulas and large islands of the northern sector of the Mediterranean. In the elongated and relatively narrow peninsulas of Italy and Greece ther is no place farther away from the sea than 100 km, and every inland town would choose to use a port on that sea to which it has the shortest or easiest land connection (unless its foreland is unsuitable; see page 5). In southern and central Greece, which possesses a strongly indented coast with gulfs penetrating deeply inland, the average distance to deep water is about 30-40 km, a fact that stimulated competition between ports on several seas for the same hinterland. In Italy, where deeply penetrating gulfs occur only on the southern tip, a mathematical pattern of hinterlands can theoretically be constructed: each hinterland having a seafront of 60-80 km and an inland penetration of about 100 km. The local hinterland serves small areas between the regional ports, at distances from about 20-30 km from the regional port, i.e. about one day's travel for a small sailing boat. These ports are usually situated in rivermouths or small coves which need very little infrastructure, as the boats visiting them were of shallow draft. A special case are the numerous small islands which cannot rely on a hinterland for their supplies or marketing, and thus have to do all their commercial dealings by sea. In the Aegean Sea these islands are so close to one another that their inhabitants can reach neighbouring islands in a few hours. For that reason they can carry on traffic even in winter, as under the climatic conditions of the Mediterranean it is possible to 3

1 . S ard e s . T he w e s ternmos ts t a t ion o nt h e" Roya l R oad" o fP er s ia , c onnec ted b yt r af f ic r ou te st o m any Med i ter ranean p o r t s .

2 . C ad iz . T he e as ternmos t A t lan t ic P or t o ft h e I ber ian P en insu la ;t h et i da lp or tn eares tt ot h e Med i te r ranean S ea .

3 . P a tmos . At y p ica l i s land p or t i nt h e A egean S ea .

4 . S t . A nge lo , a" t ombo lo" o ft h e s ou thernmo s t t i po ft h ei s land o fI s ch ia i nt h e G u lf o fN apo l i . A n e xce l len t s i te f or a m i l i tary p or t , b u t a s c omme rc ia lp or tl a ck ing h i n ter land .

5 . A l ican te . Ap or t a t t h e s ou th -ea s tern c oas t o f S pa in , p ro tec ted b y as t eep m oun ta in ( a nd a m ed i eva lf or t ) .

4

predict weather at least a day in advanee. But for that purpose they have to utilize suitable places on different shores in order to find protection from winds which may shift from one direction to another. As mentioned above, the larger islands, numbering about twenty, form a regional hinterland. They may possess several local ports but will still need to provide storage space for goods, especially food for the winter season. THE ECONOMY OF SCALE

The above mentioned pattern of distribution of hinterlands takes into account only geographical considerations. But in maritime trade other conditions must also be considered. The captain of a ship, who usually was also the owner of the cargo or part of it, expects to find buyers for his goods and a supply of goods which he can buy for his home port or to carry to other ports. These demands can be satisfied more easily in a large port. There are also other needs: a period of rest for the crew or slaves, ship repairs, provisions, money changers and temples for the different gods of his homeland. All these he can find only in a large port, and he would be even willing to make a detour to a larger port. Coming from inland on the other hand, a seller of goods or a traveller would not be interested in staying too long in a port in order to await a suitable ship, and he too would seek the larger port even if the inland route were longer. For these reasons the model for hinterlands, as elaborated above, is only theoretical. Large ports are morf attractive because of their size, and the principle of the shortest inland route may be meaningless for certain type� of cargo. FORELAND

The definition of the term "foreland" is more difficult than that of hinterland. In actuality, every ship can leave a port for any other port in the world. However her route is influenced by geographical constraints. In the Mediterranean the strongest factor is the change of seasons, with openwater shipping confined to the summer season. Other geographical elements influencing the routes taken by ships are currents and winds, and the experienced sailor will know how to find the best route. The elongated gulfs of the Mediterranean provide different possiblities. A boat en route from Corfu to Taranto can pass along the Dalmatian coast and the western shore of the Adriatic, in order to visit a large number of ports, or take the shortcut of the direct route. Ships from Napoli to Greece may pass through the Straits of Messina, with all its dangers, or sail the longer route around Sicily. Ports on the Adriatic will prefer shipping connections with the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, while those on the Ligurian Sea will try to stay within its confines. The choice of a route depends mainly on the size of a ship and its cargo. There exists a correlation between the types of ports and the ships that visit them, and the categories are similar to those of the hinterland. 1. Local traffic. The ports with a local hinterland will be visited only by boats engaging in local traffic. These are generally small sailing boats, using auxiliary oars only to enter and leave ports. As the ports are small and shallow, boats also have a shallow draft. The smallness of the boat prevents utilization of its space for a large supply of water and food or for sleeping quarters of the crew. This forces the boat to seek shelter every night and to always stay near the coast. The distance from one local port to the next should be about one day's journey, but the configuration of the Mediterranean coast provides ample opportunities. The question then is: how far will boats venture from their home port, under the assumption that they stay within one of the well defined basins or gulfs of the Mediterranean? 2. The lqng-distance traffic. Ships serving long distance trade routes have to sail over long stretches of open sea nad need to use navigation instruments. They have to carry, in addition to the cargo, provisions and especially wine and water. They need sleeping facilities for the crew. As in the sailing season there is always the possibility of calms, they need oarsmen, which are especially needed to enter a port, as this has to be done with furled sails. For all these reasons they are of considerable size and need ports which are able to receive them. These ports are

5

those serving a continental or semi-continental hinterland. A long journey between two ports raises the cost of transportation and is economical only if the ship carries a special cargo, such a s raw materials and minerals that are found only in limited locations, or other valuable goods. One important cargo would be grain en route from a colony to the mother city, and-in certain cases-wine and olive oil on the return journey. A special type of cargo was tin from Cornwall. For the journey in the Atlantic Ocean, with its storms and high waves, a different type of ships would be necessary, with a higher draught to withstand the waves, and stronger sails. The use of oars would be impossible, and entrance into a port could be achieved by wise use of the tides. For these reasons it seems that the tin-trade preferred the overland route from the English Cha nnel to the Rhone and thence to the ports of southern Fra nce. But there wa s also the possibility of transshipment from a Mediterranean type of ship to an Atlantic type. This could be done in Ca diz, where ships of both types could enter. As Ca diz is connected by river transport to Tarshish, it may be that the Tarshish-Ship (Oni Tarshish), mentioned in the bible, was one of the types used for tra nsshipment. It was probably of the Atlantic type, because it is mentioned in connection with the Red Sea, which is also tidal. For intermediate traffic there existed a large number of types of ships of various sizes and with combinations of sails and oars.

The especially favourable geographical conditions for maritime transportation in the Mediterranean can be grasped best by comparing them with conditions in the Red Sea. In almost every aspect there is a large contrast. The Red Sea has a great tidal range, especially in its two northern gulfs: the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Elat. However, there are no rivers emptying into it, and therefore the combination of sea and river navigation, which is the greatest asset of ports on the Atlantic and the North Sea, is impossible in the Red Sea. Ships cannot use the tidal currents for entering or leaving a port, and therefore need oars. Oars are also needed because of the varying wind directions. In the central sections of the Red Sea there extends a broad zone of calms, and ships lacking oars are sometimes stranded in midsea for weeks in unbearable heat without water. Therefore it would seem that a type of ship is needed which combines a deep draught and the use of oars. Perhaps this is the Oni Tarshish mentioned above. The coasts of the Red Sea are also inhospitable. They are arid throughout its length and only in the southernmost stretch are there high mountains on both flanks which receive rainfall in their upper reaches and are therefore populated. But even there the coast is barren. Only a few places possess a water supply with springs or wells which allowed the existence of a small number of ports. Thus, ships have to rely on their own reserves of water and wine and provisions of food.

For all these reasons only long-range shipping is possible between the northern gulfs to transshipment ports in the southern parts of the Red Sea, such as Jedda, and especially Aden, or to areas beyond the Red Sea in the Indian Ocean.

Only a few ships ventured in antiquity on the Red Sea, in contrast to the vast number of ships found all over the Mediterranean, especially in its northern half.

6

ROBERT R . S T IEGL ITZ

N o te s o n R iv e r ine - Ma r i t ime T rade a tE b la T he i mp r e s s ive w ea l th a ccumu la ted b yt h er u ler so ft h ec i ty s ta te o fE b la i nt h eE ar ly B ronze A ge ( ca .2 400 -2250 B .C . ) , i sn ow amp ly a t te s ted i nt h ee conom ic t e x t su nea r thed a tt h es i te o f E b la ( T e l l Ma rd ikh )b yt h eI t a l ian A rchaeo log ica lM i s s ion t oS y r ia . On ly as ma l lf r ac t ionof t h e c une ifo rm d ocumen t s d i scover ed t h e re h ave b een p ub l i shed , b u t i ti sa l ready c l ea rt ha t E b la o f ten t r ad ed i ng rea tq uan t i t ie so fc o s t ly i t em sw i th b o th n ea ra nd d i s tan tl o ca l i t ie s . S inc eE b la h er se lf w a sn e i ther ac oa s ta ls i te n or ar i ve r ine p o r t ,i ti so fs ome i n te re s tt oe xam ine e v idence f o r i t s i nvo lv emen t w i th s h ipp ing a nd w a te r -bo rne c ommerce ' .

ARET I 2 9 ( TM .75 .G .1753 ) d ea l s w i th d i ver se t r an sac t ion s i n vo lv ing v a r iou s p eop le a nd l o ca l i t ie s . S ome o ft h e l a t te r a r e t h e w e l l -known Me sopo tam ian c i t ie s o f Ha r ran , T u t tu l a nd Mar i ; w h i le o ther s a r e l e s se r k nown t oponym s . T he k ey p a s sage , f o ru s , i nt h i s t e x t r e ad s :

V II I :11

1 mana UD :KÜ n ig sa 1 0 1G I§ .mä

1 mana o f s i lve r ( f o r ) : p u rcha se -pr ice o f ab oa t ;

I X: 1

4g i n D IL MUN UD :KÜ d im x ( MUN ) h i i n 1G I§ .mä I

4D i lmun sheke l s o f s i lve r ( f o r ) : a ma s t w h ich i si n a" Type I" -boa t

5

ܧ

Ü § Mar i ;

T he t wo e n t r ies l i s ted h ere ,p rov ide u sw i th t h ep r ice sp a id f o r ab oa ta nd ama s t . I nt h ef i r s t ,a mana o fs i lver w a s p a id f o r ab oa t o fu n spec if ied s i ze a nd t ype . I ti sk nown f r om n ume rou s t r ade si nt h eE b la t e x t st ha ti ns u ch t r an sac t ion st h em ana i sc ompo sed o f6 0( D i lmun )s heke l s . T he s e cond t r an sac t ion r e co rd st h ep aymen to f 4D i lmun sheke l sf o r ama s ti n a" Type I" b oa t . I ts e em s t om e t ha t t h i s " Type I" r e f er s t ot h e s t anda rd , o r n o rma l s ized r i ve r -boa t , k nown f r om l a te rt e x t st ob eo f6 0 -gu rc apac i ty ' . Wh i le t h em ean ing o ft h eS umerog ram Ü §h er ei sn o t e n t ire ly c l ea r , i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t b o th o ft h e se n au t ica l t r ade s t ook p l ace a tt h e r i ve r -po r t o f Ma r i , o n b eha lf o ft h e r oya l c ou r t o fE b la . T he c a sua ll i s t ing o ft he se t r ade si n al e ng thy e conom ic t e x ti n vo lv ing t r an sac t ion sw i th v a r iou s Me sopo tam ian c i t ie s , s ugge s t s t ha t t h e se n au t ica l t r ade s w e re n o t u n ique . F u r the rmo re , i t s e em sl i ke ly t ha tt h e ma in e n t r epö tf o rE b la o nt h eE uphar te sR ive rw a st h ep or to f Ma r i .E b la ma in ta ined c l ose d ip loma t ic a nd e conom ic t i e sw i th Ma r i ' ,a nd t h el a t te rw a sc e r ta in ly ama jo r t r ad ing p o r t i nt he r i v er ine -ma r i t ime c omme rce a l ong t h e E uph ra te s -Pe r s ian Gu lf a x i s .

7

Ac l ue t ot h ep ivo ta lr o le p layed b yt h es h ip so f Ma r ii n Me sopo tam ia i sf ound i nt h ef a c tt h a t t h eO ld B aby lon ian l e x ica l t e x t sl i s t at ype o fb oa tn amed a f ter Ma r i . I n t he s e r ie s In I V 27 ( MSL V 1 74 )w ef i nd t h ee n try : G Ig . MÄ MÄ -R I =m a i r i tur n' Ma r i i te ( boa t ) ' .T he b oa t so f Ma r i ,t h en ,w ere a sf amou sa st ho se o ft h et h ree s h ipp ing c en ter si nt h eP er s ian G u lf : D i lmun , Magan ( Oman )a nd Me luhha ( The I ndu sV a l ley ) 4. T ex t so ft h e2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C .d i scove r ed a t Ma r ii nd ica te t ha ta tt ha tt ime t h e re w e re d i r ec tc omme rc ia ll i nk sb e tween Ma r ia nd D i lmun , a l ong t h e r i ve r ine -ma r i t ime r ou te v i a S ou the rn Me sopo tam ia ' . A no ther t e x tf r om E b la , TM .75 .G .2420 ,p ub l i shed b yE .S o l lbergee ,s hed sf u r the rl i gh to nt h e i n ter e s t s o fE b la i nt h e r i ver ine -ma r i t ime t r ade w i th i t s d i rec t c onnec t ion s t o Ma r i . T h i s l o ng d ocumen t i s at r ea ty b e tween E b la a nd a c i ty c a l led A -BAR .S iLA" , w h ich S o l lbe rg e r p rov i s iona l ly r e ad s a s A -bar sa l4k 1 . 7T he r e levan t p a s sage s , c on ta ined i n l i ne s 3 78 -417 , a r e t r an s la ted b y S o l lbe rge ra sf o l low s ' : A . " Eb la s ha l l d o w a te rway s t rade w i th Aba r sa l ; Aba r sa l s ha l l n o t d o w a te rway s trade w i th E b la . Aba r sa l ,t h ef e r ry -harbour ( and )l a rge s h ip s , . , .( Abar sa l ) h a sr e c e ived h e r. ( and ) . ." B . "Why d oe st h eh a rbour -ma s te ro fE b la r e turn t o Aba r sa l ? Why d oe st he h a rbour -ma s te ro f Abar sa l r e turn t o E b la ? T he . ( of ? ) E b la a nd Aba r sa l s ha l l b e b u i l t ( ? ) . . Every y ea r ( Abar sa l )s ha l ld e l ive ro ne o x( and )o ne r am ;i fs he d oe sn o td e l ive r( t hem )s h es ha l lb ec a s t o u t ." We c an i n f e rf r om t h e se t r ea ty p rov i s ion st ha tE b la r e se rv ed t oh e r se lf t h er i gh tt o monopo l iz e t h ew a te r -borne t r ade ( ga :ra g )c onduc ted b yt h et wo c i t ie s ,a nd t ha tA -BAR .S ILA' w a so b l ig ed t op ay as ymbo l ic a nnua lt r ibu te t oE b la i nc onnec t ion w i th t h i sp rov i s ion .T he a dm in i s tra t ion o ft h i s t r ade w a s i nt h e h and s o f ah a rbou r -ma s te r( l ü -ka r ) a ppo in ted b y e ach c i ty . T he s i te o f A -BAR .S iLA k w a s p robab ly a r i ver -por t , l i ke Ma r i , a nd t h e t e x t ( l ine 3 85 ) s pec if ica l ly a l lude s t o a" f er ry -ha rbour" ( A .B I+G Ig r e ad a dd i r b y S o l lberg e r )9 a nd " l a rg e s h ip s" ( ma -ga l ) ,i . e . ,c r af tl a rge rt han t h eo rd ina ry r i ve r -boa t s .F ur the rmore ,f r om a no ther t e x t , TM .75 .G .2367 , al e t te ro fE nna -Dagan t ot h ek i ng o fE b la l ° ,w el e a rn t ha tI b lu l I l , t he k ing o f Ma r i ,w a sa l so t e rmed k ing o fA -BAR .S iLA' . T h i ss ugge s t st ha tt h i sc i ty w a st h en w i th in t h e k ingdom o f Ma r i , a nd i st o b e l o ca ted s omewhe re b e tween Mar i a nd E b la o n ( o r n ea r ) t h e E uphra te so ro ne o fi t st r ibu ta r ie s .T he t r ea ty b e tween E b la a nd A -BAR .S 1LA" ,h owever ,m ay i nd ica te t ha t a tt ha t t ime t h e l a t te rw a s n o t c on s ide red i nt h e r e a lm o f Ma n' s k i ng . Wh i le s uch s c an ty n au t ica lr e f e rence si nt h et e x t sn ow k nown f r om E b la o f f er u s am ere g l imp se i n to t h e c omp lex r i ve r ine -ma r i t ime c omme r c ia l n e two rk s i n vo lv ing E b la , t h ey a re q u i te s i gn if ican ti ns hedd ing n ew l i gh to nt h er o le o fE b la w i th in s uch n e two rk s .T he v e ry i n ter e s t so f E b la i nr i ver ine -ma r i t ime r ou te s m ay w e l le xp la in w hy t h eD i lmun sheke l — an on -Sume r ian s t anda rd — i ss ou b iqu i tou s a t al a nd locked s i te i nS y r ia , s od i s tan tf r om t h eP e r s ian Gu lf" . V iewed i nt h i s l i gh t , w e c an n ow p erhap s b e t ter a pprec ia te t h e f amou s b i l ingua l ( Sume r ian Akkad ian ) r oya l i n sc r ip t ion o f S a rgon o f A kkad ( c a . 2 350 B .C . ) , i n wh ich h e r e cord s t h e e s tab l i shmen to fh i sr e a lm f r om Me luhha t ot h eC eda rF o re s ta nd t h eS i lver Moun ta ins ( on t h e Uppe rS ea =Med i te r ranean ) .I nt h i st e x t" ,S a rgon c l a im st oh ave moored ,a tt h ew ha rf ( ka r )o f Akkad , t h e s h ip s o f Me luhha , Magan a nd D i lmun , a s w e l l a s c ap tur ing t h e c i t ie s o f Ma r i , Y a rmu t i a nd E b la . Wha t a ppear s t o b e o u t l ined i nt h i s i n sc r ip t ion , i n ag eog raph ica l o rder f r om s ou thea s t t o n o r thwe s t , i s as e r ie s o f ma jo r t r ad ing c en te r s l i nked b y b o th r i ve r ine -ma r i t ime a s w e l l a s o ver land r ou te s : Me luhha , Magan ,D i lmun , Ma r i ,Y armu t ia nd E b la .I fw ec on t inue t h i sr ou te t oi t sl o g ica le nd — t h e Med i ter ranean c oa s t— i ti smo s tt emp t ing t os ugges tt h a tt he ma r i t ime o u t le tf o rt h i st r an s i t t rade w a so nt h eS y r ian c oa s tn o tf a rf r om E b la . I ndeed , ag eog raph ica l l i s tf r om E b la ( TM .75 .G .2231) i n c lude sb o th U ga r i ta nd A rwad" ,a nd e i ther o rb o th c ou ld h ave s e rved t h e m e rchan t s o fE b la .

8

9

P r i m a r y r i v e r i n e a n d m a r i t i m e t r a d e r o u t e s i n t h e A n c i e n t N e a r E a s t .

I nt he E ar ly B ronze Age t here w a sa l so mar i t ime t r ade b e tween E gyp ta nd t he S y r ian c oas t ,a si s a t tes ted i nE gyp t ian i n scr ip t ion so ft he O ld K ingdom ' ' ,b u ti tw ou ld s e em t ha tt he m a in c u l tu ra l a nd c ommerc ia lt h ru s to fE b la 's a c t iv i t ie sa nd i nvo lvemen ti nt he r i ver ine -mar i t ime t r ade ,w a s d i rec ted t oward s Me sopo tam ia a nd t he P er s ian Gu lf , p robab ly v i a t he p or t a t Ma r i .

NOTES 1 .

T he f o l low ing a bbrev ia t ions a r eu sed ,r e f er r ing t ot e x ts f r om E b la : ARET I =D .O .E dza rd ,A rch iv iR ea l id iE b la T e s t i — I( Roma , 1 981) ; ARET I I =A . A rch i— M .G . B iga ,A rch iv iR ea l id iE b la T e s t i— I I( Roma 1 9 82 ) ; SEb = S tud i E b la i t i ; TM = T e l l Mard ikh .

2 .

S ee , f o r e xamp le , C odex Hammurab i 42 34 , 2 77 , w here t h e G Ig .MÄ 6 0 -GUR i st aken a s t he s t andard t ype i nc a se s r egu la t ing p aymen t s f o r i t s c a lk ing o rh i re .

3 .

S ee G . P e t t ian to ," Re la t ions e n tre l e sr oyaume sC l Eb la e td e Mar ia ut r o is ibne m i l lena ire d 'apres l e sA rch ives d eT e l l Mard ikh -Eb la ," A kkad ica 2 (1977 ) 2 0 -28 ; a nd A . A rch i , " I r apor t i t r a E b la eMan" , SEb I V ( 198 1) 1 2 9 -166 .

4 .

C f . H 1 3I V2 81-283 (MSL V 1 74 ) :G lx . MÄ D IL MUN k' =t i / -mu -n i tur n "D i lmun i te ( boa t )" ;G II MÄ MÄ -GAN -NA = "Magan i te ( boa t )" ; Gg . MÄ ME -LU IJ -I I , A =m e luh -hu tur n "Me luhha i te ( boa t )" .S ee G .P e t t ian to , " I I c ommerc io c on l ' Es tero d e l la Me sopo tam ia Mer id iona le n e l . 3m i lenn io a y . Ch . a l la l u ce d e l le f on t i l e t tera r ie e l e ss ica l i S ume r iche" , Me sopo tam ia 7( 1972 )4 3 -166 .

5 .

S ee A .L . Oppenhe im , " The S eafar ing Merchan ts o fU r" ,J AOS 7 4 ( 1 954 ) 1 5 . T h . Howard -Car ter , " The T ang ib le E v idence f o rt he E ar l ies tD i lmun" , JCS 3 ( 1981) 2 10 -223 ,a dvoca tes t ha tb efore 2 200 B .C .— i . e . ,i nt h ep er iod o ft h e E b la t e x ts d i scu ssed h ere — D i lmun i st ob el o ca ted i nt he Qurna r e g ion ,n or th o fB asra ,a nd a f terwa rds o n ly i nt h e B ahra in -Fa i laka r e g ion .

6 .

" The S o -Ca l led T rea ty b e tween E b la a nd ' A shur ' ," SEb I I ( 1 980 ) 1 2 9f f .

7 .

I b id . . p .1 30 .P e t t ian to , who f i r s tc a l led a t ten t ion t ot h is t e x ti nB A3 9(1976 )48 a nd OA 1 5( 1976 ) 1 4 ,r e ad t h is n ame a s / 12. ( ur yk "Ashur" ( on t he T igr is R iver ) . A rch i , S Eb I ( 1980 )4 ,a ccep ted t h is r e ad ing ,b u t i n ARET 1 1( 1982 )3 14 , h e r e ad s A -BARxS i Lk' .

8 .

SEb I I ( 1980 ) 1 42f .

9 .

I b id .

1 0 .

S ee P e t t ian to , Akkad ica 2( 1977 )p p .24f f .

1 .

E b la a nd D i lmun a r e t h e s ub jec t o fa n a r t ic le b y t h e a u thor n ow i np re s s .

1 2 .

C f .G .A .B ar ton ,T he R oya lI nscr ip t ions o fS umerandAkkad .N ew Haven ,1 929 ,p .1 08 f .A lso s e e ,A .K .G rayson ," The Emp ire o fS argon o f Akkad" ,A f0 2 5 ( 1974 -77 ) 5 6 -64 .

1 3 .

S ee A . A rch i , "No tes o n E b la i te G eog raphy" , SEb 1 ( 1980 ) 2 .

1 4 .

S ee B . L and s tröm , S h ips o ft h eP haraohs . Garden C i ty ( NY ) , 1 970 , p p . 6 3f f .

10

AVNER RABAN

T h e Anc ien t Ha rbou r s o fI s rae l i nB ib l ica lT ime s ( Fro m t he Neo l i th ic p er iod t o t he End o ft he I ron Age )

The Med i terranean c oa s ta lr e g ion o fI s rae lh a s av e ry l ong h i s tory o fe xcep t iona l" Low s" a nd "H igh s" , much more t han a ny o ther p ar to ft he c oun try . I ns harp c on tra s tt os hor tp er iod so f f l our i sh ing a nd t h r iv ing t here w ere l onger e ra s o f n eg l igence d ur ing w h ich t he a rea w a s d epopu la ted a nd t he r ura lp ar t sh ave t u rned i n to ma r shy w as te land ' . Wh i le t he J ew sa nd t he A rab sl i ved w i th t he ir b ack st ot he s ea ,t here w ere s hor tp er iod sd ur ing w h ich t he S ea P eop le , t he P hoen ic ians , t he Roman s a nd t he C ru sader s made t he c oa s t wha t i ti sn owaday s : t he p o l i t ica l ,e conom ic a nd c u l tu ra lc en ter o ft he e n t ire c oun try .T here a re s evera lr ea son sf o rt h i s o dd a l terna t ing h i s tory : 1 . T he g eo -po l i t ica lc hanges o ft he r o le o ft he c oun try i nt he r eg ion . Wh i le t h ed om ina t ing r o le o fP a les t ine w as aNor th -Sou th l and b r idge ,p ar to ft he F er t i le C re , scen t wh iCh c onnec ted t h eN i le Va l ley t o Me sopo tam ia ,t h ec oa s tw a sj u s tt h ew e s tern b order o ft h i sb r idge ( wh i le t h e d e ser t w a s i t s e as te ' rn o ne . ) Y e t , wh i le t he c oun try p layed t he r o l _ e , o f al and b r idge b e tween e as ta nd w e s t ,b e tween t he I nd ian O cean a nd t he Med i terranean ,t h ec oa s tt u rned t o b e t he f oca l a rea . S uch t u rn ing p o in ts w ere t herefore b y -produc t s o f p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p roce sse s o f amuch l a rger , o ne m igh t s ay a lmo s t ag loba l , s ca le . 2 .

A ny c hange s i nl and sea r e la t ions b ad ly a f f ec ted t he a g r icu l tura l p o ten t ia l o ft he c oa s ta l p l a in . I n ter sec ted b y as e r ie s o fl ong shore r ange s o fs and s tone h i l l s , i ti sp oor ly d ra ined 2. B o th t he h ydrograph ic s y s tems o f t he r i ver s a nd t he r oad s f ace n a tura l t opoghraph ic o b s tac les o n t he w ay f r om t he h in ter land t o t he c oa s t l ine a nd t he a cce s s ib i l i ty f r om t he s hore t o t he more p opu la ted c en ter s o ft he h in ter land a re f a r f rom g ood . T h is s i tua t ion b ecomes much wor se whenever t he s ea l e ve lr i se se ven modera te ly . Ar i se o f1 2 m wou ld r e ver se t he m in ima le x is t ing g rad ien to ft he l ower c our ses o ft he r i ver sa nd wou ld t u rn t he l ow b as ins b e tween t he r i dge s i n to mar shy a rea s . T h is wou ld i n crea se t he s and a ccumu la t ion o n t he s hore s3 a nd t hence b ecau se o ft he w ind s , t he s and t r anspor ta t ion f u r ther i n land . S and wou ld t hen b e t ter b lock t he r i ver o u t le ts t ot he s ea . T h is t r eacherous g eomorpho logy h ampered a ny p o s s ib le c on t inu i ty o ff l our i sh ing c oa s ta l s e t t lemen t s , y e t t h ea c tua lp or t sw ere a f f ec ted e ven more . Apar tf r om t opog raph ic a nd p o l i t ica lc hange st he p or ts wou ld b ea f f ec ted b ya ny c hange i n mar ine t e chno logy ,t he i n ter rup ted e qu i l ibr ium a t t h e s hore l i ne ( some t imes t r iggered o f f b y h uman a c t iv i t ies ) , s i ze o f s h ip s , d ecrea sed d e mands f o r o vern igh t s t a t ion s o fl ong shore n au t ica l t r af f ic , e t c .

The d ependency o ns uch al ong l i s to fc hang ing a nd s o me t ime se ven c onf l ic t ing f a c tor sc r ea ted as pec ia lc ha l lenge t ot he i nhab i tan ts o ft he P a le s t in ian c oa s t l ine .T hey w ere v ery o f ten a l ien t o t he p eop le o ft he h in ter land a nd p ar t o f ad i f f eren t c u l ture a nd s e t o fe conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l i n te re s ts . I n many c ases t he se d i f f erences w ere j u s t t oo much a nd p or t s e t t lemen t s w ou ld b e d ese r ted . Bu t t here w ere h i s tor ica l p er iod s w hen t he h uman s p ir i t a nd t he a b i l i ty t o c ope p reva i led a nd p roper t e chno log ica l , e conom ic , a nd s oc ia l s o lu t ion s w ere s ucces sfu l ly i mp lemen ted . When s uch e ndeavour sw ere s ucces sfu lt he p or tc i t ies managed t ot h r ive ,a nd t o e n joy t e chno logca la nd e conom ic s t andard s much more a dvanced t han t ho se o ft he s oc ie t ies i n t he h i n ter land . T he Med i terranean c oas t l ine o fI s rae l t oday h a s a lmo s t n o n a tura l h aven a nd n o f avourab le s i te sf o rb u i ld ing h arbour sw i thou td i ff icu l t ie s .T ho se d i ff icu l t ies s t em f r om t he s ha l low w a ter n ea rt h es hore a nd t he r e la t ive ly l a rge q uan t i ty o fs h if t ing s and a long t he n ear shore s ea b o t tom . Any i n shore r e ef ,i s le to r man -made s ea w a l l wou ld p roduce at ombo lo ,s and s p i t so rs and b ar s

1

w i th in af ew y ea r s .T here a r ea tl e a s tt wo s unken l ong shore s and s tone r i dge s wh ich a r es ha l low e nough t oc au se b reaker sd ur ing w in te rs t o rm s . Du r ing t h es ummer t h eb reaker sw ou ld b lock a cce s s t o t h e b eache s f r om t h e s ea a nd c r ea te s ha l low s and b a r s 5 0 -200 m o f ft he c oa s tl i ne . I ts e em st ha tt h i su nfavo rab le t ype o fc oa s t l ine ,w i th i t s ma r shy c oa s ta lp la in ,i s are e ry oung a nd r e cen tf e a ture . Dur ing t he e ar ly Ho locene ,s ome 1 5 ,000 y ea r sB .P .t h es ea w a s much l owe r a nd f a r the rt ot h ew e s t .T he c oa s ta lp la in w a st h en i n te r sec ted b yn umerou sr i ver sw ho se v a l ley s d eepened t o f i t t h e r eg re s s ive s ea l e ve l o ft h e l a s t g l ac ia t ion . When t he G rea t T haw o ft he P o s t -P le i s tocen ian e ra b egan ,t he r ap id ly r i s ing s e al e ve lw ou ld e n ter t h er i ver b a s in sa nd c rea te at yp ica l s e r ie s o f e s tua r ie s , o r r i a s . S uch t r an sg re s s iona l e s tua r ie s a r e a c tua l ly t h e mo s t c ommon s i te sf o r many o ft h ep re sen t -day h a rbou r sa l ong t h ec oa s t so ft h eA t lan t ic a nd w es tern Med i te r ranean . B u tw h i le t h et i da lc ur ren t sk eep t h e se b ig e s tuar ie sf r ee o fs i l ti nt h eA t lan t ic r eg ion , a nd t h e p erenn ia lf l ow o f t he E u ropean r i ve r s d oe st h e s ame a l ong t he n o r thwe s te rn c oa s t so ft he Med i ter ranean ,t here a r en os uch n a tura la gen t si nt he L evan t ine r eg ion .T he t i da l amp l i tude i nt he e a s te rn Med i ter ranean i sa bou to ne f oo ta t mo s t ,a nd t h ef l ow v e lo c i ty a tt he r i ver o u t le t sa long t he I s rae l ic oa s t l ine d ur ing t he s umme ri sa tn ot ime s t rong e nough t oa vo id b lock ing b y s and b ar s 8.I th a s b een p roven t ha t t h e ma s se s o fs h if ted s and o n t h e s hore a nd a long t he i n shore s ea b o t tom w ere r e cen td epo s i t sa nd i na ny c a se P o s t -P le i s tocene .T he refore o ne mu s tr e con s truc ta ni n termed ia te s t age ,b e tween t h ep eak o ft he s o -ca l led F land r ian ( e .g . P o s t -P le i s tocene )t r an sg re s s ion a nd t h es i tua t ion a tp r e sen t .A tt h i ss t age t he r i ve ro u t le ts s t i l l h ad t he i r e s tua ry l ike o u t le t s o pen . T hen t he n a tura l p roce s s o ff i l l ing s t ar ted , w i th w in te r f l ood sc ar ry ing s i l tf r om t h eh in te r land a nd t h ew ave sb u i ld ing s and s p i t sa l ong b o th s i de so ft h e o pen ing s . A t amore a dvancd s t ag e o ft h i s p roce s s t he s p i t s w ou ld m ee t t o f orm as and b a r b a r r ie r ,t hu sc r ea t ing b rack i sh l a goon so nt h ec oa s ta lp la in .T he se l a goon sw ou ld g radua l ly s i l t u p a nd b ecome ma r she s . T h i s t yp ica l d eve lopmen t o f s e a -f looded c oa s t l ine w ou ld n o t b e u n in ter rup ted b y e u s ta t ic c hange s o ft he s e a l e ve l a nd t he l o ca l t e c ton ic u p l if t ing sa nd d own w rapp ing s 7.On t he who le ,t he a bov ed e sc r ip t ion s e em st ob et h ec a se f o rt he I s rae l ic oas t l ine d u r ing t he Ho locene .

P RE -H ISTOR IC COAST L INE T he e a r l ie s t c oa s ta l s e t t lemen t s o f p e renn ia l c ha rac te r f ound s o f a r a r e d a ted t o t he 5 th m i l lenn ium B .C .( Po t tery N eo l i th ic B )a nd s e em t oh ave r e ta ined t h es ame g enera lc ha rac ter t i l l t he e nd o ft he 4 th m i l len ia B .C .( Ea r ly B ronze A g e 1 )8. Many o ft h e se s e t t lemen t sa r el o ca ted i n w ha t i sn ow as unken b a s in j u s t o f ft h e p re sen t s ho re l ine . S ome o the r s e t t lemen t s a r e t o b e t r aced a long t h ec oa s ta ls and s tone r i dge . I ti so bv iou st ha ta tt ha ts t age t h es ea w a s much l owe r . An o ak t r unk e nc ir led b y aman -made s t one f ence t ha tw a sf ound " in s i tu" u nde r6 m .o f wa ter a nd d a ted b y C 14 t ot he f i r s t h a lf o ft h e 4 th m i l lenn ium i nd ica te s as e a l e ve l 9 10 m o r mo re b e low t h ep re sen to ne .A l lt h es e t t lemen t so ft ha tp e r iod a r eo f as pread -ou tv i l lage t y pe ,a nd s o f a rn op ub l ic b u i ld ing so r ma r i t ime s t ruc tu re sh ave b een t r aced .S ome o ft h e se s e t t lemen t sw e re l o ca ted a round w ha ta ppea rt ob el a goon o rr i ve ro u t le t s ,a nd maybe e ven o nt he i n i t ia l s p i t s w h ich a tt h i sg eomorpho log ic s t age w e re mo s t ly made u po fs i l ta nd c l ay .T h i si st h ec a se i nt he a nc ien te s tua r ie so ft he r i ver sK ez iv lo ( and s e eb e low ) , Hamearo th 1 Had e ra , Y ar en , a nd s evera l o ther s1 3 . A l though t h e se v i l lag e sw e re n o td i f f e ren t f r om t h e r ura lc on t empora ry s i te s i nt h e v a l ley s o ft h e h in ter land , t h er e a r e s ome i nd ica t ion s o fl im i ted i n terna t iona l t r ade among t he s ma l lf i nd sf r om t hem ,s uch a so b s id ian b l ade sf r om w e s tern Ana to l ia a nd j ade a xe s t ha t p robab ly c ame f r om t h e P e r s ian Gu lf" . I n t h i s p ro to -h i s tor ic e r a t here w a s a l ready a c e r ta in s ea -borne t r ade , b o th i n t h e Med i te r ranean a nd t h e R ed S ea 1 8 .I fw e c on s ider t he n av iga t ion o ft h e4 th m i l lenn ium B .C .t ob e mo s t ly c oa s ta l ,w ew i l lh ave t oc on s ide rt h eu se o f t ho se a va i lab le e s tua r ie s a nd l a goon r i ve r o u t le t s a s s u i tab le h aven s f o r l ong sho r e t r aff ic o f b oa t s e n r ou te b e tween t h e N i le V a l ley a nd t he s ou rce s o fz n inera l s , l umber a nd o ther r aw ma te r ia l sa tt he n or thea s te rn s i de o ft h e Med i ter ranean .C on s ider ing t h ef a c tt ha ts of a rn one o f t ho se s i te s w a se xcava ted o re ven t ho rough ly s urveyed , w ed on ' t h ave e nough d a ta f o r aw e l l b a sed e va lua t ion o ft he ma r i t ime r o le i nt h e e conomy o ft h e se s e t t lemen t s .

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1 3

T he a rchaeo log ica l s urvey s i nd ica te ac omp le te a b sence o fc oa s ta l s i te s d a t ing f r om t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C .I ts e em sa si ft he e ar l ier s e t t lemen t sw ere a bandoned t owards t h eb eg inn ing o f t h is m i l lenn ium ( i n v ery f ew o ft hem a re EB I I s he rd s , a nd a lway s o n s i tes wh ich a r e l oca ted r e la t ive ly h igh o nt he l e es i de o ft he c oa s ta lr i dge )1 6 . T h i sb reak m igh th ave b een c au sed b yt h e e us ta t ic r i se o ft he s ea o rb yd ownwarp ing o ft he c on t inen ta ls he lf w h ich w as t i l ted d own t hu s s ubmerg ing t he c oa s t l ine . On ly t oward s t he e nd o ft h is m i l lenn ium wou ld t he s hore a nd t h e c oa s ta l r i dge h ave r e -emerged f r om b enea th t he s ea . T hen i tw ou ld h ave b een ar ocky s ho re , w i th h ang ing s and s tone c l if f s i n ter sec ted b y r e la t ive ly w ide g ap s a t t he r i ver o u t le ts , wh ich w ou ld r e ta in t he ir e s tuar ine o r l a goona l c harac te r1 7 .

THE MB I I COAST L INE T he r ap id ly g row ing f und o fi n forma t ion g arnered f r om r e cen ta rchae log ica le xcava t ions a nd s urveys a long t he c oa s ta lp la in a nd i ni n shore w a ter se nab le su st ob u i ld ap i c ture o f al a rge s ca le u rban iza t ion p roces so nt he L evan t ine c oa s to ft he Med i ter ranean w h ich s t ar ted a round 2 000 B .C .a nd wh ich k ep ti t s momen tum f o ra lmo s t2 00 y ear s . Dur ing t h is p er iod ,k nown a s MB I Ia , d ozen so fc oa s ta ls e t t lemen t so fu rban t ype w ere e s tab l i shed — a nd o n many s i te s— o nv i rg in s o i l .N ever b efore ,o ra f ter ,w ere t here s o many f o r t if ied c oa s ta lt own sa long t he s hore b e tween L ebanon a nd t he S ina i d e ser t . T he s i t ing o f mos t o f t he se n ew s e t t lemen t s w a s q u i te c harac ter is t ic , t here w a s o ne a tt he e s tuar ian r i ver o u t le ta nd as e cond ( or more )o nt he s ame r i ver f a r ther i n land .T he se w ere u sua l ly s i ted where t he r i ver c our se i n ter sec ted o ne o ft he s ho re p ara l le ls ands tone r i dge s .I n mos tc a ses t he i n land s e t t lemen t sw ere l o ca ted o no rc l o se e nough t o t he c oa s ta l p la in a t s i te s w here t he r i ver s w ere s t i l l a t l e a s t n av igab le f or s ma l l f r e igh te r s s a i l ing u p s tream f r om t he e s tuary .I ft he r i ver w a sl a rger ,w i th amore s t eady p erenn ia lf l ow a nd amore modera te g rad ien ta long i t sc our se t hen n ew s e t t lemen ts w ere s i ted e ven f a r ther i n land . F o l low ing t he ma in r i ver o u t le ts o fI s rae l f r om n or th t o s ou th , o ne wou ld f i nd t h ese s i te s : N . ( s tand sf or Naha l =r i ver )B e tze t— T e l M isrefo t -Yam o nt he s hore ( and s e eb e low ) , o nt h e n or thern e dge o ft he a nc ien te s tuary ;t he MB II s i te a tL i man — o nt he s ou thern b ank a nd t h e e as tern s ands tone r i dge ; Kh . Ove sh — o n t he n or thern b ank , n ear t he p o in t w here t he r i ve r e n ter s t he c oa s ta l p la in s o me 4 km i n land f r om t he c oa s t l ine ( F ig . 1 ) . N . K ez iv — T e l Akhz iv o nt he s hore ( s ee b e low )o nt h en or thern e dge o ft he e s tua ry a nd M ine t e z -z ib , o n t he s ou thern e dge ; T e l Avdon — o n ah i l l n ear t h e p o in t w here t he r i ver e n ter s t h e c oa s ta l p la in , a lmos t 6km e as t o ft he c oa s t l ine ( and o n ly 3km s ou th o f Kh . O ve sh ) . N . G a 'a ton — T he MBI I s hr ine a t Naha r iya 1 8 , n ex t t o t h e a nc ien t o u t le t o ft h e r i ver ; a nd t h e h uge T e l Kabr i l

— a tt he f oo t o ft he h i l l s , s o me 5km i n land .

N . Na 'aman(Be lus ) —T e l Akko 2 0 , o nt he n or thern e dge o ft h ee s tua ry ;T e lB irah ,n ea rt he n o r th b ank o ft he N . H i lazon — t he ma in Na 'aman r i ver t r ibu ta ry — a tt he p o in t where i te n ter st h e p la in ( s ome 8km i n land ) ;T e lK e isan ,o nt h ep la in 2 1 , b e tween t he t wo r i ver s ,s ome 9km S .W .o f Akko ;a nd T e lA f ek 2 ,n ex tt ot he r i ch s pr ing s— t he s ources o ft he B e lus ,o nt h ec oas ta lp la in , 1 0 km S SW o fi t s o u t le t . N . Q i shon — T e l Abu Hawam 2 3 , a tt he o u t le t ;T e lR egev a nd T e lF ar 2 4 , o nb o th s i des o ft he N . T z ipor i t r ibu tary , a tt he e dge o ft he h i l ly l a nd , i nt he c oa s ta l p la in ; a nd T e l e l Amre 2 4 , a tt h e p o in tt he Q ishon e n ter st he p la in ,s o me 1 4 km f r om i t so u t le t( w i th t he r i ver b ed n ex tt oi tl e s s t han 1 0 m a bove s ea l e ve l ) . N . O ren — A t l i t2 6 , o n ap en insu la o nt h es ou thern s i de o ft h eo u t le t ,f u r ther i n land t he r i ver w a s n ever n av igab le a nd a c tua l ly h ad t o h ave a n a r t if ic ia l r ock -cu t p a ssage t hrough t he c oa s ta l s and s tone r i dge ( l ike af ew o ther r i ver s f u r ther s ou th ; a nd s e e F ig . 2 ) . N . Me 'aro th — J ez ira t Nam i2 6 , o na n i n shore i s le tn ex tt oi t se s tuary 's s ou thern e dge ( and s e e b e low ) ;a nu nnamed MB I Ia l a rge s i te o n al ow s and s tone b a se ,e a s to ft he c oa s ta ll a goons ,b u t w e s t o ft i ll ma in c oas ta l s and s tone r i dge 2 7 .

1 4

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MBI Is i te s— m id p ar t o ft h ec oa s t .

1 5

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MBI Is i te s — t h es ou thern p ar t o fc oas t .

1 6

N . Da l iah — T e l Dor ,o n ap en in su la ,n ex tt ot he e s tuary ,t ot he n or th ( and s e eb e low ) ;a nd T e l S har ish 2 8 , o n t he s ands tone r i dge , n ex t t o t he meander ing c our se o ft he r i ver o n t he c oa s ta l p l a in . N . Ha tan in im ( Crocod i lon F luv . )— T e l Ma la t t ,o nt he p romon tory n ex tt ot he s ou thern s i de o f t he o u t le t ,h a sn oB ronze Age r e l ics t ha th ave b een t r aced s of a r .P erhap sa tt ha ts t age t he e n t ire s egmen t o ft h e c oa s t l ine f r om h e re t o Dor w a s i nunda ted w i th t he c harac ter o f as em i -c lo sed mar ine l a goon a sf a re as ta st he ma in s ands tone r i dge ( F ig .2 ) .E a s to ft h i sr i dge ,a nd t h rough a g ap l e ss t han 1 00 m w ide ,t he t r an sg re ss ing s ea c ou ld f i l lt he r i ver b ed a nd i nunda te t h eb a s in o n i t sl e es i de a sf a re a s ta st he f oo to f Moun tC arme l 's s ou thern t i p .T e l Mevorakh 2 8 , w h ich i so n t h e SE s i de o ft h is b a s in ,m igh tf i r s th ave b een s e t t led a sa ni nner h a rbour a round 2 000 B .C .3 0 , a s i nd ica ted b ya na bra s ive r ocky p la tform a ti t sf oo t( i ti sn owaday sa lmos t 4km u p s tream f r om t he r i ver o u t le t ) .T e lB urga 3 1 i ss o me 3km f ur ther i n land o nt he s ou thern b ank o ft he r i ver ,i na s ma l l v a l ley wh ich i s at r ibu tary t o t he c oa s ta l p la in , a nd i ti s a MB I I f or t if ied s i te o f c ons iderab le s i ze . N . Had era — I t sl ower c our se c ro sse st he c oa s ta lp la in b e tween r e cen t s and d une s ,s oi ti sq u i te d i f f icu l t t or e cons truc t t he a nc ien t t opog raphy . Y e t a bou t 1 0 km u p s tream f r om t he p resen t c oas t l ine ,o nt he s ou thern b ank o ft he r i ver ,t here i st he l a rge f o r t if ied MB I Ia s i te o fT e lZ eror3 2 . N .A lexand e r— T e lM ikhmore th i so nt he p romon tory wh ich t hen b ordered t he N W s i de o ft he e s tuary . T e l Hef er , s o me 5km u p s tream , i so nt he e a s tern s and s tone r i dge , n ear t he n or thern b ank o ft h e r i ver3 . N . P o l eg — T e l P o leg3 4 i s al a rge f or t if ied MB IIa s i te o nt he ma in ( s econd )s and s tone r i dge . A t t ha tt ime i tp robab ly l a ya tt he i nnermo s tt i po ft he e s tuary .T he s i te b order st he s ou thern s i de o f t he l a rge a r t if ic ia lr ock -cu tc hanne lt h rough t h er i dge .T h is c u t t ing w a s made a tt he t ime t he s i te w as f i r s ts e t t led a nd w a sp robab ly n av igab le f or s ma l lc raf t ss a i l ing f a r ther i n land a nd o nt he mar shy l a ke t o t he e a s t . N ear A in Z urek iyeh 3 5 , a bou t3 . 5 km S E o fT e l P o leg a tt he s ou thern s i de o ft h i s mar sh , t here w a s as ma l l f o r t if ied MB I Ia s e t t lemen t" . N . Hayarqon — Though t he c oa s ta ls e t t lemen tn ex tt ot he e s tuary h a sn o tb een l o ca ted , many a rchaeo log ica l r emnan t si nd ica te t ha ts uch as i te e x i s ted d ur ing MBI Ia 3 7 . T e l Ger i sa3 8 , s ome 4 km u p s tream a nd S Eo ft he p o in t where N .A ya lon e n ter sN . Hayarqon ,i sal a rge MB I If o r t if ied s e t t lemen t . T e l Aphek" i sl o ca ted f a r ther u p s tream n ex t t o t he r i ver 's f oun ta in h ead . Y af f o — T h i s f a mous h arbour w i th i t s l ong a nd r i ch h i s tory w a s a l so s e t t led a s ap or t c i ty a t a bou tt h et ime o ft h i sh i s tor ica ls t age ( MB I I )4 0 , o n ar ocky p romon tory j u s ts ou th o ft he a nc ien t o u t le t o fN . A ya lon . N . S oreq — Y avneh Y am ' ', av ery l a rge f o r t if ied t own ,l i e so nt he c oa s tj u s ts ou th o ft h ee s tuary , a nd e n -Neb i Rub in ( Te l Mahoz )4 2 l i es af ew k i lome t re s i n land . N .L ach i sh — T e l Mor ,o n as ma l ls and s tone h i l ln ear t he r i ver ' so u t le t ,a nd T e lA shdod ,s o me 8 km u p s t ream , w ere b o th f i r s t s e t t led s o me 3 00 y ear s l a ter t han t he o ther s i te s m en t ioned a bove" .Y e tt hey f i ti n to t he s ame g enera lp a t tern .T he d i f f eren td a te m igh tb ed ue t od i f f eren t g eomorpho log ica l c hange s , p robab ly a f f ec ted b y l o ca l morpho tec ton ic p roce s se s" . N .E v tah — T e lP oran 4 5 i sal a rge f or t if ied MB I Is i te ,a bou t 5km u p s tream ,b u tt he a rea b e tween t h is s i te a nd t he p re sen t c oas t l ine i sn owaday s c overed b y r e cen t s and d unes — s o t he o ld t opog raphy h as b een d i sgu i sed ( F ig . 3 ) . N . B esor (W . Ghaza )— T e le lA j ju l li so ne o ft he l a rges to fi t s k ind ,f o r t if ied f or t he f i r s tt ime a round t h el a ter p ar to ft he 1 9 th c en tury B .C ." a nd l o ca ted 4km f r om t he p resen td ay e s tuary , o n t he n o r thern b ank o ft he w ide r i ver . The a bove s u m mary o ft he n ew ( and maybe t he f i r s t )u rban iza t ion p roces so nt he c oa s ta lp la in d ur ing MB II i lus tra te s au n ique p henomenon t ha t c an b e u nder s tood o n ly i fw e a dd t o t he h i s tor ica lf a c tors at en ta t ive b u t r a ther r ad ica lc hange i nt he c oa s ta lt opog raphy p r ior t o2 000 B .C .

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Th i s c hange w a s t o o f f er t he n ew s e t t ler s a n o p t ima l v ar ie ty o fn a tura l h aven s a nd r i ver ine a nchorage s . Dur ing t h is e ra t h ee n t ire w id th o ft he c oa s ta lp la in s e em st oh ave b een a ccess ib le t o b oa t s c om ing f r om t he s hore l ine . Ano ther c onc lus ion m igh tb et ha tt he n ew s e t t ler so ccup ied t he n or thern p ar to ft he c oa s t l ine f i r s t , wh i le t he f u l l -sca le o ccupa t ion p a t tern a tt h es ou thern r eg ion w a sa ch ieved s ome 3 00 -400 y ear sl a ter — t owards t h ee nd o f MBI I p er iod 4 7 . I ti so n ly r easonab le t o a s sume t ha t d ur ing t h i s t ime , a nd u n t i l t he e nd o ft he B ronze A ge , t h e c oa s ta l p roces ses a tt he r e cen t ly c r ea ted s hore l ine m igh th ave a f f ec ted t he n av igab i l i ty o ft h er i ver sb y s i l t ing u pt he ir l ower c our se sa nd b yb lock ing t he ir o u t le t sw i th w ave -bu i l ts and b a r s .A tp re sen t t h is i st he n a tura l t r end a long t he e x is t ing c oa s t l ine , wh ich a ppear s t o b e s im i lar t o t ha t p er ta in ing t o t he s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C . AKHZ IV Af i ne e xamp le o ft h is h ypo the t ica lr e con s truc t ion o fe ven ts i st ob ef ound a t Akhz i v .T he MB I Ia s e t t ler sf ounded t he ir t own o n ap en in su lar p romon tory n or th o f at r iangu lar b ay — t he j o in t e s tuary o f t he r i ver s K ez iv a nd S ha 'a l ( F ig . 4 ) . T he w id th o f t h i s b ay wa s 30 m a nd i t p ene tra ted w e l li n to t he l ower c our se so fb o th r i ver s .T r ia le xcava t ion sw h ich w er ec a r r ied o u ta t t he e a s tern s i de o ft h e mound p roved t ha td ur ing t he MB II p er iod t he l o ca li nhab i tan t sw idened t he r i ver b ed o fN . K ez iv ,u s ing t he e xcava ted s o i lf o rt h ef o r t if ica t ion r ampar to ft h e ir t own" . B y s o d o ing , t hey a l so i mproved t he n av igab i l i ty o ft h e r i ver c our se . I ti sq u i te r e a sonab le t o a s sume t ha t a tt ha ts t age t he s ame c our se w a sd ammed f ur ther u ps tream a nd an ew ,d iver ted o u t le tw a sc u tf o rN .K ez iv t h rough t he l ow s add le i nt he c oa s ta lr i dge ,j u s tn or th o ft h es i te .T h i s i st he p resen t -day o u t le ta nd t he g eomorpho log i s t sc l a im t ha ti tmu s tb eo fr ecen t Ho locene a ge a nd l a ter t han t he s t age d ur ing w h ich t he p re sen tt opog raphy o ft he s hore l ine w a se s tab l ished" . T he a l tered K ez iv o u t le tc omp le ted t he w a ter moa ta round t h et own ,y e tt he o ld c ou r se c ou ld b e u sed a sa ni nner h arbour u naf f ec ted b yf l ood -car r ied r i ver ine d epos i t s .N .S ha 'a l ,w i th i t se n t ir e c our se c onf ined t ot he c oa s ta lp la in a nd w i th s l ugg ish w a ter f l ow d ue t ot he m in imum g rad ien t ,

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r eached t he e s tuary a lmo s ts i l tf r ee a nd w a sp robab ly s uff ic ien tt oc arry a way t he a ccumu la t ing s and b a rt ot h e o pen s ea . Y e t ,i ta ppear st ha ti tw a sn o ts uff ic ien tf o rl ong .T he S ha 'a li sn o ta p erenn ia lr i ver ,s od ur ing t he d ry s u mmer sn o th ing p reven ted t he g row th o ft he s and b a rf r om g radua l ly b lock ing t he b ay mou th , t urn ing i ti n to a c l osed s and s i l ted l agoon . K eep ing t he o pen ing s and f r ee b yc on t inuous r epe t i t ive d redg ing w a sp robab ly t oo much o f ab urden f o rt he p eop le o f Akhz iv a nd S i syphean t oo . I n s tead , t hey c ho se t o d iver t t he o u t le t o f N . S ha 'a l t h rough ar ock -cu t n av iga t ion c hanne l a tt he n or thern s i de o ft he b ay b y ap a r t ly s ubmerged s and s tone o u tcrop w h ich e ven t oday s ucce s sfu l ly k eep s t he s and f r om mov ing n or th , l e av ing t he a r t if ic ia l e n trance s i l t -f ree a nd n av igab le — a l l t he w ay a round t he mound t o i t s l e e s i de t h rough t h e o ld c our se o fN . K ez iv ( F ig . 7 ) . S O ME OTHER MB I I HARBOURS I nt wo o the rr a ther s ma l ler MB I Ia c oa s ta ls i te st he m ea sures t aken t ok eep t he e n trance t ot he e s tuar ian a nchorage s i l t -f ree s e em t o h ave b een much t he s ame a s wa s d e scr ibed a bove . A t M isref o t -Yam t he o u t le to fN .B e tze tw a sc hanne led b eh ind ar ocky a bra s ive p la tform ,s oi tw a s p ro tec ted b y as em i -c ircu lar n a tura lb reakwa ter f r om t he s ou th a nd SW u pt o 1 50 m i n to t he o pen s ea . T he 2 0 -30 m w ide n av iga t iona l c hanne l e nab led v e s se ls t o s a i l a round t he s ou thern r im o ft h e s e t t lemen t a nd i n to t h e l a goon a nchorage o n t he e a s te rn l e e s i de ( F ig . 6 ) . A t T e lM ikhmore th t he 3 . 5 km w ide e s tua ry t ot he s ou th w a sp a r t ia l ly e ngu lf ed a ti t sn or thern s i de b y ar e ef l ike c on t inua t ion o ft he c oa s ta lr i dge .B yc u t t ing a5m w ide c hanne lt hrough t h is r e ef ,j u s to f ft he p romon tory o n wh ich t he s e t t lemen tw a ss i tua ted ,t he l o ca li nhab i tan t sw ere a b le t oc r ea te an av igab le e n t rance t ot he l a goon a nchorage S Eo ft he t e l ,a nd maybe as i l t -f ree a nd s and f ree o u t f low f o rt he r i ver ( F ig . 5 )5 0 . As omewha td i f f eren tt opog raph ic l a you tw a sa tJ ez i ra tN am i . Ar ocky i s le to ccupy ing o ne -ha lf a cre wh ich w as l oca ted j u s t o f ft he g row ing s and b a r a tt he e s tua ry o fN . Me 'aro th . W i th t he ma in s e t t lemen t o n t he S E s i de o ft ha t l a goon e s tua ry , t he MB I Ia p eop le u sed t he i s le t a s a n o u tpos ta nchorage , wh ich w a sp os s ib le i nt he l e ec hanne lb e tween i ta nd t he s andy s hore . The

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p rob lem w a st ha ts uch ac hanne lw ou ld s oon b ef i l led b ys and ,a nd at ombo lo w ou ld b ec r ea t ed ( a si ti sa tp re sen t ) . I no rder t os l ow d own t h i sn a tura lp roce s s , ama s s ive r e ta in ing w a l l made o f b i gb lock so fr ubb le ,w a sl a id o nb o th s i de so ft h ec hanne l .T he d ra inage o ft he l a goon w a st h en d i rec ted t oa no u t le tw h ich w a sd ug t h rough t h em idpar to ft h ec oa s ta l( e a s tern )r e ta in ing w a l l , s o t ha t t he o u tf low o ft he r i ve r m igh t k eep t h e w ave -car r ied s and f r om a ccumu la t ing i nt h e c hanne l( F ig .8 ) .T h rough t h i sa r t if i c ia lo u t le ts ma l lf r e igh te r sp robab ly s a i led a c ro s st h el a goon t ot h e ma in s e t t lemen t .T he a r chaeo log ica ls u rvey s how st ha tt h i ss e t t lemen tw a sa bandoned a t t h e b eg inn ing o f MB I Ib , w h i le t h e o ne o n t h e i s l e t r ema ined a c t ive a sa n a ncho rag e u n t i l t h e l a te s tp ha se o ft h eB ronze A ge ( LB I I )5 1 . Maybe t h ep reven t ion m ea sure sw ere g ood e nough f o r k eep ing t h et ombo lo o f f ,b u tn o tt op reven tt h ec on t inu ing s i l t ing -up o ft he l a goon b eh ind t h e c oa s ta l s andba r . I ti st e chn ica l ly d i ff i cu l t t op roper ly d a te r ock -cu t c hanne l s a nd a l te red r i ver c our se s , a nd f o r s i te sl i ke M i s ref o t Y am , M ikhmore th a nd A khz i v ,o ne c an c l a im t ho se w ere d ug b yt h eP hoen i c i ans i n6 5 th c en t . B .C . ( a s t he se s i te s w ere a c t ive p or t s d u r ing t ha t p ha se ) . Y e t t he c a se o f J ez ira t Nam iu ndoub ted ly s how st ha ts uch m ea sur e sw e re e xe rc i sed a l ready d u r ing MB I Ia ,a s p o t tery s herd so ft h i sp e r iod a r ea bundan ta tt h eb a se o ft h ep r e sen tt ombo lo ,a nd i n wha tw a s t h en t h e b o t tom o ft he l e e a nchorag e . T h i s h i s tor ica l r ea son ing r e ga rd ing t h e t r emendou s f l our i sh ing p roce s s o ft h e c oa s ta l p l a in , w h i le t he h i l ly h in ter land w a s i n ap ro to -urban ized a nd mo s t ly p a s to ra ls t age ( a si ss ov i v id ly d e sc r ibed i nt h eE gyp t ian t e x tk nown a st h e" S to ry o fS i -nuhe" 5 2 ) ,i st ob ec onnec ted w i th t h e p o l icy o f t h e P ha raoh s o ft h e 1 2 th E gyp t ian d yna s ty . T hey t r ied , a f ter a lmo s t 5 00 y ea r s o f i s o la t ion ,t or enew t he i rc omme rc ia lc on tac t sw i th f o re ign c oun t r ie s5 4 . E gyp t ian g ood s o ft h e t ime a r et ob ef ound a sf a ra way a sM inoan C re te a nd ma in land G reece ( and v i c e -ve r sa ) 5 .We s t i l ld on o tk now w ho se b oa t sc ar r ied t ha ts eaborne t r ade ,y e tw e may s ugge s tt h a td ue t ot h e i r t e chno log ica ll im i t s ,a nd maybe a l so b ecau se o ft h ep a t te rn o ft h et r ade ,t he l ong c oa s ta ls a i l ing r ou te sw ere f avoured . Un l ike t h ei mpe r ia lt ype o ft r ade o ft h eL a te B ronze Age ,a nd t ha tu nde r t h eA s syr ian si nt h ef i r s tm i l lenn ium B .C . ,t h e MB I Ip o l i t ica lu n i t sw er er a ther s ma l l( a so ne c an l e a rn f r om t h e E gyp t ian E xec ra t ion T ex t s )5 a l l o ve r t h e N ea r E a s tern t e r r i to ry . S o , t h e ma r i t ime t r ade m igh t h ave b een o pe ra ted mo s t ly b y t r amp m er chan tmen , a ncho r ing i na ny s u i tab le p o r te nr ou te ,e xchang ing g ood sa nd s t ock ing u pw i th f r e sh s upp l ie so fd r ink ing w a te r a nd f ood . S uch e conom ic a nd c ommerc ia l p a t te rn s c r ea ted ac ommon i n tere s t f o r E gyp t a nd t h ec oa s ta lL evan t ine c i ty s t a te sa nd e n su red t h ee conom ic a nd c u l tu ra lp ro spe r i ty o fb o th s i de s . An i n tere s t ing a dd i t iona l p i ece o f i n forma t ion i nt h i s r e con s t ruc ted p i c tur e o fi n terna t iona l t r ade i st he r e semb lance o ft h et wo h arbour sa t Ma l ia o nt h en or thern c oa s to fC r e te — i n so f a r a st h eu se o ft e chn ique sf o ra vo id ing s i l tage a nd t h e ir s i t ing i nr i ver o u t le t sa nd i n n e rl a goon sa r e c once rned — t ot ho se a nchorage sw h ich h ave b een d e sr ibed a bove" .A l though w ed on o th ave a na ccura te d a te f o rt he t ime t ho se t wo h a rbour sw ere b u i l t ,t h ey w ere a l ready t h e re d ur ing t h e M idd le M inoan P er iod . Ac omp lemen ta ry a spec to ft h e B ronze A ge i st h et ype so f Med i ter ranean b oa t so ft he p e r iod w h ich a re d ep ic ted i ni c onog raph ic s ou rce s .T he c ommon f e a tu re o fa l lt ho se v e s se l si st ha tt h ey a ppea r t o b e f i t ted s o a s t o o pera te s t ern -f ir s t5 7 . T he mo re d e ta i led i c onog raph ic e xamp le s c anno t b e s a t i sfac to r i ly u nde r s tood o therw i se 5 8 . T he n ece s s i ty o fs t e rn -f i r s ts a i l ing b ecome so bv iou si fw ec on s ide rt h el im i ted w id th o f mo s to f t h er i ver c ou r se sa l ong t h eL evan t ine a nd t h eA egean c oa s t s .E n t ry a nd e x i tt oa nd f r om i n r iv e r h aven s c ou ld b e d one i n many c a se s o n ly b y s a i l ing s t e rn -f ir s t . T he h i s tor ica lp i c ture w h ich o ne g e t sf r om r e cen ta r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch a ts ome o ft he c oa s ta l s i te s m en t ioned a bove a nd o ther s s t i l l f a r the r i n land i nd ica te s t h e i r e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l d ec l ine d ur ing t he s e cond p ha se o ft h eM idd le B ronze A ge ( MB I Ib = c . 1800 1650 B .C .E . ) . 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t he h i s tory b ooks a s t he Hykso ss6 0 .A s l ong a s t he ir m i l i tary a c t iv i t ie s , d om ina ted b y t he i nnova ted w ar c har io ts ,c on t inued i nt he h in ter land ,t h e mar i t ime i n terna t iona lt r ade d ec l ined c ons ide rab ly6 1 . I t was p robab ly o n ly s o me t ime l a ter ,d ur ing m id -17 th c en tury B .C . ,a f ter ap er iod o fs t i mu la t i on d u r ing wh ich t he n ew r u ler s w ere a b sorbed i n to t he E gyp t ian w ay o fl i f e a nd t he u rban c u l ture o ft he L evan t , t ha t t he s e a -borne t r ade h a s r e covered a nd t he E gyp t ian d emand f o r t imber s , o l ive o i l , w ine a nd l u xur iou s c ommod i t ie s w a s r enewed . T he w ide g eog raph ica l d i s tr ibu t ion o ft he v ar ious d eco ra ted p o t tery t ype sf ound a tt he r e cen te xcava t ion sa tT e l Daba o n t he N i le d e l ta , n i ce ly i lus tra te t h i s n ew e ra o fp ro sperous i n terna t iona l o ver sea s t r ade 6 2 . A long t h eI s rae l ic oa s t l ine t h i sf l our ish ing p er iod i sb e t ter i lus tra ted i nt he s ou thern p ar t .T h i s w as t he t ime when A shdod a nd h er p or ta lo u tpos tw ere f i r s ts e t t led 6 3 , a nd T e le l Ayu le n joyed c on s iderab le p rosper i ty . T he s i te w a se xcava ted d ur ing t he e ar ly t h ir t ies b yS i rF l inder sP e tr ie a nd h ef ound t ha t ,w h i le t he Hyk so ss i te sh ad f o r t if ied t he p lace w i th mas s ive r ampar t so fT er ra P i sse , d u r ing t he n ex t s t age as e r ie s o fp a laces w ere b u i l t a nd t he c i ty w a s made l a rger . T he j ewe lry g o ld work a nd f i ne i mpor ted c l ay v esse ls t ha tw ere f ound i nt he r i ch ly f u rn i shed g rave s a nd f l oo r so f MBI Ic l e ve l s , ma tch t he f i nd ing si nc on tempora ry s i te si nG reece ( t he G rave C i rc le Ai n Mycenae ) , Cypru sa nd Uga r i t6 4 . Y e tt he n umerou ss carabea a nd E gyp t ian s t a tuar ie sa l so i nd ica te t h e s t rong l i nk s w i th t h e N i le v a l ley . T he s i te o fT e le lA f ju li sl oca ted o nt he n or thern b ank o ft he l a rge s tr i ver o nt he w e s tern s i de o f t he P a le s t in ian wa ter shed ,N . B e sor (Wad i Ghaza ) , o n as ands tone r i dge s o me 2km f r om t he •s ea . The w id th o ft he r i ver i nt h i sp ar ti so ver 3 00 m a nd i th as a lmos tn og rad ien ta l lt he w ay t o t he s ea . As t age d ur ing wh ich i tw a sn av igab le ,e ven f o rs ea -go ing v es se l s ,c an t herefore b ee a s i ly r e cons t ruc ted . I ts e em st ha tw h i le t h i sp ro sperou ss t age w a sa l so s hared b yo ther h a rbour s ,s uch a sA shke lon , Y af f o , Y avneh -Yam a nd T e l G er i sa , t he n or thern p or t s o f Akhz iv , Nahar iya , T e l P o leg , T e lZ eror e t c . w ere e i ther t o ta l ly a bandoned o ri nd ec l ine . Whe ther i tw a sd ue t or ap id s i l tage o ft he ir r e la t ive ly n a r row r i ver ine a nchorage s , o r b ecause t he s a i lor s o ft he n ew e ra p ref er red t r ade r ou tes o n t he h i gh s ea s w e c anno t y e t t e l l . THE S EA P EOPLE AND THE HARBOUR OF DOR A f ter t h e e xpu ls ion o ft he Hyk so ss f r om E gyp t , a nd w i th t he e s tab l i shmen t o ft he E gyp t ian Emp ire u nder t he P haraoh s o ft he 1 8 th d yna s ty , t he p roce ss o fd ec l ine o ft h e h arbour t own s a long t h eL evan t ine c oas t l ine w a sc omp le te . I ts e ems t ha t ,a tf i r s t ,t he n ew r u ler sh ad n or ea l f l ee t w h ich wou ld e nab le t hem t o ma in ta in t he mar i t ime t r ade a nd t o p ro tec t i tf r om t he i n crea sed a c t iv i t ie so fp i racy wh ich o r ig ina ted f r om t he Ana to l ian a nd A egean w a ter s .T imber , o i l a nd w ine c ame t o E gyp t i nt h e h o ld s o f Nor th C anaan i te m erchan tmen wh ich p robab ly s a i led o ve rd i rec t s ea r ou te s( or v i aC yprus )f r om Ugar i ta nd B yb los t ot he N i le . S ot he I s rae l i p or t s w e re b ypassed 6 .L a ter , d ur ing t he E l -Amarna p er iod ( 14 th c en t . B .C . ) , p i racy r eached s uch as t age t ha t t he E gyp t ian s h ad n o a l terna t ive b u t t o t r y a nd h i re t he s e rv ice s o f mar ine mercena r ie s ,k in t ot he S ea P eop le s e rv ing a sm ercena r ies i nt he E gyp t ian a rmy .A st he m i l i tary u n i ts o ft h e S ea P eop le w ere g i ven t he o p t ion t o s e t t le E gyp t ian o u tpos t s a long t he i mper ia l t r ade r ou tes o n l and , t he ir n ava l c on terpar t s w ere e ncouraged t o r e se t t le t he d ec l in ing C anaan i te p or t s i te s , u nder t he a u sp ice s o f E gyp t 6 .T he p resence o f t ho se S ea P eop le ( a s E gyp t ian m ercena r ies ) i sn ow a r chaeo log ica l ly d ocumen ted i n B e i l S hean , D e i r e lB a lah 6 7 , A phek a nd Megg ido .T he ir p resence i st ob ef ound i nh arbour s i tes s uch a sA shdod 8, Yaf f o . T e l Q as i le , A kko a nd D or 69 a s e a r ly a s t h e b eg inn ing o ft he 1 3 th c en tury B .C . T he n ew s e a -or ien ta ted s e t t ler s o f t he L evan t ine c oa s t b rough t w i th t hem a n ew b u i ld ing t e chno logy wh ich w a s i mp lemen ted i n t he c on s truc t ion o ft he r enewed h arbour s . We h ave f ound ag ood e xamp le o ft h i s n ew t ype a tt he q uay s a l ong t he s ou th b ay a tD or . I ts eem s t ha t b y m id 1 3 th c en t . B .C . s ea l e ve l w a s e u s ta t ica l ly l ower t han a tp re sen t b y h a lf a me ter o r more . The l agoona lb a s in o nt he l e es i de o ft he T e l( s ee f i g .9 )w a s much b e t ter d ra ined t o t he b ay i nt he s ou thwes t . G eomorpho log ica l s t ud ie s made b y Y . S nehm s how t ha t a tt ha t t ime t h i sb ay was a lmos tc omp le te ly d e tached f r om t he s ea b yt he p ar t ia l ly e roded c oa s ta lr i dge .

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T h e p a l e o t o p o g r a p h y o f D o r .

On ly an a r row c hanne l ,p o s s ib ly man -made ,e nab led t h eo u tf low o fw a ter f r om t h eb ay t ot h e o pen s e aa nd p rov ided a na c t ive c i rcu la t ion t ha tw ou ld h av ek ep ti ts i l t f ree .T he t ombo lo w h i ch t oday b order st h es ou the rn s i de o ft h eb ay w a sn o tw e l le s tab l i shed a tt ha ts t age a nd t h e re w a sa n av iga t iona lc hanne la nd n a tura la ncho rage a l ong t h ep ro tec ted b ody o fw a ter o nt h el e eo ft h e l i ne o ft h ei n shore i s le t so fT an tura . T he l a rg e n umbe ro fB ronze A ge s t one a ncho r st ha tw e r e f ound a tt h es ou thern p ar to ft h i ss he l te red b a s in i nd ica te t h ev a l id i ty o ft h i sg eomo rpho log ica l r e con s t ruc t ion 7'( f ig . 1 0 ) . T he n ew s e t t ler s a t Dor c ho se t h e n or the rn e nd o ft ha t w a te r p a s sag e f o r t he i rl a nd ing s t ag e . T here , o n t he e a s tern s i de o ft h e c oa s ta l s and s tone r i dge t h ey p i e rced t h e MB I I f o r t if ica t ion , c r ea t ing a no pen ing s ome 4 0 mw ide .A tt h ef oo to ft h i so pen ing ,a ta bou tw a te rl e ve lt h ey l a id a q uay , made o fr ow so fa sh la rp av ing b lock s ,b a sed o n ac our se o fs l im H eade r s . B o th w ing so f t he q uay w ere p ro tec ted b y ma s s ive w a l l so fa sh la rh eader s ,o ve r 2m l ong a nd 6 0 -80 c ma c ro s s ( s ee f i g . 1 ) .T he w id th o ft h eq uay w a sa bou t 1 0ma nd f r om i tt wo a sh la rp aved s t ag e sl e dt ot h e b u i l ta r ea i n s ide t h ec i ty .A round 1 200 B .C .t h es e al e ve lr o se c l o se rt oi t sp re sen ts t a te .T hen t h e s and s tone r e ef a tt h ee n trance o ft h eb ay w a sf l ooded a nd e roded f a s te rb yt he b r eaker s , s ot h e b ay w a se xpo sed t o mor ew av ee ne rgy .T h i sc hange i sd ocumen ted b yt h ec hang ing c ha rac te ro f t he s ed imen t s a long t he q uay . Wh i le t h e s t ruc ture w a s o r ig ina l ly f ounded o n al a ye r o ff i ne w indb lown s and w i th n os e a she l l s ,i tw a ss oon c ove red b y ab eachrock l ike l a y e ro fe ncru s ted b roken s he l l sa nd w ave -ca r r ied p o t tery s he rd s .T he r i s ing s e af o rced t h ep eop le o f Dor t or a i s e t h e i r q uay s a ccord ing ly . We i ndeed f ound t wo h ighe r q uay l e ve l s — a l so b u i l t o fs l im a sh la r h eader sa nd at h i rd o ne ,t he h ighe s t ,w h ich w a sb u i l t ma in ly o fs e conda ry u sed a sh lar f r om t h e p rev iou sq uay .T he se c an b es a f e ly d a ted b yp o t tery t ot h ee nd o ft h e 1 2 th c en tu ry B .C .7 2 . T h i si s v e ry p robab ly p a r to ft h e Do rm en t ioned b yt h eE gyp t ian o f f ic ia l Wen -Amon .I nt h a th i s to r ica l d ocumen t ( ANET , p . 2 6 ) , w h ich i sd a ted t o t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 11 t h c en tu ry B .C . , Do r i s d e sc r ibed a s ah a rbour c i ty o ft h ee t hn ic g roup o fS ea P eop le k nown a sS iku l l in . I ns o mewha t e a r l ier E gyp t ian a nd U ga r i t ian d ocumen t st h ey a ppea red t oh ave p rac t i sed p i racy a nd t oh av e h ad af i gh t ing f l ee t7 4 . T here i sa n a s ton i sh ing s im i la r i ty i nt h e b u i ld ing t e chn ique s , t h e s i ze a nd s hap e o ft he a sh la r c our se s , a nd t he u se o fh eader s , b e tween Dor ' sq uay sa nd 1 )t ho se f ound b yK a rageorgh i sa t K i t ion a nd d a ted t h ere t ot h e 1 3 th c en tury B .C .7 5 .2 )t h e a sh la r c ou r se s o ft h ef i na l s t ag e i n

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Mine t -e l -Be ida — t he h arbour q uar ter o f Ugar i t7 8 ,a nd l a te ly a l so i n R as I bn Han i — a p en in su lar t own o nt he Med i ter ranean c oa s t af ew m i les s ou th o f Ugar i tt ha ts e em t oh ave b een f ounded a tt he s e cond h a lf o ft he l a te B ronze Age 7 ,a nd a tP a la ikas tro Maa — ap en in su lar s e t t lemen to ft he S ea P eop le o nt he w es tc oa s to fC ypru s7 8 . T owards t he e nd o ft he 1 3 th c en tury B .C .a nd more s od ur ing t he 1 2 th , when t he E gyp t ian emp ire f i na l ly c o l lap sed ,t here w a sr oom f or an ew mar i t ime c oa l i t ion a nd i n i t ia t ion o fi ndependen tc i ty s t a tes .T he b u i lder so fl e ve l 1 3a t A shdod ( e ar ly P h i l is t ine? )7 9 ,t he B u i lder s o ft he f i r s t T emp le a t T e l Q as i le ( Dana io i? )" , t he p i ra te s o f Dor ( S iku l l i ) , a nd t h e m e ta l lurg i s ts a t T e lK e i san a nd Akko ( Sha rdanu? )8 1 w ou ld c o l labo ra te w i th t he S idon ian si n ap o l i t ica la nd e conom ica l "Hubur" f o r mu tua lb enef i tf r om mar i t ime t r ade p ro tec ted b y m i l i tary s upremacy i nt he h in ter land a nd T ha las socracy o n t he h igh s e a s 82 .The m i l i tary p owe ro fK ing Dav id ,a nd h i sv i c tor ies o ver t he P h i l is t ine sa nd t he ir a l l ies , e nab led h im a nd h i s s on K ing S o lomon t o c r ea te a n a l terna t ive "Hubur" w i th t he S idon ian s ' r i va la nd n e ighbour ing c i ty o fT yre ,u nder t he r e ign o fH iram 1 ," The G rea t" .T he B ib le d e scr ibes a nd i lu s tra te st h ep o l i t ica la nd e conom ica ls cope o ft ha tc oa l i t ion .T y re wou ld h ave s upp l ied t he t e chno logy ,t h es k i l led ma son sa nd mar iner s ,a nd t he r aw ma ter ia l sf o rp ub l ic b u i ld ing s a nd s eago ing v es se l s . H iram ' s p i lo ts a l so n av iga ted t he c ommon merchan t f l ee ts wh ich s a i led t o Oph ir ( i nt he I nd ian O cean )a nd T ar sh i sh ( s omewhere a tt he w es tern s i de o ft he Med i ter ranean )" . T he I s rae l i te k ingdom wou ld h ave f urn i shed t he P hoen ic ian w i th t he r ura l h in ter land o ft he " Land o fK abu l l" 8 4 , t he l and b r idge b e tween t he Med i terranean a nd t he R ed S ea ( w i th t he n ava lb a se a tE tz ion G eber ) ,a nd a na nnua ls h ipmen to f2 0 ,000 j a r so fw ine ,2 0 ,000 j ar s o fo l ive o i l a nd al a rge q uan t i ty o f whea t a nd b ar ley b y s ea , t o T y re , a nd B yb lo s" .

THE HARBOURS OF THE I RON AGE There a r e t wo c oa s ta l c i t ie s wh ich a re men t ioned i n t he B ib le i n c onnec t ion w i th K ing S o lomon 's mar i t ime e ndeavou r s i nt he Med i ter ranean — D or a nd Y af f o . Y af f o , a l though i tw as t he " na tura l" p or t f or J eru sa lem ( and c on t inued a c t ive ly s o u n t i l t he 1 930 s ) , l a cks t he n a tura l f e a tu re s f o r d i rec t s h ipmen t o f ma s s c argos . T he B ib l ica l c i ta t ion o f l umbe rr a f t sd ragged a long t h ec oa s ta nd d e l ibera te ly b roken o nt he b each a tY af fo" d oe sn o t f i t t h er e a l h arbour a nd s o me s cho lar s h ave s ugges ted t ha tN . Y arqon ' so u t le tw a st he l and ing s i te . T h i s t heory i ss t reng thened b yt he f i nd ing s a tS t ra ta s 8-10 a t T e l Q as i le8 7 a nd w i th t he s torage o fc ommerc ia lj a r sw h ich w ere e xposed t here i nl a ter e xcava t ion sa nd a re d a ted t ot he 1-10 th c en tury B .C .8 . Ano the rb ib l ica ls ugges t ion c oncerns t he l a rge b a s in ,e a s to ft he s i te o fa nc ien tY af fo a nd a bou t o ne k i lome ter S Eo ft he p re sen tc oa s t l ine .T h i sb a s in w a sk nown f o rc en tur ie sa s" E l -Basa" ( t he mar shy l a goon )a nd a tt he b eg inn ing o ft h i sc en tury t he O t toman st r ied t od ra in i tb yr e -open ing ac hanne lt ha tc onnec ted i tt ot he s ea i na nc ien tt imes .T h is p ro jec tw a s n ever c omp le ted ,b u t wh i le d i gg ing i nt he b as in t he w orker sc a me u pon a nc ien ta sh lar w a l l wh ich h as b een p urpor ted t o b e af e a ture o ft he i nner " So lomon ic" h a rbour" . Th is b a s in i sl oca ted o nt he t e n ta t ive a nc ien tc our se o fN . A ya lon , wh ich w a sd iver ted i nr e cen t g eo log ica lt ime sa nd n owaday st urns n or thward a t ap o in ta bou t 3km f r om t he s hore a nd f l ow s a long t h ee as tern s i de o ft he s e cond s and s tone r i dge t o emp ty i t sw a ter i n to N . Y arkon ,n ear T e l G er i sa . A l ayer o f t he r i ver 's p ebb le s , f ound a t d r i l l ing s j u s t o f f shore n or th o f Y af fo 's p romon toy ,t hough n o tb e ing d a ted — p rove st he t heory o ft he e x is tence o fa na nc ien to u t le tf o r N . A ya lon a tt h is p ar to ft he s hore . A sy e t , n ot horough g eomorpho log ica lr e search w a sd one o nt h i si s sue ,s oi ti si mpo ss ib le t os ay w he ther t he a l terna t ion o ft he r i ver c our se w a s man -made ( l ike MB II p ro jec ts d escr ibed a bove ) o r an a tura l o ne . T he t e chn ique o f e xcava ted i nner h arbour b as ins i sk nown a s e ar ly a s i nt he 3 rd m i l len ia B .C . o n t he I ndus" a nd i nt he L a te B ronze Age o nt he N i le ( w i th aw a ter a rea o fo ver 3s q . km )9 1 . E xcava ted i nner h a rbour b a s in s w ere q u i te c ommon i no ver sea sP hoen ic ian c o lon ies i nt he c en tra la nd w es tern Med i ter ranean , s uch a s U th ica ( wh ich w as f ounded i nt he 11t h c en tury B .C .) a nd C ar thage ( s ome 2 00 y ear s l a te r )9 2 .T he r o le o f t he P hoen ic ian s i n t he S o lomon ic mar i t ime a nd b u i ld ing e ndeavour s i nd ica te t ha t t hey c ou ld h ave b u i l t s uch a n i nner h arbour f o r K ing S o lomon a tY af fo .

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T he s econd S o lomon ic p or to nt h e Med i ter ranean w a s Dor . We h ave d e scr ibed a bove t he s e r ie s o f 1 3 th 11 t hc en tury B .C . a sh la r q uay s a tt ha t c i ty . Dav id 's o ccupa t ion o ft he p lace g ave h i s s ucces so r ag ood o pera t ing h a rbour a nd ap opu la t ion w i th ac ons iderab le mar i t ime h er i tage a nd t r ad i t iona l c onnec t ions w i th t he P hoen ic ian ma r i t ime c en ter s a t T yre a nd S idon . T he l o ca t ion o f Dor i ss u i tab le f o rs e rv ing s i xo ft he 1 2S o lomon ic d i s tr ic ts .T he f a c ti st ha tt he c i ty i t se lf w a s o ne d i s tr ic t ( =1/12 o ft he e n t ire e conom ic p ower o ft he g rea t S o lomon ic k ingdom ) w i th t he k i ng 's s on in law a si t sg overnor .T h i sm igh ti nd ica te h ow i mpor tan ta nd e conom ica l ly p rosperou s Dor w a s d ur ing K ing S o lomon 's r e ign 9 3 . I n t he p re sen t s t age o ft he r e search w ec anno to f f er ap hy s ica lr e cons truc t ion o ft he h arbour 's f e a ture sa t Dor d ur ing t he S o lomon ic ( 10 th c en t .B .C . )e ra .Y e ti tm igh tb es i gn if ican tt ha t Dor w a st he o n ly B ronze Age h arbour wh ich w a sn o tl o ca ted i no rn ex tt o ar i ver o u t le t . On t he o ther h and ,i tw a st he o n ly P a les t in ian h arbour wh ich s urv ived t he h ia tu sa tt he e nd o ft he B ronze Age a nd c on t inued a c t ive i n to t he f o l low ing e ra . At h ird f a c t wh ich m igh t b e r e levan t t o t he t wo a bove i st ha td ur ing t he l a s tt wo c en tur ie so ft he 2 nd . m i l lenn ium B .C . t he s ea l e ve lr o se b ya t l e as t o ne m e ter . T h is t r an sg re s s ion r educed t h e g rad ien t o ft he o u tf low ing c oa s ta l r i ver s a nd mus th ave b locked t he ir o u t le t sw i th s i l ta nd s and -bar s .I ti sv ery r ea sonab le t ha ts uch an a tura l p roce ss w ou ld h ave c l o sed o f f mo s to ft he r i ver ine a nchorage s , wh i le n o tn ece s sar i ly a dver se ly a f f ec t ing t h e h arbour b ay o f Dor . At h ird h a rbour t ha tw a sa c t ive i nt he S o lomon ic e ra w a sE tz ion -Gebe r .T he b ib l ica ld e scr ip t ion i so f ah a rbour s i te b yE i lo th ( t he E i l la o ft h e Roman e ra = Aqabah o ft oday ) ,o nt he n or thern t i po ft h eg u lf o f Aqaba" . F rom t here t he c omb ined f l ee to fH iram a nd S o lomon wou ld t ake of f o r t h e t hree -year r ound t r ip t o Oph i r a nd b ack , c a rry ing g o ld , i v ory a nd o ther l uxur iou s g ood sf r om t he s hore so ft he I nd ian O cean .T he i d en t if i ca t ion o ft he h arbour o fE tz ion G eber i s a long la s t ing i s sue wh ich w a s much d i scu s sed a nd s urveyed d ur ing t he l a s tc en tury 9 5 . A l though t he l oca t ion a nd i d en t if ica t ion o ft h i sp lace h ave n o tb een s a t isfac tor i ly p roved s of a r ,t here a re f a c ts i nd ica t ing t he e x i s tence o f an ava l b a se a t t he i s land c a l led J ez i ra t F araun ( =-P ha rao 's i s land ) w h ich i sl o ca ted s o me 3 00 m o f ft he s hore o f t he w e s t c oa s t o ft he g u lf a c oup le o f k i lome ter ss ou th o ft he p o in tw here t he a nc ien tc ro s sl and t r ade r ou te f r om t he Med i ter ranean c oas t d e scends f r om t he h igh p la teau t o t he s eam . T he i s land i sl o ca ted i n ab ay wh ich i s p ro tec ted f rom b o th n or th a nd s ou th w ind s ( s ee f i g . 1 2 ) . T h is n ava l b a se c on s i s ted o f a n a r t if ic ia l ly c losed b a s in , d eep a nd l a rge e nough o n ly f o r r e la t ive ly s ma l l f r e igh ter s , w i th a n o pen ing t ot he s t ra i t sb e tween t he i s land a nd t he ma in land a nd al and ing s t age ,o r aq uay o nt he s hore o n t h e o ppo s i te s i de o ft he S t ra i t s9 7 . A f ter a dd i t iona l s urveys a nd s ome t r ia l e xcava t ion s o n t he i s land i ti sq u i te c er ta in t ha t t he "Co thon" o nt he i s land w a sa r t if ic ia l ly made b yb lock ing an a tura lc ove wh i le b u i ld ing a na sh la r w a l la l ong t he w e s tern s i de o ft he i s land .T he i nner b a s in w a ss o me 6 0x30 m a cros sa nd w as d ug o u t t o ad ep th o f2 . 5 -3 .0 m . Wh i le e xcava t ing a ti t s b o t tom w e d i scovered t wo l a yer s o fh ard c ora l s .S uch c ora ls wou ld n o tg row i n ab a s in l i ke t ha t( t hey a re n o tg row ing t here a tp re sen t )— u n le s st h ec los ing r ampar t wou ld b ed i sman t led t oe nab le t he f r ee f l ow o fo pen s ea w a ter i na nd o u t .T he t wo f os s i lh ard c ora ll a yer s mus tt her efore r ep resen tt wo s t age sw i th in wh ich t here w a s n o c l o s ing r a mpar t . T he f i r s t s t age i so bv iou s ly p r ior t o t he e ar l ies t b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ie s o n t he i s land . T he s econd m igh t r ep resen t al ong p er iod o fn eg l igence d ur ing wh ich t he c l o sure w a s d es troyed b y wave a c t ion . T r ia lt r enche sa c ro s st h ec l o s ing r ampar tr evea led 5b u i ld ing s t age s . The e a r l ie s t o ne h ad n o f i nd ing s wh ich w ere d a tab le f r om t he s t ra t ig raph ica l c on tex t . T he s e cond c an b ed a ted t ot he b eg inn ing o ft he C hr i s t ian e ra a nd t he t h ird ,w i th i t sc a sema te w a l l si s B yzan t ine . On ly af ew p o t tery s herd sw ere f ound o nt he i s land t ha tc an b es e cure ly d a ted t ot he p re -Roman p er iod s .T here a re s o me M id ian i te d ecora ted s herd st ha to nce w ere t hough tt ob eo f t he 1 0 th c en tury B .0 9 8 b u tn ow t he s cho lar sp ref er a ne ar l ier d a te f or t hem ( 12 th 13 th c en tury B .C .9 ) . The se s herds m igh ti nd ica te t h ef i r s tt ime t he b a s in w a sa r t if ic ia l ly b locked .T he h i s tor ica lg ap i n mar i t ime a c t iv i t ie so nt he i s land f r om t he 1 0 th c en tury B .C .t ot he l a te He l len i s t ic p er iod m igh t f i tt he s t age when t he l a ter l a yer o fh ard c ora lw a se s tab l ished i nt he b as in .S oe ven i fw ed on o t

2 9

a s y e t h ave e v idence f or d a t ing t he f i r s t man -made c l os ing o ft he C o thon t o t h e S o lomon ic p er iod , t he c i rcums tan t ia l e v idence s how s t ha t t here i s ah igh p robab i l i ty t ha t i tw a s made s o me t ime a round t h i s e ra ( maybe 1 00 -200 y ea r s b efore h i s t ime , b y t he S ea P eop le e ng inee r s who s e rved t he E gyp t ian 2 0 th d yna s ty ) loo . I n a ny c a se ,s uch C o thons o n an ea r sho re i s land i n r emo te a nd u nsaf e P hoen ic ian mar i t ime o u tpo s t s a re k nown f r om o ther p lace s ' °1. T he r eason ing b eh ind s uch a no u tpo s to na ni s land b ecomes o bv iou s w hen o ne v i sua l ises t h e n ava lr ou t ine o ft he S o lomon ic f l ee t .T he i mmed ia te h in te r land o fJ ez ira tF araun i sw i lderne s s w i th v ery l im i ted f r e sh w a ter a nd f ood r e source s . T he a r ea w a s s pa r se ly p opu la ted b y t h e w ander ing Med ian i tes . T hey wou ld h ave b een more t han h appy t ol oo ta ny p a s s ing c aravan o r t he r i ch s t ores o f o u tgo ing a nd i n com ing g ood s , s uch a s d escr ibed i n t he B ib le . T herefore s t orage o nt he ma in land wou ld r equ ire many g ar r i sons f o rp ro tec t ion . B u t k eep ing t he g ood s o na ni s land i nt he s ea wou ld s imp l ify t he ir p ro tec t ion a nd k eep t hem o u to fr each o ft he g reedy h and s o ft he d eser tr a ider s . S o , o ne m igh tr e con s truc tt he f o l low ing p rocedure : w hen t he f l ee t a rr ived b ack f r om Oph ir , i twou ld a nchor i nt he s t ra i t ,b e tween t he i s land a nd t h es hore .T he m erchand i se wou ld t hen b eu n loaded b yt he l o ca ls ma l lf r e igh ter s ,v i at h ei nner h a rbour ,a nd b e p u ti n to s t ore so nt he i s land .T he f l ee t wou ld t hen s a i lt oE i lo th ( Aqabah )f or af r e sh s upp ly o f f ood a nd d r ink ing w a ter a nd wou ld t hen r e turn t ot he i s land f o rl oad ing t he e xpo r tc argo a nd t hen b eo f ft o Oph ir a ga in . S o ,u nder max imum s e cur i ty a nd i n am in imum l e ng th o ft ime ,t h e s h ipp ing p rocedure wou ld b ea ccomp l i shed .T hen am e ssenger wou ld b es en tt oJ erusa lem t o n o t ify t he k ing t ha tt he g ood sh ad a r r ived . We l l -guarded c aravan sw ou ld t hen b es en t ,l oaded w i th an ew s h ipmen to fc ommod i t ie s ,f o re xpor tv i a Darb -e l -Ghaza ,t ot he s easho re o ppos i te t h e i s land . U s ing t he l and ing s t age t here , t he f r e igh ter s f r om t h e i s land w ou ld b r ing a shore t h e i mpor ted g ood sf r om Oph ir a nd wou ld r e turn t ot he s t ore so n t he i s land t he g ood sf or e xpor t t ha t c ame b y l and f r om t he n or th . T he c aravan wou ld t hen s t ar t i t s r i sky w ay b ack t o t h e Med i ter ranean h a rbour so fK ing S o lomon . Aga in ,s uch ap rocedure wou ld r equ i re am in imum t ime o f ag rea tn umber o fc aravaneer sa nd t he ir e s cor t ing g arr i son s ,i n ac oun try t ha tw as s hor t o ff ood r e source s . T he n ex th i s tor ica ls t age o f mar i t ime a c t iv i t ie sa long t he L evan t ine c oa s t so ft he Med i terranean i nvo lved ar enewa lo fi mper ia lm i l i ta ry a nd e conom ic o pera t ion s .T h i st ime i tw a st h eA s sy r ian s — a n i n land n a t ion w i thou t a ny ma r i t ime h er i tage o fn ava l w arfare o rs ea -bo rne t r ade . T he A ssyr ian m i l i tary t hrea tm igh th ave c au sed i n crea sed i mm ig ra t ion o ft he P hoen ic ians t ot h e ir c o lon ies i n t he c en tra l a nd w e s tern Med i ter ranean a nd h ave e ncouraged t h em t o b ecome s t ronger a nd p o l i t ica l ly a nd e conom ica l ly more i ndependen t . Y e t , s oon i tb ecame c l ear t ha t t here w ere n ew o p t ion s f or i n crea sed ma r i t ime a c t iv i ty i nt he L evan t i t se lf . T he A s syr ian 's i mper ia li nvo lvemen ta long t he s eacoa s t ,t he d emand so ft h e ir i mper ia le conomy ,e ncourag ed t hem t ob ecome g rea tc l ien t so fP hoen ic ian mar i t ime k now -how . T ha ti mper ia ld emand s oon g ave t he P hoen ican p or ts o fT yre , S idon , B yb lus , A rwad a nd S umur at r emendou s e conom ic c l ou t , a l though w i th l im i ted p o l i t ica l a u tonomy , a nd a l so w i th a c hance t o a cqu ire a n ew mar i t ime o u tpos ta long t he s ou thern c oa s to nt he w ay t o E gyp t . A tt ha tt ime ,s oi ts e em s ,t h e c oa s ta lt opography w a s much l i ke t oday w i th r i ver o u t le t s mo s t ly s i l ted u pa nd b l ocked b ys and b ar s .T he n ew n ava lb ases wou ld h ave t ob eb u i l tw i th n ew t e chn ique sa nd a td i f f e ren tt ype so f s i te s . T he P hoen ic ian h arbour so ft he A s syr ian e ra ( 9 th -7 th c en t . B .C . )w ere l o ca ted o nt he l e e s i de o fr ocky p romon tor ie s a nd w ere p ro tec ted b y a r t if ic ia l s eawa l l s . T he e ar l ie s te xamp le o f t h i st ype o fh arbour w a se xpo sed a tT abba t -e l -Hammam o nt he n or th P hoen ic ian c oa s t ' °2.B u t t he b e s t p reserved e xamp le i st o b e f ound f u r ther s ou th , o n t he I s rae l i c oas t a t Ad i t1 0 3 . THE PHOEN IC IAN HARBOUR OF ` ATL IT d i th a sn oh i s tor ic r e f erence b efore t he modern e ra .T h i si ss t range b ecause t he a r chaeo log ica l r emnan t ss how t ha ti tw a sp erhap st h eb e s tP hoen ic ian p or tt ob ef ound s ou th o fA kko a nd a l l t he w ay t o E gyp t . T he n ame w a s u sed i nr e cen t t imes b y t he l o ca l a rabs a l though i th a s n o m ean ing i nt he ir l anguage .T he o n ly e t ymo log ic r e semb lance i st ot he P hoen ic ian p roper n ame A tha l ia , t he n o tor iou sJ udean q ueen ' °4.T he p h i lo log i s ts w ou ld c on s ider t he n ame a sd er ived f r om A tha l=s trong , m igh ty . On a v er t ica l s i de o f a n a nc ien t q uar ry e as t o ft h e P hoen ic ian

3 0

s e t t lemen ta tA t l i tt here a re t wo g rea tl ap idar ic l e t ter si n s ized i nt he r ock — X .O . T he se l e t ter s r e semb le t h eP hoen ic ian s c r ip to ft he 6 th -5 th c en tury ,B .C .=Ä .TH .S ot hey wou ld b ep robab ly t he f i rs tt wo l e t ter so ft he n ame o ft he p lace . I ti sp robab le t ha ti nt he 4 th c en tury B .C .t h is p lace w as c a l led M igda lE d er ( Herd smen 's T ower ) ,o ra si tw a sm en t ioned a tt he c oa s ta li t inerary o f P seudo S c i lax , B ouco lonpo l i s1 0 5 T he r ocky p ro mon tory t ha ts e rved a s an a tura lf e a ture f o rt he P hoen ic ian h a rbour ,t he b ay t o t he s ou th , a nd t he l ow s and s tone r i dge b e twen t he b ay a nd t he s a l t p ond s t o t he e a s t w ere f or t if ied i n t he med ieva l p er iod b y t h e T emp ler k n igh ts o f F rance who c a l led i tC as te /ur n P eregr inorun :( t he p i lgr im 's c a s t le ) .T he ir c hron ic le st e l la bou ta nc ien tw a l l sa nd e ven ah oard o f a nc ien tg o lden c o in s1 0 6 , b u tt hey f a i lt og i ve t he n ame o ft he p lace .A sm en t ioned a bove ,t he f i r s t p or ts e t t lemen tt here i st ob ed a ted t ot he MB I Ip er iod 1 0 7 . I nt he w a ter ,t he o n ly a rchaeo log ica l r emnan t s o f t ha t s t age a re a n umber o f s ubmerged g rave s , a long t he n or thea s t s hore l ine , b e tween t h ep romon tory a nd t he o u t le to fN . O ren . T here a re i nd ica t ions o fa na c t ive t e c ton ic f au l tl i ne w h ich i n ter sec t st he c oa s ta lp la in a nd m igh th ave c au sed s ubmergence o ft he s hore l ine n or th o f t h e p romon tory '° B . B u t t here i sn o i nd ica t ion t ha t s uch a c t iv i ty e x i s ted s i nce t he b eg inn ing o ft he i s t m i l lenn ium B .C . I n a ny c a se , t h i s f au l t l i ne c au sed s ubmergence o ft he w es tern c oa s ta l r i dge n or th o fA t l i t a nd c r ea ted as t re tch o ft he s hore , o ver ak i lome te r l ong , e x tend ing e a s t o f t he p romon tory . T h i s i st hus a v ery r a re t opog raph ic f ea ture a long t he Med i ter ranean c oa s t l ine o fI s rae l( f ig . 1 3 ) . T he P hoen ic ian s e t t lemen tw a sb u i l ta long t h is p ar t o ft he s hore ,a nd i th a sb een t r aced b yo ur r e cen tt r ia le xcava t ions .T he e xcava t ions w h ich C .N . J ohns c a r r ied o u ti nt he t h ir t ies r evea led as e r ies o fr ock c u ts haf tt ombs a nd c r ema t ion b ur ia ls a long t he s ands tone r i dge o nt he S E . H es ugge s ted t ha tt he e n t ire a rea a round t he b ay s ou th o f t he p romon tory w a se nc irc led b y as acred w a l lo fo r thos ta t s .T he b ur ia ls a nd t he s e t t lemen to n t he n or the rn c oas t a re t o b e d a ted t ot he p er iod b e tween l a te 9 th t o m id 5 th c en t . B .C ." ° . Wh i le s t udy ing t he C rusader s 'n or thern p o terna ,J ohns f ound a no lder s t ruc ture u ndernea th .I t w as t he g round l e ve lo f ag a te w i th a na sh lar p aved p a ssage a nd t wo f l ank ing s qua re t ower s1 1 . I nt he m id s i x t ies t he U nder sea E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty o fI s rae lc l eared t he d ebr is n or th o ft h i sg a te a nd e xpo sed a na sh lar p aved r oad t ha tl e dd own t ot he s hore ,t ot he w es tern e nd o f aq uay b u i l t o f n ar row H eader s 1 . 2x0 .4 -0 .5 m o n a verage . I ti s3 8 m l ong a nd a lmo s t i d en t ica l w i th t he s t ruc ture a tT abba t -e l -Hammam . A t t he e a s te nd o ft h is q uay t he re i st he b a se o f amo le t ha tg oe s n or th , i n to t he s ea f or a bou t 1 00 m ( f ig . 1 4 ) .I ti s9 . 8 mw ide a nd b u i l to ft wo a sh lar f a ces o ne ach s i de w i th am ix ture o fa sh lar c our se sa nd r ubb le f i l l ing i nb e tween . T he s i de c our se sa re b u i l to fH eader s ,e ach 2 . 00 m l ong , 0 .40 -0 .55 m w ide a nd 0 . 6 mh igh . Mo s to ft he mo le d id n o ts urv ive a bove t h ef ounda t ion c our se ( f ig . 1 5 ) .A tt he t op o ft he mo le t h ere i sac ros sw a l lo f Header s ,e nc losed b e tween t he s i de w a l ls . A t tached t oi ta re t he f ounda t ions o f ar e c tangu lar t ower ,a bou t 1 0 ms quare , w h ich w as a l so b u i l to ft h es a me t ype o fH eader s .N ex tt ot he w es ts i de o ft he mo le ,s o me 3 0 mn or th o fi t sb ase i na bou t 2m o f wa ter ,t here a re f ounda t ion so f as quare s t ruc ture 4 x4 m , made o fH eader so ft he s a me s i ze a st he mo le i t se lf a nd a lmo s ti d en t ica lt ot he f l ank ing t ower sa tt he g a te w h ich J ohns h as e xcava ted . T he s ub -bo t to m o nw h ich t he mo le w a sl a id i so fr a ther c ompac t mud ,b u tt he b u i lder sp aved i t w i th p ebb les a nd s ma l l r ubb le t o as omewha tw ider e x ten tt han t he w id th o ft he mo le i t se lf . I n l i ne w i th t h ew es tern e nd o ft h ep romono tory ,t ot h en or th ,t h ere a re t wo r ocky i s le t s ,s o me 2 0m a par t . T he s ou thern o ne w a sa r t if ic ia l ly c onnec ted t ot he l and b y ar ampar t( or ab r idge? ) . I t s f ace w as q uarr ied a nd l e ve led i no rder t og e t al a rge r e c tangu lar b u i ld ing ,o fw h ich o n ly t he S E c orner s urv ived ( f ig . 1 6 ) . F rom t h e NE c orner o ft he n or thern i s land a no ther mo le w a sl a id o n t he s ea b o t tom . I tg oes e a s tward a nd i sa bou t 1 30 m l ong .I nw id th a nd c on s truc t ion i ti ss im i lar t ot he o ne i nt he S E , b u t i t sb a s ic c our se sa re i ns o me p lace su nder a lmo s t 5m o fw a ter . I nt wo s ec t ion st h i s mo le s urv ived u pt oj u s ta bove t he p re sen ts urface o ft he s ea .J t sw es tern p ar tw a s l a id o n ar ocky b o t tom a nd i ts e ems a si fi th ad b een a r t if ic ia l ly l e ve led i np repara t ion f o rl a y ing t he a sh la r H eader s o ft he f ounda t ion c our se p roper ly ( f ig . 1 7 ) .

3 1

A tt he t i po ft ha t mo le t here i sat r emendou sr ampar to f ac rumb led s t ruc ture ,o fw h ich t he t wo c ro ss w a l ls o fH eader s s urv ived i ns i tu . I ti sq u i te o bv iou s t ha t t here w a s a ma s s ive s t ruc ture t here , s o me 1 2x30 m w h ich w a s p erhap s al a rge t owe r o r e ven al i gh t h ou se ( f ig . 1 8 ) . T he e n t ire l e ng th o ft he e a s tern s i de o ft he n or thern i s le tw as l i ned w i th aq uay b u i l t o fa sh la r Header s . I tw a s 4 3 m l ong a nd c r ea ted a r i gh t a ng led c orner a t i t s n or thern e nd w i th t h e s ou thern f a ce o ft he mo le 's s t em .T he q uay h a s ma in ta ined i t so r ig ina lh e igh to ft h ree c our ses o f 0 . 6x0 .6 m Header s .I t st op i sl e ve led w i th t he n a tura la b ra s ive s he lf w h ich wa sl e ve led a nd p aved w i th a sh lar s t ones , g i v ing at o ta l w id th o fa bou t 1 0 mt o t h e q uay .

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T he g ene ra ll ayou ti so f ah a rbour b a sed o nt he NE s i de o ft h ep romon tory a nd p ro tec ted b ya l and w a l l . The p rox im i ty o ft h eg a te t ot h eq uay ( on ly 1 4m )i nd ica ted t ha tt ha tw a l ls epa ra ted t he h a rbour f rom t he s e t t lemen t o n t he s hore . I ti s as ymme t r ica l c omp lex o ft wo s epa ra ted f l ank se ach c on ta in ing amo le a nd aq uay . T here a r e n o r emnan t s t oi nd ica te t ha t t h e w a te r c hanne lb e tween t he t wo i s le t sw a se ve rb r idged o rc l osed .T he d iv i s ion o ft h eh a rbour i n to t wo s epara ted moor ing a r ea s b r ing s t o m ind t h e A s sy r t ian t e x t s w h ich i nd ica te " Roya l" a nd " Loca l" mo le sa tA rwad a nd S idon ( t he A s sy r ian Gove rnor h ad t h er i gh tt or e ce ive t a xa t ion s o n ly f r om c argo t ha t w a s l o ad ed a nd u n loaded a tt h e r oya l q uay s )" 3 . The d i s tance b e tween t he t i p so ft he t wo mo le si so ve r2 00 m a nd t h i si st h ew id th o ft h eh a rbour e n t ranc e . I tf ace se a s t ,w i th am ax imum w ave f e tch o fo n ly af ew h und red m e te r s .H ence t h ere wa s n o r i sk o fs t orm w ave s f r om t ha t d i rec t ion . T he g ap a tt h e w e s t b e tween t h e i s l e t s i st oo n arrow a nd t oo s ha l low a nd r ocky f o rs h ip st os a i lt h rough .Y e tn owaday si ti sw ide e nough t o c au se t r oub led w a ter w i th in t h e h a rbour b a s in o n s t ormy d ay s . T he g ap m igh t h ave b een n ar row e ri na nc ien tt ime s( one h a st oc a lcu la te t h er a te o fe ro s ion o nb o th i s l e t sd ur ing t h el a s t 2 5 c en tur ies )a nd u ndoub ted ly i ts e rved w e l lt cs cour o u tt h ea ccumu la ted s ed imen t sf r om t h e h arbou rb a s in ( f ig . 1 9 ) . The a r ch i tec tura l f e a ture s o ft h e h a rbour o fA t l i t s how n o s i gn s o fa dd i t iona l p ha se s o re v en p a r t ia lr e cons truc t ion s .T he f i nd ing sa tt he s ea b o t tom w i th in t h eh a rbour a nd i nt h ev i c in i ty a re a lmo s t e n t ire ly o f7 th -5 th c en tu ry B .C . T he re a re a tl e a s t 7w r eckag e s i te s i nt h e a r ea , w i th b a l la s ts t ones a nd h eap so fb roken p hoen ic ian j a r sa nd g reek amphorae .O fs pec ia li mpo r tance a re t wo w reckag e s i te s b e tween t h e h a rbour a nd t h e s hor e t ot h e e a s t . 1 . Ab a t ter ing r am ,o f ag r eek t r i reme , made o fb ronze c a s t ing ,p robab ly d a t ing f r om t h e4 th o r3 rd . c en t . B .C . 14 . 2 . P a r to f wooden h u l lo f am erchan tman (? )w i th ac a rgo o fb ronze w o rk ss uch a sB aby lon ian b ronze w e igh t s ( mo lded i n as hape o f s wan s ) a nd p ar t s o f r oya l f u rn i ture , d ecora ted c ande labra s a nd A s sy r ian b ronze h e lme t s 15 . T he i n v en tory o fa nchor sf r om t h eh a rbour c on s i s ted mo s t ly o ft h ree h o le s t one a nchor s 16 ,a f ew s t on e s tock s f r om c ompo s i te a nchor s a nd t wo o rt h ree l e ad s t ock s o fH e l len i s t ic o re a r ly Roman a nchor s . I ts e em s a si ft h e h a rbou rw en t o u to fu se s ome t ime d ur ing t h e 5 th c en tury B .C . , t hough i tw a s s t i l l u sab le f o r c a sua l a nd r e la t ive ly s a f e a nchorage i nl a ter c en tu r ie s . I t

3 5

3 6

A t / i t : H e a d e r s a t t h e t i p o f t h e n o r t h e r n m o l e .

s e em s a si ft he C ru sader s d id n o t u se t h e h a rbour a ta l l . E xcep t f o r o ne C ru sade r 's s word n o th ing o ft ha tp e r iod w a sf ound o nt h es e af l oo r .J udg ing f r om t h ee l eva t ion o ff ounda t ion so f t he w e s te rn p ar t o ft h e ir c a s t le t h e s e a l e ve l w a s 0 . 5 1 .0 l ower a tt h e t ime" 7. T he b e s tp a ra l le lt ot he mo le so fA t l i ti st ob ef ound a tt h e ma in g r ea tb reakwa ter a tA kko 19 . T he re t h e b u i ld ing s y s tem i s much t h e s ame ( f ig . 2 0 ) a l though t h e w id th o f Akko ' s mo le w a s a lmo s t 1 2m( a tT yre i tw a s 1 0 .3 m19 a nd i nS idon 1 5 m1 2 0 ) .Ano ther c l o se p a ra l le lt ot h e mo le s o fA t l i ti sAma tho si ns ou the rn C yp ru s1 2 1 . T he o pen ing b e twen t h et wo i s l e t sa tA t l i tr e semb le s t he 2 0 mg ap a t t h e w e s tern s i de o ft h e s ou thern , " Egyp t ian" h a rbour a tT y r e 122 a nd v ery p robab ly i ts e rved f o rw a sh ing o u tt h ec l o sed b a s in t h e re t oo . A sf o rt h ei d ea o fa n Empor ium q uay w h ich i sd i sconnec ted f r om t h es hor e ,t h eb e s tp a ra l le li st h eq uay o nw h ich t h e T owe ro f F l ie ss t and s( f ig s .2 1 -24 )a tt h ee n t rance t o Akko h a rbou r ' 23 a nd t h ea r t if ic ia li s l e to rq uay o nt h e l e e s i d e o ft he s ou the rn e nd o ft h e o f f shor e i s land a tS idon 1 2 4 . R ega rd ing t he p rec i se d a t ing f o r A t l i t 's h a rbou r , w e d o n o t h ave e nough d a ta . T he p o t te ry v es se l sf ound o nt h es e ab o t tom d a te mo s t ly t ot he 5 th c en tury B .C . ,w i th af ew e a r l ie rf i nd ing s b u t n o th ing e ar l ier t han l a te 7 t h c en tury B .C . Y e t t h e n ea rby s e t t lemen t a nd t h e c r ema t ion g raveya rd w ere e s tab l i shed a se a r ly a st h el a te r9 th c en tury B .C . T he p ara l le l sb e tween Akko , T yre a nd S idon a re a l lv ery p robab ly n o te a r l ier t han l a te 6 th -5 th c en tury B .C .S oi ts e em st ha t

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C ro s s s e c t ion t h rough t h e ma in b reakwa ter a t Akko .

A t l i t ,b e ing s omewha t mo re s oph i s t ica ted t han 9 8 th c en tury B .C .T abba t -e l -Hammam i st ob e g i ven a tb e s t a n e s t ima ted d a te o f7 th c en tury B .C . , a nd r a the r l a te i nt ha t c en tu ry . T he h a rbour a tA t l i t r ep re sen t s s ome t e chn ica l i nnova t ion s a nd r ef lec t s o n u nde r s tand ing o f c oa s ta l c i rcu la t ion p roce s se s i ni t s l a you t a nd e ng inee r ing . I ti sa no pen h arbour ,s u i ted f o rf r ee t r ade a nd n o tp ro tec ted f r om s eaborne a t tack s .I nf ac t ,a l l t h eP hoen ic ian h a rbou r so ft h ep er iod w ere o pen i nt h es am e manner . One mu s ta s sume t ha ta t t ha tt ime t h e P hoen ic ian sg overned t h e L evan t ine w a ter si ns ome t ype o fT ha la s soc racy , w i th t h ei mpe r ia lp ro tec t ion o ft h eA s sy r ian sa nd l a te ro ft h eP e r s ian s ,i nd i s t inc tc on t rad ic t ion t ot h e H e l len i s t ic L imen k l e i s to s o f al a ter e r a . T he mo s t d i s t ingu i shed t e chn ica l a ch ievemen t w a s t h e a b i l i ty t o b u i ld v er t ica l a s h lar w a l l s u nderwa te r . T he i d ea o f H eader s , a l though h i gh ly w ork in ten s ive a nd t ime -con sum ing i n s hap ing e ach b lock , i st h eb e s tw ay t op reven td i sman t l ing o ft h es t ruc ture b yt h et r emendou s s uc t ion e f f ec t o f t h e r e f lec ted w ave s . T he t e chn ique w a s p robab ly i nher i ted f r om t he S ea P eop le ' 25 ,y e t w a s i mp roved b y t h e P hoen ic ian s t o t h e p o in t w here t h ey c ou ld l a y t hem i n s e ve ra lm e te r so fw a te rw i th a na ccuracy t ha tw ou ld make i tu nnece s sa ry t oa dd mo r ta ro ro the r f a s ten ing m ea su re s . T he m e thod o fp av ing t h es of ts e ab o t tom w i th aw ide p i l low o fr ubb le a nd p ebb le se f f ec t ive ly a vo ided u nde r t rench ing b yc ur ren t st ha tw e re c r ea ted b yt h er ef l ec ted w av e s .S uch m ea sure sa r e n o ta lway st aken i n modern h a rbou r so ft he L evan t , a nd d amage i si n ev i tab le .T h ea t ten t ion t ha t w a s g i ven b y t h e P hoen ic ian s t o t h e r i sk o f ah a rbou r b e ing s i l ted u p b y s h i f t ing s and d epo s i t s , a nd t h e w a sh ing c i rcu la t ion t h ey managed t oc r ea te b y l e av ing p rope r o pen ing s f o r c on tro l led w ave e nergy t op a s st h rough t h eh a rbou rb a s in w i th ac on t inuou so u tf low ing c ur ren t o f ft h e e n trance , i sp robab ly t h e r e su l to f al ong p e r iod o fo b se rva t ion sa nd p erhap sa l so o fa s e r ie s o ft r ia l a nd e r ro r e xpe r imen t s . I tw ou ld a ppear t ha ta tA t l i tt h el o ca t ion o ft h eh a rbou rw a sc a refu l ly c ho sen t of i ta ne f f ec t ive s o lu t ion t ot ha tp rob lem . One c an a g ree w i th t h ea s sump t ion t ha t b yt h e7 th c en tu ry B .C . a l l t h e se i mprovemen t s a nd i nnova t ion s w e re w e l l u t i l iz ed b y a l l t h e P hoen ic ian h arbou r e ng inee r s ' 26 .

3 8

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F ig . 2 1 .

I s ome tr ic v i ew o ft h e T owe ro fF l ie s a t Akko a tt h eP hoen ic ian mo l e a ti t s b ase .

A KKO T HE T OW E R O F F L IES

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F ig . 2 2 .

P lan , s id e v i ew a nd as e c t ion o ft h e T ower o fF l ie s a tA kko .

3 9

F ig . 2 3 .

T he s ubmerg ed b a se o ft h e T owe ro fF l ie s .

F ig . 2 4 . A e r ia lp ho to o fo ld A kko a nd i t sa nc ien th arbou r .

4 0

NOTES : 1 .

Y .K armon ,P or t sA round t h e Wor ld ,N ew York , 1 980 ,p p .6 6 -68 ;M . Avn ime lech ," The Ma in T rend si nt h eP l e is tocene — Ho locene H is tory o ft he I s rae l ian Coa s ta l P la in , Q ua ternar ia , 6 ,1 962 , p p . 4 79 -495 .

2 .

D .N ir , "Ar t i f ic ia lo u t le ts o ft he Moun tC arme lV a l leys t h rough t he c oa s ta l Kurkar R idge" , LE .J . ,9 ,1 959 ,p p .4 6 -54 .

3 .

D .H . Y aa lon & J . Dan ," Fac tor sc on tro l l ing S o i lF orma t ion a nd D i s tr ibu t ion i nt h e Med i ter ranean C oa s ta lP la in o f I s rae l d ur ing t he Qua ternary" , P roceed ing Q ua ternar ian S o i l , 9 , 1 967 ; Y . N ir , "As ia , M idd le E a s t , Coas ta l Mo rpho logy : I s rae l a nd S ina i" , i nM .L . S chwar tz ( ed .) , T he E ncyc loaped ia o fB eache s a nd C oas ta lE nv i ronmen t s , S troudburg , P enn . , 1 982 , p p . 8 6 -98 .

4 .

Y .N ir , "Of f shore A r t if ic ia lS t ruc ture sa nd t h e i rI n f luence o nt he I s rae la nd S ina i Med i ter ranean B eache s" ,G eo l . S urv . o fI s rae lR ep . MG 4 /82 ,J erusa lem , 1 982 ;D . B owman ," Tran sforma t ion p a t terns o fs ubaer ia lM icro t ida lb eaches" , P hy s . G eogr ., 2 , 1 , 1 981 , p p . 3 4 -46 .

5 .

K .O . Emery & D . N eev , "Med i ter ranean B eaches o fI s rae l" ,B u l l . G eo l . S urv . o fI s rae l , 2 6 , 1 960 , p p . 1 24 .

6 .

Y . N ir , 1 982 ( s ee n o te 3a bove ) , p .8 9f .

7 .

D .N eev & Z .B en -Avraham ," The L evan t ine Coun tr ie s :T he I s rae l iC oa s ta lR eg ion" ,i nA .E .M . Na irn ,W .H .K anes & F .G . S t eh l i ( ed . ) , T he O cean B as in sa nd Marg ins ‚Vo l . 4 A , P lanum P ub l . , 1 977 , p p . 3 55 -377 ( s pec . p p . 3 69 -374 ) .

8 .

A . R aban , "Recen t Mar i t ime A rchaeo log ica l R e search i nI s rae l" , L J .N .A . , 1 0 ,4 , 1 981 , p p . 2 87 -308 ( s pec . 2 88 -292 ) ; " Submerged P reh i s tor ic S i te s of t h e Med i ter ranean C oa s t o fI s rae l" , i nN .C . F lemm ing a nd P .M . Ma s ter s Inman ( ed . ) , Q ua ternary C oas t l ine sa nd Mar ine A rchaeo logy , L ondon , 1 983 , p p . 2 15 -232 .

9 .

I b id . , p p . 2 22 -4 .

1 0 .

M .W .P rausn i tz ," The S equence o fE ar ly ,t oM idd le P a leo l i th ic F l in tI ndus tr ie sa long t h e Ga l i lean L i t tora l" , LE .J . , 1 9 ,

1 .

E .E . Wreschner , "Newe -Yam — A s ubmerged L a te N eo l i th ic S e t t lemen t N ear Moun t C arme l" , E re tz I s rae l , 1 3 ,

1 969 ,p p . 1 29 -136 . ( S teke l is v o l .) , 1 977 , p p . 2 59 -270 . 1 2 .

A . R aban , 1 983 ( s ee n o te 8 ) .

1 3 .

R . Gophna , T he s e t t lemen to ft h eC oas ta lP la in o fI s rae lD ur ing t h eE ar ly B ronze A ge ( Ph . D .T hes i s ,i nH ebrew ) ,T e l Av iv , 1 9 74 .

1 4 .

I .P e r lman & J .Y e l l in , " The P roven ience o f Ob s id ian f r om N eo l i th ic S i te s i nI s rae l , LE .J . , 3 0 , 1 980 , p p . 8 3 -88 .

1 5 .

H . K an tor , "The R e la t ive Chrono logy o fE gyp ta nd i t sF ore ign Corre la t ions b efore t he L a te B ronze A ge" , i nR .W . E he r ich ( ed .) , C hrono log ies i n O ld Wor ld A rchaeo logy , C h icago , 1 965 , p p . 4 4 -52 ( s pec . p . 4 5 ) ; C . R enf rew , T he Emergence o fC iv i l iza t ions , L ondon , 1 972 , p .4 3f .

1 6 . 1 7 .

S ee R . Gophna , 1 974 ( no te 1 3 a bove ) , p .8 4f . Y . N i r ( no te 3 a bove ) , p . 8 9 ; N .C . F lemm ing , A . R aban & C . Goe tsche l , " Tec ton ic a nd E us ta t ic C hanges o n t h e Med i te rranean Coa s t o fI s rae l i nt h e l a s t 9 000 y ear s" , i nJ .C . Gamb le & R .A . Yorke ( ed s . )P rogre s s i nU nd erwa ter S c ience , L ondon , 1 978 , p p . 3 3 -93 ( see p .3 8 ) .

1 8 .

M . Do than , "The E xcava t ion s i nN ahar iyah , P re l im inary R epor t (season s 1 954/55 )" , LE .J . , 6 ,1 956 , p p . 1 4 -25 .

1 9 .

M .W . P rausn i tz , " The E xcava t ion s a tK abr i" ,E re tz I s rae l , 9 ,1 9 69 , p p . 1 22 -129 ( Hebrew ) .

2 0 .

M . Do than , "Akko E xcava t ion R epor t ,F i r s tS eason 1 9 73/74" ,B ASOR , 2 24 , December 1 976 ,p p . 1 48 ;M . Do than & A .R aban , "The S ea Ga te a t Anc ien t Akko" ,B ib l ica lA rchaeo log i s t ,4 3 , 1 980 ,p p .3 5 -39 ;A .R aban ," The B ib l ica lP or t o fA kko o n I s rae l 's C oa s t" ,A rchaeo logy , 3 6 , 1 983 , p p . 6 0 -6 1 .

2 1 . 2 2 .

J .B . H umber t ( ed .) , T e lK e i san , I , J eru sa lem -Par i s , 1 978 . S ee M . P rausn i tz , "Accho ,P la in o r ' ,i nM . Av i -Yonah ( ed .) ,E ncyc loped ia o fA rchaeo log ica lE xcava t ions i nt h e Ho ly L and , Vo l 1 ,J erusa lem , 1 975 , p p . 2 3 -25 ; a nd t h ere f o rT e l B irah .

2 3 .

R .W . Ham i l ton , " Excava t ions a tT e l Abu Hawam" , QDAP , 4 , 1 935 , p p . 1 69 ; M . A vn ime lech , " Remark s o n t h e G eo log ica l F ea tures o ft h e S urround ing s o fT e l Abu Hawam . . ." ,A t iqo t , 2 ,1 959 , p p . 1 03 -105 .

2 4 .

S ee P rausn i tz ( no te 2 2 a bove )a l so f o rT e l R egev .

2 5 .

C .N . J ohns , " Excava t ions a tP i lg r im 's C as t le . A t l i t( 1 932 ) : T he Anc ien t T e l a nd t h e Ou ter D ef ence s o ft h e C as t le" , QDAP , 3 , 1 934 , p p . 1 45 164 .

2 6 .

N .C . F l em m ing e t . a l . ( s ee a bove n o te 1 7 ) , p p . 5 4 -56 .

2 7 .

R . Gophna & P .B eck ," The R ura lA spec to ft he S e t t lemen tP a t tern o ft he Coas ta lP la in i nt h eM idd le B ronze Age I " , T e lA v iv , 8 , 1 981 , p p . 4 5 -80 ( s ee p p . 4 6 -49 ) .

2 8 .

Op . C i t .

2 9 .

E .S t e rn , "Te l Mevorakh" ,i nM .A v i -Yonah & E .S tern ( ed . ) ,E nc .A rch .E xcay . i nt h e Ho ly L and , Vo l .I I ,J erusa lem ,

3 0 .

F o r t h e g eomorpho log ica l r e con s truc t ion o f t h e p a leo topog raphy s e e D . N eev e t . a l . , " The Young ( Po s t L ower P l iocene ) Geo log ica l H i s tory o ft h e C ae sarea S t ruc ture" ,I s r . J our . o fE ar th S c ience s , 2 7 , 1 978 , p p . 4 3 -64 .

1 9 77 ,p p . 8 66 -870 .

4 1

3 1 .

R . Gophna & E .A ya lon ," Surv ey o ft h eC en t ra lC oa s ta lP la in ,1 978 1979 :s e t t lemen tp a t tern o ft h e MB I la" ,T e lA v i v , 7 ,1 980 ,p p . 1 4 7 15 1 ;M . Kochav i ,P .B eck & R . Gophna ,"Aphek -An t ipa tr i s ,T e lP o leg ,T e lZ e ror a nd T e lB urga :F ou r F or t i f ied s i te so ft h e MB Il ai nt h eS haron P l a in" , ZDPV ,9 5 ,1 9 79 ,p p . 1 2 1165 ( Heb rew v e r s ion i nE r e tz I s rae l , Vo l . 1 5 , 1 9 81 , p p . 8-9 1) .

3 2 .

O p . C i t .

3 .

S .M .P a ley ,Y .P o ra th & R .R .S t ieg l i tz ," The Emeq H ef e rA r chaeo log ica lR e sea rch P ro jec t , 1 982" ,I EJ , 3 2 , 1 982 ,p p . 2 59 -26 1 .

3 4 .

S ee n o te 3 1 a bove .

3 5 .

R . Gophna & B eck ( s ee n o te 2 7 a bove ) , p .7 .

3 6 .

R . Gophna & E .A ya lon , "A F or t if i ed MB I la s i te a tA in Z u rek iyeh i nt h eP o leg B a s in" ,T e lA v iv , 9 ,1 9 82 ,p p .6 9 -78 .

3 7 .

S ee s ummary a tJ .K ap lan " Te lA v iv" ,i nE .S t e rn & M . A v i -Yona ( e d . ) ,E nc .A rch . E xcay . i nt h eH o l yL and , Vo l .I V . 1 9 78 ,p p . 164 1165 .

3 8 .

S ee n o te 3 1 a bove a nd N . A v igad ," Te lJ er i she" ,i nE nc .A r ch . E xc . ( M . A v i -Yonah ,e d . ) , Vo l . I , 1 9 76 ,p p . 5 75 -578 .

3 9 .

S ee n o te 3 1 a bove : Kochav i , B eck & Gophna , 1 9 79 .

4 0 .

H .K ap lan & J .K ap lan ," Jaf f a" ,i nM .A v i -Yonah ( e d . ) ,E nc .A r ch .E xc .i nt h e Ho ly L and , Vo l .I ,J e ru sa lem , 1 976 ,p p . 5 32 -54 1 .

4 1 .

J .K ap lan , " Yavneh -Yam" , i b id . ,V o l . I V , 1 9 78 ,p p . 1 2 16 12 18 .

4 2 .

R . Gophna , 1 9 74 ( s ee n o te a bove ) , p .9 2 .

4 3 .

M . Do than ," The F ounda t ion o fT e l Mo ra nd T e lA shdod , AC hap t e ri nt h eR e la t ion sh ip b e tween aM e t ropo l i sa nd i t s H a rbou r" ,I EJ , 2 3 , 1 973 , p p . 1 17 .

4 4 .

D .N eev ,G .A lmago r ,A .A rad ,A .G inzbu rg & J .K . Ha l l ," The G eo logy o ft h eS ou th E a s tern Med i t e r ranean" ,G eo l . S ur v . o fI s rae lB u l l . No . 6 8 ,J eru sa lem , 1 976 ,p p . 2 4 -31 .

4 5 .

R . Gophna ," Fo r t if i ed S e t t lemen t sf r om t h e EB a nd MB I Ia tT e lP oran" ,E re tz I s rae l , 1 3 , 1 977 ,p p .8 7 -90 ( Heb r ew ) .

4 6 .

0 .T ufne l l ," E l -A j ju l ,T e l" ,i nM .A v i -Yonah ( e d . ) ,E nc .A rch .E xc . i nt h e Ho ly L and ,V o l . 1 ,J eru sa lem ,1975 ,p p .5 2 -60 .

4 7 .

S ee a bove n o te 4 3 ,a nd A . K amp i sky , T he R i se o fa n U rban C u l tu re , J eru sa lem , 1 978 .

4 8 .

M .W . P rau sn i tz , "Akhz iv" ,i nM . A v i -Yonah ( ed . ) ,E nc . A rch .E xc . i nt h e Ho ly L and , Vo l . I ,J eru sa lem , 1 975 ,p .2 8 ; i d em , "Akhz iv a nd A vdon : On t h eP lann ing o f aP or ta nd aF or t re s sC i ty i nt h eP la in o fA cre" ,E r e tz I s rae l , 1 , 1 9 73 , p p . 2 19 -223 ( Heb rew ) ; i d em , " The P lann ing o ft h eM idd le B ronz e A g eT own a tA chz ib a nd i t s D e f ence s" , I EJ , 2 5 , 1 9 75 , p p . 2 11-225 .

4 9 .

D . B owman ,A khz i v -Ro sh Han iq ra : Morpho l ogy a nd S ed imen t so ft h eC oa s t l ine , Ha if a , 1 972 ( Heb r ew ) , p p . 2 5 -27 .

5 0 .

P rov i s iona lR epor to ft h eS u rv ey c a r r ied o u tb y Mr s .P . McC lanhag en a nd M i s sR . G er twagen d u r ing J u ly 1 983 ,f o r t h eC en te rf o r Mar i t ime S tud ie sa t Ha if a Un ive r s i ty a nd " Emeq H e f e rR eg iona l P ro jec t" .

5 1 .

S e e n o te 1 7a bov e .

5 2 .

ANET , p p . 1 8 -22 .

5 3 .

S ee G .A . R e i sne r , i nC amb r idge A nc i en tH i s to ry ( r ev . e d . ) ,V o l . 1 , 2 ,p p . 5 40 -544 .

5 4 .

P . Mon te t ,B yb lo se tI ' Egyp te , P a r i s , 1 929 .

5 .

W . H e lck ,D i eB ez iehungen Ä gyp tens u nd V ord e ra s i en sz u rA ga i sb i si n s 7J ahrhund e r t v .C hr . , D a rm s tad t , 1 9 79 , p p . 3 4 -83 .

5 6 .

F o r Ma l ia s e e , A . R aban , "D ie A n t iken Ha f en d e s M i t te lmee r s" i nR upe r to C a ro la , H e ide lb e rg , 1 981 , p p . 3 9 -84 ( s ee p .4 90 ; " Rec en t Ma r i t ime A rchaeo log ica l R e sea rch i nI s rae l" ,I JNA , 1 2 .3 , 1 9 83 ,p p . 2 38 -24 1 .

5 7 .

S ee e . g .P .J ohn s tone ," S te rn f i r s ti nt h eS tone A ge ?" ,I JNA ,2 ,1 9 73 ,p p .3 12 ;S .S tucch i ," I Ig i ard ino d e l le E sp er id i el e t a ppe d e l la c ogn i scenza g r eca d e l la c o s ta C i renac ia" , Q uad e rn id ia r cheo l og ia d e l l aL ib ia , 8 ,1 976 ,p p . 1 9f .

5 8 .

A . R aban , " The ra F l ee t R econ s ide r ed" ,A JA , 8 , 1 9 84 , p p . 1 19 .

5 9 .

S e ee . g .M . Kochav i ,A phek -An t ipa t r i s ,T e lA v iv , 1 977 ,p .7 ;i d em ," T e lZ e ro r" ,i nA v i -Yonah & S t e rn ( e d . ) ,E nc .A r ch . E xc . i nt h e Ho ly L and ,V o l .I V ,J e ru sa lem ,1 978 ,p p . 1 223 1225 ;E .S t e rn ,T e l Mevorakh , V o l .2 :T he B ronze A ge , Q ed em , 1 8 . J e ru sa lem , 1 9 84 ; M . Do than , " T e l A kko , 1 9 82" ,I EJ , 3 , 1 9 83 , p p .

6 0 .

F o rw ide r ,y e tl e s su p to -da te r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h eh i s tor ica le v en t sd ur ing t h i sp e r iod ,s e eB . Maza r , "M idd le B ronz e A g e i nP a le s t ine" , I EJ , 1 8 , 1 968 , p p . 6 5 -97 .

6 1 .

F o rt h ed ec l in ing o ft h e ma in Empo r ium o ft h e t ime ,a tB yb lo s , s e e Maza r , o p . c i t . p .8 6f . , n o te 5 8 .

6 2 .

A nd s e e e . g . R .M . Mer r i l lee s , T rad ea nd T ranscend ence i nt h eB ronze A ge L evan t , S IMA , XXX IX ,G o teborg , 1 9 74 .

6 3 .

S ee M . Do than , n o te 4 3 a bove .

6 4 .

F .P e tr ie ( e t .a l . ) ,C i ty o fS hephe rd K ing s :A nc ien tG aza ,V o l . 5 ,L ondon , 1 9 52 ;M .A r tzy ( e t .a l . ) ,L evan t , X , 1 978 ,p p . 9 9 111 .

4 2

6 5 .

F or g enera ls urvey o ft h is p er iod s e eT .S äve -Söderbergh ,T he N avy o ft h e1 8 th E gyp t ian Dynas ty , Upp sa la , 1 946 ;a nd f o rt h et yp ica lc harac ter o fl ong shore p i racy d ur ing t he L a te B ronze Age ,s e eE .L inde r , "Nava lw ar fa re i nE l -Amarna Age" i nD .B lackman ( cd . ) Mar ine A rchaeo logy , C o ls ton P aper s ,2 3 ,L ondon , 1 973 ,p p .3 17 -324 ;S . Wach smann , UNA , 1 0 , 1 98 1 , p p . 1 87 -8 ; 1 , 1 982 , p p . 2 97 -8 .

6 6 .

S ee i nK . S andar s , T he S ea P eop le , L ondon , 1 978 .

6 7 .

T . Do than , De ir e l -Ba lah , Q edem 1 0 , J eru sa lem , 1 978 .

6 8 .

M . Do than , "Ashdod a t t he e nd o f L a te B ronze Age . . ." i n F .M . C ro ss ( ed . ) ,Sympos ia ; 7 5 a nn iver sary o f ASOR , C amb r idge , Mas s . , 1 979 , p p . 1 2 5 -132 .

6 9 .

A . R aban ,I JNA , 1 2 , 1 983 , p p . 2 29 -24 1 .

7 0 .

Y .S neh ,T he P a leogeography a nd H i s tory o ft h eC oa s to fD or i nt h e Ho locene , aMa s ter 's T hes is , Ha ifa Un iver s i ty , 1 981 .

7 1 .

S . Wach smann & K . R aveh , I JNA , 9 , 1 980 , p p . 2 56 -26 1 .

7 2 .

A . R aban , I EJ ,32 , 1 982 , p p . 1 45 -7 ; 2 56 -259 ;I JNA , 1 2 , 1 983 , p p . 2 29 -242 .

7 3 .

G .A . L ehmann , U gar i t -For schungen , 1 , 1 979 , p p . 4 81-494 .

7 4 .

S ee S . Wachsmann , I JNA , 1 , 1 982 , p .29 ' ? ; A . R a iney , T e lA v iv , 9 , 1 982 , p p . 1 33 -4 .

7 5 .

V . K a rageorgh is , K i t ion , L ondon , 1 976 , p . 5 9f ; K . N ico laou , T he H i s tor ica l T opog raphy o fK i t ion , S IMA XL I II , Go tebo rg , 1 976 , p p . 7 3 -82 .

7 6 .

C .F .A . S chaef f er , U gar i t ica , I V , P ar is , 1 962 , p . 1 53 , F ig . 1 ;S yr ia , 1 8 , 1 937 , p . 1 35f . , F ig s . 5 6 .

7 7 .

A . B ounn i e t . a l . , S y r ia , 5 6 , 1 979 , p .2 2 1f . , F ig . 1 3 ; p .2 48 , F ig . 2 4 .

7 8 .

V . K arageorgh is , B u l le t in C or respond ence He l len ique , V o l . CV I , 2 , 1 982 , p .7 2 1f ; Gunne l Hu l t , B ronze A ge A sh lar Masonry i nt he E a s te rn Med i te r raenean : C yprus , U gar i t , a nd N e ighbor ing R eg ionsSI MA , LXV I , Gö teborg , 1 983 ; E .M . L aper rousaz , "Ap ii s l e s ' Temp le d e S a lomon ' , l a BA MAH d e T e l Dan : l ' u t i l isa t ion d e p i er re s äb a ssage p hen ic ien d an s l aP a les t ine p ri -ex i l ique" , S yr ia , L IX , 1 982 :223 -237 .

7 9 .

S ee n o te 6 8 a bove .

8 0 .

A . Mazar , T e l Qa s i l eh , 1 :t h e T emp les , Q edem 1 2 ,J erusa lem , 1 9 79 .

8 1 .

S ee n o te 2 1 a bove ; M . Do than , I EJ , 3 1 , 1 981 , p p . 11-2 ; J -B . Humber t ,I EJ , 3 2 , 1 982 , p p .63-64 .

8 2 .

B . Mazar , "The P h i l is t ines a nd t h e R ise o ft he I s rae l i te a nd T yr ian K ingdoms" , T he I s rae lA cademy o fS c iences a nd Human i t ies , P roceed ing s , Vo l . I , No . 7 ,J erusa lem , 1 964 .

8 3 .

K ing s I ,9 : 26 -28 ; C hron ic . I ,9 : 2 1 .

8 4 .

K ing s I ,9 : 11-13 .

8 5 .

C hron ic . I , 2 : 9 .

8 6 .

K ing s I ,5 : 23 ; C hron ic . I , 2 : 15 .

8 7 .

B . Mazar , I EJ , 1 ,1 951 , p p . 1 36 140 .

8 8 .

A . Mazar , E nc . A rch . E xc . i nt h e Ho ly L and , J eru sa lem 1 978 , p p . 9 68 -975 .

8 9 .

J .E . Hanover , PEFQS , 1 903 , p p . 2 58 -264 ; 3 55f .

9 0 .

S .R ao , " Sh ipp ing a nd Mar i t ime T rade o ft h e I ndu s P eop le" ,E xped i t ion , 7 ,1 965 , p p . 3 0 -37 .

9 1 .

B . K amp & D . O 'Connor , "An a nc ien t N i le Ha rbour . . . ' t he B irke t Habu ' " , I JNA , 3 ,1 974 , p p . 1 0 1136 .

9 2 .

A nd s e e D .J . B lackman , "Anc ien t Harbour si nt he Med ter ranean ,P ar t 1 " ,I JNA , 1 , 1 982 ,p p . 7 9 -104 ( s pec ia l ly p p . 9 2 -94 )a nd t he e x ten s ive a d jacen tb ib l iography t h ere .

9 3 .

F o ra no ther i d ea s e e Y . Aharon i , " The S o lomon ic D is tr ic ts" , T e lA v iv , 3 ,1 976 , p p . 5 15 .

9 4 .

K ing s I ,9 :26 .

9 5 .

F o rt h e d i scus s ions c oncern ing t h e v ar ious s ugge s ted i d en t i f ica t ions s e e B . Mazar ,E re tz I s rae l , Vo l . 1 2 , J erusa lem , 1 975 ,p p .4 6 -8 ;Z . Meshe l ,i b id . ,p p .4 9 -56 ;N .G lueck ,B ASOR , 1 88 , 1 967 ,p p .8 38 ;i d em ," Te l Khe le if eh" ,E nc .A rch . E xc . i nt he Ho ly L and , Vo l . I I , J e ru sa lem , 1 977 , p p . 7 13 -717 ; B . Ro thenberg , PEQ , 1 962 , p p . 5 71 .

9 6 .

F or d escr ip t ion o ft h is r oad s e eB . Ro thenberg ,G od 's W i ld erne s s , L ondon , 1 96 1 ,p p .7 9 -92 ;Z . Me she l ," The H is tory o f ' Darb e l -Ghaza ' — T he Anc ien t R oad t o E i la t a nd S ou thern S ina i" ,E re tz I s rae l , 1 5 , J eru sa lem , 1 981 , p p . 3 58 -371 .

9 7 .

F or d e ta i led d e scr ip t ion o ft h en ava lf e a tures o nt h e i s land a nd o nt he s hore n ex tt o i ts e eA . F l inder ," The i s land o f J ez ira t F araun" , I JNA , 6 ,1 977 , p p . 1 27 -139 .

9 8 .

R o thenberg , 1 96 1 ( no te 9 6 a bove ) , p .9 1 , n o te 2 .

9 9 .

B .R o thenberg & J .G la ss , "M id ian i te P o t tery" ,E re tz I s rae l , 1 5 , J erusa lem , 1 981 , p p . 8 5 114 .

1 00 . B . R o thenberg , T imna — V a l l ey o fB ib l ica lC opper M ines , L ondon , 1 972 , p p . 1 25 132 ; a nd .o p . c i t . 1 0 1 . D . B lackman , I JNA , 1 , 1 982 , p .9 3f . 1 02 . R .J . B ra idwood , S yr ia , 2 1 , 1 940 , p p . 1 83 -226 .

4 3

1 0 3 . F or as umma ry o ft h eP hoen ic ian h arbou rw o rk so ft h a tp e r iod a tt h eL evan ts e eH . F ro s t , "Anc ien tH a rbour sa nd Ancho rag e s i nt h e E a s te rn Med i te r ranean" , i nU nd erwa te rA rchaeo logy an a scen t d i sc ip l ine , UNESCO , P a r i s a nd L ondon , 1 972 , p p . 9 5 114 . F or t h e P hoen ic ian h a rbou r o fA t l i t s e e E . L inde r , A rchaeo log ia , 1 7 , 1 9 67 , p p . 2 5 -29 ; E . L inde r &A . R aban , Mar ine A rchaeo logy , L ondon , 1 976 , p .5 6f . 1 04 . K ing s! ! , 1 :1-20 . 1 0 5 . M . A v i -Yonah , G aze t tee ro fR oman P a l e s t ine ,Qedem ,5 ,J e ru sa lem , 1 9 76 , p .4 3 ; K . G a l l ing , ZDPV , 6 1 , 1 9 38 , p .8 1 . 1 0 6 . M . B enven i s t i , T he C ru sad e r si nt h e Ho ly L and , 1 9 70 ,p p . 1 76f f . 1 0 7 C .N . J ohn s( s ee n o te 2 5 a bove ) . 1 0 8 . G . Gv ir tzman & A .K lang ," Neog ene l e f tl a te ra ls hea rs y s tem a c ro s st h en o r thern C oa s ta lP la in o fI s rae l" ,G og S un ' .o f I s rae l , 1 983 ;D .N i r , "Ar t if i c ia lo u t le t so ft h e Moun tC arme lV a l ley st h rough t h eC oa s ta l' Kurkar 'r i dge" ,I EJ ,9 ,1 959 , p p . 4 6 -54 . 1 0 9 . A . R aban ,A r chae log ica lN ews , 7 8 -9 , 1 9 82 , p p . 2 4 -5 ( i n H eb r ew ) . 10 . C .N . J ohn s , " A t l i t" ,E nc . A r ch . E xc . i nt h e Ho ly L and , V o l . 1 ,J eru sa l em , 1 9 75 , p p . 1 3 0 140 ( s pec ia l ly p p . 1 34 -7 ) . 1 1 . C .N . J ohn s , " Excava t ion sa tP i lg r im ' sC a s t le , A t l i t" , QDAP , I I , 1 9 34 , p p . 1 49 -51 , f i g . 4 ,P l . L IX :4 . 12 . H .W .F . S agg s , I r aq , XV I I , p . 1 27 , P l . XXX , NL X I I , ND 2 715 , 1 29 ; H : H ir schberg , S tud i en z u r G e sch ich te E sarhadd on s , B e r l in , 1 932 , p p . 6 5 -72 . 13 . A nd s e ee . g . t h ec a se o f Wen Amon ' sc r aw r a id ing t h eh a rbou ro f Do t , ANET , p .2 6 ,n o te 1 . 14 . C .f . E . L inde r&Y . R amon , "A B ronz e R am f r om t h eS ea o fA t l i t , I s rae l" ,A rchaeo logy , 3 4 ,6 ,1 9 8 1 ,p p . 6 2 -64 . 15 . G . R adan , "A s sy r ian H e lme tf ound o ft h eC oa s t o fA t l i t" ,S ef un im , V I , 1 9 81 , p p . 4 9 -57 . 16 . D .E . McCa s l in , S tone A ncho r si nA n t iqu i ty , S IMA , LX I , Gö tebo rg , 1 9 80 ,p p . 3 9 -44 . 17 . F o re v idence o fl ow s ea l e ve ld u r ing t h e Med ieva lp er iod s e ei b id ,p p .5 0 ,6 1 ,7 6 -77 ;M .R .B loch ," Sa l te conomy" i nK : F rye ( ed . ) , T he E ncyc loped ia o fM ine ra logy , ( Vo l . I VB o ft h e E ncyc loped ia o fE ar th S c ience s ) , S t roudburg , P enn . , 1 9 81 , p .4 65f , F ig . 1 0 . 18 . A .F l inde r&E .L inde r ,T he S ur vey o ft h eA nc ien t Harbour o fA kko , 1 964 -1967 , L ondon , 1 968 ;E .L ind e r &A .R aban , Mar ine A r chaeo logy , L ondon , 1 976 ,p p . 6 3 -67 ; F l emm ing e t . a l . , 1 978 ( s e e n o te 1 7a bove ) , p .4 9 . 19 . A . P o ideba rd , U n G rand P or tD i sparu : T y r e , P ar i s , 1 9 39 ,p p . 6 3 -5 , P l . X I I I , 1 . 1 20 . A . P o ideba rd & J .L au f f ray , S id on , Ami nagemen t sA n t ique sd uP or td eS a id a , B e i ru t , 1 951# p .8 2 f , P l an I V . 1 2 1 . P . Auper t , BCH , 1 03 , 1 979 ,p p . 7 26 -8 . 1 22 . S ee n o te 19 a bove . 1 2 3 . S ee n o te 18 a bove . 1 2 4 . H . F ro s t ," The O f f sho r e I s land Harbou ra tS idon . . ." ,I JNA , 2 ,1 9 73 ,p p . 7 5 -94 . 1 2 5 . A . R aban ,I JNA , 1 2 , 1 9 83 , p .2 4 1 . 1 26 . D .J . B lackman , "Anc ien t Ha rbour s i nt h e Med i te r ranean , P ar t 1 " ,I JNA , 1 , 1 9 82 , p .9 2 .

4 4

JOHN A . G IFFORD

P a leogeog raphy o f Anc ien t Ha rbou r S i te s o ft h e L arnaca L ow land s , S ou thea s te rn C yp ru s

T h i s i n te rpre ta t ion o f t h e p a leoenv ironmen t o f ac oa s ta l a r ea i n s ou thea s te rn C yp rus i s p re sen ted i nt e rm so fs ome c u l tura l ly s i gn if ican tg eo log ica lc hang e st ha th av eo ccu r red d u r ing t he p a s ts e vera lt hou sand y ea r s ,c hange st ha th ave a f f ec ted t h el o ca t ion o fa nc ien th a rbou rs i te s t here . T he a r ea u nder c on s idera t ion e ncompa s se s mo s t o f t h e p hy s iog raph ic r e g ion t e rmed t h e " Larnaca L ow land s" b yC h r i s todou lou ( 1 959 ) 1. T he t wo mo s ta c t ive g eomo rpho log ic e l emen t s o ft h i sr e g ion a re 1 )t h eT rem i tho sR iver a nd i t sa l luv ia lf an ,a nd 2 ) an a tu ra ls a l tp an j u s ts ou th o ft he modern c i ty o fL a rnaca ,k nown a st h eS a l tL ake ( s ee F igure 1 ) .T he S a l tL ake a c tua l ly i s t he n o r thernmo s t o f ac ha in o fd ep r e s s ion s t ha t a r e s l igh t ly b e low p re sen t s e a l e ve l a nd a r e i s o la t ed f r om t he Med i te r ranean S ea b y al ow b ed rock r i dge . T he t wo l a rge s ta rchaeo log ica ls i te si nt h er e g ion a r e Ha la S u l tan T ekke , o nt h ew e s te rn s ho re o f t he S a l tL ake ,a nd K i t ion , l o ca ted b enea th t he b u i ld ing so f modern L arnaca ( F igure 1 ) .B o th o f t he se s i t e sw ere i n i t ia l ly s e t t led i nt h eL a te C ypr io tP e r iod ( 1 550 1050 B .C . ) ,w i th Ha la S u l tan T ekke f ounded e a r ly i nt ha t p e r iod 2 a nd K i t ion af ew h und red y ear s l a te r3. Two g eo log ica l a gen t s a r e r e spon s ib le f o r a l te r ing t h e l a nd scape o ft h e L a rnaca L ow land s d ur ing t h eL a te P l e i s tocene a nd Ho locene e poch s ,b yt r an spor ta t ion o fs ed imen t si n to a nd o u t o ft he r e g ion : 1 )T he T r em i tho sR ive r ,p r ima r i ly a na gen to fd epo s i t ion ,h a sc a r r ied m i l l ion so f t ons o f a l luv ia l s ed imen t f r om t h e e a s te rn f oo th i l l s o f t h e T roodo s Ma s s if d own t o t h e Med i ter ranean S ea j u s t w e s t o fC ape K i t i ; a nd 2 )t h e Med i te r ranean i t se lf , w h ich c on s tan t ly r ed is t r ibu te st h is a l luv ium a round t h eC ape a nd n o r thward a l ong t h ew e s ts i de o fL a rnaca B ay . F ro m a n a rchaeo log ica l s t andpo in t , t h e r e su l t s a r e t ha t c hange s i n b o th t h e q uan t i ty o f s ed imen t t r anspor ted b y t h e T rem i tho s R ive r a nd d epo s i ted o n i t s a l luv ia l f an , a nd i nt h e p a t te rn o f s ed imen t d i s t r ibu t ion a l ong t h e Med i te r ranean s ho re l ine , h ave a l ter ed t h e l o ca l c oa s ta lg eog raphy .E v idenc ef o rt h i si st ob ef ound i nt h eT rem i tho sR ive rc hanne l .A long mo s t o fi t sl owe rr each t h ec hanne lm eande r se n t renched t h rough i t so wn a l luv ium ,a nd e xh ib i t so n ly o ne p oo r ly -def ined a l luv ia l t e r race , l o ca ted a bou t t wo m e te r s a bove t h e c hanne l f l oo r . I n e ro s iona l s carp s t h e a l luv ium o f t h i s t e r race i sh e te rog enou s i n s i ze , a nd i t s s ed imen ta ry s t ruc tur e s r ef l ec t d epo s i t ion i na n e nv i ronmen t o fv a r iab le e ne rgy d ue t ot h e r i ver ' s s e a sona l f l ow r e g ime . T hree km n or thea s to ft h e modern T rem i tho sR iver ,w e l lo u t s ide t h ep re sen ta r ea o fi t sa l luv ia l d epo s i t s , o ne may o b serve a l ong t h e w e s t e dg e o ft h e S a l t L ake s t ra ta o fc oa r se T r em i tho s a l luv ium o ver ly ing f i ne r a l luv ium , w h ich s ed imen t o f ten s how s i n c ip ien t s o i l d eve lopmen t o r c arbona te d epo s i t ion . A t o ne s uch e xpo sur e , t h e c a rbona te ( c a l iche ) h a s b een d a ted t oa bou t 1 6 ,000 b p . T hu s t h e s equence f a l l s w i th in t h e d epo s i t iona l t ime p e r iod o fV i ta -F inz i ' s " O lde r F i l l" , i d en t if ied b y h im o n m a in land G reece a nd i n Nor th A f r ica ' . Wh i le i t may r ep re sen t a p er iod o fi n crea sed e ro s ion d ue t oc l ima t ic s h if t si nt h eL a te P l e i s tocene ,t h e L a rnaca d epo s i t b ear s n o s ed imen to log ica l r e semb lance t oV i ta -F inz i ' s O lde r F i l l ( e .g . , i ti sn o t r ed b ecau se i t c on ta in s n o r edepo s i ted t e r ra r o s sa s o i l s ed imen t f r om c ry s ta l l ine l ime s tone u p land s , a s i s c ommon ly t he c a se o n t h e G r eek ma in land ) . T he e n t i re w es tern s hor eo ft h eL a rnaca S a l tL ake i sf o rmed o ft h i sL a te P l e i s tocene a l luv ium o f t he T r em i thos R iver . Dur ing i t s d epo s i t ion a t t h e e nd o f t h e P l e i s tocene E poch , t h e Med i te r ranean S ea w as s ome 5 0 -70 m e ter sb e low i t sp re sen tl e ve l ,a nd i np l ace o ft h eS a l tL ake

4 5

F ig . I .

S ou theas tern C ypru s , a rea o fL arnaca a nd t h eS a l tL ake . T he c en te ro f mod ern L a rnaca o ve r l i e s

a nc ien tK i t ion ,i nt h eu pper r i gh to ft h ei nd ex map . T he s i te o f Ha la S u l tan T ekke l i es o na na l luv ia ls l ope f orm ing t h ew e s tern marg in o ft h e ma in S a l tL ake . T h i sd epre s s ion a nd t h ec ha in t ot he s ou th a re f rom 0 . 5t o 2m b e low p resen ts ea l e ve l . G r id t i c sa re Ikm a par t ;c on tour i n te r va li s5m . ( Base map :R epub l ic o fC ypru s 1 : 25 ,000 T own Map S e r ie s , L arnaca S hee t , 1 97 1 ) .

4 6

a nd a s soc ia ted d epres s ions t he re e x i s ted as ma l lv a l ley a tl e a s t 1 5mi nd ep th . T he e x i s tence o f t h is p re sen t ly -bur ied v a l ley w a s e s tab l i shed b y c or ing i n 1 975 . T hu s t he s a l t l ake d epre s s ion s o r ig ina ted i nt he L a te P le i s tocene a s ad i scon t inuou s ,s ha l low v a l ley o rt r ough b e tween t he t oe o ft he T rem i thos R iver 's a l luv ia lf an a nd e ar l ie rP l e is tocene a eo l ian a nd mar ine r ock u n i t st ot he e a s t . A l luv ia t ion b y t he T rem i tho s i n t he a r ea o f t he S a l t L ake c ea sed s o me t ime b e tween 1 5 ,000 b p a nd t he m id -second m i l lenn ium B .C . , when t he Ha la S u l tan T ekke s e t t lemen t w a s e s tab l i shed o n t he e a s tern e dge o ft he T rem i tho s a l luv ia l f an . A tt ha tt ime ,t he i nhab i tan t so ft he s i te l ooked e a s twa rd n o to ver t he b r ine o ft he S a l tL ake ,b u t o ver a s ha l low l a goon o r e mbaymen t t ha t w a s c onnec ted t o t he Med i ter ranean . T h i s embaymen t ( t he modern S a l t L ake ) h ad b een f l ooded b y t he F landr ian T ran sg res s ion a nd c on ta ined amar ine l a goona le nv ironmen tb ya tl e a s t5 000 B .C . ,b a sed o nr ad iocarbon d a t ing o f c ore s ed imen ts . B y c i rca 2 800 B .C . t he embaymen t h ad s hrunk c on s iderab ly i n s i ze . A r econ s t ruc t ion o ft he l o ca ls ho re l ine c i rca 1 500 B .C . ,w i th s ea l e ve la bou tt wo m e ter sb e low i t s p resen t p o s i t ion , i ss hown i nF igure 2 .T he embaymen t 's c onnec t ion w i th t he Med i ter ranean e x tended e as tward r a ther t han t ot he s ou th ,w here an a tura lb edrock r i se b locked t he w a ter .A s s ea l e ve lr o se d ur ing t he l a te s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C . ,l ong shore s ed imen t sp robab ly f i l led t h i s

F ig . 2 L a te B ronze A ge ( c a . 1 300 B .C . ) c oa s ta lp a l eogeog raphy o ft h eL a rnaca L ow land s . S ea l e ve li s a s sumed t ob e 3m b e low p r e sen tp o s i t ion . H a la S u l tan T ekke i so na ne mbaymen to ft h e Med i te r ranean , s oon t ob ec u to f fb yl o ng sho r es e d imen td epo s i t ion f r om t h es o u th , w h i l eK i t ion r ema in sv e ry a c ce s s ib l et o t h eo pen s e a . G i rd t i c sa r e Ik ma pa r t ; t h e5 ,8 ,1 3a nd 5 3 mc o n tour sa r es h own . ( Ba s em ap :R epub l ic o f C ypru s 1 : 50 ,000 T opog raph i cS e r i e s , L a rnaca s h ee t , 1 973 . )

4 7

e a s tern c hanne l , c hok ing o f f t he Med i terranean c onnec t ion . ( Unfor tuna te ly , r ad iocarbon d a tab le ma ter ia l f or t h i s a rchaeo log ica l ly c r i t ica l p er iod w a s n o t f ound i n a ny o ft he c ore s t aken . ) S lopewa sh f r om t he l and s ur face w es t o f t he d ep re s s ions a l so c on tr ibu ted t o t he ir i nf i l l ing . S ome t ime d ur ing t he e a r ly f i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C . , ad ynam ic e qu i l ib r ium w a s e s tab l ished b e tween t he i n creas ing r a te o fs eawa ter i nf i l tra t ion t h rough t he p ermeab le b edrock b arr ier i n to t he d epre ss ion s ,a nd t he r a te o fs u mmer e vapora t ion o fw a ter f rom t h ed epress ion s , t o f orm an a tura l s a l t p an i nt he n or thernmo s t d epre ss ion ( now t he S a l t L ake ) . T he e ar l ie s t r e f erence t ot he a nnua lf o rma t ion o fs a l ti nt he S a l tL ake d a tes f r om t he m id th ird c en tury B .C . ( An t igonu s o fC ary s tu s )5 a l though o n g eomorpho log ica l g round s t he p henomenon may d a te f r om t he e ar ly f i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C . Ac a se m igh t b e made f o r ag eo log ica l c on s tra in t o n p opu la t ion d i s tr ibu t ion i nt h e L arnaca L ow land sa tt he e nd o ft he s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C . A tt ha tt ime K i t ion r ema ined a ccess ib le t o t he Med i ter ranean ,o n al ow b edrock r i se o ver look ing t he c on temporaneous s ho re ,w h i le Ha la S u l tan T ekke w a sl o ca ted o n al a goon t ha th ad b ecome p ermanen t ly c l o sed o f f .T h i st h eory w a s s ugge s ted b yH . C a t l ing 6 w i thou tt he e v idence a f forded b yc ore d r i l l ing i na nd a round t he S a l t L ake . E ven w i th t h i sa dd i t iona ls uppor t ,t he c au sa lr e la t ion sh ip b e tween l agoon b l ockage a nd p opu la t ion s h if t t o t he more v i ab le p or t s i te i sn o t p roven . A f ter Ha la S u l tan T ekke 's a bandonmen t , i t s w a l l s w ere b ur ied b y u p t o am e ter o f c oar se s ed imen t ; mo s t o ft h is d epo s i t ion e v iden t ly o ccur red a f te rt he s e cond c en tury B .C . , b ased o n i d en t if ica t ion o f al a te H e l len is t ic a queduc t c u t i n to a nd b ur ied b y t he d epos i t . A t s o me t ime a f ter t he t h ird o rs e cond c en tury B .C . , al a rge v o lume o fs ed imen t w a s r ed is tr ibu ted o ver t h e l ower s e c t ions o ft he T rem i thos R iver a l luv ia lf an ,b ury ing b o th t he a queduc ta nd t h ea d jacen t s e t t lemen t r u ins a t Ha la S u l tan T ekke . T he s ed imen tary s t ruc ture s i nt h is d epo s i t i nd ica te a n e p i sode o f i n crea sed e ro s ion s o me 2 000 y ear s a go , w h ich d oe s n o t c or re la te w e l l w i th V i ta F inz i 's ( 1969 ) Younger F i l l . R a ther t han a t tr ibu t ing t h i s p u lse o fs ed imen ta t ion t o r eg iona l c l ima t ic c hange , i ta ppear s t ha t g rea t ly i n crea sed s e t t lemen t , g raz ing a nd c u l t iva t ion o ft h e T rem i tho s a l luv ia l f an i n t he R oman I mper ia l p er iod a re e qua l ly p lau s ib le d i srup t ive m echan isms . A t t he c ommerc ia l empor ium o fK i t ion , w h ich f l our i shed f r om t he L a te C ypr io t t h rough t h e He l len is t ic p er iod s ,c ore s equence si nd ica te t ha tt he F land r ian T ran sg re ss ion d id n o tf l ood t h e l ow l and i mmed ia te ly n or th o ft he a cropo l is u n t i l e ar ly H e l len i s t ic t ime ( c irca 3 20 B .C . ) . A p o l len s pec trum f r om t h i sd a ted c ore h or izon i nd ica te st ha tn of ore s tc over t hen e x i s ted i nt h e v i c in i ty , wh ich d oe sn o tc on trad ic tE ra to s thene s 'o f t -quo ted s t a temen t( i nS trabo , G eography , X IV .6 .5 ) . S tud ies o ft he i n f i l led h arbour b a s in a d jacen tt ot h eI ron Age a cropo l i so fB ambou la a tK i t ion i nd ica te t ha ti tw a sl i ke ly ac o th on ,e xcava ted i nt h ee ar ly f i r s tm i l lenn ium B .C . b yt h e s e t t lemen t 's P hoen ic ian i nhab i tan t s . [ Th is e x tended a b s trac t s u mmar ize s work u nder taken b y t he a u thor i n 1 9 75 1977 a s a d i s ser ta t ion i n t he C en ter f o r Anc ien t S tud ie s o f t he Un iver s i ty o f M inneso ta , u nder t h e s uperv is ion o fG .R .R app ,J r . Ac omp le te a ccoun to ft he w ork a tK i t ion i ss oon t ob ep ub l ished a sp ar to ft he K i t ion p ub l ica t ion s e r ies ,e d i ted b yV .K arageorgh is .A spec ts o ft he w ork a round Ha la S u l tan T ekke w i l la ppear i n af o r thcom ing v o lume o ft he Ha la S u l tan T ekke p ub l ica t ion s e r ies ( S tud ie s i n Med i ter ranean A rchaeo logy ) , e d i ted b y P .A s trom . ] NOTES .

C hr is todou lou , D . , 1 959 . T he E vo lu t ion o ft h eR ura lL and U se P a t tern i nC yprus . Monograph No .2 , Wor ld L and U se S urvey . L ondon .

2 .

A s tröm , P . , D .M . B a i ley , a nd V . K arageorgh is , 1 976 . Ha la S u l tan T ekke I .S tud ies i n Med i ter ranean A rchaeo logy , XLV .I . Go teborg .

3 .

K arageorgh i s , V . , 1 976 . "K i t ion : Mycenaean a nd P hoen ic ian D iscover ies i n C yp rus" , N ew A spec t s o fA n t iqu i ty . L ondon .

4 .

V i ta -F inz i ,C . , 1 969 . T he Med i terranean V a l ley s : G eo log ica lC hange si nH i s tor ica lT ime s .C ambr idg eU n ivers i ty P re s s .

5 .

K e l ler , 0 . , 1 877 . R erum N a tura l ium S c r ip tore s G raec iM inores . L e ipz ig , p . 38 .

6 .

A s trom , P . , 1 965 . O puscu la A then iens ia V , p . 19 n o . 1 0 .

4 8

N I KIS COUFOPOULOS —STAVROLAKES

Anc ien t Gy th ion , t h e P o r t o fS pa r ta : H i s tory a nd S u rvey o ft h e S ubme rged R emnan t s T he h i s to ry o f Gy th ion c e r ta in ly g oe s b ack a tl e a s t t o t h e B ronze A ge a nd c on t inue s t o t h e p re sen t .T he many c hange si nt h el a nd scape o ve rt h ey ea r sa r ed ue t os e v e ra ls t rong e a r thquake s a nd t o h uman f a c tor s a s w e l l . V i s ib le r ema in s s c a t tered i n t h e h a rbour a nd a l ong t he n or thwe s te rn c oa s t l ine o ft h e Gu lf o f L acon ia s ugg e s ted t h e n eed f o r f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion . I ndeed ,t h er ap id c hange si nt h el a nd scape t ha th ave t aken p l ace i nr e cen ty ea r se mpha s ized t he n eed f o r ad e ta i led s u rvey t op r e se rv ea tl e a s t ar e cord o ft h eu nde rwa ter r ema in sd i sappea r ing d ay b yd ay i nt he a r ea o ft h ep ub l ic b each a nd t h en ew s t ad ium s i te b e ing r e c la imed f r om t h es ea . Much m a r sh land w a s r e c la imed i n 1 922 t op rov ide h ou s ing f o r t h e r e fugee s w ho c ame f r om A s ia M ino r .A st he t own i t se lf w a sb u i l tb e tween ah igh h i l lt ot h ew e s ta nd t h es e at ot h ee a s ti t c ou ld n o t e xpand e a s i ly 1( F ig . 1 ) . T he r efor e an ew a r ea w a s c r ea ted b y f i l l ing i nt h e s e a t ot he n or thea s tj u s t b e low t h e a c ropo l i s a nd n ea r t h e t h ea te r o fa nc ien t Gy th ion . T he f i l l -covered h ousea a nd o ther r ema in ss ubmerged i nt h ee a r thquake sw h ich h ave s t ruck t h ec i ty a tv a r iou s t imes . Du r ing t h e 1 960 's mor e l a nd w a s r e c la imed f r om t h e s e a t o b u i ld al a rg e p l ay ing f i e ld a nd s t ad ium o ver t he a nc ien t r ema in s w h ich e x tend d own f r om t h e a c ropo l i s i n to t h e s e a . T h i s c au sed t h e d i sappea rance o fs ubmerged s t ruc tu re s t ha t w e re s i gh ted i nt h e l a s t c en tu ry b y membe r so ft he F rench s urvey l e db yA . B loue t ,b yt h eG erman sl e db yE .C ur t iu s 2a nd b yt he G reek a r chaeo log i s tA .S k ia sw ho a l so e xcava ted t h eR oman t h ea te r( F ig .2 )a nd o the rr ema in s o nt he s l ope so ft he a cropo l i s .S k ia sn o ted many s ubmerged w a l l sa l ong t h es hore a nd i n c luded amap s how ing t h e p r e sumed a nc ien t c oa s t l ine w i th ad o t ted l i ne ( F ig . 3 ) . I n mo r er e cen ty ea r st h ew o rk o fN .C .F lemm ing o ft h e Na t iona lI n s t i tu te o fO ceanog raphy i n E ng land h a s o nce a ga in d rawn a r chaeo log i s t s ' a t ten t ion t o s ubme rged s i te s . I n h i s s t udy o f c hang e si ns ea l e ve la l ong t h ec oa s t l ine o ft h eL acon ic Gu lf h ed i scov ered a nd s urveyed r ema in s o f a Myc enaean t own s ubme rged b e tween E laphone se s a nd t h e ma in land ; t h en i n 1 968 h e mapped P l i tra a nd o u t l ined t h e s t ad ium a r ea a t Gy th ion w he re t h ere w e re s e vera l l a rge a nd i n tere s t ing s t ruc tur e s . Once a ga in i ts e emed i mpor tan t t o d ocumen t w ha t s ubme rged b u i ld ing r ema in s w e re s t i l l v i s ib le a nd t op repa re a na ccu ra te m ap o ft h ew ho le a r ea s how ing t h er e c lama t ion o ft h el a nd a nd t h e s h if t ing o ft h e r i ve rbed . I na dd i ton t ot h e s unken b u i ld ing s o ft h e G reek a nd R oman t own w e w an ted t o f i nd t h e p o s i t ion o ft he c oa s t l ine a s w e l l a s t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e a nc ien t h a rbou r o f ten m en t ioned i nt h e l i t e ra tu re ' . Gy th ion ,l o ca ted o nt h en o r thwes tern s ho re o ft h eL acon ic Gu lf ,s e rved a s ah a rbour o fS pa r ta . A cco rd ing t o Homer 5,H e len a nd P a r i ss pen tt h e i rf i r s tn i gh tt oge ther o nt h ei s land o fK ranae a nd s e t s a i l f rom t he re o n t h e l ong j ourney t oT roy . T rad ing v e s st l s a l so s a i led t h e se w a ter s d ur ing t h eB ronze a ge w hen l a p i sL acedaemon iu sw a se xpo r ted t oC r e te .T h i sd i s t inc t iv ed ark g reen p o rphyry q uar r ied a tn earby K rokea ia nd P seph iw a sf ound i nu nworked b lock si nt h e L ap ida ry ' s s t ore room a t K no s so s6 a s w e l l a s a t Mycenae n ea r t h e T soun ta s h ou se ' , a nd c on t inued a s a n i mpor tan t e xpor t i t em i nR oman t ime s w hen i tw a s u sed t oe mbe l l i sh t he ir b a th sa nd g arden s . Gy th ion a l so a ppea r st oh ave b een ac en te ro ft h eP hoen ic ian t r ade i np u rp le d ye a s w i tnes sed b y al a rge n umber o f mur ex s he l l s r epo r ted ly f ound a round t h e i s land o f

4 9

F ig . I .

Mod ern G y th ion .

*

F ig . 2 .

A nc ien t t h ea te r o fG y th ion .

5 0

, •••• •,N■ v i

.

.

Kranae. We found two murex of the type brandarius which produces the dye. In these early times there were no harbour installations; sailors pulled their ships ashore and beached them on the sand8 • During the second half of the 8th century B.C. Argos ruled the area surrounding Sparta, including the eastern Peloponnese, Kythera, and the land west of Cape Malea. Sparta then needed an outlet, and took over Helos as a port during the reign of Alkamenes, and later went on to Gythion and Las. Helos is the obvious place for a port since it would have been at the mouth of the Eurotas River which could provide easier transport of goods than the overland route from Gythion to Sparta. Professor John Kraft has studied the Eurotas river delta complex in his geological reconnaissance of sandy coastal areas. He considers it quite probable that the Laconic Bay washed the shores of Helos during classical times, while earlier, during the Bronze Age, it went further inland to Skala9(Fig. 4). By the beginning of the 6th century B.C. the increasing trade in Laconian pottery to the islands and abroad suggests an active harbour at Gythion. In discussing Laconian III and IV pottery, R.M. Cook goes one step further: "Those who do not like the idea that a commercial industry could flourish in Sparta itself may prefer to find the workshops in Gythion, the port ofLaconia and a town not of Spartiates but Perioeci: Gythion has not been excavated" 10. Herodotus writes that the Spartan fleet was based at Las and at Gythion11 • Thus the port suffered many attacks. In 456 B.C. the Athenian Admiral Tolomides burned the Spartan ship-sheds in a display of Athenian naval power12 • Again in 424 B.C. during the campaign of the Peloponnesian war the Athenian General Nicias captured the Spartan outpots on Kythera and, leaving a garrison there, ravaged the coast of south Laconia including Gythion. With the Spartan victory over Athens at the end of the war, Gythion must have been strongly fortified because later, in 370 B.C., when Epaminodas beseiged the town, he was unsuccessful in his raid on the Spartan shipyards. Again in 215 B.C. Gythion was attacked by Philip V of Macedon who was subsequently defeated by Quintus Flaminius in the second Madedonian War and sent back to Macedon. Meanwhile, the new tyrant in Sparta, Nabis, not only built walls around Sparta but also restored Gythion as a great arsenal and a well-fortified and populous town. As Nabis' arsenal and the basis of his naval power, Gythion was attacked by the Romans under Flaminius and finally taken. According to an inscription found here, the people of Gythion worshipped Flaminius as their saviour in 196 B.C. when he proclaimed Rome's gift of freedom to the Greeks. The commercial harbour itself, according to Strabo 13, was not natural, but formed by digging and red i · it was sheltere y Kranae and so must have been in the same area as the present-day ort see Fig. 3a). When Gyth1on was grante er independence from Spartan dommat10n, she flowered again as a commercial port providing a stop-over on the route from Athens to Rome. Amphoras of many shapes and sizes have been found by local fishermen in the waters beyond the town and are dated roughly between the first centuries B.C. and A.O. (Figs. 5a, b, c, d). They indicated the existence of various wrecks along the trade route to Gythion which should be located and described. Although several earthquakes shook the town in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. the worst one came in 374-375 A.O. when a considerable part of the town was covered by the sea. Various artifacts have since been found in the water,e.g. the terracotta model of a ship now in the Sparta museum; others are still in situ. SURVEY OF SUBMERGED REMAINS

Part of a. stone mosaic with a red border (Fig. 6) is all that remains of a large structure whose foundations and walls extend from the beach into the water. It has been called traditionally the "Baths of Paleologos" but in fact dates to the Roman period. This and other foundations covered over by sand along the shore led us to begin our search right along.the public beach. An early morning start was quite important to avoid the enthusiastic bathers who arrived by 9 AM. Base-lines of 150 m length were used as guides for the divers who searched the area and as 51

f r om S K IAS E A 1 8 92 p .65 F ig . 3 .

O ld map o fG y th ion a rea s how ing a nc ien t c oas t l ine .

5 2

Z) : S MALL . ' 2 2 F I SH ING ,a B OATS ‘ 0

F ig . 3 a .

Ag enera lp lan o ft h e w ork ing a reas A , B .

5 3

S PARTA.

MAP O F G YTH ION A ND WORK A REAS A F

• K ROKEA 1

S KALA •

j

G YTH ION

•HELOS MO LAO l•

.T R IN ISA F G E aA K RANAE

P L 1TRA

G ULF O F L ACON IA

•G EROL IM IN

E LA PHON ISOS

T O C APE T A INARON

F ig . 4 .

Map o fG y th ion a nd w ork ing a rea sA -F .

5 4

reference points for triangulation. They were placed at l O m intervals along the 200 m length of the beach with the help of a surveyor's transit. Divers and snorkelers swam along these covering an area 5 meters wide and noting various blocks or structural remains along the sandy bottom. Occasionally, a large section of Roman wall built with brick was found (Figs. 7, 8). Everything was triangulated from the base-line marked at 5 m intervals and the information was transfered to a working map on shore. Large structures in shallow water were easily and accurately mapped with an alidade on shore and the results were double checked with the help of aerial photos. Mr. Julian Whittlesey, who joined us with his team, proved of invaluable assistance. From a series of photographs, taken by a Hasselblad camera suspended from a balloon and triggered by electronic signals, we got views of the whole area from the harbour northward. This area extended past the beach and stadium all the way to Selinitsa, the sandy shore along the north side of the bay. These photos overlap to form a photomosaic from which an accurate overall map was drawn to scale. Other photos taken from only 50 m height revealed more details for the mapping of each section. The stadium area was of particular interest. A long, well-built wall of ashlar blocks extended from the corner of the new stadium northward. Several rooms were attached to it and the remains were clearly distinguished among the tall poseidonia grass, although the lines of wall were difficult to follow in shallow depths of 3-4 m (Fig. 10, 10a). In the same area, piles of rubble with concrete were also found. Since we also probed beneath the sand and hit hard spots, we have indicated these sub-surface remains with dotted lines. As we proceeded north of the stadium we found earth fill continually piled up and deposited in the shallow waters covering over ruins of the submerged town. The silt and mud were a hindrance to the work, but again the- aerial photos directed qur attention to the major structures which were measured and transferred to drawings. A sandy stream further north seemed empty of rubble and blocks until tell-tale mounds appeared with sections of walls emerging from the sides. These were in shallow waters (2-5 m) which continued out from shore. Large blocks of stone were also found 100-150 m from shore suggesting more ruined structures submerged by the earthquake. Few artifacts are visible along the bottom; among them are broken necks of amphoras and sherds (Fig. 11). Most of the ruins have been covered by shifting sands and are hidden from view although they cover an extensive area. In trying to determine how far out the coastline extended ahd what was beyond, we enlisted the help of Dr. H.E. Edgerton of M.I.T. and his sonar equipment. A kaiki run by George Peregoris, a local fisherman, was rented and the equipment, along with many buoys, was hoisted abroad. Once Sonar records started pouring forth the divers were able to check out various targets at depths of 12-30 m. One target especially held our attention. It is 5 m beneath the sand and defines an area 198 m long (parallel to shore) by 68 m wide (Fig. 9) . It is located just beyond and eastward of the area searched at the public beach and is in 5-9 m of water. Excavation is needed to determine whether it is Pleistocene rock or a quay or structure of the ancient harbour of Gythion. In our brief survey we covered an area of 7 acres or more in the immediate vicinity of Gythion and quickly looked at the long, straight sandy beach which now lines the northern shore of the Laconic Gulf. Long walls emerge from beneath the sand dunes ·and extend into the shallow waters. They are of Roman construction (Fig. 12). More remains lie in shallow waters and in deeper areas around Trinisa, the three islands where more amphora sherds were sighted and where on� may look for the Spartan arsenal following Strabo who located it nearby. Further east lie the now inland villages of Helos and Skala mentioned above, where magnetometer survey may provide further evidence for their role in antiquity.• A systematic survey of submerged harbour sites (and wreck sites as well) is urgently needed in Greece to establish a list of priorities for further exploration, excavation and preservation of ancient remains. The importance of such underwater sites must be determined by two factors, 55

F ig . 5 .

Amphora sf ound b yf i shermen of G y th ion , n ow i nt h el o ca l mu seum .

5 6

F ig . 6 .

S tone mo sa ic o n t h eb each , p ar t o ft h eb a ths o fP a l eo log s

F ig . 7 . S ubmerged r oman b r ickwa l l .

5 7

5 8

R o m a n w a l e x c a v t e d a n d e x p o s e d o n t h e s e a b o t o m .

or in terms of what is ideal and what is practical. Some sites are historically and archaeologically promising and warrant detailed scientific inv estigation. Other sites need preservation or simply documentation before the evidence is destroyed either by natural forces or human progress and expansion. This could be made possible by the participation and cooperation of an interdisciplinary team of people who contribute to and share knowledge in unravelling and piecing together the past, the puzzle of archaeology.

Fig. 9.

H. Edgerton's sonar record of a sub-bottom s1ruc1ure off !he beach area.

59

F ig . 1 0 .

A e r ia lv i ew o ft h eb each a tt h es i te o ft h eb a th so fP a l eo logos ( up l e f tc orne r )a nd s ubme rg ed w a l l so ft h es t ad ium a rea ( 10 a ) .

6 0

F ig . 1 .

V ase c augh t b enea th as ubmerged s t ruc ture n or th o ft h e s t ad ium a rea .

F i g . 1 2 .

Ar oman w a l lo n t h eb each n or th o fG y th ion .

6 1

NOTES 1 .

A . B loue t ,E xped i t ions S c ien t if iques I , P . 1 7 1-172 .

2 .

E . Cur t iu s ,P e loponnesos I , Go tha , 1 852 , p ,2 67 -272 .

3 .

A . S k ias i nP rak t ika t i sA rchaeo log ik i sE ta ir ia s , 1 891 , p p . 2 7 -34 ; E phemer i sA rchaeo log ike , 1 892 , p .6 0 -64 , 1 85 -204 . S ubmerged r u ins h ere w ere f i r s t s e en a nd r epor ted b y A . B la s to s i n PAE , 1 971-2 , p . 1 4 .

4 .

B eg inn ing w i th Homer , w e h ave r e f erences i nt h e h i s tor ians H erodo tus ,T hucyd ide s , D iodorus S i cu lus ; a nd S t rabo a nd P ausan ias . S ee b e low .

5 .

Homer , T he I l iad , B ook 3 ,4 4 1-446 .

6 .

T h is ma ter ia ld a te st o LM I , 1 5 th c en tury B .C . B SA 8( 1901-2 )7 8a nd E vans ,P a lace o fM inos I I ,2 69f f . a nd I V8 98 .

7 .

B SA L ( 1955 ) 1 82 , P l . 2 3a -c .

8 .

T here i s as hor t , v i v id d e scr ip t ion o ft h e P haeac ian 's t w in h arbour i n Homer 's Odys sey ( 6 , 2 62 -269 ) .

9 .

J .K raf t , AR econna i sance o ft h e G eo logy o ft h eS andy C oas ta lA rea o fE as tern G reece a nd t h eP e loponnese , J u ly 1 9 72 , Co l lege o f Mar ine S tud ies , Un iver s i ty o fD e laware , N ewark , 1 971 , p p . 9 7 102 .

1 0 .

R .M . Cook , G reek P a in ted P o t tery , 1 966 , p .9 9 .

1 .

H erodo tu s , H i s tory , 8 . 1 ; 8 . 43 .

1 2 .

T hucyd ides , 1 . 108 .5 a nd D iodorus S i cu lus X I .84 .6 .

1 3 .

S t rabo , G eography , B ook 8 . 5 .2 .

S ee a l so r epor t i nI JNA 4 . 1 ( 1975 ) 1 03 -116 "Underwa ter S urvey o f Anc ien t Gy th ion 1 972" b y N .C . S coufopou lo sa nd J .G . McKernan .

6 2

FRANK J . FROST

T he ' Ha rbou r ' a t Ha l ie i s A cco rd ing t oa nc ien tl i t era ry t e s t imony ,t h eG r eek p o l i so f Ha l ie i sw a sf ounded s hor t ly a f te rt h e P er s ian War s b y r e fugee s f r om n ea rby T i ryn s f o l low ing t he c ap ture o ft he i r c i ty b y A rgo s ' . Ha l ie i sw a sn eve r more t han ap awn d ur ing t h ep owe rs t rugg le so ft h ef i f th c en tury B .C .E . b u t b ecau se o f i t s s t ra teg ic l o ca t ion i n as he l tered b ay i t more t han o nce w a s c on te s ted b y t h e A then ian sa nd t h ev a r iou sP e loponne s ian a l l ie so ft h eS pa r tan s .I ti si g no red b yt h eh i s to r ian so f t he f ou r th c en tury a nd P au san ia s , w r i t ing i nt h e s e cond c en tury C .E . , c l a imed t ha t i tw a s d e se r ted i nh i s d ay2. B eg inn ing i n1 962 a rchaeo log i s t sf r om t h e Un ive r s i t ie so fP enn sy lvan ia a nd I nd iana b egan t o r e con s t ruc tt he s ke tchy h i s to ry o f Ha l ie i sf r om t h ea r chaeo log ica le v idence 3.B y 1 965 t h ey h ad made ar e spec tab le s t a r to fe xcava t ion o nt h ea c ropo l i sa nd h ad t r aced t h e ma in o u t l ine so ft h e f or t if ica t ion s o n l a nd . B yt ha tt ime i th ad b ecome o bv iou st ha t much o ft h ec i ty e x tended o u t i n to t h es ha l low w a ter o ft h eb ay a nd f o rt ha tr e a son P rof e s sor Dav id Owen a nd my se lf w e re i nv i t ed t oc onduc t amapp ing s u rvey o ft h e u nde rwa te r r u in s . U s ing t h e s imp le s t m e thod s — s t ake sa nd t ape m ea su re s— w ew e re a b le t od raw amap t ha tr evea led t he g enera lo u t l ine sa nd e x t en to f ah a lf k i lome ter o fw a l l s ,s t ree t s ,a nd h ou se s .B u tb ecau se o ft h ei n accuracy i nhe ren ti n s uch ah a s ty s urvey a nd b ecau se o fo ur s u sp ic ion ,b a sed o ns ub -bo t tom p rob ing ,t ha tt h e re w e r e f a rm o r ew a l l st han a ppea r ed a bove t h es e ab o t tom ,i tw a sd ec ided t oc on t inue t h eu nde rwa te r s urvey i n1 967 a nd 1 968 w i th f a r more r e sour ce s a nd manpowe r . U s ing S CUBA a nd v a r iou s d redg ing d ev ice s , t h e e xcava tor s g r ea t ly e x tended t h e l i ne o ft h e o u te rf o r t if ica t ion , i n c lud ing t wo t owe r sf o rm ing aw ide g a te i nt h ew e s tern q ua r ter o ft h ec i ty . T he m ap w a s r ed rawn , b a sed o n a er ia l p ho tog ramme try f r om t e the red b a l loon . I n 1 969 P rof e s so rM ichae lJ ame son p ub l i shed t h er e su l t so fs i xy ea r so fe xcava t ion i nH e spe r ia4.Ha l ie i s p rov ed t ob e amo s ti n s truc t ive a r chaeo log ica ls i te b ecau se w i th av e ry f ew e xcep t ion si th ad n o t b een b u i l tu pon a f ter i t sd ec l ine d ur ing t h eH e l len i s t ic p e r iod . On ly af ew R oman a nd B yzan t ine s t ruc tu re s c on tam ina ted t h e o r ig ina l c i ty p lan o ft h e c l a s s ica l e ra . A s w e a l l k now , s ha l low w a ter r u in s a r e n o tor iou s ly d i f f icu l t t o i n terpre t . T he l a ck o fa ny r e l iab le s t ra t ig raphy i so n ly o ne o f many p rob lem s . T he e xcava to r s o f Ha l ie i s h ad o ne ma jo r p uzz le i n t he v i c in i ty o f t h e t w in t ower s . T he re a ppea r ed t o b e as pace i n s id e t h e w a l l s a pp rox ima te ly o ne h und red m e ter sl ong b yf o r ty m e te r sw ide i nw h ich t h e re w e re n ot r ace so f b u i ld ing o fa ny k ind . B ecau se t h ew a ter i sa l so s l igh t ly d eeper i nt h i sp a r to ft h ep l an ,J ame son a nd s t a f fa rch i tec t Ma r ian McA l l i s ter e ven tua l ly c onc luded t ha tt h et w in t owe r sw e re a c tua l ly t he e n t rance t o as ma l l , s ha l low , e nc lo sed h a rbour . H erodo tu s ( 7 .137 ) h ad r epo r ted t ha t a S pa r tan c ommander h ad c ap tu red Ha l ie i s ,s a i l ing i nw i th am e rchan ts h ip l oaded w i th s o ld ier s . An i n sc r ip t ion o ft h e A rch idam ian Wa rh ad b een r e s to red t os how t ha t Ha l ie i sh ad a g reed t o s upp ly t he A then ian sw i th an au s ta thmos5. T he e x i s tence o f ah arbou rs e emed j u s t if ied b yb o th l i t e ra ry e v idence a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e con s truc t ion . F ina l ly , ac u r iou s f ounda t ion p ro jec t ing b e twe en t he t wo t ower s s e rved a s t h e b a s i s o f ac on jec ture b y McA l l i s te r t ha t t h e h a rbour e n trance h ad b een c l o sed b y al o gb oom p ivo t ing o nt he p ro jec t ion .T he " ha rbour" t h eo ry w a s p ub l i shed i nt h e 1 969 r epo r t a nd h a s b een t h e a ccep ted r e con s t ruc t ion s i nce t ha t t ime 6. Ih av en ever b een c onv inced t ha tt h ere w a sa ne nc lo sed h a rbour a t Ha l ie i s . My d oub t sb egan a s l ong a go a s 1 965 d ur ing t h ef i r s ts u rvey ;a f te r Ih ad s wum a cros st h ea r ea h und red so ft ime st h e l o ca t ion s imp ly d idn ' tf ee ll i ke ah a rbour t om e . It ake t h i s o ppo r tun i ty t oo f f e r af ew mo re c onv en t iona lo b jec t ion st ot h eh a rbou rt h eory .T h i sc r i t ic i sm i nn ow ay a f f ec t sm yh i gh e s t ima te o ft h eH a l ie i sp ro jec to ve rt h ey ea r s , w h ich i samode lo fc a refu l ,s y s tema t ic ,a nd s oph i s t ica ted

6 3

\

J A MESON 'S

HARBOR

P

RESENT

SHO R

( exe mp t / g rol io)

0

20

f

4 0

6 0M .

R econs truc t ion o ft h e " harbou r" a sp roposed b yJ ame son . T he d raw ing i sb a sed o n F ig . 6 ,H esper ia 3 8 ( 1969 ) , p .3 27 .

T he Ha l ie i sa rea s how ing t h ep re sen ts hore l ine a nd o f f shore d ep th c on tour s .

6 4

a rchaeo log ica le xcava t ion a nd r e con s t ruc t ion .T he " harbou r ," h oweve r ,i sama jor c on jec tur e a nd i fi ti st os t and i nt h ef i na lp ub l ica t ion i tn eed st ob et e s ted a nd d ef ended w i th mor er i gour t han i th a s b een s o f a r . T he s e al e ve la t Ha l ie i sh a sr i sen a tl e a s tt wo m e ter ss i nce a n t iqu i ty ,t oj udg ef r om an umbe ro f s t ruc tu re s who se f ounda t ion s w e re o nce u ndoub ted ly o n d ry l a nd a nd a r e n ow n ea r ly a tt ha t d ep th . A n a pprox ima te m in imum r i se o fs ea l e ve l o ft h e s ame d eg ree c an b e d ocumen ted a t n ea rby a nc ien t s i te s a tH e rm ione , S ky l la ie i s , a nd E p idau ro s 7.I ti s mo re d i f f icu l t t od educe a max imum r i se o fs e al e ve l . N . F lemm ing o nce e s t ima ted n o th ing d eepe rt han 2 . 7 mi nt h ea r ea b u t m o re r e cen t ly h a s s ugge s ted af i v e m e te r c hang e a t Ha l ie i s s . T h i s w ou ld make ah a rbou r i n s ide t h ew a l l sc omp le te ly i mpo s s ib le o fc our se b u t Id on o tb e l ieve s uch ad ra s t ic c hang ei ns e a l e ve lc an b ea ccep ted w i thou tt he e v idence o fa nc ien ts t ruc tu re s . Ar i se i ns e al e ve lb e tw een t wo a nd t h r ee me te r s i st h e mo s tc on se rva t ive e s t ima te . The b a s in i nw h ich Ha l ie i s l i e s i s as ha l low l ime s tone d epr e s s ion c ov er ed w i th at h in l a ye r o f q ua te rnary d epo s i t s . E xcep t f o r af ew o u tc ropp ing s t he d epo s i t ion o f s ed imen t s i sr a ther u n iform a nd t he c on tour map s how st h ea ng le o fs l ope i n to t h eb a s in t ob er e gu la r . Ap ro jec t ion o ft h e se c on tou r s s eawa rd o ft h e p r e sen t s ho re l ine , b a sed o n t h e s ound ing s f r om B r i t i sh a nd G reek c har ts , i mmed ia te ly r e vea l sd i f f icu l t ie sf o rt h eh a rbour t h eory . I ft h es e al e ve lh a sr i sen t wo m e te r s t hen o n ly an a r row t r iang le w ou ld h ave b een u nderwa ter i na n t iqu i ty . Id o n o t b e l ieve t ha te xcava to r sh ave a pp rec ia ted t h i sd i f f icu l ty .I nt h e 1 969 H e spe r ia a r t ic le t h eo u t l ine s o ft h e " ha rbou r" a r e r e con s t ruc ted a sf o l low s : T he mo le c a r ry ing t h e c i ty w a l l t o t he n o r th t ower f o rmed t h e n or thern l im i t o f t h e h a rbor . . .T he e a s te rn l i m i ti sn o ts oo bv iou s . No b u i ld ing t ha ti sc e r ta in ly o fc l a s s ica ld a te h a sb een f ound w e s to ft h eH e rm ione g a te . . . Abou t2 2 .20 m .t ot h ew e s to ft h es ame t owe r t h ep oro sr e ta in ing w a l lo ft h e mo le c ome st oa ne nd . We s hou ld p e rhap sc once ive o ft h e n a tura l b each a st h e h arbo r e dge o n t h i s s i de . I ti sp o s s ib le t ha t t h e s ou th s ho re o ft h e h arbor i si nf a c ti nt h ef l a tf i e ld a l ong t h es hore . T he r e su l t ing h a rbor i sr ough ly 1 00 m . e a s tt ow e s t ,a nd am in imum o f4 0m . , n o r th t os ou th . B ya ny s t anda rd t h i si ss ma l l ,b u t s u ff ic ien t t op rov ide s h e l te r f o r s e vera l f r iend ly w a r sh ip s ( H e sper ia 3 8 , 37 ) . I ti sa pparen t t ha t ac on jec tu ra l h a rbou r f i t t ing t h i s d e sc r ip t ion m ake s ad ra s t ic d en t i nt h e p re sen t t opog raph ica l c on tour s . S uch a s ma l l , a noma lou s i n le t c ou ld n o t h av e o ccur red n a tu ra l ly b y a ny k nown p r inc ip le o f g eomo rpho logy a nd w ou ld t h er efo re h ave h ad t o b e d redg ed o u t ,p a r t icu la r ly a l ong i t ss ou th e dge ,w he re t he f i e ld a tp re sen tm ee t st h ew a te r 's e dge w i th al ow b ank a bou t am e te r h i gh . Once d r edged , an a r row c u l -de sac l i ke t h i s w ou ld h ave i mmed ia te ly s t a r ted t os i l tu p . I nf a c t ,d u r ing t h el a te 1 960 's w hen Iq ue s t ioned t h ee xcava tor s a bou tt h e h arbour t heory ,a sk ing t h em t oe xp la in w hy t h ep re sen t c on tou r sd on o ts uppor ta h arbou ra s p o s tu la ted , t h ey r e sponded t ha t t h e h a rbour h ad s i nce s i l ted u p 9. No r c an Ia gree t ha t t he h a rbou r w ou ld h ave b een u sefu l f o r t r i reme s . We k now t ha t n ava l c ommander s l i ked t o b each t h e i r s h ip s , e ven o ve rn igh t i fp o s s ib le , t o p reven t t h em f r om b ecom ing w a te r logg ed '° .I ft h ere h ad b een as ha l low ,t r iangu la ri n t ru s ion a l ong t h eo u t l ine o f t he p r e sen tt wo -me te rc on tour , i tw ou ld h ave p rov ided af a r mor es u i tab le s he l te r— o ne w i th a ne a sy a cce s st h rough k nee -deep w a te rt o ad ry b each . O fc ou r se ,s uch a ne n t rance w ou ld n o t h av e k ep t a nyone e l se o u t e i the r , l i ke at r oop o fi n fan try t ha t d idn ' t m ind w e t f e e t . B u t w e c anno t p re tend t o k now t h e s t ra teg ic c on s ide ra t ion s t ha t w e ighed mo s t h eav i ly w i th t h e a rch i t ec t so f Ha l ie i s ; i t sr o le i nt h es t rugg le b e tween A then ian sa nd S pa r tan a l l ie si sm en t ioned o n ly i np a ss ing ah andfu l o ft ime s o ve rt h e c ou r se o f more t han f i f ty y ea r s 1. F ina l ly ,s of a ra s Ik now .G r eek f o r t if ica t ion a r ch i tec ture o f f e r su sn o t as i ng le o the re xamp le o f e i the r al ong s t ra igh t o u te r w a l l w i th i t s f oo t ing s u nderwa ter , o r a n e nc lo sed h arbour o f Ha l ie i s ' st ype . A rchaeo logy s hou ld b e ac on serva t ive d i sc ip l ine a nd t h ev e ry f i r s te xamp le o fa h i the r to u nknown t ype o fa r ch i tec tu re s hou ld b e mor e p rec i se ly d ocumen ted .

6 5

Iw ou ld s ugge s ti n s tead t ha t wha ti st hough to fa st h eh a rbour a t Ha l ie i si sa c tua l ly t he e n t i r e b ay a nd t ha t t h e n orma l l o ca t ion o ft h e many f i sh ing b oa t sw i th w h ich t he i nhab i tan t s made t he i rl i v ing w a sa l ong a l lt he s ha l low s hore so ft he b ay . I f ,u nder t r ea ty ,t he l o ca l sp rov ided a s t a t ion f o rA then ian t r ireme st he se w ou ld h ave b een r ea sonab ly s e cure h au led u po u t s ide t h e w a l l sa sw e l l ; Ha l ie i si sal ong a nd d i f f icu l t ma rch b yl and f r om t he t e r r i tor ie so ft h eA then ian f o e s , C or in th a nd E p idau ro s , a nd d u r ing t he p e r iod o ft h e t r ea ty t he A then ian sr u led t he s e a a nd w ou ld n o t h ave f e a red a n a t tack ing f l ee t . A sf o rt he s pace i n s ide t he w a l l s Ih ave a lway s b e l ieved t ha ti tw a st he marke tp lace ,s i tua ted i n al og ica l ,c en t ra ll o ca t ion ,b e tw een t wo g a te s a nd a tt he t e rm inu so fs eve ra l ma in r oad s .T h i sr e con s t ruc t ion may h ave a sl i t t le t os uppo r ti ta s t he h a rbour t h eory . Im e re ly p ropo se t ha t mo r ei n ve s t iga t ion o ft h i sd i spu ted a r ea i sn ece s sa ry b efore t h e w o rd " ha rbou r" i si r revocab ly p r in ted o n t h ef i na lp ub l ica t ion . NOTES 1 .

H e rodo tu s 7 . 137 ; S t rabo 8 . 6 .11 ; E pho ru s , i n S t ephanu s o f B yzan t ium s . v . Ha l ie i s ( F . J acoby , F ragmen te d e r g r i ech i schen H i s tor ike r7 0 F5 6 ) .

2 .

P au san ia s2 . 36 .1 .

3 .

A rchaeo log i ca lR epo r t s , 1 962 -63 , 1 6 f .

4 .

" Excava t ion sa tP or to C he l i a nd V ic in i ty" , He spe r ia 3 8 ( 1 969 ) , 3 11-42 .

5 .

S upp l emen tum E p ig raph icum G raecum 1 0( 1 949 ) , 8 0 .6 ,2 3 .

6 .

Wo lf W .R udo lph ,H e sper ia 4 8( 1979 ) ,2 96 ,n o te 3 ;R aymond V .S chode r ,W ing so ver H e l las ( New Y o rk , 1 974 )8 7 ;s e e t h ep lan a nd b oom r epr in ted i nD .J .B lackman , "Anc ien t Ha rbou r s" ,I n te rna t iona lJ ou rna lo fN au t i ca lA rchaeo logy 1 ( 1 982 ) ,9 1 ,w her e ,u nfor tuna te ly ,t h ew rong s c a le h a sb een p r in ted ,m ak ing t h ew a l l sa nd t he t owe r st r u ly B robd ingna g i an . •

7 .

N . F lemm ing , "Ho locene E ar th Movemen t sa nd E u s ta t ic S ea L eve lC hang ei nt h eP e loponne se" ,N a ture 2 17 ( 1 968 ) , 1 03 i f . ;F .J . F ro s t ," Phou rka r i" ,I JNA 6 (1977 ) ,2 33 -28 ;f o rt h el o ca t ion o fS ky l la ie i sa tP hourka r i ,s e eF ro s t ,A JA 8 4 ( 1 980 ) , 1 86 -88 .

8 .

N .C .F l emm ing e ta l . , "A rchaeo log ica le v idenc ef o re u s ta t ic a nd t e c ton ic c omponen t so fr e la t ive s e al e v e lc hange i nt h e S ou th A eg ean" , i nD .J . B lackman , e d . , Ma r ine A r chaeo logy ( London , 1 9 73 ) , 7 .

9 .

On s i l ta t ion , s e e B lackman ,I JNA 1 ( 1 982 ) , 1 99 ,2 02 .

1 0 .

E .g . ,T hucyd ide s 7 . 12 .3 -4 ; H erodo tu s 7 . 59 ; X enophon ,H e l l en ica 1 . 5 .10 .

1 .

H erodo tu s 7 . 137 ; T hucyd ide s 1 . 105 .1 , 2 . 56 .4 ,4 . 45 .2 ; D iodo ru s 1 .78 .1 . A then ian c a sua l t ie sa tH a l i e i s a re l i s ted i n I n sc r ip t ione s G raecae 1 29 29 .

6 6

W. M . MURRAY

T he Anc ien t Ha rbou r o fP a la i ro s l The a nc ien t c i ty o fP a la i ro s — f i r s t m en t ioned i nT hucyd ide s ' a ccoun t o f4 31 ( 2 .30 .1) — h a s b een c o r rec t ly i d en t if ied w i th t he w e l l p re se rved r ema in s a t K echropou la i n n or thwe s t Aka rnan ia . Our k now ledg eo ft h ec i ty 's h i s tory i sl im i ted ,y e td e ta i led e nough t or evea lt ha ti t s e conomy p ro sper ed a l ong w i th t he r e s to f Aka rnan ia d ur ing t h em id -four th a nd t h i rd c en tu r ie s B .C .2 A l though i th a s l ong b een s u spec ted t ha t t h i s c i ty p o s se s sed a h a rbou r , n o s e r iou s a t temp t s w ere made t o l o ca te i t . T o h i s c r ed i t , K .A . R homa io s r epor ted " sma l l s c rap s o f h a rbou r work s" ( "m ikra l e ip sana l i men ikön e rgön" )a tP ogon ia b u td id n o te l abo ra te f u r ther3. T h i sp aper w i l lf o cu so n ad e sc r ip t ion o fP a la i ro s ' h a rbour ,l o ca ted b yt h ea u thor i n1 980 ,a nd w i l l p r e sen t t he e v idence f o r d a t ing i t s o r ig ina l c on s t ruc t ion a nd p er iod o fu se . F ina l ly t h e i mp l ica t ions o ft h i s mo le f o rc ompu t ing t h el o ca lc hang ei ns e al e ve l( r e la t ive t ot h el a nd )w i l lb e d i scu s sed . THE R EMA INS One k me a s to f modern P ogon ia a nd s ome 3 00 m n or thea s to ft h es t rand k nown a s" C leopa t ra B each" 4 i sa na nc ien th a rbou r mo le p a r t ia l ly o b scu red u nde r mud a nd s i l t .T he h a rbour s i te l i e s e xac t ly w here o ne w ou ld e xpec ti t— a tt h et e rm inu so ft h ea nc ien tr oad l e ad ing s ou th f r om t h e c i ty ( a bou t 5km a way ) , a nd i nt h e mo s t s he l te red , n o r thwe s tern p or t ion o ft h e w ide b ay o f P a la i ro s( F ig s . 1a nd 2 ) . The l i ke ly e x is tence o f ar oad w a ss ugge s ted b yt h ed i scov ery o fn ume rou s ampho ra f r agmen t s , mo s to ft h em f r om " Co r in th ian A " a nd " B" j a r so ft h ef ou r th t ot h i rd c en tur ie s 5.T he se p i ece s l i t te r ed af i e ld s ome 5 00 m n or th o ft h e mo le w he r e at omb w i th as epu lch ra l i n sc r ip t ion w a s f ound . T he t omb i sc l ea r ly l a te r i n d a te t han t h e t h i rd c en tury , s o t h e p o t tery m igh t b e i n te rp r e ted a s g a rbage t h rown t o t h e s i de o ft h e r oad n ea r w h ich t h i s p a r t icu la r t omb w a s c on s t ruc ted a t al a ter d a te . I nf a c t , w ha t a ppea r s t ob e r oad m e ta l c u t s o b l ique ly a c ro s s t h e b each a tt he l og ica lw e s tern e nd o ft h e h a rbour mo le ( i ta ppea r so n F ig . 2 ,d i rec t ly a bove t h e l e gend " sand i np ocke t s" ) ,a nd j u s to f fs ho re a r ea tl e a s tt wo l a rge r e c tangu la rb lock se mbedded i n t h e s i l t . A t ho rough c l ean ing h e re c ou ld r e vea l i ft h e se b lock s a r e p a r t o f t h e r oad , o r f ounda t ion s o fh a rbou r b u i ld ing s . The h a rbour 's p l acemen th e re i sl a rge ly d e te rm ined b yt h et opog raphy a nd w ind p a t te rn so ft h i s embaymen t . S t rong s e ab reez e sa r eg ene ra ted b yt h es ub s tan t ia lp l a in r unn ing n or thwa rd ,a nd t he s ou ther ly o r s ou thwe s ter ly w ind s g enera ted c an c l imb t o F 5o r more n ea r t h e s hor e b y m id -a f ternoon ? . Ic onc lud ed t ha ti fP a la i ro sh ad ah a rbour ,i t sp ro tec t ive mo le mu s th ave b een c on s t ruc ted i na ne a s t -we s td i r ec t ion t op ro tec ta ga in s tt h en or thwa rd f l ow o ft h ew av e s . It h en l oca t ed t h e mo s ts u i tab le s i te g i ven t h e se c r i ter ia a nd w a si nt h ew a te rn ol onge rt han 1 5m inu te s b efo r e l o ca t ing t h e a nc ien t b r eakwa te r . T he m o le e x tend sf r om t h ep r e sen ts hor e l ine i na ne a s t sou thea s te r ly d i rec t ion f o r amax imum d i s tan c eo f2 70 m .T he s t ruc tu r ei t se lf i so b scu red i n many p l ace sb ys i l t ,y e t ag ene ra lp i c tu r eo f t he h a rbour mo le c an b er e cov ered .C on s ider ing t h en a tu re o fi t sc on s t ruc t ion ,t h ed i s tr ibu t ion o ft h ep o t tery f ound o n i ta nd t h eb a thyme t r ic l e ve l so fi t ss u r face ,i tc an b ed i v ided i n to t h r ee d i f f e r en t s e c t ion s 5. T he f i r s t s ec t ion r un s f o r a bou t 1 70 m f r om t h e s ho re l ine , i sc ompo sed o f s ma l l i r regu la r b ou lde r s ,c on ta in sv ery f ew s herd sa nd s l ope sf r om s e al e ve lg radua l ly d own t o ag ene ra ld ep th o f1 . 5 1 .75 m ( c f . P l . 1a nd t h ed ep th c ha r t , F ig . 3 ) .T ot h en o r th a nd s ou th o ft h i ss e c t ion i sa t h ick b l anke to f mud ,w h ich i np lace sh a sb een s cou red a way b yt h ec u r ren tt or e vea ls ma l la nd

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NOTES : I .

G .S chm ied t ,C on t r ibu to d e l la f o to in te rp re taz ione a l la r i co s t ruz ione d e l la s i tuaz ione g eog ra f ico topog ra f ica d e ip or t i a n t ich i i nI t a l ia : XC ong r e s so I n te rnaz iona le d iF o tog ramme t r ia , L i sbona , 1 964 .

2 .

G . S chm ied t , I .G .M . , A t lan te a e rofo tog ra f ico d e l le s ed i umane i nI t a l ia , F i renze , 1 964 .

3 .

F .B ar reca , L e f o r t if icaz ion i s e t ten t r iona l i d iT ha r ro s , R iv i s ta d iS tud i F en ic i , V o l . I V , 2 ,R oma , 1 9 76 .

4 .

T he a u thor w a s t h e g eo log i s t o ft h ee xped i t ion .

5 .

L .F ozza t i ,A rcheo log ia ma r ina d iT har ro s ,R ice r che er i su l ta t id e l la p r ima c ampagna ( 1 979 ) , R iv i s ta d iS tud i F en ic i , V o l . V I I I , 1 ,R oma , 1 980 .

9 2

BENVENUTO FRAU

F rom t he E t ru scan P or t s o fG rav i scae a nd Ma r tanum :E lemen t sf o r aN ew Me thodo logy i nt he F i e ld o f Ma r i t ime A rchaeo log ica l R e sea rch Wh i le t h e Depar tmen tf or Ma r i t ime A rchaeo logy ( SE .ST .A M . ) ' w a sc onc lud ing t he r e search s t age o fs u rvey ing a nd l o ca t ing t h ev ar iou ss t ruc ture so ft he E tru scan h arbour a tG rav i scae ,a nd was p resen t ing t he i n i t ia lr e su l t sa tt he 5 th c onf erence o ft he A rchaeo log ica lG roups o fL az io ( Bo lsena , 6 8 December 1 980 ) 2,D r . E l izabe th S huey w a s p resen t ing , i nt he B r i t i sh S choo l a t Rome 3,t h er e su l t so ft he r e sea rch s he h a sc ar r ied o u ta tG rav iscae d ur ing Augus t -Sep tember 1 977 . D r . S huey w a s i nv i ted b y P rof e ssor T ore l l i4 a s p ar t o f t he p ro jec t " Re sea rch o n a n E truscan h arbour" o f t he Amer ican A cademy i n Rome . Her p re sen ta t ion o ft he work w a s p ub l ished i nt he P aper so ft h eB r i t i sh S choo la tR ome , Vo l . XL IX , 1 981 ,p p . 1 7 -45 . D r . S huey 's s tudy w a s c arr ied o u t i n amo s t p rof e s s iona l a nd me t icu lous manner , a nd w i th c on s iderab le r e source s . However , t he r e su l t s w ere u nfor tuna te ly n ega t ive . Dr . S huey s t a ted i n an o te t oh er t e x t5 t ha t my B o lsena r epor tr eached h er o n ly a f ter s he h ad c o mp le ted h er p aper . S he a l so s a id t ha t my c onc lu s ion sr ega rd ing t he E tru scan h arbour b e ing s i l ted u p a nd l oca ted a f ew h undred m e ter s i n land " are s t i l l t o b e p roved" 8.B y n ow s he i s p robab ly f am i l iar w i th my r e cen t p ub l ica t ion o n t he a nc ien t h a rbour s o f T a rqu in ia : "G l i An t ich i P or t i d i T arqu in ia" , ( GAR , R oma , 1 982 ) s o s he h a s s e en t he p ho tog raph ic d ocumen ta t ion o ft he I n terna lP or tB a s in s , t he c on tour ing d oub le w a l ls a nd t he b u t tre s se so f t he t ypo logy u sed i n Magna G raec ia , i n5 th c en tury B .C .E . Our r e search l ed t o t he i d en t if ica t ion o ft he c ommerc ia l b a s in o f t he E tru scan h arbour o f T arqu in ia ( of Greek t ypo logy ) 7,a nd i nG rav i scae o ft he p or td ef ence w a l l s 8,ac i rcu la r mo le i n t he a rea o ft he o u ter h arbour 8,ar e c tangu lar b u i ld ing 3 0mb y3 0 mi n a" s tra teg ic" a rea 1 0 , a p resumed " co thon" 1 ,a nd many t r ace s o f Roman Wa l ls , p robab ly f r om t he p er iod o f t he Emperor T iber iu s1 2 ( f ig . 1 ) . F ur ther i nve s t iga t ions a t t he a nc ien t mou th o ft he r i ver Ma r ta , a bou t2 00 m n or th o ft he p re sen t mou th ,r evea led t he e x i s tence o f ap or tb a s in w i th at ypo logy o f t he V I I -V I c en tury B .C .E .1 3 T he re a re c hanne ls c onnec t ing i tw i th t he s ea , a nd a n o u ter h arbour w i th a p ro tec t ive b reakwa ter ( f ig . 2 ) . Therefor e ,a f ter t h is p reface Iw ou ld l i ke t os ay t ha tp aradox ica l ly ,t he s t udy a nd t he l o ca t ion o f a nc ien t p or t i n s ta l la t ions a r e p o ss ib le , e ven w i thou t p rope r e xcava t ions . A f o rma l a rchaeo log ica l d ig , c onduc ted b y p rof e s s iona l a rchaeo log i s t s , c an s o me t ime s g i ve n ega t ive r e su l t se v en i fc onduc ted i nt h es ame a rea ,u s ing e f f ic ien tm ean s .T he c a se o fG rav i scae i sn o tt he o n ly o ne .P rof essor J .P e ter O le son 's e xcava t ions a tP y rg ii n1 974 p roved n ega t ive .E ven t hough t hey w er ec onduc ted i n am e t icu lous ,t r ad i t iona lw ay ,n oe v idence o ft he " E tru scan" h a rbour o f P yrg i w a s f ound . Ih ave n o i n ten t ion t o s t a te a n o p in ion , b u t Ic an ' t a vo id m en t ion ing t ha t i nb o th r e sea rches , t ha t o fD r . S huey a tG rav i scae ,a nd t ha to fD r . O leson a tP yrg i , o ne g e t s t he i mpre ss ion t ha t s ome i mpor tan te l emen t sw e re n eg lec ted .T he se i n c lude :t he t ypo logy o fE tru scan h arbour st ha t d if f er f r om t he t ypo logy o fh a rbour so ft he R oman p er iod ; „ th s ed imen ta t ion p roces ses i nt he l ow c oa s ta l z one s ; c hange s i nt h e a nc ien t s ea l e ve l s i nc ompa r i son t o t he r e cen t s ea l e ve l ; t he e f f ec t s o f t he p ermanen t c ur ren ts o f t he T yr rhen ian s ea ; a nd f i na l ly a more a ccura te i n terp re ta t ion o fa er ia l p ho tog raph s .

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g l I A V I S CA E F IG . 1 : THE ETRUSCAN HARBOUR OF GRAV ISCAE 1 .T he p or t 's d oub l ed ef ence w a l l s . 2 .P robab l ep or t t ower . 3 .S ou thern s i d e o ft h ep or td ef ens ive w a l l s . 4 .E x te rna lc i rcu lar m o l e . 5 .P robab l e " co thon" . 6 -7 . C hanne l so ft h e " co thon"? 8 .T he m o l eo fG reek t y po logy a nd t h er ema ins o ft h ec i rcu lar t owe r . 9 .R ema ins o ft h eR oman c i ty w a l l s( p e r iod o ft h e Empe ror T i be r iu s ? ) 1 0 . T he d e tached mo l e . 1 . E xcava t ions o ft h e G raeco — E tru scan b u i l tu pa r ea . 1 2 . E xcava t ions o ft h eR oman b u i l tu pa rea . 1 3 . A nc ien tR ou te T arqu in ia -Grav i scae . 1 4 . P robab l eb r idge . 1 5 . T he p or ta r ea w h ich i sp re sumed t oh ave b een a l ready b u r ied i nt h er oman p e r iod . 1 6 . T he p or ta r ea w h ich i sp re sumed t oh ave b een b ur ied i n Med ieva lp e r iod . 1 7 . T he p or ta r ea e x i s ted a s ama r sh t oward sm id 1 9 th c e n tu ry . 1 8 . T he " co thon" i nt h eR oman p e r iod . 1 9 . R ema ins o f am ar sh s t i l le x i s ted d u r ing t h em id 1 9 th c en tury . 2 0 . A rea f i l l ed w i th d e tr i tus . 2 1 . E x i to ft h ea nc ien tc hanne l . 2 2 . P re sen tc oa s t l ine .

9 4

F I G . 2 : T H E T R U S C A N H A R B O U R A T

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I fs uch i st he s i tua t ion , o ne c anno t a vo id o ppo s ing t h i s m e thod o fr e search . F o r f r om t h e p ub l ica t ion s w e c an d educe t ha t t h e a fo remen t ioned r e sea r ch w a s c onduc ted i n at r ad i t iona l w ay , a l though v e ry c a refu l ly a nd m e t icu lou s ly .

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A f te rt h ep o s i t ive c onc lu s ion o ft h ei nv e s t iga t ion o ft h eE t ru scan h a rbou ro fC a s t rum Novum i n 1 956 1 4 , o fG rav i scae a nd Ma r tanum i n1 979 a nd 1 982 ,a nd w i th t h er e sea rch t ak ing p l ace a tt h e mou th o ft he M ignone r i ve r1 5 , Iam c onv inced t ha tt h e re a r es ome f undamen ta le l emen ts o ne c anno t i g nor e w hen i nve s t iga t ing a nc ien t h a rbour i n s ta l la t ion s . Now , Iw ou ld l i k e t od i scu s s t ho se e l emen t s w i thou t t r y ing t o p u t t oge the r a" Codex" f o r r e sear ch i n u nderwa te r a r chaeo logy . Iam c onv inced t ha ti nf o rm ing an ew m e thodo logy f r om t ho se e l emen t so ne s hou ld g i ve i tt h e p rope r i mpor tance . T he f i r s t e l emen t Ip o in t o u t a sf undamen ta lf o rt h i s r e sea r ch i s : a . T he r e cogn i t ion o ft h e T y r rhen ian C oa s ta l Morpho logy f rom t h e Xt ot h e IC en tu ry Many s t ud ie sh ave b een c onduc ted o nt h i ss ub jec tt ha ta l so d ea lw i th p reh i s to r ic p er iod s ' 6. A sf o ro ur s pec if i cc a se i ti se nough t om en t ion t h ew o rk o fR . C a rda re l l i1 7 . T he se s t ud ie s , ( t he l a s tp ub l i shed i st ha to fC . C apu to ,E .L up ia ,P a lme r ia nd F .P ug l ie se p ub l i shed i nt h e R iv i s ta G eog raf i ca I t a l iana 1 981) ,r e ach t h ec onc lu s ion t h a tt h es and d une s ,w h ich ,t owa rd s t h eX th c en tu ry B .C .E .w e re f o rmed as hor td i s tance f r om t h eb each ,s l ow ly h a rd ened .T he t ombo l ic onnec t ing t h em t ot h el a nd g radua l ly c l o sed ,a nd f o rmed s ma l la nd l a rg el a guna l a r ea s . T he se b a s in s ,c onnec ted t ot h es e ab ys ho r tc hanne l sw er et h ed om inan te l emen ti n t h e c oa s ta l f o rma t ion o ft h e T y r rhen ian c oa s t f r om P i sa t oC i rceo . T he se l a guna l a r ea s , c r ea ted i nt h e X th c en tu ry B .C .E . o r b efo re , w ere t h e f i r s t n a tu ra l h arbour s . A f ter t he V I I I th c en tury B .C .E . t h e se p o r t a r ea s a r e c ha rac ter iz ed b y t he f i r s t f i xed s t ruc tu re s . T owa rd s t h e V I th c en tury B .C .E . t h e f i r s t " bu i l t" h a rbou r s b egan t o d eve lop i n s ide t h el a guna la r ea s .A f te rt h e se ,c ame i nt h eR oman ,t h ef i r s te x te rna la r t if ic ia l i n s ta l la t ion s .T he se w e re c onnec ted w i th t h eg radua l mod if ica t ion o ft he c oa s ta l" fac ie s" . I n more d e ta i lw ec an d e sc r ibe t h es i tua t ion b e tween t h eX th a nd t h eV I I I th c en tu ry B .C .E . a sf o l low s : P i sa — t h e i n te rna l l a guna l a r ea w a s l o ca ted 6 7 km f r om t h e r e cen t c oa s t l ine . P opu lon ia — w i th i t s" h i l ly" c omp lex w a sa lmo s td e tached f r om t h e ma in land . Two w a t e r b a s in so pened i nt h ea r ea .T oday t h ey a r ec a l led " Fo s so d e lP ino a nd F o s so d e l la F on t ina ." V e tu lon ia — i nt h i sa r ea t h e" l acu sP roe l iu s" p ene t ra ted a bou t2 0 km i n to w ha ti st oday t h e " p iana g ro s se tana ." A nsed on ia — t h e ma r she so fO rbe te l lo a nd B u rano ,i ne x i s tence t oday ,r ef l ec tt h es i tua t ion o fP opu lon ia , G rav i scae e t c . — T he c oa s ta ll a ke a tt h e mou th o ft h er i ve r Ma r ta w a st r an sformed i n to t h ep o r ta rea o f t h e ma in h arbour o fT a rqu in ia . T he h a rbour u sed t h el a goon 3 00 -400 m i n s ide t h er e cen t c oa s t l ine . G rav i scae — h ere i nt h el a guna la r ea ,c ompo sed o fv a r iou s ma r she sa nd l ake s ah arbour o f G r eek t ypo logy d eve loped t owa rd s t h e V I -V c en tury B .C .E . — A tt he mou th o ft h er i ve rM ignone ,t h el a cu s t r ine z one h ad a ni n tru s ion o f2 2 .5 km a nd i nt h i s a r ea t h e r e w a s aMycenaean p r e sence p r io rt ot h e X I th c en tu ry B .C .E .1 8 P yrg i — as im i la r s i tua t ion d eve loped a tP y rg i a nd a tA l s ium . O s t ia — a tO s t ia , t h e L acu s tr ine z one d eve loped o nb o th s i de so ft h e mou th o ft h eT eve r e r i ver a nd o ccup ied al a rge a r ea , l o ca ted 3 4 km f r om t h e p re sen tc oa s t l ine . — As im i lar d eve lopmen t o ccur red a t Anz io a nd w a s e v en mo r e e mpha s iz ed a tC irceo . T h i sg enera ls i tua t ion w en tt h rough c on s tan te vo lu t ion u n t i lt h e i s tc en tury B .C .E .a nd c au sed t h eg radua ld i sappearance o ft h el a cu s tr ine a r ea sa nd o ft h eE t ru scan h a rbour s .T he se c eased t o f unc t ion t owa rd st he t h ird c en tury B .C .E . d ue t ot h e m a r ine c oa s ta ls ed imen ta t ion ,a sw e l la s l ake a nd f l uv ia l s ed imen ta t ion , a nd i ndeed t h i s i st h e s e cond b a s ic e l emen t o fr e s ea r ch :

9 6

b .

T he u nd er s tand ing o ft h es ed imen ta t ion p roce s se so ft h er i ve r s , l ake sa nd o fl ow c oa s ta la rea s d ue t oe o l ian a c t ion , c hang e so f ar i ve r 's f l ow , c l ima t ic c hang e s , t h et r anspor ta t ion o fd e t r i tu s f rom t h e c a tchmen ta rea , c a sua la l luv iums e t c . On t h i s s ub jec t o ne s hou ld r e f e r t o t h e w o rk d one b y B . An se lm i ( 1 976 )1 9 ,S . C icacc i ( 1 977 )2 0 , t he s t ud ie s o fR . C a rda re l l i( op . c i t . ) a nd o the r s . T he s i tua t ion o ft he w a te rb a s in s ,m en t ioned b efore ,c hanged c on s ide rab ly i nt h eR oman p e r iod d ue t os ed imen ta t ion . F o r e xamp le : — T he s and d une s o ft h e p i sana l a goon r e ached t h e h a rbou r " Po r to d e l le C onche" a nd S .P ie t ro aG rado , a dvanc ing 3 4 km . — T he l ake " l acu s P roe l iu s" w a s r educed c on s ide rab ly . — T he b a s in a tt he mou th o ft h e Ma r ta w a sp a r t ia l ly b ur ied ,a nd c ea sed t of unc t ion a sa h a rbour . — A t G rav i scae t h e " Co thon" w a s p a r t ia l ly b ur ied2 1 , a bou t at h i rd o ft h e c ommerc ia l h a rbour w a s b u r ied , w i th t h e o u ter h a rbou r , t h e o n ly f unc t ion ing p a r t2 . — A tt he mou th o ft h eM ignone r i ve rt h el a ke r e tu rned t oi t so r ig ina ls i ze b u tu n t i l 1 630 n o r oad c ro s sed i t2 3 . — T he mar she so fO s t ia w en to u to fu se a sa na nchorag et owa rd st h e2 nd c en tu ry B .C .E .

T he a ve rage r a te o fs ed imen ta t ion c a lcu la ted f o r t h e c oa s ta l z one w a s a bou t 2 0 c m/cen tury b efo r et h er e c lama t ion o fL eopo ld ,a nd a bou t4 0c m/cen tu ry a tt h et ime o ft h er e c lama t ion 2 4 . U s ing t h e se f i gure sw ec an t h en s ay t ha tt he a c tua lv a l ley o ft h er i ver M ignone ,f r om t h eb r idge o ft he "Mo le" t oi t s mou th ( t oday 1m a bove M .S .L . ) , w a s i nt h e X th c en tury B .C .E . 3 4 m b e low t h e M .S .L . o ft ha t p e r iod . T he r e su l t o f t h i s i st ha t o n ly r a re ly c ou ld E tru scan h a rbou r i n s ta l la t ion s b e r eu sed i nt h e Roman p er iod . F o re xamp le ,i fw et ake a nE tru scan p or tb a s in w i th aM .S .L . o f1 . 50 m b e low t oday 's M .S .L . , af a c t w h ich d a te si tt ot h e6 5 c en tury B .C .E . ,t h en s uch ah a rbour n eeded a b o t tom o f2 -2 .5 m a nd p i er s 1 . 3 1 .4 m h i gh t op e rm i t as a f ea nchorage o fw a ra nd c ommerc ia l s h ip s . I fs o , t he d i s tance f r om t h e b o t tom t ot h e e dge o ft h e p i er mu s t b e 3 . 30 -3 .90 m . I fw ec heck t he s ame p o r tb a s in d u r ing t h eR oman P e r iod a bou tt h e i s tc en tury B .C .E . ,a nd i f w ec a lcu la te t he e f f ec t so fs ed imen ta t ion d ue t o ac hange o fM .S .L .( s ee n o te c ) ,w ef i nd t ha tt h e h arbou r b o t tom r o se a pp rox ima te ly 1 . 20 m ( 2 mm x 6 00 y ea r s ) a nd t h e M .S .L . r o se a pprox ima te ly 9 0c m x1 . 7 mm p e ry ea r ) .T he c onc lu s ion r e ached i st ha tt h eh a rbour d ep th w a s 1 . 70 -2 .20 m , a nd t h e p i e r s 0 . 40 -0 .50 m h i gh u n su i tab le f o r t h e a ncho rage o f at r i reme , w h ich n eeded ap i er o fa tl e a s t 1 . 80 -2 .00 m o fh e igh t . S uch ah e igh t i si n suf f ic ien t f o r c ommerc ia l v e s se l s a sw e l l . A t C a s t rum Novum w e f i nd a n e xamp le o fa n E t ru scan h a rbou r w h ich w a s n o t a f f ec ted b y s ed imen ta t ion p roce s se s a nd s hor e p rog re s s ion , a nd w a s l a ter r eu sed a s ap i sc ina 2 9 ( f ig . 4 ) . Howeve r , a pa r t f r om t h e se r a re e xcep t ion s , o ne s hou ld t ake i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e t wo c on t rad ic t ing ,y e tr e la ted e l emen t so fs ed imen ta t ion a nd t h ec hange so fa nc ien ts ea l e ve l sw hen i nve s t iga t ing E tru scan p or t a r ea s . c .

T he S tudy o ft h eA nc ien t S ea L eve l T he s t udy c onduc ted b yS chm ied ti nc o l labora t ion w i th T e s i ,R o s s ia nd P i er i2 6 , i ss t i l lb a s ic f o r t h e u nder s tand ing a nd t he d ef in i t ion o ft h e M .S .L . d u r ing t h e E t ru scan p e r iod . T h i s t h eo ry w a s a l so i nve s t iga t ed b y S .P o l l i2 7 a nd o ther s a nd w a s p o s i t ive ly v er if i ed a t many i n s ta l la t ion s b u i l t b e tween t h e X th a nd t h e I s t c en tu ry B .C .E . Ih ad t he o ppo r tun i ty t o v er ify i t s v a l id i ty o n t h e p i sc ina a nd h a rbou r i n s ta l la t ion s a t C a s t rum Novum 2 9 ( f ig . 3 ) .

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1 . Mo l e i n ac ons truc t ion o fp seud o i s ad oma a nd E tru scan i s odoma i mperf ec tum w i th i n ter s t ice ss i tua ted b e low f o rt h ea b sorp t ion o ft h eb ackwa sh e nergy . 2 .R oman q uay b u i l to fc emen tw i th o r tho s ta te s t h a ta l te rna te i nh e igh ta nd i nl e ng th . 3 -4 . Mo l e so fG reek s y s tem w i th a l terna t ing d i a tons a nd o r tho s ta te s . 5 .P isc ina w i th 5p oo l s . 6 -7 . I n l e tc hanne l so ft h ep i sc ina . 8 .P robab l ec i rcu lar " consep tum" 9 .L iv ing a r ea o ft h ec omp l ex . 1 0 . E x i tc h anne lo ft h ep i sc ina w i th as t one c l os ing g a te . 1 . P robab l e " recep tacu la" f or f i shermen b oa t s . 1 2 . Moo r i ng s t one s 1 3 . C hanne l sf or w a ter o verf l ow .

I nt h ea rea o fT a rqu in ia ,t h ef i r s ts t ag ew a s an a tura ll a cu s tr ine h a rbou ra tt h e mou th o ft h e M ignone . T he p or ta r ea p robab ly u sed t h el a guna la r ea w h ich o ccup ied t h el owe s tp a r to f t h er i ve rM ignone . T he h a rbour w a sp robab ly p ro tec ted b y ac oa s ta ld une ,b ya ni s land i n f r on to ft he l a goon w h ich i sn ow s ubme rged ,a nd b y an umbe ro fc l if f sw h ich c r ea ted g ood c oa s ta l p ro tec t ion o u t s ide t h e l a goon — a lmo s t a" rec ep tacu la" . A tt h es e cond s t age ,c h rono log ica l ly ,c ame ah a rbou ra tt h e mou th o ft h er i ve r Ma r ta ,u s ing ac oa s ta ll a cu s t r ine a r ea . Ah arbou rw a sb u i l t ,w i th i n terna lq uay s ,a nd w i th c hanne l sf o r w a t e ri nf low a nd f o rt h ee n trance o fs h ip s .( Ac hanne l6 8 mw ide w a sf ound ) . We s hou ld

9 9

c on s ider t h i s b a s in a ss em i -a r t if ic ia l , a sc l ea r t r ace s o fc u t t ing s i nt h e n a tu ra l r ock s w e r e f ound . An o u ter h a rbour w a sb u i l t ,a sw e l la sa ne x te rna l mo le s e rv ing a s ab r eakwa ter .T he c omp lex d a te s t ot h e V I I -V I c en tu ry B .C .E . O f t he E tru scan h arbour s , t he mo s t mode rn w a s t h e h arbour o f G rav i scae o f G reek c on s truc t ion . T he G r eek f e a tu r e s a r e : t h e u se o f" d ia ton s" o n t h e b order s o ft h e e x te rna l mo le ( c a l led t oday " C lemen t ine" mo le ) ; t h e t e x tur e o ft h e b lock s o f wh ich t h e d ef en s iv e h a rbour w a l l s w ere b u i l t ; t h e t ypo logy o ft h e h a rbou r ( s ee a l so t h e G reek h a rbour s o f Ha l icarna s su s , Ma r se i l le , C a r thage e t c . ) w he re t h e c omme rc ia l b a s in s o r a l t e rna t ive ly t h e " Co thon" w a s s ur rounded b y d ef en s ive w a l l s . A l l t h e se i n s ta l la t ion s c an b ed a ted t o t h e V th c en tury B .C .E . F or r e a son sa l r eady m en t ioned ,a f te rt h ea pp rop r ia t ion o ft h ec o lon ie si nE tru r ia ,t h e Roman h a rbour sw ere l o ca ted o u t s ide t h eE t ru scan p or ta r ea s ,u s ing ,a t mo s t ,o n ly ap a r to ft h ea nc ien t i n s ta l la t ion s . A sf o rG rav i scae w ec an a s sume t ha tt h eR oman h a rbou ru sed t he a r ea o ft he E t ru scan o u t e r h a rbou r ( t oday ' s " C lemen t ino" h a rbou r ) , a nd a bou t h a l f o ft h e c ommerc ia l b a s in . T h i s i s i nd ica ted b yt h e a e r ia l p ho to s . E ven i ft he b a s in o ft he " co thon" w a ss t i l li nu se ( i n amap f r om 1 870 am ar sh i si n d ica ted i nt h e a r ea ) ,i tw a sn o tn av igab le a si tw a s mo s tp robab le t ha ta f te rb e ing a bandoned f o r1 5 0y ear st h e c hanne l s l e ad ing t oi tw e re b locked . e . T he S tudy o ft h e C on s tan t S urf ace C u r ren t s o ft h e T yr rhen ian S ea An a ccura te s t udy o ft he d i rec t ion o ft h e se c ur ren t sp e rm i t su st oe va lua te t h er e ason sf o r t h e l o ca t ion o f E tru scan h a rbour e n t rance s , a nd e spec ia l ly o u te r h a rbou r s w h ich w e r e a lway s c a re fu l ly p ro tec ted t ot h e s ou th , ( a s f o r 1 0 mon th s o ft h e y ea r t he d i r ec t ion o ft h e c ur ren ti sf r om t h es ou th ) .T he se c u r r en t sa f f ec tt r an spo r to fd e tr i tu si nt he p or ta r ea a nd t h e e n t rance o ft h es h ip si n to t h eh a rbou r s .T he r ei sa l so a ni n terac t ion b e tween t h e se c ur ren t s a nd t he e f f ec t s o ft he p reva i l ing w ind s ,w h ich o nt h e se c oa s t sa re p r edom inan t ly f r om t h e SW a nd NW . A tt he E t ru scan h a rbou ro fC a s t rum Novum ,t h ee n trance i so nt h en or thwe s t e rn s i de .T he s uck ing e f f ec t c au sed b y t h e Mae s t ra le i st h er efo re w eakened b ecau se o f t h e c hanne l s l o ca ted u nde r t h e s ou the rn mo le . T he h a rbour o fR ap in ium g e t si t sp ro tec t ion f r om t h eC ape o fS .A go s t ino .T he h arbou ro f G rav i scae i sp ro tec ted i nt h es ou th b yt h e G reek mo le ( t oday " C lemen t ino ' s mo le" ) ,a nd t h e s uck ing e f f ec t i sa b so rbed b y ac hanne l i nt h e s ou thwe s tern a r ea . A tP yrg i ,w ec an a s sume t ha tt h ea r ea o ft h ec a s t le w a sa c tua l ly t h es ou thern e x t en s ion o ft h e e x te rna l mo le . A n u nder s tand ing o f t h e d i rec t ion o f t h e se c u r r en t s i s e s sen t ia l f o r u nd e r s tand ing Mycenaean n av iga t ion t e chn ique s . T he f l a t -bo t tom s h ip s w ere c a r r ied b y t h e c ur ren t s a t v ary ing s peed s ( w i th t h e h e lp o fs a i l s ) a t as peed o f2 6 k no t s . C ou r se s c ou ld b e p lo t ted 1 50 -200 m i le si na dvance .T h i sb e ing s o ,w ec an e xp la in t h ee mergence o fa ncho rage s wh ich s t a r ted f r om T avo l ie re a nd w e re l o ca ted a tS cog l io d e lT onno ,T ap so ,L ipar i ,C i rc e° ,O s t ia , a tt h er i ver mou th o ft h eM ignone ,a nd t h en b yc u r ren tf o r ce t oA rzachena ,t h en a long t h e e a s tern c oa s t o fS ard in ia , a round C ape C a rbona ra t oA n t igo r i , t h en aj ump t oL ipa r i o r A g r igen to , Ma l ta e t c . We d ea lh ere w i th c oun ter -c lockw i se d i rec t ion sd i c ta ted b yt h eT y r rhen ic c yc lon i cc i r cu i ta long t he c oa s t s o ft he T yr rhen ian s ea , 1 0 mon th s o ft h e y ea r , a nd c l ockw i se w i th t h eT yr rhen ian An t icyc lon ic C i rcu i t t wo mon th s ay ea r( Ju ly -Augu s t ) .

1 00

THE EXA M INAT ION OF AER IAL PHOTOGRAPHS An a ccura te e xam ina t ion o fa e r ia lp ho tog raph s s ome t ime s r e vea l s v e ry i mpo r tan t d e ta i l s f o r

t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fw a l l s , b a s in s a nd s t ruc tu re s . T he b e s t c ond i t ion f o r a e r ia l i d en t if i ca t ion o fb u r ied a rchaeo log ica l i n s ta l la t ion s i sw hen t h e p i c tu r e i st aken a f ter t he s o i l h a s b een w e l l s oaked f o l low ing a l ong p er iod o f r a in , a nd a f terwa rd s d r ied f o r as hor t p er iod b y t h e s un . T he r e su l t i sb eyond e xpec ta t ion . T he s o i l c over ing w a l l sa nd c ons truc t ion s ,u sua l ly n o t more t han 3m d eep ,t ake so n ap a le s hade ,w h i le o the rp a r t so ft he a l luv ium s o i ls t ay d a rke r ,r e la t ive t ot h eq uan t i ty o fd epo s i ted s o i l ,a nd t ot h e p ene t ra t ion o fr a in w a te r i n to i t . P ho to s t a ken r e vea l h yd ror epe l lan t ma te r ia l s , d i f f e ren t f r om t he i r s ur round ing s . T he se c omb ined w i th t he s t udy o fb a thyme t r ic map s , make i tp o s s ib le t ol o ca te s unken c on s truc t ion s o r s ubm e rged i s land s . THE USE OF ELECTRON IC I NSTRU MENTS FOR THE CALCULAT ION OF SO IL RESISTANCE

S uch i n s t rumen t sp erm i tt h ev e r if i ca t ion o ft h ee x i s tence o fi n s ta l la t ion sw h ich w er ei d en t if i ed i na e r ia lp ho tog raph s . T he d a ta o b ta ined b ym ean so ft he se i n s trumen t si so fg r ea ti mpor tance s i nce i ta l so p rov ide s i n forma t ion w i th w h ich t oc l a s s ify t h ei n s ta l la t ion s . F or e xamp le : t he u se o f Megaohme ter t o c onf i rm t h el o ca t ion o ft h ep o r tb a s in a tt h e mou th o ft h e Ma r ta r i ver g ave as e r ie so fr e s i s tance v a lue s a l ong ap rof i le : o hm 1 00 .7

10 .1

19 .2

8 9

9 .2

9 .2

9 .2

1 0 .2

9 .2

9 .2

T he v a lu e s o f 1 00 .7 , 10 .1 , 19 .2 , 8 9 w h ich e xp re s s h i ghe r r e s i s tance , r e f lec t t h e m a te r ia l o f w h ich t h eq uay sa r ec on s truc t ed ,w h ich w ek now t ob ec ompo sed o f am ix tu re c on ta in ing s he l l s . T he s ha rp c hange t ot he v a lue o f9 . 2r e f lec t st h ee x i s tence o fa na dd i t iona lv er t ica lw a l lo ft h e mud -f i l led b a s in .T he r epea t ing o ft h ev a lue 9 . 2o v er ad i s tance 1 0 -12 m i nd ica ted t h ee x i s tence o f ac on s tan tf l a tb o t tom . T he v a lue 1 0 .2 c ou ld p o s s ib ly i nd ica te a ni s o la ted a ccumu la t ion o f d ebr i so r ap i le o fs t one s .T he u se o ft h es ame i n s t rumen ti na no r thogona ld i rec t ion ,i no rder t o l o ca te t h ee x i t c hanne l o ft h eb a s in , g av e t h e f o l low ing v a lue s : C hM 9 5.1

8 5 .1

8 5 .1

84 .2

1 4 .8

1 4 .8

1 4 .8

7 7 .3

7 8

7 8

T he v a lue s9 5 .1-84 .2 a nd f r om 7 7 .3 t o7 8 ,i nd ica te ag radua li n c rea se o ft h eq uan t i ty o fh umu s o n t h e h o r izon ta l s u rface o f am ix tu re o fs he l l s . T he c hange f r om t h e v a lue o f8 4 .2 t o 1 4 .8 i nd ica te s ac ro s s s e c t ion o ft h e c hanne l w e w e re l ook ing f o r .T he r epe t i t ion o ft h ev a lue s 1 4 .8 , 1 4 .8 , 1 4 .8 s how t he w id th o ft he c hanne l( 6 -8 m ) . I ts hou ld b e p o in ted o u t t ha t w h i le t h e b o t tom o ft h e b a s in g i ve s r e s i s tance v a lue s o f9 . 2 , t h e c hanne l b o t tom g i ve s av a lue o f 1 4 .8 . I fw e a s sume t ha t t h e mud d epo s i ted i nb o th p lace s i s i d en t ica l ,w ec an p o s s ib ly r e con s t ruc t as t ep b e tween t h eb a s in a nd t h eo pen ing o ft h ec hanne l . S uch as t ep c ou ld s e rve t oa vo id t he d epo s i t ion o fd e tr i tu si nt h ec hanne l ,d ue t ot h ed epo s i t ion o fs ed im en t s i nt e h b a s in i t se l f . S uch ah ypo the s i s n eed s v e r if i ca t ion w h ich c an b e o b ta ined o n ly b y a c tua l e xcava t ion .

1 0 1

THE HELP OF EXPER I MENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY

T he a na ly s i so ft h ev a lue sm ea sured b ym ean so fr e s i s tance i n s t rumen t sa tt he c i r cu la rc hann e l s o f t h e p reh i s tor ic v i l lage d i scove red a t t he a r ea o f P un ta S . A go s t ino r equ i r e s t h e h e lp o f e xper imen ta l a r chaeo logy . Ac hanne l w a s b u i l t c on s i s t ing o f at r ench 3m w ide a nd ar ampa r t 3m h i gh . I tw a s b u i l t e xper imen ta l ly a t Wa r sham i n Do r se tb yJ ohn C o le s ,a nd t h en a bandoned .A f te ro n ly 8y ea r si t w a so b se rved t ha tt h eb o t tom o ft h et r ench h ad b een r a i sed 5 0c md ue t od e t r i ta lf i l l ing ,a nd t h a t t h er ampar tw a s 1m l ower d ue t op a r t ia ld e s truc t ion o ft h et r ench w a l l sa s ar e su l to fe ro s ion . T he s ma l lv a r ia t ion i nt he r e s i s tance v a lue s m ea sured a tt h ec i rcu la rc hanne l so fS . Ago s t ino , d e sp i te t h ef a c tt ha tt h ec hanne l sw e re o b served o na i rp ho to s ,c an b ee xp la ined b yt h ef a c tt h a t t h ed e t r i tu sw h ich f i l led t he t r enche sp robab ly c ame f r om t h er ampa r t sa nd c on s i s t so ft he s ame m a ter ia l f ound w i th in t h e c hanne l i t se l f( f ig . 5 ) .

R AP IN I I IM

_ a r ea d i

•

F IG . 5 :

_P o

FORT IF IED PREH ISTOR IC V ILLAGE I N THE AREA OF RAP IN IUM

1 , 2 ,3 ,4 . A e r ia lv i ew o ff or t if ied a reas w i th c i rcu lar m oa t s . 5 .A r t if i c ia lc hanne lt h a t u s e s an a tura lf au l tl i ne . 6 .P reh i s tor ic h arbour ? 7 .R ema ins o fs ubme rged a rcha ic t y pe h ou se f ounda t ions . 8 .P oo l( t oday s ubmerged ) w i th t wo c hanne l sf or t h eg a ther ing o fw a te r( Su lphur ic ? ) 9 .D ead s p r ing s o fs u lphur ic w a ter ? 1 0 . T races o fa n a nc ien tr oad . 1 . F ord o rb r idge . ?( c or re spond en t t ot h en ar rower p ar to ft h e c hanne l— a bou t2 7m .) 1 2 . S ou thern m ou th o ft h ec hanne lt oday b l ocked b ya l gae .

T he r e s i s tance v a lue s m ea sured f r om t h e c i rcu la re dge o ft h e e x te rna l r ampa r ta r e : a . . . d o hm

2 30

e 2 30

f 2 80

g 2 00

h 1 00

i

l 10

m 1 20

1 02

1 00

n 2 00

o 2 60

p 3 20

q 3 40

r 4 80

s 5 90

Thus w e c an l oca te t he c hanne l s b e tween h a nd m d

h

$

m

/

z

CONCLUS ION Ih ave a t te mpted t o i nd ica te s o me e l emen ts wh ich a re f undamen ta l t o r e search i n Mar i t ime Archaeo logy . These e l emen ts a re ma in ly a no u tcome o ft he d a ta o b ta ined f rom o ur s tud ies i n t he a rea o f Taraqu in ia — b e tween t he R iver Mar ta a nd t he r i ver Mignone . F ig . 6g ives a p anoram ic v iew o ft he a rea i nq ues t ion .

F IG . 6 :

PANORA M IC V IE W OF TARQU IN IA WITH I TS HARBOURS OF MARTANU M , GRAV ISCAE AND RAP IN IU M

I .A nc i en tc our se o ft h er i ve r Mar ta . 2 .E t ru scan f or t if i ed a rea o ft h e V l th -V th v e n tury B .C .E . 3 .P en tagona lc amp . 4 .A rcha ic p agus . 5 . Mod e rn T arqu in ia . 6 .E t ru scan h arbour o ft h e V l I th -V I th c en tury B .C .E . a t Mar tanum . 7 .E tru scan h arbour o fG reek t y pe a tG rav i scae ( V th c en tu ry B .C .E .) 8 .P robab l e " co thon" . 9 .A nc ien tl a gunar a rea a tt h em ou th o ft h er i ve rM ignone . 1 0 . E x te rna lp or ta rea w i th c l if f s( X th -V I I I th c en tury B .C .E .) 1 . F or t if i ed p reh i s tor ic v i l lage . 1 2 . L i t t l ei s land i ne x i s tance i nt h eX th c en tu ry B .C .E . w h ich i sn ow s ubme rged . 1 3 -14 . E tru scan a nd R oman r oad s . 1 5 . P re sen t c our se o ft h e r i ver Ma r ta .

1 03

NOTES 1 .

T he S E .ST .A .M . i s ar e search s e c t ion o ft h e G .A .R . - G ruppo A rcha eo log ico R oma i nR ome - v i aT ac i to 4 1 .

2 .

T he t i le o ft h e r epor t w a s "Grav i scae , t h e Anc ien t Ha rbou r a nd i t s F or t if i ca t ion s" . GAR 1 981

3 .

T he t i le o ft h e r e por t w a s " Unde rwa te rS urvey a nd E xcava t ion a tG rav i sca , t h e P o r t o fT arqu in ia" .

4 .

D ir ec to r o ft h e e xcava t ion s a tG rav i scae s i nce 1 9 69 .

5 .

N o te 4 7 i nt h e q uo ted r epo r t .

6 .

" Unfo r tuna te ly d a tab le e v id ence f o r h i s c onc lu s ion h a s y e t t ob e r e vea led" .

7 .

"D ia ton s" w e re u s ed ( s ee V i t ruv iu si nD eA rch . L ib . 1 ,8 )f o l low ing G reek c on s t ruc t ion m e thod s ;t h et e x ture o ft h e b l ock sf r om w h ich t h ed ef en s ive h a rbou rw a l l sw e r eb u i l ti ss im i la rt ot h a to ft h ew a l l so fG e la ( V th c en tur yB .C .E . )e t c .

8 .

T he p or t ' s d oub le d ef ence w a l l s s im i la rt ot h ew a l l s o f Magna G raec ia a nd C ar thage .

9 .

I tr em ind so ne o ft h ee x terna lc i rcu lar mo le o fP o r tB a ra t t ia tP opu lon ia a nd t h ee x te rna lt r apezo ida l mo le a tC ar thag e .

1 0 .

I tr em ind s u s o ft h e t owe r o f Mau so lo i nt h e h a rbou r a r ea o f Ha l ica rna s su s o r t h e t owe r c a l led " Adm i ra l i ty" a t C a r thag e .

1 .

I tr em ind s u so ft h e " co thon" Ha l ica rna s su so rt h a to fC a r thag e .

1 2 .

F ron t inu s( De C o lon i i s ) s a id t ha t i tw a sT ibe r iu sw ho d ef ined t h e a r ea o fG rav i scae w i th aw a l l o fl a rg e s t one s .

1 3 .

A l lt h e Ma te r ia lf ound i nt h en earby f o r t if i ed E t ru scan c i tade lw a sd a ted t ot h eV l th a nd V th c en tu r ie sB .C .E . ( S ee B . F rau "G l i a n t ich i p o r t i d iT a rqu in ia" , p p . 9 5 -97 ) .

1 4 .

S ee B .F rau "Un p o r to e t ru sco d e l Vs e c e d u na p i sc ina r omana aC a s trum N ovum" , 1 9 79 .

1 5 .

T he r e sea rch i ss t i l lc on t inu ing b u th a sa l r eady d i scove red af o r t if i ed v i l lag ea nd mar ine i n s ta l la t ion sw h ich c ou ld b e d a ted t ot h e e nd o ft h e B ronze P er iod .

1 6 .

Mon 1 9 32 , B lanc 1 9 35 , B onadonna 1 967 , D a i -P ra , 1 9 78 .

1 7 .

R . C a rda re l l i i n : "De O ra Mar i t ima p opu lonen s i" p ub l i shed i nS tud i E t ru sch i , 1 963 .

1 8 .

AC yp r io t a nchor o f aMycenaean t ype o f at r iangu la rs hap e w i th ah o le w a s f ound o u t s ide t h e mou th o ft h e r i v e r M ignone .

1 9 .

I n : " S tud io s ed imen to log ico d e l la c o s ta c omp re sa f r a A n sedon ia el af o ce d e l f l ume M ignone" .

2 0 .

I n "M i sura d e l t r a spo r to s o l ido a lf ondo d e i c or s i d ' acqua" .

2 1 .

T he r ema in s o f as ma l l ma r sh w e re t r aced i n ac ada s t ra l m ap o f 1 8 70 ( ? ) .

2 .

T he p o r t a r ea o f" Po r to C lemen t ino" .

2 3 .

T he T abu la P eu t igner iana c u t so f ft h ec oa s ta lr oad b e fo r et h er i v er M ignone a nd s how si t sc on t inua t ion b eyond t h e r i ve r . On t h eo ther h and ,t h er oad w h ich s t a r t sa t Aquae T au r ig o ing t owa rd sT a rqu in ia a c ro s st h eP on te d e l le Mo le i sc on t inuou s . No a nc ien t map s how sr oad sc ro s s ing t h el ow c our se o ft h er i v e rM ignone u n t i l 1 636 ( t he m ap o fJacomo Odd i ) .

2 4 .

S ee t h e w ork o ft h ec i t . R . C a rda re l l i ( n . 1 7 ) .

2 5 .

D e sc r ibed b y m e i no p . c i t . ( n .14 ) .

2 6 .

I n" I l l i v e l lo a n t ico d e l Ma rT i r reno" - S chm ied t- 1 9 72 .

2 7 .

S .P o l l i i n" I l p rog re s s ivo a umen to d e l l i v e l lo d e l ma r Med i te r raneo" 1 9 48 .

2 8 .

S ee B . F rau i no p . c i t . ( n . 1 4 ) .

2 9 .

S e e , C o lume l la i nR .R . XV I I .

3 0 .

I nt h e c i t . r e po r t ( n . 3 ) , p . 26 , f i g . 4 .

3 1 .

S e e T o re l l i i n No t iz ie S cav i 1 9 7 1 .

3 2 .

S ee t h e w ork o f 0 . Me ta l lo a nd t h e " Ca r te m en s i l i d e l le c o r ren t i s uper f ic ia l i m a r ine d e l c ampo s t ab i le d e l Med i ter raneo" .

1 04

G .E . R ICK MAN

T owa rd s aS tudy o fR oman P o r t s Iam n o t a n a rchaeo log i s t , much l e s s a n u nde rwa te r a r chaeo log i s t — u n l ike s o many h e re i n Ha i fa . Ia ma na nc ien th i s tor ian .B u t Ib e l ieve i nt h ei mpor tance o fa r chaeo log ica le v idence ,a nd i t si n teg ra t ion w i th t h eo ther s ource s ,i fw ea r et oh ave a ny p rope ru nder s tand ing o ft h eh i s to ry o f a n t iqu i ty . My w ork o n R oman g rana r ie s a nd s t o re -bu i ld ing s , a nd o n t h e c orn s upp ly o f R ome , h a s l e d n a tu ra l ly t oa n i n te re s t i nh a rbou r a r ea s , a nd i nt he t r an spor t a nd t r ad ing o f g ood sb ys e a . It he re fore b egan t ot h ink s ome t wo y ea r sa go a bou t ap o s s ib le b ook o nR oman h arbou r s ,a nd h ow i ts hou ld ,o rc ou ld ,b ew r i t ten . B u t Is hou ld w a rn y ou n ow t ha t Is t i l lh ave mo re q ue s t ion s t han a n swe r s . T he n eed f o r an ew s yn the s i so nt h eh a rbou r so fa n t iqu i ty h a sb een o bv iou sf o rs ome t ime .I th a s b een s t r e s sed b yh i s tor ian ss uch a sS i r Mo se sF in ley ,a nd b yu nderwa te rd iv er ss uch a sN icho la s F lemm ing , a nd o the r s ' . L ehmann -Ha r t leben 's D ie a n t iken Haf enan lagen d e sM i t te lmeere s , a p ionee r ing work p ub l i shed i n1 923 , a l though s t i l l r ema rkab le , i so u t o fd a te . T he n ew u nderwa te rt e chn ique s ,a nd mor er e f ined a rchaeo log ica lm e thod so nl a nd ,h ave a dded g rea t ly t oo ur k now ledge .I ndeed t h e amoun to f ma ter ia li sf r igh ten ing — t umb led s t one b lock s u nder w a te r h ere , r ema in s o fc onc re te w harve s t he re , t imbe r r eve tmen t s , s h ip shed s a nd s l ip w ay s ,r amp sa nd s t ep s ,b o l la rd s ,a nd moor ing r i ng s ,a n t i s i l ta t ion c hanne l s ,l i gh thou se b a se s , a nd s t o r e rooms ' ,q u ick ly e ngu l fo ne — a nd t e nd t oo b scu r et h ev i ew .I ti se a sy t os uccumb t ot h e n a tura lt e ndency t oc oncen t ra te o ns ub s tan t ia lh arbour r ema in s ,w he reve rt h ey may b e ,a nd o n t he h i s to ry o ft he d eve lopmen to fc on s truc t iona lt e chn ique s ' .T h i si se s sen t ia l ly w ha tL ehmannHa r t leben d id ,a nd t h eu se o ft h ew ord S täd tebaue s 'i nt h es ub t i t le o fh i sw ork i sr evea l ing i n t h i s c onnec t ion . H e s aw h i s w ork o n h arbour s a s a n e s say i nt h e h i s tory o f t own p lann ing . C lea r ly a na pproach f r om t h i s a ng le c an b e ar ewa rd ing e xe rc i se . B u t a l though t h i s i st r ue , a nd b y t he e nd o ft h e d ay e very l a s t b o l la rd mu s t b e c oun ted a nd c l a s s if i ed ,i ts e em st om et ha t as t udy u nde r taken n ow s hou ld n o tb eo nR oman h arbour s ,b u t o nR oman p or ts . T h i sp o in t may b ec l ea rer i fIg i ve y ou ad ef in i t ion f r om ab ook a bou t modern p or t c on s t ruc t ion : "A h arbou ri sa n a rea o fw a te r p a r t ia l ly e nc lo sed , a nd s o p ro tec ted f r om s t orm s a st o p rov ide s a f e a nd s u i tab le a ccommoda t ion f o r v e s se l s s e ek ing r e fug e , s upp l ie s , r e fue l l ing , r epa i r s , o r t he t r an sf er o fc a rgo . . . Ap or t i s as he l te red h a rbour , w he re mar ine t e rm ina l f a c i l i t ie s a r e p rov ided , c on s i s t ing o f p i er s o r w harve s a t w h ich s h ip s b er th , w h i le l oad ing a nd u n load ing c a rgo ,t r an s i ts hed s ,a nd o the rs t o rag ea r ea s ,w he re s h ip s may d i scha rge i n com ing c a rgo ,a nd w a rehou s e sw he re g ood s may b es t o red f o rl ong e rp e r iod sw h i le a wa i t ing d i s t r ibu t ion , o r s a i l ing . T hu s t h e t e rm ina l mu s t b e s e rv ed b y r a i lroad , h ighway , o r i n land w a te rway c onnec t ion s , a nd i nt h i s r e spec t t h e a r ea o fi nf luence o ft h e p o r t r eache s o u t f o r a c on s ide rab le d i s tance b eyond t h eh a rbour .T he t r ibu tary a r ea o f ap or tc on s i s t so ft ha tp or t ion o ft h ea d jacen ta r ea ,f o rw h ich f r e igh tt r an spor ta t ion c o s t sa r el ower t han t h ey a re t oc ompe t ing p or t s . Ah a rbour i sm e re ly av e ry i mpor tan t p a r t o f ac omp rehen s iv e s y s tem o fw ork s a nd s e rv ic e s , w h ich c omp r i se ap o r t ' ' ' . I fo ne a pp roache s t h e ma t t er i nt h i s w ay t h e e mpha s i s s h if t s mo re t o as oc ia l a nd e conom ic s t udy .T he a c tua lh a rbour s t ruc tu re sa re s t i l li mpor tan t ,b u tt he q ue s t ion sc hange . Why w e re t he p o r t sw here t hey w e re ? How d id t h ey r e la te t or oad s y s tem s , o rt oo the rc ommun ica t ion s , s uch a sr i ver s , c ana l s , o r l a goon s ? Wha t w a s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t hem a nd a r ea s w h ich p roduc ed p ar t icu la r r aw ma t e r ia l s ? o r w h ich w er e c en t re s o f manuf ac tu re ? o r w h ich w e re c en tr e so fp opu la t ion a nd c on sump t ion ? Wha td ec ided w he the r ap o r tw a s as ucce s so rn o t ,— n a tura l f a c tor s o r h uman n eed ? S im i la r ly , w ha t b rough t a bou t d ec l ine , — g eog raph ica l c hang e s , o rs ome h i s tor ica l a l te ra t ion i nh uman a f fa i r s ?

1 05

T ho se w ho h ave r e ad t he w ork o ft h eg eog rapher C a the r ine D e lano Sm i th ,e spec ia l ly h e rb ook We s te rn Med i te r ranean E urope ( London , 1 979 ) , w i th i t ss e c t ion o n s i l ted p or t s , w i l l r e cogn ize s ome o ft he se l a s tq ue s t ion s .I n ac ha l leng ing p a s sage s h ew ro te :" In t h el a s ta na ly s i s ap or ti sa man -made f e a tu re , a nd i ti so n h uman f a c to r s t ha t i t s s u rv iva l mu s t d epend . T he p hy s ica l c hange sa nd p rob lem sb rough tb ys i l ta t ion ,o re ro s ion ,s hou ld b em ea sured i nt e rm so fc o s ta nd e f fo r t . . . F o r ab e t te r u nder s tand ing o ft h e d ec l ine a nd a bandonmen t o fs o m any p or t c i t ie s a round t he s hore s o f Med i te r ranean E u rope , t h e f o cu s s hou ld b e t u rned t ot h e f o r tune s o f c ommerce , o fu rban a dm in i s t ra t ion , a nd o fn a t iona l e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion ' ' ' . T ho se s e em t om e w i se w o rd s . I nt h e i rt u rn t hey r a i se l a rge a nd c on t rove r s ia lq ue s t ion sf o r ah i s tor ian o fa n t iqu i ty — n ame ly , w ho p a id f o r h a rbour w o rk s , a nd w hy ? C an i tb e c onv inc ing ly s hown , a s t h e F r ench s cho la r R ouge b e l ieved ,t ha t ,e spec ia l ly u nder t h e R oman Emp i r e ,c en t ra la u thor i ty e ncouraged p o r t b u i ld ing f o rc ommerc ia lp upo se s 7?T h i sv i ew ,— o ra s sump t ion ,— w a ss ha rp ly c ha l lenged b y Mo se s F in ley i nh i s b ook o n t h eA nc ien tE conomy ' . How i st h e d i spu te t o b e r e so lv ed ? T he f i r s t d ec i s ion Imade w a s t ha t my w o rk s hou ld b e r e s t r ic ted i nt he f i r s t i n s tance t o t h e Med i ter ranean . Ik now t ha tt h i se xc lude sv a r iou sR oman p o r t se l sewhere ,s uch a st h eR ed S ea , o nw h ich L ione lC a s son h a s made i lum ina t ing c ommen t sr e cen t ly ' ,a nd t he n ew d i scover ie si n Wa ter f ron t A rchaeo logy i n B r i ta in a nd No r the rn E u rope' . B u t t h e Med i te r ranean , m a re n o s trum , i s as pec ia l c a se , w i th i t s m in ima l o r n on -ex i s ten t t i de s , a nd c ond i t ion s w h ich h av e p roved e spec ia l ly c onduc ive t ot h e p re se rva t ion o fa nc ien t p or t s . E ven s o t h e Med i ter ranean i t se lf s e emed t om et ob et oo b i gt oc ope w i th a l li no ne g o . F lemm ing h a se s t ima ted t ha te v en L ehmannHa r t leben m en t ioned o n ly 1 84 o u t o f t h e 2 40 -p lu s ma jor p or t s i n t h e E a s te rn Med i ter ranean ,a nd 8 4o ft h e 1 79 ma jor p o r t so ft h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean" .T ok eep s ome c on t ro l , Id ec ided t os t a r tb yw o rk ing o nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean a l one . Is hou ld o fc ou r se h ave t ob e a l er t t ow ha t Im igh t l e a rn f r om e l sewhe re ,j u s t a sw h i le c oncen t ra t ing o n R oman p or t s Is hou ld h ave t ol ook b ackwa rd sa te a r l ier e f for t s ,e s pec ia l ly t ho se o ft h eG r eek sa nd t h e P hoen ic ian s . T he a t trac t ion so ft he We s tern Med i ter ranean a s as t ar t ing p o in tw ere t wo . F i r s t , i tf o rmed a d ef inab le a nd , Ih oped , manageab le ,g eog raph ica la r ea ,w i th p robab ly r a ther f ewe rp or t st h an t he E a s tern Med i ter ranean .S econd ly ,i tm igh tb ep o s s ib le t ow ork w i th in w e l ld ef ined c hrono l og ica l l im i t s . R oman d om ina t ion o ft h i s w e s tern s e a a r ea s t a r ted f a i r ly a brup t ly i nt h e t h i rd c en tu ry B .C . , a nd h ad b een p receded , i n a ny s i gn if i can t w ay , b y o n ly a f ew p eop le s , — P hoen ic ian s ,G reek sa nd E t ru scan s . Mo reove ri ts t opped , mor eo rl e s s ,a tt he t ime o fS t i l icho i n t h el a te 4 th c en tu ry A .D . I nt h eE a s t ,o nt h eo the rh and ,R oman p ene t ra t ion w a s mo re d i f fu s e a nd p i ecemea ld u r ing t h e2 nd c en tu ry B .C . ,a nd i th ad b e en p receded b ym i l len ia o fl a rge s c a le a c t iv i ty o nt he s e ab yv a r iou sp eop le s ,s ome o fw ho se r ock -cu th a rbour s , t he s ub jec to fs pec ia l s t udy b y Honor F ro s t ,a re v e ry d i ff i cu l tt od a te ' 2. R oman n ava la c t iv i ty i nt h i sa r ea a l so c ame t o n oc onven ien th a l t ,a si nt h e We s t ,b u tc on t inued r i gh to ni n to t h eB yzan t ine p e r iod .I ts e emed t om et ha ti ft h ea pp roach t ot h ew ho le s ub jec t ,a nd t h eq u e s t ion st ob ea sked ,c ou ld b eg o t r i gh t i nt h e We s tern Med i ter ranean , o ne m igh t w i th mo re c onf idence move i n to t h e C en tra l a nd E a s te rn a rea s , — p erhap s , e ven , i n to t h e B lack a nd R ed S ea s . T he p o s i t ion ing a nd l a y -ou t o fp or t s i nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean w ere p a r t ly d i c ta ted b y c e r ta in g eog raph ica l f a c to r s , — a bove a l l c ur ren t s , w ind s , a nd c oa s t s . T he c u r ren t si nt h e We s te rn Med i ter ranean a r ec r ea ted l a rg e ly b ye vapora t ion .T he d ry w ind s f r om t h ed e se r t se vapora te e x t raord ina ry q uan t i t ie so fw a te ra st h ey b low a cro s st h es e a ,t ak ing a bou t 1 , 000 c ub ic m i le so fw a te ri n ay ea r ,o ro na verage a bou t8 0 ,000 t on s as e cond" .T h i sl o s s , a si sw e l lk nown ,c anno tb e mad eu pb yt h er i ve r s ,o rf r om t h eB lack S ea .I ns tead i ti sc ons tan t ly r ep laced b y a n i n f low t h rough t h e S t ra i t s o fG ib ra l ta rf r om t h e A t lan t ic . T h i s s e t s u p i nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean a c ur ren t f l ow ing a t as peed o f 1 2 k no t s i n ac oun te r -c lockw i se d i rec t ion .I tf l ow se a s tward sa l ong t h en or th c oa s to fA f r ica ,b ranche sa long t h en o r th c oa s to f S i c i ly , t h en n or th -we s twa rd s u p t h e c oa s t o f I t a ly , a nd s o r ound i n ac i rc le b ack t owa rd s G ibra l tar .W i th in t h i sg enera lf l ow t h ere a r e ac oup le o fs e conda ry c ur r en t s mov ing i nt h es ame

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c oun te r -c lockw i se d i rec t ion : o ne , n or th f r om A lg ie r s , t h e o the r , w e s twa rd f r om t h eT ibe r . I n g enera lt h e se c u r ren t sd id n o ti mpede n av iga t ion ,a nd o n ly b ecame d angerou si nn a r row sl i ke t he s t ra i t so f Me s s ina , w he re t h ew a ter so ft h eT yr rhen ian a nd I on ian s ea st r yt oc hange p lace e ve ry t we lve h ou r s ,c r ea t ing n o tor iou st u rbu lence . S of a ra sp o r t sw e re c oncerned ,t h ed ange r w a sn o ts o much f r om t h ec u r ren t st h em se lve sa sf r om t he s i l t ,w h ich t h ey m igh tc a r ry .J u s ta s A lexand r ia b enef i ted b y b e ing s i tua ted t o t he w e s t o ft he N i le D e l ta a nd a way f r om t h e s i l t b rough t d own b y t ha t r i v er , s o t h e h a rbour s a tO s t ia n o tor iou s ly s uf f ered f r om b e ing t ot h e n or th o ft he T iber mou th .T hey a r en ow s ome 5km .i n land .C lea r ly l a rge amoun t so fs ed imen t w e re s wep t n or thwa rd s u p t h i s I t a l ian c oa s t , s o t ha t e ven a tC o sa s pec ia l c hanne l s w ere c u t t h rough t h e r ock s o a st oa l low t h e h a rbour t ob e f l u shed f r ee o fs i l t f r om t ime t ot ime ' ' ' . W ind sw e re , o fc our se ,f a r more i mpor tan tt han c ur ren t sf o rn av iga t ion i na n t iqu i ty ,n o tl e a s t b ecau se t he s h ip s w ere p r edom inan t ly s qua re r igged . T he E a s tern Med i te r ranean w a s d om ina ted i n s ummer , t h e s a i l ing s ea son , b y w ind s f r om t h e n or th . I n t h e We s tern Med i te r ranean t h e re w a s amore v a r ied p l ay o fw ind s . T he n o r th a nd n or th -we s t w ind s ( t he T ramon tana a nd Mae s t ra le ) w er e v e ry i mpor tan t , a nd c ou ld b e f i e rce , mak ing t h e Nor th A f r ican c oa s t av er i tab le g raveya rd o fs h ip s . T he m i s t ra li nS ou thern F rance i ss t i l l t h e mo s t n o tor iou so ft he se n or the rn w ind s . B u t ah o tw ind ,t h eS i rocco , c ou ld s udden ly b low f r om t h e d ese r ti nt he s ou th . And a st h eI be r ian p en in su la h ea ted u p al ow p re s su re a r ea c ou ld d eve lop t he re w h ich p u l led i nw ind s f r om t h e e a s t w h ich m igh t p er s i s tf o r mon th s . T he d i rec t ion o ft h ep reva i l ing w ind s ,a nd t h eq ua r ter sf r om w h ich t h e mo s td angerou ss t o rm s m igh tb ee xpec ted , n a tura l ly a f f ec ted t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft he mou th o fa ny p or t . S torm si nt h e Med i te r ranean w ere , a nd s t i l l a r e , more f o rm idab le t han mo s t p eop le i nN . E urope r e a l i se . When t h e w ind g e t s a bov e 4 0 k no t s , f u l l s t o rm w ave s r e ach 5 7 mi nh e igh t a nd c an d o g r ea t d amage t op or tw ork s ,w h ich a re n o tp roper ly c on s t ruc ted o rp o s i t ioned . I ti sn o t iceab le , f o r e xamp le , t ha t v i r tua l ly a l l t h e b e s t k nown a nc ien t p or t s o n t h e T y r rhen ian S ea s he l ter t hem se lve sf rom w ind sf r om t h ew e s ta nd n or th" .S ome w ere n a tura lp or t s ,w i th ap romon tory w h ich p rov ided t h i s p ro tec t ion , f o r e xamp le , L un i , T a lamone , P or to E rco l e , C o sa , M i senum , P u teo l i a nd P o r tu s I u l iu s . B u t o the r s w e re a r t if i c ia l p o r t s , s uch a s T e r rac ina a nd A n t ium , d e l ibe ra te ly b u i l tw i th t h e i re n trance sf a c ing a way f r om t h e se d ange rou sa r ea s . And a l though t he mou th o f t h e h a rbou r a t C en tumce l lae , C iv i tav ecch ia , d id f a ce s ou th -we s twa rd , i tw a s s pec ia l ly p ro tec ted b y al ong b r eakwa te r . Iam , t he refore , s t i l l al i t t le p e rp lexed b y t h e C laud ian h a rbou r a tO s t ia . I n i t s f i na l f o rm , i t a ppa ren t ly h ad o n ly o ne e n t rance f a c ing n or th . B u t Iw onde rw he the ro r ig ina l ly t h er ew a sn o t a no the r e n trance t o t h e s ou th , mor e s he l te red . I fi te x i s ted , i tw ou ld h ave r un a c ro s s t h e p romon tory , l a rge ly c ompo sed o fs and , f r om t he e nd o fw h ich t h e s t range ly c on s truc ted l e f t mo le r an .I t sc l o sure wou ld h ave b een e nforced b yt h es i l ts wep ti nb yt h ec ur r en tf r om t h eT iber mou th , a nd b y t h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e T ra jan ic b a s in . I ti sn o t iceab le t ha t e ven o n t h e N . A f r ican c oas t t h e e n trance t o t h e h a rbou r s a t C a r thag e w a s f r om t h e s ou th b ecau se o ft h e d ang e r s f r om t h e p reva i l ing n or th a nd n o r th -ea s t w ind s' . T he c oa s t so ft he Med i ter ranean ,w ek now ,d i f f er ma rked ly f r om o ne a no the ri nt h e i rs u i tab i l i ty f o rp o r t s ,a nd t h ed i f f erence sh ave i n c rea sed s i nce t h eB ronze A ge ( i . e .f r om a bou t3 , 000 B .C . ) ' ' . E ro s ion b y t he s e a , s ed imen ta l d epo s i t s f r om r i ver s , t oge ther w i th w ind s , h ave t ended t o s t ra igh ten c oa s t l ine s a nd t o e l im ina te n a tura l h a rbour s , b u t t h e p roce s s h a s b een f a s te r o n s ha l low s he lv ing c oa s t st han o nd eep ly i nden ted o ne s .T he n or the rn s hore o ft h e Med i te r ranean i s as t eep , i nden ted c oa s t , a nd h a s t h e refo re c hanged l i t t le o v e r t h e p a s t 5 , 000 y ea r s . W i th i t s b ay s , h ead land s , a nd n umerou s i s land s , i ta f ford s many s ma l l n a tura l h arbour s a nd l a nd ing p lace s . On ly a tt h e R hone d e l ta h a s t h ere b een as i gn if i can t c oa s ta l a dvance , n o t s up r i s ing ly s i nce t ha tr i ver b r ing sd own s ome 1 8m i l l ion c ub ic m e t re so fs i l ti n ay ear .T he s ou the rn s hor eo f t he Med i terranean b yc on tra s tw a sl e s sw e l le ndowed a nd h a sc hanged more .I th a sf ew i s land s o f f shor e ,a nd v i r tua l ly n on a tura lh a rbour sf o rh und red so fm i le s .T he e a s tern c oa s to f modern T un i s ia i np a r t icu la r h a s v ery s ha l low a nd t r eache rou s w a ter t h e f u r the r s ou th y ou g o .

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T he q ue s t ion o f ag ene ra lc hang ei nt h es ea l e ve li nt h e Med i te r ranean c an , It h ink ,b ei g no r ed s i nce F lemm ing 's a u tho r i ta t ive s t udy o ft h es ub jec t ' s . H i sc onc lu s ion w a st ha ts i nce t h eE a r ly B ronze A ge t h es ea l e ve lh a sc hanged b yn o mo re t han p lu so rm inu sh a lf am e t r e .E xp lana t ion s f o rt h ed rown ing ,o ru p l if t ing ,o fp a r t icu la rc oa s ta la r ea s mu s tb el ooked f or i nl o ca lc hang e s . T he mo s t o bv iou s e xamp le o ft h i s i nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean i st h e l o ca l t e c ton ic s h if t s w h ich h ave a f f ec ted t h ea r ea n ea rN ap le s .H ere v o lcan ic a c t iv i ty h a sr e su l ted i nt h ed rown ing o f v ar iou sh arbou ri n s ta l la t ion sa tP or tu sJ u l iu s ,w h i le l e av ing o the r si nt h es ame a r ea ,n ea rP u teo l i , a t ah ighe rl e ve l" . L e s sd rama t ic ,b u tp e rhap s mo re i mpo r tan t ,i nt h e We s tern Med i te r ranean , a tl e as t , h a sb een t h es l ow ly c hang ing s hape o fl a goona la r ea s . One o ft he r eve la t ion sf o rm e , w hen Is t ar ted w o rk ,w a sh ow c e r ta in i mpor tan tR oman p o r t si nt he We s tern Med i ter ranean w ere n o ti ns pec tacu la rh arbour so nt he s ea c oa s t . On t h ec on t rary t h ey l a yb eh ind t h ec oa s to n l a goon s , o rc ana l s , o r , o fc our se , r i ver s . I ti sa tt h i sp o in tt ha tt h ev a r iou sh uman f a c to r sw h ich p l ayed ap a r ti nt h ep o s i t ion ing o fp o r t s c ome i n to f o cu s .R ecen tw ork ,b yL ione lC a s son among o ther s ,h a st e nded t os t r e s st h ei n c r ea se i nt onnage o ft h es h ipp ing o ft h eR oman p er iod 2 0. Ac ommon s i ze f o r as e a -go ing m e rchan tman m igh tb es ome 3 00 -400 t on s .S ome f r e igh te r sp a r t icu la r ly o nt h eg ra in r ou te f r om A lexand r ia t o I t a ly may h ave c a r r ied o ver 1 , 000 t on s e ach . C on sequen t ly t h ere h a s b een at r end among modern s cho la r s , i n c lud ing R ouge ,t oe mpha s ize t h en eed f o rg rand io se p or tw o rk sd ur ing t h e R oman p e r iod ,t oa ccommoda te s uch s h ipp ing" .T h i si sw e lcome i nt ha ti tg e t su sa way f r om t he o ld n a ive a s sump t ion t ha ta lmo s ta ny s h ip i na n t iqu i ty c ou ld b ej u s tp u l led u po n ab each i f n ece s sa ry , a nd p o r t s a ss uch w er e h ard ly n eeded . B u t i ni t s e lf i ti so ve r s imp le . I ti g no re s t h e p o in t , — w e l l made b y T chern ia a nd P omey i n t h e b e s t s t udy o f t he t onnag e o f R oman m e rchan ts h ipp ing t ha t Ih ave r e ad ,— t ha tt h es i ze o fs h ip s ,w i th in c e r ta in t e chn ica ll im i t s ,w a s d i c ta ted b ye conom ic f o rce s' .T he c a r ry ing o f ab u lk c a rgo s uch a sg ra in o nt he l o ng j ou rney o f more t han at hou sand m i le sf r om E gyp tt oI t a ly e ncouraged a ni n c rea se o fs i z eo nt h i sr ou te . Many o ther s h ip s o f amuch s ma l le r s i ze , 7 0 t on s o r l e s s , w ou ld b e n eeded f o ro ther k ind s o f c a rgoe so ns ho r te rj ourney s ,b ecau se t ha tw a sw ha t made e conom ic s en se .I ndeed ,e ven f o rt h e E gyp t ian g ra in ,— w h ich a r r ived a tP u teo l ii nt h ef i r s tc en tury A .D . , — ah o s to fs ma l ler c r a f t w ou ld h ave b een n eeded t of e r ry i tu pt ot h eT ibe r mou th .T h i sp a r to ft he j ou rney d emanded n o t b u lk c a r r iage , b u t t h e s p read ing o fr i sk , a nd f l ex ib i l i ty . Wha t t h i s m eans i st ha t i na n t iqu i ty , a nd e ven i nt h e w ho le p er iod u p t o t he 1 9 th c en tu ry , a " good" h a rbour i nt h e Med i ter ranean w a sn o tn ece s sa r i ly b i go rd eep .E ven h eavy c a rgo b oa t s o ft h eR oman p er iod ( o fa tl e a s t2 40 t on s ) ,w i th ab eam ,s ay ,o f1 0ma nd al e ng th o f3 0m ,w ou ld h ave n eeded ad ep th o fl i t t le more t han 3m o fw a ter . Sma l le r a nd l i gh ter b oa t s w ou ld h ave n eeded l e s s ,a nd t h e re w a sn ot i da lr ange t oc on s ide r .A sF l emm ing s ay s ," au se fu lh a rbou rn eed o n ly h ave b een 2m d eep '' ' . Med iaeva l ma r ine r s 'h andbook ss how t ha t many s ha l low h a rbou r s w er el ooked o na sg ood p or t s ,a nd D e lano Sm i th h a sp o in ted o u tt ha tn av iga t ion o nt he l a goon a tC ag l iar i i nS a rd in ia o n ly s t opped i nt h e 1 9 th c en tury ,w hen t h ed ep th o fw a te rw a sd own t o 1m2 4 T h i s b ecome s r e levan t , i fo ne l ook s , f o r e xamp le , a tt h e c oa s t o fT u scany i na n t iqu i ty . T he modern c oa s t l ine i ss i ngu la r ly i l -p rov ided w i th a l l -w ea ther a nchorages , w h ich a re b ad ly n eeded ,s i nce t h es ho re i ss wep tb yh i gh w ind s . B u ti na nc ien tt ime st h ere w a s aw ho le s e r ie so f l a goon s r i gh td own t h i sw e s tc oa s t ,a nd t h es e ap ene tra ted t h el and a tr egu la ri n te rva l s' . F o r e xamp le ,b e low t h eE t ru scan c i ty o fR use l lae , n ow s ome 2 5 km f r om t h es ea ,t h e r es t re tched a v a s t l a goon , t h e L acu sA pr i l iu s , w h ich c over ed t h e w ho le a r ea b e tween t he r i v e r s B runa a nd Omb rone . S uch al a goon , w i th n av igab le c hanne l s i n to o pen w a te r , p u t t h e c i ty i n to much c l o ser t ouch w i th t h e s e a t han w e m igh t o therw i se i mag ine . And t h i s w a s o n ly o ne o fm any l a goon si nt h i sa r ea .T he R oman c o lony a tC o sa , w ho se h a rbour h a sb een i n ten s iv e ly s t ud ied b y Anna McCann , h ad al a goon i n land , — w h ich s he b e l iev e s may h ave b een t u rned i n to t h e e a r l ie s t k nown c omme rc ia l f i shery i nt h e R oman w o r ld2 6. U nfor tuna te ly s ome o ft h e e x i t s t o t h e se l a goon sb egan t os i l t u pe ven d ur ing t h eR oman p e r iod . B yt h et ime o fS t rabo c e r ta in o f t hem w ere a l ready b e ing r e f er red t oa s ma r she s ,a nd t h i sw a st ol e ad t oe x ten s iv ed epopu la t ion o fp ar t so ft h i sc oa s ta lr eg ion" . On ly w he re t h e re w a ss uff i c ien te conom ic n eed ,o rs t a te i n te r e s t ,

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w ere e f fo r t s made t ok eep s uch ap o r ti nu se . An e xamp le ,p e rhap s ,i sL una n ea rt h e mou th o ft h e r i ver Mag ra , p rec i se ly b ecau se i tw a s t he o u t le t f o r t h e n e ighbou r ing q ua r r ie s a tC a r ra ra , i n w hose m a rb le s t he Empe ror s w e r e i n te re s tedn . L agoon sa nd r i ver s ,o fc our se ,r a i se t h ew ho le q ue s t ion o f ap or t 's p ene t ra t ion o fi t sh in te r land . T o q uo te t he s ame modern b ook o n p or t c on s t ruc t ion a ga in : " The a va i lab i l i ty o f i n land c ommun ica t ion sh a sa ni mpor tan tb ea r ing o nt h el o ca t ion o f ap o r t . Un le s st h et r ibu tary a r ea i s s e rved w i th g ood h ighway s ,r a i lroad sa nd w a terway sl e ad ing t oi n land c i t ie s ,o rt h et e r ra in a nd c ond i t ion s a re f avourab le f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o r e n la rgemen t o f t he se a r ter ie s o f c ommun ica t ion , ap or tw i l ln o tf l our i sh" 2 9. I nt r y ing t og e ti n to t h i sa spec to ft h es t udy o fp or t sI f ound h e lp i nt he s e r ie so fG eog raph ica l Handbook s ,p roduced b yt h eN ava lI n te l l igence D iv i s ion f o r t he B r i t i sh Adm i ra l ty d ur ing t h e S econd Wo r ld Wa rm . T hey a r e p a r t icu la r ly i n ter e s t ing , b ecau se t h eE uropean c oun t r ie sd ea l tw i th w er ea tt ha tt ime b e ing c on s ider ed f o ri n va s ion ,o ra t l e a s ts e a -bo rne a t tack .T hey w e re t h er efore b e ing l ooked a tf r om t h es e a ,r a ther t han f r om t h e l and — w h ich i s ar e ve r sa lo ft h eu sua ls t ance . I n ac ur iou sw ay , i tmake st hem n o tu n l ike t h e a ccoun t s g i ven b y v a r iou s 1 9 th c en tury t r av e l le r s i n t h e E a s tern Med i ter ranean , m en l i ke C ap ta in S p ra t t o r C ap ta in B eaufor t3 1 .T he se t r ave l ler s , b ecau se o f t h e d i ff i cu l t ie s o f l a nd c ommun ica t ion s a t t h e t ime , w e re o f ten j ourney ing b y b oa t a long t h e c oa s t s o f C re te o r S ou the rn T urkey ,a nd s e e ing e v e ry th ing f r om t ha ta ng le .T h i sg i ve st h e i rw o rk as pec ia lv a lue t o a nyone s t udy ing a nc ien tp o r t s .T he s ame i st r ue o ft h ew a r t ime B r i t i sh i n te l l igence h andbook s . T hey g av ec arefu ld e sc r ip t ion so ft h ec oa s t s ,w here ,a nd h ow b e s to ne m igh tl and b ys e a ,a nd a bove a l l , w ha t t h e l i ne s o f p ene t ra t ion w e re i n land t o k ey a r ea s o f e conom ic o r p o l i t ica l i mpo r tance . T h i s k i nd o fa pp roach h e lp s u s t o make s en se o ft h e h i s to ry o fs ome o ft h e ma jo r p o r t s i n S ou the rn Gau la nd S ou the rn S pa in . Ma s s i l ia w a so r ig ina l ly t h e mo s ts i gn if ican tG r eek p or ti n Gau l" . I th ad ar ema rkab le n a tu ra ls i te , w e l l she l te red ,a tt h eh ead o f ag u lf ,t ot h ee a s to ft h e R hone ,a nd t herefo re f r ee f r om i t ss i l t . Al i t t le r i ve rp rov ided b o th f r e sh w a te ra nd ar ou te o fa k ind i n to t h ei n ter io r . I tc on t inued t ob e ap or td ur ing t h e R oman Emp i re ,a nd r e cen t ly s ome d ock s t ruc tu re s h ave b een d i scov e red , w h ich d a te f r om t h e l a te I s t c en tu ry A .D . , a nd w h ich r ema ined i n u se u n t i l t h e 3 rd c en tu ry A .D . , w hen t h ey w e re d e l ibera te ly d e s t royed . B u t i n tere s t ing t hough t h e se s t ruc ture s a r e , t h ey a r e n o t i nd ica t ive o f ac on t inu ing ma jor p or t . S t rabo t e l l su st ha te ven b yh i sd ay Ma s s i l ia w a s more o f aU n ive r s i ty t own t han a ny th ing e l se" . Ma ss i l ia w a sr a ther c u to f ff r om h e rh in te r land b y ar i ng o f moun ta in s ,— i np a r t icu la rf r om t h e v a l ley o ft h e Rhone ,w h ich ,o nce Gau lh ad b een c onque red b yt he R oman s ,b ecame t h e ma in a r tery i n to t he h ea r t o fa n i mpor tan t a r ea . N arbonne w a s d i f f e ren t" . A t f i r s t s i gh t i ts e em s c u r iou s ly i l -p laced t ob e ag rea t p o r t . I tw a s s i tua ted a bou t2 0 km .f r om t he s e a .B u tb e tween t h et own a nd t he c oa s t l ine s t re tched t h eL acu s R ubre su s .T h i sw a s as e r ie so fl a goon st h rough w h ich t h er i ve r Aude f ound i t sw ay u l t ima te ly t o t he Med i te rranean . Good s a r r iv ing a t Na rbonne t h e refor e w ere u n loaded o r ig ina l ly a t a n o u tpor ta tS t . Ma r t in .T hey w e re t r an sh ipped b yc ana la nd i nner l a goon t ot h e Aude ,a nd t h en u pt ot h er i ver p or ti nN arbonne i t se lf . B yt h ee ar ly i s tc en tury A .D . t r aff ic h ad d eve loped s o much t ha t a n o u tpor t h ad d ev e loped a tS t . L uc ie a l ong s ide t ha t a tS t . Ma r t in . Good s w e re f o rwa rd ed t o n ew p or t f a c i l i t ie s a t Mand i rac a nd L a N au t ique , a nd f r om t h e re b y an ew ly d eve lop ed c omp lex o f r oad s t o t h e c i ty o f N a rbonne . Wha t made a l l t h i s w o r thwh i le w a s Na rbonne 's p os i t ion c ommand ing o ne o ft h eg r ea tr ou te st h rough S .W . Gau l— u pt h e Aude , a cros s t ot h e Garonne a nd t ot h e w ho le B o rdeaux d i s t r ic t o n t h e A t lan t ic c oa s t . E v en s o t h e e f for tw a sg r ea t ,a nd t h e re a re s i gn sb yt he m idd le o ft he 2 nd c en tury A .D .t ha ti tw a sn ol onge r j us t if iab le . Ar e trac t ion o fp or t f a c i l i t ie s s e t i n . S i l ta t ion may w e l l h ave b een ap rob lem , b u t mo re i mpor tan t w a s as h if t o fp o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic e mpha s i s t ot h e e a s t . A r l es w a st ob et he d om inan tp o r ti nS . Gau lt h rough t ot h el a te Emp ire 3 5. I tw a ss i tua ted e ven f ur the r i n land t han N a rbonne , a nd a l though o n t h e r i ve r R hone , i t s l i nk s w i th t h e s e a w e r e p reca r iou s . T hey w e re i mp rov ed b y ac ana l s y s tem , t h e f amou sF os sae Mar ianae , d ug b y t h e s o ld ie r so f Mar iu si nt h el a te 2 nd c en tury B .C . ,a c ro s st h el a goon so ft he R hone d e l ta ,a l though e ven t ha t w a s n o t a lway s r e l iab le . B u t t he e a se o fi t s c ommun ica t ion w i th t h e s e a w a s l e s s

1 09

i mpo r tan tt han i t sr ou te so pen ing i n to t h ei n ter ior . And t h ey w e re s uperb — n o tj u s tt h ev a l ley s o ft h eR hone a nd S aone ,b u tt h eL o i re ,t h eS e ine ,t he Meu se ,t h e Mo se l le ,a nd t h em i l i ta r i ly v i ta l R h ine land . H e re c o s t a nd e f fo r t r ema ined j u s t if iab le t ot h ee nd . I nS ou thern S pa in ,t oo ,i tw a s ar i ve rp or t ,H i spa l i s( Sev i l le ) ,w h ich c ame t od om ina te t h et r ade f r om B ae t ica , w ho se i mpor tance h a s r e cen t ly b een i lum ina ted , f r om a n u nu sua l a ng le , b y An thony P a rker i nh i sw ork o ns h ipw reck si nt h e We s te rn Med i ter ranean 3 6. H i spa l i s w a ss ome 5 4m i le si n land u pt h eB ae t is r i ve r ,b u tc ou ld b ee a s i ly r e ached b ys e a -go ing s h ip s .I tw a si nt h e c en tr eo ft h e mo s tf e r t i le a rea o fB ae t ica — r i ch i nn a tura lp roduc t s ,o i l ,w ine a nd m ine ra ls ,a nd h ad l i nk s w i th t h e h igh p la in s o f t h e r i v er Guad iana a nd t h e T agu s . T he se a dvan tage s a ppa ren t ly a l lowed i t ,b yt he 2 nd c en tury A .D . ,t oe c l ip se t h eo bv iou sn a tura lp o r to nt he c oa s t — Gade s( Cad iz ) ,w h ich a tt h et ime o fS t rabo h ad b een o ne o ft h eg r ea te s tc i t ie so ft h e Emp i re" . I n t h i s c a se Is t rong ly s u spec t t ha t t h e m e rchan t s o f Gade s s imp ly t r an sf erred t h e i ra c t iv i t ie s f u r the r i n land , w hen t h ep ax r omana c r ea ted t h e r i gh t c ond i t ion s f o r t h e move . S of a ri nt a lk ing a bou tl i ne so fp ene tra t ion i n to t he i n te r io rt h ee mpha s i s h a sb een o nl a goon s a nd r i ver s . B u t r oad s w ere a lmo s t e qua l ly v i ta l t o a n a nc ien t p or t , a nd c er ta in ly f a r mor e i mpo r tan t t han Ih ave b een p repa red t oa cknow ledge i nt h e p a s t . L and a nd w a te rt r an spo r t w ere c l o se ly i n ter re la ted .T he s t anda rd ,r a the re mp ty ,r oad m ap so fR oman S pa in ,o r Gau l ,o r I t a ly ,g i ve u s , It h ink , af a l se v i ew o fh ow many r oad s ,t r ack s ,t r a i l s ,e v en d onkey p a th s , t h e r e w ere n ea r many c en tre so fh ab i ta t ion .E ven i na na rea a sw e l ls t ud ied a sL a t ium ,o u ri g norance i ss t i l la s ton i sh ing . Moccheg ian ia nd C a s tagno l i ,b yc a re fu li n ve s t iga t ion o ft h eT ibe rb e tween O s t ia a nd R ome , h ave s hown t ha t t h er e w e re p or t f a c i l i t ie s , w ha rve s a nd l a nd ing r amp s a t a lmo s te ve ry s t age b e tween t h ec i ty a nd t h es e a3 8. R ome a nd O s t ia w e re n o ts imp ly ac i ty ,w i th i t s r i ver w ha rve s , a nd a n o u tpo r t . T he r e la t ion sh ip w a s c on t inuou s a nd c omp l ica ted . T he l a nd ing f a c i l i t ie sb e tween t he t wo w ere o f ten p rec i se ly w he r eg ood sc ou ld b es tb et a ken d i rec t ly i n to R ome b y r oad , a sa t V i cu sA l exand r i . O fc ou r se R ome w a se xcep t iona l .B u tw ec an s e ei na no the ra r ea o ft h e We s tern Med i ter ranean h ow r oad sp layed ama jor p a r ti ns e rv ic ing p o r t s ,a nd t ha ti sA f r ica .T he w ar t ime B r i t i sh N ava l I n te l l igence Handbook s o n A lge r ia a nd T un i s ia a r e p a r t icu la r ly h e lpfu l h e re , — n o t l e a s t b ecau se t h e a nc ien t h i s tor ian S he rw in - Wh i te h ad ah and i nt h em" . T he t wo a r ea s w ere q u i te d i s t inc t .T he p or t si nR oman A lg er ia w er eb yn a ture n o tv e ry p l en t ifu l . Moreove rt h ey w ere c u t o f f b y t h e moun ta in s i mmed ia te ly t o t h e s ou th o f t h em , f r om t h e ma in r ou t e s , w h ich r an l a tera l ly a cro s s t h e mo s t p roduc t ive a r ea s i n land , f r om e a s t t ow e s t . T he s t a te b u i l t t he g r ea t r oad ,w h ich r an f r om C a r thage t h rough t oC i r ta a nd S i t if i sf o rm i l i ta ry p urpo se s .B u tt he l o ca l mun ic ipa l i t ie s t h emse lve s s pun aw eb o fc ommun ica t ion s , o f ten s t re tch ing f o r h und red s o f m i le s , a round s uch c en tre s . T he f i r s t s i gn if i can t p or t s t o t h e e a s t o f C ae sarea ( Cherche l ) i n Maure tan ia w ere a tR u s icad e( Ph i l ippev i l le )a nd H ippo R eg iu s( Bone ) ,b ecause f r om t h e se p o r t s g ood r oad sl e dd i rec t ly i n land t oC i r ta . B yc on t ra s tt h er oad st oS i t if i s f r om S a ldae a nd I g i lg i l i w ere more d ev iou sa nd d i ff i cu l t ,a nd t h e re fo re t h e se p or t sn eve rd eve loped t ot h es ame e x ten t . T he p or t o fT habraca , n ea r t h e T un i s ian b o rder , w a s as pec ia l c a se , s i nce i tw a s t h e p o in t o f e xpor t f o r t h e p ink a nd y e l low I s lum id ian ' ma rb le s , q ua r r ied a tS im i t thu ( Chem tou ) i nt h e B ag rada s v a l ley4 0 .T hey w e re u sed i n many o f t h e b u i ld ing s o f I mper ia l R ome , a nd t h e Empe ro r s w ere w i l l ing t o make s pec ia l e f fo r t s t os e cu r e t h em . I nT un i s ia i t se lf t he s i tua t ion w a sd i f f eren ta nd e a s ie r .T he a r ea w a sp ac if ied e a r ly ,a nd w a sf u l l o f s e t t lemen t s w h ich r ap id ly d eve loped t h e r oad s y s tem . I n t h e i mmed ia te h i n ter land o f C a r thage t h er oad sf o l lowed t h er i v er v a l ley s ,a nd i nt h eH igh S t eppe si n land t ot h es ou th t h ey s t i l lf o l lowed t h en a tura lr e l ief o ft h ec oun t ry s ide .B u ti nt h eL ow S t eppe st oward st h ee a s tc oa s t t h er oad s made s t ra igh tf o rt he s e a .T here ,d e sp i te s ha l low a nd s ome t ime st r eache rou sw a te r ,a w ho le s e r ie s o fp or t s d eve loped — C lupea , C urub i s , H ad rume tum , L ep t i s M ino r , T hapsu s — o u t le t s f o r t h e ma s s ive amoun t s o fa g r icu l tu ra l p roduce b rough t b y t h e r oad s y s tem ` " . T he i nf luence o fh uman f a c tor so nt h ep o s i t ion a nd d eve lopmen to fp or t si s ,t her e fo r e ,o bv iou s . Y e tp uzz le sr ema in . If i nd i th a rd t os how y e tt ha t manuf ac tured p roduc t sa lone ,a so ppo sed t o a g r icu l tura l p roduce , o r s pec ia l r aw ma ter ia l s , e v er s t imu la ted p o r t f a c i l i t ie s . I ti st r ue t ha t

10

Deg ra s s i s t ud ied i nI s tr ia i nt h e N . Ad r ia t ic as e r ie s o fq u i te e l emen tary man -made p or t s" . S ome b e longed t op r iva te v i l la s ,b u to ther sa ppea red t ob ea lmo s tf a c tory w harve sf o rn ea rby s ma l l sca le i ndu s t r ie s .A tt h e i rs imp le s tt h ey w e re as i ng le j e t ty ,o r ien ta ted a ga in s tt h ep r eva i l ing w ind ,a nd e x tend ing i n to d eepe rw a ter . B u t as e a rch b y Hoh lf e lder i nt h e m id 1 970 's f o rp or t f a c i l i t ie s ,h ow eve rs imp le ,a l ong t h ec oa s to fB ae t ica i nS .S pa in ,w he re w ek now t ha tg a rum w a s made , a nd whe re w e h av e al i s t o fs o -ca l led ' por t s ' , y i e lded n o r e su l t s a ta l" . E ven a tB e lo , a c en t r e o fg arum manuf ac tu r e , o n ly as e r ie s o fg a rum p roce s s ing t ank s w e re d i scove r ed , a nd n o th ing e l se . D id t he se p l a ce s s imp ly h ave w ooden j e t t ie s ? o r w e re s h ip s l o aded b y w ad ing s t evedo re s ? Mo r ep rob lema t ic s t i l lf o r ah i s tor ian i st h eq ue s t ion o fh ow p or ts w ere a dm in i s tered ,a nd h ow t h ey w o rked o n ad ay to -day b a s i s . It hough tt ha t ,a sw i th g rana r ie sa nd g ra in ,t h e r ew ou ld b e i n sc r ip t ion s ,p apy r i ,a nd l e ga ls ource sw h ich m igh tg i ve m e aw ay i n to t h es ub jec t . Ia dm i tt ha tI s t i l l h ave t o w o rk t h rough t h e l awye r s s y s tema t ica l ly , b u t Is u spec t a l ready t ha t t h e p i ck ing s may b el e an . Maybe Med ia eva lc ompa r i son sw i l lh e lp ,a l though w ha t Ih av er ead s of a ra bou t s t a te s l i ke Genoa , P i sa a nd F lor ence , h a s n o t r e a l ly b een d i rec t ly i lum ina t ing . R e levan t i n sc r ip t ion s a l so s e em a lmo s t n on -ex i s ten t . T he re may b e ac e r ta in n umbe r , c once rn ing t h e o rgan i sa t ion o f s h ipper s a nd b oa tmen o n t he T iber , a nd a t p l ace s s uch a s A r le s , o r e ven H i spa l i s" . B u ti ti sad ep re s s ing f a c tt ha tL a s s&e i nh i sr e cen tl a rge b ook o nR oman A f r ica a nd i t si n hab i tan t s ,w h ich l a id s t r e s so nt h ei mpor tance o ft h e ir t r ade ,c ou ld r epo r tv i r tua l ly n o th ing a bou t p or t c ap ta inc ie s , a nd a dm in i s t ra t ion" . G eo rge Hou s ton i nh i s p ape r a tt h e Amer ican A cad emy i nR ome ,o nt h ea dm in i s t ra t ive o f f ic ia l so fp o r t si nI t a ly ,s t re s sed t h el a ck o fe v idence o u t s ide O s t ia a nd P u teo l i" . Y e t In eed a w ay o f t r y ing t o a n swer t h e i mpor tan t q ue s t ion w he the r Roman c en tra lg ov e rnmen td i rec t ly e ncou raged p o r tb u i ld ing ,a nd e f f ic iency i nt h e i r a dm in i s t ra t ion , a nd i fs o , w he the r i tw a s f o r t h e s ake o fc ommerce . A tt h e momen t If i nd my se l fp u l led i nt wo d i rec t ion s . On t h eo ne h and If i nd i th a rd t os e et h e i n te rv en t ions o ft he c en t ra l g overnmen t , o r e mpero r , a s mo t iva ted b y a ny th ing o ther t han s e lf i sh ,o rl im i ted , i n tere s t s . V en to tene ( Panda te r ia ) ,w he re n ol e s st han 6 0 ,000 c ub ic m e t re so f s o l id r ock h ad t ob ed ug o u tt oc r ea te ah a rbou r ,s e rved a sa ni s land p r i son f o rv a r iou sI mpe r ia l l ad ie si ne x i le ;A n t ium w a s o ne o fN ero ' sf avour i te r e so r t s ,a nd T ra jan h ad a ni mpe r ia lv i l la a t C en tumce l lae4 7 .A nyway t h e b u i ld ing o f p o r t s t o t h e n o r th a nd s ou th o f R ome f r om C iv i tav ecch ia t o t he B ay o f N ap le s c ou ld b e c onnec ted w i th t h e s upp ly o f t h e c ap i ta l — s ome th ing t ha tw a st r ue p robab ly e ven o fA s tura w h ich h a s ah a rbou r ,t oo b ig f o rt h ev i l la t h ere . Ah a rbour a tT ar raco i nS pa in w a sf o rp o l i t ica lr ea son s" . Ar e fu rb i sh ing o n ag rand s c a le o ft h e p o r ta tL epc i s Magna i nA f r ica w a sc a r r ied o u tb ecau se i th appened t ob et h eo r ig ina lh ome o fa n Empe ro r( Sep t im iu s S eve ru s )" . On t h eo ther h and ,w ha teve rt h er e a son s ,t h e se w e re i n jec t ion s 'o fc ap i ta l ,w h ich may u l t ima te ly h av e b enef i ted t r ade o fv a r iou s k ind s . And Iam i mp re s sed , t h e more Iw ork , b y t h e s hee r mu l t ip l ic i ty o fp or t s ,l a rge a nd s ma l l ,e ven i nt h e We s te rn Emp i r e . Hou s ton c onc luded t ha ti n I t a ly i tw a st he mun ic ipa l i t i e sc oncerned w ho mu s th ave t aken r e spon s ib i l i ty f o rt h ep o r t s ,a nd t ha t m ay b e c o r rec t f o r o ther a rea s" . I ft he A f r ican r oad s y s tem w a s o pened u p b y a c omb ina t ion o fc en tra l a u tho r i ty a nd l o ca l mun ic ipa l z ea l , p erhap s as im i la r m ix tu r e c an b e d e tec ted f or p o r t s .T he i n terv en t ion b yt h es t a te ,f o ri t so wn r e a son s , i nc e r ta in p l ace s ,a l lowed o ther mun ic ipa l i t ie sf avou rab ly p laced i nb e tween t ow eave an e twork f o rt h e i ro wn p rof i ta nd c onven ience . B u t ,g i ven t h ee xpen se o fp o r tw ork s ,h ow w ou ld i nd iv idua l mun ic ipa l i t ie sh ave f i nanced t hem ?F rom h a rbour d ue s ?o rl oan s ?o rb enefac t ion sf r om l o ca l magna te s ?" Iam n o t s u r e o ft he a n sw er s . B u tn or d o Iu nder s tand y e th ow p o r t sa c tua l ly w orked a ta l l . Wa st h ere ar u le f o rs h ip sp a s s ing i na nd o u to f ah arbou r , ak i nd o fr i gh ts i de a nd aw rong s i de o ft h er oad ?o ri ft h e re w e re t wo mou th s , wa so ne a ne x i ta nd t h eo ther a ne n trance ?o rd id a l ld epend u pon t h ew ind ?' G ran ted t ha t c a rgo s h ip s w ere s t ee r ed b y ad oub le r udde r , h ow w e l l c ou ld t h ey b e h and led a nd manoeuv red w i th in a c onf ined s pace . D id a nc ien t p o r t p lann ing h ave t o t ake a ccoun t , a s mod e rn p or tp lann ing d oe s ,o ft u rn ing -c i rc le so rw inch ing p o in t s ?" I si th e lpfu lt ok now h ow c l o se ly s h ip sc ou ld b ep acked t oge ther i nh a rbour ? We h ave ,o fc our se , ag ood d ea lo fe v idence

11

a bou t t he s h ip s hed s f o r w a r sh ip s , — i n c lud ing n ow t h e P un ic s h ip s hed s a t C a r thage ' . War sh ip sh ad ,a f ter a l l ,t ob ed rawn u po u to ft h ew a ter ,s i nc et h ey c ou ld n o tb ep ro tec ted f r om r o t t ing ,o rw ood -ea t ing c r ea ture s ,b yh av ing t h e i rh u l l ss hea thed w i th l e ad ,l i ke m e r chan tmen . B u t w ha t a bou t m erchan tmen ? A s sum ing t ha t t h ey a r e a ncho red o b l ique ly p row f i r s t , l i ke d i agona l c a rp a rk ing t oday , h ow c l o se ly c ou ld t h ey b e p acked ?" S hou ld w e wo r ry a bou t t h e marked d i f f e rence si nt h ed i s tance sb e tween moor ing p o in t si nd i f f eren th arbour s— 1 4 -16 m a pa r ti nt h eT ra jan ic h a rbou ra tP or tu s , 3m . a pa r ta tL epc i s Magna , 1 8 .5 m a tT e r rac ina?' O r o ugh tw et ob ec oncerned more a bou tt r y ing t od i scove rt h et u rn -around t ime f o rt h el oad ing , a nd u n load ing , o f ac a rgo s h ip i n a n t iqu i ty ?" And w o r ry ing a bou t w ha t h app en ed t o t h e p o r ter s a nd o the r d ock w o rker s o u t s ide t h e l im i t s o ft h e s a i l ing s e a son ?" S ome o ft h ee v idence f o ra n swe r ing q ue s t ion sl i ke t h e se may l i ei np i c to r ia li lu s t ra t ion s ,— i n mo sa ic s , w a l l -pa in t ing s o r r e l ief s" . Much more , Is u spec t , l i e s c oncea led i nt he w o rk s o ft h e c l a s s ica la u thor s ;n o tj u s tS t rabo a nd t h e Ma r ine r s ' Handbook s ,b u ti np oe try a nd p ro se o fa l k ind s ' ' ' . I fw er e ad t ha tr i ch l i t era tu re w i th as ha rp e nough e y e ,a nd w i th t h e r i gh tq u e s t ion si n m ind ,w e may a ch ieve ap rope rf r amework ,i nw h ich t os e tt h eg row ing ma s so fa r chaeo log ica l f i nd s . R oman p or t s w i l l t h en t ake t h e ir p roper p lace i n t h e c hang ing h i s to ry o f Roman g overnmen t a nd s oc ie ty . B u t t h e t a sk i sg r ea t , a nd d emand s a n i mag ina t ive c o -opera t ion b e tween h i s tor ian s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s .

NOTES : T h i si sar e v i sed a nd s ho r tened v e r s ion o f al e c tu re g i ven t ot h eS oc ie ty o fR oman S tud ie si nL ondon o n Ma rch 2 3rd , 1 982 . Ih ave b een mo s t g ene rou s ly h e lped i ns t a r t ing t ow o rk o n R oman p or t s b y m any s cho lar s , e spec ia l ly P au la Mar t in ( n ee W i l l iam s ) , Dav id B lackman a nd L ione l C a s son . S chm ied t = G . S chm ied t ,A t /an te A erof o tog raf i co d e l l eS ed i Umane i nI t a l ia ( F lo rence , 1 9 70 ) . R oug e

=J .R oug e ' ,R eche rche ss u rt organ i sa t ion d uc omme rce m ar i t ime e n Mi c l i te r rani es ou s rEmp i r er oma in ( Pa r i s , 1 966 ) .

I .

M . I . F in ley , E d . , S econd I n te rna t iona lC onf e rence o fE conom ic H i s tory ,Vo l . I( A ix , 1 962 ) , p .3 5 , n .1 . N .C . F l emm ing , C i t i e si nt h eS ea ( London , 1 972 ) , p p . 1 6 3f f .

2 .

K . L ehmannHa r t leben ,D i ea n t iken H af enan lagen d e sM i t te lmeer e s( K / i o ,Be ihe f t 1 4 , 1 9 23 ) .

3 .

F o ra ne xce l len t ,r e cen ts u rv ey s e eD . B lackman , "Anc ien tH arbour si nt h e Med i te r ranean" , P a r t s 1a nd 2 ,I JNA 1 ( 1 982 ) , p p . 7 9f f . ( w i th e x t en s ive b i b l iog raphy ) .

4 .

F o r t ha t r e a son i nt h i s p ape r Ii g nor e t h et e chn ica l m ean so fh a rbour c on s t ruc t ion u s ed b y t h e R oman s .

5 .

A lonzo D e F . Qu inn ,D e s ign a nd C on s truc t ion o fP o r t sa nd Ma r i t ime S t ruc ture s( New Y o rk , 1 96 1) , p p . 7 1f f .

6 .

C . D e lano Sm i th , W e s te rn Med i te r ranean E u rope ( London , 1 9 79 ) , p .3 68 .

7 .

R ouge , p p . 4 65 -6 .

8 .

F in ley , T he A nc ien tE conomy ( London a nd B erke ley , 1 973 ) , p .1 5 9 . T h e d eba te c on t inue s . S ee n ow P .G arnsey , K . Hopk in s , C .R . Wh i t take r , E dd . , T rad e i nt h eA n c i en tE conomy ( London , 1 9 83 ) .

9 .

S ee f o r e xamp le L .C a s son , " The L oca t ion o f Adu l i s" ( P e r ip lu s Mans E ry thrae i4 ) , C o in , C u l tur ea nd H i s tory i nt h e A nc i en t Wor ld , ( M ich igan , 1 9 8 1) , p p . 13f f .

1 0 .

G .M i lne a nd B . Hob ley , Wa te rf ron tA rchaeo logy i nB r i ta in a nd N or the rn E u rope , C .B .A .R e search R epo r t4 1( London , 1 9 81) .

1 .

F l emm ing , C i t i e s , p p . 1 6 3f f .

1 2 .

e . g . H . F ro s t ," Anc ien th a rbou r sa nd a ncho rage si nt h ee a s tern Med i te r ranean" , U nd e rwa te rA rchaeo l ogy , UNESCO ( Pa r i s/London , 1 9 72 ) , p p . 9 5f f .

1 3 .

W . B a scom ,D eep Wa te r , A nc ien t S h ip s( New Y o rk , 1 9 76 ) , p p . 2 6f f .

1 4 .

F .E . B rown , C o sa , T he Mak ing o f aR oman T own ( M ich igan , 1 9 80 ) , f i g . 5 9a nd 7 .

1 5 .

F .C a s tagno l i , " A s tu ra" , S tud iR oman i , 1 , 1 9 63 , p p . 6 37f f .

12

1 6 .

H .H u r s t ,E xcava t ions a tC ar thage ,I n te r im R epor t s ,A J55 , 1 9 75 , l f f ;A J56 , 1 9 76 ,p p . 1 77f f ;A J57 , 1 977 ,p p .2 32f f ;A J 5 9 , 1 9 79 , p p . M.

1 7 .

K . Mucke lroy , E d . ,A rchaeo l ogy u nd e r Wa te r( New Y o rk/London , 1 9 80 ) , p p . 1 6 2f f . ( N .C . F l emm ing ) .

1 8 .

N .C . F l emm ing , " Archaeo log ica l e v idence f o r e u s ta t ic c hange o fs e a l e ve l a nd e ar th movemen t s i nt h e We s tern M ed i t er ranean i nt h e l a s t 2 000 y ea r s" , S pec . P ap . G eo l . S oc . Am . 1 0 9 , 1 969 ,p p . 1 f .

1 9 .

S chm i ed t , T ay . 1 3 5 a nd 1 36 .

2 0 .

L .C a s son , S h ip sa nd S eaman sh i p i nt h eA nc i en t Wo r ld ( P r ince ton , 1 9 71) ,

2 1 .

R oug e , c h . 7 .

2 2 .

P .F or n ey a nd A . T che rn ia , " Le t onnage m ax imum d e s n av ire sd e c ommer ce r oma in s" ,A rchaeonau t i ca , 2( 1 978 ) , p p . 2 33f f .

P .

1 70 a nd 1 8 3 ; D ig . 5 0 .5 . 3( S caevo la ) .

2 3 .

F l emm ing , C i t i e s , p .6 0 .

2 4 .

D e lano Sm i th ,E u rope , P .3 65 .

2 5 .

V .J . B runo , " The My s tery o ft h e E t ru scan C oa s t l ine" ,A rchaeo l ogy 2 6( 1 973 ) , p p . 1 9 8f f .

2 6 .

A .M . McCann ," The Ha rbou ra nd F i she ry R ema in sa tC o sa ,I t a ly" ,J ou rna lo fF i e ld A rchaeo logy 6 (1979 ) ,p p . 3 9 1f f .

2 7 .

S t rabo 5 .2 2 i f .

2 8 .

S chm ied t , T ay . 1 2 3 ; S t rabo 5 . 22 .

2 9 .

Q u inn ,D e s ign , p .7 1f f .

3 0 .

G r ea tB r i ta in :A dm i ra l ty :N ava lI n te l l igence D iv i s ion : G eog raph ica lH and book S e r i e s( London ) .

3 1 .

c f . P au la F . d e C . W i l l iam s , " Roman H a rbour s" , I JNA 5 (1976 ) , p p . 7 3f f .

3 2 .

R oug e , p p . 1 37f f .

3 .

G .F . B a s s , E d . ,A H i s tory o fS eaf a r ing ( London , 1 9 72 ) ,C h . 4( J .W .S haw ) ,P l a t e s2 5 ,2 6 ; G a l l ia , 1 969 , 1 9 72 ;S t rabo 4 . 1 8 0 18 1 .

3 4 .

M . Guy , " Le sp o r t sa n t ique sd eN a rbonne" ,R iv i s ta d iS tud iL igu r i2 1( 1 955 ) ,p p . 2 13 ; D iod . 5 .3 8 . 5 ;S t rabo 4 .1 89 .

3 5 .

L .C on s tans ,A r l e sA n t ique ( Pa r i s , 1 92 1) ;A . G r en ie r , Manue ld ' Archjo log ie G a l lo -Roma ine I . 2( Pa r i s , 1 9 34 ) ,C h . 1 2 . A . B a l i ! , "Nav igaz ione er appo r t i m ar i t t im i n e l la S pagna r omana" ,M i sce l lanea i no nor ed iE ugen io Mann i( Rome , 1 9 80 ) , p p . 1 7 1180 .

3 6 .

V .V azquez d e P rada ,H i s to r ia E conom ica yS oc ia ld eE spa r la , I ,L aA n t iq t i edad ( Madr id , 1 9 73 ) , p .3 1 1 ; A .J . P a rker , "Anc ien t S h ipw r eck s i n t h e Med i te r ranean a nd t h e R oman p rov ince s" , B AR ,S upp l . S e r ie s ( f or thcom ing ) , c f . K . Mucke l roy , E d . ,A r chaeo logy u nd e r Wa te r ,p p . 5 0f . ( A . P a rke r ) .

3 7 .

S t rabo 3 .1 69 , c f . S t rabo 2 .1 4 1-3 .

3 8 .

C . Moccheg ian i C a rpano ,R end P on tA cad . 4 8 ( 1 975 -76 ) , p p . 2 39 f f ; F .C a s tagno l i , " In s ta l laz ion i p o r tua l i aR oma" , MAAR 3 6 ( 1980 ) , p p . 3 5f f .

3 9 .

N ava lI n te l l igence D iv i s ion : G eog raph ica l Handbook S e r ie s :A lg e r ia ( London , 1 943 -44 ) ; T un i s ia ( London , 1 945 ) . c f . R .A . Y o rke a nd D .P . Dav id son , " Roman H a rbou r s o fA lge r ia" , U nd erwa te rA s s . R ep . ( 1 969 ) , p p . 8 f .

4 0 .

J .L a s se re ,U b ique P opu lu s .P eup l emen te tm ouvemen t sd ep opu la t ion d an s PA f r ique r oma ine d el ac hu te d eC ar thag e äl a f i nd el ad yna s t i ed e sS i vi re s( 1 46 a . c . -235 p . c . )( Pa r i s , 1 9 77 ) , p .3 78 .

4 1 .

c f . R . Me igg s ,R oman 0 s 1 ia 2 ( Ox fo rd , 1 9 73 ) , p .2 87 .

4 2 .

A . D eg ra s s i , " I p or t i r oman i d e l l ' I s tr ia" ,A n themon , S c r i t t i i no nor ed iC . An t i( F lo r ence , 1 9 54 ) ,p p . 1 54f f .

4 3 .

R .L . Hoh lf e lder ," The p or t so fR oman B ae t ica : Ap r e l im inary R econna i s sance" ,J ou rna lo fF i e ld A rchaeo logy 3 ( 1976 ) , p p . 4 65f f .

4 4 .

R ouge ,L 'organ i sa t ion , p p . 1 7 9f f ; C IL 1 2 . 6 92 , 7 04 , 7 18 , 8 53 , 9 82 ; C IL 2 . 180 , 182 , 183 , 168 , 169 .

4 5 .

L a s s e r e , U b ique P opu lu s , p p . 3 70f f .

4 6 .

G .W . Hous ton ," The a dm in i s tra t ion o fI t a l ian s e apor t sd u r ing t h ef i r s tt h ree c en tur ie so ft h eR oman Emp i re" , MAAR 3 6( 1 980 ) , p p . 1 5 7f f .

4 7 .

S chm ied t ,T ay . 1 34 ( Ven to tene a nd A s tu ra ) ,c f .S ue t .A ug . 6 5a nd T ac .A nn . 1 . 53 ( Ju l ia ) ,S ue t .T i b . 5 3( Agr ipp ina ) ,T ac . A nn . 1 4( Oc tav ia ) ; T ay . 1 3 3 ( An t ium ,T e r rac ina , a nd C en tumce l lae ) .

4 8 .

R oug e , p p . 1 37f f . , c f . S t rabo 3 .1 8 9 .

4 9 .

R oug e , p p . 1 33f f . ; R . B ar tocc in i ,I lp or to r omano d iL ep t i s Magna ( Rome , 1 9 58 ) .

5 0 .

Hou s ton , MAAR 3 6( 1 980 ) , p .1 6 6 .

5 1 .

Hou s ton , MAAR 3 6( 1 980 ) , p .1 6 4 .

5 2 .

L .C a s son , T he A nc ien t Mar ine r s( London , 1 9 59 ) , p .2 2 1 .

5 3 .

Qu inn ,D e s ign , p .8 7 .

5 4 .

H . Hu r s t , " Excava t ion s a tC ar thage 1 9 77 -8 . F ou r th I n ter im R epor t" ,A n tJ ou rn 5 9 ( 1 979 ) , p p . 1 9f . a nd f i g . 3 .

13

5 .

J .R ouge ' ," Le sp or t sr oma in sd e Med i te r rane" ,H i s to i re e tA r chi o log ie :L e sD os s ier s ,2 9( 1978 ) ,p p . 1 0f .— r oom f o r 2 50 s h ip s a tq uay s ide o fC laud ian h arbou ra tO s t ia , mo r e t han 2 00 s h ip sa tq uay s ide i nT ra jan ic h a rbour .

5 6 .

S chm ied t , V o l . I , p .1 2 1f f .

5 7 .

P omey a nd T che rn ia ,A rchaeonau t ica 2( 1 978 ) , p .2 40 , n .3 9 , — p e rhap s aw eek o r mo re t ou n load al a rge s h ip .

5 8 .

P .B run t , " F ree L abou ra nd P ub l ic Work sa tR ome" ,J RS 7 0( 1 980 ) , p p . 8 1f f , e sp . p .9 2 .

5 9 .

e . g . Me igg s , 0 s 1 1a 2,P l a te s 2 0 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 2 6 ; C a s son , Ma r ine r s , P la te 1 3 .

6 0 .

c f . V e rg . A ene id L 1 59 169 ; P l iny t h e Y ounge r ; R u t i l iu sN ama t ianu s .

14

ANNA MARGUER ITE McCANN

The R oman P or t a nd F i she ry o f Co sa : AC en te r o fT rade i nt he L a te R oman R epub l ic T he r e c en te xcava t ion so ft h ea nc ien tR oman p o r ts i te o fC o sa ' o nt h eT y r rhen ian s e acoa s to f I t a ly 1 38 km n or th o fR ome ( F ig s . 1 ,2 )h av ec l ea r ly e s tab l i shed t h eP o r tu sC o sanu sa s af oca l p o in t f o r t r ade i n t h e w e s tern Med i te r ranean d u r ing t h e l a s t t wo c en tu r ie s o f t h e R oman R epub l ic 2.Wh i le t he p or t o fC o sa h a s l ong b een k nown f r om t h e a nc ien t s ource s 3,i t s e xac t l o ca t ion h a sb een d eba ted a nd i t sd om inan tr o le i nt h ec omme rc ia ll i f eo fb o th t he L a t in c o lony o f Co sa ,f ounded i n2 73 B .C . ,a nd t h ew ho le w e s te rn Med i te r ranean h a sn o tb een r e cogn ized4. P rev iou sa r chaeo log ica li n ter e s ti nt h i sb eau t ifu la r ea o fa nc ien tE trur ia , modern T u scany ,h a s c oncen t ra ted o nl a nd e xcava t ioe s— b o th w i th in t h ef o r t if i ed h i l lt own o fC o sa ( F ig . 3 )a bove t he p o r t5 a nd t he l a te R epub l ican a nd e a r ly I mper ia l v i l la s b eh ind t h e p or t , d o t t ing t h e s urround ing Ager C o sanu s 6.A si mpor tan ta st h e se e xcava t ion sh ave b een ,t h el i f ea nd h i s tory o ft h i s a nc ien t t e r r i tory h a s o n ly b een p a r t ia l ly u nde r s tood . B o th o u r l a nd a nd u nd e rwa te r e xcava t ion sa tt he p o r ts i te o fC o sa ,w h ich i n c lude sa na t tached f i she ry a bou t2 50 m t ot h en or th i n an ow s i l ted o ver a nc ien tb a r r ier l a goon ,p rov ide t h ee s sen t ia lm i s s ing l i nk a nd t h ek ey t oa f u l lu nde r s tand ing o ft h ew ho le a r ea ( F ig s .4 ,5 ) . I t sc ruc ia li mpor tance f o rt h ed eve lopmen to f b o th R oman ma r i t ime a nd e conom ic h i s tory a sw e l la st e chno logy c l ea r ly e merge s . F rom t h e i n terd i sc ip l inary r e sea rch o f ac o l labo ra t ive t e am o f a r chaeo log i s t s , g eo log i s t s a nd o the r s c ien t i s t s , a rch i tec t s a nd e ng ineer s o ve r t he p a s t 1 9y ea r s , i ti se v iden t t ha t t he p o r t w a s t he p r imary r e a son f o rt h eo r ig ina ll o ca t ion o ft h ec o lony a nd f o rt h ep ro spe r i ty t he w ho le r e g ion e n joyed d ur ing t he l a s tt wo c en tu r ie so ft h eR epub l ic .I ti st h ee v idence f o rt h et r ad ing l i f eo ft h e P or tu sC o sanu sd u r ing i t s mo s tp ro sperou sy ea r si nt h es e cond a nd f i r s tc en tur ie sB .C . t ha ti s t he f ocu s o f t h i s p aper . T he f u l l a r chaeo log ica l , g eo log ica l a nd o the r s c ien t if i c e v id ence i s p re sen ted i n ac o l labo ra t ive v o lume s hor t ly f o r thcom ing b y t h e P r ince ton Un ive r s i ty P re s s 7. Who w e r e t he b u i lder s o ft h i s e a r l ie s t R oman p or t t hu s f a r i d en t if ied ? I t s ma s s ive , c onc re te h arbou rp i er s ( F ig s . 6 ,7 )p rov ide a r chaeo logy w i th t he e a r l ie s t d a ted u se s o f a ro fh yd rau l ic c onc re t e m ade o ft u f f a nd p ozzo lana . Who c once ived o ft h e p lan o ft h e l a rge a nd c omp lex l agoona l f i shery , a dded t ot h e p or t f a c i l i t ie s i nt h e e a r ly f i r s t c en tury B .C .? ( F ig . 8 )T he l ong , c onc re te f i sh t ank s d i scovered i nt h e a nc ien t l a goon a rea ( F ig . 9 )w e re l i nked t ot h e s e ab y a s e r ie s o f i n tr ica te c hanne l s ( Tag l ia ta a nd S pacco d e l la R eg ina ) , p a r t ly n a tura l a nd p ar t ly man -mad e ,c u ti n to t h el ime s tone p romon tory p ro tec t ing t h eh a rbour b a s in o nt he w e s ta sw e l l a s b y m an -made c hanne l s ( M ; Aa nd B ) w i th in t h e h a rbou rb a s in ( s ee F ig . 4 ) . T he f i sh t ank s t hem se lv e s w ere o ver 9 0 ml ong a nd c overed o v er t wo a nd o ne h a lf a c re s( 1 .2 h ec ta re s ) . T h i s e x ten s ive f i sh f a rm , w here f i sh w ere p robab ly b o th r a i sed a nd h e ld f o rp roce ss ing ,i n c luded a S pr ing Hou se o n i t s w e s te rn b ank ( F ig s . 1 0 , 3 1 a nd 3 2 ) w ho se f r e sh w a ter w a s c a r r ied b y a n a queduc t e a s twa rd a c ro s s t h e l a goon t ot h e c en t ra l e mpo r ium a r ea o ft h e p or t( F ig . 1 ) . T he s ca le a nd c o mp lex i ty o ft h i sb rack i sh -wa te rf i sh f a rm w ou ld s e em t oi nd ica te c omme rc ia lr a the r t han p r iva te u se . Who f i nanced a nd managed t h i sh a rbour a nd f i shery c omp lex u s ing i mpor ted t uf ff r om B o l sena a nd p ozzo lana f r om P u teo l i i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion o fi t s e x ten s ive c onc re te work s 5?Who h ad k now ledge a bou ta nd a cce s st ot h e mo s ta dvanced A lexand r ian w a te r l i f t ing t e chno logy o ft he d ay — ab ucke t -cha in d r iven t h rough a na ng le g ea r( F ig . 1 2 )— d i scove red i n t he S p r ing House a nd u sed t os upp ly f r e sh w a te rt ob o th t h ef i shery a nd t h ee mpo r ium ?P a r t so f s i x wood en b ucke t sf r om ag a r land -cha in p lu s ac omp le te o ne w ere f ound w i th o the rp a r t so f t he g ea r ed mechan i sm .T h i su n ique d i scovery g i ve st h ee ar l ie s ta r chaeo log ica le v idenc ef o rs uch aw a te r l i f t ing mach ine ,f i r s td ev e loped i nt he G reek H e l len i s t ic w or ld ,p robab ly a tA lexand r ia , i nt he s e cond c en tury B .C . a nd s t i l li nu se t oday i np a r t so ft h eN ea rE a s t ,k nown b yi t sA rab ic

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1 .Map o fI t a ly , l o ca t ing C o sa . n ame ,s aq iya . Wooden b ucke t sf r om s uch d ev ice sh ave n ev e rb een p re served b efo r e ,t h el a te r o ne s b e ing t e rraco t ta . T hu s , C o sa ' s m echan i sm f i l l s a n i mpor tan t g ap i n t he h i s tory o f w a ter l if t ing t e chno logy , l a te rt ob e p er f ec ted b y t h e R oman s t o ar ema rkab le d eg r e e 9. F o r w ha t p urpo se w a s t h i s e l abo ra te h a rbour -f i she ry c omp lex b u i l t ? Wha t p roduc t s w er e s h ipped i nt h ev a s tq uan t i t ie so f amphora sf ound b o th o nl a nd a nd u nde rwa ter a tC o sa ? Who w a st h e i r manuf ac tur er ? Who c on t ro l led t h eg r ea tv o lume o fe xpo r tt r ade l o aded i nt h eh a rbou r a nd w ho p l anned t h e n e two rk o ft r ad ing r ou te s t ha t l i nked t h i s r e la t ive ly s ma l l h a rbour b y mode rn s t anda rd s ,c a . 2 5 ,000 s qm , t ot h ew ho le w e s te rn Med i te r ranean w or ld f o ra lmo s t2 00 y ea r s ? Why a nd w hen d id t he p or to fC o sa c ea se t ob e al e ad ing e xpo r tc en ter ? Wha tw e re s ome o ft h e r e su l t s o ft h i s s ucce s sfu l c omme rc ia l e n te rp r i se f o r b o th t h e d eve lopmen t o fR oman ma r i t ime a nd e conom ic h i s to ry a nd p or t a nd f i she ry t e chno logy ? S im i la r k ind s o f q ue s t ion s a bou t p o r t s a r e a l so r a i sed b y G eof f rey R ickman i nh i s p ape r p r e sen ted a tt h i sc onf erence ' 9.B e s ide st h er e covery a nd u nde r s tand ing o fa l lt he a rcha eo log ica l r ema in s ,R ickman u rge st ha tp o r t sb ev i ewed a sp lace sw he re p eop le i n te rac t ,a sf oca lp o in t sf o r t r ade i n vo lv ing p rob lem so fg eog raphy ,h i s to ry a nd e conom ic s .T of o l low t h ew i se w o rd so ft h e g eog raphe rY ehuda K a rmon w ho r e cen t ly w ro te i nh i sc omp r ehen s ive s t udy o fP or t sA round t h e Wor ld ;

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Ap o r tc anno tb er e ga rd ed a sa ni s o la t ed p henomenon ,b u ta sp a r to ft he p o l i t ica l , s oc ia l a nd e conom ic l i f eo f ar e g ion" . Who w e r et h e t r ad e r s o fC o sa ? Wha td id t h ey t r ad e i na nd w he r ed id t h ey g o ?H ow d id t h ey a ch iev e s u cc e s sa nd w ha tw e r es ome o fi t sr e su l t s ?T he se a r et h em a in i sue s a dd r e s sed h e r e . T he a n sw e rt ot h ef i r s to ft h e se q ue s t ion sl e ad su sb ack t ot h ep ionee r ing y ea r so fu nd erwa te r a r cheo logy a nd t ot h ef amou ss h ipw r eck o ft h eG rand C ong loui f ound o f Ma r s e i l le si n1 952 1 2. Now r e cogn iz ed a s t wo d i s t inc t w r eck s , t h e u ppe r o ne c on ta ined a c a rgo o f a bou t 1 200 a mpho ra s , m any m a rk ed w i th s t amp s b ea r ing t h el e t t e r s" SEST" a nd/o ra s so c ia t ed d ev ic e s . F e rnand B eno i ti n te rp r e ted t h e se l e t te r sa sa na bb rev ia t ion o ft h en omen S e s t iu s ,b u ti d en t if i ed h im w i th ac e r ta in Ma r cu sS e s t iu so fF r eg e l la e , at r ad e rm en t ioned i na ne a r ly s e cond c en tu r y B .C .i n sc r ip t ion f r om D e lo s .T he c a rgo o ft h eu pp e rG rand C ong loui w r eck f i r s tb rough tt ot h e a t ten t ion o f a r chaeo log i s t s t h i s p a r t icu la r a mpho ra f o rm , n ow r e cogn iz ed a s t h e mo s t i mpo r tan to fa l lR epub l ican s h ipp ing c on ta ine r sf o rw ine .S uch a mpho ra sa r ef ound o n many s i t e si nt h ew e s te rn Med i te r ranean a sw e l la si nt h eA then ian A go ra .T he t ype i sr e cogn ized b y i t st a l l ,s l ende rs hape ( ove ro ne m e te rh i gh ) ,l o ng n eck w i th f l a r ing l i p ,v e r t ica lh and l e s ,n a r row b e l ly ,a nd s qua t ,s o l id t o e( F ig . 1 3 ) .I t sa v e rag eh o ld ing c apa c i ty m ea su r e sa bou t2 6l i t e r s .T h i s f o rm w a sf i r s tc l a s s if ied b yt h el a te N ino L ambog l ia w ho r e v i sed D r e s se l 's o ld e r ,w e l l -known

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5 .L ag oon o fC o sa ,p l an o fe x cava t ed r ema in sw i th S p r i ng H ou s ec omp l ex o nw e s t e r nb ank w i t ha qued uc ta nd f i sh e n c l o su r e s( W a l l s W ,V ,L a nd N ) ;r e ta in i ng p o l ygona lw a l l sP . PW a nd P E . may b e d a ted f r om t he s e cond q ua r te r o ft h e f i r s t t ot h e l a s t q ua r te r o ft he f i r s tc en tury B .C . ( F ig . 1 4 )T he c a rgo f r om t h eS pa rg is h ip c an n ow b ef u l ly s t ud ied ,h and some ly d i sp layed i nt h e mu seum d ed ica ted t oL ambog l ia o nt he i s land o f Madda lena . B o th t h e ampho ra so fT ype s4 a a nd 4 b f r om t he S parg i s h ip ( s een b y W i l l ) a nd a t l e a s t s ome o fT ype 4 a f r om t he Grand C ong lou6 w reck 1 7 l ook t ot h e e ye t ob e made o ft he s ame t ype o fr edd i sh , c oa r se a nd h igh ly m icaceou s c l ay w i th c on sp icuou s r ed p o t tery b i t s w h ich w e h ave c ome t o a s soc ia te w i th t h e S e s t iu sf a c to ry . T he e x te r io rs u r f ace i sc ov e red w i th as andy c o lo red , l i gh ter w a sh . Who w a sS e s t iu sa nd f r om w ha tp or td id t h e se m erchan ts h ip se mba rk ,l oaded w i th t he ir l a rg e c argoe so fw ine j a r s ?T he p or te xcava t ion sa tC o sa a nd t h er e search o fo ur ampho ra f i nd sb y W i l l h ave n ow s e cu red t h e a n swe r s . L ong b efore o u rf o rma l e xcava t ion s b egan i n1 968 , W i l l h ad r e cogn ized t he c onnec t ion w i th C o sa o ft he S e s t iu s f am i ly , w e l l -known f r om b o th t h e l i t erary a nd h i s tor ica ls ource sa sw ea l thy a nd p rom inen tp o l i t ic ian s ,a c t ive i nR ome i nt he f i r s t c en tu ry B .C .1 8 H e r e v idence w a s b a sed u pon a n umbe r o f S e s t iu s s t amp s f ound i n t h e e xcava t ion so ft he h i l ls i te o fC o sa a bove t h ep or t ,a sw e l la su pon C icero ' sl e t te rt oA t t icus i n4 4 B .C .i n wh ich h es t a te st ha th i sf r iend P ub l iu sS e s t iu s ,w hom h eh ad d ef ended i n5 6B .C . ,h ad a v i l la a tC o sa ( At t . 1 5 .27 .1) .W i l lf u r ther s ugge s ted t ha tP ub l iu sm igh th ave h ad ap o t tery f o rt h e manuf ac ture o f amphora s t os h ip t he p roduce f r om h i s e s ta te a tC o sa s i nce h i s s on , L uc iu s

1 20

Sestius, was known to have engaged in an extensive pottery business in the latter first century B.C., identified by the brickstamps bearing his name found in and arouna Rome. Now from her study of our port material, Will has been able to trace this long-lived family and their amphora factory back to at least the beginning of the second century B.C. and perhaps even earlier19 • It is apparent that the Sestii were not only among the first Roman nobles to engage in trade in the western Mediterranean but were innovators in develo.ping the first distinctly Roman amphora type, the important Greco-Italic form, Type l d (Fig. 15). Modeled upon the earlier Greco-Italic shapes (Types l a through le), Type l d becomes the first standardized Roman amphora shape developed in the first half of the second century B.C. By comparison with its predecessors, Type l d has increased in size with a height of between 0.75 m and 0.80 m and a belly diameter of about 0.35 m. The Romans had achieved an enlarged ca.pacity, balanced appearance and uniform measurements in response to the demands for mass production. Type ld is found in quantity at both the port (Fig. 17) and hill sites of Cosa. In the port, 76 fragments of Type 1d were found, representing 9% of our total material, and 142 pieces were found on the hill site of Casa. Our port fragments are also made of the same pinkish, micaceous type of clay noted above in the Sestius jars fr om Spargi and the Grand Congloue. This clay has been found to be particularly high in volcanic materials - especially augite, olivine and magnetite. Now the comparative mineralogical analyses of amphoras from the port of Cosa of both Types l d and 4a with the clays and beach sands from the area by geologists Raffaello Trigila and Jelle de Boer have p rovided strong evidence that this type of clay comes from the area of Cosa20. Augites and olivine crystals which occur in great abundance in the Casa beach sands are tecturally and mineralogically indistinguishable from similar minerals found in the Sestius amphora fragments. More mineralogical studies of the Sestius amphoras from other sites need to be done in the future. While the Greco-Italic jars of Type l d are found more fre _uently thus far at Casa than on any other Mediterranean site, it is the later Type 4 amphora fragments which blanket Cosa's port and fishery. They provide the chief evidence for the dating of the most prosperous years of the harbour and the floruit of the Sestius export trade. Nowhere in the western Mediterranean has such a concentration of Type 4 been found. Moreover, with the exception of the large trading ports, as Delos and Alexandria, such a high concentration of a single amphora group with such a wide variety of stamps is unique. Eighty-six percent of the stamps found in the port (95 out of 111) are Sestius trademarks (Figs 18, 20). The Sestius stamps, which include 14 identified letter types, excluding the wide variety of devices, are all found at Casa except for one. Of Type 4 itself, 559 pieces were collected at the port site: 300 of Type 4a and 208 of Type 4b with 51 indeterminate body fragments. Together, Type 4 represents 70% of our total amphora material. These Sestius amphora finds, which also include Type 5, 24a, as well as some experimental shapes, clearly document the port of Casa as a key center for export trade by the Sestii in the last two centuries of the Roman Republic and the home of their chief factory. It must have been from the Portus Cosanus that the ships wrecked off the Grand Congloue and Spargi embarked, for only a factory of the scale indicated by our finds could have loaded such sizable cargoes. Other important pieces of evidence from amphoras connecting the Sestii with the port of Casa are a painted inscription on an amphora fragment from the Athenian Agora and a rare amphora stamp from the harbour of Casa. The Athenian Agora fragment (P 6867) from a jar of Type 5 (Dressel IC), made of the Sestius reddish clay, bears the letters CO/SES, painted in red upon its neck (Fig. 16)21. If the Latin letters are interpreted corr_ectly by Will as abbreviations for Casa and Sestius, as in the light of the evidence from the port excavations seems highly likely, this neck fragment serves as a major witness for the location of the Sestius firm at Casa. We will return to this important amphora fragment, dated from its closed context to the last years of the second century B.C., when considering the contents of the Sestius jars. The second amphora fragment of special interest for the evaluation of the relationship of the Sestii to the port of Casa itself is one found undei:water in the harbour of Casa. On a rim of Type 4a (Cat. A 79), the Sestius letters appear with a rare device - a tall, narrow, rectangular form with a flame issuing from the top (Figs. 19, 21).The device measures 0.018 m in width and 121

0 . 023 m i nh e igh t2 . T h i ss imp l if ied d e s ign c ompa re sw e l lw i th t h es chema t ic r ep r e sen ta t ion so f l i gh thou se so nR oman c o in s( F ig .2 2 ) 23 .Any w o rk ing h arbou r ,a nc ien to r mode rn ,i se qu ipped w i th al i gh thou se o rb eacon t ower .T he e a r l ie s te xamp le o f al i gh thou se i nt he a nc ien t wor ld i s t h ef amou sP ha ro so fA lexand r ia ,b u i l ti nt h ee a r ly t h i rd c en tu ry B .C . However ,s ma l ler b eacon t owe r s mu s th ave b een u sed a th a rbou re n t rance sb efo re t h i st ime 2 4 . I na ny c a se ,t h ea dd i t ion o f t h e l i gh thou se t o s t anda rd h a rbour w ork s i s ap a r t icu la r ly R oman d eve lopmen t . T hey w e r e n orma l ly p l aced a t t h e e nd o f ab reakwa te r o r u pon a s epa ra te i s land w i th in t h e h arbou r e n t rance ,a ss e en f r om t h e i rn ume rou sr ep re sen ta t ion si nR oman a r t .T he a nc ien tf ounda t ion s o fo n ly av e ry f ew o ft h e se l i gh thou se sa r ek nown f r om a r cha eo log ica lr ema in s .I ti st hu sn a tu ra l t oa s sume t ha tf r om i t se a r l ie s tp er iod o fu se i nt h et h i rd c en tury B .C . ,t h ep or to fC osa h ad a t l e a s t s ome k ind o fb eacon . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence f o r s u ch al i gh t d u r ing t h ep o r t 's e a r l ie s t y ea r si sl a ck ing .B u tf r om t h ep eak o ft h eh a rbour ' sa c t ive c ommer c ia ll i f ei nt he l a te s e cond a nd f i r s tc en tur ie sB .C . ,w e may h ave s i gn if i can tr ema in s . Two o ft h eh a rbou r 's f i ve l a rg e ,c onc r e te p i er sa r ep laced o nt op o ft h e ma in ,r ock -cu tb r eakwa te rt ha te x tend sd i r ec t ly e a s twa rd f r om t h e l ime s tone c l if f so nt h ew e s tf o ra bou t 10 m . One o ft h e se p i e r s( P ie r4 )i sp l aced n ea rt h ew e s te rn e nd a l ong t h ee dge o fi t so r ig ina l ,i nne rh arbour s i de a nd t h eo ther ( P ier 5 )i sl o ca ted a bou t5 5m t ot h ee a s to fi t ,a tt h et i p( F ig .2 3 ) .T he r ema in so fP i e r 5a r en ow t o ta l ly s ubmerged t o ad ep th o f c a . 2 . 50 m b e low s e al e ve la nd a r eb ad ly e roded ( F ig . 2 8 ) . U nderwa te rp robe sa round i tw i th a w a te r je t d ev ice i nd ica te t ha t P i e r 5e x tend s u nde rt h e s and f o ra tl e a s t a no the r 1 . 50 m t o t h e s ou th . I t sv i s ib le p re served c o re m ea sure sc a .4 . 80 m ( e a s t -we s t )b y4 . 30 m ( nor th sou th ) . P i e r5 o r ig ina l ly w a st hu s ag ood d ea ll a rger a nd c ou ld h ave b een o fa na pprop r ia te s i ze t os uppor ta t l e a s t as ma l l b eacon t ower . I t s s t ra teg ic p o s i t ion a t t h e e nd o f t he l ong , a r t if i ca l b a r r ie r p ro tec t ing t h eh a rbour f r om t h ep reva i l ing s ou thwe s ter ly ,s ummer w ind sj u s tt ot h ew e s to ft h e s h ip e n t rance c hanne l( l oca ted b e tween b reakwa te re x ten s ion s Da nd F )f u r the ra r gue sf or t h e a s soc ia t ion o fP i e r 5w i th aw arn ing l i gh t . Our e xcava t ion sh ave t hu sa dded n ew a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o rt h i st ype o fb eacon t owe ri nt h eR oman w o r ld ,a na r ch i tec tu ra lf orm n o to therw i s e w e l l d ocumen ted . Now t h e f a sc ina t ing i d en t if ica t ion o fP ao lo Z ancan i Mon tuo ro o f as ma l l , v o t iv e , t e r raco t ta mode lo f at owe rf r om t h en ea rby c i ty o fV u lc i( F ig . 27 )a st h el i gh thou se o ft he P o r tu s Co sanu s l e nd s n ew s uppo r t t o o u r i d en t if ica t ion o f P i er 5a s ab a se f o r ah a rbou r l i gh t2 5 . T he t ow e r mode l ,f ound a l so w i th o ther v o t ive a r ch i tec tura l mode l s ,i sg enera l ly d a ted b ym a ter ia lf r om t he d epo s i tt ot h ef i r s th a lf o ft h ef i r s tc en tury B .C .2 6 , a l though P rof e s sor Z ancan i Mon tuo ro s ugge s t st ha ti tc ou ld g ob ack e ven t ot h el a te s e cond c en tu ry B .C . I na ny c a se ,t h i st ime s pan i s i na ccord w i th t h e d a t ing o ft h e T ype 4 a ampho ra s . T he r e con s t ruc ted h e igh t o ft h e s imp le , s qua re mode lf r om V u lc ii sc a .0 . 30 m w i th t h es i de se ach 0 . 075 m .P rof e s so rZ ancan i Mon tuo ro p ropo se sa no r ig ina lh e igh tf o rt h eC o sa l i gh t ,o nt h eb a s i s o fh e rs t ud ie so fo the re xamp le s ,a s a bou t3 0 mw i th ab a se o fa bou t7 . 50 m s qua re ,m ea suremen t sc ompa t ib le w i th t h ep ro jec ted o r ig ina ls i ze o fP i er 5 .T he s ma l lv o t ive g i f tf r om V u lc is t r ik ing ly i nd ica te st h ei mpo r tance o ft h e p or t o fC o sa f o rt h e a r ea a nd t he i nhab i tan t s w ho u sed i t .R e turn ing s a f e ly h ome f r om as e a v oyage i n to t h e s he l ter o ft h e P or tu s C o sanu s , t h e r e s iden t o fn e ighbo r ing Vu lc i o f f ered h i s t hank s . B u i l td u r ing C o sa ' sp eak y ea r s , t h el i gh thou se b ecame ,l i ke t h eP haro so fA lexandr ia , t h ep o r t ' si d en t i fy ing s ymbo l ,a dop ted b yt h eS e s t i iw ho se w ea l th a nd p a t ronage s u s ta ined h e r a c t ive l i f e f o r o ve r 2 00 y ea r s . T he S e s t iu sl i gh thou se s t amp ,i fc or rec t ly i n te rpr e ted h ere ,i sf u r ther i nd ica t ion f o rt h el o ca t ion o ft h eS e s t iu s ampho ra f a c to ry a tt h ep or to fC o sa ,a l ready o verwhe lm ing ly d ocumen ted b yt h e o ther amphora f i nd s . I na dd i t ion , t h el i gh thou se s t amp i so fp ar t icu la ri n teres tf o ri ts ugge s t s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o ft h e i n vo lvemen t o ft h e S e s t i i i nt h e b u i ld ing a nd f i nanc ing o ft h e h arbou r ' s p r inc ipa l s t ruc ture s . Mo s t o f t h e o the r d ev ice s u sed b y t h e S e s t i i o n t h e i r s t amp s a re a l so c onnec ted w i th t h es e a ,f i sh ing o rt h ep a r t icu la rg od o fb o th — N ep tune .T he se s t amped d ev ice s i n c lude : t r iden t , h ook , f i sh s p ine , a nchor , p a lm a nd p ine b ranch . T he l i gh thou se s y mbo l , r e cogn ized t hu sf a ro n ly o n av ery f ew T ype 4 aj a r s ,a l so l e nd ss uppo r tt ot h ep ropo sed d a t ing o f t h e c onc re te p i e r s o ft h e h a rbour d ur ing t h e h e igh t o fT ype 4 a 's manufac ture f r om t he l a s t q uar te ro ft h es e cond c en tu ry B .C .t h rough t h ef i r s tq uar ter o ft h ef i r s tc en tury B .C .O ne wou ld

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i mag ine t ha tt he s t amp w a si n sp ired b yt h ee r ec t ion o f ac on tempo ra ry monumen t . I t mu s tb e a dm i t ted ,h oweve r ,t ha tt h eC o sa h arbou rp i er sc ou ld e ven d a te e a r l ier ,d u r ing t h et ime o ft h e T ype l d amphora s i nt h ef i r s th a lf o ft h es e cond c en tury B .C . , o rl a te r , d ur ing t h e t ime o ft h e e ar ly f o rm o fT ype 4 b i nt h e s e cond q ua r te r o ft h e f i r s t c en tury B .C . No s t amp s h ave b een i nden t if ied i nt he l ower , o r ig ina l s e c t ion s o ft h e c onc re te p i e r s a nd t h e c oar se , r edd i sh a nd m icaceou s b ody f r agmen t s o f a l l t h e S e s t iu s amphora t ype s ( Type s i d a nd p erhap s o ther G reco I ta l ic t ypes ,4 a ,4 b , 5 ,a nd 2 4a )u sed t h roughou ta l lt h ec oncr e te s t ruc tur e s i nb o th t h e p or t a nd f i shery , a r e i nd i s t ingu i shab le . L ook ing a tt h e t o ta l p i c tu re , h oweve r , i ts e em s mo s t l i ke ly t ha tt h eh arbou rf a c i l i t ie sw ere g i ven p e rmanen tf o rm i nc onc re te d ur ing t h eh e igh to ft h e S es t iu st r ade i nt he l a te s e cond a nd e a r ly f i r s tc en tu r ie sB .C .d ocumen ted b yt h eo verwhe lm ing d om inance o ft he T ype 4 a ma ter ia l .I na ny c a se ,t h eh a rbour p i er so fC o sa s t i l lg i ve t h ee ar l ie s t k nown u se t hu s f a r o fh yd rau l ic c onc re te made o ft u f fa nd p ozzo lana . When t h e u se o ft h i s r evo lu t iona ry ma te r ia l f o r h a rbour c on s truc t ion b egan i sn o t k nown , b u t i tmu s t h ave b een i nven ted i nt he a r ea o fP u teo l id ur ing t h ec our se o fh e rh a rbou rc on s t ruc t ion a nd s e a s ide v i l la s a f ter t h ef ounda t ion o ft h eR oman c o lony i n1 94 B .C .2 7. I ti sc l ea rt ha tt h ep a r t icu la rp roper t ie s o f h yd rau l ic c onc re te w er e a l ready w e l l u nder s tood b y t h e t ime t u f f a nd p ozzo lana w e re i mpor ted t o Co sa2 8 .A c l ear d i s t inc t ion w a s made b y t h e b u i lde r s o ft h e p i e r s a nd w a l l s o f C o sa ' s p or t a nd f i shery b e tw een t h e c onc re te u sed i nt h e l owe r , u nde rwa te r p or t ion s o ft h e s t ruc tu r e s w here t u f fa nd p ozzo lana w e re u sed a nd t h e u pper s e c t ion s a bove t h e s a l t w a ter w here l i me s tone f o rt h ea gg rega te o ft h e mor ta rw a st h er u le .T uf fa nd p ozzo lana ,b o th v o lcan ic ma te r ia l s , a r e r e s i s tan t t os a l t w a ter , e v idenced b y t h e c onc re te r ema in s a tC o sa w h ich h ave e ndured f o r o ver 2 , 000 y ea r s . E xcava t ion sw ere c a r r ied o u ta l ong t h ew e s tern s i de o fP i er 1i nt h eC o sa h a rbou r( F ig .2 9 ) .T h i s p i er i sc l o se s tt os hore a nd t h eb e s tp re served o ft h ef i ve ,m ea su r ing 1 2 .50 m b y6 . 29 m .R e s t ing o n s and , i mpre s s ion s f o r s i x w ooden u pr igh t p l ank s u sed i n t h e b u i ld ing p robab ly o f a s i ng le -wa l led c of f e rdam n ol onge rr ema in ing w e re u ncove r ed .I tw ou ld a ppea rt ha tt h ec onc re te p i er s a t C o sa , b u i l t o n as andy b o t tom i n s ha l low w a te r , w e re c on s t ruc ted a cco rd ing t o V i t ruv iu s ' f i r s t r e commended m e thod o f c on s truc t ion f o r h a rbou r w ork s ( 5 .12 .1-3 ) . T h i s m e thod u s ed ap r ef ab r ica ted f o rm made o fs i ng le w ooden u p r igh t sh e ld t oge the rb yt i eb eam s . T he f o rm w a st hen f l oa ted i n to p l ace a nd a ncho red t ot h eb o t tom b yd r iv ing s t ake si n to t h es e a f l oor . A f te rt he l owe rs ur f ace w i th in w a sp repa r ed ,t h eh yd rau l ic c onc re te w a sp ou red i n to t h e f r ame . T o s t reng then a nd p r even t b uck l ing w h i le t h e c onc r e te w a s b e ing p our ed , c ro s sbeam s w e re l a id w i th in . S pace sf o rs u ch c ro s sbeam sa r es t i l lv i s ib le i nP i er s 2a nd 3a tC o sa ( F ig . 3 0 ) . T h is s i ng le -wa l led c a i s son i sp ar t icu la r ly s u i ted f o rc onc re te c on s t ruc t ion i ns ha l low ,p ro tec ted w a te r w i th s andy b o t tom c ond i t ion s s uch a s a tC o sa . C ond i t ion s w e re n o t s o f avorab le a t S eba s to sa tC ae sa r ea Mar i t ima w her e much o ft h ec onc re te w o rk si nt h eo u te rh a rbou rh ad t o b e p our ed i nd eep w a ter a nd i nt h e o pen s ea . E l sewhe re i nt h i s p ub l ica t ion , J ohn P .O le son i d en t if ie sa nd d e sc r ibe si nd e ta i lt h eC ae sa rea e ng ineer s 's pec ia ls o lu t ion a nd i t sr e la t ion sh ip t o V i truv iu s ' t h ird r e commended m e thod f o r c onc re te h a rbour c on s t ruc t ion ( 5 .12 .5 )2 9 .T he s t rong , d oub le -wa l led , w ooden c a i s son f ound a round a l a rg e c onc re te b lock a t t h e n or thwe s tern t i po ft he n o r thern b r eakwa ter a tC ae sa rea w a s made o ns hore a nd f l oa ted t ot h e s i te i nd eep w a ter . T h i s b o t tom le s s f o rm w a s s e cured , n o t b y u p r igh t s p ounded i n to t h e s e a b o t tom , b u t b y ma s s iv e s l eepe r b eam s u sed w i th in t h e f o rmwork a nd s e t t led i n to ap r epa red s andy s u rf ace o f t h e s e a f l oor . Mo r ta r w a s t h en p our ed i n to t h e h o l low w a l l s a nd r ubb le d umped a round t h eo u t s ide o ft h ec a i s son t os t eady i tw h i le t h ec onc re te w a sp ou red w i th in .T he C osa h a rbour p i er s , b y c ompa r i son , r e vea l as imp le r a nd e a r l ier s t age i n t h e e vo lu t ion o f R oman h ydrau l ic c oncre te t e chno logy ,w h ich ,i nt h es pan o fo n ly a bou t1 00 y ea r s ,w a sc apab le o fs e rv ing t h e monumen ta lc oncep t so fH e rod t h eG r ea ti nt h ec r ea t ion o fh i se no rmou sp o r to f S eba s to s ,d e s igned t oa t t rac ts ome o ft h eR oman I mpe r ia li mpo r tt r ade i nl u xury g ood sc om ing f r om f a r ther e a s t , n o r th a nd s ou th . Dur ing t h e p er iod o f t h e l a te R epub l ic , h oweve r , b efore t h e d emand s o f t h e g r ea t u rban p opu la t ion o fR ome f o r b o th g ra in a nd e xo t ic g ood s i mpo r ted f r om t h e p or t s o ft h e e a s tern Med i ter ranean , I t a ly w a s e ngag ed i nd eve lop ing h er o wn e xpor t t r ade3 0 . T he e xcava t ion s a t

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t he p or ta nd f i shery o f Co sa h ave b rough tt ol i gh ts t ar t l ing ,n ew i n forma t ion a bou tt h en a ture o f t hese e xpor ted p roduc ts . Wha tw a sb e ing s h ipped i nt he S e s t ius amphoras ? I th a sa lway sb een a s sumed t ha tw ine w a st he s o le e xpor ts i nce t h e many t i tu l ip ic t if ound o nj a r so fT ype 4i nd ica te w ine a st he c on ten t3 1 . T he d i scovery a tt he P or tu sC o sanus o ft h er ema in so f al a rge ,l a goona l , b rack i sh -wa ter f i sh f a rm c over ing o ver t wo a nd o ne -ha lf a cre s , s e rved b y c omp lex , i mpor ted w a ter l if t ing t e chno logy ,p re sen t sn ew p os s ib i l i t ie s . Wh i le n o ta l lt h ep ar ts o ft h i sf a c i l i ty h ave a sy e tb een d i scovered — d ue b o th t ot he l im i t so ft h ee xcava t iona lp erm i t , money a nd t ime — e nough h as b een f ound t hus f a rt oa l low s o me r ea sonab le h ypo these st ob e made a bou t wha t w en to ni nt he s t i l lu nexcava ted p or t ion so ft he s i te ,p ar t icu lar ly t he empor ium a r ea j us tt ot h e e a s to ft he l agoon f i shery a nd t ot he n or th o ft h eh arbour b a s in .T h i sc en tra ll and a r ea o ft he s i te , t oday o ccup ied b y t he V en tur in i f am i ly 's s ea s ide v i l la w i th as i x teen th c en tury t ower ( Tor re d e l la T ag l ia ta ) , w a s c onnec ted t o t he S pr ing Hou se w i th i t s w a ter l if t ing mach inery b y a n a queduc t , s even p i er s o fw h ich w ere u ncovered i nt he mud o ft he s i l ted a nc ien tl a goon . F re sh w a ter i se s sen t ia lf o rt he h ea l thy f unc t ion ing o fa ny b rack i sh -wa ter f i shery . B o th f r e sh a nd s a l t w a ter a re u sed t or egu la te w a ter c i rcu la t ion ,t empera ture a nd s a l in i ty . Moreover ,f r e sh wa ter i s e s sen t ia l f o r t he c l ean ing o fa ny f i sh p roce s s ing f a c tory a nd f o rt he mak ing o fp o t tery , t o s ay n o th ing o ft he n eed s o fs h ip s a nd s a i lor s . C osa w a s t he o n ly a nc ien t h arbour i nt h e a rea t ha t o f f ered s uch f r esh w a ter f a c i l i t ie s .P or t 'Erco le a cros st he b ay o nt he A rgen tar io p en in su la , wh i le more s he l tered f r om t he s ou thwe s ter ly w ind s , h ad n o f r e sh w a ter s pr ing s . Anc ien tl i t era ture p rov ide sf u r ther e v idence .S t rabo d ocumen t si n Augu s tan t ime st h ep resence o f aw a tch f or t una f i sh o n Co sa 's p romon tory a bove t he p or t( 5 .2 .8 ) .H eo n ly d ocumen ts t h ree s uch w a tches a long t he w e s tern T yr rhen ian c oa s t . Where t h ere w a s aw a tch f or t una ,t here mu s t a l so h ave b een ap or tw i th ab each t op roce s st he f r e sh f i sh d ragged u pon t he s hor ea nd as a l tery o fs o me k ind t op reserve t hem . We h ope t od of ur the re xcava t ion si nt he f u ture a tt h es i te o ft h e P or tus Co sanus t ot e s tt he h ypo these sp re sen ted h ere o fb o th af i sh p roce ss ing f a c i l i ty a nd a n amphora f a c tory i na n empor ium a rea ( F ig s . 2 4 , 2 5 a nd 2 6 ) . S pec if ic a rchaeo log ica le v idence f ound t hu sf a rf o r af i sh f a c tory a t Co sa a nd f o re xpor tb yt h e S es t i i o ff i sh p roduc t s s uch a sg arum c ome sa ga in f r om t he amphora f i nds . Wi l lh a si d en t if ied among t he ma ter ia lf r om t he p or ts i te o fC osa t wo n ew f o rms o fg arum j a r s ,T ype s 5( F ig . 3) a nd 2 4a , b o th mode led o n w e l l -known S pan i sh g arum c on ta iner s b u t made o f t he S e s t iu s p ink ish c l ay f r om Cosa 3 2 . T ype 5i sd a ted b e tween a bou t 1 25 B .C . a nd 5 0B .C . a nd T ype 2 4a , a bou t7 5B .C .t o5 0B .C . Garum ,t he f i sh s auce o fa n t iqu i ty ,w a su sua l ly made a t as a l tery ,a sa b y -produc tf r om t he g u ts o ff i sh l e f tt of e rmen ti nt he s un i nl a rge v a ts o rd o l ia . Wh i le v a ts h ave n o t b een f ound a s y e t , many f r agmen t s o fd o l ia w ere r e covered . Ga rum i sd e scr ibed b y t h e a nc ien t a u thor s a s al i qu id s ub s tance , s o me t imes e ven b l ended s o t ha t i tc an b e d runk a s a l i quor3 .I th a su sua l ly b een a s sumed t ha to n ly t he w ide -mou thed amphoras c on ta ined g arum , b u tW i l l 's i d en t if ica t ion o ft he n ar row -mou thed j a r so fT ype 5n eces s i ta tes r e th ink ing a bou tt h e r e la t ionsh ip s o f amphora f o rms t o t he ir c on ten t s . B e ing o f ac oncen tra ted n a ture , p robab ly o n ly as ma l ln umber o fg a rum c on ta iner sa ccompan ied as h ipmen to fw ine .B u te ven s o ,a nc ien t w r i ter s a s sure u s o ft he f ame a nd f o r tune t ha t c ou ld b e g a ined b y manufac tur ing i t . S carce ly a ny o ther l i qu id e xcep t u nguen t s h a s c ome t o b e more h igh ly v a lued , b r ing ing f ame e ven t o t he n a t ions t ha t make i t( P l iny ,N a t . H i s t . , 3 1 .43 .94 ) . A l though n o i n scr ip t ions h ave a s y e t b een i d en t if ied o n a ny amphoras o fT ype 5 a nd 2 4a i nd ica t ing g arum a st he c on ten ts ,t i tu l ip ic t im igh tw e l lh ave d i sappeared a tt he p or ts i te o fC o sa ow ing t o t he c i rcums tance s o fp reserva t ion i n mud a nd w a te r . I ts hou ld a l so b e r emembered t ha to n ly as ma l ln umber o fj a r sw ere marked i na ny s h ipmen ta nd i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t ha tg arum w as n o t marked o nj a r s a tt h i s e ar ly d a te . T he s ugges ted i d en t if ica t ion o fo ne o ft he S es t ius s t amp s a s af i sh s p ine o nj a r so fT ype 4 a( Ca ts . A 103 107 ) may a l so b es i gn if ican t . Wi l la l low s t ha tg arum a sw e l la sw ine c ou ld o cca s iona l ly h ave b een e xpor ted i nt he S es t iu sj a r so fT ype s4 a a nd 4 b . B u ti ti st he p a in ted i n scr ip t ion CO/SES o nt he g a rum j a ro fT ype 5f r om t h eA then ian Agora t ha td i rec ly l i nks t he S e s t i it o ag arum e xpor tt r ade f r om Co sa d ur ing t he l a te s e cond a nd f i r s t h a lf o ft he f i r s t c en tur ies B .C . T herefore , t he f i shery a t Co sa a nd t he i d en t if ied g arum amphoras f ound t here a re t he e ar l ies te v idence Ik now f o r aRoman c ommerc ia lf i shery a nd f o r

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t he e xpo r t o fg arum f r om I t a ly . P rev iou s ly , i th a s b een g enera l ly b e l ieved t ha t t h e e xpor t o f g arum o ccur red o n ly a bou t ac en tury l a te r a nd n o t i na ny q uan t i ty . T he f amou s f i sher ie s o f a nc ien t B ae t ica o n t he s ou thern c oa s t o fS pa in a r e a l l much s ma l le r a nd d o n o t d a te b efo re Augu s tan t ime sa nd ma in ly f r om t h ef i r s ta nd s e cond c en tur ie sA .D .w hen t h ei mpor to fg a rum f r om S pa in t o R ome w a s a ti t sh e igh t3 4 . Our b e s t c ompar i son s w i th t h i s u n ique , a nc ien t l a goona l f i sh ing c omp lex a t C o sa a r e t h e modern f i sher ies i nt h e n e ighbor ing l a goon s o fO rbe te l lo a nd L ago d iB u rano , t h e u n f i l led p or t ion o ft h e a nc ien t C o sa l a goon a bou t 5km t ot h e e a s t o ft h e p or t . T he se c oa s ta l f i sh ing l agoon s , a l ong w i th t ho se i nt h e V ene to , p rov ide I t a ly t oday w i th o ne o fh e r r i che s t n a tu ra l r e source s . Now t he a nc ien tC o sa f i she ry p rove s ad i r ec th er i tage f r om t h eR oman p a s t .I nt h e se b ar r ie rl a goons ,c e r ta in e uryha l ine s pec ie so ff i sh a r ed rawn i n to t h ew a rme r ,b rack i sh w a te r st o f e ed a nd g row a nd b ec augh tw hen i n s t inc td r iv e st h em b ack t ot h es e at os pawn .T he c h ief k i nd s o ff i sh c augh t i nt h el a goon so fO rbe te l lo t oday a r em embe r so ft h ee lf am i ly ,w h ich make u p a bou t 5 0% ; g rey mu l le t ( e spec ia l ly Mug i l c epha lu s ) w h ich a r e p a r t icu la r ly a dap tab le t o l ow s a l in i ty ; s e a b a ss ( D icen t rar chu s l a brax ) ; g i l thead ( Sparu s a u ra tu s ) ; a nd s o le ( So l ea s o l ea )3 5 . Mu l le tw a sp ar t icu la r ly p r iz ed i na n t iqu i ty ,a nd l a rge o ne sb rough te xho rb i tan tp r ice s . As pec ia l v ar ie ty o ff i sh s auce w a s m ade f r om i t sl i ver3 6 . T he f a c i l i t ie sf or t h i st ype o fb rack i sh -wa te r ,l a goon f i shery a r ev ery d i f f e ren tf r om t ho se made f or c a tch ing a nd r a i s ing f i sh i n t h e s e a . Many r ema in s o f a nc ien t s a l t -wa ter f i sh t ank s o r p e sch i e r e e x i s t t h roughou t t h e Med i ter ranean , mo s t ly c onnec ted w i th p r iva te v i l la s3 7 .A n e l abo ra te a nd l a rge s ea p e sch i e ra e x i s t s a tC ae sa rea . I t s i n t r ica te d e s ign a nd w a te rc i r cu la t ion s y s tem w ere d e sc r ibed i nd e ta i l a tt h e c onf e rence b y A lexander F l inder . Wh i le C o sa ' s f i sh ing a c t iv i t ie sw ere l a rge ly c en te red u pon t h el a goon ,t h e re i sa l so e v idence f o rt h eu se o f as ma l ls e a t ank t o c a tch f i sh d i rec t ly f r om t h e s e a . C u t i n to t h e w a l l s o f t h e T ag l ia ta c hanne l i n t h e l imes tone c l if f sa ti t ss ou the rn ,o pen ,s e awa rd e nd ( Tag l ia ta S ou th ,F ig .3 4 ) ,t h e re a r ee l abora te r ema in so fc u t t ing sf o r ap a ir o fs l u ice g a te s ,c l o s ing o f f as e c t ion a bou t 1 0 mi nl e ng th w i th a w id th v a ry ing f r om 4m t o 5m ( F ig s .3 5 ,36 a nd 3 7 ) .T h i ss ma l lt ank w a sc a refu l ly p rov ided w i th c i rcu la t ing s ea w a ter f r om b o th d i agona lt unne l sc u ti n to i t se a s te rn s e aw a l la nd b y as e cond , n ar row er c hanne lc u ti n to i t sw e s te rn c l if fs i de , i d en t if i ed a st h eT ag l ia ta P i cco la . T h i sc hanne l wh ich i sa bou t 1 . 8 m w ide w ind s w e s twa rd f o r a bou t 9m t o e x i t i n to as ma l l c ove o n t h e n or thwe s t . I t s s eaward mou th i sa ng led a way f r om t h ew ave sw h i le t h es e award mou th o ft h e l a rge rT ag l ia ta S ou th f a ce sd i r ec t ly i n to t h ew ave sc om ing f r om t h es ou thwe s t . Moreove r ,w h i le mo s t o ft h e t unne l f l oor o ft h e T ag l ia ta P i cco la i sc u t a ta bou t 1 . 4 mb e low s e a l e ve l , a ti t s s eawa rd e nd an a r row s e c t ion o ft h ef l oo ri sd ropped t o2 . 6 mb e low s e al e ve l ,a pp rox ima te ly o ne m e te r l ower t han t h e s e awa rd mou th o ft h e T ag l ia ta S ou th . T h i s c hange i nl e ve l i nt h e T ag l ia ta P i cco la a l low s f o r a n o u twa rd f l ow o fw a te r f r om t h e e nc lo sed f i sh t ank w i th in t h e T ag l ia ta S ou th . As im i la r a r rangemen t o fc hanne l s f o r w a te r c i rcu la t ion i sf ound i n al a rger Roman f i sh t ank a tJ ävea ( F ig . 3 8 )o nt h es ou the rn c oa s to fS pa in i nA l ican te 3 8 . R ema in so fa R oman f i sh f a c to ry d a t ing f r om t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond c en tu r ie s A .D . h ave b een e xcava ted n earby .T he J äveape sch ie ra ,w h ich m ea su re 2 8 mb y 7m w i th ad ep th o f 4m ,i sl i kew i se c u ti n to t he n a tu ra lr ock o f ap romon tory ( Pun ta d el ' A rena l )a nd c onnec ted t ot h es e ab yt wo c hanne l s , e ach a bou t 4 0 m l ong . T he l a rge r mou th o f t h e m a in c hanne l i s 1 . 60 m w ide a nd l i e s p erpend icu lar t ot h es e a ,f a c ing t h ew av ed i rec t ion c om ing f r om t h en or thea s ta st h e mou th o f T ag l ia ta S ou th .F re sh s e awa te rt hu sc on t inua l ly e n te r si n to t h ep e sch ie ra .T he s e cond ,n a r rowe r c hanne li s0 . 50 m w ide a nd a ng le so b l ique ly o f fa c ro s st h ep romon tory t ot h en or thwe s t . L ike t he T ag l ia ta P icco la , i t s mou th i sc u t a bou t o ne m e te r l owe r t han t ha t o ft h e l a rge r c hanne l , f o rc ing w a ter f r om t h et ank t of l ow o u tt os e a . A sa tC o sa t h er ea r ec u t t ing sf o rs l u ice g a te sa t t he i n ne r mou th s o fb o th c hanne l s f o r w a te r c on t ro l d u r ing h i gh s e a s . B o th t h e f i sh t ank s a t J ävea a nd a t C o sa a re i d ea l ly l o ca ted f o r h o ld ing f i sh w a i t ing t ob e p roce s sed i nt h e n ea rby s a l ter ie s ,a l though b o th p e sch iere may a l so h ave b een u sed f o rr a i s ing f i sh . A tC o sa , t oo ,f i sh c ou ld h ave made t h e ir w ay u pt h rough t h el ong c hanne lo ft h eT ag l ia ta l e ad ing i n to t h el a goon , t ob ec augh to nt h e ir r e turn t ot h es e a .T he c onc re te r ema in sa tt h e mou th so fb o th t h eT ag l ia ta

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S ou th a nd t h eT ag l ia ta P i cco la , s t ud ied b yE la ine K . Gazda ,a l so i nd ica te t he ir r e -u se d ur ing I mper ia lt ime s ,p robab ly b yt h eo wne r so ft h el a rg em a r i t ime v i l la w h ich n ow c ov e r ed t h ew ho le a r ea o ft h e f o rme r e xpo r t h a rbo r a nd i t s e mpo r ium . Wh i le t here i sn oi n sc r ip t iona le v idence f r om e i the rt h e h i l lo rt h e p or te xcava t ion st hu s f a ra t C o sa t oi nd ica te t h e d i rec t i n vo lvemen to ft h eS e s t i iw i th t h eb u i ld ing o fe i ther t h ep o r t o rt h e f i shery a tC o sa , t he amphora e v idence c i ted a bove i sv e ry s ugge s t ive . Moreove r , t h ere i sn o e v idence e i ther t oi nd ica te s t a te o r mun ic ipa li n vo lvemen ti nt h ec on s t ruc t ion o rm anagemen t o fp or t o r f i shery . I tm ay w e l l b e , h oweve r , t ha t t h e mun ic ipa l i ty o f C o sa b u i l t a tl e a s t t h e e a r l ie s t s t ruc tu re s a tt h e p or t d ur ing t h e t h i rd c en tu ry B .C . , n ame ly , t h e b reakwa te r w ho se r ough ly h ewn b lock sw e re c onven ien t ly q uar r ied a tt h eh a rbo r ' se dge f r om t he l i me s tone c l if f s a ti t s w e s tern e nd . P e rhap s t h e S e s t i i , w ho se w ea l th a nd p owe r a r e w e l l d ocumen ted i n t h e a nc ien t s ource s , o b ta ined a f r anch i se f o r t h e f i sh ing r i gh t s i n t h e l a goon f r om t he n ew m un ic ip ium e s tab l i shed i n9 0B .C . a nd u sed t h ep rof i t sd e r iv ed f r om t h e i rs ucce s sfu lw ine t r ade t o b u i ld t h e p e rmanen t c onc re te s t ruc tu re s o ft h e f i she ry . T he r i ch f i sh ing l a goon s t oday a t O rbe te l lo a r e u nder t h ej o in t managemen t o f af i she rman ' s c oopera t ive a nd t h e c ommune o f O rbe te l lo . T he p rof i t s f r om t h e f i sh ing i ndu s t ry t h e re a r e d i v ided 7 0% f o r t he f i she rmen a nd 3 0% f o r t h e mun ic ipa l i ty 3 9 . P e rhap s as im i la r c omb ina t ion o f af i sherman 's g u i ld ( s oc ie ta s ) , c on t ro l led b yt h eS e s t i i ,a nd t h e mun ic ipa lg overnmen to fa nc ien tC o sa j o in t ly a dm in i s tered t h e l o ca lf i sher ie sa nd h a rbo r ,a tl e a s td u r ing i t s mo s tp roduc t ive y ear si nt h el a te s e cond a nd f i r s t c en tur ie s B .C . T he o ther R epub l ican f am i ly k nown f r om t h ea nc ien ts ou r ce st oh ave h ad e s ta te si nt he C o sa a r ea w e re t h ef amou s Dom i t i i Ahenoba rb i4 0 . O ne n a tura l ly w onder si ft h i sp ar t icu la r ly w ea l thy a nd p o l i t ica l ly p owe rfu lf am i ly a l so h ad i n te re s t sa tt h eP o r tu sC o sanu s . Wh i le n oi n scr ip t iona l e v idence h a sa sy e tc ome t ol i gh tt ol i nk t h em t ot h i ss i te ,a ni n sc r ip t ion f r om t h et own o fC o sa d ocumen t s t ha t N e ro , t h e n a tura l s on o f Gnaeu s Dom i t iu s Ahenobarbu s , r emode led t h e b a s i l ica i nt h ef o rum i n to a no deon . O ther e v idence c ome sf r om t h ea nc ien ts ou r ce s4 1 . C ae sa r w r i te st ha tt h ey ounger L uc iu s Dom i t iu s Ahenoba rbu sr equ i s i t ioned s e ven m e rchan ts h ips t o e mba rk t r oop sf r om t h eP or tu sC o sanu st oa i d Ma r se i l le s( Ma s s i l ia )a ga in s t C ae sa ri n4 9 B .C . ( Cae sa r BC iv 1 . 34 ;c f .C ice ro A t t . 9 . 6 .2 ) .I nd ica t ion t ha tt h e Dom i t i i may h ave b een mor ed eep ly i nvo lved w i th t h e c ommerc ia l a c t iv i t ie s a tt h e P or tu s C o sanu s i sa n amphora s t amp , S EX DO M IT I , t ha t o ccur s r epea ted ly o n Augu s tan e xamp le s o f T ype 2 4a , af o rm p rev iou s ly c onnec ted w i th g arum . Wh i le t h i ss t amp i sn o tf ound o na ny o ft h ej a r so fT ype 2 4a f r om e i the r t h ep o r to rt own s i te o fC o sa ,t h es hape i se spec ia l ly w e l lr e p re sen ted o nt h eh i l ls i t ew here a l so m i sf i red r im sh ave b een f ound .T ot h ee ye ,t h ec l ay o fT ype 2 4a i ss im i la rt ot he r edd i sh S e s t iu s c l ay . W i l l s ugge s t s t ha t t h i s t ype o f c on ta ine r , r e la ted t o D re s se l ' s f o rm 2 8 , w a s f i r s t manufac tu red a tC o sa i nt h e s e cond q ua r te ro ft h e f i r s t c en tu ry B .C . w hen t h e S p r ing Hou se a nd c oncre te f i sh t ank si nt h el a goon w er eb u i l t4 2 . P e rhap st h es t amp o nt h e se l a te rj a r so fT ype 2 4a r e f er st o at ake -ove rb yt h e Dom i t i io ft h eS e s t iu s ampho ra a nd g arum f a c tor ie s ,o ra tl e a s ta j o in t c on t ro l , s ome t ime i nt h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e f i r s t c en tu ry B .C . w hen t he S e s t i i a ppear t o h ave t u rned t h e i r ma jor p o t te ry i n te re s t st oR ome . O ther a r chaeo log ica le v idence s uppor t ing t h e Dom i t i i ' si n vo lvemen ti nt r ade i sf ound o n al e ad a ncho rs t ock n ow i nt h eP a le rmo Na t iona l Mu seum . I n sc r ibed i n r e ve r se i st h e n ame " Ahenoba rb i" r e cogn ized b y P .A . G ianf ro t ta , f o l low ing F .Z ev i4 3 . On ly f u r ther a r chaeo log ica lf i nd sc an r e so lve t h eq ue s t ion o ft h ee x ten to f t h e Dom i t i i 's i n vo lvemen ti nt h et r ad ing l i f eo ft h eP or tu sC o sanu s ,s oc l ea r ly d om ina ted b yt h e S e s t i i f r om t h e e v idence s o f a rf ound . Where t h en w e re t h eS e s t i is h ipp ing t h e ir w ine a nd g a rum a nd w ho o wned t he s h ip se mbark ing f r om t h e P o r tu s C o sanu sc ar ry ing t h e se p roduc t si ns uch h i gh d emand ? W i l l h a sd ocumen ted t h e f a r -f lung t r ad ing e mp ire o ft h e S e s t i i w ho se j a r s a r e mo r e f r equen t ly f ound o n w e s te rn Med i te r ranean s i te st han a ny o the rt ype d ur ing t h el a s tt wo c en tu r ie so ft h eR epub l ic .S tamp so f t h eS e s t iu st ype s h ipp ing c on ta ine r sh ave b een c onv inc ing ly d ocumen ted o na tl e a s t3 1d i f f e ren t s i te s i nI t a ly , F rance , S pa in , S w i tzer land , G e rmany , a nd A u s t r ia ( F ig . 3 9 ) , n o t i n c lud ing t h e i n tr igu ing S e s t iu sp a in ted i n scr ip t ion f r om t h eA then ian A gora" . Wh i le t he c l u s t e ro fS es t iu s s t amp sf r om Gau ls ugge s t st ha t Gau l may a l so h ave b een as e condary p lace o f manuf ac ture f o r

1 26

the Sestius firm, it is clear that Cosa was the home of their central and largest pottery, located in all probability in the port area. The port and hill sites of Cosa, taken together, account for 69% of all Sestius stamps found thus far on land and Cosa is the only place where almost all the known varieties of Sestius trademarks appear. Other archaeological finds, including the shipwreck of the Grand Congloue and 29 other wrecks recently documented along the French coast as carrying amphoras of "Dressel Type l ", indicate that Gaul was rather the chief market for the Sestius factory and was importing rather than exporting wine at this time45 . Evidence that the Sestii were probably also the owners of at least some of these trading ships is found in Cicero who mentions navigia luculenta... Sesti, "the splendid ships of Sestius", in 44 B.C. (Att. 16.4.4). Whether this particular passage refers to warships or merchantmen, it clearly indicates that the Sestii owned enviable ships of size, and were engaged in activities on the sea, as well as on land. What might have been carried home by the Sestii in their merchant ships? This subject has recently been addressed by Andre Tchernia46 and Christian Goudineau47 who offer their interpretation of trade between Italy and Gaul in the late Republic as based exclusively upon counter-trade - barter of goods or services - namely metals, slaves and military technology. To be sure, their arguments are bolstered by some ancient literary and archaeological evidence. No allowance, however, is made by either Goudineau or Tchernia for monetary exchange and the archaeological evidence from both the town site of Cosa as well as its port and fishery is completely ignored. The dominance of Roman coinage in the western Mediterranean following the Second Punic War with the introduction of the denarius in 211 B.C. is widely attested. Literary evidence may also be used in support of monetary exchange for wine during this period. Plutarch writes that in 124 B.C. Gaius Gracchus reported to the censors in Rome that Roman officials in Sardinia brought their own wine with them from Italy and took home the amphoras filled with gold and silver (vit. C. Gracch. 2.5). While coinage, of course, need never be the only means of exchange, it was part of the trading picture from the beginning of the second century B.C., as revealed by coin hoards found in France, Spain, Tunisia, Yougoslavia and Italy. While we do not know how extensive money exchange was, it is clear that a monetary system was in place and at least in limited use�8 The finds from the hill site of Cosa also indicate an influx of Roman coinage in the early second century B.C., as well as a large hoard of denarii dating from about 105 to 72 B.C.49 Another factor, not to be ignored, is that exports and imports need not necessarily be in balance and multi-lateral trading patterns also existed. In supplying the enormous needs of the city of Rome for grain during the Empire, we know from Strabo (17.793) that ships regularly sailed in ballast from Puteoli to Alexandria where they were loaded for their return voyage50. That ships also sailed under capacity for legs of their journey is also well documented by finds from ancient shipwrecks. For example, the seventh century A.D. ship from Yassi Ada, rated at 60 tons, was wrecked when carrying a load of just over 27 tons5 1. One is forced to conclude that a picture of the wine trade between Gaul and Italy at this time, conditioned solely by a need for slaves and metals in Italy, fails both to consider the evidence of the coinage and a society already well-supplied with labor from slaves captured in her own successful wars, freedmen, and a free peasant class. The latter, recently argued by D.W. Rathbone5 2 (using the evidence of S. Dyson's survey of the Ager Cosanus as well as the excavations at the villa of Sette Finestre by A. Carandini), represented a significant factor in the labor force of the Ager Cosanus during the second and first centuries B.C. But even more critical for any interpretation of trade or the formation of any economic theory about the late Republic is the evidence of the great Sestius enterprise revealed at the Portus Cosanus. What created the margin of profits from the export of wine and garum to enable the capital investment of the extensive, concrete harbor and fishery installations, to say nothing of the sophisticated water-lifting machinery which served both? And likewise, what supported the large labor force needed to build and service this complex facility as well as produce the products manufactured there? Further expansion and diversification into the manufacture of bricks and Arretine ware by the Sestius firm in the later first century B.C. has also been 127

presented by Will. How were these new factories financed? Monetary profits derived from the increased volume of the Sestius wine trade, so indisputably documented from all sides, seems the most reasonable answer to this writer53 . But I will leave these matters up to the economic historians. As an archaeologist, my chief concern is in presenting the evidence for this ancient center of export trade, hitherto unrecognized, and the earliest Roman one thus far known. Some of the results of this most successful trading enterprise have been indicataed throughout the discussion. The dissemination of technological knowledge is surely one of the most important by-products of trading activities54. The archaeological remains at the site of the Portus Cosanus testify to a large building program utilizing the skill of Roman engineers already familiar with the harbor technology developed by the Greeks and probably also by the Etruscans55 . The properties of hydraulic concrete, made with tuff and pozzolana, were also familiar to the Cosa port engineers who imported these materials for the construction of the harbour and fishery. The knowledge of advanced Alexandrian water-lifting technology probably also originally came to Cosa through her maritime contacts, first to serve the bath within the city walls in the mid-second century B.C.56, and later, in the first quarter of the first century B.C., the Spring House complex. As trade increased, so did mass-production techniques evidenced by the gradual evolution of the amphora forms towards standardization of measurements, increased capacity and streamlined shapes tailored for easy handling.The Sestii emerge as leading pioneers in the establishment of economic practices in common use today as they helped form the trade routes welding the western Mediterranean together during the last two centuries of the Republic. The Portus Cosanus and our extensive excavations both underwater and on land of its port and unique lagoonal fishery can no longer be ignored. Our remains of the Sestius Greco-Italic amphoras (Type l d) indicate the surprising importance of trade already in the early years of the second century B.C., if not in the second half of the third century B.C. (Type 1 b).This startling and new evidence pushes the international trading picture of the Roman world back at least to the first quarter of the second century B.C. and indicates the involvement of Roman noble families in its formation as they sought to acquire their own fortunes57. Up until now, Roman colonization, in its earliest phases, has largely been viewed from military aspects58 . It now seems possible to suggest that commercial rivalry with Carthage for the western Mediterranean trade may have also played a role in the establishment of colonies along the Tyrrhenian coastline. Cosa would have provided an important economic as well as a military base along the newly acquired Etruscan littoral. While much smaller in scale than the monumental port of Herod at Caesarea Maritima built over a century later, the Portus Cosanus had a unique role to play in the development of Rome's commercial power which first brought her into contact with her western Mediterranean neighbors. In turn, the technology developed in the west and revealed in the hydraulic concrete remains of the port and fishery of Cosa were imported by Herod for the building of his enormous harbor, one of the largest in antiquity. Under the Empire, the Roman urban populations sought the luxury products of Arabia - incense; Africa - ivory; India - pepper and other spices; and ultimately from China - silk. Herod hoped to capture his share of this profitable trade and make Sebastos a port of exit for these goods entering the Mediterranean. We await with the greatest of interest the publication of the finds from Caesarea which will make clear its role in the trade of the Mediterranean . Meanwhile, taken together, the architectural remains of the Roman Republican port of Cosa and those of the early Imperial port of Sebastos reveal Rome's mastery of hydraulic engineering, a skill which enabled her to create the monumental forms so expressive of Herod's megalomania and an empire. Through her ports and their commerce, under the Empire, Rome joined the eastern with the western Mediterranean. But this fascinating process of international trade development, still evolving today, began for the western world during the late Republic at Cosa with the Sestii-among the very first of many generations of successful Roman businessmen.

128

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1 38

2 2 . B ronze c o in f rom A l exand r ia . B r i t i sh Mu seum n o . 1 439 . C ommodu s ( 188 -189 ) . R ever se : g a l ley s a i l ing r i gh t b y P haros , s urmoun ted b y l a n te rn f l anked b y t wo T r i tons b l ow ing t r umpe t s w i th s t a tue o nt op . B e low : LKO .P ho to :C our te sy o ft h e T ru s tee s o ft h eB r i t i sh Mu seum .

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1 39

2 4 -26 . Hypo the t ica lr e cons t ruc t ion o ft h eP or tu s C o sanu s a nd i t sf i sh ing l a goon d ur ing t h eh e igh to fi t s t r ad ing l i f e , d u r ing t h e l a te s e cond a nd f i r s t c en tur i e s B .C . T he r e cons truc t ion i sb a sed u pon t h e a rchaeo log ica le v id ence a s w e l l a s t h ef o l low ing s ource s : l i gh thouse , Z ancan i Mon tuoro ( c i ted i nn .4 ) , p p .5 -21 ;t u na w a tch t ower a bove T ag l ia ta ,A e l ian ,D en a tu ra a n ima l ium 1 5 .5 .6 ;S pr ing Hou se c omp lex w i th a queduc t ,r e cons t ruc t ion b yJ .P . O le son ,d raf ted b yJ .F . War ren ;f i shf arm a nd t r app ing a r ea s ,R .D eAnge l i s , F i sh ing I n s ta l la t ion si nB rack i sh L agoon s . G enera lF i sher ie sC ounc i lf or t h e Med i terranean . S tud ie sa nd R ev iew s 7 .R ome :F AO , 1 959 a nd D e lR os so ( c i ted i nn .4 ) ,p .4 7 1 ;c ane h u t si nf i sh ing l a goon a f ter mod e rn h u t sa tL ago d iB urano ;l a goon t emp l e , FE .B rown , a nd E .H .R ichard son , a nd L .R ichard son , C osa I .T he T emp le so ft h eA rx . MAAR 2 6 (1 960 )f ig s . 1 08 -109 .E .L . W i l ld e s igned p lan f or a mphoraf ac tory w i th k i lns a f ter R . Hampe a nd A . W in ter , B e iT öpf ern u nd T öpf e r innen i nK r e ta , Me s sen ien u nd Z ypern (Ma inz , 1 962 ) ,p l s . 1 8 ,20 ,21 ,23 , a nd 2 9 ; McCann d e s igned p lan o fs a l te ry a nd g arum f ac i l i ty t on or th o f amphora f ac tory a f te rP ons ich a nd T ar rad e l l( c i ted i nn .3 3 ) ,f i g .3 6( Co t ta ) ;F or t h e ma rke ta rea ,l o ad ing c rane o np i e r 3i nh arbour a nd a queduc tt e rm ina l ,s ee D . Macau lay ,C i ty . AS tory o fR oman P lann ing a nd C on s truc t ion ( Bos ton , 1 974 )p p . 2 1 ,47 , a nd 6 0 .P rof e s sor L ione lC a s son h a sk i nd ly r e v i ewed a l ld raw ing so ft h em e rchan t s h ips a nd f i sh ing c raf t . McCann a nd War ren a r e r e spons ib l ef or t h ef i na lc oncep t , d raf ted b yF . a nd C . Heman s .

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2 7 . T er raco t ta m od e lf rom V u /c lo f al i gh thouse . R ome , V i l la G iu la Mu seum . ( R .A . S tacc io l i , Mode l l i d i e d if ic i e t ru sco i ta l ic i . Imode l l i v o t iv i .R ome , 1 968 , p l . 1 8 ) .

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c e ; N

NOTES : 1 .

T he e x cava t ion so ft he p or ta nd f i shery o fC o sa h ave b een d i rec ted b yt h i sw r i te ra nd w e re b egun i n1 968 . Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank t he f o l low ing s ou rce sf o rt h e i rg enerou ss uppor to ve rt h ey ea r s :t h eN a t iona lE ndowmen tf o rt h e Human i t ie s , A t lan t ic F ounda t ion , K re s s F ounda t ion , Un ive r s i ty o fM i s sour i , t h e Amer ican C ounc i l o fL earned S oc ie t ie s , a nd p r iva te d onor s .T he L er ic iF ounda t ion i nR ome p rov ided a ne x ten s ive magne t ic a nd d r i l l ing s urvey i nt h ea r ea o ft h e a nc ien t l a goon a nd t h e Un iv er s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia amagne t ic a nd r e s i s t iv i ty s urvey . T he Wh i t t le sey F ounda t ion c on t r ibu ted a e r ia l p ho tog raph ic c ove rage . Ou r w ork w ou ld n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le w i thou t t h e g ene ro s i ty o ft h e V en tu r in i f am i ly , u pon w ho se l a nd t h ep or ta nd f i shery l i e , a nd t h e p e rm i s s ion f o re xcava t ion f r om t h e D i r ec to ra te G ene ra l o f A rchaeo logy a nd F ine A r t s a nd t h e t h en S up e r in tenden t o f An t iqu i t ie s o f E tru r ia , P ro f . Gug l ie lmo Mae tzke . Iwou ld l i ke a l so t ot hank t h e Ame r ican A cademy i nR ome , u nder w ho se a usp ice s t h e p ro jec t h a s b een a ccomp l i shed a nd P ro f . F rank E .B rown f o rh i si n te re s ta nd o r ig ina le ncouragemen tt ou nder take t h ee xcava t ion s .A s ho r tened v er s ion o ft h i sp ape rw a sg i ven i nO xfo rd a tt h eR e iC re tar iae R omanae F au tore sc onf er ence i nS ep temb e r 1 9 84 a nd w i l l a ppea ri n RCRF i n1 986 . T he u nderwa te r e xcava t ion s i nt h e p or t , w h ich t ook p l ac e l a rg e ly i n 1 968 a nd 1 969 , w e r e d i rec ted b y J .D . L ew i s , a s s i s t ed b yR .L . Hoh lf e lder ,R .Y oung ,S .L ow ,W .R ob in son a nd S . Gu th r ie .A s s i s t ing i nt h el a nd e xcava t ion so ft h e n ow s i l ted o ve ra nc ien tl a goon b eh ind t h ep or t ,a ccomp l i shed l a rge ly b ym echan ica lm ean si n1 9 72 ,w e r e :G .U gg er i , J . P .O le son ,M . I .O le son ,E .K .G azda ,a nd I .P i cc io l in i .A rch i tec tu ra lp l an sh ave b een e xecu ted b yD .v an Z an ten ,J .F . Wa r r en ,a nd J .S tubb sw i th a dd i t iona ld raf t ing b yM .S tanka rd .O the rs e c t ion d raw ing sa nd d raw ing so ft h ef i nd sh ave b e en m ade b yE .F .S o lomon ,E .K . Gazda ,K a th leen K .B o row ick ,M .F enne ra nd M .J oukow sky .T he r e con s truc t ion d raw ing so ft he h a rbour a nd f i she ry w e re made b yF .a nd C .H eman s .T he e xcava t iona lp ho tog raphy b o th o nl a nd a nd u nde rwa ter w a sd one b yt h i sa u thor a nd t h ep ho tog raphy o ft h ef i nd sb yB .B in i .A e r ia lp ho tog raphy o ft h es i t ew a s c ov e r ed b yJ .a nd E . Wh i t t le sey .A dd i t iona lp ho tog raphy h a sb een d one b yP .E vo la .I nd iv idua ls t ud ie so ft h e ma te r ia l h ave i n c luded :S p r ing Hou se a nd i t sw a te r l if t ing m echan i sm b yJ .P .O le son ;g eo log ica la nd s ed imen to log ica ls t udy b y J .B ou rgeo i s ; ma te r ia l s a nd t e chn ique s o fc on s t ruc t ion b y E .K . Gazda ; ampho ra s b y E .L . W i l l ; t e r ra s i g i l la ta b y Howa rd Comfor t ;c ommonwa re p o t te ry b yJ .P .O le son a nd M . I .O le son ;g l a s sb yD .F .G ro se ;m inera log ica la na ly se s o ft u f f s , ampho ra sa nd c l ay sb yR .T r ig i la ,D .C ozzupo l i ,a nd J .d eB oe r ;s o i l sb yR .E .L in ing ton a nd M .B a r shad w i th B .V ian i ; h uman b one ma te r ia lb yJ .L aw r ence Ange l ; f auna l ma te r ia l b yP . Wapn i sh , B .H e s se ,a nd C .R . C rum ly ; s h ip sa nd n av iga t ion b yL .C a s son ,w ho se h e lp t h roughou tt h ep ro jec th a sb een i nd i spen sab le f o ro u ru nde r s tand ing o f h ow t h ea nc ien th a rbou ro fC o sa f unc t ioned .T ot h i se xcep t iona l ly g i f ted a nd d i ve r s if i ed t e am o fs cho la r sa nd s c ien t i s t s f r om w hom! h ave l e a rned s o much ,! o we my w a rme s ta nd mo s tg ra te fu lt hank s . Much o ft h e ma ter ia lp r e sen ted h er e i sd e r iv ed f r om o ur c o l labo ra t iv ef o r thcom ing b ook , A .M . McCann , e ta l . , T he R oman P or ta nd F i she ry o fC o sa :A C en te ro fA nc ien tT rad e , c opy r igh t P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,a nd u sed w i th t h e ir p e rm i s s ion . A bb r ev ia t ions o fp er iod ica l su s ed h e re a r et ho se a ccep ted b yt h e Ame r ican J ourna lo fA r chaeo logy ( vo l .8 0 ,n o . 1 ,1 976 , p p . 1 10 ) . Abb r ev ia t ion s o ft h ea nc ien t t e x t sf o l low t ho se u s ed i nt h e O xf ord C la s s ica lD ic t ionary , 1 9 70 .

2 .

A .M . McCann ," Excava t ion so ft h e Anc ien tP o r ta tC o sa , 1 968 ," A JA 7 3(1969 )p p .2 41-242 ;A .M . McCann a nd J .D . L ew i s , " The Anc ien t P or t o f C o sa ," A rchaeo logy 2 3 ( 1 970 ) , p p . 2 00 -2 11 ; J .D . L ew i s , " Con t ro l led A i r l if t ing i n S and -f i l led Ha rbou r s ," HNA 1( 1972 ) , p p . 1 69 170 ; J .D . L ew i s , " Co sa ; An E a r ly R oman Ha rbou r ," i n Ma r ine A rchaeo logy ,C o l s ton P aper s ,2 3 ,e d .D .J .B lackman ( London 1 973 ) ,p p .2 33 -259 ;A .M . McCann ," Excava t ion sa tt h e R oman P or t o fC o sa , 1 972 ," HNA 2( 1 973 )p p . 1 99 -200 ; A .M . McCann , " Excava t ion s a tt h eR oman P o r t o fC o sa , 1 9 72 ," AJA 7 7 ( 1 973 ) , p . 20 ; J .B ourgeo i s , " Sed imen ta t ion i na n A nc ien t Ha rbou r - P o r tu s C o sanu s , I t a ly ," G eo log ica lS oc i e ty o fAmer i can A bs t rac t sw i th P rog rams 6 /7( 1974 ) ,p .6 63 ;J .P .O le son ," The S p r ing Hou se a nd Wa ter L i f t ing Dev ice i n t h e R oman P or t o f C o sa ," A rchaeo log i ca l I n s t i tu te o f Ame r ican A bs t rac t s ( 1 975 ) , p . 1 9 ; A .M . McCann , " The Ha rbour a nd F i shery R ema in s a tC o sa , I t a ly ," J FA 6( 1 979 ) , p p . 3 9 1-4 11 ; E .L . W i l l , " The S e s t iu s Amphora s : A R eappra i sa l ," J FA 6( 1 979 ) , p p . 39 -350 ; E .L . W i l l , "G reco I ta l ic Ampho ra s ," H e spe r ia 5 1 ( 1 982 ) , p p . 38 -356 ;E .L .W i l l , "Amb igu i ty i n Horace , Od e s1 . 4 ," C la s s ica lP h i lo logy 7 ( 1 982 ) ,p p .2 40 -245 ;J .B ou rgeo i sa nd E .K . Gazda , "Geo log ic a nd S ed imen to log ic H i s tory o ft h eR oman Ha rbour a nd F i she ry S i t e( 2 73 B .C .t o3 rd C en tury A .D . ) , Cosa ,I t a ly ," A JA 8 6( 1 982 ) ,p .256 ;J .P .O le son ,G r eek a nd R oman Mechan ica l Wa ter -L if t ing D ev ice s( To ron to , 1 9 84 ) , p p . 2 0 1-204 , 3 77 -378 ; A .M . McCann , " Excava t ion sa tt h e R oman P or t o f Co sa , " Ac te sd uI V eI n terna t iona l C ong rh d 'Archdo log ie S ou sma r ine , N ice , 1 970 ,a wa i t ing p ub l ica t ion ;A .M . McCann ," The P o r tu sC o sanu s : a nE a r ly R oman P or t a nd F i shery ," I VC ong re so I n ternac iona ld eA rqueo log ia S ubma r ina C ar tag ena , S pa in , 1 982 , a wa i t ing p ub l ica t ion .

3 .

L ivy 2 2 .11 .6 ;L ivy 3 0 .39 .1-2 ;R u t i l iu sN ama t ianu s1 . 295 -298 ;C ae sa r BC i v . 1 . 34 ;C ice ro A t t .9 . 6 .2 ;S t rabo 5 . 2 .8 ;T ac i tu s A nn . 2 . 39 ;I t . A n t . Mar i t . 5 13 ,4 ;5 14 ,2 ;R ay . C o sm . 4 . 32 ; G u idon i s G eog raf i ca 3 4 .

4 .

O nl o ca t ion o ft h eP or tu sC o sanu s ,s e eD . Anz ian i ," Co sa -Por tu sC o sanu s -Po r tu sH ercu l i s -Succo sa -Orbe te l lo d an s P an t iqu i t6" , MdRome 3 0 ( 1 9 10 ) , p p . 3 73 -395 , w ho c onc luded t ha t t h e a nc ien t p or t o fC o sa a nd P or tu s H er cu l i s ( Por t 'Erco le )a c ro s st he b ay o nt h eA rg en ta r io p en in su la w er eo ne a nd t h es ame ,l o ca ted a tt h es i te o fP or t 'Er co le .T h i s a s sump t ion i sc on t inued b y L .R . T ay lo r ,L oca lC u l t si nE t rur ia ( PAAR 2 ,1 923 ) , p . 1 7 1 , a nd l a ter a dop ted b y F .E . B rown ,C o sa . T he Mak ing o f aR oman T own ( Ann A rbor ,1 980 ) ,p .5 0 .B rown b e l ieve st ha tt h ep or to fH er cu le sw a st h e e a r l ie s tp or ti nt h ea r ea a nd s e rv ed t h ec o lony o fC o sa i nt h et h i rd c en tury B .C .b e fo re t h ep or ta tt h eT ag l ia ta w a sb u i l t . N ow o ur f i nd so fG reco I ta l ic a mpho ra sf r om t h eT ag l ia ta s i te p rove o the rw i se .F ur the rmo re ,o ur u nderwa te rs u rvey o ft h eh arbou ro fP or t 'Erco le a nd t h ea d jacen tc oa s t l ine i n1 968 p roduced ampho ra ma ter ia ln oe a r l ie rt han t h es e cond c en tu ry B .C .I nh i sb ook ,B rown r ep roduce si nf i g s .5 9a nd 7 m ap so ft h ep or ta r ea ,b a sed u pon t ho se mad ed ur ing o ur e x cava t ion s b y t h e a rch i tec t D av id v an Z an ten . T he se map sw e re r ep roduced w i thou to u rk now ledge a nd w i thou t a cknow ledgemen t . F ig .7 s how sB rown ' sr e con s truc t ion o ft h eh a rbour ,w h ich ,i nt h eo p in ion o ft h ee xcava to r sa nd p r e s en t a u tho r , i sn o t i na cco rd w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . H e r ep r e sen t s n ine p i e r s a ng led o v er an a r row b r eakwa ter .T he t ho rough e xcava t ion o ft h eh a rbour i n1 968 a nd 1 969 r e vea led o n ly f i ve p i e r sw i th n oe v idenc et ha t

1 5 1

a ny o ther sw e re e ve rb u i l t .A l so ,h i sr e con s truc t ion o f an a r row j e t ty i sn o ti na ccord w i th t he a rchaeo log ica lr ema in s . C ompa r e h ere F ig . 4 . Unfor tuna te ly , P rof e s so r B rown d oe s n o t d i s t ingu i sh b e tw een t he a c tua l r ema in s a nd h i s h ypo the t ica l r e con s t ruc t ion , w h ich i sd rawn i nh eavy b l ack . P rof e s so r B rown g av e a n a dd i t iona l p ape r o n t h e " Por t s a nd F i she r ie s o fC o sa" i n 1 978 a t aC onf erence a tt h e Ame r ican A cademy i nR ome o nT he S eaborne C omme rce o fA nc ien tR ome :S tud ie si nA rchaeo logy a nd H i s tory (MAAR 3 6 , 1 980 ) . T h i s p aper , u nfor tuna te ly , u sed i n accu ra te ly t h er e sea rch a nd c onc lu s ion so ft he p re s en ta u thor a nd h e r t e am ,w ho h ad s ha red t h e i r ma ter ia li nt r u s ta nd c onf idence w i th h im . D e sp i te o u rr eque s tt ob o th P rof e s sor B rown a nd t o P rof e s sor J ohn H . D 'Arm s , d i r ec to r o ft h e Ame r ican A cademy a tt ha t t ime , t ha t B rown ' s p aper n o t b e p ub l i shed i nv i ew o ft h e e r ror s i tc on ta ined , a nd d e sp i te t h e i rw r i t ten a g r eemen tn o t t od o s o , P ro f e s so r B rown d i d p ub l i sh h i sp ape rw i th in a na r t ic le b yP ao la Z ancan i Mon tuo ro ," I lf a ro d iC o sa i ne x -vo to aV u lc i ?" R iv , i s tA r ch 3 , s e r ie s2 (1979 ) ,p p .2 1 -23 . Apa r tf r om t h ef a c tt ha tP rof e s so rB rown ' sp ape rd oe sn o ta cknow ledg et h o se who d i r ec t ed , f i nanced ,e xcava ted a nd s t ud ied t h e ma te r ia lh eu sed ,i ti smo s tu nfo r tuna te t ha tb o th i nh i st e x ta nd h i sp lan so ft h e h a rbou rh e i n accura te ly p r e sen t s t h ea c tua la r chaeo log ica lr ema in s . F or as ummary o ft h ee a r l ie rr e f e r ence so nt h ep or to fC o sa s e eR .C a rda r e l l i ' se x ten s iv eh i s tor ica la nd t opog raph ica l s t udy o ft h eA ge rC o sanu s ," Conf in if r a Mag l iano eMa r s i l iana ;f r a Manc iano eMon tau to S ce rp enna S tach i lag i ;f r a T r i sco s to eAn sedon ia ;f r aO rbe te l lo eMa r s i l ina ;f r aP oreE rco le eMon t eA rgen ta r io ( 2 8d i cemb re 1 508 —2 m a rzo 1 5 10 )" , Mar emma 1 ( 1924 ) ,p p . 1 3 1142 , 1 5 5 186 ,2 05 , 24 ;2 ( 1924 ) ,p p . 3 36 ,7 5 128 , 1 47 -213 .A l so s e e F .E .B rown , " Co sa I .H i s to ry a nd T opog raphy" , MAAR 2 0( 1 951 ) ,p p .8 9 -96 , map I .B rown ' ss t udy i st he f i r s td e ta i led d escr ip t ion o ft h es i te w i th as urv eyed map s i nce R .D e lR o s so ' sf i r s tp l an o ft h ec l i f fc hanne l so ft h eT ag l ia ta a nd S pacco i n1 9 05 ( Fe sche eP e sch ie re a n t iche emod e rne n e l l 'E trur ia m ar i t t ima ,F lorence ,p p .7 1 -97 ,2 89 -331) .I nh i si n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e v i s ib le s t ruc tu re s ,B rown a dop ted many o fC a rda r e l l i ' se a r l ie rt h eo r ie s .H el o ca ted t h ep or to fC o sa w i th in t he l a goon b eh ind t h es and d une sr e ached b y as h ip c hanne lr unn ing a l ong t h el i m e s tone c l if f sf o l low ing t he n o r the rn c ou r se o ft h e T ag l ia ta c hanne l . B rown ' s t h eor ie s h ave i nf luenced l a te r s cho la r s , i n c lud ing t h e p r e sen t e xcava to r s i no u r i n i t ia l r e sea rch . C on t inued s t udy o ft h e e xcava t iona l ma te r ia l o ve rt h ep a s t y ea r s , h ow eve r , h a s l e ad u st ov ery d i f f e r en t c onc lu s ion s ,s ome o fw h ich a r ep ub l i shed h e re . Our i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h eT ag l ia ta a s af i sh t ank a nd f i sh c hanne lf o l low s D e lR o s so ' sf i r s ti n terp re ta t ion o ft h e se c l if c hanne l s .D e lR o s so 's p i onee r ing w ork h a sl a rge ly b een f o rgo t ten b yl a t e r s cho la r s . D e lR o s so ,o fc our se ,d id n o tk now a bou tt h ee x ten s ive r ema in so ft h ea nc ien tl a goona lf i she ry a tC o sa t h a t w eu ncover ed ,b u r ied i nt h e mud .C ompa r et h eo r ie so fE .R odenwa ld ta nd H . H e imann , "D ie a n t ik en Em i s sa r ev on C o sa -An sedon ia ,e i nB e i trag z ur F rage d er E n twä s se rung d er Ma remmen i ne t ru sk i sche rZ e i t" ,S i tzung sber ich te d e r H e id e lbe rge rA kad em ie d e r W i s sen schaf t en 1 (1962 ) ,p p . 3 31 ,w ho w ou ld l o ca te t h eP or tu s Co sanu si nt he O rb e te l lo l a goon o ro nt h eT ombo lo d iF en ig l ia .A l so s e eA . Mo r i ," P rob lem id e l l ' in sed iamen to umano ed e l la v i ta ma r i t t ima n e l l 'an t ica E t rur ia c en tra le" ,B o l l e t t ino d e l la S oc ie tä G eog raf ica I t a l iana ,s e r .9 , 4( 1963 ) ,p p . 3 43 -355 . Mor ir e tu rn st o t h e i nner h a rbou rt h eory a nd l o ca te s t h e P or tu s C o sanu sw i th in t h el a goon o fC o sa . 5 . 6 .

S ee B rown ," Co sa 1 " , a nd B rown , C o sa ( c i ted a bov e i nn .4 ) . S .L . Dy son ," Se t t lemen tP a t te rn si nt h eA ge rC o sanu s :T he We s leyan U n ive r s i ty S urvey , 1 974 1976 ," J FA 5( 1 978 ) , p p .2 51-268 ;A . C a rand in ia nd S .S e t t i s ,S ch iav i eP ad ron in e l l 'E t rur ia R omana ( Ba r i , 1 979 )w i th o t he rr e f er enc e s ;A . C a rand in i ," I lv i gne to el av i l la d e lf ondo d iS e t tef ine s tr en e lC o sano : u nc a so d ip roduz ione a g r ico la p er i lm e r ca to t r an sma r ino ," MAAR 3 6( 1 980 ) , p p . 1 10 .

7 .

S ee McCann , e ta l . , T he R oman P or ta nd F i she ry o fC o sa ( c i ted a bov e i nn .1 ) .

8 .

F o ra ne xce l len ts t udy o ft h e manag emen to ft h ep o r t so fO s t ia a nd P u teo l iu nde rt h e Emp ire s e eG .W . Hou s ton ," The Adm in i s tra t ion o fI t a l ian S eapor t s d u r ing t h e F i r s tT hr ee C en tu r ie so ft h e R oman Emp ire" , MAAR 3 6 ( 1980 ) ,p p . 1 57 171 . Wha ta pp l ied t oO s t ia a nd P u teo l i ,h ow eve r ,n eed n o tn ece s sar i ly h ave a pp l ied t os ma l le rp o r ts s uch a sC o sa d ur ing t h eR epub l ic ,a s Hou s ton h im se lf c au t ion s .

9 . 1 0 .

S ee O le son ,R oman Mechan ica l Wa te r -L if t ing D ev i ce s( c i ted a bove i nn .2 ) . G .E . R ickman , " Towa rd s aS tudy o f R oman P o r t s" , S tud i e s i n Ha rbou r A rchaeo logy , P r oc eed ing s o ft h e F i r s t I n te rna t iona l Work shop o n Med i te r ranean Ha rbou r so fA n t iqu i ty , C en ter f or Mar i t ime S tud ie s , U n i ve r s i ty o f Ha if aa nd t h eC ae sarea A nc ien t Ha rbou r sE xcava t ion P ro j ec t , J une 2 4 -28 , 1 983 .

1 .

N ew Y o rk , 1 980 , p .7 .

1 2 .

F o r as ummary o ft h e e a r l ier r e search o n t h e G rand C ong loue s e eW i l l , " The S e s t iu s Ampho ra s" ( c i ted a bove i n n o .2 ) ,p p . 39 -34 1 . Mo s tr e cen t ly ,s e er e s tudy o f ma ter ia lb yL uc L ong ," The G rand C ong loue S i t e : aR ea sse s smen t" , r epor ted i n McCann ,e ta l . ,T he R oman P or ta nd F i shery o fC osa ( c i ted a bove i nn . 1 )a ppend ix t oc hap ter V I I I .L ong ' s

1 3 .

H . D r e s se l ,I n sc r ip t ione s U rb i sR omae L a t inae . I n s trumen tum D ome s t icum . C IL XV , 2( Be r l in , 1 8 89 ) .

1 4 .

N . L ambog l ia ," Su l la c rono log ia d e l le a nfo re r omane d ie t ar e pubb l icana ( I I Is e co lo A .D . ) ," R S tL ig 2 1 ( 1 955 ) ,p p .

1 5 .

S ee E .L . W i l l , " Le s ampho re sd e S e s t iu s ," R evue a r chdo log ique d e1 ' E s te td u C en t re -E s t 7( 1 956 ) ,p p .224 -244 ; i d em , " La t in s tamp ed Ampho ra s i nt h e E a s te rn Med i ter ranean A rea" , Y ea rB ook o ft h e Amer ican P h i l o soph ica lS oc ie ty ( 1 962 ) ,p p .6 47 -650 ;i d em ," Le st imb re s ampho r ique sl a t in s" ,i nP .B runeau ,e ta l . ,L 'l o td el a Ma i son d es C omdd i en s .

r e sea rch h a sc onf i rmed t h e e x i s tence o ft wo w reck s .

2 4 1-270 .

E xp lora t ion a r chdo log ique d e D i lo s 2 7 ( Pa r i s , 1 970 ) , p p . 3 83 -386 ; i d em , " The Anc ien t C omme r c ia l Ampho ra" , A rchaeo logy 3 0 ( 1 977 ) , p p . 2 64 -270 ; i d em , " The S e s t iu s Ampho ra s" ( c i ted a bov e i n n . 2 ) ; i d em , "Gr eco I ta l ic Ampho ra s" ( c i ted a bove i nn .2 ) ;i d em , "D ive r s if i ca t ion i nR oman I ndu s try :S ome C e ram ic E v id enc e" ,A rchaeo log i ca l I n s t i tu te o f Ame r ican A b s trac ts 7 ( 1 982 ) , p . 4 6 ; i d em , " Expo r ta t ion o f O l ive O i l f r om B a e t ica t o t he E a s te rn Med i te r ranean" , i nJ .M . B läzquez Mar t inez , e ta l . ,P roducc iön y c ome r c io d e la ce i te e n l aa n t igü edad ( I I C ong r e so I n te rna t iona l ) , Mad r id , Un ive r s idad C omp lu ten se , 1 9 83 , p p . 3 9 1-440 ; i d em , "Ahn l ichke i ten z w i s chen S temp e ln a uf

1 52

Ampho r en u nd a uf a r re t in i schen G e fä s sen" ,R e iC r e tar iae R omanae F au torum A c ta 2 3 ,2 4( 1 984 ) ,p p .9 11 . Twen ty t h r ee o fW i l l 's t ype so fR oman amphora sf r om t h ee a s ter n Med i te r ranean a r ea a r ei n c luded i nh e rf o r thcom ing v o lume i nt h eA then ian A go ra s e r ie s . 1 6 .

G . R ogh i , " Sparg i" , i n Mar ine A rchaeo logy , e d . J . Du P la t T ay lo r ( New Y ork , 1 966 ) , p p . 1 03 118 , w i th e a r l ie r r e f e r ence s ;E .L .W i l l ," The S parg i Wreck : AR econ s ide ra t ion ," A r chaeo log ica lI n s t i tu te o fAme r ica A b s t rac t s8 (1983 ) , p . 3 2 ; i d em , "Amphora s a nd T rade i n R oman S a rd in ia" , S tud i e s i n S a rd in ian A rchaeo logy I : S a rd in ia i n t h e Med i te r ranean , e d . M .S . B a lmu th ,f o r thcom ing .

1 7 .

T he S parg i ampho ra sh ave b een r e cen t ly s e en a nd s t ud ied b yW i l li nt h e mu seum o nt h ei s land o f Madda lena . One amoho ra f r om t h eG rand C ong lou6 w r eck i nt h ep r iva te c o l lec t ion o fD r . Haro ld E dge r ton ,M IT ,C amb r idg e , Ma s s . , h a sa l so b een s e en b yW i l lw ho b e l ieve st h er edd i sh c l ay t ob et h es ame a st ha to ft h eo the rG rand C ong lou8 ampho ra s i n Ma r se i l le s , s t ud ied b y h e r s ome y ea r s a go . I ti so fi n tere s tt on o te h er ea l so t h e amphora f i nd sf r om t h ef amou ss h ipwr eck f ound o f fA lbenga ,p ub l i shed b yN . L ambog l ia ," La n ave r omana d iA lbenga ,"RS tL ig 1 8( 1952 ) ,p p . 1 66f f . Al a rg ep o r t ion o ft h eA lbenga s h ip ' sc a rgo o f w ine a mphora s ,e s t ima ted a ta bou t3 , 000 o fw h ich 7 28 w ere r e cove red ,W i l li d en t if i e sw i th h e re a r ly T ype 4 b( D re s se l T ype 1 B )b u tt hey a r ea ppa ren t ly u n s tamped . Wh i le W i l lh a sn o ts e en t h em a te r ia lf r om A lbenga a nd t h e re for ed oe s n o tk now whe ther t h ey a r e made o ft h et yp ica lr edd i sh S e s t iu sc l ay w ec onnec tw i th C o sa ,s he t e l l sm et ha ta mong t h e f i nd si sa n amphora o fW i l lT ype 2 4a ( Dre s se lT ype 2 8 ) .S he a s soc ia te st h i s ampho ra f o rm w i th g a rum a nd s ugg e s t s t ha ti to r ig ina ted a tC o sa .C ou ld i tb et h en t ha ta l so t h eA lbenga s h ipw r eck w a sl o aded a tt h eP or tu sC o sanu s ?W i l l f u r th e ri d en t if i e s aT ype 5( Dre s se lT ype I C ) g a rum j a rf r om C o sa among t h e ma te r ia l f r om t h e G rand C ong lou6 u ppe rw reck .

1 8 .

S ee W i l l , " Le s amphor e s d e S e s t iu s" ( c i ted a bove i nn .1 5 ) ; W i l l ," The S e s t iu s Ampho ra s" ( c i ted a bove i nn .2 ) .

1 9 .

W i l l , "Greco I ta l ic Ampho ra s" ( c i ted a bove i nn .2 ) ;W i l li n McCann ,e ta l . ,T he R oman P or ta nd F i she ry o fC o sa ( c i ted a bove i nn . 1 )c hap t er I X .

2 0 .

S ee r e por ts o fT r ig i la a nd d eB oe ri n McCann ,e ta l . ,T he R oman P or ta nd F i she ry o fC osa ( c i ted a bov ei nn . 1 ) ,c hap te r XV I .

2 1 .

F o r af u l ld i scu s s ion o ft h i si mpo r tan tf r agmen ta nd t h ee v idenc ef o ri t sd a te s e eW i l l ," The S e s t iu s Ampho ra s" ( c i ted a bove i nn .2 ) , p .3 46 -347 a nd n .2 5 , f i g . 5 .

2 2 .

W i l lf i r s tp ub l i shed t h i ss t amp a s a" l igh ted a l ter ( ? )" i n" The S e s t iu s Ampho ra s" ( c i ted a bov ei nn .2 ) ,p .343 ,f i g .4 .S he n ow a g ree s w i th m e t ha t i ti s al i gh thou se .

2 3 .

F o re xamp le ,s e er ep re sen ta t ion o ft h eP haro so fA lexand r ia o n ac o in o f An ton inu sP iu s ,i lu s t ra ted b yJ .W .S haw , "G reek a nd Roman Ha rbourwo rk s" ,i nG .F .B a s s ,e d . , AH i s tory o fS eaf ar ingBa sed o nU nd erwa te rA rchaeo logy ( New Y o rk , 1 972 ) ,f i g .4 .C ompa r ei mag eo fl i gh thou se o fL aod icaea a d Ma re ( Sy r ia )w h ich i ss imp le ra nd c l o se rt ot ha to f t h eS e s t iu ss t amp ( A .A . B oyce ," The Ha rbo ro fP ompe iopo l i s : AS tudy i nR oman I mper ia lP or t sa nd Da ted C o in s" , A JA 6 2( 1958 ) , p 1 .14 , f i g . 3 ;h e r ef i g . 2 2 .

2 4 .

F o r as umma ry o ft h el i t era tu re o na nc ien tl i gh thou se ss e eD .J . B lackman , "Anc ien th arbou r si nt h e Med i te r ranean . P a r t2 " , UNA 1(1982 ) ,p p .2 07 -208 a nd n n 15 118 .A l so s e eZ ancan i Mon tuoro ," I lf a ro d iC o sa" ( c i ted a bove i nn . 4 ) ,p p . 5 21 . F o ra ni lu s t ra t ion o f as imp le b eacon t ower s e et h eP ompe i ian p a in t ing f r om S tab iae o ft h ef i r s tc en tury A .D . ,D .J . B lackman , "Anc ien th a rbou r s i nt h e Med i ter ranean . P a r t1 " HNA 1 ( 1 982 ) , f i g . 5 . Num i sma t ic e v idence o ft e r raco t ta l a n tern so nt h er oof so fq uay si nt h eR oman h a rbo ro fP ompe iopo l i si si nB oyce , " The H a rbor o fP ompe iopo l i s" ( c i ted a bove i nn .2 3 ) ,p .69 . A l so s e ee v idence o fl i gh tt ower a t Go r s ium ,T .G .R adan , " Angaben z ur F rag e d e r s og enann ten L euch t tü rme" , G or s ium F o r schungen 1 (1974 ) , p p . 1 49 157 . Iam g ra tefu l t o P rof e s sor Howa rd C omfor tf o rt h i s l a s tr e f e r enc e .

2 5 .

Z ancan i Mon tuoro ," I lf a ro d iC o sa" ( c i ted a bove i nn .4 ) ,p p .5 2 1 . Appa ren t ly P rof e s sor Z ancan i Mon tuo ro d id n o t k now a bou tt he u nderwa te rr ema in so fP i e r 5a tC o sa a nd o u ro the rf i nd sf r om t h es i te ,i n c lud ing t h e ma ter ia lf r omthe l a goon t emp le . F or d i scu s s ion o ft h e a s soc ia t ion o ft he d e i ty o ft h i s t emp le w i th N ep tune/Po se idon r a ther t han D iony su sa nd A r iadne ( p ropo sed b yZ ancan i Mon tuoro )o rP or tunu s( p ropo sed b yB rown )s e e McCann ,e ta l . , T he R oman P or ta nd F i shery o fC o sa ( c i ted a bove i nn .1 ) , c hap te rV I( McCann ) .

2 6 .

F o rf u r ther d i scu s s ion o ft h ed a te o ft h ev o t ive d epo s i ts e eK .F .W . H e lb ig ,F ü hre rd u rch d i e6 : f f en t l ichen S amm lungen k l a s s i scher A l te r tüme ri nR om .e d .H .S pe ier ,4 th e d . ,v o l . 3( Tub ing en ,1969 ) ,p p .5 08 -510 w i th e a r l ie rb i b l iog raphy a nd e sp ec ia l ly R .A .S tacc io l i , Mod er nd ie d if i c ie t ru sco i ta l ic i . Im od e l l iv o t iv i( Rome , 1 968 ) ,p p .2 4 -28 ,6 9 -70 ,7 5 ,p l s . 1 2 18 .

2 7 .

O n t h e d eve lopmen t o fR oman c oncf e te i ng ene ra l s e e M .E . B lake , A nc ien t R oman C on s t ruc t ion i nI t a ly f rom t h e P r eh i s tor ic P er iod t oA ugu s tu s (Wa sh ing ton ,1947 ) ,p .228 a nd c hap te r1 0 ;A .B ot th iu sa nd J .B . Wa rd -Pe rk in s ,E t ru scan a nd R oman A r tch i tec ture ( Ba l t imo r e , 1 970 ) ,p p . 1 05 108 ,245 -263 ;J .B . Wa rd -Perk in s ,R oman A r ch i tec tu re ( New Y o rk , 1 9 77 ) , p p . 9 7 102 ; G . L ug l i , L a t e cn ica e d i l i z ia r omana . I( Rome , 1 9 57 ) , p p . 3 79 -385 ( Pompe i i ) ; F . S ea r , R oman A r tch i tec ture ( I thaca , N ew Y o rk , 1 9 82 ) , p p . 7 3 -76 .

2 8 .

E .K . G azda , " The U se o f T ufo i n R oman Unde rwa te r C on s truc t ion" , A JA 7 9 ( 1 975 ) , p . 1 5 1 , a b s trac t s b ound s epa ra te ly ; E .K . Gazda i n McCann ,e ta l . ,T he R oman P or ta nd F i she ry o fC o sa ( c i ted a bove i nn .1 ) ,c hap te r sI Va nd

2 9 .

J .P . O l e son , "He rod a nd V i t ruv iu s : P re l im inary T h rough t s o n Ha rbou r E ng ineer ing a tS eba s to s , t h e Ha rbou r o f C a e sa r ea Mar i t ima" . A l so s e eO l seon i n McCann ,e ta l . ,( c i ted a bov ei nn .1 )c hap te rV ,f o rd e scr ip t ion o fe x ten s iv e

V I I .

1 53

w ooden f o rmwo rk f ound a round t h et u f fa nd p ozzo lana c onc re te b a s in p l a tfo rm o ft h e S pr ing H ou s e i nt h e C o sa l a goon ( F ig s . 2 8 ,2 9 ) . Made mo s t ly o ft h ick s p ruce ,o ak ,a nd p ine p l ank s( 0 .03 t o0 . 05 m t h ick a nd c a .0 . 34 m w ide )i n v ary ing l e ng th s , t h e se b oa rd s w e re h e ld t oge ther b y r ound , u p r igh t p i l ing s ( 0 .10 t o0 . 14 m i nd i ame ter ) p l aced a t i r regu la ri n terva l s .S ome o ft h ep l ank sh ad b een f a s tened t ot he s uppo r t sb yi r on n a i l s . I na dd i t ion ,a l ong t he s ou th s i de , ar e ta in ing w a l l made o f u pr igh t p l ank s h ad a ppa r en t ly b een made d ur ing c ons t ruc t ion . O le son c or r ec t ly i n te rp re te st h e se r ema in sa s at imbe rw a l lu sed t os t ab l ize t h es of ts i de o ft h ee xcava t ion i nt he muddy l a goon made f o r t h ef ounda t ion so ft h ec oncr e te p l a t fo rm ,r a the rt han aV i t ruv ian d oub l e -wa l led c of f erdam . No h o r izon ta lt i eb eam so r b race sw er ef ound o ri n ter ior p ack ing .T h i st ype o fs imp le ,s i ng le she l lf o rmwo rk ,s ow e l l -p re serv ed i nt h e mud o ft h e C o sa l a goon , w a s d i f f e r en t t h en f r om t h ec of f e rdam sc on s t ruc ted i nt h e s e a a te i the rC o sa o rC a e sa r ea . 3 0 .

T he b a s ic w ork o nt r ade a nd e conom ic l i f ei nt h eR oman w o r ld i ss t i l lA nE conom ic S urv ey o fA nc ien tR ome ,e d .T enney F rank , 5v o l s .( Ba l t imo re , 1 933 1940 ) .S ee mo s tr e cen t ly ,L .C a s son ,A nc ien tT rad ea nd S oc ie ty ( De t ro i t , 1 984 ) . F o r R oman c oncep t so ff r ee t r ade s e eJ .R oug e ,R eche r che ss u rl ' organ i sa t ion d uc omme rce m ar i t ime e n Mi d i te r rani es o u s 1 ' Emp i re r oma in ( Pa r i s ,1 966 ) ,p p .5 40f f . On t r ade r ou te ss e eL .B r eg l ia ,L ea n t iche r oue d e l Med i te r raneo ( Rome , 1 9 66 ) ; L .C a s son , T he A nc ien t Mar ine r s( New Y o rk , 1 9 59 ) ,p p .2 23 -239 ;M .P .C har le swo r th , T rad eR ou te sa nd C omme rc ei n t h eR oman Emp i re ( Camb r idge , 1 924 ) ;A .J .P a rker ," The E v idence P rov ided b y Unde rwa ter A rchaeo logy f or R oman T rade i nt h e We s tern Med i te r ranean ," i n Mar ine A rchaeo logy ,C o l s ton P ape r s ,2 3 ,e d .D .J .B lackman ( London , 1 9 73 ) , p p . 3 6 1-38 1 .

3 1 .

C IL XV .2 .4537f f . C f . F .Z ev i , "Appun t is u l le a nfo re r omane" ,A rchC 118 ( 1 966 ) ,p p . 2 08 -247 .

3 2 .

W i l l i n McCann , e ta l . , T he R oman P or t a nd F i she ry o fC o sa ( c i ted a bov e i nn . 1 ) , c hap te r I X ; W i l l , " The S e s t iu s Ampho ra s" ( c i ted a bove i nn .2 )n .2 6 .

3 .

P l iny N a t .h i s t . 3 1 .43 .93 . On g a rum i na n t iqu i ty s e e M . P on s ich a nd M . T a r rade l l , G arum e ti n d u s t r ie sa n t ique sd e s s a la i son d an l a Med i te r rand eo cc id en ta l( Pa r i s , 1 965 ) . F o r an ew a nd c omp rehen s ive s t udy o fg arum s e e R .I . C u r t i s , " The P roduc t ion a nd C omme rce o fS a l ted F i sh P roduc t s( Garum a nd S a l samen ta )i nt h e Roman Emp ire" ,A uf s t ieg u nd N ied ergang d e rr öm i schen We l t , I , 1 ,f o r thcom ing . Iam p ar t icu la r ly g ra te fu lt oP rof e s so rC u r t i sf o rs ha r ing h i s u npub l i shed manu sc r ip ta nd f o r many h e lpfu ls ugg e s t ion s ,i n c lud ing t h er e f e rence t od o l ia f o rt h em ak ing o fa nc ien t g a rum ( Man i l iu sA s t ronom ica 5 . 565 -68 1) .T he mod ern e qu iva len tt oa nc ien tg a rum a ppea r st ob et h e" nuoc -mam" t ype o f l i qu id f i sh s auce p roduced t oday i nV ie tnam : I .M . Mack ie , R . H a rdy a nd G . Hobb s , " Fe rmen ted F i sh P roduc t s ," F AO F i she r ie sR epor t s , n o . 1 00 ( Rome , 1 9 7 1) ,p p . 1 54 . Ia mg r a tefu lt oR .G .T homa so f FAO , Rome ,f o r t h i s r e f e r ence .

3 4 .

S ee p a r t icu la r ly t h er e c en te xcava t ion sa tO s t ia i n" The B a th o ft h eS w imme r" ,a nd t h ec hrono logy w o rked o u tt h e r e f o r S pan i sh f i sh s auce amphora s . F . B er t i , e ta l . , L e T e rme d e lN uo ta to re , i nO s t ia I . S tM i sc 1 6( 1 968 -1970 ) ; A . C a rand in i a nd C . P ane l la , L e T e rme d e l N uo ta tor e , i n O s t ia I I . S tM i sc 2 1( 1969 1973 ) p p . 5 06 -5 15 ; C . P ane l la , "Anno taz ione i n ma rg ine a l le s t ra t ig raf ie d e l le t e rme o s t ien s in e ln uo ta tor e ," R eche rche ss ur l e sa mphore sr oma ine s . C o l l ec t ion d e1 ' E co l ef ranca i se d eR ome 1 0( 1 972 ) , p p . 6 9 107 .

3 5 .

F AO A quacu l ture B u l l e t in 7( Oc t . 1 9 74 -Jan . 1 975 ) , p .3 ; 8( Jan . 1 9 77 ) , p .2 0 . V . B ra so la , A .M . K a l f a , A . C anna s , " E spe r ienze p o s i t ive d i r i p roduz ione a r t if i c ia le d i Mug i l c epha lu s ( L . ) e f f e t tua te n e l la L aguna d i O rbe te l lo" , R iv .l t .P i sc ic .I t t iop . 1 4( J an .F eb . Ma rch 1 9 79 ) ,p p . 1 6 .F or ar epor to f ar e c en te x ten s ive s urvey b yb i o log is t s ,c hem i s t s a nd e ng inee r so ft h el a goons o fO rbe te l lo f o rt h eC i ty C ounc i lo fO rbe te l lo s e eR i sanamen to ep ro tez ione d e l l 'amb ien te i d rob io log ico d e l l el a gune d iO rbe te l l o( Orbe te l lo , 1 977 ) . Iam g ra tefu lt oP .P a rad i se f o ro b ta in ing t h i sr epor tf o rm e a nd t o V . B ra so la f o r k i nd ly s ha r ing h i s k now ledge o f t h e O rbe te l lo f i shery w i th me a nd p rov id ing f u r the r p ho tog raph s . F o r i n fo rma t ion o n t h e a c t iv i t ie sa nd p ub l ica t ion s o ft h e F i she r ie s D epar tmen t o f FAO , Rome , Ia m g ra tefu lt o Mr .M ichae lN .M i s tak id i sa nd D r .P agan . On l a goona lf i sh ing a nd mode rn i n s ta l la t ion ss e ep ar t icu la r ly R . D e Ang e l i s ,F i sh ing I n s ta l la t ion si nB rack i sh L agoons , G ene ra lF i she r i e sC ounc i lf o rt h e Med i te r ranean . S tud ie sa nd R ev iew s 7 ,( Rome , FAO , 1 9 59 ) a nd i d em , Med i te r ranean B rack i sh Wa te rL agoon s a nd T he i rE xp lo i ta t ion . G en e ra l F i she r ie s C ounc i l f o rt h e Med i te r ranean . S tud ie sa nd R ev iew s 1 2( Rome , FAO , 1 960 ) .

3 6 .

S ue ton iu s T i b . 3 4 ; P l iny N a t .h i s t . 3 1 .44 , f o ra l l ex , as auce made f r om t h es ed imen t o fg arum . T ha tR oman p i sc icu l ture w a sh i gh ly d ev e loped a sw e l la sl u c ra t ive i sc l ea ra l so f r om t h eo ther a nc ien tw r i ter so nt h i s p opu la rs ub jec t .T he c h ie fs ource s ,b e s ide sP l iny t h eE lde r ,a r eC o lume l la ,D eR eR u s t ica ,b k .8 . 16 17 ,w ho w ro te a bou t A .D .6 0 -65 a nd V ar ro ( 1 16 -27 B .C . )De R eR u s t ica ,b k .3 .T ha tt h es t ock ing a nd f e ed ing o ff i sh w a sc ommon p rac t ive a s w e l la st h et r an spo r ta t ion o ff i sh s pawn f r om t h es e af o rh a tch ing i sk nown f r om C o lume l la R u s t . 8 . 16 .1-2 . I nt h el a t e f i r s t c en tury A .D . , w hen J uvena l c omp la in s t ha t t h e s e a s o f ft h e C ampan ian c oa s t w ere f i shed -ou t , w ra s se w e r e b rough t f r om t h e e a s tern Med i ter ranean t os t ock t h e w a te r s ( Juvena l 5 . 92 -96 ; P l iny N a t .h i s t . 9 . 62 ; Macrob iu sS a t . 3 . 16 .10 ) .C o lume l la ( Ru s t . 8 . 16 17 )a nd V ar ro ( Ru s t . 3 . 17 .2 -4 )d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t wo t ypes o ff i sh p ond s ,t h ef r e sh a nd t h es a l t .T he f r e sh w a te rp ond sa r ea s soc ia ted w i th p oo r e rf a rme r sa nd w e re t h ee a r l ie s tt ype .B yV a r ro 's t ime ,f r e sh w a te rf i sh w e re c l ea r ly c on s ide red i n f e r io rt ot ho se r a i sed i ns a l twa te r .F o ra ne xce l len td i scus s ion o fR oman f i shpond s s e eT .H .C orco ran ," Roman F i shpond s" ,C la s s ica lB u l l e t in 3 5( 1959 ) ,p p .3 7 -43 .F o rf u r the rs ou r ce so na nc ien tf i sh ing s e eW .R adc l if f e ,F i sh ingf rom t h eE a r l ie s tT ime s( London , 1 92 1 ,r ep r in ted C h icago , 1 9 74 )a nd McCann i n McCann ,e t a l . ,T he R oman P or ta nd F i shery o fC osa ( c i ted a bove i nn .1 ) ,c hap ter Iw he re as e c t ion o na nc ien tf i sh ing a nd p o r ta nd f i she ry manag emen t i si n c luded .

3 7 .

S ee p a r t icu la r ly t h eb a s ic s urvey b yG .S chm ied t ,I ll i ve l l oa n t ico d e lm a rt i r reno ( F lor ence , 1 972 ) .F o rf i sh t ank si nt h e h a rbou ra tK ench rea is e eR . S c ran ton ,J .W .S haw a nd L .I b rah im ,K enchrea i . E a s tern P or to fC o r in th .I .T opog raphy a nd A rch i tec ture ( Le iden , 1 978 ) , p p . 2 5 -35 , f i g s . 1 0 , 1 , p l . XV . F o rf i sh t ank s a tL ap i tho s s e e K . N ico laou a nd A . F l inder , "Anc ien t F i sh tank s a tL ap i tho s , C yp ru s" ,I JNA 5( 1 976 ) , p p . 1 3 3 147 .

1 54

3 8 .

G .Mar t in , " La s p e squer ia s r omana s d e l ac o s ta d e A l ican te - .T raba jo s d e a rqueo log ia d ed i cado s aD . P id B e l trän , P ape l e sd e ll aboro tor io d ea rqueo log id d eV a l enc ia ,n o . 1 0( Va lenc ia , 1 9 70 ) ,p p . 1 39 153 a nd f i g s .2 5 ;G . Ma r t in a nd D . S e r i e s ,L aF ac tor ia p e sque ra d eP un ta d er A rena ! ya f ro sr e s in sr omanos d eA iwa ( A l ican te )S e rv ic io d e I n ve s t igac iön p r eh i s tor ica . S e r i ed e T raba jo sv a r io s , n o . 3 8( Va lenc ia , 1 9 70 ) .

3 9 .

B . L eon i i n C ovegno p e r i lr i sanamen to , l av a lor i zzaz ione e u t i l i zza ione d e l la l a guna d iO rbe te l lo , 8 9 m a r zo 1 975 ( O rb e te l lo , 1 979 ) , p p . 3 9 -4 1 .

4 0 .

O nt h e Dom i t iu s Ahenobarbu sf am i ly a s aw ho le s e e RE V ,c o ls . I 3 15f f .( Münzer ) . F o rl o ca t ion o ft h e ir p roper ty i n t h eA ge r Co sanu ss e eE . Ga l l i ," An t iche v e s t ig ia n e ld om in io c o sano d e i Dom i z i Ah enob rab i" ,H i s tor ia 1 ( 1972 ) ,p p . 1 5 16 ; Dyson , " Se t t lemen t P a t te rn s" ( c i ted a bove i nn .6 )p .2 60 w ho c i te s i n sc r ip t iona l e v idence f o r t h e p o s s ib le l o ca t ion o fo ne o ft h e ir v i l la sn ea rL eG ro t te i nt h eA lbenga v a l ley . F o r ad i scus s ion o ft h is a nd t h eo the ri n sc r ip t iona l e v id ence o ft he Ahenobarb i i nt h e a r ea s e e D . Manaco rda , " Cons ide raz ion i s u l l 'ep ig ra f ia d e l la r e g ione d i Co sa" , A thenaeum 5 7( 1 979 ) ,p p . 8 0 -9 1 .N o te p ar t icu la r ly i n sc r ip t ion n o . 1 8 ,f i g . B . , af uner ary i n sc r ip t ion o ft h el a te f i r s to r e a r ly s e cond c en tu ry A .D .f ound o nt h es i te o ft h eI mper ia lv i l la i nt h eh arbour a r ea o fC o sa .T he i n sc r ip t ion i d en t if ie s a nI mpe r ia lf r eedman o fC laud iu so rN e ro , ac e r ta in C lemen s ,w ho w a sp rocu ra to ro r manag e ro ft h ev i l la ,i mp ly ing t ha tt h ev i l la a tt h et ime w a s I mpe r ia lp roper ty . S ee a l so P .A . B run to nt h el a nd h o ld ing so ft h e Ahenoba rb i ," Two G r ea tR oman L andowne r s" ,L a tomu s3 4( 1 975 ) ,p p . 6 19 -635 .

4 1 .

Two i n scr ip t ion sf ound i nt h eb a s i l ica i nt h ef o rum a tC o sa a r ep robab ly t ob er e s to red a sd ed ica t ion st oN e ro :C o sa I nv . CC 8 76 a -h , CD 2 59 , a ,b ,a nd DC 2 60 ; CC 8 75 , p ub l i shed b y E .J . B ace , " Co sa : I n sc r ip t ion s o n S tone a nd B r ick s tamp s" . Doc tora l d i s ser ta t ion , Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan , Ann A rbor , 1 983 , p p . 7 5 -76 , n o . IA2 a nd p .8 0 , n o . IB l .

4 2 .

W i l li n McCann , e ta l . , T he R oman P or ta nd F i she ry o fC o sa ( c i ted a bove i nn .1 ) ,c hap te rI X .

4 3 .

P .A .G ianf ro t ta , "Ancore ` r omane ' . Nuov i ma ter ia l ip e rl os t ud io d e it r a ff i c i mar i t t im i" , MAAR 3 6( 1 980 ) ,p . 111a nd f i g . 2 6 .

4 4 .

W i l l , " The S e s t iu s Ampho ra s" ( c i ted a bove i nn o . 2 ) , p .3 42 ,f i g . 2

4 5 .

R .Lequanen ta nd B .L iou ," Le s eave sd el ac ö te d eT ran sa lp ine ," C ah i e r sL igu re sd ep rdh i s to i re e td ' ar chdo log ie 2 4 ( 1 975 ) , p p . 7 5 -82 .

4 6 .

" I ta l ian Wine i n Gau la tt h eE nd o ft he R epub l ic" ,i nT rad ei nt h eA nc ien tE conomy ,e d .P . Ga rn sey ,K . Hopk in s ,a nd C .R . Wh i t take r( Be rke ley a nd L o s Ang e le s , 1 983 ) ,p p . 8 7 104 .

4 7 .

"Ma r se i l le s , R ome a nd Gau lf r om t h eT h ird t ot h eF i r s tC en tury B .C ." ,i n Garn sey , Hopk in sa nd Wh i t taker ( c i ted a bove i nn .4 6 ) , p p . 7 6 -86 .

4 8 .

F o re xamp le ,f r om t h ep er iod 2 08 150 B .C .n o te t h em ixed c o in h oa rd sf r om E n tr emon t( F rance )a nd t h eC an iI s land s ( Tun i s ia ) , p ub l i shed b y M .H . C raw fo rd ,R oman R epub l i can C o in Hoard s( London , 1 969 ) n o s . 10 a nd 1 3 2 . A l so o f s p e c ia l i n te re s ta r e t h ef r equen t ly l a rg e m ixed h oa rd so fI ber ian d ena r i ia nd R oman d ena r i i b eg inn ing i nt h e p e r iod f r om 1 24 -92 B .C . ,f o re xamp le ,C rawfo rd n o s . 1 78 ( La B ar roca , 2I b er ian d ena r i ia nd 7 4d enar i i ) ; 1 84 ( Co 'r doba ,w i th 7 9 I b e r ian d enar i i a nd 2 24 d ena r i i ) ; 1 9 3 ( San ta E lena , 6I b e r ian d enar i ia nd 5 68 d ena r i i ) ; a nd 2 05 ( Sa lvacane te , 6 2 I b er ian d enar i ia nd 1 2d ena r i i ) . F rom t h i sp er iod i nF rance s e eh oa rd f r om C heverny ,C raw ford ,n o .2 16 w i th 4 5 Ga l l ic s i lv e rc o in sa nd 3d ena r i i . F rom t h ep er iod 9 1-79 B .C . , ah oa rd f r om P ompe i ii n c lude s 7b ronz ec o in sf r om Ma s sa l ia a nd 6 5 Ga l l ic b ronze c o in s , C rawfo rd n o . 2 45 . F o r ac omprehen s ive s t udy o fc o in c i rcu la t ion a s aw ho le d ur ing t h eR epub l ic s e eJ .P .C .K en t ," Le sr e la t ion se n t r el e m onnayage d e sR oman se tc eux d e sp eup le sv o i s in sd el ' oue s t ,' Ce rc l ed ' d tud e sn um i sma t ique sb u l l e t in 1 0 , 1(1973 ) ,p p . 3 11 . H en o te st h er e la t ion sh ip o fc o in c i rcu la t ion a nd t h e movemen to fR oman s o ld ie r si nw ar a nd d e te rm ine st ha t R oman c o inag e d oe s n o t b ecome d om inan t i n Gau l u n t i l a f ter t h e c onque s t b y C ae sa r . Iam g ra te fu l t oK en t f o r d i scu s s ing c o in c i rcu la t ion w i th m ea nd f o rt h es ugge s t ion t ha tp robab ly g ood sa nd s l ave sw e re s o ld a tt h ee mpor ium i n t h e h a rbour o f C o sa , p roduc ing t h e money n eeded f o r c ap i ta l i n v e s tmen t s . Wh i le R oman c o in s w e r e i na c t iv e c i r cu la t ion w i th in I t a ly d ur ing t h e l a s t t wo c en tur ie s o ft h e R epub l ic , K en t b e l ieve s t h ey d id n o t l e av e I t a ly i na ny q uan t i ty f o r Gau l u n t i l a bou t t h e m id -f i r s tc en tury B .C . a nd t ha t t h e Gau l i sh m in t s w e r es porad ic b e fo re t h i st i the .

4 9 .

T .V . B u t tr ey , " Co sa : T he C o in s" MAAR 3 4( 1 980 ) , p p . 3 2 , 8 1 -88 .

5 0 .

L .C a s son ,S h ip sa nd S eaman sh ip i nt h eA nc i en t Wor /d (P r ince ton , 1 9 71) ,p .2 98 ,n .8 . 1 am g ra tefu lt oP ro f e s so rC a s son f o rt h i sr e f erence a sw e l la st ha ti nn o te 5 1 .C a s son s ugge s t st ha tt h eS e s t iu ss h ip sc ou ld w e l lh ave r e tu rned h ome f r om G au li nb a l la s t , c o inage t h en t h ee xchang e .

5 1 .

J .R .S t ef fy i nG .F . B a s sa nd F .H .v an Doo rn inck ,e ta l . , Y a s s i Ada : AS even th -Cen tu ry B yzan t ine S h ipw reck ( Co l leg e S t a t ion ,T exa s , 1 9 82 )p .8 6 .

5 2 .

" The D eve lopmen t o f Ag r icu l tu re i nt h e ' Ag er C o sanu s ' d ur ing t h e R oman R epub l ic : P rob lem s o fE v idence a nd I n te rpre ta t ion" ,J RS 7 1( 198 1) ,p p . 1 0 -23 .B o th Hopk in s( c i ted a bov ei nn .4 8 )a nd R a thbone i g no r et h e ma ter ia lf r om t h eP or tu s Co sanu sa nd s e em u naware o f McCann 's f u l lr epor to no ur f i nd si nJ FA , 1 979 a nd t ha to fW i l li nJ FA , 1 979 , a sw e l l a s o the rp rev iou s p ub l ica t ion sc i ted a bove i nn .2 .

5 3 .

It h ank R .D .T aggar tf o rs ha r ing h i sk now ledg eo fe conom ic d eve lopmen tw i th m ea nd s ome o fh i si d ea sa r eu sed h e r e .

5 4 .

S e er e cen te xh ib i t ion o nt r ade a t Amer ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s tory ,N ew Y ork ,w in te r , 1 984 a nd p ub l i shed b yJ .E . V o l lmer ,E .J . K ea l l ,E .N aga i -Be th rong ,S i lk R oad s -C h ina S h ip s( Roya l On ta r io Mu seum ,T o ron to ,O n tar io , 1 983 ) , p a r t icu lar ly p p . 2 16 -240 .

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5 .

S ee A .M . McCann ,J .B ourg eo i s ,a nd E .L .W i l l , "Underwa te rE xcava t ion sa tt h eE truscan P or to fP opu lon ia ,"JFA 4 ( 1 977 ) ,p p .2 75 -296 ;J .P .O le son , "Unde rwa ter S urvey a nd E xcava t ion i nt h eP o r to fP yrg i( San ta S ev e ra ) , I 9 74 ,"JFA 4 ( 1 977 ) ,p p .2 97 -308 ;A .M . McCann ," Le r i ce rche d e l la m i s s ione i t a lo -ame r icano ( 1 974 )n e l l 'an t ico p o r to d iP opu lon ia en e ue d i P i rg i" , A t t i d e l C ong r e s so I n ternaz iona l e d i A rcheo log ia S o t tomar ina ( L ipar i , I t a ly , 1 9 76 ) awa i t ing p ub l ica t ion ; N . L ambog l ia , " Campagna d is c avo i t a lo -ame r icana n e l le a cque d ip o r to B ara t t i ( Popu lon ia )" ,F o rma Ma r i sA n t iqu i1 0( 1973 1974 ) ,p p .5 6 -6 1 ;i d em ," Campagna d ir i che rche s o t toma r ine i t a lo -amer icana s u lp or to e t ru sco d iP i rg i( San ta S eve ra )" ,F orma Mar l sA n t iqu i 1 0( 1 973 1974 ) ,p p .6 1 -65 . A l so s e ep ape rb y E .S huey o nt h e E tru scan a nd R oman h a rbou ro fG rav i sca i nt h i s v o lume a nd i d em ,B SR 4 9( 1 98 1) , p p . 1 7 -45 .

5 6 .

O le son ,R oman Mechan i ca l Wa te r -L if t ing D ev i ce s( c i ted a bove i nn .2 ) , p .2 0 1 .

5 7 .

J .H . D 'Arm s ,C ommerce a nd S oc ia lS tand ing i nA nc ien tR ome ( Camb r idg e , Ma s s . , 1 9 8 1) w i th r e v iew b yE .L . W i l li n A rchaeo logy 3 6 ( 1 983 ) , p . 7 ; J .H . D 'Arm s , " Sena to r s I nvo lvemen t i n C ommer ce i n t h e L a te R epub l ic : S ome C ice ron ian E v idence" , MAAR 3 6( 1 980 ) ,p p . 7-89 , w i th r e v iew b y McCann a nd W i l l i nA JA 8 8 ( 1 984 ) ,

5 8 .

p . 9 2 -95 .

S ee , f o r e xamp le , E .T . S a lmon ,R oman C o lon i za t ion U nd er t h eR epub l i c( London , 1 969 ) , p . 1 5 ; B rown , C osa ( c i ted a bov e i nn .4 ) ; R a thbone , "Dev e lopmen t o fA g r icu l tu r e" ,( c i ted a bov ei nn .5 2 ) .

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R .A . YORKE a nd D .P .DAV IDSON

S urvey o fB u i ld ing T echn ique s a tt he R oman Ha rbour s o fC a r thage a nd S ome O ther Nor th A f r ican P or t s

The s t udy o f h a rbour s p re sen t s t h e ma r ine a rchaeo log i s t w i th t he p rob lem o f s ubme rged s t ra t ig raphy . On ly i ne xcep t iona l c i rcum s tance s w i l l t h e s i te b e o ther t han i ns ha l low w a te r , o f ten mu rky w i th p o l lu tan t ss t i r red u pb ys u r f ace w a ter a c t iv i ty ,w i th e x ten s ive o ve rbu i ld ing b y s ucce s s ive i n s ta l la t ion sa nd c onfu sed b yp hy s ica ld e s truc t ion b yw ave sa nd e ro s ion .T h i sa l so i nc rea se st he d i ff i cu l ty o ft h e p hy s ica lp roce s s o fe xcava t ion . Unde r t h e se c ond i t ion s , t h e l i ke l ihood i s r educed o f f i nd ing t he e v idence o f w ooden c on s t ru c t ion ma te r ia l s n ow s o r e la t ive ly a bundan t i nd eepwa te rs h ipw r eck a r chaeo logy . The d e sc r ip t ion i nt h i sp ape ro ft h ed i scovery o fi n tac tw ooden ma te r ia l su sed a to rb e low w a te r l e ve l i st h e r e su l t o fa rchaeo log ica l s urvey s c a r r ied o u t b yt h e a u tho r s a t an umber o fa nc ien t h arbou rs i tes o n t he c oa s t o ft h e Magh reb , c u lm ina t ing i ns evera l s ea son s a tC a r thag e . T he work a tC ar thag e i n c luded t h ree s hor t s e a son s o fu nde rwa te re xcava t ion a s soc ia ted w i th t h e B r i t i sh c on tr ibu t ion t ot h e UNESCO S av eC a r thag eP ro jec t ,u nd er t he d i r ec t ion o fD r . H en ry Hu r s ta nd s pon sor ed b yt h e S ave C a r thag e C omm i t tee o ft h e B r i t i sh A cademy . The d a ta p re sen ted h ere r ep re sen to n ly ap a r to ft he f u l lf i nd ing sw h ich w i l lf o rm t h ef u l lr epor t n ow i np repa ra t ion o n t h i s e xcava t ion a nd s urvey w ork . HARBOUR T ECHNOLOGY The a nc ien t s ource so nt e chn ica lh a rbou rc on s truc t ion a re f ew . F rom t he l i t t le t ha th a sc ome d own t ou sa nd f r om t he p hy s ica le v idence a va i lab le t ou s ,w ec an i d en t ify a bou tf i ve d i f f er en t c ons t ruc t ion t e chno log ie s . The i n land d ry h a rbour i so ne o ft he e a r l ie s t a t te s ted t o ; t h e r e f erence f r om V irg i l l t o t h e \ c ons t ruc t ion o ft ha ta tC a r thage c a l led C o thon i sp ar t icu la r ly a p ti nt h ec on tex to ft h i sp ape r . The o ne r e cen t ly e xcava ted i nE gyp t2 i saf i ne e xamp le .I ti sc e r ta in t hough t ha tf r om t h ee a r l ie s t t ime sn a tura lp hy s ica lf e a tur e sw ou ld h ave b een e mbe l l i shed w i th s imp le s t ruc tur e si nw ood o r s tone ,t ow h ich w eh ave l i t t le r e f e rence . E v idence s uch a st h ef r e sco d ep ic t ing w ooden j e t t ie s 'a t t he s i t e o f P u teo l i a nd t h e r e cen t e xcava t ion s o f t h e R oman w a ter f ron t a t L ond in ium a r e i nd ica to r s t ha t t h i s w a s aw e l ld eve loped t e chn ique b y R oman t ime s . The u s eo fb ou lde rb ank so rb r eakwa te r s mu s th ave s t ar ted a ta ne a r ly d a te ,b u td id n o tr e ach i t s , f u l ls c a le u n t i lt he d ev e lopmen to ft r an spor ta t ion t e chno logy e nab led l a rge v o lume so f ma te r ia l t ob er e ad i ly moved b yl and o rs ea a nd d umped i ng rea tb ank si nt he w a ter .T he d e sc r ip t ion b y t he y ounger P l iny3 o ft h ec on s t ruc t ion o fC en tumce l lae i se voca t ive o ft h ep roce s sb yw h ich a n e s t ima ted t en t hou sand c ub ic m e tr e so fq uar r ied s t one w a su sed i nt he c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e 1km .l ong R oman h a rbour mo le f ound b yt h e a u thor s a tT hap su s i nT un i s ia . The e l egan tu se b ya nc ien tG r eek e ng inee r so fa sh la r ma son ry w a l l sa tc on s ide rab le d ep th s mu s t h ave i n vo lved g rea tt e chno log ica le xpe r t i se . We d on o tk now t ha tt h i ss o r to fs oph i s t ica t ion w a s ma tched b yt he R oman su n t i lt h ed eve lopmen tb yt h e Augu s tan e ng inee r so fh yd rau l ic mo r ta r wh ich w ou ld s e tu nderwa te r .T h i st h en a l lowed t h em t oc a s ts t ruc ture si nw e tc ond i t ion s ,e i the r a dhe r ing d i rec t ly t o e x i s t ing n a tura l r ock f e a ture s , a s a t S abra tha f o r i n s tance , o r a s f r ee

1 57

s t and ing ma s se so f wh ich t he a rched mo le a tP u teo l ii sp robab ly t he mo s tc e leb ra ted e xamp l e . I nt h i st e chno logy t he u se o fw ood w a sc ruc ia l . V i t ruv iu s4 d e sc r ibe si nd e ta i l ,i no ne o ft he mo s t i mpor tan t a nc ien t r e f er ence s ,j u s t h ow t h i s c a s t ing p roce s s w a s c a r r ied o u t . A sh lar c on s t ruc t ion t e chn ique sa re s e en u nde rwa te ri nH e l len i s t ic No r th A f r ica ,a t Apo l lon ia a nd T o lme i ta , b u t mo s t r ema rkab le i nt he b ru ta l ly monumen ta l S eve ran h a rbou r a t L ep t i s Magna . T he h a rbour sa tC ar thage r e cen t ly e xcava ted b y Hu r s t5 a nd b yS tage ra l so s how f i ne e xamp le so fP un ic a nd R oman ma sonry c on s t ruc t ion i nt h e se l and l o cked b a s in s ,b u ti ti st h e t e chno logy o f c a s t c oncr e te t ha t d raw s o ur a t t en t ion t ime a nd t ime a ga in a l ong t he No r th A f r ican c oa s t . RO MAN C ONCRETE

T hree b a s ic m e thod sw ere u sed f o rc r ea t ing t he f o rm t ow h ich t he c onc re te wou ld b ec a s t ,e ach g enera l ly r equ ir ing t h e u se o fw ood . F i r s t ly , t h e re w e re t h e s i tua t ion s w here f o rmwork w a s c on s truc ted a round n a tura lf e a tu re ss uch a sr e ef s .T h i sw a sp a r t icu la r ly p opu la rw he re o f f sho r e d unary r e ef se x i s ted a si nt he e xamp le o fS ab ra tha c i ted a bove ,b u tw a sa l so u sed i ns i tua t ion s s uch a sa tT hap su s ,w he re t he p hy s ica lf e a ture m igh th ave b een a r t if i ca l ly c ons t ruc ted . We c an s u rm i se t ha tt h ee r ec t ion o ft h i sc ou ld o n ly h ave t aken p lac ei nr e la t ive ly s ha l low w a t er ow ing t o t h e n a tura l b uoyancy o f t he w ood a nd t h e d i ff i cu l ty o f d o ing t h e n ece s sary c arpen t ry u nderwa te r .

•

T o a ch ieve a ny d ep th , s ome m ea su r e o fp r ef ab r ica t ion w ou ld b e n ece s sary . T h i s c ou ld h av e amoun ted t o s e t s o fp ane l s w h ich c ou ld b e w e igh ted , s unk a nd t hen j o ined a nd c l amped i n p lace . A l te rna t ive ly , c omp le te b ox s e c t ion s c ou ld h ave b een l owe red i n to t h e w a ter . T h e c onc re te w ou ld t hen e i the r b e c a s t w i th t h e b ox f l ooded o r p ar t ia l ly e mp t ied u s ing p ump s . C a s t ing l o ad s o n t he s hu t te r ing w ou ld b e i n i t ia l ly i nwa rd f o r t he p umped o u t m e thod , b u t o u twa rd a st h e w e t mor ta rr ubb le m ix tur ew a sp oured i n . F ina l ly ,t he c a s t ing f o rm c ou ld b ec omp le te ly f abr ica ted o nd ry l and a nd f l oa ted i n to p lace a nd s unk .T h i sm igh t mo s tc onven ien t ly b ee f f ec ted b yp ou r ing t h e mor ta ra nd r ubb le m ix ture i n to t h ef l oa t ing b ox w h ich w ou ld t hen s i nk p rog r e s s ive ly . Hyd ro s ta t ic l oad s wou ld t h e r eby r ema in s omewha tb a lanced . Dubo i si nh i s "Ob se rva t ion ss u ru np a s sage d eV i t ruve" 6,d e scr ibes h ow s uch as t ruc tu re i fc a s to n ab ank o fs and m igh th ave b een s ubme rged b y ap roc e s so fe ro s ion . S uch a p roce s s w ou ld b e e i ther b enef i c ia l o r n o t , d epend ing o n t h e s i tua t ion . I n s andy o r u n s tab le l o ca t ion s w her e a n a ccu ra te ly l o ca ted b lock w a s r equ i red , i t wou ld h ave b een n ece s sa ry t oc r ea te as uf f ic ien t ly e x ten s ive a nd r e info rced s t ruc tu re t om in im i se a ny p o s s ib le s ub s idence . A s t h e c onc re te o r mor ta r r ubb le m ix tu re w a s p oured i n , v ery l a rge o u twa rd p re s sur e sw ou ld b eg ene ra ted a st h el e ve lr o se a bov et h es u r round ing w a ter ,r equ i r ing t he s o r to f r e info rcemen t o fw h ich V i t ruv iu s s peak s . THE E V IDENCE T he e xcava t ion sa tC a r thage h ave e nab led u st os e es ome o ft h e se t e chn ique si nu s ea tf i r s th and . T he r e su l t sa r e ,a sa lway s ,t an ta l i s ing ly f r agmen ta ry .F u tur ea na ly s i sw i l ld epend o n many o th e r f a c to r s , s uch a sa nc ien t s e a l e ve l s b e ing e s tab l i shed b eyond d oub t f r om t he l a nd e xcava t ion s . T he s i tua t ion a nd h i s tory o ft h e c i rcu la r m i l i ta ry a nd r e c tangu la rc i v i l h arbou r s o fC a r thag e n eed l i t t le i n t roduc t ion . ( F ig . 1 ) Hur s t a nd S tager w ho h ave b een r e spon s ib le f o r t he v e ry s ucce s sfu l e xcava t ion s i n t h e c i rcu la r a nd r e c tangu la r h a rbour s r e spec t ive ly , p rov ide a n e xce l len t ly c onc i se r ev iew i nt h e i ra r t ic le "A Me tropo l i tan L and scape :T he L a t eP un ic P o r to f C a r thage" 7.T he i r f i na l r epo r t s n ow i np repa ra t ion , h av e b een p receded b y r e gu lar i n te r im r epor t s w i th aw ea l th o fv a luab le d a ta . T he l a nd e xcava t ion sh ave n o ty e tc oncen t ra ted o nw ha tn ow r ema in st h e mo s te n igma t ic a r ea o ft h ea nc ien th arbour s— t he e n trance a nd t h e" Choma" ,r e f er red t ob y App ian 5 i nt he a r ea b eyond t he r epu ted e n trance . I ti si nt h i sr eg ion t ha tt h ea t ten t ion o ft h ea u tho r sh a sf ocu s sed w i th a s s i s tance i n t h e e a r ly s urvey s t ha t mu s t b e c r ed i ted t o J .H . L i t t le a nd at e am f r om C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty , l e d b yt h e l a te K e i th Mucke l roy .

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I n t he a r ea k nown a st he Quadr i la tera l o fF a lbe ( F ig . 2 )t here w ere k nown t ob e an umber o f s t ruc ture s o fu ncer ta in d a te a nd p urpo se . T hese h ave a l ln ow b een a ccura te ly s urveyed a nd i n t he c our se o ft he l im i ted e xp lora tory e xcava t ion t ha t w as c ar r ied o u t t o d e l im i t t h e ir e x ten t , s ome f a sc ina t ing wooden d e ta i ls w ere r evea led .

SHUTTER ING ON WALL A The e xcava t ion c arr ied o u ta tt he n or thern e nd o f Wa l lA ,i n2 0 cms o fw a ter d ep th , r evea led t ha tb enea th t he s i l ta nd s h ing le w ere t he w e l lp re served r ema in so f awooden l a t t ice f r amework a ga in s t w h ich t he w a l l h ad b een c ons truc ted . I n c on tra s t t o c onven t iona l s hu t ter ing f o r t he c as t ing o fc oncre te ,t he f r amework w a sf o rmed o ft h ree s e ts o fo r thogona lt imber s .T he f i r s ts e t c ompr i sed v er t ica lp o s t s( 10 c mb y 1 5c mi nc ro s ss e c t ion )s e ta tl e a s t 1m a par ta ss uppor tp os ts . Hor izon ta lb eams ( 6c mb y 1 2 cm ) ,w ere t hen n a i led t ot he f a ce o ft he se p os ts ,a l low ing v er t ica l l a ths ( 5c mb y 1 0c m )t ob ea t tached a sr equ ired .A st h ese l a th sw ere s paced a t 5c mi n terva ls ,t he wa l l c anno t h ave b een c ons truc ted b y c a s t ing a nd i tc an b e p re sumed t ha t t he f a c ing s t ones wou ld h ave b een b u i l tu pa ga in s tt he f a ce o ft he l a th sw i th amor tar r ubb le f i l la st he c ore o ft he wa l l . T h is s eem s t o i nd ica te t ha t t he s hu t ter ing h ad b een c on s truc ted t o p reven t d ebr i s f r om t u mb l ing i n to t he c ons truc t ion t r ench w h ich h ad b een c l ea red i nt h e g round . I ti sc l ear t ha tn oa t temp th ad b een made t op roduce a ny e l abora te j o in t ing o ft he t imber , wh ich h ad s imp ly b een n a i led t oge ther . T he h or izon ta l b eam s w ere d i scovered a t ad ep th o f6 0 cm b e low c urren ts ea l e ve l ,w h ich wou ld h ave made t he h ammer ing o fn a i ls a ne x treme ly i r r i ta t ing i fn o tu naccep tab le o pera t ion .I ti st emp t ing ,t he refore ,t op ropo se t ha tt here h a sb een as ea l e ve l c hange o fa tl e a s tt h is magn i tude . T h is s uppo s i t ion ,h owever , r uns c on trary t oo ther e v idence f ound b y Hur s tt ha ts ea l e ve lh a sn o tc hanged b yt ha t amoun t . We mu s t ,t herefore ,a s sume t ha t t h is a r ea w a s p ar t o ft he l and a tt he t ime o fc on s truc t ion . Two f u r ther e xamp le s o f w ooden s hu t ter ing w ere f ound w h i le e xcava t ing Wa l l C . Wa l l C c omp r i ses al i near mor tar r ubb le s t ruc ture s o me 10 m l ong r unn ing n or th -ea s twards i n to t he c en tre o f t he Quadr i la tera l f r om a p o in t i n t h e s ou th -we s tern c orner . Aga ins t t h e w es t o r s horeward e dge c an b e s e en an umber o fa bu t t ing w a l l s . B eyond t he f i f th o ft he c ros sw a l l st he s eabed i se roded a nd t he w a l li sn o tf ound b u tr e appear s a f ter 2 0mi nt wo c on t inuous b u ts epara te s e c t ions ,t he s e cond o f wh ich h a ss e t t led a nd t u rned a t a n a ng le o f 7d eg rees t o t he n or th . Cons iderab le e f for t sw ere made t od e term ine w he ther t h i sw a l lh ad e ver c on t inued f u r ther i n to t he Quadr i la tera l . S evera l t r enches w ere c l ea red b o th o n t he p ro jec t ion o ft he l i ne a nd i nt h e s pace s b e tween a d jacen t s t ruc tures . I n n one o f t hese a rea s w a s t here a ny i nd ica t ion o f a c on t inua t ion . F ina l ly , as hor t d i s tance b eyond t h e e x treme e nd o ft he l a s t v i s ib le s e c t ion , t h e r ema ins o f wooden s hu t ter ing w ere f ound i np o s i t ion b e low t he s eabed ,d ef in ing t h ee nd o ft he wa l l .T h is s hu t ter ing p roved t ob ev ery d i f f eren tf r om t ha t wh ich w a sa l so f ound i ns i tu a round t he c ro s s wa l ls f u r ther s ou th ,a l though a l lo ther i nd ica t ion sw ere t ha tt he s e c t ion sw ere p ar to f t he s ame s t ruc ture .

ABUTTED WOODEN S HUTTER ING OF WALL C I nt h ec orner b e tween o ne o ft he c ro ss w a l ls a nd Wa l l Cw a sf ound as e c t ion o fv er t ica l wooden s hu t ter ing p lanks . As ma l le xcava t ion w a su nder taken t oe xpose t he f a ce d own t oi t sf u l le x ten t where i t was b edded o n al a yer o fs t ones . T he w ood , i d en t if ied a s as pec ie s o fF i r , s urv ived t o w i th in 3 0 cm o ft he s eabed a nd w a se x treme ly w e l l p re served . T he p lank sw ere 3 0 cm w ide , 2 -3 c m t h ick a nd 1 . 65 m l ong a nd h ad b een r ough ly t apered w i th a na xe a tt he b o t tom e nd t o e a se p ene tra t ion i n to t he g round . T he p o in t sw ere s ol i t t le d amaged ,h owever ,t ha ti tw a sc l ea r t ha tt h ey h ad n o tb een d r iven f o rcefu l ly t h rough r ough g round .T he ir v er t ica le dge sw ere s imp ly a bu t ted a nd a t ad ep th o f 1 . 10 m h or izon ta l b eam s o ne o fF ir , o ne o fP ine ,h a lf j o in ted a tt he c orner , r e ta ined t hem i np lace .

1 6 1

I ti sa s sumed t ha t t he e r ec t ion o ft h is s hu t ter ing t ook p lace i na no pen , w e t t r ench wh ich h ad b een c l eared d own t o as t one l a yer .T he p lank sw ou ld t hen h ave b een d r iven i ni nd iv idua l ly a nd h e ld i np lace w i th t he h or izon ta l t imber . T he e x trem i ty o ft he mo s tn or ther ly o ft h ec ro s sw a l l sw a sa l so i nve s t iga ted a nd as ha l low t r ench r evea led r ema in sa nd i mpr in t so fv ery s im i lar s hu t ter ing ,c on t inu ing a l la round t h ef a ces .I tw a s n o tp os s ib le t oc on t inue t h is e xcava t ion a l though i tw a sc l ear t ha ta tl e a s tf our o ft h ec ros sw a l l s a re n o tc on t inuous c ompar tmen tw a l ls ,b u t more p robab ly b u t tre sse so rs uppor t sf o rt he ma in f ounda t ion .

J O INTED WOODEN S HUTTER ING ON WALL C F ur ther wooden s hu t ter ing w a s f ound j u s t b enea th t he s eabed s urf ace i n f i ne c l ean s and , r e ta in ing t he mo s tn or ther ly o u tcrop o f mor tar r ubb le o nt h el i ne o ft he w a l l . A tt h i s p o in tt h e w a ter d ep th w a s 1 . 90 m where t here c an b el i t t le r ea sonab le d oub tt ha to ne i sd ea l ing w i th af u l ly s ubmerged c on truc t ion p roces s . T he s hu t ter ing w a s f o l lowed d own a n o u ts ide f a ce f or s ome 5 0 c m b efore e xcava t ion b ecame i mprac t icab le . T here w a s n o i nd ica t ion o f ab a se o r o fa ny e x te rna l h or izon ta l b rac ing t imber s . T he t imber s w ere v ery d i f f eren t f r om t hose f ound i nt he a bu t ted s hu t ter ing i nt ha t , a l though t hey w ere a l so s e t v er t ica l ly , t he e dge f a ces h ad b een g rooved c en tra l ly o n b o th e dges a nd e ngaged o ne w i th a no ther ,t op rov ide as ub s tan t ia l ly s ea led t ongue a nd g roove j o in t( w i th a n o f f se to fo ne t h ird o ft he p lank t h ickne s s ) . Av er t ica lr e c tangu lar p o s t 1 0 cm x7c mw as f ound a d jacen tt oo ne c orner o u ts ide t he s hu t ter ing a nd w ou ld h ave b een p ar to ft he b rac ing n eeded t o s uppor tt he s t ruc ture d ur ing c ons truc t ion .T he t h ickne ss o ft he p lank sv ar ied f r om 4t o5 . 5c m . T he w id ths o ft he p lanks a ppeared t oh ave b een c l o se t o as t andard 4 3 cm , b u to bv ious ly w i th v ar ia t ions i nt ho se a d jacen t t o t he c orner s . T he e dges o ft h e p lank s i nt he e nd f a ce h ad b een t enonned t ol e ave ac en tra lt ongue 2 . 5c mw ide , wh ich e ngaged w i th ac on t inuou s mor t ise s l o t o n t he i n s ide o ft he s i de f a ce p lank s . S uch a c onf igura t ion c ou ld h ave b een a s semb led i n s e c t ion s , b u t a s i t wou ld h ave r equ ired c on s iderab le p rec is ion t oh ave e ngaged t he c on t inuou s mor t i se a nd t enon ,i ti s more l i ke ly t ha t i ti st h e r ema ins o f ap refabr ica ted b ox .

HOR IZONTAL S HUTTER ING ON CAUSE WAY P IER On t he n or thern s i de o ft he i s land ,i nt he c i rcu lar h arbour ,a re t h er ema ins o f an umber o fp i er s f r om ac auseway o rb r idge s t ruc ture ,t ha tf o rmer ly c onnec ted i tt ot he l and . One o ft hese w a s e xcava ted i nt he b lack w a ter s o ft he a lmo s t s t agnan t l a goon . I tp roved t oc ompr ise t hree e l emen t so ft wo p r inc ipa lp er iod s . T he c en tra l P un ic s e c t ion w a s b u i l ti no pu sq uadra tum s t y le w i th b lock su pt o 1 . 35 m x1 . 15 m ,f o rm ing as ub s tan t ia ls t ruc ture 2 . 5 mw ide a cross t he a x i so ft he c auseway a nd 3 . 4mi nt h ea x ia l Nor th -Sou th d i rec t ion . T h is c en t ra lb u t tres ss t ood o n as t epped b a se w i th o f f se t sa t1 . 7 ma nd 2 . 2mb e low s e al e ve l . On t h e s ou thern f a ce o ft he p i er ,t he l ower o ft hese t wo f o rmed as t ep 7 5 cm w ide . Above i tt he s t one w h ich may f o rmer ly h ave f o rmed ad i s t inc tt h ird o f f se th ad b een d amaged b yd redg ing ,l e av ing ar ough a ng led s urface . On e i ther s i de o ft h i s c en tra l s e c t ion w ere t wo R oman w ing s o fc oncre te , o r mor tar r ubb le , g i v ing t he p ier at o ta lc ros s -ax is w id th o f1 2 .5 m .T hese t wo w ing sh ad b een f ormed b yc as t ing , a sr ema in so ft he t imber s hu t ter ing w ere f ound a ga ins tt he f a ce sa d jacen tt ot he o pu sq uadra tum c ore . I n c on tra s t t o c onven t iona l s hu t ter ing w h ich i sp i led v er t ica l ly , t he F ir p l ank s i n t h i s i n s tance h ad b een p laced h or izon ta l ly . T he e dges o f t he p lanks h ad b een h a lf lapped a nd t enonned w i th l oo se , h ardwood t enons d owe l led i np lace .T h i s wood s urv ived i ns i tu o nb o th s i de so ft he p i er ,c on t inu ing t ot he l e ve lo f t he t op o ft he b locks ,a l though t he i mpr in ti nt he mor tar s howed t ha ti th ad f orme r ly c on t inued af ur ther 1 0 -15 cm h igher . Hor izon ta l b eams w ere f ound 5 2 c m b e low t he t op o f t he o pu s

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q uad ra tum s uppor t ing t he h or izon ta lp lank s .T he v er t ica lp o s t st ha t wou ld h ave b een n eeded t o s uppor t t he s t ruc ture w ere n o t p re sen t a s t he s hu t ter ing h ad b een r ough ly t o rn a way a t t he c orner st oa l low t he g ap b e tween t he mor tar r ubb le a nd t he o pus q uadra tum t ob ef i l led i nw i th sma l l s t ones a nd mor tar . On t he e xcava ted S ou th f a ce s o ft he t wo w ing s , e v idence w a s f ound o f wooden r e inforc ing e l emen t st ha th ad b een u sed i nt he c ons truc t ion o ft h es hu t ter ing a ss ugge s ted b yV i truv ius ( s ee p r ior r e f erence ) .T he i mpr in ts o ft hese w ere p rac t ica l ly s ymme tr ica li ne ach w ing ,c ompr is ing a c y l ind r ica lb eam s e tp ara l le lw i th a nd a bove ah or izon ta lp lank .I ft h i su nexpec ted c omb ina t ion o fg eome tr ies s e rved s o me mo re s pec if ic f unc t ion ,i tr ema in so bscure . No f ur ther i mpr in t sw ere f ound o n t he f ace s ,a l though s e arch w a s made d i f f icu l tb yt he h eavy e nsru s ta t ion o fw eed a nd c onc re t ion .S uch ac ons truc t ion me thod b ear sa l lt h eh a l lmark so fw a terproof s t ruc ture s .I nt h is c ase , h owever , t he c onf igura t ion o ft he j o in t s wou ld i nd ica te e xcess o u tward p res sure s uch a s wou ld b e s een i n ac a s t ing d one o n l and . CROSS B RAC ING The c i rcu lar b eams a nd f l a tp l anks n o ted a bove i nt he c au seway p i er a re a s sumed t oh ave b een c ros s b rac ing s im i lar t o t ha t d escr ibed b y V i truv iu s . T he se w ou ld h ave b een n ece s sary t o p rov ide t he c a s t ing b ox w i th t h e n ece ssary r i g id i ty , b u t may a l so h ave p rov ided am ea sure o f r e inforcemen t i nl a rge s t ruc tures . The e l emen to fr e inforcemen ti sp robab ly e v iden ti nt h el a rge p la tform o fc oncre te t ha tc an b e s een i nt he wa ter o f ft he "Nep tune R es tauran t" o nt he C ar thage w a terf ron t , b e tween t he t wo s e ts o fc oas ta lb u i ld ing s .T h i si sav a s tr a f to fc oncre te 1 8 m x9m , wh ich a ppear st ol i ea tt he e nd o f o ne o f t he ma jor r oad s o f Roman C ar thage . I ti sv ery o bv ious ly c r i ss -cro ssed w i th a n o r thogona ll a t t ice o fh o le sw h ich w ere o r ig ina l ly wooden b eams .S ub s tan t ia lt imber s ,2 5x25 cm b raced t he t wo w a l ls o ft he s hu t ter ing . T hese w ere s t ab i l ised o nt he h or izon ta lp lane ,b ya x ia l t imber s2 5 x1 4c m , wh ich w e re n o tched t o ad ep th o f1 0 cm t oe ngage t he b races .V er t ica lp o s ts 1 3 t o 1 6 cm i nd iame ter p rov ided f ur ther r e inforcemen t . S ome o ft hese a bu t ted t he h or izon ta l b eam s , i no rder t o s uppor t t h em , o ther s w ere a pparen t ly f r ee s tand ing . S uch c ro ss b rac ing i se v iden ta t an umber o f Nor th A f r ican s i te sw here c oncre te ma sse sa re s e en , s uch a s Cherche l l , T ipa sa , H erg la a nd mo s t r evea l ing ly a t T hap sus . T he a u thor s f i r s t i nve s t iga ted t he s i te o fT hap su si n1 966 a nd mos tr e cen t ly i n1 977 .H ere ,t h ee xpo sed f a ce so ft he c oncre te mo le , ( wh ich may , i n c iden ta l ly , h ave b een f a ced w i th a sh lar ma sonry ) a re b e ing c on t inua l ly e roded b y t h e s e a . The c o l laps ing s t ruc ture h a sr e vea led an umber o fa per ture si nw h ich c a lc if ied r ema ins o f wood c ou ld b es een . I tw a ss e en h ere t ha ta l lt he v er t ica lm ember so ft he l a t t ice w ere e ngaged w i th t he c ros s p i eces , o fw h ich t he re a r e al a rge n umber . The se h or izon ta l t imber s w ere s e t a bou t 1 . 40 m a par t a nd w ere mos t ly s em i -c ircu lar , a bou t 1 0 c m i nd iame ter . CONCLUS ION T he d i f f eren te xamp les o fw ooden s hu t ter ing f ound a tC a r thage a nd o ther Nor th A f r ican s i te s t hrow an ew l i gh t o n t he R oman t e chno logy o fc a s t ing c onc re te . I n p r inc ip le , t here a re s im i la r i t ie s t o V i truv ius 's t e x t ( a l though n o d oub le -wa l l c a i s sons w ere f ound ) ,b u t wha ti sa pparen ti st he many d i f f eren tw ay si n wh ich t he s hu t ter ing w as c on s truc ted a nd t h e p rec is ion w i th w h ich ar e la t ive ly mundane c on s truc t iona l i t em w a s f abr ica ted . F ur thermore , i ts hows h ow w e l l p reserved s uch i t ems o f wood c an b e , e ven i nv ery s ha l low w a ter a nd g ive su st he l e ad t ol ook c l oser i no ther h arbour a rea s ,w here c oncre te c on s truc t ion i s u sed , f o r more e xamp le s o ft h i s t e chno logy .

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N OTES : I .

V irg i l : A en i id I4 27 .

2 .

K emp ,B .a nd O 'Connor ,D . , "An Anc ien tN i le Harbour" ,I n terna t iona lJ ourna lo fNau t ica lA rchaeo logy , Vo l .3 , No . 1 , March 1 974 .

3 .

P l iny : L e t ter sV I .31 .

4 .

V i truv ius : D eA rch i tec ture X II .

5 .

Iur s t , H .R . , e ta lC ar thage , I n p ub l ica t ion b yT he B r i t ish A cademy , 1 984 .

6 .

Dubo is , "Ob serva t ions s ur o n p a ssage d e V i truve" , Me langes d el ' E co le F ran c a i se aR ome , 1 902 , p .4 39f f .

7 .

Hurs t ,H .a nd S tager ,L .E . , "A me tropo l i tan l a ndscape :t h el a te Roman p or to fC ar thage , Wor ld A rchaeo logy , Vo l .9 , No . 3 ,F ebruary 1 978

8 .

App ian : R oman H i s tory XCV I .

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JOHN P ETER OLESON

H e rod a nd V i t ruv iu s : P r e l im ina ry T hough t s o n Ha rbou r E ng inee r ing a tS eba s to s ; t he Ha rbou r o fC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima A l though my r e search i ss t i l li np rog re s s , Iam h appy t oh ave t h eo ppor tun i ty t op resen tt ot h is c onf er ence ap re l im inary a na ly s is o ft he h i s tor ica la nd t e chno log ica ls i gn if icance o ft h ew ooden f ormwo rk d i scovered i nt h e h arbour o fC ae sarea i n 1 982 ' . T h is f i nd h as s hown t ha t H erod 's e ng inee r s p os ses sed a c ompe tence i n h yd rau l ic e ng ineer ing a nd a k now ledge o f a va i lab le c ons truc t ion ma ter ia ls t ha t g o f a r b eyond t h e t r ad i t ions o f t h e r e g ion . T he t e chno logy o f S eba s to s . l i ke i t s s ca le a nd f i n ish , w a s i mper ia l i n s cope . A f ter a b r ief d escr ip t ion o f t he e xcava t ion a nd o ft he r ema in so ft he f o rmwork , Iw i l lc ompare t h ea r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia lw i th ap a s sage i nV i truv ius t ha td e scr ibe st he u se o fc oncre te i nh arbour c ons truc t ion . Ad i scuss ion o f t he p rocedure s a nd ma te r ia l s k nown t o V i truv iu s p rov ide s i n forma t ion c ruc ia l t o o ur k now ledge o ft he t e chno logy u sed t o b u i ld S eba s to s . D ISCOVERY AND EXCAVAT ION OF THE F ORM WORK The e a s tern f ace o ft he c hanne ll e ad ing i n to t he h arbour b a s in w a sb u i l to fi mmen se k urkar ( t he l oca le o l ian c arbona te c emen ted q uar tz s ands tone )b lock s( c a .5 . 5 m x1 . 0 m x1 . 25 m ) mor t ised i n to o ne a no ther a nd h e ld i np lace b y i r on c l amp s . I n c on tra s t , t he n or thwe s tern t i p o ft he n or the rn b reakwa ter , wh ich i na er ia lp ho tog raph sa ppear sa s al a rge ,s quare p ro jec t ion a tt he w es te rn e nd o ft he n or thern f a ce , w a s b u i l t o fc oncre te . E ven b efore e xcava t ion i n 1 982 , t he o u t l ine so fe roded c oncre te b locks c ou ld b es e en ,t opped b yt he r ema ins o fw ha t may h ave b een l ime s tone p av ing b lock s . Dur ing t he 1 982 s ea son ,s and a nd r ubb le w ere r emoved b yh and a nd w i th a na i r l if ta tt he n or thwe s tern c orner o ft h is a rea ( t ermed A rea G )i na ne f for tt od e term ine t he n a ture o ft he s t ruc ture . E xcava t ion u l t ima te ly r evea led ac oncre te b lock c a . 1 .50 m w ide ( eas tt ow es t )a nd 1 5 .0 m l ong ,w i th a ni r regu lar ,e roded u pper s u rface c a .4 .0 -5 .10 m b e low s ea l eve l ( F igure 1 ) . Where e xpo sed , t he v er t ica l f a ce s o f t he b lock w ere w e l l p reserved , a nd e x ten s iv e r ema in s o f t he w ooden f ormwork i n to wh ich t he c oncre te h ad b een p oured w ere f ound o nt he e a s tern ,w es tern a nd n or thern s i de s .T he l ower s urface o ft he b lock ,e xposed o n ly a t t he s ou thwes tern c orner , w a sl e ve la nd s moo th a nd r e s ted d i rec t ly o n s t er i le s and ( a t6 . 4 m b e low s e al e ve l ) . No wooden f l oor ing d e s igned t of o rm t he b o t tom o ft he f o rm w a so bserved a t t h is p o in t ,d esp i te r emova lo ft he f i l lf or ad i s tance o f2 . 0 mi nf r om t he e dge o ft he b lock ,a nd i t s eems u n l ike ly t ha ti tc an h ave e x is ted , As e r ie so fc hanne l sa nd h o les ( c a .0 . 18 m2)i nt he u pper p ar t o ft h e b lock o nce h e ld w ooden t i e b eam s t ha t c ro ssed t he f o rmwork a tr egu la r i n terva l s f rom e a s tt ow e s ta nd n or th t os ou th .T here s e em t oh ave b een af ew v er t ica ls uppor ts w i th in t he f orm a sw e l l . The f o rmwork , b e s t p reserved a tt he n or thwe s tern c orner , w a s b u i l t o n ma ss ive p ine s l eeper b eam sc a .0 .29 m s quare t ha tr an a long t he b a se o fe ach f a ce o ft he b lock a nd i n ter locked a tt he c orner sw i th s imp le l ap j o in t s( F igure s2 3 ) . As e r ie so ff i ru pr igh t s( c a . 0 . 12 -0 .15 m x0 . 23 m ) , mor t i sed i n to t he h or izon ta lb eams a tc a . 1 . 60 m i n terva ls ,c ar r ied a ne x terna la nd i n terna lw a l l o fh or izon ta lp ine a nd s pruce p lank s0 . 08 m t h ick a nd 0 . 14 m w ide ( F igure 4 ) .T he l owe s to ft he p lank s o n t he i nner f a ce o ft he f o rmwork i si n se t s l igh t ly i n to t he u ppe r s urface o ft he l a rge s l eeper b eam . T he s eam s b e tween t he v ar iou s p lank s a nd b eam s mak ing u p t he f o rmwork p re sen t ly a re f i l led w i th as andy w h i te mor tar .T h i ss ub s tance may b ei n ten t iona lp ack ing ,b u ti t c ou ld a l so b ec emen tt ha tw a sf orced i n to l oo se s eam sw hen t h ei n ter ior o ft h ef o rmwork a nd i t s

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C A ISSON R EMA INS

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MAR IT I MA A REA

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r e con s truc t ion o ff ormwork .

h o l low w a l l s w e r e f i l led w i th c onc re te a nd mor ta r . At r an s lucen t , g yp sum l ik e ma te r ia l h a s c ry s ta l l ized o ns ome o ft h ew ooden s ur f ace st h rough r e ac t ion w i th t h es ea w a t e rs i nce t he t ime o fc on s t ruc t ion . T he h o l low s pace sf o rmed b yt he l owe rb eam s ,u pr igh t s ,a nd d oub le w a l l so fp l ank sw ere f i l led w i th ab lue -g reen ,s andy mo r ta rc on ta in ing l a rge p ar t ic le so ft u f f ,p um ice ,a nd l i me . S t r ia t ion s i nt he mor ta rs how t ha tt he s ub s tance w a sp ou red i nq u ick ly i n as em i l iqu id s t a te a nd p udd led a si tf i l led t he c av i t ie s .T he f ab r ic o ft h eb lock i sc ompo sed o ft h es ame ma te r ia l ,b u tw i th t h e a dd i t ion o f ah igh p ropo r t ion o fa gg rega te c on s i s t ing o fi r r egu la rc hunk so fk u rka ra nd s eawo rn b ou lde r s o f ah a rder l ime s tone . As amp le o fc onc r e te f r om t h e b lock i t se lf w a s c ompo sed o f S iO 2 ( 3 7 .48 % ) , C aO ( 6 .3% ) , MgO ( 2 1 .13% ) , F e 202 ( 2 .07% ) , a nd A 1 203 ( 9 .8% ) . As amp le o f mo r ta rf r om w i th in t he w a l l so ft he f o rm w a sc ompo sed o fS iO 2( 1 3 .98% ) ,C aO ( 3 3 .24% ) , MgO ( 9 .3 % ) , F e 202 ( 1 .3 % ) , a nd A 1 203 ( 4 .4% ) . C hunk s o ft h e g r een i sh , g ranu la r t u f f( conc r e ted v o lcan ic a sh ) ,a nd f i b rou sp um ice u sed i nt h e mo r ta rw e re r e cove red f r om t he f i l li nt he h a rbou r c hanne l .T hey c ur ren t ly a r eb e ing s ub jec ted t oa na ly s i si nV ic to r ia i na na t temp tt od e term ine t he i rp lace o fo r ig in .T he e xac ts pec ie so fw ood u sed i nt he f o rmwork h a sb een e s tab l i shed o n ly f o r s ome e l emen t s made o fs pruce ( P icea e uropea ) , b u t i th a s b een d e term ined t ha t t he p ine ( P inu s ) ,f i r( Ab i e s ) ,a nd p op la r( Popu lu s ) ,l ike t h es p ruce ,a r eo fm id -Eu ropean o r ig in 2.S ince t h e r ange o ft he se s pec ie s i sf a rt ot he n or th a nd w e s t o ft he L evan t , t h e t imbe r mu s t h ave b een i mpor ted f o ru se i nt h eh a rbou r .T he v o lcan ic ma te r ia lu sed i nt h e mor ta r may a l so h ave b een i mpor ted , mo s tl i ke ly f r om c en t ra lI t a ly o rt he A egean . I tw ou ld h ave b een mor ed i ff icu l tf o r H e rod ' se ng ineer st ot r an spor tc on s t ruc t ion ma te r ia l si nb u lk b yl a nd f r om t he n ea rby v o lcan ic s t ra ta i nt he Ga l i lee r eg ion t han t o s h ip t hem f r om s ea s ide q ua r r ie s i n c en t ra l I t a ly o r t h e A egean .J o sephu sh im se lf r epor t s( J ew i sh A n t iqu i t i e s1 5 .332 ) :" Bu tw ha tw a se spec ia l ly n o tab le a bou tt h i sc on s truc t ion w a st ha th eg o tn o ma te r ia ls u i tab le f o rs og r ea t awo rk f r om t he p l ac e i t se lf b u t c omp le ted i tw i th ma ter ia l s b rough tf r om o u t s id e a tg r ea t e xpen se" . T he u n ique w ooden f o rmwork a tC ae sa rea w a sp ro tec ted f r om d ecay b y as l op ing r ubb le b e rm p i led c a . 1 . 40 m u pa ga in s te ach f a ce o ft h ef o rm .T oj udg ef r om mode rn h a rbou re ng inee r ing p rac t ice s ,t he b e rm w a sm ean tt op rev en te ro s ion o ft he s andy f ounda t ion o ft h ef i n i shed b lock b yw ave a c t ion ,a nd i t sc on sequen td i sp lacemen ta nd f r ac tu r ing .E xcava t ion m ay s how t ha tt h e b ody o ft he w ho le n o r thern b reakwa te ri sc ompo sed o fs uch l a rge c oncre te b l oc( s ,o r ig ina l ly o ve r la id b ya sh la rk urkar p av ing a nd as p ray b a r r ie r .I ft h i si st h ec a se , ab erm w ou ld h ave b een n ece s sa ry o n ly a round t h e p er iphery o ft h e s t ruc tu r e . As e cond c onc r e te b lock w a sd i scove r ed p ro jec t ing f r om t h es and 6 . 60 m n or th o ft h ef i r s tb lock i nA rea G ,s epa ra te f r om t h er e s to ft h eb reakwa te r ma s s( F igu re 1 ) . E xcava t ion r e vea led t ha t t he s e cond b lock w a s b u i l t o ft he s ame ma ter ia l s a nd i nt he s ame manne r a st he f i r s t o ne i nve s t iga ted , t ha t t h e b lock s h ad a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame o r ien ta t ion , a nd t ha t t h e ir w e s t e rn f a ce sw e re a l igned . A ti t sw e s tc o rne r ,w he re i ti sb e s tp re s erved ,t h ei r regu la ru pper s ur f ac eo f t he b lock s t and sa t5 . 77 m b e low s e al e ve l ,a nd t he s moo th ,f l a tl owe rs urface a t7 . 7 mb e low s e a l e ve l . A l though t r ace so f ar ubb le b e rm s urv ive a round t h eb lock ,o n ly af ew p i ece so f wooden f o rmwo rk h ave b een p re se rv ed ,a nd t h ec onc re te ma s si t se l fw a sf r ac tu red a nd i n comp le te .T he l ower e dge o ft h es ou thern f a ce o ft h eb lock ,w h ich r e s t so n as t ra tum o fs t er i le g r ay s and ,s l ope s u pwa rd s l igh t ly f r om w e s tt oe a s t ,f r om 7 . 70 m t oc a .7 . 20 m b e low s ea l e ve l ,a nd i si n ter rup ted b ys ev era l ma jo rf i s sure s6 . 87 m a nd 8 . 0 mf r om i t ss ou thw e s tern c orne r .T he b l ock t ape r st oa t h ickne s s o fo n ly 0 . 17 m b efore e nd ing a brup t ly i n as ma l l h eap o fr ubb le 1 2 .0 m e a s t o ft h e s ou thwe s te rn c o rner ,p o s s ib ly a to rn ea rt h eo r ig ina ls ou thea s te rn c orner .T he w e s tern f a ce o f t he b lock w a se xcava ted f o r6 . 0mt ot h en o r th ,u ncover ing s e vera lh o le sl e f tb yh or izon ta lt i e b eam s ,b u tn oc orner a ppea red h er e ,a nd ap robe 2 . 0 md e ep o nt he l i ne o ft he w e s te rn f a ce a nd 1 2 .0 m n or th o ft he s ou thwe s te rn c o rne rd id n o t e ncoun ter a ny s t ruc tura l r ema in s . I ts e em s l i ke ly t ha t t h e b lock , w ho se d imen s ion sw i l l b ed e te rm ined b yf u r the re xcava t ion , w a s t i pped a nd f r ac tured b yt he f au l ts l ippage w h ich s e em st oh ave d e s t royed much o ft h eo u ter h a rbou r s ome t ime d ur ing t he Emp ire .T h i sb lock p robab ly s e rved a st h ef ounda t ion f o rt h es i ng le t owe r

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supporting statuary mentioned by Josephus as standing to the port side of a ship entering the harbour (Jewish Antiquities 15.338; Jewish Wars 1.413). The two towers he mentions on the starboard side were examined in 1981. LITERARY EVIDENCE FOR ROMAN HAROUR TECHNOLOGY

It is unfortunate that Josephus' otherwise detailed description of Sebastos (JA 15.331-339; JW 1.408-414) only hints at the construction procedures used by Herod's engineers. Having calculated the relative size of the harbour (limen) as we have stated, he let down stone blocks (/ithous) into the sea to a depth of20 fathoms (ea. 37 m). Most of them were 50 feet long, 9 high, and 10 wide (15.25 m x 2.7 m x 3.05 m), some even larger. When the submarine foundation (to hyphalon) was finished, he then laid out the mole (teichos) above sea level, 200 feet across (61.0 m). Of this, a 100 foot portion was built out to break the forces of the waves, and consequently was called the breakwater (prokumia). The rest supported the stone wall (teichos) that encircled the harbour. At intervals along it were great towers (pyrgoi), the tallest and most magnificent of which was named Drusion, after the stepson of Caesar. There were numerous vaulted chambers (psalides) for the reception (katagoge) of those entering the harbour, and the whole curving structure in front of them was a wide promenade for those who disembarked. The entrance channel faced north, for in this region the north wind always brings the clearest skies. At the harbour entrance were colossal statues, three on either side, set up on columns. A massively-built tower (pyrgos) supported the columns on the port side of boats entering harbour, those on the starboard side, two upright blocks of stone yoked together, higher than the tower on the other side. (JW I.411-413) To correct this drawback in the topography, he laid out a circular harbour (limen) on a scale sufficient to allow large fleets to lie at anchor close to shore, and let down enormous blocks or stone (lithous) to a depth of20 fathoms (ea. 37 m). Most were 50 feet long, not less than 18 feet wide and 9 feet high (15.2 5 m x 5.49 m x2.7 m). The structure which he threw up as a barrier against the sea was200 feet (wide). Half of this opposed the breaking waves, warding off the surge breaking there on all sides. Consequently it was called a breakwater (prokumia). The rest comprised a stone wall (teichos) set at intervals with towers (pyrgoi), the tallest of which, quite a beautiful thing, was called Drusus, taking its name from Drusus, the stepson of Caesar who died young. A series of vaulted chambers (psalides) was built into it for the reception (katagogai) of sailors, and in front of them, a wide, curving quay (apobasis)encircled the whole harbour, very pleasant for those who wished to stroll around. The entrance (eisplous) or mouth (stoma) was built towards the north, for this wind brings the clearest skies. The foundation (ba· · ) of the whole encircling wall on the port side of those sailing into the harbour was a tower (pyrgos) bu up on a broad base to withstand the water firmly, while on the starboard side were two great stone blocks (lithous), taller than the tower on the opposite side, upright and yoked together. (JA XV.334-338)

The materials imported at such great expense from far-off sources are described only as lithoi ("stones") of various colossal dimensions "let down" (kathienai) into the sea to form a submarine foundation (to hyphalon is the only substantive used) for impressive "towers" or "superstructures" (pyrgoi). The mention of a depth of 20 fathoms (ea. 37 m) in an area presently no deeper than 15 m clearly is an error, but the specification of "stones" as large as 9 ft. x 18 ft. x 50 ft. (ea. 2.7 m x 5.49 m x 15.25 m) does not exceed the dimensions of the concrete blocks on the north breakwater. Josephus does not differentiate between stone and concrete blocks in the harbour, possibly because the concrete was all hidden below water level or clad in the white marble (/euke petra, leukos /ithos) he mentions as a feature of the harbour area (JA 15.331; JW 1.408, 414). Josephus or his source may not have been aware of the variety of materials employed by Herod or may not even have fully understood the distinction between concrete and natural stone. Although no ancient handbooks of harbour construction have survived, the�e is an account of breakwater construction in Vitruvius's De architectura (5.12.2-6) which complements Josephus's description of Sebastos. This passage, probably published around 25 B.C., just before construction began at Caesarea (ea. 22 B.C.), describes procedures and materials very similar to those for which we found evidence in 1982. A careful consideration of this contemporary technical document is of immense assistance in reconstructing the procedures used by Herod's engineers. 169

(2) However, if we have no natural harbour situation suitable for protecting ships from storms, we must proceed as follows. If there is an anchorage on one side and no river mouth interferes, then a mole composed of concrete structures (structurae) or rubble mounds (aggeres) is to be built on either side and the harbour enclosure constructed in this manner. Those concrete structures which are to be in the water must be made in the following fashion. Earth (pulvis) is to be brought from that region which runs from Cumae to the promontory of Minerva and mixed in the mortar used in these structures, in the proportions of two parts earth to one of lime. (3) Next, in the designated spot, formwork (arcae) enclosed by stout posts and tie beams (stipitibus robusteis et catenis inclusae; literally "made of stout posts and braced around the circumference with chains") is to be let down into the water and fixed firmly in position. Then the area within it at the bottom, below the water, is to be levelled and cleared out, (working) from a platform of small crossbeams(? ex transtilis). The building is to be carried on there with a mixture of aggregate and mortar (caementis ex mortario materia mixta), as described above, until the space left for the structure within the form has been filled. The places which we have described above, then, have this natural advantage. But if on account of waves or the force of the open sea the anchoring supports (destinae) cannot hold down the forms, then a platform (pulvinus) is to be built out as firmly as possible from the shore itself or from the foundations of the mole (crepido). This platform is to be built out with a level upper surface over less than half its area. The section toward the shore is to have a sloping side. (4) Next retaining walls (margines) one and one half feet wide are to be built towards the sea and on either side of the platform equal in height to the level surface described above. Then the sloping section is to be filled in with sand and brought up to the level of the retaining walls and platform surface. Next a pier (pi/a) of the appointed size is to be built there, on this levelled surface, and when it has been poured is left at least two months to dry. Then the retaining wall which holds in the sand is cut away, and in this manner erosion of the sand by the waves causes the pier to fall into the sea. By this procedure, repeated as often as necessary, the breakwater (progressus) can be carried seaward. (5) However, in locations where the earth does not occur naturally, one must use the following procedure. Let double-walled formwork(i.e. cofferdams; arcae duplices) be set up in the designated spot, held together by close set planks and tie beams (relatis tabulis et catenis conligatae), and between the anchoring supports (destinae) have clay packed down in baskets made of swamp reeds. When it has been well tamped down in this manner, and is as compact as possible, then have the area bounded by the cofferdam (saeptio) emptied and dried out by means of water-screw installations and water-wheels with compartmented rims and bodies. The foundations (fundamenta) are to be dug there, within the cofferdam. If the foundations are to be on a rocky, solid bottom, the area to be excavated and drained is to be larger than the wall (murus) which will stand above, and then filled in with a concrete of aggregate, lime and sand (structura ex caementis calce et harena). (6) But if the bottom is soft, the: foundations are to be covered with charred alder or olive wood pilings and filled in with charcoal, as l cribed for the foundations of threaters and city walls. Then the wall is to be raised of squared stone (sa m) with joints as long as possible, so that the middle stones (medii lapides) may be well tied together by the joints. The space inside the wall is to be filled with rubble packing or concrete. Thus it may be possible to build a tower upon it.

Much of Vitruvius's technical information on various topics was based on Hellenistic Greek handbooks, and he certainly must have been familiar with Philo of Byzantium's Limenopoiika \(Harbour Construction), Book 3 of the Mechanike Syntaxis, published in the late third century B.C. He cites Philo as an authority (7 preface, 14) and had read the works of his teacher Ctesibius carefully (see 1.1.7; 7 preface, 14; 9.8.2-6; 10.7.1-4). Nevertheless, only the first and last paragraphs of Vitruvius's section on harbours (5.12.1 and 7; not quoted here) can have come from a Hellenistic handbook. They deal with natural harbour situations, their fortification, and shipyard design, while 5.12.2-6 describe typically Roman procedures of construction with concrete3 • ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR ROMAN HARBOUR TECHNOLOGY

Helmut Schlager has already discussed Vitruvius 5.12.2-6 in the context of the remains of a concrete breakwater at Side4 • He points out quite correctly that three procedures are described: 1) the construction of submarine piers with hydraulic concrete poured in a single-walled form (5.12.2-3); 2) the prefabrication of blocks of hydraulic(?) concrete above water(S.12.3-4); and 3) the construction of submarine piers of ordinary concrete within cofferdams that are pumped dry. The secret of Roman hydraulic concrete is the addition of pozzolana, a volcanic earth first identified around Puteoli (hence pulvis puteolanus), probably in the course of the third century B.C. By the late second century it had been used to construct piers and breakwaters at Puteoli 170

a nd C o sa , b u t t he f i r s t a pp l ica t ion o n at r u ly i mper ia l s ca le w a s a t C aesarea 5.V i truv ius d escr ibe st h is ma ter ia l i na n e a r l ier s e c t ion o fh i s w ork ( 2 .6 .1-6 ) : T here i sa l so at ype o fe ar th w h ich b y i t s n a ture p roduces marve l lous r e su l t s . I to ccur s i nt he r eg ion a round B a iae a nd t he a r ea o ft he mun ic ipa l i t ie sa round M t . V e suv ius . When t h i s h a sb een m ixed w i th l ime a nd a gg rega te i tf u rn i she ss t reng th t ov ar ious t ype so fb u i ld ing s ,a nd e ven w hen p i e r sa re b u i l to fi t i nt he s ea , t hey h a rden u nderwa ter . ( 2 .6 .1)

The p rocedures o u t l ined b yV i truv iu sf o rt he u se o fc onc re te f o rmwork i nh arbour c on s truc t ion a re l og ica l , a l though h i s p ro se i sn o t a lway s c l ear . T he f i r s t t ype o ff o rm i sp refabr ica ted o f u pr igh t sh e ld t oge ther b yc a tenae ,t hen f l oa ted o u t t op o s i t ion a nd d r iven i n to t he b o t tom . I n c ommon w i th S ch läger , Ii n terpre tt he c a tenae , l i t era l ly " cha ins" ,a st i eb eam sw h ich c ro ss t he f ormwo rk t op rov ide n ece s sary r i g id i ty a nd r e s is tt he o u tward p u sh o ft h e mor tar .T he mark so f s uch c r o s sbeams a r ev i s ib le i nt he c oncre te b lock sa tC o sa , C ae sarea ,S ide , L ep t i s Magna , a nd p robab ly mos t o ther Roman h arbour s 6.A c i rcumf eren t ia l b race o fc ha in s wou ld h ave b een much more d if f icu l tt oa r range a nd wou ld n o th ave a f forded p ro tec t ion a ga in s ta ny p ropens i ty t ob uck le i nward .T he C aesarea f o rmwork ,i na ny c a se ,d oes n o tc or re spond t oV i truv iu s 's f i r s t c a tego ry , s i nce i th a sd oub le w a l l s . I ta l so d i f f er sf r om t he s e cond V i truv ian p rocedure , where b lock s a r e p oured o n ap la tform o f s and , c ured , a nd a l lowed t o w a sh i n to t he s ea . I n t h is s i tua t ion t he f ormwork a lmo s ts ure ly wou ld h ave b een s a lvaged ,a nd b locks t he s i ze o ft hose i n A rea G p robab ly w ou ld h ave f r ac tured o rc ome t o r e s t i n at i pped p o s i t ion . The f o rmwork a t C ae sa rea c orre spond s mo s t c l o se ly w i th t he t h ird t ype o f V i truv ian c on s truc t ion ,i nw h ich ad oub le -wa l led c a is son i ss e tu po nt he s po ta nd p umped o u tt op rov ide ad ry s i tua t ion f or t he u se o f an on -hydrau l ic c oncre te m ix ture .I nt h i ss e c t ion ( 5 .12 .5 )V i truv ius s eem s t ob e d e scr ib ing l a rge u pr igh t s d r iven i n to t he s ea b o t tom , a nchor ing a nd p rov id ing a f r ame f o rt wo w a l l so fp lank sa nd t i eb eam s( ca tenae a ga in ) .T he u pr igh ts mus tb eo nt he i n s ide o ft he d oub le w a l l ,s i nce h es pec if ies t ha tt he b a ske t so fc l ay a re t ob ep acked i nb e tween t hem . The e nc losed a rea t hen i sp umped o u ta nd c l eared f o rc on s truc t ion . T he C ae sarea c a i sson h a s r i g id u p r igh ts wh ich h e ld d oub le w a l ls o fp lanks ,a nd h or izon ta lt i eb eam s ,b u ti t sr e la t ion t ot he s ea b o t tom i sv ery d i f f eren t . T he u pr igh t s( d e s t inae )a re n o tp ounded i n to t he b o t t , 'm , a sb o th t he t e rm i t se lf a nd V i truv iu s ' s d e scr ip t ion o ft he f i r s t t ype o fc a i sson i mp l ie s , b i a re i n s tead Mor t i sed i n to t he u pper s ur face o f h eavy s l eeper b eam s . L ike b o th V i truv ian d e s igns , t he Cae sar ea f ormwork s e ems t o l a ck a f l oor , a nd t he c oncre te w a s p oured o n ap repa red s ea b o t tom s urface . B u tu n l ike t h eV i truv ian c a i s son , t he d oub le -wa l led C ae sarea f orm c ou ld n o t h ave b een p umped d ry :i nt h ea bsence o f af l oor o r ab ar r ier o fu pr igh tp i l ing s ,s ea w a ter wou ld h ave f i l tered t hrough t he s and u nder t he s l eeper b eam sa nd b o i led u pt h rough t he e nc losed a rea a s f a s ta si t was r emoved . Ano ther a noma ly i st he u se a tC aesa rea o ft he d oub le -wa l led f orms V i truv iu sd es igna ted a sa ppropr ia te t oc oncre te l a ck ing p ozzo lana e ar th f or c oncre te i n c lud ing ar i ch a dm ix ture o fv o lcan ic e a r th a nd a gg rega te . I f t h e mor tar -packed d oub le w a l l o f t he C ae sarea f o rmwork w a s n o t m ean t t o make i t wa terproof , wha tp urpose d id i ts e rve ? Ib e l ieve t ha ta tC ae sarea w es e e ac onf la t ion o ft he t wo t ype so ff o rmwork d esc r ibed b yV i truv iu s ,i n as pec ia la dap ta t ion f o r at h ird t ype o fs i tua t ion . The e ng ineer k new f r om t h es t ar tt ha th ew a sw ork ing w i th ah ydrau l ic c oncre te t ha tc ou ld b e p oured d i rec t ly i ns ea w a ter ,b u te i ther t he e xposure o ft he s i te t ot he o pen s ea o rt he c harac ter o f t he s andy s ea b o t tom ( o r b o th ) made i td i ff icu l t t o f i x p refabr ica ted f o rms t o t he b o t tom b y mean so fp i l ing s . I nc onsequence , b o t tom le s s , d oub le -wa l led wooden f o rms w ere c on s truc ted o n s ho re a nd f l oa ted t o t he ir f i na l p o s i t ion s . Once t he f oo t ing s h ad b een c l eared a nd l e ve led , mo r ta rw as p oured i n to t h es e c t ion so ft he h o l low w a l l ,w i th c arefu la t ten t ion t ob a lance ,u n t i l t he b uoyancy o f t he wood w as o vercome a nd t he f o rm s e t t led i np o s i t ion o n t he p repared s ur face . Wh i le t he i nunda ted f orm w a sb e ing f i l led w i th t he c emen ta nd a gg rega te ,r ubb le w a s a l so d umped a round t he p er iphery t op reven ts h if t ing o ft he f o rmwork p r ior t ot he c ur ing o ft h e c oncre te ,o ru nderm in ing o ft h ef i na lb lock .T he p re sence o ft i eb eam sp a s s ing t h rough t he ma ss o ft h e c oncre te wou ld h ave p reven ted s a lvage o ft he f o rmwork i n tac t , b u t p or t ions may w e l l h ave b een p u l led f r ee f or r eu se : n ot r ace so ft he d oub le w a l lo ri t s mor tar p ack ing w ere f ound ,

1 7 1

f or e xamp le ,a long t h en or th f a ce o ft he b lock a tC ae sa rea . Mor tar w ou ld h ave b e en p ref erab le t os t one sa sb a l la s t ,b ecau se i tw a su n iform i nw e igh t ,e a s i ly h and led ,a nd wou ld f i l lc omp le te ly t he s e c t ions i n to w h ich i tw a s p our ed . S uch ap rocedure w ou ld h ave a l lowed ar ap id a nd f l ex ib le s chedu le o fc on s truc t ion .T he mo s t c omp lex p a r to ft he j ob ,p repa ra t ion o ft h ef o rmwork ,c ou ld h av eb een c a r r ied o u tc onven ien t ly o ns hore o ri ns ha l low w a te r ,w i thou tt h ed ang e ro fd amag et op ar t ia l ly c omp le ted f o rmwo rk b y s t orm s .I ti sd i ff i cu l tt os e eh ow t h eC ae sa rea f o rmwo rk c ou ld h ave b een f i tt og e th e ru nderwa t e r w i thou t e normou s e f for t . I n t h e a b sence o fp i l ing s t h e re w ou ld h av e b een n o f i rm a nchor f o r a ny o ft he u p r igh t so rp lank sa nd n one o ft h eh eavy w ork c ou ld h ave b een e xecu t ed f rom t h e s urf ace .A st he w ea ther a nd t he p r epa ra t ion o f ma ter ia l sf o rt he c onc re te a l lowed ,f o rms c ou ld h ave b een t owed t ov a r iou sp a r t so ft h eh a rbou ra nd p u ti np l ace b y af ew t r a ined w o rker s .E v en V i truv iu s ' ss i ng le w a l led ,p refab r ica ted f o rm s( 1 5 .12 .2 -3 )h ad t ob ep ounded i n to t h eb o t tom , u ndoub ted ly at r icky a nd t ime -con sum ing b u s ine s s .A sl ong a st h ef ou r ma s s ive s l eepe rb eam s o ft he C ae sa rea f o rmwork h ad s e t t led f i rm ly o n al e v e l s u r face o fs and , l i t t le c onc r e te w ou ld h ave l e aked o u ta st h ef o rm w a sf i l led .T h i sp rocedu re c on fo rm s mo r ec l o se ly w i th J osephu s ' s a s ser t ion t ha t H e rod " l e t d own e no rmou s b lock s o fs t one" i n to t h e s e a t han t h ea l terna t iv e , c on s t ruc t ion o fc a i s son s o nt h e s po t b yp i le d r iv ing o rs ubma r ine a s semb ly . I n t he n ex t t wo s e a son s p a r t o f t he C .A .H .E .P . e xcava t ion p rog ramme w i l l f o cu s o n a n e xam ina t ion o ft h ec on s t ruc t ion t e chn ique sa nd ma te r ia l su sed a tS eba s to s . B o th b r eakwa te r s a re made u p l a rg e ly o fh uge b lock s , mo s t o fw h ich s t i l l p re serve ma rk s o ft h e i r f o rmwo rk . F ur ther e v idence f o rt h ep rocedu re su sed b yH e rod 's e ng inee r s may y e ta ppea r .I na ny c a se ,i ti s a l ready e v iden t t ha t H erod h ad a th i s d i spo sa l h a rbour e ng inee r s s k i l led i nt h et e chn ique s o f c onc re te c on s truc t ion a nd s oph i s t ica ted i n t he i r c ho ice o f ma te r ia l s . T h i s t e chno logy h ad d eve loped i nc en t ra lI t a ly o ve rt h ep reced ing c en tury ,a nd H e rod a lmo s tc e r ta in ly o b ta ined h i s e ng inee r s f r om t ha t r e g ion .

NOTES 1 .

l am g ra tefu lt oD r .A vner R aban ,o v e ra l ld i rec to ro ft h eC .A .H .E .P .p ro jec t ,f o rt h eo ppor tun i ty t op r e s en tt he r e su l t s o f my r e sea rch h ere . Iam n ow p r epa r ing amo r ee x ten s ive s t udy w h ich w i l lt r ea tt h et e chn ica la nd h i s to r i ca lq ue s t ion s c oncern ing t h ef o rmwo rk i n mo re d e ta i l .T he t r an s la t ion o fV i t ruv iu sg i ven b e low i smy o wn ,b a sed o nt h eL a t in t e x ti n F . G range , V i truv iu s , D eA rch i tec tura ( Camb r idge , 1 9 31) . T he t r an s la t ion o fJ o sephu s i sa dap ted f r om H . S t . J . T hackery ,J osephu s , J ew i sh A n t iqu i t ie s( Cambr idge , 1 9 30 ) ,a nd T he J ew i sh Wa r s( Camb r idge , 1 927 ) .

2 .

T he mor ta ra nd w ood a na ly s i s w a s c a r r ied o u t b y P rof e s so rL upo o fT e l A v iv Un ive r s i ty .

3 .

T he mode rn b ib l iog raphy o na nc ien th a rbou r si sn ow n i ce ly s umma r ized b yD .J . B lackman ,I n te r na t iona lJ ourna lo f N au t ica lA rchaeo logy 1 ( 1 983 )7 9 104 , 1 85 -2 11 . F or P h i lo ' sh andbook ,s e eK . L ehmannHa r t leb en ," L im ' in ," i n RE X I 1 1 . 1 ( 1 926 ) 5 48 ; K . O r in sky , " Ph i lon ( 4 8 )" , RE XX .1 ( 1 94 1) 5 3 .

4 .

H . S ch läge r , "D ie T ex te V i truv si mL ich te d e r Un te r suchungen am H a f en v on S ide ," B onner J ah rbü cher 1 7 1 ( 1 971 )

5 .

T he C o sa p i e r s ,o ft h el a te s e cond o re ar ly f i r s tc en tury B .C . ,w i l lb ep ub l i shed b yE la ine Gazda i nA .M . McCann ( e d . ) , T he R oman P or ta nd F i shery o fC o sa ( P r ince ton Un ive r s i ty P re s s ) .F or P u teo l i ,s e eB lackman ,o p . c i t . ,p p . 1 9 5 , 1 97 ,n o te 8 5 -86 .

6 .

B lackmann , o p . c i t . , p .1 97 , n o te 8 5 .

1 50 -6 1 .

1 72

ALEXANDER FL INDER

The P i sc ina s a tC ae sa rea a nd L ap i tho s B recho t C leopa tra : T he P oo l o fC leopa tra i st he t r ad i t iona l n ame g i ven t o t he r ock -cu t t ank s i tua ted o nt he h ead land w h ich j u t so u ti n to t he s e aj us tw e s to ft he Roman t hea tre a tC aesarea . The a r ch i tec tura lr ema ins ,o fw h ich t he p oo li sap ar t ,f i r s ta t trac ted my i n teres ti n1 964 when I f ormed t h e v i ew t ha t t hey w e re o f a` p i sc ina ' , af i sh tank o ft h e Roman p er iod . B u t i tw a s n o t u n t i l 1 973 ,a f ter Ih ad c ar r ied o u t as urvey o f as im i lar s i te a tL ap i thos o nt he n or thern c oa s to f C yp ru s , t ha t Iw a s a b le t o i n ve s t iga te t h e C ae sarea s i te i n d e ta i l a nd c onf irm my o r ig ina l i n terpre ta t ion ( F ig s . 1a nd 2 ) 1 . To u nder s tand t h is c onc lus ion , i ti sn ece ssary t o b ecome f am i l iar w i th t he a rch i tec ture a nd t e chno logy o ft he p i sc ina w h ich w a sp opu lar i nI t a ly d ur ing t he p er iod o ft he l a te R epub l ic a nd t he e a r ly Emp ire . A ccord ing t o P l iny , t he f a sh ion f o r own ing v ivar ia f o r f i sh w a s i n troduced b efore t h ee nd o ft he 2 nd c en tury B .C .b yL ic in ius Murena w ho ,b ecau se o fh i sp ar t ia l i ty f o rt h i s s pec ie s o f f i sh , e arned h imse lf t h i s n i ckname 2.T he s t or ie s s ur round ing f i sh tank s a nd t he ir owner s , whom C icero s c a th ing ly d ubbed ' f i sh -ponder s ' w ere many . I tw ou ld a ppear t ha t n o e xpen se w as s pared a nd L uc ius L ucu l lus i sr epor ted t oh ave h ad ac hanne ld ug t h rough ah i l li n o rder t ob r ing s eawa ter t oh i sf i sh p ond sn ear Nap le s 3.S eneca s ays t ha ts o me p eop le f a t tened s ea f i sh i nt he p i sc ina f o rt he p urpo se o fk eep ing t he ir t ab le sw e l l s upp l ied h owever s t ormy t he w ea ther a t s ea m igh t b e , a nd Mar t ia l d escr ibe s h ow i n t he v i l la o f h i s f r iend Apo l l inar i s a t F orm iae t he t ab le c ou ld a lway sb ef u rn i shed ,n o ma t ter h ow f i erce ly as t orm w a sr ag ing ,b yt he Ma s te rl e t t ing d own h i s l i ne f r om h i s c ouch t oc a tch t u rbo t o r b a ss4. B u ti tw ou ld s e em t ha ti tw a s more c ommon f o rf i sh t ob ek ep ti np i sc ina a sp e t sr a ther t han f o r e a t ing .T he t wo w r i ter so nR oman a g r icu l ture ,V ar ro a nd C o lume l la ,g i ve l ong i r, -+ — .z . t ions f o r t he c on s truc t ion o f f i sh p ond s a nd i nd ica te h ow w ide spread a nd p opu lar t h e i n s ta l la t ion s w ere 5. T he p i sc ina wh ich w a su sua l ly i n tegra ted w i th t he mar i t ime v i l la ,w as c arefu l ly d es igned t oe n sure ac ons tan tf l ow o fs eawa ter , t hus ma in ta in ing t he o ccupan t s i n ah ea l thy c ond i t ion . The s upp ly o fw a ter w a s a ch ieved b y as e r ie s o fc hanne l s l e ad ing t o a nd f r om t h e s ea w i th i n termed ia te s l u ice g a te s , a nd s o me t ime s t here w ere e l abora te ly c on s t ruc ted t unne l s l e ad ing f r om t h e s ea t os epara te c ompar tmen t ss pec ia l ly s haped t oc on ta in f i sh o fd i f f eren ts pec ie s . S o e l abora te w ere s o me o ft he se i n s ta l la t ions t ha tt he ir owner sw ere o f ten c r i t ic ised f o re xces s ive o s ten ta t ion ,s pend ing i ti ss a id , more o nt he f i sh p ond t han o nt he V i l la 6.I ndeed i tw ou ld a ppear t ha tt h ef i sh p i sc ina w a ss ome th ing o f as t a tu ss ymbo li nR oman s oc ie ty a nd t he ir s p lendour i s c onf irmed b y t he many r ema in s w h ich a bound o n t h e T yr rhen ian c oa s t o f I t a ly a nd S i c i ly . S ome 2 6 s i tes h ave b een i d en t if ied i nt he I t a l ian h ome land a nd t here a re many i np rov inc ia l Rome . T hey a re o fa l l s i ze s a nd s hape s , i n c lud ing s o me w h ich a re t o ta l ly c i rcu lar ' . T he s im i lar i t ie s b e tween t h e C ae sa rea a nd L ap i tho s s i te s a re mos t s t r ik ing . F or e xamp le , t h e p ropor t ion o ft he ma in t anks o n e ach s i te a re t he s a me . C aesarea m ea sures 3 5m x 1 8m a nd L ap i thos 2 7m x 1 4m , s o t ha t i ne ach c a se t he l e ng th i se qua l t o t w ice t he b read th m inu s o ne me tre .I nb o th i n s ta l la t ion st he o b long c en tra lt ank h as as e r ie so fr ock -cu tc hanne ls l e ad ing t o s e condary t anks , wh ich i nt u rn l e ad t ot he s ea . Wa ter c i rcu la t ion i sc on tro l led b ys l u ice g a te so f p rec i se ly s im i lar d es ign ,i . e .b yg roove sc u ti n to t h ec hanne lw a l l sc on ta in ing s l id ing s t one s l ab s . T he s e condary t ank s o n b o th s i te s a re v ery s im i lar i np ropor t ion a nd d e s ign ( F ig s . 2 ,3 ,4 ) . However ,C ae sarea a nd L ap i tho sd i f f er i no ne f undamen ta l manner ;t h is r e la tes t ot he m e thod o fs e awa ter s upp ly a nd e x trac t ion . F rom s t ud ie s o fI t a l ian s i tes i ti sc l ear t ha t t he re a re t wo d i s t inc t me thod s o f s upp ly ; t he f i r s t i sd er ived f r om w ave p ower a nd t he o ther f r om t i da l mo t ion 5.L ap i thos i sav ery g ood e xamp le o ft h ef o rmer w hereas C aesarea a dhere st ot he l a t ter , b u t w i th t he a dd i t ion o f as p lend id ly i ngen ious a id w h ich Is ha l l m en t ion l a ter .

1 73

. h ec en tra lL ap i tho st ank h a sa ti t ss e ae nd t wo e l abora te ly c on s t ruc ted t unne li n le t sf r om t h e e a .T he se t unne l sa re a l igned t ot he p redom inan tw ind a nd w ave d i r ec t ion s ot ha tt h ee f f ec to f h es ea r u sh ing t h rough t h et unne l sw ou ld b et oi mpe lt h ew a te rw i th c on s iderab le f o rc et owa rd s h e f u r the s t e nd o ft he t ank a nd o n t h rough t he e x trac t o u t le t s t hu s ma in ta in ing ac on s tan t h ange o fw a te r . C on t ro li se f f ec ted b yt h es y s tema t ic d amn ing a nd u ndamn ing o ft h ev ar iou s l u ice g a te s . T he w a ter c i rcu la tory s y s tem a tC ae sa rea ,h oweve r ,f unc t ion so n ad i f f eren tp r inc ip le .T ot h e w e s to ft he ma in t ank a nd s i tua ted o n al a rge p la tform a ts e al e ve lw es e et h ree o rp o s s ib ly f ou r d eep r e servo ir s . T he s ma l l t i da l c hange e f f ec t ive ly r ep len i she s t h e w a te rw i th in t h e r e servo i r s w h ich i nt u rn a r e c onnec ted b y c hanne l s t ot h e ma in t ank ( F ig . 3 ) . I n t h i s c a se h owever o ft i da l f e ed ing o ne d oe s n o t h ave t h e a dvan tag e o f aw av e p rope l led c i rcu la t ion . T hu s i ti sn ece s sary t oe x t rac t t h e w a te rb y s ome mo t ive p ower . A t C aesarea a n e x t rac t s y s tem h a s b een a ch ieved i n a n i mag ina t iv e a nd i mp re s s iv e manner . T he p r inc ipa l e x trac t c hanne l w h ich l e ave s t he s ou th s ide o ft h ep i sc ina i sr ou ted t h rough a n e xcep t iona ly d eep a nd n a r row c u t t ing i nt h eb ed rock a nd t h en t e rm ina te sa ts e al e v e li mmed ia te ly a bov ea r ound h o le b or ed i n to t he r ock a ts ea l e ve l . I tw a so b se rved t ha tt h ee f f ec to ft h ew ave sw i th in t h i sh o le s t imu la te s as yphon ic a c t ion w h ich ,b ys uck ing t h ew a ter o u to ft he e x t rac tc hanne l , p roduce s af o rced s y s tem o f c i rcu la t ion t h rough t h e i n te rconnec t ing s e r ie s o f t ank s a nd c hanne l s . A l though t he ma in e x trac to r c hanne l i sp re sen t ly f i l led w i th d ebr i s , t h e re i sl i t t le d oub tt ha ti fi tw a sc l ea red ,t oge ther w i th t h ei n le ts y s tem s ,t h ep i sc ina c ou ld b em ad et ow ork i n i t s o r ig ina lf o rm ( F ig . 5 ) . Ar ewa rd ing f i na le t o my s u rvey a tC ae sa rea w a s t h e a cc id en ta l d i scovery o f af i ne mo sa ic t e r race a tt he e a s te rn e nd o ft h e ma in t ank . Two d ay so ft o r r en t ia lr a in h ad w a shed a way t he t op l a ye r so fs and r e vea l ing t h i s mo sa ic w h ich i sv e ry l i ke ly o fH e rod ian d a te .B ecau se o fi t sp o s i t ion o n t h e c en tra l a x i s o ft h e ma in t ank , i ti sc e r ta in ly a n i n teg ra l p a r t o ft he p i sc ina l a you t . T h e c en t ra lp ane li smade u po fb l ack ,w h i te a nd p ink c o lou red t e s se rae i n ag eome t r ic p a t tern .T he mo sa ic t o e ach s i de o f t h e c en tra l p ane l h a s as imp le r d e s ign , b e ing c ompo sed o f aw h i t e b ackg round w i th r egu la r ly s paced s ma l l b l ack mo t ive s . T h i s mo sa ic p ane l , t o g e the r w i th a d jo in ing a rea s , w a s s ub sequen t ly c l ea r ed b y D r . E . N e tze r a nd D r . L . I . L ev ine . . 1. i ec en t ra l p ane lw a sf ound t om ea sure 5 . 2m x2 . 6m a nd i tw a so b se rved t ha tt he d e s ign w a sv ery n ea r ly i d en t ica lt ot ha td i scove red i nt he L a rge Ha l lo ft h eW in te rP a lace o fK ing He rod i nJ er icho 9. T h i si n ve s t iga t ion s howed t ha tt he mo sa ic p ane l sw e re c en t r ed i n as e r ie so fr oom st ot he e a s t e rn e nd o ft he ma in t ank a nd t e s t if i ed t ot h ea rch i tec tu ra l s p l endour o ft h es i te . T he a u thor s o ft h i s l a ter i n ve s t iga t ion , h oweve r , d i f f ered w i th my o wn i n terp r e ta t ion o ft h e t ank s . T hey h ave e xp re s sed t he v i ew t ha t t h e ma in p oo l w a s u sed f or ' s w imm ing a nd d ecora t ive ly , a nd n o t f o r t h e k eep ing o ff i sh ' . T he i r v i ew i st ha t t h e s e r ies o fc hanne l s a nd a s soc ia ted s ma l ler t ank sw er eo f al a te rc on s truc t ion a nd t h ey s ugge s tt ha tt h i ss i t ec ou ld b et h a t o ft h e P a lace o fK ing H e rod a tC ae sa rea m en t ioned b yJ o sephu s l° . My o wn c onc lu s ion s a re b a sed o n ac ompa r i son o f t h e a r ch i tec tura l a nd t e chn ica l d e ta i l s o b served a t L ap i tho s , a nd e l sewhe re i np rov ic ia l R ome , b u t mo s t p a r t icu la r ly i nt he m any p i sc ina i n s ta l la t ion sf ound i nt he I t a l ian h ome land . Ih av en ow i sh t oa dd o rd e t rac tf r om t h e ' K ing H erod P a lace 't heory ,b u t Iw ou ld ,h oweve r ,o b se rv et ha ti tw ou ld c er ta in ly h ave b een i n t h en a ture o fH e rod t oh ave b u i l t ama r i t ime V i l la a tC ae sa r ea a nd t ha ti nc ommon w i th t ho se i n t h eR oman h ome land t h i sV i l la w ou ld a lmo s tc e r ta in ly h ave i n co rpo ra ted al u xu r iou sp i sc ina . Im en t ioned e ar l ier t ha tt h et r ad i t iona ln ame f o rt h es i te a tC ae sa rea i s' The P oo lo fC leopa t ra ' . T he t r ad i t iona l G reek n ame g i ven t ot h e p i sc ina a tL ap i tho s i s' The P oo l o ft h e Q ueen ' .

Iw ou ld l i ke t or e co rd m ya pp r ec ia t ion t oD r . E l i sha L i nd e ra nd t oD r . J o s eph S haw w i th w hom If i r s tv i ew ed t h i s i n s ta l la t ion i n1 9 64 .

1 74

1 75

A e r i a l p h o t o f t h e p i s c i n a a t C a e s a r e a .

0.

1 76

t o . SG

F ig . 3 .

1 . 26

T he n or thwe s te rn s l u iced c hanne lo ft h ep i sc ina a tC ae sarea .

1 13

F ig . 4 .

I2 . 6

T he s ou thwe s te rn s l u iced c hanne lo ft h ep i sc ina a tC ae sarea .

1 77

F ig . 5 .

S chema t ized p lan o ft h ep i sc ina a tC ae sarea . N o t ice t h e t h ree t a nks o n t h el e f t( we s te rn )s i d eo ft h ep romon tory .

NOTES : 1 .

S ee a s l so A . F l inde r , "A P i sc ina a tC ae sa r ea — A P r e l im ina ry R epo r t" ,I s rae lE xp l ora t ion J ou r na l ,2 6 , 1 976 :77 -80 ; K .N ico laau & A .F l inde r , "Anc ien tF i sh -Tank sa tL ap i tho s ,C ypru s" , I n terna t iona lJ ou rna lo fN au t i ca lA rchaeo l ogy , 5 ,1 976 :133 14 1 . F ig . 2h e re i sp ub l i shed w i th t h e k ind p e rm i s s ion o f CAHEP .

2 .

P l iny ,N a tu ra lH i s to ry , I X . 1 70 .

3 .

i b id . , 1 7 1 .

4 .

C o lume l la , O nA g r icu l ture V I I I , 1 6 .

5 .

i b id , c hap t . 1 7 ; V a r ro , R e rum R u s t i carum , I I , 3 . 17 .

6 .

P l iny , I X , 1 70 ; C o lume l la ,V I I I , 1 6 .5 -7

7 .

G . S chm ied t ,i lL ive l lo a n t ico d e l Ma rT i r reno , T e s t imon iare d e ir e s t ia rcheo log ic i ,R ome , 1 972 ;" En I t a l ic ,l e sv i v ie r s r oma in sd el ac ö te t y r rh8n ienne e tl a mon t8e d un i veau d e se aux , L e sd os s ie r sd e sh i s to i re se ta rchd o l og i e ,5 0 , 1 9 8 1 :28 -45

8 .

S chm ied t , 1 972 :108 119 , 1 37 14 1 , 1 44 175 , 1 76 196 .

9 .

E .N e tze r , " The Ha smonean a nd H erod ian W in te r P a lace sa tJ e r icho ,I s rae lE xp lora t ion J ou r na l , 2 5 , 1 975 :89 100 .

1 0 .

L .I .L ev ine & E .N e tze r , "New L igh to n C ae sar ea" , Q admon io t , X I , 1 9 78 :73 -5 .

1 78

ROBERT L. HOHLFELDER

Byzantine Coin Finds from the Sea: A Glimpse of Caesarea Maritima's Later History INTRODUCTION

During May and June of 1981, the Caesarea Ancient Harbour Excavation Project (C.A.H.E.P.), a tri-national consortium consisting of the University of Haifa, the University of Colorado, the University of Victoria, and the University of Maryland, conducted explorations at Sebastos, the harbour complex ofCaesarea Maritima 1 . Professor Avner Raban, Chairman of the Center for Maritime Studies of the University of Haifa, was the project director, with Professors John P. Oleson (University of Victoria), R. Lindley Vann (University of Maryland), and the author (University of Colorado) serving as co-directors and representing their respective universities. The 1981 season was carried out under the aegis of the Center for Maritime Studies and the Israeli Department of Antiquities and was funded by generous grant� from the Caesarea Development Corporation, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Universities of Haifa and Colorado, and numerous private donors. I wish to acknowledge my personal gratitude and that of C.A.H.E.P. for this support. THE DISCOVERY OF THE COINS

Land and underwater excavations were undertaken at three primary locations during the 1981 season. One underwater excavation was conducted slightly seaward or north of the western side of the entrance channel of Herod's harbour in a section designated as Area K. Here two concrete towers were uncovered during air lift operations. There can be no doubt that these towers were components of the main architectural feature mentioned by Josephu� as adorning the harbour mouth. He speaks of the presence of two stones yoked together to form a platform base for three colossal statues on the starboard side of the entrance for entering ships. (Jewish War 1.7.413; Jewish Antiquities 15.6.338) Although the towers are actually concrete structures, their location accords precisely with his account. In the course of excavations around the bases of these two towers, numerous artifacts from various periods ofCaesarea 's past were uncovered including nine bronze and copper coins and . one lead tessera from Roman Egypt. All of these artifacts were once part of the litter found on the ancient harbour floor. Such material had been consciously thrown into the sea or, in the case 1 of the coins, accidentally lost while in use on the harbour's various loading docks and not recovered. Much of this type of miscellaneous debris found its way to and through the harbour entrance, swept along by an artifically induced outflowing current2 • When this outflow met the 1 open sea, its force would have been dissipated resulting in the deposition of any objects it may have been carrying. Many of the artifacts thus deposited would have eventually lodged in the breakwaters or against structures such as the towers located there. The nine coins and one tessera found their way to the tower bases in just such a manner. They did not form a coherent deposit but rather should be considered stray finds that are a totally random sample of coins lost within the harbour. In addition to the Roman tessera, one bronze coin from the second century C.E. was uncovered. The other eight coins dated from the fourth through the seventh centuries C.E., Caesarea's Byzantine era. On the eastern side of the harbour entrance, in an area designated as D, five more bronze and copper coins were uncovered during excavations around and below large kurkar blocks (c.7.0xl.3.xl.3m). These blocks were from a massive structure that once had stood on the terminus of the North Breakwater but had tumbled into the sea during an earthquake. The five 179

c o in s , p a r t o f ar i ch c oncen tra t ion o fa r t if ac t s r e cove red h e r e , h ad b een d epo s i ted i nt he w ay d e scr ibed a bove .T hey t oo w e re n o td i scove r ed i n am ean ing fu ls t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t .T h re eo f t he se c o in s w e re f r om C ae sa r ea ' s R oman o ccupa t ion ; t wo w er e f r om t he B yzan t ine e poch . A mode s tl a nd e xcava t ion a d jacen tt oa nH e l len i s t ic o re a r l ier q uay w a sa l so c onduc ted i n1 9 8 1 . T h i sz one o fa rchaeo log ica lc once rn w a sd e s igna ted A r ea Ja nd i sl o ca ted c .3 00m n or th o ft h e H erod ian h arbou ra nd i nt he p rox im i ty o ft h es ynagogue e xcava ted b yP rof e s so r s Av i -Yonah a nd N egev i nt h ee a r ly 1 960 's . No u nde rwa te re xcava t ion sw e re u nde r taken a l though s uch w o rk i sp lanned f o rt he f u ture .T h ir teen c o in sw e re u ncovered i nt he l and t r ench : 1w e re f r om t h e f ou r th c en tu ry C .E . ;o ne h a lf -fo l l i ss t ruck a tT he s sa lon ica d u r ing t he r e ign o f Mau r ice ( 5 82 -602 C .E . ) w a s d i scov ered ; a nd o ne c o in f r om t h e T u rk i sh o ccupa t ion w a s f ound a sa n i n t ru s iv e p i ece . T he f our th c en tury i s sue s w ere l a rge ly f r om t h e r e ign o fC on s tan t iu s 1( 3 37 -361 C .E . ) w ho se c o in sa r ef ound i ng rea tn umbe r si nC ae sa rea l a nd e xcava t ion s .T he se p a r t icu lar c o in sd o n o tn ece s sa r i ly i nd ica te t he c on t inued u se o ft h eq uay d ur ing t h ef our th c en tury b u tr a the rw e r e mo s tp robab ly w a shed t ot he ir f i nd s po tt h rough t h ed ra ins o ft h en ea rby s ynagogue . Non eo f t h e c o in s f r om A rea Jw a s f ound i nt he s e a .

THE B YZANT INE CO INS F ROM THE S EA B a se m e ta l c o in s a r e n o t n o rma l ly u ncove r ed d u r ing e xp lora t ion s i n s ubme rg ed h a rbou r s . Un le s sc i rcum s tance sa re e xcep t iona l ,s uch a r t if ac t su sua l ly w i l ls uccumb t ot h er a vage so ft h e ma r ine e nv i ronmen t . I na l lo the rs e a son so fC .A .H .E .P . ' se xcava t ion s ,o n ly af ew l e g ib le c o in s h ave b een f ound u nde rwa te r .T he r e la t ive ly l a rge n umbe ro fc o in f i nd sf rom t h es e ai n1 9 81 i s d ue t o t he c ond i t ion s p reva i l ing i n t h e a r ea s w he re t h e e xp lora t ion s o ccu r red . S uch a c oncen t ra t ion w a s mo s t l i ke ly a to rn ea rt h e h a rbour e n trance where t he o u tf low ing c u r r en t w ou ld h ave s wep tt h e se m ino ro b jec t sf r om v a r iou sp o in t sw i th in t he h arbou r .O nce d epo s i ted i nt h i ss e c t ion o ft h eh a rbour f l oo r ,t h ec o in sw er eq u ick ly c ove red b ys and a nd g r av e l .A l though t hey w ere s pa red f r om e xce s s ive d amage b yc or ro s ive o x ide s ,t he i s sue sh ad b een b ad ly s cou r ed b yt he a b ra s ive a c t ion o f mov ing s and . When d i scov e red , t h ey w e re s im i la ri na ppearanc et o c o in s t ha th ad b een i mp rope r ly c l eaned i na na c id c ompound . A l lo ft h ec o in sw e re i nd iv idua lf i nd si nn oa pparen ta s soc ia t ion w i th o ne a no th e r .T hey c ame f r om d i s tu rbed a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t s . F ie ld d e ta i l s o nb o th o bve r se s a nd r e ve r se s a r e o f ten u ncer ta in a nd s ome t ime si l eg ib le .T en ta t ive i d en t if ica t ion so fa l l 1 0B yzan t ine c o in sf ound i n A rea s Da nd K a r e p o s s ib le a nd f o l low :

C .A .H .E .P . TE MPORARY CATALOGUE NU MBER

I DENT IF ICAT IONS

CATALOGUE R EFERENCES 3

C 81-C1

Maur ice , Ha lf -Fo l l i s , An t ioch ,a f te r5 9 1 C .E .

DOC , I ,n o s . 1 84 f f . ,p p .347 -349

C 81-C13

J us t in ian , F o l l i s , Con s tan t inop le ,5 27 -538 C .E .

DOC , I ,n o s . 3 0 c -30d ,p .8 0

C 81-C4

Con s tan t iu s I , AE3 , A lexand r ia , FH3 , 3 51-354 C .E .

LRBC , n o . 2 844 , p . 103

C 81-C6

Maur ice , F o l l is , An t ioch , 5 86/7 C .E .

DOC , I ,n o s . 1 5 6 . 1156 .2 ,p . 39

C 81-C7

Maur ice , F o l l i s , An t ioch , 5 88/90 C .E .

DOC ,I ,n o s . 1 5 9b .1 -159c .3 ,p .3 40

C 81-C8

Maur ice , F o l l i s , M in t Unce r ta in , 5 88/ 9 C .E .

c f . DOC , I ,n o . 1 5 8c , p .3 40

C 81-C9

Maur ice o r T iber iu s I , F o l l i s , a l l o the r d e ta i l s l o s t

C 81-C10

T iber iu s I , F o l l i s , N icomed ia , 5 8 1/2 C .E . ( ? )

DOC , I ,n o s . 3 1a 1 31a 5 ,p .2 79

C 81-C 11

T iber iu s I , F o l l is ,C on s tan t inop le , 5 80/ 1 C .E .

DOC , I ,n o . 1 3d ,p .2 71

C 81-C 12

T iber ius I , F o l l i s , C on s tan t inop le , 5 80/ 1 C .E .

A s Above

AREA D

AREA K

1 80

OBSERVAT IONS A l though n one o ft he se 1 0B yzan t ine c o in sw a su ncov er ed i n as t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t ,t oge the r t hey f o rm a ni mpor tan tb ody o fa r t ifac tua l ma ter ia l .T he i rd i scove ry i no rn ea rt h ee n trance t o t he o u te rb a s in o fH e rod 's h a rbou rp rov ide sc onv inc ing e v idence f o rt h eu se o ft h i sf a c i l i ty i n to t he s e ven th c en tury C .E . Wh i le t h ep re sence o ft h e se c o in si nA rea s Da nd K m igh tb ee xp la ined i no the rw ay s , t he mo s t l i ke ly e xp lana t ion i sa l so t he s imp le s t . Dur ing t he c our se o fn orma l a c t iv i t i e so n t he q uay s , m e rchan t s , s h ip c ap ta in s , p o r t o f f ic ia l s , v i s i tor s a nd l o ca l i nhab i tan t s wou ld h ave r ou t ine ly e xchanged c o in sa nd f r equen t ly l o s tt h em i nt h es ea . B a se m e ta li s sue so f m ino r v a lue , s uch a s t he o ne s u ncover ed , w ou ld n o t h av e o cca s ioned e xcep t iona l r e cov e ry e f fo r t s ,w h i le t he l o s so f ap u r se o fp r ec iou sm e ta lc o in s mo s tp robab ly d id .T h i sc ommon e ven t o fd ropp ing ac o in i n to t h e s e a w ou ld n o t h ave o ccu r r ed i ft h e h a rbour h ad n o tb een i nu se . P r io rt oC .A .H .E .P . ' s 1 981 s e a son ,i th ad b een s ugg e s ted t ha tt he H e rod ian h a rbou r may h ave b een a bandoned b efore t h eB yzan t ine e ra , av i c t im o fe a r thquake sa nd c oncom i tan ts l ump ing o ft h eo cean f l oo ra nd/o rc hang ing p o l i t ica la nd e conom ic c ond i t ion si nt h e Ho ly L and4.T he b ay t ot h es ou th o ft he ma in f a c i l i ty ,d e s igna ted t he S ou th B ay ,w a sp ropo sed a st h ep o s s ib le l oca t ion o f C ae sa rea 's B yzan t ine h a rbou r . T h i s s i te s e emed l i ke ly i n v i ew o f t he r e cen t ly u ncov e r ed a rchaeo log ica le v idence f o r ama jo rr ebu i ld ing o fC ae sa r ea a l ong t h i ss e c t ion o ft h e c oa s td u r ing t he s i x th c en tu ry C .E .5 C .A .H .E .P . c onduc ted e x ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion s w i th in t h e S ou th B ay i n 1 981 b u t f a i led t o d i scover a ny s i gn if ican t r ema in s o f man -made s t ruc tu re s n o rma l ly a s soc ia ted w i th ah a rbour . I tn ow a ppea r s t ha t t h roughou t C ae sa rea ' s h i s tory , a nd e ven b e fore t h i sc i ty w a sc on s truc ted ,t h i sb ay s e rved o n ly a s af a ir w ea ther a nchorage .I tn eve r wa s t h e ma in p o r t o fC ae sa r ea . I nl i gh to ft he f i nd ing so ft h i su nderwa ter e xp lora t ion a nd t he r e covery o f1 0B yzan t ine c o in s f rom e x cava t ion sc onduc ted i nA rea s Da nd K ,i ti sn ow p o s s ib le t os ay w i th s ome c e r ta in ty t ha t C ae sa r ea ' s ma in B yzan t ine h a rbour w a s t h e o u ter b a s in o fH e rod ' s S eba s to s . T he S ou th B ay p robab ly c on t inued t op lay ar o le i nC ae sa rea ' s ma r i t ime a c t iv i t ie s ,b u ti tw a s as e conda ry o ne . The H e rod ian f a c i l i ty , h owever , a ppea r s t o h ave s uf f e red v a r iou s v i c i s s i tude s o ver i t s l ong h i s to ry . I n p ar t icu la r , i tmay h ave f a l len o n h a rd t ime s i nt he f i f th c en tury C .E . P rocop iu s o f Gaza m en t ion s e x ten s ive d amag e i nt he h a rbour c omp lex p r io r t o ama jo r r e s to ra t ion e f for t u nde r taken d u r ing t h e r e ign o f Ana s ta s iu s I , mo s t l i ke ly a f te r a n e ar thquake t ha t s t ruck t h e L evan t ine c oa s ti n5 02 C .E .( Panegyr icu s , X IX i n PG , 8 7 .3 .2817 -2818 ) . H ed oe sn o ts pec if yi f t he s o r ry s t a te o ft h eh a rbou rw a sd ue t or e cen to rp a s td i sa s te r s ,c ompac t ion o ft h eo cean f l oo r , c umu la t ive n eg lec to r ac hange o fs ea l e ve ls i nce t he t ime o ft he c omp le t ion o fc on s truc t ion i n 1 0/9 B .C .E . ,a no ccur rence a bou t wh ich h ew a s mo s tp robab ly i g no ran t . I ta ppea r sf r om d a ta r e cen t ly c o l lec ted a long t he c oa s to fI s rae lt ha ts uch am inor s ea l e ve lf l uc tua t ion d id o ccur i n t he c en tur ie s f o l low ing t h e H e rod ian e ra r e su l t ing i n a n i n cr ea se o f c . 1 . 0 m b y t he S i x th C en tu ry6.Qu i te a pa r tf r om a ny s i gn if ican td e s truc t ion c au sed b yn a tura lf o rce s , as ea l e ve lr i se o ft h i ss c a le wou ld h ave r ende red many o ft h eh a rbo ri n s ta l la t ion su n serv iceab le . B y5 02 C .E . , mo s to ft he He rod ian f a c i l i t ie sc ou ld h ave b een a wa sh o rp a r t ia l ly s ubmerg ed .E x ten s ive r epa i r s a nd r e furb i sh ing w ou ld h ave b een r equ i red s imp ly t od ea l w i th t h i s s i tua t ion . A s P rocop iu s s ay s ,a nd t he n um i sma t ic e v idence i n t ima te s ,t he n ece s sa ry w ork w a sd one . A tt h ev ery l e a s t , p o r t ion so ft he o u ter b a s in o fH erod 's h a rbou rw ere r e v i ta l ized a nd p erhap sr ede s igned .( The i nne rb a s in h ad f a l len o u to fu se i nl ong b efore 5 02 C .E . )T he r e s to red s e c t ion so ft h ec omp lex a ppea r t o h ave p layed av i ta l r o le i n t h e g row ing p ro spe r i ty a nd i mpor tance o f B yzan t ine C a e sa r ea t o i t s c ap tu re b yt h e A rab s i n6 39/640 C .E . B eyond e s tab l i sh ing t h e l o ca t ion o f C ae sa rea 's B yzan t ine h a rbou r a nd p rov id ing a n i ndep enden t c onf i rma t ion o fP rocop iu s ' s t e x t , t h e C .A .H .E .P . n um i sma t ic f i nd s o f f e r s ome i n fo rma t ion o n t h e c o in p opu la t ion o ft h e c i ty i n L a te An t iqu i ty . T he se d a ta mu s t b e u sed c au t iou s ly , h owever , f o r t h e s amp le i s as ma l l o ne a nd may n o t a ccura te ly r ef l ec t c o in s i n c i rcu la t ion .I fc on s ide red w i th t h en um i sma t ic e v idence f r om r e cen tl a nd e xcava t ion s ,t h i ss ma l l a s semb lage c ome s mor e v a luab le .

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1 82

The a ppearance o fo n ly o ne f our th c en tury c o in i ss urpr i s ing s i nce s uch i s sue st end t od om ina te f i nd s f r om C ae sarea l a nd e xcava t ion s , i n c lud ing C .A .H .E .P . ' s p robe i n A rea J . F ew f i f th c en tu ry c o in s a f ter t he r e ign o fT heodo s iu s Ih ave a ppea red i na ny l a nd e xcava t ion s , s o t h i s l a cuna i nC .A .H .E .P . 's f i nd si sn o tu nexpec ted .T he d i scove ry o fo ne p re r efo rm ( befo re 5 38/9 C .E . )f o l l i sf rom t he r e ign o fJ u s t in ian i s sued b yt h em in to fC on s tan t inop le i sa l so c on s i s ten t w i th p a t terns o fc i rcu la t ion n o ted f o rl and f i nd s . P re refo rm f o l l e se n joyed al ong c i rcu la t ion t hroughou tt he Ho ly L and ,e ven a ppear ing i ns e ven th c en tury h oa rd s .T he ir s ucce s sor s ,f o l le s i s sued a f ter 5 38/9 C .E . , n eve rw e r e a sw ide ly a ccep ted i nP a le s t ine a nd o n ly i n f r equen t ly a r e u ncov ered a tC ae sa rea . I ti sa l so c ommon t oh ave i s sue s f r om t h e C on s tan t inop le m in t w e l l r ep r e sen ted i ns i te f i nd sf r om t h i s r eg ion . The s e ven f o l l e s f r om t he d ecade o ft he 5 80 ' s e ach f ound i nd iv idua l ly , o f f er a n i n te re s t ing a noma ly . I fo ne l ook s a ts i te f i nd s f r om l and e xcava t ion s a tC ae sa rea , ah igh p ercen tage o f i s sue s f r om t he s ame p er iod a nd t h e s ame m in t , An t ioch , a l so a ppea r s . T he re i s mo re t han c hanc eo rt he c ap r ic iou ss e lec t iv i ty o fs urv iva la tw ork . I ts e em sc l ea rt ha td ur ing t h er e ign o f Mau r ice , s ome c on s ide rab le i n fu s ion o f money f r om An t ioch f ound i t s w ay i n to C ae sa r ea . P erhap st he c o in r e cord r ef l ec t st h ec on t inua t ion o ra cce le ra t ion o ft h es i x th c en tury b u i ld ing p rog ram r ecen t ly n o ted b y P rof e s sor s W iemken a nd Ho lum 8.O rp e rhap s t h e c o in s s peak o f s ome m i l i tary o pe ra t ion i n vo lv ing C ae sa r ea t ha t h a s n o t b een r e co rded i n s u rv iv ing t e x t s . Wha tever t he r e a son , i td oe s s e em t ha t f o r ab r ief t ime t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft he s i x th c en tu ry , C ae särea 's p ro sper i ty ,r e la t ive t oo ther p er iod si ni t sh i s tory , may h av er e ached c on s ide rab le ,i f t empo rary h e igh t s . T he p rovenance so ft h e se f ew c o in sr ef l ec tm in tage p a t te rn sn o ted f o rr e cen tl a nd f i nd s . I s sue s o fe a s tern m in t sd om ina te t h ee xcava t ion c o inage o fC ae sa r ea w i th C on s tan t inop le s e rv ing a s t he m a jor s upp l ie r ac o in s f r om Ana s ta s iu s t h rough J u s t in ian . L a ter i nt he s i x th c en tu ry , An t ioch a ssume st h i sr o le w i th A lexand r ia ,n o tr epre sen ted h e re e xcep tf o rt he f ou r th c en tury i s sue , b ecom ing t he c h ie fs ou rce o fs ma l l c u r rency e a r ly i nt he s even th c en tury f o l low ing t h e c l o su r eo ft he An t ioch m in t .T he p o s i t ion o f An t ioch i nC ae sa rea 's c o in r e cord i se xcep t iona l b u ti nk eep ing w i th t h ef unc t ion f o rw h ich t h em in th ad b een e s tab l i shed — t os upp ly t he l o ca l c u r r ency n eed s o ft h e L evan t .

CONCLUS ION T he 1 0B yzan t ine c o in s f ound i nt h e s ea d u r ing C .A .H .E .P . ' s 1 981 e xcava t ion a r e i mpor tan t a nd i n forma t ive a r t ifac t s .T hey o f f e rg l imp se so fC ae sa rea ' sl a te rh i s to ry .T he d i scov ery o ft h e se i s sue si nA rea s Da nd K p rov ide sc ompe l l ing e v idence f o rt h ec on t inued u se o ft h eo u te rb a s in o f H e rod 's h arbour c omp lex i n to t h e B yzan t ine e ra a nd l o ca te s t h e Ana s ta s ian r epa i rp rog ram m en t ioned b yP rocop iu so f Gaza .T he r e cove ry o fn ine s i x th c en tury c o in so f at o ta lo f1 5f i nd s may c onf i rm P rocop iu s 's a s ser t ion t ha tp ro spe r i ty f o l lowed Ana s ta s iu s ' se f for t s .T he a b sence o ff i f th c en tury f i nd si sa l so c on s i s ten tw i th h i sa ccoun t . Moreover ,t he d om inance o fe a s tern a nd r e g iona l m in t s i nC .A .H .E .P . 's B yzan t ine f i nd s c onfo rm s w i th m in tage p a t tern s n o ted d u r ing l and e xcava t ion s .F ina l ly ,t he p reponde rance o fi s sue sf r om t h er e ign o f Maur ice s t ruck a tA n t ioch a l so i sm ir ro red i ns i te f i nd sf r om t h ev a r iou sl a nd o pera t ion s .A l though t h er e a son r ema in su ncer ta in ,t h ee mperor Maur ice l oomed l a rge i nt h eh i s tory o fC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima a nd i t sp o r t8.

1 83

NOTES : 1 .

F o r r epo r t s o n t h e 1 981 s e a son , s e e : R .L . Hoh lf e lde r , J .P . O le son , A . R aban , a nd R .L . V ann , " Seba s to s Herod ' s Ha rbo ra tC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima ," B A4 6 :3(1983 ) ,1 3 3 143 ;A .R aban a nd E .L inde r ," I s rae l ,C aesa rea ," I JNA 1 0( 198 1 ) , 1 57 160 ;a nd A .R aban ," The Anc ien t Ha rbou r so fC ae sa rea ," Q admon io t1 4( 1 981) ,8 0 -87 ( i n Heb r ew ) . An e x ten s iv e p re l im inary r epor to na l lo fC .A .H .E .P . 's w o rk t h rough t h e 1 983 s e a son h a sr e cen t ly b een p ub l i sh ed .S ee Rober tL . Hoh l f e lder ,J ohn P .O le son , Avne rR aban a nd R ober tL .V ann ," The C ae sa rea Anc ien t Harbor E x cava t ion P ro jec t ( C .A .H .E .P . ) : P r e l im inary R epor t o n t h e 1 980 1983 S ea son s 'JF A 1( 1 984 ) , 2 81-305 .

2 .

T h i sa r t i f ic ia lo u t f low ing c ur ren tw a sc r ea ted b yt h eu se o f as l u ic ing s y s tem t ha tp erm i t ted s and f r e ew a te rf rom t h e c r e s t s o fw ave s t oe n ter t h e h arbour b a s in . S ee A vne rR aban a nd R ober t L . Hoh l f e lde r , " The A nc ien t Harbor so f C ae sa rea Mar i t ima ," A rchaeo logy 3 4( 1 981) ,5 6 -60 f o ra n i l u s t ra t ion o fo ne o ft h e s l u ic e s .

3 .

Abb rev ia t ion su sed i nt h i ss e c t ion a r e : DOC=Ca ta logue o ft h eB yzan t ine C o ins i nt h eD umbar ton O ak sC o l l ec t ion a nd i nt h e Wh i temore C o l l e c t ion , V o lume I : A na s ta s iu s It o Maur ice , A lf r ed R . B e l l inge r , Wa sh ing ton , D .C . , 1 966 . LRBC=La te R oman B ronze C o inage A .D . 3 24 -498 , P .V . H i l l e ta l i i , L ondon , 1 960 .

4 .

R aban a nd Hoh lf e lde r ( above n .2 ) . A lso s e e R ober t L . Hoh lf e lde r a nd J ohn P . O le son , " Seba s to s , t he Ha rbo r C omp lex o fC ae sar ea Ma r i t ima ,I s rae l :t h eP re l im ina ry R epo r to ft h e1 9 78 U nde rwa te rE xp lora t ion s ," O ceanog raphy , T he P a s t( New Y o rk , 1 980 ) , 7 65 -779 . Un t i l t h e L ink E xped i t ion i n1 9 60 ( s ee C . F r i t sch a nd I .B en -Do r , " The L ink E xped i t ion t oI s rae l , 1 960 ,"B ib l ica lA rchaeo log i s t2 4( 1 96 1) ,5 0 -59 ) ,t h eS ou th B ay w a so f ten i d en t i f ied a st h e He rod ian h a rbou rd e sc r ibed b yJ o sephu s .S ee A .R e if enberg ," Cae sa rea , AS tudy i nt h eD ec l ine o f aT own ," I s rae lE xp lora t ion J ourna l1 ( 1950/ I) , 2 0 -32 .

5 .

R obe r t C . W iemken a nd K enne th G . Ho lum , " The J o in tE xp ed i t ion t oC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima : E igh th S ea son , 1 979 ," B u l l e t in o ft h e Ame r ican S choo l so fO r i en ta lR e s ea rch 2 44 ( 1 981 ) , 2 7 -52 .

6 .

N .C .F lemm ing ,A .R aban a nd C . Goe t sche l ," Tec ton ic a nd E u s ta t ic C hang e so nt h e Med i ter ranean C oa s to fI s ra e li n t h eL a s t9 000 Y ea r s ," B enea th t h e Wa te r so fT ime :T he P roceed ing so ft h eN in th C onf er ence o nU nd erwa te rA rchaeo logy , e d . J .B a r to A rno ld H I ( Au s t in ,T exa s , 1 978 ) , 1 5 5 .

7 .

S ee R obe r tL . Hoh lf e lde r , "Append ix B— C o in F ind s : AC on spec tu s ," i nW iemken a nd Ho lum ( a bov en . 5 ) ,4 6 -5 1 a nd " Cae sar ea Mar i t ima i nL a te An t iqu i ty : An I n t roduc t ion t ot h eN um i sma t ic E v idence ," f or thcom ing i nT he N i ck l e C onf e rence :N um i sma t ic sa nd t h eA nc i en t Wor ld , e d s . Wa ldema rH ecke l a nd R icha rd S u l l ivan .

8 .

W iemken a nd Ho lum ( above n .5 ) .

9 .

Av e r s ion o ft h i s a r t ic le w a s p re sen ted a tt h e E igh th Annua l B yzan t ine S tud ie sC on f e rence , Un iv e r s i ty o f Ch icago , O c tobe r 1 5 17 , 1 982 . An a b s trac to ft ha tc ommun ica t ion a pp ea r s i nA b s t rac t so fP ape r s( Ch icago , 1 9 82 ) , 1 8 -19 .

1 84

YAACOV NIR

The Destruction of the Roman High Level Aqueduct and the Herodian Harbour at Caesarea* The historical site of Caesarea Maritima is located on the northern Sharon shore, midway between Tel Aviv and Haifa (Fig. 1). It was one of the most important cities built by King Herod at the end of tn.e ftrst century B.C. The city's harbour used to be one of the largest in its time. Flavius describes the harbour in detail, comparing its large size to the famous harbour of Piraeus, Greece1 • Remnants of its breakwaters can be seen easily as rocky underwater relicts in aerial photographs (Fig. 2). The main breakwater bounds the south and west sides, with its root probably found at the edge of the more recent Crusader harbour southern breakwater. The lee breakwater lies to the north with its roots at the edge of the submerged abraded platform (Fig. 2). The main breakwater extended about 450 m offshore. The whole system of the old harbour is excavated at present, giving full proof to Flavius's detailed description2 • Due to the relative scarcity of natural fresh water sources along the coast, water had to be carried artificially from the springs to the east (Fig. l ). Caesarea, with its very large population of up to a few tens of thousands was thus equipped with two very impressive aqueducts. These were: l . The "High Levei' Aqueduct", receiving its water from the distant springs near Ammiqam and from Shoumi springs on southern Mount Carmel. In its lower course, tl.e aqueduct runs for about 2,500 m adjacent to and parallel with the present shore (Fig. 1). Along its southern part, the high level aqueduct is cut (Figs. 3 and 4), about 550 m north of the water system junction found north of the Crusader city (Fig. l ). A 30 m long relic of the southern tip of the aqueduct is found on a small kurkar hill south of the small bay. This relic, and some other very small remnants of the base of the aqueduct, are found on the straight continuation of the main aqueduct (Fig. 2). 2. The "Low Level Aqueduct", receiving its water from the near-by springs ofNahal Taninim, east of Ma'agan Mikhael. Olami and Peleg (1977) estimated the high level aqueduct to have had a flow capacity of about 2,500 m3 /hr, while the lower system had a lower capacity3 . HISTORY OF THE AQUEDUCTS

It is surprising that these large structures were not mentioned by any of the early historians. Even Flavius did not mention their existence at all. Some tablets, found on the western side of the high level aqueduct (Fig. 5), give in their inscriptions evidence for the age of construction or reparation of the western portion of the aqueduct, being at the beginning of the second century A.D.4. It is possible that some, and perhaps the most important inscriptions were located on the missing parts of the aqueduct, or are found on the inner side of the eastern section and are now hidden. The last 2.5 km of the high level aqueduct were covered by sand dunes to its upper level, and therefore the relatively soft construction material of the aqueduct was nicely preserved until its *)

Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Israel St., Jerusalem 95501, Israel.

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0

1 86

excavations by the archaeologists in the fifties of this century5• Evidence of this sand cover, in place already during the time of the operation of the aqueduct is the sandy travertine found near the top of the aqueduct on its western side (Fig. 6). The lack of written material makes the reconstruction of the history of the aqueducts difficult, and they have therefore been studied through the archaeological research of Caesarea and its water system6 • The high level aqueduct has two main sections. The eastern section was the first to be constructed, and probably was erected during the construction of the city at the end of the 1 st century B.C., or at the beginning of the 1st century A.D.7. Some authors suggest that it was constructed between 37 B.C. to 4 A.0.8. According to the excavated tablets, the western section was constructed or under repair in much later times by Emperor Hadrian (138-177 A.O.). Although there is some historical evidence regarding the damage caused to the coastal cities of Palestine and their beach installations as a result of the strong earthquake in 130 A.O., there is no indication that the port of Caesarea suffered any damage from that quake. Shalem describes a large scale tsunami inondating the beaches of Palestine in 115 A.O., causing great damage to the coastal settlements and installations9• There is no doubt that the 2.5 km long aqueduct parallel to the shore could have been damaged during these two natural events and thererfore needed repairs. Peleg, (per. corn.), on the other hand, assumes that the main reason for the aqueduct repairs was the softness of the local kurkar stone, from which it was constructed. Reif enberg (1951)10 gives a very good description of the history of the aqueducts to the end of their operation at the end of the 12th century or at the most in the 13th century A.O. He based his descriptions on Hugo of Caesarea11 and also on descriptions by Burchardus in 128312 showing that the city's water resources were in the great swamp east of Caesarea, therefore Reifenberg concludes that the aqueducts did not function then 13. Tectonic subsidence of the whole area, or changes in the location and topographic levels of the new parts of the city, and probable higher topographic position of the city's cultivated land, required the construction of a new and high channel. This last was built on top of the high level aqueduct, raising it some 2.5 m above its former height. The low level aqueduct, which is found east of the high level aqueduct, and parallel to its course at the most southern tip (Figs. I and 2), received its water from closer sources, those of N aha! Taninnim. The Nahal Taninnim dam near Ma'agan Mikhael was constructed, according to Reifenberg (I 951 ), in order to supply water for Caesarea's agricultural needs. Olami and Peleg (1977) assume that the low level aqueduct was constructed in the 4th century A.O. They state that it operated without any special problem, as compared with the high level aqueduct which experienced operational difficulties. Ringel (1975) describes in detail both aqueducts, the evidence for their repair, and their history up to their demise. According to Levine (1975), there was even a special "officium" nominated by the local governor of Caesarea in order to maintain the Aqueducts. DESTRUCTION OF THE HIGH LEVEL AQUEDUCT Rim ( 195 l ), studying the sand dunes and their budget in the region, was the first to describe in very great detail the influence of Herod's harbour in destroying the southern tip of the high level aqueduct. This destruction resulted primarily from the damming of the longshore sand transport from the south, and from the wave difraction and its effect on the starving beaches just north of the harbour. He mainly studied the sand accumulation south and east of Caesarea and the part played by the damming of its northward transport. Inman (1974 and 1978)14 and N ir (I 981)1 5 gave a more detailed explanation of the connection between the harbour and the destruction of the southern part of the aqueduct (Fig. 5 and 6). Neev et. al., (1973)1 6 on the oth�r hand believe that the southern edge of the high level aqueduct was destroyed by catastrophic movements in Mameluk times (15th century). 187

L EGEND U LA

H igh L eve l

A quedu c t

L L A.L ou L eve l

A queduc t

C D S ubme rged

R ock

S CALE 0

1 0 0

2 00 m

MODERN B REAKWATER

I SOLATED \ R EL ICT O F M LA

_CRUSADER H IGH- WALL

C RUSADER B RE A K WATE

F ig . 2 .A er ia lp ho to o fC ae sarea 's s ubme rged He rod ian Harbour , t h e C ru sad er 's c i ty a nd H igh - Wa l l , t h e H igh L eve lA queduc ta tt h es ma l lb ay a nd o n t h es ou the rn l ow k urkar h i l l( t he p ho tograph i sp ub l i shed b y c our te sy o ft h e S urvey o fI s rae l ) .

1 88

L ong shore s and t r anspor t a long t he I s rae l Med i terranean b eache s i sw e l l k nown a nd i si n g enera lf r om s ou th t on or th a lmo s ta l la long i t sl e ng th" a nd i th a sb een t ha tw ay a tl e a s ts i nce t he s ea r e ached i t sp resen tl e ve ls ome 6 , 500 y ear sa go . Any o b s tac le ,n a tura lo ra r t if ic ia l ,f ound a t t he s hore o r i n s ha l low w a ter , a f f ec t s t he n ear -by b eache s i n t h e f o l low ing w ay : s and a ccu mu la tes o n t he s ou thern t he u p -cur ren t s i de o ft he s t ruc ture , wh i le t he " down -cur ren t" b eache s i n cur ad ef ic i t a nd a re t he refore e roded . Wave d i f rac t ion f r om t he a r t if ic ia l o b s tac le a l so a dd si t sd amag ing e f f ec to nt h en ear -by s t arv ing b eache s .F igure 7 ,f r om Z iq im h a rbour o n t he s ou thern s i de o ft he s t ruc ture ,s how st he a bove -men t ioned p henomena o fa ccre t ion o nt he s ou thern s i de o ft he s t ruc ture a nd t he s evere e ro s ion o nt h en or thern s i de w here t he b each r ocky b ase men t w as e xpo sed . T h is p henomenon i sk nown a l l o ver t he w or ld b eaches . Herod 's h arbour p ro truded a bou t4 50 m f r om t h ep re sen ts hore l ine ,a nd a sd escr ibed a bove b y R e ifenberg ( 1951) , R im , ( 1951) , a nd I n man ( 1974 a nd 1 978 ) , t he l a rge s and d une a r ea f ound s ou th a nd e as t o fC aesarea w a s mo s t ly f o rmed a s ad i rec t r e su l t o ft h e d amm ing e f f ec t o ft he h arbour o n t he n or thward s and t r anspor t . T he s and s t arva t ion a nd w ave d i f rac t ion d escr ibed a bove c aused s evere e ros ion n ex tt oa nd n or th o ft he h arbour .B eache sw ere e roded ,t he ir s t r ip o fs and c over d i sappeared a nd t he b ackshore s t ruc ture sw ere r u ined .T he h igh l e ve la queduc t , s i tua ted s o c lose t o t he s hore , w a s a t tacked b y t he s ea . I n o rder t o p reven t i t s c o l lapse i nt he d i s tan t p a s t , measures wou ld h ave h ad t o h ave b een t aken . T here i sn o e v idence h owever , n e i ther w r i t ten n or i nt he a rchaeo log ica l f i nd ing s t ha t s uch p ro tec t ion m ea sure s w ere t aken . However , i t s s e ems l i ke ly t ha t t he c onsumer s e i ther u sed r ubb le a s ap ro tec t ive s h ie ld o r e l se b u i l t as e a -wa l l t o p ro tec t t he c r i t ica l s ou thern p ar t . I f , o n t h e o ther h and , t he s ea shore w a s o r ig ina l ly s o mewha t f ur ther w e s t , t hen t he a bove ment ioned p henomena m igh th ave t aken p lace o n ly a f ter t he s ub s idence o rd ownwarp ing o ft he o f f sho re d ue t ot e c ton ic a c t iv i ty ' 8 .T he s ubmergence o ft h eh a rbour d id n o ts i gn if ican t ly c hange t he ma in e ros iona le f f ec t so nt he n or thern s hore s .T herefore t he o nse to ft he e ro s ion i sn o tw e l l k nown a nd t he e ros ion e i ther s t a r ted i mmed ia te ly a f ter t he c omp le t ion o ft he h arbour , o r f o l low ing t he c oa s ta l s ubs idence . Karn i ( 1982 )1 9 b e l ieve s t ha t n o m easure s o f p ro tec t ion w ere n ece s sary d ue t o t he n a tura l p ro tec t ion o f f ered b yt he r ocky a braded p la tform s t r ip f ound a tv ar iou sd i s tance so f f shore . I t s ee m s ,h owever ,t ha tt h is r ocky p la tform ( F ig .2 )c ou ld h ave h ad b u t as ma l le f f ec to nt he e n t ire e ro s iona l p henomenon a nd c ou ld n o t h ave p reven ted t he e n t ire c o l lap se o ft h i s p ar t o ft he a queduc t . R e if enberg ( 1951) r epor t s t ha t t h e B o sn ian r e fugee s s e t t led i n C aesarea 's r u in s i n 1 885 , u s ing t hem a s ac onven ien t q uar ry , a nd s h ipp ing t he w e l l -cu t s t ones t oJ af f a a nd A c re . S uch m igh t h ave b een t he f a te o ft he u nconso l ida ted r emnan ts o ft he s ea -wa l l i fo ne i ndeed e x isted . P erhap s more e xcava t ions a nd s ome l u ck i nt he r e su l t ing f i nd s c an s hed s ome l i gh t o n t h i s h i s tor ica l p uzz le . ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS The a u thor w i shes t ot hank D r .J .K . Ha l lo ft h e Mar ine G eo logy a nd G eoma thema t ic sD iv is ion o ft he G eo log ica lS urvey o fI s rae l( GS I )f o rc r i t ica l ly r e ad ing t he manu scr ip t ,D r .A .E her l ich o f t he GS Ia nd D r .A .R aban o ft he Mar i t ime C iv i l iza t ion D epar tmen to ft he Ha ifa Un iver s i ty ,f o r t he ir c on s truc t ive c r i t ic ism ,a l so t o Mr .Y .P e leg o f Ma 'ayan T sv if o rh i si mpor tan td a ta o nt h e a quaduc t s .

NOTES 1 .

F lav iu s , J osephus , T he J ew i sh War s , V o l . I ,c hap . 2 1 , 5 8 .

2 .

R aban , A . , 1 981 , "Recen t Mar i t ime A rchaeo log ica l R e search i n I s rae l" ,/n te r . J our . o fN au t ica l A rchaeo l . a nd

3 .

O lam i , Y . , a nd P e leg , Y . , 1 977 , " The Wa ter S upp ly S ys tem o fC ae sarea Ma r i t ima" , I s rae lE xp lor . J our . , Vo l . 2 7 ,

U nd erwa ter E xp lor . , Vo l . 1 0 , p p . 2 87 -308 . p p . 1 27 -137 .

1 89

1 9 0

F ig . 4 .T he s ou thern r i po ft h eH igh L eve lA queduc t , t h es ma l lb ay f ormed a s ar e su l to ft h eh arbour ( l ower ) ; a nd t h es ma l l r e l ic s o ft h em i s s ing p ar to ft h ea qued uc tf ound a tt h es ho re o ft h eb ay ( uppe r ) .

1 91

F ig . 5 . V i ewf rom t h ew e s ts i d eo n as ma l lp or t ion o ft h eH igh L eve lA queduc t .N o te t h ew h i te m arb le p l a te o n t h el e f tm ed ium h e igh tw h ich h a si n sc r ip t ions o n i t .

F ig . 6 . S and t r aver t ine o nt h eu pper p ar to ft h ew e s ts i d eo ft h eH igh L eve lA queduc t . T h i st r aver t ine w a s f o rmed w h i le t h ea queduc tw a si no pe ra t ion , a nd i nd ica te s t h a tt h es and c over e x i s ted t ot h i sh e igh t .

1 92

F ig . 7 . T he s ou thern g ro in o ft h eZ iq im Harbour , s ou the rn I s rae l . N o te t h ev a s ts and a ccumu la t ion o nt h e s ou the rn " up -s tream" s i d e( l owe r ) , a nd t h eb each e r od ed t oi t sr o cky k urkar b asemen to nt h en or th ( upper ) .

1 93

4 .

V i lnay ,Z . , 1 928 , "A N ew I n sc r ip t ion f r om t h eN e ighbo rhood o fC ae sa r ea" ,P a l e s t . E xp lo r . F und Q ua r te rS t . , Vo l .6 0 p p . 4 5 -47 . V i lnay ,Z . , 1 928a , "Ano the rR oman I n sc r ip t ion f r om t h eN e ighbo rhood o fC ae sarea" ,P a l e s t . E xp l o r . F und Quar te r S t . , V o l . 6 0 ,p p . 1 0 8 109 . O lam i , Y . , a nd P e leg , Y . , 1 975 , " The Aqueduc t so fC ae sa rea" ,K admon io t , V o l . 9 ,p p . 8 3 -86 ( i n H eb r ew ) . R inge l , J . , 1 975 , " C6 sa ite d e P a le s t ine" . E tude s H i s tor ique e tA rch8o log ique . E d i t ion s Ophy r s , P a r i s , c hap . I V , p p . 5 9 -73 .

5 .

F rova , A . , 1 959 , C ae sar ea Mar i t ima ( I s rae l e ) , M i lano , p p . 1 4 -2 1 . N egev , A . , 1 964 , " The H igh L eve l Aqueduc t a tC ae sa r ea" ,I s rae lE xp l o r . J our . , V o l . 1 4 , p p . 2 37 -249 .

6 .

C ond er , C .R . , a nd K i tchene r , H .H . , 1 8 82 , " The S u rvey o f We s tern P a le s t ine , Memo ir s o f t h e T opog raphy , O rog raphy , Hyd rog raphy , a nd A r chaeo logy" P .E .F . , V o l . I , s hee t s V I I -XV I , p p . 1 3 -24 . V o l . I , s hee t sV I I -XV I , p p . 1 3 -24 . V i lnay , o p . c i t . R e i f enbe rg , A . , 1 9 51 , " Cae sa r ea , AS tudy i nt h e D ec l ine o f aT own" ,I s rae lE xp lo r . J ou r . V o l . 1p p . 2 0 -32 . R im , M . , 1 951 , " Sand a nd S o i l i nt h e C oa s ta l P l a in o fI s rae l . AS tudy o ft h eR a te o fA ccumu la t ion" ,I s rae lE xp l or . J ou r . , V o l . 1 ,p p . 3-48 . Hamburge r , A . , 1 9 59 , "A N ew I n sc r ip t ion f r om t h e C ae sa rea Aqueduc t" ,I s rae lE xp l or . J our . , V o l . 9 ,p p . 1 89 190 . N eg ev , 1 964 , o p . c i t . K e idar ,Y . ,a nd Z iv ,Y . , 1 964 , "On t h e Wa te rS upp ly S y s tem t oC ae sa r ea a nd i t sF ie ld s" ,A rchaeo LN ew s , Aa nd B , p p . 1 22 131 . L ev ine , L . I . , 1 975 , " Roman C ae sa rea — A n A r chaeo log ica lT opog raph i ca lS tudy" , Q ed em , Vo l . I , 5 6a . O lam ia nd P e leg , 1 975 1977 , o p . c i t . n o te n o . 3a nd 4 . R aban , A . , 1 981 , o p . c i t . ,n o te n o . 2 . R aban , A . ,T u r -Ca spa ,Y . , Ad le r , E . , S i van , E . , a nd K ap lan , G . , 1 976 , "Ma r ine A rchaeo log ica lS tudy i nC ae sar ea ; E v idence o nS ea l e ve lC hang e sT hrough O ld S i te s" ,C en te rf o r Ma r i t ime S tud ie s , Ha if a Un iver s i ty ,R epo r t2 /76 ,65 p . ( i n H eb rew ) .

7 . 8 .

N egev , 1 964 , o p . c i t . N egev , 1 964 o p . c i t . O lam ia nd P e leg , 1 977 , o p . c i t .

9 .

J erome , i nL ev ine , 1 975 , o p . c i t . S ha lem , N . , 1 956 , "On t h eT sunam ie si nt h e E a s te rn Med i te ranean" ,I s rae lE xp lor . S oc . B u l l . , V o l . 2 0 , p p . 1 59 170 ( i n H ebr ew ) .

1 0 .

R e if enberg , A . , 1 9 51 , o p . c i t .

1 .

R ohr ich t ,R . , 1 887 ," S tud ien z ur M i t t lea l te r l ichen G eog raph ie u nd T opog raph ie S y r ien s" ,Z e i tD eu t s ch P lae s t . V e r . , V o l . 1 0 , p p . 1 95 -345 .

1 2 .

A lber tu s Aquenen s i s ,H i s tor ia H i ro so lym i tana , c hap . 4 1 ,p .5 .

1 3 .

R e i f enbe rg , A . , 1 9 51 , o p . c i t .

1 4 .

I nman ,D .L . , 1 974 ,A nc ien ta nd Mod e rn Harbou r s : AR epea t ing P hy l ogeny .P roc . 1 4 th C oa s ta lE ng . C on! . , C openhag en ; c hap 19 ,p p . 2 049 -2067 . I nman ,D .L . , 1 978 ," The I mpac to fC oa s ta lS t ruc tu re so nS hor e l ine s" ,C oa s ta lZ one 7 8 ,V o l .I I ,p p . 265 -2272 , Ame r . S oc . C iv i l E ng inee r s .

1 5 .

N i r ,Y . , 1 9 81 ," The D e s t ruc t ion o fC ae sa rea ' s Aqueduc ta s ar e su l to fH e rod ' s Ha rbour" ,C a thed ra ,V o l . 1 8 ,p p .5 0 -56 ( i n H eb rew ) .

1 6 .

N eev ,D . ,B ak le r ,N . , Mo shkov i tz ,S . ,K aufman ,A . , Maga r i tz ,M . ,a nd Gofna ,R . , 1 973 ," Recen tf a u l t ing a long t h e Med i te r ranean C oa s to fI s rae l" ,N a tu re ,V o l . 2 45 , p p . 2 54 -256 .

1 7 .

Eme ry , K .O . a nd N eev , D . , 1 960 . Med i ter ranean b eache so fI s rae l . G eo l . S ur vey o fI s rae lB u l l . 2 6 , p p . 1 25 . N ir ,Y . , 1 973 . G eo log ica lh i s tory o ft h er e cen ta nd s ub recen ts ed imen t so ft h eI s rae l Med i ter ranean s h e l fa nd s l op e . G eo l . S u rvey o fI s rae l , Ma r ine G eo l . D i v . R epo r t , 1 79 p .( unpub l i shed ) . N i r ,Y . , 1 980 . R ecen t s ed imen t so ft h e H a if a B ay . G eo l . S ur vey o fI s rae l Ma r ine G eo l . D i v . R epor t , 8p . Go ld sm i th ,V . ,a nd Go l ik ,A . , 1 980 . S ed imen tt r an spo r t mode lo ft h es ou thea s te rn Med i te r ranean C oa s t . Mar . G eo l . V o l . 3 7 , p p . 1 47 175 .

1 8 .

N eev , D . , S chachna i , E . , H a l l , J .K . , B ak le r , N . , a nd B en A v raham , Z . , 1 9 78 . T he Y oung ( Pos t L ow e r P l iocene ) G eo log ica lH i s tory o ft h eC ae sa rea S t ruc tur e ,I s rae lJ ourna lE ar th S c i . V o l .2 7 ,p p .4 3 -64 .R aban e ta l . 1 9 76 ,o p . c i t .

1 9 .

K a rn i , H . , 1 9 82 . R ema rk s o n t h e D e s t ruc t ion o fC ae sa r ea ' s A queduc t , C a thed ra , Vo l . 2 5 , p p . 1 72 175 ( i n Hebrew ) .

1O z t

STEPHEN BRE ITSTE IN

S o me L og i s t ic A spec t s o ft he E xcava t ion s o f C ae sa rea Ha rbou r The s c ien t if ic o b jec t ive so ft h eC ae sarea Anc ien t Ha rbour E xcava t ion P ro jec t ,w h ich i n c luded p lan s t oe xcava te i n more t han 1 5 l o ca t ion s o ver t he 2 00 ,000 m2 ( 50 a cre s ) s i te , r equ ired t he d eve lopmen to ft oo ls a nd p rocedure s wh ich wou ld p erm i tl a rge sca le a rchaeo log ica le xcava t ion u pt o5 00 m f rom s hore a nd s uperv i s ion o fu nderwa ter o pera t ions i nvo lv ing u pt o1 20 o ne -hour d ive s p er d ay . The s p ec i f ic o pera t iona l o b jec t ive s i n c luded : ( a ) T op rov ide af orward f l oa t ing p la tform f o rd iv ing a s w e l l a s g enera l f i e ld s uperv i s ion . ( b ) T o d eve lop e xcava t ing t oo l s c apab le o fr emov ing l a rge amoun t s o fc oa r se , f r ee f l ow ing s and . ( c ) T o d eve lop as urface s upp ly b rea th ing s y s tem c apab le o fs us ta in ing 5 0 -60 d ive s p er d ay . De s ign p arame ter sr equ ired a l le qu ipmen tt ob ep or tab le ,d urab le ,o perab le b yu nspec if ica l ly t r a ined v o lun teer p er sonne l ,e a s i ly s t ored i n al im i ted s pace , ma in ta ined b y as ma l ls t af f ,a nd y e t b e m anufac tured a nd o pera ted o n al im i ted b udge t . P LATFOR M C .A .H .E .P . p lan s c a l led f o r e xcava t ion i n t he o u ter h arbour a t t h ree s i te s s imu l taneous ly . L oca t ions t ob ee xcava ted w ere a s much a s 1 00 m f r om e ach o ther . Wi th s i xe xcava tor s ,o f ten i n a dd i t ion t o a n e qua l n umbe r o fd iver s e ngaged i ns urvey a c t iv i t ies , i tw a s d ec ided t ha t s o me f orm o fp la tform b ea nchored i no pen w a ter ,c en tra lt ot he e xcava t ion s i te s wh ich wou ld s e rve a s af o rward b a se f or d iv ing s uperv i s ion ,f or c on tro lo fa i rs upp ly ,a nd a s ar e s ts i te f o rd iver s b e tween d ives . Wh i le as t ee lb arge w a s made a va i lab le t ot he p ro jec t ,t h ec o s to fg enera lf i t t ing ,t ow ing t oa nd f rom C aesarea ,a nd s t orage i n Ha ifa f a re xceeded b udge tl im i t s . F ur thermore ,t he s t ee lb arge c ou ld n o t b e moved u s ing t h e Z od iac r ubber b oa t s a to ur d i sposa l . T he s o lu t ion r e ached f o r p rov id ing ap la tform w a s t od es ign a nd c on s truc t awooden b arge , f l oa ted o n b ar re ls , wh ich c ou ld b eb rough tt oC ae sarea v i al and a nd a s semb led a tw a ter 's e dge o ns i te .T he b arge p i c tured i nF igure 3h a sb een u sed f o rf i ve s ea sons i nC ae sarea w i th n os i gn if ican td amage o rw ear a nd t e a r .

T h i s 3x6 m p la tform i sc on s truc ted o f 5c m x2 0 cm p rof i le c l ear p ine p lank s , c onnec ted b y 1 0c m x1 0 cm a ng le i r on c onnec tor s . Wh i le i tc on ta ins 3 8 p lanks ,t hey a re o f 4s i ze so n ly ,a nd o n ly 2p lanks e xceed 3m i nl e ng th ( See F ig . 1 ) .

T he b arge i sb u i l tu p i nt h ree 2x3m u n i ts wh ich a re c onnec ted i nt he w a ter ( or wh ich may b e u sed s epara te ly a ss ma l lp la tforms ) . T he e n t ire b arge i sf l oa ted o n2 5 2 00 l i tre b ar re l sg iv ing a n e tf l o ta t ion o fa lmos tf our t ons .F u l ly l aden w i th 2 0d iver sa nd t he ir e qup imen t ,t he d raugh ti s o n ly 3 0 cm . A l ls t ee lc onnec tor sa nd t h es t ee lb and sw h ich h o ld t he b ar re ls i np lace a re h o td ip g a lvan ized a nd h ence i mmune t oc or ro s ion . Wh i le t he b arge i sa s semb led w i th 4 00 1 2 "b / o l t sa nd n u ts ,t h i s t a sk i ss hor tened b y t he u se o f ap neuma t ic w rench .

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E ach s e c t ion o ft he b arge i sa s semb led u p s ide d own ,a tw a ter 's e dge ,a nd a f ter t h eb arre ls a r e a t tached , i sf l ipped i n to t he w a ter . T he s l igh t d raugh t a l low s f o r e a sy l aunch ing u t i l iz ing t h e t i des . T he t hree s e c t ions a re u n i ted w h i le a f loa t ,a f ter wh ich t he d eck i sl ayed a nd f a s tened i n p lace .T he b arge i st hen e qu ipped w i th as uper s truc ture i n c lud ing al a rge b ox c on ta in ing a3 50 l i t re h o ld ing t ank f or t he Hooka s y s tem , at ab le ,a i r man i fo ld ,a i rp ur if ica t ion s y s tem , a2 -way r ad io s y s tem , ac anopy , d iver s ' l adder s , n av iga t ion l i gh t s , a nd a nchor s . T he a s semb ly o ft he b arge i su sua l ly c omp le ted i n 2d ay sb y 6t o 8p eop le . I tc an b et owed i n to p os i t ion b y t wo z od iac b oa t s . T he b arge i sc onnec ted t o as hore -ba sed a i r s upp ly , f or b o th b rea th ing a nd e xcava t ion b y a 4 0 mm PVC h o se e nca sed i nf i re h ose . L oca t ing t he c ompr e ssor o ns hore i na ni s o la ted l oca t ion a l low s f or a q u ie t e nv ironmen t o n b oard t he b arge , f r om w h ich c ommun ica t ions mus t b e ma in ta ined t o s hore a nd t o d iver s . EXCAVAT ION TOOLS T he l a rge amoun ts o f s and wh ich mus t b e r emoved t o e xpo se f ounda t ions o ft h e h arbou r s t ruc ture sr equ ire t he u se o fl a rge d iame ter a i rl i f t s . However ,t he s ha l lowness o ft h es i te a nd t h e a b sence o fp red ic tab le c urren t sr equ ire t he se a i rl i f t st ob et i l ted a t4 5 ° t oi n sure t h a te xcava ted ma ter ia ls d o n o t r e se t t le o n t he s i te . L arge d iame ter a i r l if t s a t a ng le s o f o ve r 3 0 ° a re v e ry b uoyan t . T h i s r ea son a nd o ther o pera t iona lp arame ter st ob en o ted l a ter l e dt ot h ed es ign o fa v ery h eavy ma in c on tro l u n i t , wh ich w e c a l l t he " a ir l i f t h ead" . F igure 3s how s a6 "a i rl i f ts y s tem .T he h ead , wh ich c on ta ins t h ev a lve s ,a i rc onnec t ion h and le s , a nd a nchor si so fg a lvan ized s t ee l .T h i sh ead i sc onnec ted t o6 "a lum inum e xhau s tp ipes u s ing a t h ick w a l l t r an s lucen t p la s t ic f l ex p ipe o ft he r o l l f lex d e s ign . I n n orma lo pera t ions t he h ead w i l lb ea nchored ,a nd f l oa ted o ne m e tre f r om t he s eabed n ea rt he e xcava t ion s i te a nd c onnec ted t o 8 12 m o fe xhaus t p ipe s . T he ma ss ,b uoyancy ,a nd s uc t ion p ower o ft he se u n i t s makes e xcava t ion d i rec t ly w i th t he a i rl i f t h ead v i r tua l ly i mposs ib le .T o make t he a i rl i f te a s i ly a nd s a f e ly h and led b y SCUBA d ivers ,i ti s e qu ipped w i th a4t o 6m f l ex ib le s uc t ion h o se , wh ich i sa t tached f o rward o ft he a i rl i f th ead .T h i s h o se h a s v i r tua l ly n o r e co i l , o r t o rque , e ven a t max imum s uc t ion . T he c ond i t ion sc r ea ted a r e s im i lar t ou s ing av acuum c l eaner w i th as uc t ion h ose ( r a ther t han l i f t ing a nd w ork ing d i rec t ly w i th t he mo tor ) . S ince t he r e su l tan t a i r l i f t i sn ow v ery l ong , i ti se s sen t ia l t ha tp r ecau t ion b e t aken t op reven ts t one sf r om b e ing t r apped ,a nd t hu sb lock ing t he a i rl if t . One s o lu t ion u sed a t C ae sarea w a s t o e qu ip t he f l ex ib le s uc t ion h o se w i th a muzz le ( s ee F ig . 2 ) w h ich a l low s t h e e xcava t ion o fs and a nd s ma l lp ar t ic le sa cro ss t he e n t ire d iame ter ,b u ts t ones l a rg er t han 3 "w i l l n o tp as s .T he muzz le i s made o ft h ick -wa l led p ipe t or educe i n jury t oo pera tor s ,w hose h and s a re f r equen t ly d rawn t o t he s uc t ion p o in t . T h i s s imp le d ev ice h a s v i r tua l ly e l im ina ted t h e c l ogg ing o ft he se a i rl i f t sw h ich h ave c ar r ied o u to ver 5 000 h our so fe xcava t ion i nf i ve s ea son s . E ach a i rl i f th ead i se qu ipped w i th t wo v a lves ,o ne b a l lv a lve f or emergency s hu td own a nd o ne g a te v a lve f o ra d jus t ing s uc t ion i n ten s i ty .A ir i si n troduced o nt wo s i de so ft he a i rl i f th ead i n to a s l eeve wh ich s e rves t o s pread t he a i r a round t he a i r l i f t w a l l s a nd r educe b ubb le s i ze ( wh ich i n crea ses s uc t ion ) . E ach a i rl i f th ead i sa l so e qu ipped w i th as e rv ice c onnec t ion f o rc ompre s sed a i r . T hu st he a i rl i f ts e rve sa s ag enera ls ource o fa i rf o ra ux i l iary w ork n ear t he e x cava t ion s i te s uch a sl i f t ing w i th a i rb ag s ,o rp neuma t ic p rob ing .T h is a l low sf or t he se a c t iv i t ie st ob ec ar r ied o u t w i th n o n eed t o f e ed o u t a dd i t iona l h o se s f r om t he b arge . T he u se o ff l ex s uc t ion h o se s d oe s n o t r educe t he s uc t ion p ower o f t he a i r l i f t u n i t . I td oe s h owever i n crea se t he t o ta lv o lume o ft he s y s t2m ,b eyond t h ea i rv o lume ( wh ich i st ha tv o lume e qua l t he c ro ss s e c t iona la rea o ft he a i rl i f t mu l t ip l ied b yt h ed ep th o ft he wa te rf r om t he p o in t w here t he a i ri si n troduced ) .T h i si n crea ses t h ed anger t ha tt h es y s tem w i l lb eo ve r loaded ;t ha ti s , i tw i l l t ake i n more s ed imen t , i nw e igh t t han t he a i r v o lume , i nl i t res . Th is r equ ires t ha t t h e e xcava t ion b ec ar r ied o u tw i th c are ,a nd t ha tt he s uc t ion h o se n o tb ea l lowed t ob u ry i t se lf i nt h e s and ( See F ig . 4 ) .

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F ig . 3 . T he p ref abr ica ted b arge ,f u l ly a s semb led , a nd a nchored o ve re xcava t ion s i te — i ns e r v ice a sd i v ing s upe r v i sor 's p la tf orm a nd c on t ro lc en te rf or Hooka b r ea th ing a i rs upp ly a nd a i r fs upp ly .

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F ig . 4 . T yp ica le xcava t ion s i te .N o te d i ver so pera te o n ly f l ex ib l es uc t ion h ose . U se o fb uoyan th o se sr educe s h ose e n tang lemen t .

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T he a i rl i f th ead sa re f abr ica ted o f6 "g l avan ized s t ee lp ipe .T he s uc t ion s l eeve i so f5 "s t ee lp ipe . ( See F igur e 5f o rd imen s ion d e ta i l ) . HOOKA I n o rder t oa l low f o re ff i c ien tu se o fe xcava t ion t ime , f o l low ing ap re -de term ined s chedu le ,i t w a sn ece ssary t od eve lop as ur f ace supp l ied Hooka s y s tem w h ich w ou ld e l im ina te t he f a c to ro f v a r ia t ion si na i rc on sump t ion r a te s ,a nd i n c rea sed a i rc on sump t ion w hen d o ing more d i ff i cu l t w ork . On t he o ther h and , mo s to fo ur v o lun tee rp e r sonne la r ed ive r so fl im i ted e xp er ience w ho h ave b een t r a ined o n ly i n b a s ic S CUBA d iv ing . Mo r eove r , t he l ong h o r izon ta l d i s tanc e s b e tween t he s upe rv i sor 's b a rge a nd t h ea i r l if ts i te w ou ld h av er equ ir ed l i ne t e nd e r s wh ich w e r e u nava i lab le . T he s o lu t ion r eached w a s aS CUBA -Hooka s y s tem w h ich p r e sen t s aS CUBA s y s t em f am i l ia rt o d ive r sw h ich c onnec t st o aHooka s ource p e rmanen t ly i n s ta l led a tt h ee xcava t ion s i te . D ive r s w ea r as ma l l7 l i t re ( 50 c uf t )t ank f i t ted w i th ar egu la to r .T he t ank i smoun ted v a lve d own — a nd f a c ing o u t .T he r egu la tor ( we u se aUSD Aqua r iu sr e gu la to r— b u ts eve ra lo ther c ommon mode l sa re s u i tab le )i sf i t ted w i th a4 0" i n te r s tag eh o se w h ich p e rm i t se a sy r ea ch f r om t h ef i r s t s t age ,s i tua ted n ow a tt he l owe rb ack ,t h et h es e cond s t ag e .T he f i r s ts t age i sf u r the rf i t ted w i th a Hooka a i ri n take h o se c onnec ted t o al ow p re s su re s e rv ic ep or tt h rough ac heck v a lve .T h i sh o se i sf i t ted w i th t he ma le s i de o f ab ra s sq u ick r e lea se c onn ec tor ( Pa rker B 6 11 1 ) .P r es sure i nt h e t ank i smon i tor ed b y as ubme r s ib le p r e s su re g aug ew h ich i sc onnec ted d i rec t ly t ot h et ank v a lv e . T he d iver e n ter s t he w a te ru s ing t h i se qu ipmen t a ss t anda rd SCUBA g ear , a nd s w im s t ot h e e xcava t ion s i te . T he a i rl i f t h ead s e rve s a s at e rm inu s , n o t o n ly f o rt h e a i rl i f tc ompre s sed a i r h o se ,b u ta l so f o rt wo 5 / 16" I D Hooka a i rh o se sw h ich a r el a shed t ot he f orme ra nd t ot h ea i r l i f th ead . B eyond t he a i rl i f th ead i sa na dd i t iona l 1 0 mo f Hooka h o se wh ich f l oa ts d ue t oi t s o wn b uoyancy ,a nd as ma l lf l oa ta t tached 3m f r om t he e nd .A tt he e nd o ft h i sh o se i sf i t ted t h e f ema le P arke rb ra s sq u ick r e lea se f i t t ing w h ich w i l lc onnec tt ot h ed i ve r ' su n i t .U pon a r r iva la t t h e a i r l i f t t he d iver g a ther s i nt he f l oa t ing h o se a nd c onnec t s h i s Hooka i n take h ose t ot h e f l oa t ing h o se . A tt h i sp o in th ei sn ow c onnec ted t oa nu n l im i ted s ur face s upp ly o fa i ra nd m ay n ow t u rn o f ft he t ank v a lve .H ef e e l sn oc hang ew ha t sov e ri nt h eb rea th ing c ha rac ter i s t ic so fh i s r egu la tor ( See F ig s . 6a nd 7 ) . T o d i sconnec t f r om t he s y s tem , t he d i ve r m e re ly o pen s h i s t ank v a lve . ( The t ank h a s b een moun ted u p s ide d own t os imp l ify t h i so pe ra t ion ) ,a nd d i sconnec t st h e Hooka h o s ea tt he q u ick r e lea se . Now ,h av ing r e turned t o aS CUBA mode ,t h ed i v er may r e turn t ot h eb arge . E ven i n p oor v i s ib i l i ty d iver se a s i ly f i nd t he r ou te t oa nd f r om t h ea i r l if tb yf o l low ing t h et r ipar th o se f r om t h e b a rge t ot he a i r l i f t h ead . A i r t ot he h ooka s y s tem r e ache s t h e b arge f r om t h e ma in c ompre s sor o n s ho r e t hrough t h e 4 0 mm PVC p ipe p rev iou s ly m en t ioned . P ar to ft h i sa i ri ss i phoned o f ft ot he 3 50 l i tre h o ld ing t ank , wh ich ,i na dd i t ion t oh e lp ing t os epa ra te o u tw a te r ,s e rve sa s ar e serve s upp ly o fa i ri nc a se o fc omp re s sor f a i lu re . F rom t he h o ld ing t ank a i r i sp a s sed t h rough af ou r s tag ep ur if i ca t ion s y s tem . T h i s s y s tem i n c lude s t wo s e lf -d ra in ing m echan ica l w a te ra nd o i l s epa ra tor s , am ic ro c oa le s sor f i l ter w h ich f i l te r s 9 9 .99998% o f fa lp a r t ic le s l a rge r t han . 0 3 m ic ron s . The a i rt h en p a s se s t h rough ar egu la to r , a nd f i na l ly t o f i l t ra t ion i n ad e s s ican t a nd c ha r coa l . T he se f i na l c hem ica l s a re a r ranged i nt wo p a ra l le l c o lumn s a l low ing f o r r enewa l o fc hem ica l s wh i le t h e s y s tem i si nu se ( See F ig . 8 ) . T he e n t ire s y s tem i sf ur ther b acked u pb yf our f u l ly c ha rg ed 1 0 l i tre S CUBA t ank s wh ich a r e c onnec ted t ot he f i l ter s y s tem ,d own s tr eam o ft h ef i l ter s ,f e ed ing d i rec t ly i n to t h e Hooka h o se man ifo ld . T h i s s upp ly c an s uppo r t t h e s i x d iver s i nt h es y s tem f o r4 0 m inu te sa f ter t he m a in c omp re s sor h a s c ea sed o pe ra t ion a nd b efo re t h e d iv e r s a r e r equ i red t o r e -open t he i r o wn b a i l -ou tt ank s .( Bu ts i nce t h ea i rl i f t sw ou ld h av eb een o u to fo pe ra t ion a l lt h i st ime t he d i ve r s w ou ld h ave l ong s i nce r e tu rned t ot h e b arge ) .

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F ig . 6 . D iver a r r iv ing a ts i te o nS cuba h as g a the red i nf l oa t ing a i rl i ne a nd i sc onnec t ing u po ns i te t o Hooka s y s tem .

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F ig . 7 . T wo d i ver sa te xcava t ion s i te u s ing Hooka b rea th ing s y s tem .N o te u se o fs ma l l" ba i lo u t" c y l ind er s w h ich a id sd i ver m ob i l i ty , a nd u nd erwa te rc onnec tor i nh o se .

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F i g . 8 . P or tab l ea i rp u r if ica t ion s y s tem . C apab l eo fr e ce i v ing t wo s e para te a i rs o u r ce s .S upp l i e sp ur ea i ra t f i xe rd p r e s su r er e ga rd l e s so fs u pp ly p re s su r e .

T he e n t ire Hooka a i rs y s tem i sp lumbed t h rough c heck v a lve s .T hus a i ri nt h i ss y s tem c an o n ly v en t a t t he d iver 's r egu la tor . No te a l so t ha t t he a i r l i f t s y s tem a nd t he Hooka s y s tem u se a c ommon a i r s upp ly wh ich g rea t ly s imp l if ie s l og i s t ic s a nd e qu ipmen t r equ iremen t s . However , o n ly t he a i r wh ich e n ter s t he Hooka s y s tem i sp ur if ied . T h i sb rea th ing a i rs y s tem h a sb een u sed f o rf our s ea sons w i th v i r tua l ly n ob reakdown . D iver s a re g iven ad ry b r ief ing i nt he u se o ft he s y s tem . A mock -up a i rs upp ly i su sed i nt h is b r ief ing s o t ha td iver s may a c tua l ly p rac t ice t he " hook -up" p rocedure .T he b r ief ing i sa ccompan ied w i th a s l ide p re sen ta t ion wh ich d e scr ibe s t he s y s tem i nd e ta i l i no rder t o b u i ld c onf idence . T he u se o f aSCUBA -Hooka s y s tem s o lves b o th t he a i r s upp ly a nd t he t r aff ic p rob lems , y e t r equ ires o n ly o ne r egu la tor ,t he o ne i na c tua lu se a nd t hus u nder c on s tan to bserva t ion . Wh i le t here a re s i x Hooka s t a t ion s ,e i gh t Hooka t ank u n i t sw ere u sed t h rough t he 1 983 s e a son .T h is a l lowed f o r t wo s pares , i n c a se o ff a i lure o r n eed t o r e charge t he t ank . I n a c tua l p rac t ice a f u l ly -charged t ank s e rved 4 -5 s h if t s b e ing u sed a s S CUBA o n ly t o -and -f rom t he s i te . B eg inn ing w i th t he 1 984 s ea son , 1 2t ank u n i t sw ere p repa red ,a nd d iver sa c tua l ly c hanged s h if t s a tt he e xcava t ion s t a t ions . T he r e su l t w a s a lmos t c on t inuou s e xcava t ion t hroughou t t he 8 9 h our work d ay . T he e xcava t ions a tC aesarea h ave r equ ired t he d eve lopmen t o fa dd i t iona l work ing s y s tems , i n c lud ing v en tur i -opera ted d redger s f o r e xcava t ion i n v e ry s ha l low w a ter , h yd rau l ic a nd p neuma t ic p rob ing d ev ices i na dd i t ion t os evera ls pec ia l ly a dap ted s urvey m e thod s .T he se w i l l b e t he s ub jec t o f as epara te p aper .

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